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list of governor of india from 1947 to 2017 | List of governors of Reserve Bank of India - Wikipedia
The Governor of the Reserve Bank of India is the chief executive of India 's central bank and the ex-officio chairperson of its Central Board of Directors. Indian Rupee currency notes, issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), bear the governor 's signature. Since its establishment in 1935 by the British colonial government, the RBI has been headed by 24 governors. The term of office typically runs for 3 years.
The inaugural officeholder was the British banker Osborne Smith, while C.D. Deshmukh was the first Indian governor. The bank 's 15th governor, Manmohan Singh, later became India 's 13th prime minister. The position is currently held by Urjit Patel, who took over from Raghuram Rajan on 4 September 2016.
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ten years after a space in time songs | A Space in Time - wikipedia
A Space in Time is the sixth studio album by the British blues rock band Ten Years After. It was released in August 1971 by Chrysalis Records in the United Kingdom and Columbia Records in America. A departure in style from their previous albums, A Space in Time is less ' heavy ' than previous albums and includes more acoustic guitar, perhaps influenced by the success of Led Zeppelin who were mixing acoustic songs with heavier numbers. It reached number 17 in the Billboard 200.
The third track on the album, "I 'd Love To Change The World '', is also their biggest hit. By combining a melodic acoustic chorus with challenging electric guitar riffs, they managed to produce a sound that hit number 10 in the charts in Canada and number 40 in the USA. Although this was their biggest hit, they rarely played it live. "Baby Wo n't You Let Me Rock ' n ' Roll You '' also charted in the USA, peaking at number 61.
Billy Walker gave the album a generally positive review in Sounds. He noted the atypically soft sound of songs such as "Over the Hill '' and "Let the Sky Fall '' and approved of this "unexpected but pleasing dimension to the overall feel of the album '', while simultaneously praising "the old TYA excitement '' of tracks such as "I 'd Love to Change the World '' and "Baby Wo n't You Let Me Rock ' n ' Roll You ''. He particularly praised Alvin Lee 's guitar work. However, he complained that a number of the tracks suffered from "lack of strength or projection of Alvin 's voice '' and concluded "Ten Years After are a far better live band than their albums suggest; they get over much more of their charisma and excitement that has a job surfacing on their recorded work. ''
All songs by Alvin Lee except "Uncle Jam '', which was composed by C. Churchill, A. Lee, R. Lee and L. Lyons.
Album - Billboard (United States)
All song and personnel information gathered from the liner notes of the album A Space In Time (Copyright © 1971 by Chrysalis Records, Inc. F2 21001), as issued by Chrysalis Records in the U.S.
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star wars the last jedi imdb parents guide | Star Wars - Wikipedia
Star Wars is an American epic space opera franchise, centered on a film series created by George Lucas. It depicts the adventures of characters "A long time ago in a galaxy far, far away ''.
The franchise began in 1977 with the release of the film Star Wars (later subtitled Episode IV: A New Hope), which became a worldwide pop culture phenomenon. It was followed by two successful sequels, The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983), all together constituting the original Star Wars trilogy. A prequel trilogy was released between 1999 and 2005, albeit to mixed reactions from both critics and fans. A more - recent third trilogy continues the story decades after Return of the Jedi, beginning in 2015 with Star Wars: The Force Awakens. The first eight films were nominated for Academy Awards, with wins going to the first two films released. The franchise has been commercially successful, with a combined box office revenue of over US $8.5 billion, making it the second highest - grossing film series. Theatrical spin - off films include Rogue One (2016) and Solo (2018).
The film series has spawned into other media, including television series, books, computer and video games, theme park attractions and lands, and comic books, resulting in significant development of the series ' fictional universe. Star Wars holds a Guinness World Record for the "Most successful film merchandising franchise. '' In 2015, the total value of the Star Wars franchise was estimated at US $42 billion. As of August 2018, it is the third - highest - grossing media franchise of all time.
The Star Wars franchise takes place in a distant unnamed fictional galaxy at an undetermined point in the ancient past, where many species of aliens (often humanoid) co-exist. People own robotic droids, who assist them in their daily routines, and space travel is common. The galaxy is ruled by various governments at different times, whose rises and falls are chronicled by the original, prequel, and sequel trilogies; these include the Old Republic, the Empire, the New Republic, and the First Order. Each of these governments find themselves in conflict with different rebel factions.
The spiritual and mystical element of the Star Wars galaxy is known as the Force. It is described in the original film as "an energy field created by all living things (that) surrounds us, penetrates us, (and) binds the galaxy together ''. The people who are born deeply connected to the Force have better reflexes; through training and meditation, they are able to achieve various supernatural feats (such as telekinesis, clairvoyance, precognition, and mind control). The Force is wielded by two major factions at conflict: the Jedi, who harness the light side of the Force, and the Sith, who use the dark side of the Force through hate and aggression, and whose members are limited to two: a master and an apprentice.
The Star Wars film series is divided into multiple sets of films, the central element of which is the "trilogy of trilogies '' (also called The Skywalker Saga or The Star Wars Saga). These trilogies are being released out of sequence: the original (Episodes IV -- VI, 1977 -- 83), prequel (Episodes I -- III, 1999 -- 2005), and sequel (Episodes VII -- IX, 2015 -- 19) trilogy. The first two were released on three year intervals, the sequel trilogy films two years apart. Each trilogy centers on a generation of the Skywalker family, which is strong with the Force. The prequels focus on Anakin Skywalker, the original trilogy on his son Luke, and the sequel trilogy features Kylo Ren, Anakin 's grandson and the son of Han Solo and Leia Organa.
The anthology series, began during the production of the sequel trilogy, is set between the main episodes, showing the backstory or origins of main characters.
An untitled trilogy by Episode VIII 's director Rian Johnson has been announced. An additional untitled film series by Game of Thrones creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss is also in development.
An animated film was also created in 2008, titled The Clone Wars. It serves as a companion piece and pilot to an animated series of the same title. An upcoming live - action series, and various other animated series, take place in the same continuity as the films.
Various videogames, and print works, such as comics and novels, also tell stories in the same continuity as the films and television series.
In 1971, Lucas signed a contract with Universal Studios to direct two films. He intended one of them to be a space opera; however, knowing film studios were skeptical about the genre, Lucas decided to direct his other idea first, American Graffiti, a coming - of - age story set in the 1960s. In 1973, Lucas started work on his second film 's script draft of The Journal of the Whills, a space opera telling the tale of the training of apprentice CJ Thorpe as a Jedi - Bendu space commando by the legendary Mace Windy. After Universal rejected the film, 20th Century Fox decided to invest in it. On April 17, 1973, Lucas felt frustrated about his story being too difficult to understand, so he began writing a 13 - page script with thematic parallels to Akira Kurosawa 's The Hidden Fortress; this draft was renamed The Star Wars. By 1974, he had expanded the script into a rough draft screenplay, adding elements such as the Sith, the Death Star, and a protagonist named Annikin Starkiller. Numerous subsequent drafts evolved into the script of the original film.
Lucas insisted that the movie would be part of a 9 - part series and negotiated to retain the sequel rights, to ensure all the movies would be made. Tom Pollock, then Lucas ' lawyer writes: "So in the negotiations that were going on, we drew up a contract with Fox 's head of business affairs Bill Immerman, and me. We came to an agreement that George would retain the sequel rights. Not all the (merchandising rights) that came later, mind you; just the sequel rights. And Fox would get a first opportunity and last refusal right to make the movie. '' Lucas was offered $50,000 to write, another $50,000 to produce, and $50,000 to direct the film. Later the offer was increased. American Graffiti cast member Harrison Ford had given up on acting and become a carpenter whom Lucas hired for his home renovations, until Lucas decided to cast him as Han Solo within his film.
The plot of the original film and its two sequels centers on the Galactic Civil War of the Rebel Alliance trying to free the galaxy from the clutches of the Galactic Empire, as well as on Luke Skywalker and his sister, and Luke 's quest to become a Jedi. While the prequels focus on Luke 's father Anakin Skywalker, and the sequel trilogy on Luke 's nephew and Anakin 's grandson. While originally known as the main series, in 2018, it was also renamed as the Skywalker Saga due to it 's focus on three generations of the Skywalker family.
Near the orbit of the desert planet Tatooine, a Rebel spaceship is intercepted by the Empire. Aboard, the deadliest Imperial agent Darth Vader and his stormtroopers capture Princess Leia Organa, a secret member of the rebellion. Before her capture, Leia makes sure the astromech R2 - D2, along with the protocol droid C - 3PO, escapes with stolen Imperial blueprints stored inside and a holographic message for the retired Jedi Knight Obi - Wan Kenobi, who has been living in exile on Tatooine. The droids fall under the ownership of Luke Skywalker, an orphan farm boy raised by his step - uncle and aunt. Luke helps the droids locate Obi - Wan, now a solitary old hermit known as Ben Kenobi, who reveals himself as a friend of Luke 's absent father, the Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker. Obi - Wan confides to Luke that Anakin was "betrayed and murdered '' by Vader (who was Obi - Wan 's former Jedi apprentice) years ago, and he gives Luke his father 's former lightsaber to keep. After viewing Leia 's message, they both hire the smuggler Han Solo and his Wookiee co-pilot Chewbacca to, aboard their space freighter the Millennium Falcon, help them deliver the stolen blueprints inside R2 - D2 to the Rebel Alliance with the hope of finding a weakness to the Empire 's planet - destroying space station: the Death Star.
For the second draft of The Star Wars, Lucas simplified the plot. It added a mystical energy field known as "the Force '' and introduced the young hero on a farm as Luke Starkiller. Annikin became Luke 's father, a wise Jedi knight. The third draft killed the father Annikin, replacing him with mentor figure Ben Kenobi. Later, Lucas felt the film would not in fact be the first in the sequence, but a film in the second trilogy in the saga. The draft contained a sub-plot leading to a sequel about "The Princess of Ondos '', and by that time some months later Lucas had negotiated a contract that gave him rights to make two sequels. Not long after, Lucas hired author Alan Dean Foster, to write two sequel novels, with the main creative restriction of plots that could be filmed on a low budget. In 1976, a fourth draft had been prepared for principal photography. The film was titled Adventures of Luke Starkiller, as taken from the Journal of the Whills, Saga I: The Star Wars. During production, Lucas changed Luke 's name to Skywalker and altered the title to simply The Star Wars and finally Star Wars. At that point, Lucas was not expecting the film to have sequels. The fourth draft of the script underwent subtle changes it discarded "the Princess of Ondos '' sub-plot, to become a self - contained film, that ended with the destruction of the Galactic Empire itself by way of destroying the Death Star. However, Lucas previously conceived of the film as the first of a series. The intention was that if Star Wars was successful, Lucas could adapt Dean Foster 's novels into low - budget sequels. By that point, Lucas had developed an elaborate backstory to aid his writing process.
Before its release, Lucas considered walking away from Star Wars sequels, thinking the film would be a flop. However the film exceeded all expectations. The success of the film as well as its merchandise sales both led Lucas to make Star Wars the basis of an elaborate film serial, and use the profits to finance his film - making center, Skywalker Ranch. Star Wars was released on May 25, 1977, with its 1981 re-release it had the subtitle Episode IV: A New Hope added to remain consistent with its sequel, and to establish it as the middle chapter of a continuing saga..
Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back was released on May 21, 1980.
Three years after the destruction of the Death Star, the Rebels are forced to evacuate their secret base on Hoth as they are hunted by the Empire. At the request of the late Obi - Wan 's spirit, Luke travels to the swamp - infested world of Dagobah to find the exiled Jedi Master Yoda and begin his Jedi training. However, Luke 's training is interrupted by Vader, who lures him into a trap by capturing Han and Leia at Cloud City, governed by Han 's old friend Lando Calrissian. During a fierce lightsaber duel with the Sith Lord, Luke learns that Vader is his father.
In Alan Dean Foster 's sequel to the novelization of Star Wars, Splinter of the Mind 's Eye (1978), Han Solo and Chewbacca were notably absent. But after the success of the original film, Lucas knew a sequel would be granted his desired budget. Knowing this, he decided not to adapt Foster 's work, and instead Lucas hired science fiction author Leigh Brackett to write Star Wars II from scratch with him. Han Solo and Chewbacca were included, but the main character was Luke.
Based on that, Brackett finished her first draft in early 1978; in it, Luke 's father appeared as a ghost to instruct Luke. Lucas has said he was disappointed with it, but before he could discuss it with her, she died of cancer. With no writer available, Lucas had to write his next draft himself. It was this draft in which Lucas first made use of the "Episode '' numbering for the films; Empire Strikes Back was listed as Episode II. As Michael Kaminski argues in The Secret History of Star Wars, the disappointment with the first draft probably made Lucas consider different directions in which to take the story. He made use of a new plot twist: Darth Vader claims to be Luke 's father. According to Lucas, he found this draft enjoyable to write, as opposed to the yearlong struggles writing the first film, and quickly wrote two more drafts, both in April 1978. This new story point of Darth Vader being Luke 's father had drastic effects on the series. After writing these two drafts, Lucas revised the backstory between Anakin Skywalker, Kenobi, and the Emperor.
With this new backstory in place, Lucas decided that the series would be a trilogy, changing Empire Strikes Back from Episode II to Episode V in the next draft. Lawrence Kasdan, who had just completed writing Raiders of the Lost Ark, was then hired to write the next drafts, and was given additional input from director Irvin Kershner. Kasdan, Kershner, and producer Gary Kurtz saw the film as a more serious and adult film, which was helped by the new, darker storyline, and developed the series from the light adventure roots of the first film.
Return of the Jedi, the final film in the original trilogy, was released on May 25, 1983.
A year after Vader 's shocking revelation, Luke leads a rescue attempt to save Han from the gangster Jabba the Hutt. Afterward, Luke returns to Dagobah to complete his Jedi training, only to find the 900 - year - old Yoda on his deathbed. In his last words Yoda confirms that Vader is Luke 's father, Anakin Skywalker, and that Luke must confront his father again in order to complete his training. Moments later, the spirit of Obi - Wan reveals to Luke that Leia is his twin sister, but Obi - Wan insists that Luke must face Vader again. As the Rebels lead an attack on the Death Star II, Luke engages Vader in another lightsaber duel as Emperor Palpatine watches; both Sith Lords intend to turn Luke to the dark side of the Force and take him as their apprentice.
Kurtz wanted the bittersweet ending they originally outlined that saw Han dead, Leia struggling with her new responsibilities, Luke walking off alone, and the rebel forces in pieces -- an ending he felt was more nuanced -- while Lucas wanted a happier ending. This led to tension between the two, which resulted in Kurtz leaving the production.
About 32 years before the start of the Galactic Civil War, the corrupt Trade Federation sets a blockade around the planet Naboo. The Sith Lord Darth Sidious had secretly planned the blockade to give his alter ego, Senator Palpatine, a pretense to overthrow and replace the Supreme Chancellor of the Republic. At the Chancellor 's request, the Jedi Knight Qui - Gon Jinn and his apprentice, a younger Obi - Wan Kenobi, are sent to Naboo to negotiate with the Federation. However, the two Jedi are forced to instead help the Queen of Naboo, Padmé Amidala, escape from the blockade and plead her planet 's crisis before the Republic Senate on Coruscant. When their starship is damaged during the escape, they land on Tatooine for repairs. Palpatine dispatches his first Sith apprentice, Darth Maul, to hunt down the Queen and her Jedi protectors. While on Tatooine, Qui - Gon discovers a nine - year - old slave named Anakin Skywalker. Qui - Gon helps liberate the boy from slavery, believing Anakin to be the "Chosen One '' foretold by a Jedi prophecy to bring balance to the Force. However, the Jedi Council (led by Yoda) suspects the boy possesses too much fear and anger within him.
After losing much of his fortune in a divorce settlement in 1987, George Lucas had no desire to return to Star Wars, and had unofficially canceled the sequel trilogy by the time of Return of the Jedi. At that point, the prequels were only still a series of basic ideas partially pulled from his original drafts of The Star Wars. Nevertheless, technical advances in the late 1980s and 1990s continued to fascinate Lucas, and he considered that they might make it possible to revisit his 20 - year - old material. The popularity of the franchise was reinvigorated by the Star Wars expanded universe storylines set after the original trilogy films, such as the Thrawn trilogy of novels written by Timothy Zahn and the Dark Empire comic book series published by Dark Horse Comics. Due to the renewed popularity of Star Wars, Lucas saw that there was still a large audience. His children were older, and with the explosion of CGI technology he was now considering returning to directing.
Episode I: The Phantom Menace was released on May 19, 1999. The plot of the trilogy focuses on the fall of the Galactic Republic, as well as the tragedy of Anakin Skywalker 's turn to the dark side.
Lucas began to reevaluate how the prequels would exist relative to the originals; at first they were supposed to be a "filling - in '' of history tangential to the originals, but he later realized that they could form the beginning of one long story that started with Anakin 's childhood and ended with his death. This was the final step towards turning the film series into a "saga ''. In 1994, Lucas began writing the screenplay to the first prequel, initially titled Episode I: The Beginning. Following the release of that film, Lucas announced that he would be directing the next two, and began work on Episode II.
Episode II: Attack of the Clones was released on May 16, 2002.
Ten years after the Battle of Naboo, former Queen of Naboo Padmé, is now serving as the Senator to her planet, until her duty is interrupted by an assassination attempt. Obi - Wan and his apprentice Anakin are assigned to her protect her; Obi - Wan goes on a mission to track the killer, while Anakin and Padmé go into hiding. They soon fall in love with each other, albeit secretly due to the Jedi Order 's rule against attachment. At the same time, Chancellor Palpatine schemes to sweep the entire galaxy up into the conflict (known as the Clone Wars) between the armies of the Republic led by the Jedi Order, and the Confederacy of Independent Systems led by the fallen Jedi Count Dooku; the former master of Obi - Wan 's deceased master Qui - Gon, and Palpatine 's new Sith apprentice.
The first draft of Episode II was completed just weeks before principal photography, and Lucas hired Jonathan Hales, a writer from The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, to polish it. Unsure of a title, Lucas had jokingly called the film "Jar Jar 's Great Adventure ''. In writing The Empire Strikes Back, Lucas initially decided that Lando Calrissian was a clone and came from a planet of clones which caused the "Clone Wars '' mentioned by both Luke Skywalker and Princess Leia in A New Hope; he later came up with an alternate concept of an army of clone shocktroopers from a remote planet which attacked the Republic and were repelled by the Jedi. The basic elements of that backstory became the plot basis for Episode II, with the new wrinkle added that Palpatine secretly orchestrated the crisis.
Episode III: Revenge of the Sith was released on May 19, 2005.
Three years after the start of the Clone Wars, Anakin and Obi - Wan lead a rescue mission to save the kidnapped Chancellor Palpatine from Count Dooku and the droid commander General Grievous. Later, Anakin begins to have prophetic visions of his secret wife Padmé dying in childbirth. Palpatine, who had been secretly engineering the Clone Wars to destroy the Jedi Order, convinces Anakin that the dark side of the Force holds the power to save Padmé 's life. Desperate, Anakin submits to Palpatine 's Sith teachings and is renamed Darth Vader. While Palpatine re-organizes the Republic into the tyrannical Empire, Vader participates in the extermination of the Jedi Order; culminating in a lightsaber duel between himself and his former master Obi - Wan on the volcanic planet Mustafar.
Lucas began working on Episode III before Attack of the Clones was released, offering concept artists that the film would open with a montage of seven Clone War battles. As he reviewed the storyline that summer, however, he says he radically re-organized the plot. Michael Kaminski, in The Secret History of Star Wars, offers evidence that issues in Anakin 's fall to the dark side prompted Lucas to make massive story changes, first revising the opening sequence to have Palpatine kidnapped and his apprentice, Count Dooku, murdered by Anakin as the first act in the latter 's turn towards the dark side. After principal photography was complete in 2003, Lucas made even more massive changes in Anakin 's character, re-writing his entire turn to the dark side; he would now turn primarily in a quest to save Padmé 's life, rather than the previous version in which that reason was one of several, including that he genuinely believed that the Jedi were evil and plotting to take over the Republic. This fundamental re-write was accomplished both through editing the principal footage, and new and revised scenes filmed during pick - ups in 2004.
About 30 years after the destruction of the Death Star II, Luke Skywalker has vanished following the demise of the new Jedi Order he was attempting to build. The remnants of the Empire have become the First Order, and seek to destroy Luke and the New Republic, while the Resistance opposes, led by princess - turned - general Leia Organa and backed by the Republic. On Jakku, Resistance pilot Poe Dameron obtains a map to Luke 's location. Stormtroopers under the command of Kylo Ren, the son of Leia and Han Solo, capture Poe. Poe 's droid BB - 8 escapes with the map, and encounters a scavenger Rey. Kylo tortures Poe and learns of BB - 8. Stormtrooper FN - 2187 defects from the First Order, and frees Poe who dubs him "Finn '', while both escape in a TIE fighter that crashes on Jakku, seemingly killing Poe. Finn finds Rey and BB - 8, but the First Order does too; both escape Jakku in a stolen Millennium Falcon. The Falcon is recaptured by Han and Chewbacca, smugglers again since abandoning the Resistance. They agree to help deliver the map inside BB - 8 to the Resistance.
Over the years, Lucas often exaggerated the amount of material he wrote for the series; many of the exaggerations stemmed from the post ‐ 1978 period when the series grew into a phenomenon. Michael Kaminski explained that the exaggerations were both a publicity and security measure, further rationalizing that since the series ' story radically changed over the years, it was always Lucas 's intention to change the original story retroactively because audiences would only view the material from his perspective. The exaggerations created rumors of Lucas having outlines of a sequel trilogy (Episodes VII, VIII, and IX) that would continue the story after 1983 's Episode VI: Return of the Jedi. Lucasfilm and Lucas had denied plans for a sequel trilogy for many years, insisting that Star Wars was meant to be a six - part series and that no further films would be released after the conclusion of the prequel trilogy in 2005. Although Lucas made an exception by releasing the animated Star Wars: The Clone Wars film in 2008, while promoting it he maintained his position on the sequel trilogy: "I get asked all the time, ' What happens after Return of the Jedi?, ' and there really is no answer for that. The movies were the story of Anakin Skywalker and Luke Skywalker, and when Luke saves the galaxy and redeems his father, that 's where that story ends. ''
Despite insisting that a sequel trilogy would never happen, in 2011 Lucas secretly began working on story treatments for three new Star Wars films. His plans for the sequel trilogy were about the characters being reduced to microscopic size and encountering creatures known as the Whills, a microscopic lifeform that control the Star Wars universe and feed off The Force. The story was apparently inspired by Lucas 's own perception that the Earth would not be saved from human overpopulation and climate change, ending up like Mars, which while unfit for humans could sustain macrobiotic life. But Lucas later decided to cease involvement with the franchise he created and leave the sequel trilogy in the hands of other filmmakers.
In January 2012, Lucas announced that he would step away from blockbuster films and instead produce smaller arthouse films. Asked whether the criticism he received following the prequel trilogy and the alterations to the rereleases of the original trilogy had influenced his decision to retire, Lucas said: "Why would I make any more when everybody yells at you all the time and says what a terrible person you are? ''
In October 2012, The Walt Disney Company agreed to buy Lucasfilm and announced that Star Wars Episode VII would be released in 2015. Later, it was revealed that the three new upcoming films (Episodes VII -- IX) would be based on story treatments Lucas had written before the sale. The co-chairman of Lucasfilm, Kathleen Kennedy, became president of the company, reporting to Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn. Kennedy also served as executive producer of new Star Wars feature films, with Lucas serving as creative consultant. As announced by Lucasfilm, the sequel trilogy also meant the end of the existing Star Wars expanded universe (SWEU or EU) which ceased publication and consisted of every storytelling material that was not the theatrical films Episodes I - VI; with the animated 2008 The Clone Wars film and animated series being the sole EU exceptions that remained canon. The EU was discarded to give "maximum creative freedom to the filmmakers and also preserve an element of surprise and discovery for the audience ''. The npn - canon expanded universe content would continue to be re-print under the Star Wars: Legends brand, which was created to brand the non-canonical works of the franchise. Star Wars storytelling material published after April 2014 is considered canon.
The sequel trilogy began with Episode VII: The Force Awakens, released on December 18, 2015. The plot so far contains no elements of the Whills microbiotic worlds and creatures described by Lucas, focusing instead on the journey of female scavenger Rey toward becoming a Jedi Knight with the aid of the reluctant last Jedi Luke Skywalker while she helps the Resistance, led by Luke 's sister Leia, fight against the First Order, led by Supreme Leader Snoke and his apprentice Kylo Ren, who is Leia and Han Solo 's son.
The screenplay for Episode VII was originally set to be written by Michael Arndt, but in October 2013 it was announced that writing duties would be taken over by Lawrence Kasdan and J.J. Abrams. On January 25, 2013, The Walt Disney Studios and Lucasfilm officially announced J.J. Abrams as Star Wars Episode VII 's director and producer, along with Bryan Burk and Bad Robot Productions.
Episode VIII: The Last Jedi was released on December 15, 2017.
Rey attempts to convince the reluctant last Jedi, Luke Skywalker, to teach her the ways of the Force. She also seeks answers of her past and the origin of the conflict between Luke and his nephew Ben Solo (now Kylo Ren). Unbeknownst to Luke, Rey starts using the Force to communicate with Ren. Meanwhile, Kylo 's mother (and Luke 's sister) Leia leads Poe, Finn, Rose Tico, BB - 8, and the rest of the Resistance as they are pursued by the First Order, led by Supreme Leader Snoke with Kylo as his second in command. After hearing Ren 's perspective, Rey disagrees with Luke and despite his warnings leaves him in an attempt to redeem Kylo and achieve peace. To do this, Rey unknowingly helps Kylo assassinate Snoke. However, Ren 's intentions are to replace Snoke as Supreme Leader, believing that destroying the Jedi and the Resistance is the only way to achieve peace. Rey must choose between Kylo 's offer to rule the galaxy with him, or helping the outnumbered and cornered Resistance survive on Crait.
On November 20, 2012, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Lawrence Kasdan and Simon Kinberg would write and produce Episodes VIII and IX. Kasdan and Kinberg were later confirmed as creative consultants on those films, in addition to writing standalone films. In addition, John Williams, who wrote the music for the previous six episodes, was hired to compose the music for Episodes VII, VIII and IX. On March 12, 2015, Lucasfilm announced that Looper director Rian Johnson would direct Episode VIII with Ram Bergman as producer for Ram Bergman Productions. When asked about Episode VIII in an August 2014 interview, Johnson said "it 's boring to talk about, because the only thing I can really say is, I 'm just happy. I do n't have the terror I kind of expected I would, at least not yet. I 'm sure I will at some point. '' Principal photography on The Last Jedi began in February 2016. Additional filming took place in Dubrovnik from March 9 to March 16, 2016, as well as in Ireland in May 2016. Principal photography wrapped in July 2016. On December 27, 2016, Carrie Fisher died after going into cardiac arrest a few days earlier. Before her death, Fisher had completed filming her role as General Leia Organa in The Last Jedi. The film was released on December 15, 2017.
Episode IX is due to be released on December 20, 2019.
Reports initially claimed Johnson would also direct Episode IX, but it was later confirmed he would write only a story treatment. Johnson later wrote on his Twitter that the information about him writing a treatment for Episode IX is old, and he 's not involved with the writing of that film. Production on Episode IX was scheduled to begin sometime in 2017. Variety and Reuters reported that Carrie Fisher was slated for a key role in Episode IX. Now, Lucasfilm, Disney and others involved with the film have been forced to find a way to address her death in the upcoming film and alter her character 's role. In January 2017, Lucasfilm stated they would not digitally generate Fisher 's performance for the film. In April 2017, Fisher 's brother Todd and daughter Billie Lourd gave Disney permission to use recent footage of Fisher for the film, but later that month, Kennedy stated that Fisher will not appear in the film. Principal photography of Star Wars: Episode IX began on August 1, 2018. J.J. Abrams is set to return as director and co-writer alongside Chris Terrio. Most of the cast of The Last Jedi is set to return, including veteran actors Mark Hamill as Luke Skywalker, Anthony Daniels as C - 3PO, and the late Carrie Fisher as General Leia (using unreleased footage from the first two films of the sequel trilogy). They will be joined by Billy Dee Williams as Lando Calrissian, for the first time on - screen since Return of the Jedi.
George Lucas had been producing spin - off material since the original film 's success, but in 2014 Disney declared all content but the two trilogies part of the lower - canon Legends. Before selling Lucasfilm, and parallel to his development of a sequel trilogy, Lucas and Lawrence Kasdan started development on a young Han Solo film. On February 5, 2013, Disney CEO Bob Iger made public the development of the Lawrence Kasdan standalone film and an undisclosed film written by Simon Kinberg. The next day, it was revealed that Kasdan 's film would focus on Han Solo, and the other on Boba Fett (the latter info was never confirmed). Disney CFO Jay Rasulo has described the standalone films as origin stories. Kathleen Kennedy explained that the spin - offs will not cross over with the sequel trilogy, stating:
George was so clear as to how that works. The canon that he created was the Star Wars saga. Right now, Episode VII falls within that canon. The spin - off movies... they exist within that vast universe that he created. There is no attempt being made to carry characters (from the standalone films) in and out of the saga episodes.
In April 2015, Lucasfilm and Kennedy announced that the standalone films would be referred to as the Star Wars anthology series (albeit the word anthology has not been used in any of the titles, instead carrying the promotional "A Star Wars Story '' subtitle below the film 's main title).
The idea for a film about a group of rebels stealing the Death Star plans was conceived by prequel trilogy VFX supervisor John Knoll. It sets up the events and ends just before the original Star Wars: Episode IV - A New Hope.
In May 2014, Lucasfilm announced Gareth Edwards as the director of the first anthology film, with Gary Whitta writing the first draft for a release on December 16, 2016. On March 12, 2015, the film 's title was revealed to be Rogue One, with Chris Weitz rewriting the script, and starring Felicity Jones as Jyn Erso, with Ben Mendelsohn and Diego Luna also playing new characters. It would have supporting roles for characters from the original films including James Earl Jones as the voice of Darth Vader, and actors from the prequels as Bail Organa and Mon Mothma. The film is also the first to include characters created for the animated series; The Clone Wars 's Saw Gerrera is Jyn Erso 's extremist mentor, and Chopper from Star Wars Rebels has a cameo. A teaser was shown at Star Wars Celebration in April 2015. Lucasfilm announced filming would begin that summer and revealed the plot synopsis. Edwards stated, "It comes down to a group of individuals who do n't have magical powers that have to somehow bring hope to the galaxy, '' and, "It 's the reality of war. Good guys are bad. Bad guys are good. It 's complicated, layered; a very rich scenario in which to set a movie. '' After its debut, Rogue One received generally positive reviews, with its performances, action sequences, soundtrack, visual effects and darker tone being praised. The film grossed over US $500 million worldwide within a week of its release.
Solo is a film focusing on a younger Han Solo and the beginning of his career as a smuggler, as well as his friendship with the Wookiee Chewbacca, and their first encounter with the Millennium Falcon, which is owned by a younger Lando Calrissian. The film is set before the events of Rogue One and Han 's appearance in Episode IV: A New Hope.
Before selling Lucasfilm to Disney, George Lucas started development on a film about a young Han Solo. Lucas hired Star Wars original trilogy veteran script writer Lawrence Kasdan, along with his son Jon Kasdan, to write the script. The film stars Alden Ehrenreich as a young Han Solo, Joonas Suotamo as Chewbacca (after serving as a double for the character in The Force Awakens and The Last Jedi), and Donald Glover as Lando Calrissian. Emilia Clarke and Woody Harrelson portray original characters. Directors Phil Lord and Christopher Miller began principal photography on the film, but due to creative differences, left the project in June 2017 with three and a half weeks remaining in principal photography. Their replacement was Ron Howard, who had previously declined George Lucas ' offer to direct The Phantom Menace. Howard had also collaborated with Lucas prior to Star Wars, in Lucas ' American Graffiti (1973), which featured original Han Solo actor Harrison Ford. Howard also directed Willow for Lucasfilm in 1988. Warwick Davis, who played the titular lead of that film, has a minor role in Solo.
A third anthology film allegedly focusing on Boba Fett is scheduled to be released in 2020, albeit neither its plot or main character have been officially confirmed. A writer for the film had been hired as of September 2016.
In February 2013, Entertainment Weekly reported that a spin - off film would focus on bounty hunter Boba Fett and be set during the original trilogy, with Josh Trank expected to direct. In May 2015, it was announced Trank had left the project. In December 2015, Kathleen Kennedy said that the unfinished material from the cancelled Fett - centric video game Star Wars 1313 was "gold '', and that it could return in another form. By 2017, an unknown film was still in early development at Lucasfilm. Lucasfilm never revealed any details, but confirmed that the film Trank left was separate from Solo and Rogue One. By May 2018, reports emerged that James Mangold had signed on to write and direct a Boba Fett film, with Simon Kinberg attached as producer and co-screenwriter.
Daniel Logan, who played Boba Fett as a child in Attack of the Clones and voiced him in The Clone Wars animated series, expressed interest in reprising his role. Temuera Morrison, who portrayed Jango Fett in Attack of the Clones and voiced Boba in the 2004 editions of the original trilogy, also expressed interest in the role. The author of Legends story The Last Man Standing said that Lucasfilm had interest in adapting elements from his Fett - focused short story (which involved Han Solo), but noted that Lucasfilm might change their plans.
In August 2016, Ewan McGregor, who played Obi - Wan Kenobi in the prequel trilogy, stated that he would be open to return to the role in a spin - off film focusing on the character between Episode III and IV. In March 2017, McGregor again stated his interest in starring in the film. By August 2017, it was reported that an Obi - Wan film was in development with Stephen Daldry in early negotiations to co-write and direct the project. Liam Neeson expressed his interest in reprising his role as Qui - Gon Jinn. Joel Edgerton, who played Luke Skywalker 's step - uncle Owen in the prequel trilogy, said he would like to reprise his role in an Obi - Wan standalone film. As of 2018, McGregor is still open to reprising his role, but there are no current plans for him to do so.
In June 2018, Lucasfilm told ABC News that there were multiple unannounced Star Wars films in development, despite Solo performing less than expected at box office. A previously unannounced Mos Eisley Spaceport film was reported postponed or cancelled. Productor designer Neil Lamont later implied a Tatooine - based film had ceased production.
In 2018, Alden Ehrenreich confirmed his contractual obligation to appear as Han Solo in two additional films. Emilia Clarke, who played Qi'ra, also signed on for future installments. Solo director Ron Howard said that while no sequel was in development, it was up to fans to decide. Critics noted the film intentionally left room open for sequels. Writer Jon Kasdan said, were he to write the sequel, he would include bounty hunter Bossk, who appeared in The Empire Strikes Back and The Clone Wars animated series. Ehrenreich said he would like sequels to differentiate themselves from the previous Star Wars trilogies by being standalone installments, in the vein of Indiana Jones or James Bond, rather than direct follow - ups.
In 2015, Guillermo Del Toro pitched Kathleen Kennedy and John Knoll a film idea for a Godfather - like Jabba the Hutt film. It was reported in 2017 that a film had at least been considered.
In 2018, Kennedy said a film focusing on Lando Calrissian could happen, but was not a priority at the time.
In November 2017, Lucasfilm announced that The Last Jedi 's writer and director Rian Johnson along said film 's producer Ram Bergman, would be working on a new trilogy. The films will reportedly differ from the Skywalker - focused films in favor of focusing on new characters. Johnson is confirmed to write and direct the first film. Ram Bergman said that it could release possibly in 2020 at the earliest.
In February 2018, Lucasfilm announced that David Benioff and D.B. Weiss would write and produce a series of Star Wars films not focused on the Skywalker family, similar to but separate from Rian Johnson 's upcoming installments in the franchise.
On August 15, 2008, the animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars was released theatrically, as a lead - in to the animated TV series with the same name. The film and series are set between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith, revealing Anakin to have trained a Padawan apprentice of his own, Ahsoka Tano. The new character was originally criticized by fans, but by the end of the animated series had become a fan favorite.
From 1977 to 2014, the term Expanded Universe (abbreviated as EU), was an umbrella term for all officially licensed Star Wars storytelling materials set outside the events depicted within the theatrical films, including television series, novels, comics, and video games. Lucasfilm maintained internal continuity between the films and television content and the EU material until April 25, 2014, when the company announced all of the EU works would cease production. Existing works would no longer be considered canon to the franchise and subsequent reprints would be rebranded under the Star Wars Legends label, with downloadable content for the massively multiplayer online game Star Wars: The Old Republic being the only Legends material to still be produced. The Star Wars canon was subsequently restructured to only include the existing six feature films, the animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008), and its companion animated series Star Wars: The Clone Wars. All future projects and creative developments across all types of media would be overseen and coordinated by the Story Group, announced as a division of Lucasfilm created to maintain continuity and a cohesive vision on the storytelling of the franchise. Lucasfilm announced that the change was made "to give maximum creative freedom to the filmmakers and also preserve an element of surprise and discovery for the audience ''., The animated series Star Wars Rebels was the first project produced after the announcement, followed by multiple comics series from Marvel, novels published by Del Rey, and the sequel film The Force Awakens (2015).
In the two - hour Star Wars Holiday Special produced for CBS in 1978, Chewbacca returns to his home planet of Kashyyyk to celebrate "Life Day '' with his family. Along with the stars of the original 1977 film, celebrities Bea Arthur, Art Carney, Diahann Carroll, and Jefferson Starship appear in plot - related skits and musical numbers. Lucas loathed the special and forbade it to ever be aired again after its original broadcast, or reproduced on home video. An 11 - minute animated sequence in the Holiday Special featuring the first appearance of bounty hunter Boba Fett, is considered to be the sole silver lining of the production, with Lucas even including it as a special feature on a 2011 Blu - ray release (making it the only part of the Holiday Special to ever receive an official home media release). The segment is the first Star Wars animation ever produced.
The television film Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure aired on ABC on Thanksgiving weekend in 1984. With a story by Lucas and a screenplay by Bob Carrau, it features the Ewok Wicket from Return of the Jedi as he helps two children rescue their parents from a giant known as Gorax. The 1985 sequel, Ewoks: The Battle for Endor, finds Wicket and his friends protecting their village from invaders.
Nelvana, the animation studio that had animated the animated segment of the Holiday Special was hired to create two animated series. Star Wars: Droids (1985 -- 1986), which aired for one season on ABC, follows the adventures of the droids C - 3PO and R2 - D2, 15 years before A New Hope. Its sister series Ewoks (1985 -- 1987) explores the adventures of the Ewoks before Return of the Jedi and the Ewok movies.
After the release of Attack of the Clones, Cartoon Network animated and aired the micro-series Star Wars: Clone Wars from 2003 to weeks before the 2005 release of Revenge of the Sith, as the series was set between those films. It won the Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program in 2004 and 2005.
Lucas decided to invest in creating his own animation company, Lucasfilm Animation, and used it to create his first in - house Star Wars CGI - animated series. Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008 -- 2014) was introduced through a animated film of the same name, and set within the same time period as the previous Clone Wars series. While all previous television works were reassigned to the Legends brand in 2014, Lucasfilm accepted The Clone Wars and its originating film as part of the canon. All series released after would also be part of the canon. In 2014, Disney XD began airing Star Wars Rebels, the next CGI - animated series. Set between Revenge of the Sith and A New Hope, it followed a band of rebels as they fight the Empire, and helped close some arcs introduced in The Clone Wars. The 2D animated micro-series Star Wars Forces of Destiny debuted in 2017, focusing on the female characters of the franchise. The animated series Star Wars Resistance will debut in fall 2018, be more anime - inspired, and focus on Resistance pilot Kazuda Zioni in the time between Return of the Jedi and The Force Awakens.
Since 2005, when Lucas announced plans for a television series set between the prequel and original trilogies, the television project has been in varying stages of development at Lucasfilm Producer Rick McCallum revealed the working title, Star Wars: Underworld, in 2012, and said in 2013 that 50 scripts had been written. He called the project "The most provocative, the most bold and daring material that we 've ever done. '' The proposed series explores criminal and political power struggles in the decades prior to A New Hope, and as of December 2015 was still in development at Lucasfilm. In November 2017, Bob Iger discussed the development of a Star Wars series for Disney 's upcoming digital streaming service, due to launch in 2019. It is unknown if the series would be based on the Star Wars Underworld scripts or if it would follow an entirely new idea.
In February 2018, it was reported that there are multiple live action Star Wars television series currently in development, with "rather significant '' talent involved in the productions. Jon Favreau, who had previously voiced Pre Vizsla in The Clone Wars animated series, will produce and write one of the television series. In May 2018, Favreau confirmed his series would be set three years after Return of the Jedi (27 years before The Force Awakens) and that the series would feature motion capture characters.
Star Wars - based fiction predates the release of the first film, with the December 1976 novelization of Star Wars, subtitled From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker. Credited to Lucas, it was ghost - written by Alan Dean Foster. The first Expanded Universe story appeared in Marvel Comics ' Star Wars # 7 in January 1978 (the first six issues of the series having been an adaptation of the film), followed quickly by Foster 's novel Splinter of the Mind 's Eye the following month.
Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker is a 1976 novelization of the original film by Alan Dean Foster, who followed it with the sequel Splinter of the Mind 's Eye (1978), which Lucas decided not to film. The film novelizations for The Empire Strikes Back (1980) by Donald F. Glut and Return of the Jedi (1983) by James Kahn followed, as well as The Han Solo Adventures trilogy (1979 -- 1980) by Brian Daley, and The Adventures of Lando Calrissian (1983) trilogy by L. Neil Smith.
Timothy Zahn 's bestselling Thrawn trilogy (1991 -- 1993) reignited interest in the franchise and introduced the popular characters Grand Admiral Thrawn, Mara Jade, Talon Karrde, and Gilad Pellaeon. The first novel, Heir to the Empire, reached # 1 on the New York Times Best Seller list, and the series finds Luke, Leia, and Han facing off against tactical genius Thrawn, who is plotting to retake the galaxy for the Empire. In The Courtship of Princess Leia (1994) by Dave Wolverton, set immediately before the Thrawn trilogy, Leia considers an advantageous political marriage to Prince Isolder of the planet Hapes, but she and Han ultimately marry. Steve Perry 's Shadows of the Empire (1996), set in the as - yet - unexplored time period between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi, was part of a multimedia campaign that included a comic book series and video game. The novel introduced the crime lord Prince Xizor, another popular character who would appear in multiple other works. Other notable series from Bantam include the Jedi Academy trilogy (1994) by Kevin J. Anderson, the 14 - book Young Jedi Knights series (1995 -- 1998) by Anderson and Rebecca Moesta, and the X-wing series (1996 -- 2012) by Michael A. Stackpole and Aaron Allston.
Del Rey took over Star Wars book publishing in 1999, releasing what would become a 19 - installment novel series called The New Jedi Order (1999 -- 2003). Written by multiple authors, the series was set 25 to 30 years after the original films and introduced the Yuuzhan Vong, a powerful alien race attempting to invade and conquer the entire galaxy. The bestselling multi-author series Legacy of the Force (2006 -- 2008) chronicles the crossover of Han and Leia 's son Jacen Solo to the dark side of the Force; among his evil deeds, he kills Luke 's wife Mara Jade as a sacrifice to join the Sith. The story parallels the fallen son of Han and Leia, Ben Solo / Kylo Ren, in the 2015 film The Force Awakens. Three series were introduced for younger audiences: the 18 - book Jedi Apprentice (1999 -- 2002) chronicles the adventures of Obi - Wan Kenobi and his master Qui - Gon Jinn in the years before The Phantom Menace; the 11 - book Jedi Quest (2001 -- 2004) follows Obi - Wan and his own apprentice, Anakin Skywalker in between The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones; and the 10 - book The Last of the Jedi (2005 -- 2008), set almost immediately after Revenge of the Sith, features Obi - Wan and the last few surviving Jedi. Maul: Lockdown by Joe Schreiber, released in January 2014, was the last Star Wars novel published before Lucasfilm announced the creation of the Star Wars Legends brand.
Though Thrawn had been designated a Legends character in 2014, he was reintroduced into the canon in the 2016 third season of Star Wars Rebels, with Zahn returning to write more novels based in the character, and set in the reworked canon.
Marvel Comics published a Star Wars comic book series from 1977 to 1986. Original Star Wars comics were serialized in the Marvel magazine Pizzazz between 1977 and 1979. The 1977 installments were the first original Star Wars stories not directly adapted from the films to appear in print form, as they preceded those of the Star Wars comic series. From 1985 -- 1987, the animated children 's series Ewoks and Droids inspired comic series from Marvel 's Star Comics line.
In the late 1980s, Marvel dropped a new Star Wars comic it had in development, which was picked up by Dark Horse Comics and published as the popular Dark Empire sequence (1991 -- 1995). Dark Horse subsequently launched dozens of series set after the original film trilogy, including Tales of the Jedi (1993 -- 1998), X-wing Rogue Squadron (1995 -- 1998), Star Wars: Republic (1998 -- 2006), Star Wars Tales (1999 -- 2005), Star Wars: Empire (2002 -- 2006), and Knights of the Old Republic (2006 -- 2010).
After Disney 's acquisition of Lucasfilm, it was announced in January 2014 that in 2015 the Star Wars comics license would return to Marvel Comics, whose parent company, Marvel Entertainment, Disney had purchased in 2009. Launched in 2015, the first three publications in were titled Star Wars, Star Wars: Darth Vader, and the limited series Star Wars: Princess Leia.
Radio adaptations of the films were also produced. Lucas, a fan of the NPR - affiliated campus radio station of his alma mater the University of Southern California, licensed the Star Wars radio rights to KUSC - FM for US $1. The production used John Williams ' original film score, along with Ben Burtt 's sound effects.
The first was written by science fiction author Brian Daley and directed by John Madden. It was broadcast on National Public Radio in 1981, adapting the original 1977 film into 13 - episodes. Mark Hamill and Anthony Daniels reprised their film roles.
The overwhelming success, led to a 10 - episode adaptation of The Empire Strikes Back in 1982. Billy Dee Williams joined the other two stars, reprising his role as Lando Calrissian.
In 1983, Buena Vista Records released an original, 30 - minute Star Wars audio drama titled Rebel Mission to Ord Mantell, written by Daley. In the 1990s, Time Warner Audio Publishing adapted several Star Wars series from Dark Horse Comics into audio dramas: the three - part Dark Empire saga, Tales of the Jedi, Dark Lords of the Sith, the Dark Forces trilogy, and Crimson Empire (1998). Return of the Jedi was adapted into 6 - episodes in 1996, featuring Daniels.
The first officially licensed Star Wars electronic game was Kenner 's 1979 table - top Star Wars Electronic Battle Command. In 1982, Parker Brothers published the first licensed Star Wars video game, Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back, for the Atari 2600. It was followed in 1983 by Atari 's rail shooter arcade game Star Wars, which used vector graphics and was based on the "Death Star trench run '' scene from the 1977 film. The next game, Return of the Jedi (1984), used more traditional raster graphics, with the following game The Empire Strikes Back (1985) returning to the 1983 's arcade game vector graphics, but recreating the "Battle of Hoth '' scene instead.
Lucasfilm had started its own video game company in the early 1980s, which became known for adventure games and World War II flight combat games. In 1993, LucasArts released Star Wars: X-Wing, the first self - published Star Wars video game and the first space flight simulation based on the franchise. X-Wing was one of the best - selling games of 1993, and established its own series of games. Released in 1995, Dark Forces was the first Star Wars first - person shooter video game. A hybrid adventure game incorporating puzzles and strategy, it featured new gameplay features and graphical elements not then common in other games, made possible by LucasArts ' custom - designed game engine, called the Jedi. The game was well received and well reviewed, and was followed by four sequels. Dark Forces introduced the popular character Kyle Katarn, who would later appear in multiple games, novels, and comics. Katarn is a former Imperial stormtrooper who joins the Rebellion and ultimately becomes a Jedi, a plot arc similar to that of Finn in the 2015 film The Force Awakens.
Disney has partnered with Lenovo to create the Augmented Reality game ' Star Wars: Jedi Challenges ' that works with a Lenovo Mirage AR headset, a tracking sensor and a Lightsaber controller that will launch in December 2017.
The success of the Star Wars films led the franchise to become one of the most merchandised franchises in the world. In 1977, while filming the original film, George Lucas decided to take a 500,000 - dollar pay - cut to his own salary as director, in exchange for fully owning the merchandising rights of the franchise. Over the franchise 's lifetime, such exchange cost 20th Century Fox more than US $20 billion in merchandising revenue profits. Fox allowed the deal to happen, in part, because at the time films were n't expected to sell that much merchanise; it was only after Star Wars, that Hollywood started to explore the potential of film merchandise, and how it could even create more profit than the films themelves. Disney acquired the merchandising rights as part of purchasing Lucasfilm.
Kenner made the first Star Wars action figures to coincide with the release of the film, and today the remaining 80 's figures sell at extremely high prices in auctions. Since the 90 's Hasbro holds the rights to create action figures based on the saga. Star Wars was the first intellectual property to be licensed in Lego Group history, which has produced a Star Wars Lego theme. Lego has produced animated parody short films to promote their sets, among them Revenge of the Brick (2005) and The Quest for R2 - D2 (2009). Due to their success, Lego created animated comedy mini-series among them The Yoda Chronicles (2013 - 2014) and Droid Tales (2015) originally airing on Cartoon Network, but since 2014 moved into Disney XD. The Lego Star Wars video games are critically acclaimed best sellers. The first episode of the Netflix documentary series about toys, The Toys That Made Us is about the history of the Star Wars toys, while the second season 's third episode is about Lego and goes more in detail about the Lego Star Wars line.
Star Wars trading cards have been published since the first "blue '' series, by Topps, in 1977. Dozens of series have been produced, with Topps being the licensed creator in the United States. Some of the card series are of film stills, while others are original art. Many of the cards have become highly collectible with some very rare "promos '', such as the 1993 Galaxy Series II "floating Yoda '' P3 card often commanding US $1,000 or more. While most "base '' or "common card '' sets are plentiful, many "insert '' or "chase cards '' are very rare. From 1995 until 2001, Decipher, Inc. had the license for, created and produced a collectible card game based on Star Wars; the Star Wars Collectible Card Game (also known as SWCCG).
In 1977 with the board game Star Wars: Escape from the Death Star (not to be confused with another board game with the same title, published in 1990). The board game Risk has been adapted to the series in two editions by Hasbro: and Star Wars Risk: The Clone Wars Edition (2005) and Risk: Star Wars Original Trilogy Edition (2006).
Three different official tabletop role - playing games have been developed for the Star Wars universe: a version by West End Games in the 1980s and 1990s, one by Wizards of the Coast in the 2000s, and one by Fantasy Flight Games in the 2010s.
Merchandise also influenced the plot of the films, with toy - makers requiring a name on the package of each toy, forcing Lucasfilm to name background characters. RPG games greatly influenced the plot of the series, due to Lucasfilm encouraging novelists to use them as a writing resource.
The Star Wars world, unlike fantasy and science - fiction films that featured sleek and futuristic settings, was portrayed as dirty and grimy. Lucas ' vision of a "used future '' was further popularized in the science fiction - horror films Alien, which was set on a dirty space freighter; Mad Max 2, which is set in a post-apocalyptic desert; and Blade Runner, which is set in a crumbling, dirty city of the future. Lucas made a conscious effort to parallel scenes and dialogue between films, and especially to parallel the journeys of Luke Skywalker with that of his father Anakin when making the prequels.
Out of all film franchises, the 1966 's originated Star Trek has been compared with Star Wars the most. The Star Trek series had been cancelled and was only revived as a film series; due to the popularity of the original Star Wars; the 1977 's film revitalized the interest in the genre. With, William Shatner, who played Captain Kirk in Trek, going as far as saying: "Star Wars created Star Trek ''. Star Wars creator, George Lucas, also said that without Star Trek paving the way, there would be no Star Wars. The most noted similarity, happened in the 2010 's, when director J.J. Abrams, has directed two films of each franchise, with the most noted difference being that Trek revolves around humans from a futuristic planet Earth, while Star Wars takes place in the ancient past, in a galaxy far far away from our planet.
It has also been noted that while other film franchises have rebooted multiple times, Star Wars has always kept the same film continuity since 1977, letting the actors age along the characters and only recasting when needing a younger version of a character. While having small comedy to add levity, the Star Wars films take themselves more seriously. When asked if Star Wars, would ever embrace the full on comedy tone of Marvel Cinematic Universe 's space adventure films like Guardians of the Galaxy and Thor 3, Lawrence Kasdan (co-writer of main series Episodes V, VI, and VII and anthology film Solo), replied: "That 's not Star Wars ''. However, he said that he respected the other films and that once the franchise is out of his hands, the people after him might think differently than him, adding he hoped they would break the mold without forgetting what the franchise is.
Aside from its well - known science fictional technology, Star Wars features elements such as knighthood, chivalry, and princesses that are related to archetypes of the fantasy genre, which further diferentiaties it from other franchises in the genre.
Political science has been an important element of Star Wars since the franchise first launched in 1977, focusing on a struggle between democracy and dictatorship. Space battles in A New Hope were based on World War I and World War II dogfights and stormtroopers share a name with Nazi stormtroopers (see also Sturmabteilung). Imperial officers ' uniforms resemble historical German uniforms of World War II and the political and security officers resemble the black - clad SS down to the stylized silver death 's head on their officer 's caps. World War II terms were used for names in the films; e.g. the planets Kessel (a term that refers to a group of encircled forces) and Hoth (Hermann Hoth was a German general who served on the snow - laden Eastern Front).
Palpatine being a chancellor before becoming the Emperor in the prequel trilogy alludes to Adolf Hitler 's role as chancellor before appointing himself Führer. Lucas has also drawn parallels to historical dictators such as Julius Caesar and Napoleon Bonaparte. The Great Jedi Purge mirrors the events of the Great Purge, the Cultural Revolution, and the Night of the Long Knives. The climax of Revenge of the Sith is modeled after the fall of the democratic Roman Republic and the formation of an empire.
On the inspiration for the First Order formed "from the ashes of the Empire '', The Force Awakens director J.J. Abrams spoke of conversations the writers had about how the Nazis could have escaped to Argentina after WWII and "started working together again. ''
The Star Wars saga has had a significant impact on modern popular culture. Star Wars references are deeply embedded in popular culture; Phrases like "evil empire '' and "May the Force be with you '' have become part of the popular lexicon. The first Star Wars film in 1977 was a cultural unifier, enjoyed by a wide spectrum of people. The film can be said to have helped launch the science fiction boom of the late 1970s and early 1980s, making science fiction films a blockbuster genre or mainstream. This very impact made it a prime target for parody works and homages, with popular examples including Spaceballs, Family Guy 's Laugh It Up, Fuzzball, Robot Chicken 's "Star Wars Episode I '', "Star Wars Episode II '' and "Star Wars Episode III '', and Hardware Wars by Ernie Fosselius.
In 1989, the Library of Congress selected the original Star Wars film for preservation in the U.S. National Film Registry, as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. '' Its sequel, The Empire Strikes Back, was selected in 2010. Despite these callings for archival, it is unclear whether copies of the 1977 and 1980 theatrical sequences of Star Wars and Empire -- or copies of the 1997 Special Edition versions -- have been archived by the NFR, or indeed if any copy has been provided by Lucasfilm and accepted by the Registry.
The original Star Wars film was a huge success for 20th Century Fox, and was credited for reinvigorating the company. Within three weeks of the film 's release, the studio 's stock price doubled to a record high. Prior to 1977, 20th Century Fox 's greatest annual profits were $37 million, while in 1977, the company broke that record by posting a profit of $79 million. The franchise helped Fox to change from an almost bankrupt production company to a thriving media conglomerate.
Star Wars fundamentally changed the aesthetics and narratives of Hollywood films, switching the focus of Hollywood - made films from deep, meaningful stories based on dramatic conflict, themes and irony to sprawling special - effects - laden blockbusters, as well as changing the Hollywood film industry in fundamental ways. Before Star Wars, special effects in films had not appreciably advanced since the 1950s. The commercial success of Star Wars created a boom in state - of - the - art special effects in the late 1970s. Along with Jaws, Star Wars started the tradition of the summer blockbuster film in the entertainment industry, where films open on many screens at the same time and profitable franchises are important. It created the model for the major film trilogy and showed that merchandising rights on a film could generate more money than the film itself did.
The Star Wars saga has inspired many fans to create their own non-canon material set in the Star Wars galaxy. In recent years, this has ranged from writing fan fiction to creating fan films. In 2002, Lucasfilm sponsored the first annual Official Star Wars Fan Film Awards, officially recognizing filmmakers and the genre. Because of concerns over potential copyright and trademark issues, however, the contest was initially open only to parodies, mockumentaries, and documentaries. Fan fiction films set in the Star Wars universe were originally ineligible, but in 2007, Lucasfilm changed the submission standards to allow in - universe fiction entries. Lucasfilm, for the most part, has allowed but not endorsed the creation of these derivative fan fiction works, so long as no such work attempts to make a profit from or tarnish the Star Wars franchise in any way. While many fan films have used elements from the licensed Expanded Universe to tell their story, they are not considered an official part of the Star Wars canon.
As the characters and the story line of the original trilogy are so well known, educationalists have advocated the use of the films in the classroom as a learning resource. For example, a project in Western Australia honed elementary school students story - telling skills by role playing action scenes from the movies and later creating props and audio / visual scenery to enhance their performance. Others have used the films to encourage second - level students to integrate technology in the science classroom by making prototype light sabers. Similarly, psychiatrists in New Zealand and the US have advocated their use in the university classroom to explain different types of psychopathology.
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when did star wars return of the jedi come out | Return of the Jedi - Wikipedia
Return of the Jedi (also known as Star Wars: Episode VI -- Return of the Jedi) is a 1983 American epic space opera film directed by Richard Marquand. The screenplay by Lawrence Kasdan and George Lucas was from a story by Lucas, who was also the executive producer. It is the third installment in the original Star Wars trilogy and the first film to use THX technology. The film is set one year after The Empire Strikes Back and was produced by Howard Kazanjian for Lucasfilm Ltd. The film stars Mark Hamill, Harrison Ford, Carrie Fisher, Billy Dee Williams, Anthony Daniels, David Prowse, Kenny Baker, Peter Mayhew and Frank Oz.
The Galactic Empire, under the direction of the ruthless Emperor, is constructing a second Death Star in order to crush the Rebel Alliance once and for all. Since the Emperor plans to personally oversee the final stages of its construction, the Rebel Fleet launches a full - scale attack on the Death Star in order to prevent its completion and kill the Emperor, effectively bringing an end to the Empire 's hold over the galaxy. Meanwhile, Luke Skywalker, a Jedi apprentice, struggles to bring his father Darth Vader back to the Light Side of the Force.
David Lynch and David Cronenberg were considered to direct the project before Marquand signed on as director. The production team relied on Lucas ' storyboards during pre-production. While writing the shooting script, Lucas, Kasdan, Marquand, and producer Howard Kazanjian spent two weeks in conference discussing ideas to construct it. Kazanjian 's schedule pushed shooting to begin a few weeks early to allow Industrial Light & Magic more time to work on the film 's effects in post-production. Filming took place in England, California, and Arizona from January to May 1982 (1982 - 05). Strict secrecy surrounded the production and the film used the working title Blue Harvest to prevent price gouging.
The film was released in theaters on May 25, 1983, six years to the day after the release of the first film, receiving mostly positive reviews. The film grossed between $475 million and $572 million worldwide. Several home video and theatrical releases and revisions to the film followed over the next 20 years. Star Wars continued with The Phantom Menace as part of the film series ' prequel trilogy.
A sequel, The Force Awakens, was released on December 18, 2015, as part of the new sequel trilogy.
Luke Skywalker initiates a plan to rescue Han Solo from the crime lord Jabba the Hutt with the help of Princess Leia, Lando Calrissian, Chewbacca, C - 3PO, and R2 - D2. Leia infiltrates Jabba 's palace on Tatooine, disguised as a bounty hunter, with Chewbacca as her prisoner. Leia releases Han from his carbonite prison, but she is captured and enslaved. Luke arrives soon afterward, but is also captured after a tense standoff. After Luke survives his battle with Jabba 's Rancor, Jabba sentences him and Han to death by feeding them to the Sarlacc. Luke frees himself and battles Jabba 's guards. During the chaos, Leia strangles Jabba to death, and Luke destroys Jabba 's sail barge as the group escapes. While the others rendezvous with the Rebel Alliance, Luke returns to Dagobah where he finds that Yoda is dying. Before he dies, Yoda confirms that Darth Vader, once known as Anakin Skywalker, is Luke 's father, and that there is "another Skywalker ''. The spirit of Obi - Wan Kenobi confirms that this other Skywalker is Leia, who is Luke 's twin sister. Obi - Wan tells Luke that he must fight Vader again to defeat the Empire.
The Rebel Alliance learns that the Empire has been constructing a new Death Star under the supervision of the Emperor himself. As the station is protected by an energy shield, Han leads a strike team to destroy the shield generator on the forest moon of Endor; doing so would allow a squadron of starfighters to destroy the Death Star. The strike team, accompanied by Luke and Leia, travels to Endor in a stolen Imperial shuttle. On Endor, Luke and his companions encounter a tribe of Ewoks and, after an initial conflict, gain their trust. Later, Luke tells Leia that she is his sister, Vader is their father, and that he must go and confront him. Surrendering to Imperial troops, Luke is brought to Vader and unsuccessfully tries to convince him to turn from the dark side of the Force.
Vader takes Luke to the Death Star to meet the Emperor, intent on turning him to the dark side. The Emperor reveals that the Death Star is actually fully operational and the rebel fleet will fall into a trap. On Endor, Han 's strike team is captured by Imperial forces, but a surprise counterattack by the Ewoks allows the rebels to battle the Imperials. Meanwhile, Lando leads the rebel fleet to the Death Star in the Millennium Falcon, only to find out that the shield is still active, and the Imperial fleet is waiting for them. The Emperor tempts Luke to give in to his anger, and Luke engages Vader in a lightsaber duel. Vader senses that Luke has a sister, and threatens to turn her to the dark side. Enraged, Luke attacks Vader and severs his prosthetic right hand. The Emperor entreats Luke to kill Vader and take his place, but Luke refuses, declaring himself a Jedi as his father had been. Furious, the Emperor tortures Luke with Force lightning. Unwilling to let his son die, Vader throws the Emperor down a reactor chute to his death, but Vader is mortally electrocuted in the process. At his last request, Luke removes the redeemed Anakin 's mask before he dies peacefully in Luke 's arms.
As the battle between the Imperial and Alliance fleets continues, the strike team defeats the Imperial forces and destroys the shield generator, allowing the rebel fleet to launch their assault on the Death Star. Lando leads a group of rebel ships into the Death Star 's core and destroys the main reactor. As Luke escapes on a shuttle with his father 's body, the Falcon flies out of the Death Star 's superstructure as the station explodes. On Endor, Leia reveals to Han that Luke is her brother, and they kiss. Luke returns to Endor and cremates Anakin 's body on a pyre. As the rebels celebrate their victory over the Empire, Luke smiles as he sees the spirits of Obi - Wan, Yoda, and Anakin watching over them.
Denis Lawson reprises his role as Wedge Antilles from Star Wars, and Kenneth Colley and Jeremy Bulloch reprise their roles as Admiral Piett and Boba Fett from The Empire Strikes Back. Michael Pennington portrays Moff Jerjerrod, the commander of the second Death Star. Warwick Davis appears as Wicket W. Warrick, an Ewok who leads Leia and eventually her friends to the Ewok tribe. Baker was originally cast as Wicket, but was replaced by Davis after falling ill with food poisoning on the morning of the shoot. Davis had no previous acting experience and was cast only after his grandmother had discovered an open call for dwarfs for the new Star Wars film. Caroline Blakiston portrays Mon Mothma, a co-founder and leader of the Rebel Alliance. Michael Carter played Jabba 's aide, Bib Fortuna (voiced by Erik Bauersfeld), while Femi Taylor and Claire Davenport appeared as Jabba 's original slave dancers.
To portray the numerous alien species featured in the film a multitude of puppeteers, voice actors, and stunt performers were employed. Admiral Ackbar was performed by puppeteer Timothy M. Rose, with his voice provided by Erik Bauersfeld. Nien Nunb was portrayed by Richard Bonehill in costume for full body shots, while he was otherwise a puppet operated by Mike Quinn and his voice was provided by Kipsang Rotich. Rose also operated Salacious Crumb, whose voice was provided by Mark Dodson. Quinn also played Ree - Yees and Wol Cabbashite. Sy Snootles was a marionette operated by Rose and Quinn, while her voice was provided by Annie Arbogast. Others included Simon J. Williamson as Max Rebo, a Gamorrean Guard and a Mon Calamari; Deep Roy as Droopy McCool; Ailsa Berk as Amanaman; Paul Springer as Ree - Yees, Gamorrean Guard and a Mon Calamari; Hugh Spight as a Gamorrean Guard, Elom and a Mon Calamari; Swee Lim as Attark the Hoover; Richard Robinson as a Yuzzum; Gerald Home as Tessek and the Mon Calamari officer; Phil Herbert as Hermi Odle; Tik and Tok (Tim Dry and Sean Crawford) as Whiphid and Yak - Face; Phil Tippett as the Rancor with Michael McCormick.
Jabba the Hutt was operated by Toby Philpott, David Barclay and Mike Edmonds (who also portrays the Ewok Logray) operated the tail. Larry Ward portrays the Huttese language voice with Mike Quinn, among other roles, controlling the eyes.
As with the previous film, Lucas personally financed Return of the Jedi. Lucas also chose not to direct Return of the Jedi himself, and started searching for a director for the film. Lucas approached David Lynch, who had been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director for The Elephant Man in 1980, to helm Return of the Jedi, but Lynch declined in order to direct Dune. David Cronenberg was also offered the chance to direct, but he declined the offer to make Videodrome and The Dead Zone. Lamont Johnson, director of Spacehunter: Adventures in the Forbidden Zone, was also considered. Lucas eventually chose Richard Marquand. Lucas may have directed some of the second unit work personally as the shooting threatened to go over schedule; this is a function Lucas had willingly performed on previous occasions when he had only officially been producing a film (e.g. More American Graffiti, Raiders of the Lost Ark). Lucas did operate the B camera on the set a few times. Lucas himself has admitted to being on the set frequently because of Marquand 's relative inexperience with special effects. Lucas praised Marquand as a "very nice person who worked well with actors ''. Marquand did note that Lucas kept a conspicuous presence on set, joking, "It is rather like trying to direct King Lear -- with Shakespeare in the next room! ''
The screenplay was written by Lawrence Kasdan and Lucas (with uncredited contributions by David Peoples and Marquand), based on Lucas ' story. Kasdan claims he told Lucas that Return of the Jedi was "a weak title '', and Lucas later decided to name the film Revenge of the Jedi. The screenplay itself was not finished until rather late in pre-production, well after a production schedule and budget had been created by Kazanjian and Marquand had been hired, which was unusual for a film. Instead, the production team relied on Lucas ' story and rough draft in order to commence work with the art department. When it came time to formally write a shooting script, Lucas, Kasdan, Marquand and Kazanjian spent two weeks in conference discussing ideas; Kasdan used tape transcripts of these meetings to then construct the script.
The issue of whether Harrison Ford would return for the final film arose during pre-production. Unlike the other stars of the first film, Ford had not contracted to do two sequels, and Raiders of the Lost Ark had made him an even bigger star. Return of the Jedi producer Howard Kazanjian (who also produced Raiders of the Lost Ark) convinced Ford to return:
"I played a very important part in bringing Harrison back for Return of the Jedi. Harrison, unlike Carrie Fisher and Mark Hamill signed only a two picture contract. That is why he was frozen in carbonite in The Empire Strikes Back. When I suggested to George we should bring him back, I distinctly remember him saying that Harrison would never return. I said what if I convinced him to return. George simply replied that we would then write him in to Jedi. I had just recently negotiated his deal for Raiders of the Lost Ark with Phil Gersh of the Gersh Agency. I called Phil who said he would speak with Harrison. When I called back again, Phil was on vacation. David, his son, took the call and we negotiated Harrison 's deal. When Phil returned to the office several weeks later he called me back and said I had taken advantage of his son in the negotiations. I had not. But agents are agents. ''
Ford suggested that Han Solo be killed through self - sacrifice. Kasdan concurred, saying it should happen near the beginning of the film to instill doubt as to whether the others would survive, but Lucas was vehemently against it and rejected the concept. Gary Kurtz, who produced Star Wars and The Empire Strikes Back but was replaced as producer for Return of the Jedi by Kazanjian, said in 2010 that the ongoing success with Star Wars merchandise and toys led George Lucas to reject the idea of killing off Han Solo in the middle part of the film during a raid on an Imperial base. Luke Skywalker was also to have walked off alone and exhausted like the hero in a Spaghetti Western but, according to Kurtz, Lucas opted for a happier ending to encourage higher merchandise sales.
Yoda was originally not meant to appear in the film, but Marquand strongly felt that returning to Dagobah was essential to resolve the dilemma raised by the previous film. The inclusion led Lucas to insert a scene in which Yoda confirms that Darth Vader is Luke 's father because, after a discussion with a children 's psychologist, he did not want younger moviegoers to dismiss Vader 's claim as a lie. Many ideas from the original script were left out or changed. For instance, the Ewoks were going to be Wookiees, the Millennium Falcon would be used in the arrival at the forest moon of Endor, and Obi - Wan Kenobi would return to life from his spectral existence in the Force.
Filming began on January 11, 1982, and lasted through May 20, 1982, a schedule six weeks shorter than The Empire Strikes Back. Kazanjian 's schedule pushed shooting as early as possible in order to give Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) as much time as possible to work on effects, and left some crew members dubious of their ability to be fully prepared for the shoot. Working on a budget of $32.5 million, Lucas was determined to avoid going over budget as had happened with The Empire Strikes Back. Producer Howard Kazanjian estimated that using ILM (owned wholly by Lucasfilm) for special effects saved the production approximately $18 million. However, the fact that Lucasfilm was a non-union company made acquiring shooting locations more difficult and more expensive, even though Star Wars and The Empire Strikes Back had been big hits. The project was given the working title Blue Harvest with a tagline of "Horror Beyond Imagination. '' This disguised what the production crew was really filming from fans and the press, and also prevented price gouging by service providers.
The first stage of production started with 78 days at Elstree Studios in England, where the film occupied all nine stages. The shoot commenced with a scene later deleted from the finished film where the heroes get caught in a sandstorm as they leave Tatooine. (This was the only major sequence cut from the film during editing.) While attempting to film Luke Skywalker 's battle with the rancor beast, Lucas insisted on trying to create the scene in the same style as Toho 's Godzilla films by using a stunt performer inside a suit. The production team made several attempts, but were unable to create an adequate result. Lucas eventually relented and decided to film the rancor as a high - speed puppet. In April, the crew moved to the Yuma Desert in Arizona for two weeks of Tatooine exteriors. Production then moved to the redwood forests of northern California near Crescent City where two weeks were spent shooting the Endor forest exteriors, and then concluded at ILM in San Rafael, California for about ten days of bluescreen shots. One of two "skeletal '' post-production units shooting background matte plates spent a day in Death Valley. The other was a special Steadicam unit shooting forest backgrounds from June 15 -- 17, 1982, for the speeder chase near the middle of the film. Steadicam inventor Garrett Brown personally operated these shots as he walked through a disguised path inside the forest shooting at less than one frame per second. By walking at about 5 mph (8 km / h) and projecting the footage at 24 frame / s, the motion seen in the film appeared as if it were moving at around 120 mph (190 km / h).
John Williams composed and conducted the film 's musical score with performances by the London Symphony Orchestra. Orchestration credits also include Thomas Newman. The initial release of the film 's soundtrack was on the RSO Records label in the United States. Sony Classical Records acquired the rights to the classic trilogy scores in 2004 after gaining the rights to release the second trilogy soundtracks (The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones). In the same year, Sony Classical re-pressed the 1997 RCA Victor release of Return of the Jedi along with the other two films in the trilogy. The set was released with the new artwork mirroring the first DVD release of the film. Despite the Sony digital re-mastering, which minimally improved the sound heard only on high - end stereos, this 2004 release is essentially the same as the 1997 RCA Victor release.
Meanwhile, special effects work at ILM quickly stretched the company to its operational limits. While the R&D work and experience gained from the previous two films in the trilogy allowed for increased efficiency, this was offset by the desire to have the closing film raise the bar set by each of these films. A compounding factor was the intention of several departments of ILM to either take on other film work or decrease staff during slow cycles. Instead, as soon as production began, the entire company found it necessary to remain running 20 hours a day on six - day weeks in order to meet their goals by April 1, 1983. Of about 900 special effects shots, all VistaVision optical effects remained in - house, since ILM was the only company capable of using the format, while about 400 4 - perf opticals were subcontracted to outside effects houses. Progress on the opticals was severely delayed for a time when ILM rejected about 100,000 feet (30,000 m) of film when the film perforations failed image registration and steadiness tests.
Return of the Jedi 's theatrical release took place on May 25, 1983. It was originally slated to be May 27, but was subsequently changed to coincide with the date of the 1977 release of the original Star Wars film. With a massive worldwide marketing campaign, illustrator Tim Reamer created the image for the movie poster and other advertising. At the time of its release, the film was advertised on posters and merchandise as simply Star Wars: Return of the Jedi, despite its on - screen "Episode VI '' distinction. The original film was later re-released to theaters in 1985.
In 1997, for the 20th anniversary of the release of Star Wars (retitled Episode IV: A New Hope), Lucas released The Star Wars Trilogy: Special Edition. Along with the two other films in the original trilogy, Return of the Jedi was re-released on March 14, 1997, with a number of changes and additions, which included the insertion of several alien band members in Jabba 's throne room, the modification of the Sarlacc to include a beak, the replacement of music at the closing scene, and a montage of different alien worlds celebrating the fall of the Empire. According to Lucas, Return of the Jedi required fewer changes than the previous two films because it is more emotionally driven than the others.
The original teaser trailer for the film carried the name Revenge of the Jedi. In December 1982, Lucas decided that "Revenge '' was not appropriate as Jedi should not seek revenge and returned to his original title. By that time thousands of "Revenge '' teaser posters (with artwork by Drew Struzan) had been printed and distributed. Lucasfilm stopped the shipping of the posters and sold the remaining stock of 6,800 posters to Star Wars fan club members for $9.50.
Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith, released in 2005 as part of the prequel trilogy, later alluded to the dismissed title Revenge of the Jedi.
The original theatrical version of Return of the Jedi was released on VHS and Laserdisc several times between 1986 and 1995, followed by releases of the Special Edition in the same formats between 1997 and 2000. Some of these releases contained featurettes; some were individual releases of just this film, while others were boxed sets of all three original films.
On September 21, 2004, the Special Editions of all three original films were released in a boxed set on DVD. It was digitally restored and remastered, with additional changes made by George Lucas. The DVD also featured English subtitles, Dolby Digital 5.1 EX surround sound, and commentaries by George Lucas, Ben Burtt, Dennis Muren, and Carrie Fisher. The bonus disc included documentaries including Empire of Dreams: The Story of the Star Wars Trilogy and several featurettes including "The Characters of Star Wars '', "The Birth of the Lightsaber '', and "The Legacy of Star Wars ''. Also included were teasers, trailers, TV spots, still galleries, and a demo for Star Wars: Battlefront.
With the release of Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith, which depicts how and why Anakin Skywalker turned to the dark side of the Force, Lucas once again altered Return of the Jedi to bolster the relationship between the original trilogy and the prequel trilogy. The original and 1997 Special Edition versions of Return of the Jedi featured British theatre actor Sebastian Shaw playing both the dying Anakin Skywalker and his ghost. In the 2004 DVD, Shaw 's portrayal of Anakin 's ghost is replaced by Hayden Christensen, who portrayed Anakin in Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith. All three films in the original unaltered Star Wars trilogy were later released, individually, on DVD on September 12, 2006. These versions were originally slated to only be available until December 31, 2006, although they remained in print until May 2011 and were packaged with the 2004 versions again in a new box set on November 4, 2008. Although the 2004 versions in these sets each feature an audio commentary, no other extra special features were included to commemorate the original cuts. The runtime of the 1997 Special Edition of the film and all subsequent releases is approximately five minutes longer than the original theatrical version.
A Blu - ray Disc version of the Star Wars saga was announced for release in 2011 during Star Wars Celebration V. Several deleted scenes from Return of the Jedi were included for the Blu - ray version, including a sandstorm sequence following the Battle at the Sarlacc Pit, a scene featuring Moff Jerjerrod and Death Star officers during the Battle of Endor, and a scene where Darth Vader communicates with Luke via the Force as Skywalker is assembling his new lightsaber before he infiltrates Jabba 's palace. On January 6, 2011, 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment announced the Blu - ray release for September 2011 in three different editions and the cover art was unveiled in May.
On April 7, 2015, Walt Disney Studios, 20th Century Fox, and Lucasfilm jointly announced the digital releases of the six released Star Wars films. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released Return of the Jedi through the iTunes Store, Amazon Video, Vudu, Google Play, and Disney Movies Anywhere on April 10, 2015.
Depending on sources, Return of the Jedi grossed between $475 million and $572 million worldwide. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 80 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an 80 % approval rating with an average score of 7.2 / 10 based on 84 reviews from critics. Its consensus states, "Though failing to reach the cinematic heights of its predecessors, Return of the Jedi remains an entertaining sci - fi adventure and a fitting end to the classic trilogy ''. On Metacritic, the film received a score of 53 / 100 based on 15 reviews from mainstream critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews. ''
Contemporary critics were largely positive. In 1983, film critic Roger Ebert gave the film four stars out of four, and James Kendrick of Q Network Film Desk described Return of the Jedi as "a magnificent experience. '' The film was also featured on the May 23, 1983, TIME magazine cover issue (where it was labeled "Star Wars III ''), where the reviewer Gerald Clarke said that while it was not as exciting as the first Star Wars film, it was "better and more satisfying '' than The Empire Strikes Back, now considered by many as the best of the original trilogy. Vincent Canby of The New York Times called it "by far the dimmest adventure of the lot ''. ReelViews. net 's James Berardinelli wrote about the 1997 special edition re-release that "Although it was great fun re-watching Star Wars and The Empire Strikes Back again on the big screen, Return of the Jedi does n't generate the same sense of enjoyment. And, while Lucas worked diligently to re-invigorate each entry into the trilogy, Jedi needs more than the patches of improved sound, cleaned - up visuals, and a few new scenes. Still, despite the flaws, this is still Star Wars, and, as such, represents a couple of lightly - entertaining hours spent with characters we have gotten to know and love over the years. Return of the Jedi is easily the weakest of the series, but its position as the conclusion makes it a must - see for anyone who has enjoyed its predecessor. ''
While the action set pieces -- particularly the Sarlacc battle sequence, the speeder bike chase on the Endor moon, the space battle between Rebel and Imperial pilots, and Luke Skywalker 's duel against Darth Vader -- are well - regarded, the ground battle between the Ewoks and Imperial stormtroopers remains a bone of contention. Fans are also divided on the likelihood of Ewoks (being an extremely primitive race of small creatures armed with sticks and rocks) defeating an armed ground force comprising the Empire 's "best troops ''. Lucas has defended the scenario, saying that the Ewoks ' purpose was to distract the Imperial troops and that the Ewoks did not really win. His inspiration for the Ewoks ' victory came from the Vietnam War, where the indigenous Vietcong forces prevailed against the technologically superior United States.
At the 56th Academy Awards in 1984, Richard Edlund, Dennis Muren, Ken Ralston, and Phil Tippett received the "Special Achievement Award for Visual Effects. '' Norman Reynolds, Fred Hole, James L. Schoppe, and Michael Ford were nominated for "Best Art Direction / Set Decoration ''. Ben Burtt received a nomination for "Best Sound Effects Editing ''. John Williams received the nomination for "Best Music, Original Score ''. Burtt, Gary Summers, Randy Thom and Tony Dawe all received the nominations for "Best Sound ''. At the 1984 BAFTA Awards, Edlund, Muren, Ralston, and Kit West won for "Best Special Visual Effects ''. Tippett and Stuart Freeborn were also nominated for "Best Makeup ''. Reynolds received a nomination for "Best Production Design / Art Direction ''. Burtt, Dawe, and Summers also received nominations for "Best Sound ''. Williams was also nominated "Best Album of Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or Television Special ''. The film also won for "Best Dramatic Presentation '', the older award for science fiction and fantasy in film, at the 1984 Hugo Awards.
The novelization of Return of the Jedi was written by James Kahn and was released on May 12, 1983, thirteen days before the film 's release.
A radio drama adaptation of the film was written by Brian Daley with additional material contributed by John Whitman and was produced for and broadcast on National Public Radio in 1996. It was based on characters and situations created by George Lucas and on the screenplay by Lawrence Kasdan and George Lucas. The first two Star Wars films were similarly adapted for National Public Radio in the early 1980s, but it was not until 1996 that a radio version of Return of the Jedi was heard. Anthony Daniels returned as C - 3PO, but Mark Hamill and Billy Dee Williams did not reprise their roles as they had for the first two radio dramas. They were replaced by newcomer Joshua Fardon as Luke Skywalker and character actor Arye Gross as Lando Calrissian. John Lithgow voiced Yoda, whose voice actor in the films has always been Frank Oz. Bernard Behrens returned as Obi - Wan Kenobi and Brock Peters reprised his role as Darth Vader. Veteran character actor Ed Begley, Jr. played Boba Fett. Edward Asner also guest - starred speaking only in grunts as the voice of Jabba the Hutt. The radio drama had a running time of three hours.
Principal production of the show was completed on February 11, 1996. Only hours after celebrating its completion with the cast and crew of the show, Daley died of pancreatic cancer. The show is dedicated to his memory.
The cast and crew recorded a get - well message for Daley, but the author never got the chance to hear it. The message is included as part of the Star Wars Trilogy collector 's edition box set.
Marvel Comics published a comic book adaptation of the film by writer Archie Goodwin and artists Al Williamson, Carlos Garzon, Tom Palmer, and Ron Frenz. The adaptation appeared in Marvel Super Special # 27 and as a four - issue limited series. It was later reprinted in a mass market paperback.
Lucasfilm adapted the story for a children 's book - and - record set. Released in 1983, the 24 - page Star Wars: Return of the Jedi read - along book was accompanied by a 331⁄3 rpm 7 - inch (18 cm) gramophone record. Each page of the book contained a cropped frame from the film with an abridged and condensed version of the story. The record was produced by Buena Vista Records.
Arnold, Alan. Once Upon a Galaxy: A Journal of Making the Empire Strikes Back. Sphere Books, London. 1980. ISBN 978 - 0 - 345 - 29075 - 5.
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what is the function of the shift key | Shift key - wikipedia
The shift key is a modifier key on a keyboard, used to type capital letters and other alternate "upper '' characters. There are typically two shift keys, on the left and right sides of the row below the home row. The shift key 's name originated from the typewriter, where one had to press and hold the button to shift up the case stamp to change to capital letters; the shift key was first used in the Remington No. 2 Type - Writer of 1878; the No. 1 model was capital - only.
On the US layout and similar keyboard layouts, characters that typically require the use of the shift key include the parentheses, the question mark, the exclamation point, and the colon.
When the caps lock key is engaged, the shift key can be used to type lowercase letters on many operating systems, but not macOS.
The keyboard symbol for the Shift key (which is called Level 2 Select key in the international standard series ISO / IEC 9995) is given in ISO / IEC 9995 - 7 as symbol 1, and in ISO 7000 "Graphical symbols for use on equipment '' as a directional variant of the symbol ISO - 7000 - 251. In Unicode 6.1, the character approximating this symbol best is U + 21E7 upwards white arrow (⇧). This symbol is commonly used to denote the Shift key on modern keyboards (especially on non-US layouts and on the Apple Keyboard), sometimes in combination with the word "shift '' or its translation in the local language. This symbol also is used in texts to denote the shift key.
On computer keyboards, as opposed to typewriter keyboards, the shift key can have many more uses:
On some keyboards, if both shift keys are held down simultaneously only some letters can be typed. For example, on the Dell keyboard Model RT7D20 only 16 letters can be typed. This phenomenon is known as "masking '' and is a fundamental limitation of the way the keyboard electronics are designed.
The following is a list of actions involving the shift key for the Microsoft Windows operating system.
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in the 1930s federal relief programs in the south | Federal Emergency Relief Administration - wikipedia
The Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) was the new name given by the Roosevelt Administration to the Emergency Relief Administration (ERA) which President Franklin Delano Roosevelt had created in 1933. FERA was established as a result of the Federal Emergency Relief Act and was replaced in 1935 by the Works Progress Administration (WPA).
Prior to 1933, the federal government gave loans to the states to operate relief programs. One of these, the New York state program TERA (Temporary Emergency Relief Administration), was set up in 1931 and headed by Harry Hopkins, a close adviser to Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt. Roosevelt asked Congress to set up FERA -- which gave grants to the states for the same purpose -- in May 1933, and appointed Hopkins to head it. Along with the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) it was the first relief operation under the New Deal. Basically, it gave grants and loans to states.
FERA 's main goal was to alleviate household unemployment by creating new unskilled jobs in local and state government. Jobs were more expensive than direct cash payments (called "the dole ''), but were psychologically more beneficial to the unemployed, who wanted any sort of job, for self - esteem, to play the role of male breadwinner. From May 1933 until it closed in December, 1935, FERA gave states and localities $3.1 billion (5.54 billion in 2017). FERA provided work for over 20 million people and developed facilities on public lands across the country.
Faced with continued high unemployment and concerns for public welfare during the coming winter of 1933 - 34, FERA instituted the Civil Works Administration (CWA) as a $400 million short - term measure to get people to work. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration was shut down in 1935 and its work taken over by two completely new federal agencies, the Works Progress Administration and the Social Security Administration.
FERA operated a wide variety of work relief projects, including construction, projects for professionals (e.g., writers, artists, actors, and musicians), and production of consumer goods.
Workers ' education, a form of adult education, emphasized the study of economic and social problems from the workers ' perspective. When the FERA created its adult education program in 1933, workers ' education classes were included. Between 1933 and 1943 thirty - six experiment programs in workers ' education were launched, 17 of them lasting over ten years. With as many as two thousand teachers employed at one time, officials conservatively estimated that the program reached at least one million workers nationwide until it was ended in World War II. Three distinct phases of a federal workers ' education program existed: FERA (1933 -- 1935), Works Progress Administration (WPA -- prior to separation from the other adult education programs, 1935 -- 1939), and WPA Workers ' Service Program (1939 -- 1943). FERA and WPA workers ' education stimulated educational activities within the labor movement. For example, in Indiana this program was particularly popular among the new, more radical CIO unions. Federal workers ' education activities also encouraged union - university cooperation and laid the foundation for labor education at Indiana University. New Dealers designed the WPA Workers ' Service Program as the model for a Federal Labor Extension Service, similar to the existing federal agricultural extension program, but it was never implemented.
Ellen Sullivan Woodward was director of women 's work for FERA and CWA. During the short lifespan of the CWA, Woodward placed women in such civil works projects as sanitation surveys, highway and park beautification, public building renovation, public records surveys, and museum development. Most were unemployed white collar clerical workers. In July 1934, the FERA established a separate division for professional and nonconstruction projects. Project designers in the division for professional projects faced an enormous challenge in creating effective and meaningful work for unskilled women. In 1935 she became assistant administrator of the WPA, where she directed the income - earning projects of some 500,000 women.
Poor people lacked enough food in the Depression, and farmers had too much. The mismatch was solved by the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC), FERA, and WPA programs which aimed to reduce farm surpluses by government purchase and then redistribution of food to the needy. Three methods of distribution were employed with varying success: direct distribution, food stamps, and school lunches.
Mullins (1999) examines the hesitant relief efforts of Oklahoma City residents during the early years of the Depression, 1930 -- 35, under Governor William H. Murray, emphasizing the community 's reluctance to comply with FERA rules. Fearing that aid recipients would become dependent on their assistance, Oklahoma City administrators sparingly doled out federal and local relief funds; city leaders initiated a campaign to discourage migration into the city; local newspapers failed to print the location of soup lines; voters rejected a bond issue to bolster relief funds; and the city council declined to increase taxes to boost its depression relief budget. At issue was the control over FERA distribution imposed by Governor Murray, and lawmakers ' reluctance to meet federal funding match assessments, despite a budget surplus in Oklahoma City and sufficient state funds to reduce property taxes. Although he criticized the welfare bureaucracy, Murray championed the state 's yeoman farmers and took credit for the food, seed, and books that they received from federal funds. New Deal administrators ultimately removed Murray from his oversight role, charging corruption in aid distribution, failure to meet employment quotas, and the inability to determine local funding needs.
In Nebraska, Democratic Governor Charles W. Bryan (brother of William Jennings Bryan and the party 's Vice President nominee in 1924) was at first unwilling to request aid from the Hoover administration. When Roosevelt 's FERA became law in 1933 Nebraska took part. Rowland Haynes, the state 's emergency relief director, was the major force in implementing such national programs as the FERA and CWA. Robert L. Cochran, who became governor in 1935, was a "cautious progressive '' who sought federal assistance and placed Nebraska among the first American states to adopt a social security law. The enduring impact of FERA and social security in Nebraska was to shift responsibility for social welfare from counties to the state, which henceforth accepted federal funding and guidelines. The change in state and national relations may have been the most important legacy of these New Deal programs in Nebraska.
FERA made welfare payments to Southern tenant farmers 1933 - 35, with the distribution of money across states and counties was strongly influenced by state governments and the influential planter class. Their interests rested mainly in not allowing federal welfare to undermine their authority and the economic structure that favored landowners. Tenant farmers, however, exerted significant counterpressure by organizing the Southern Tenant Farmers Union and the Alabama Sharecroppers ' Union under the auspices of the Socialist Party and the Communist Party. The unions agitated for welfare assistance, and their events and campaigns drew national publicity. While tenant farmers remained terribly disadvantaged politically, their collective efforts improved matters substantially in areas where their organizations were strongest.
Julius Stone, Jr., changed the economic direction of Key West, Florida, when he was the director of the southeast region of FERA. In 1934, Key West went bankrupt and state turned the city over to the FERA in a dubious constitutional move. Within two years, Stone had reversed the economic disaster and successfully moved the city into tourism.
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who is the author of so god made a farmer | So God Made a Farmer - wikipedia
"So God Made a Farmer '' was a speech given by radio broadcaster Paul Harvey at the 1978 Future Farmers of America convention. The speech was first published in 1986 in Harvey 's syndicated column. The speech borrowed a few phrases from a 1975 article written by Harvey in the Gadsden Times, which was itself inspired by parts of a 1940 definition of a dirt farmer published in The Farmer - Stockman. The 1940 article was copied verbatim by Tex Smith in a letter to the editor in the Ellensburg Daily Record in 1949. The speech was given as an extension of the Genesis creation narrative referring to God 's actions on the 8th day of creation. Harvey described the characteristics of a farmer in each phrase, ending them with the recurring "So God Made a Farmer ''.
The speech was used in a commercial by Ram Trucks during the fourth quarter of Super Bowl XLVII. The ad featured photographs of rural America set to a narration of a portion of Harvey 's speech. In a collaboration with the FFA, Dodge agreed to donate $100,000 for every 1,000,000 views that the YouTube video of the ad received up to $1,000,000. This goal was reached in less than five days. There were eight photographers who participated and photographed the images in this commercial Andy Anderson, Matt Turley, Olaf Veltman, Andy Mahr, Kurt Markus, David Beltra, David Spielman, Mark Gooch, Jim Arndt, William Allard, and Kurt Markus.
Paul Harvey, a radio host who died in 2009, delivered the speech at an FFA convention in 1978. His speech began as a continuation of the Genesis creation narrative referring to the actions God took on the 8th day. In it, Harvey stated that God needed a caretaker for the land he created. The speech continues with God expressing the characteristics needed by the person he is creating:
"I need somebody with arms strong enough to wrestle a calf and yet gentle enough to deliver his own grandchild; somebody to call hogs, tame cantankerous machinery, come home hungry, have to await lunch until his wife 's done feeding visiting ladies, then tell the ladies to be sure and come back real soon, and mean it. ''
Multiple passages setting out characteristics of the sort end with the same refrain, by which the speech is now known: "So God made a farmer. ''
Harvey 's "So God Made a Farmer '' speech was characterized, according to The Atlantic, by its "folksy timbre ''. The New York Times spoke further on elements of his speaking style in its 2009 obituary: "his style was stop - and - go, with superb pacing and silences that rivaled Jack Benny 's. He spoke directly to the listener, with punchy sentences, occasional exclamations of "Good heavens! '' or "Oh, my goodness! '' and pauses that squeezed out the last drop of suspense: the radio broadcaster 's equivalent of the raised eyebrow or the knowing grin. '' Bob Greene described the opening phrase of the speech as "seemingly simple, and devastatingly direct ''.
The speech also ran in Paul Harvey 's syndicated newspaper column in 1986. Both the sound recording of the speech and the text of the article have been federally registered with the U.S. Copyright Office by Paulynne, Inc., Paul Harvey 's company that is now owned by his son. In an introduction, Harvey claimed, in a typical rhetorical flourish, that he had found the essay in his mailbag.:
"This next arrived unsigned in my mailbag. I 've tried but can not trace its source. A farmer, perhaps; more likely a farmer 's wife. I 've embellished the essay in places and cropped it in others but I hope the sense of it remains intact. ''
Paul Harvey ran a similar article in the column "A Point of View '' for the Gadsden Times on August 26, 1975. Entitled "What it is to be a farmer '', the article did not contain the concept of God creating the farmer seen in his 1978 speech, but he still described the characteristics of a farmer. Many of the same phrases made their way into his 1978 speech. The 1975 column was largely similar to a definition of a dirt farmer given by Boston B. Blackwood from Hartshorne, Oklahoma in a 1940 copy of The Farmer - Stockman. This was copied verbatim in a September 10, 1949 letter to the editor of the Ellensburg Daily Record written by Tex Smith from Ellensburg, Washington. Both the 1940 and 1975 columns share elements not included in the speech such as the statement that a farmer 's wife wo n't let him starve. In the "So God Made a Farmer '' speech and Harvey 's 1986 column, only two phrases and a few words remain from Blackwood 's 1940 piece including the phrase, "can shape an axe handle from a persimmon sprout ''.
The speech was used in a two - minute Ram Trucks Super Bowl commercial entitled "Farmer '' in Super Bowl XLVII. The ad featured a voiceover of Harvey 's speech set to still photographs taken by ten photographers including William Albert Allard and Kurt Markus. Created by The Richards Group, the ad ran during the fourth quarter. It was noted for its religious imagery. The ad, like another Chrysler Super Bowl XLVII ad featuring Oprah Winfrey, advertised the brand without focusing on the vehicle. This was similar to ads run by Chrysler in Super Bowl XLVI and Super Bowl XLV.
The ad was made in collaboration with the National FFA Organization and the National FFA Foundation and with permission from Harvey 's company, Paulynne, Inc., and Ram agreed to donate up to $1,000,000 to the foundation based on the views received by the YouTube video. The goal, which was based on $100,000 for every 1,000,000 views, was reached in less than 5 days.
The ad received mostly positive reviews. Slate called it the "most striking Super Bowl ad '' but also criticized it for being similar in concept to a 2011 YouTube video by Farms.com. While the Slate review was criticizing its originality, Farms.com released a statement reflecting their approval of the ad. While liveblogging the Super Bowl commercials for the Wall Street Journal, Cindy Gallop referred to it as the "Great American Super Bowl Commercial ''. Dale Buss, of Forbes, wrote "Chrysler managed to insert just enough of its vehicles and brands in each spot so as to make their inclusion seem part of the fabric of the paean, not at all intrusive, thereby lending the kind of authenticity to Ram and Jeep that fuels long - term brand success ''. The ad ranked third in the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter. Critics noted that the ad focused on the family farm despite the industrialization of agriculture in America. A Latino nonprofit organization called Cuéntame uploaded a remake to its Facebook page that featured more Latinos.
Country music singer James Wesley 's 2013 single "Thank a Farmer '' was inspired by the ad.
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what does rising action mean in a story | Dramatic structure - wikipedia
Dramatic structure is the structure of a dramatic work such as a play or film. Many scholars have analyzed dramatic structure, beginning with Aristotle in his Poetics (c. 335 BCE). This article looks at Aristotle 's analysis of the Greek tragedy and on Gustav Freytag 's analysis of ancient Greek and Shakespearean drama.
In his Poetics, the Greek philosopher Aristotle put forth the idea the play should imitate a single whole action. "A whole is what has a beginning and middle and end '' (1450b27). He split the play into two parts: complication and unravelling.
The Roman drama critic Horace advocated a 5 - act structure in his Ars Poetica: "Neue minor neu sit quinto productior actu fabula '' (lines 189 -- 190) ("A play should not be shorter or longer than five acts '').
The fourth - century Roman grammarian Aelius Donatus defined the play as a three part structure, the protasis, epitasis, and catastrophe).
In 1863, around the time that playwrights like Henrik Ibsen were abandoning the 5 - act structure and experimenting with 3 and 4 - act plays, the German playwright and novelist Gustav Freytag wrote Die Technik des Dramas, a definitive study of the 5 - act dramatic structure, in which he laid out what has come to be known as Freytag 's pyramid. Under Freytag 's pyramid, the plot of a story consists of five parts: exposition (originally called introduction), rising action (rise), climax, falling action (return or fall), and dénouement / resolution / revelation / catastrophe.
Many structural principles still in use by modern storytellers were explained by Aristotle in his Poetics. In the part that we still have, he mostly analyzed the tragedy. A part analyzing the comedy is believed to have existed but is now lost.
Aristotle stated that the tragedy should imitate a whole action, which means that the events follow each other by probability or necessity, and that the causal chain has a beginning and an end. There is a knot, a central problem that the protagonist must face. The play has two parts: complication and unravelling. During complication, the protagonist finds trouble as the knot is revealed or tied; during unraveling, the knot is resolved.
Two types of scenes are of special interest: the reversal, which throws the action in a new direction, and the recognition, meaning the protagonist has an important revelation. Reversals should happen as a necessary and probable cause of what happened before, which implies that turning points needs to be properly set up.
Complications should arise from a flaw in the protagonist. In the tragedy, this flaw will be his undoing.
According to Freytag, a drama is divided into five parts, or acts, which some refer to as a dramatic arc: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and dénouement. Freytag 's Pyramid can help writers organize their thoughts and ideas when describing the main problem of the drama, the rising action, the climax and the falling action.
Although Freytag 's analysis of dramatic structure is based on five - act plays, it can be applied (sometimes in a modified manner) to short stories and novels as well, making dramatic structure a literary element. Nonetheless, the pyramid is not always easy to use, especially in modern plays such as Alfred Uhry 's Driving Miss Daisy and Arthur Miller 's The Crucible, which is actually divided into 25 scenes without concrete acts.
The exposition is the portion of a story that introduces important background information to the audience; for example, information about the setting, events occurring before the main plot, characters ' back stories, etc. Exposition can be conveyed through dialogues, flashbacks, characters ' thoughts, background details, in - universe media, or the narrator telling a back - story.
In the rising action, a series of events build toward the point of greatest interest. The rising action of a story is the series of events that begin immediately after the exposition (introduction) of the story and builds up to the climax. These events are generally the most important parts of the story since the entire plot depends on them to set up the climax and ultimately the satisfactory resolution of the story itself.
The climax is the turning point, which changes the protagonist 's fate. If the story is a comedy and things were going badly for the protagonist, the plot will begin to unfold in his or her favor, often requiring the protagonist to draw on hidden inner strengths. If the story is a tragedy, the opposite state of affairs will ensue, with things going from good to bad for the protagonist, often revealing the protagonist 's hidden weaknesses.
During the falling action, the conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist unravels, with the protagonist winning or losing against the antagonist. The falling action may contain a moment of final suspense, in which the final outcome of the conflict is in doubt.
The dénouement (pronounced UK: / deɪˈnuːmɒ̃ /, US: / deɪˈnuːmɑːn /; French: (denumɑ̃)) comprises events from the end of the falling action to the actual ending scene of the drama or narrative. Conflicts are resolved, creating normality for the characters and a sense of catharsis, or release of tension and anxiety, for the reader. Etymologically, the French word dénouement is derived from the word dénouer, "to untie '', from nodus, Latin for "knot. '' It is the unraveling or untying of the complexities of a plot.
The comedy ends with a dénouement (a conclusion), in which the protagonist is better off than at the story 's outset. The tragedy ends with a catastrophe, in which the protagonist is worse off than at the beginning of the narrative. Exemplary of a comic dénouement is the final scene of Shakespeare 's comedy As You Like It, in which couples marry, an evildoer repents, two disguised characters are revealed for all to see, and a ruler is restored to power. In Shakespeare 's tragedies, the dénouement is usually the death of one or more characters.
Freytag 's analysis was intended to apply to ancient Greek and Shakespearean drama, not modern.
Contemporary dramas increasingly use the fall to increase the relative height of the climax and dramatic impact (melodrama). The protagonist reaches up but falls and succumbs to doubts, fears, and limitations. The negative climax occurs when the protagonist has an epiphany and encounters the greatest fear possible or loses something important, giving the protagonist the courage to take on another obstacle. This confrontation becomes the classic climax.
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how many bees are in a yellow jacket nest | Yellowjacket - wikipedia
Yellowjacket or Yellow jacket is the common name in North America for predatory social wasps of the genera Vespula and Dolichovespula. Members of these genera are known simply as "wasps '' in other English - speaking countries. Most of these are black and yellow like the eastern yellowjacket Vespula maculifrons and the aerial yellowjacket Dolichovespula arenaria; some are black and white like the bald - faced hornet, Dolichovespula maculata. Others may have the abdomen background color red instead of black. They can be identified by their distinctive markings, their occurrence only in colonies, and a characteristic, rapid, side - to - side flight pattern prior to landing. All females are capable of stinging. Yellowjackets are important predators of pest insects.
Yellowjackets are sometimes mistakenly called "bees '' (as in "meat bees ''), given that they are similar in size and sting, but yellowjackets are actually wasps. They may be confused with other wasps, such as hornets and paper wasps. Polistes dominula, a species of paper wasp, is very frequently misidentified as a yellowjacket. A typical yellowjacket worker is about 12 mm (0.5 in) long, with alternating bands on the abdomen; the queen is larger, about 19 mm (0.75 in) long (the different patterns on their abdomens help separate various species). Workers are sometimes confused with honey bees, especially when flying in and out of their nests. Yellowjackets, in contrast to honey bees, have yellow or white markings, are not covered with tan - brown dense hair on their bodies, do not carry pollen, and do not have the flattened hairy hind legs used to carry it.
These species have lance - like stingers with small barbs, and typically sting repeatedly, though occasionally a stinger becomes lodged and pulls free of the wasp 's body; the venom, like most bee and wasp venoms, is primarily only dangerous to humans who are allergic or are stung many times. All species have yellow or white on their faces. Their mouthparts are well - developed with strong mandibles for capturing and chewing insects, with probosces for sucking nectar, fruit, and other juices. Yellowjackets build nests in trees, shrubs, or in protected places such as inside man - made structures, or in soil cavities, tree stumps, mouse burrows, etc. They build them from wood fiber they chew into a paper - like pulp. Many other insects exhibit protective mimicry of aggressive, stinging yellowjackets; in addition to numerous bees and wasps (Müllerian mimicry), the list includes some flies, moths, and beetles (Batesian mimicry).
Yellowjackets ' closest relatives, the hornets, closely resemble them, but have larger heads, seen especially in the large distance from the eyes to the back of the head.
Yellowjackets are social hunters living in colonies containing workers, queens, and males (drones). Colonies are annual with only inseminated queens overwintering. Fertilized queens are found in protected places such as in hollow logs, in stumps, under bark, in leaf litter, in soil cavities, and in man - made structures. Queens emerge during the warm days of late spring or early summer, select a nest site, and build a small paper nest in which they lay eggs. After eggs hatch from the 30 to 50 brood cells, the queen feeds the young larvae for about 18 to 20 days. Larvae pupate, then emerge later as small, infertile females called workers. Workers in the colony take over caring for the larvae, feeding them with chewed up meat or fruit. By midsummer, the first adult workers emerge and assume the tasks of nest expansion, foraging for food, care of the queen and larvae, and colony defense.
From this time until her death in the autumn, the queen remains inside the nest, laying eggs. The colony then expands rapidly, reaching a maximum size of 4000 to 5000 workers and a nest of 10,000 to 15,000 cells in late summer. (This is true of most species in most areas; however, Vespula squamata, in the southern part of its range, may build much larger perennial colonies populated by scores of queens, tens of thousands of workers, and hundreds of thousands of cells.) At peak size, reproductive cells are built with new males and queens produced. Adult reproductives remain in the nest fed by the workers. New queens build up fat reserves to overwinter. Adult reproductives leave the parent colony to mate. After mating, males quickly die, while fertilized queens seek protected places to overwinter. Parent colony workers dwindle, usually leaving the nest to die, as does the foundress queen. Abandoned nests rapidly decompose and disintegrate during the winter. They can persist as long as they are kept dry, but are rarely used again. In the spring, the cycle is repeated; weather in the spring is the most important factor in colony establishment.
The diet of the adult yellowjacket consists primarily of items rich in sugars and carbohydrates, such as fruits, flower nectar, and tree sap. Larvae feed on proteins derived from insects, meats, and fish, which are collected by the adults, which chew and condition them before feeding them to the larvae. Many of the insects collected by the adults are considered pest species, making the yellowjacket beneficial to agriculture. Larvae, in return, secrete a sugar material to be eaten by the adults; this exchange is a form of trophallaxis. In late summer, foraging workers pursue other food sources from meats to ripe fruits, or scavenge human garbage, sodas, picnics, etc., as additional sugar is needed to foster the next generation 's queens.
Dolichovespula species such as the aerial yellowjacket, D. arenaria, and the bald - faced hornet, tend to create exposed aerial nests. This feature is shared with some true hornets, which has led to some naming confusion.
Vespula species, in contrast, build concealed nests, usually underground.
Yellowjacket nests usually last for only one season, dying off in winter. The nest is started by a single queen, called the "foundress ''. Typically, a nest can reach the size of a basketball by the end of a season. In parts of Australia, New Zealand, the Pacific Islands, and southwestern coastal areas of the United States, the winters are mild enough to allow nest overwintering. Nests that survive multiple seasons become massive and often possess multiple egg - laying queens.
The German yellowjacket (V. germanica) first appeared in Ohio in 1975, and has now become the dominant species over the eastern yellowjacket. It is bold and aggressive, and can sting repeatedly and painfully. It will mark aggressors and pursue them. It is often confused with Polistes dominula, an invasive species in the United States, due to their very similar pattern. The German yellowjacket builds its nests in cavities -- not necessarily underground -- with the peak worker population in temperate areas between 1000 and 3000 individuals between May and August. Each colony produces several thousand new reproductives after this point through November. The eastern yellowjacket builds its nests underground, also with the peak worker population between 1000 and 3000 individuals, similar to the German yellowjacket. Nests are built entirely of wood fiber and are completely enclosed except for a small entrance at the bottom. The color of the paper is highly dependent on the source of the wood fibers used. The nests contain multiple, horizontal tiers of combs within. Larvae hang within the combs.
In the southeastern United States, where southern yellowjacket (Vespula squamosa) nests may persist through the winter, colony sizes of this species may reach 100,000 adult wasps. The same kind of nest expansion has occurred in Hawaii with the invasive western yellowjacket (V. pensylvanica).
The yellowjacket 's most visible place in American popular culture is as a mascot, most famously with the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets, represented by the mascot Buzz. Other college and university examples include the American International College, Baldwin - Wallace University, Black Hills State University, Cedarville University, Defiance College, Graceland University, Howard Payne University, LeTourneau University, Montana State University Billings, Randolph - Macon College, University of Rochester, University of Wisconsin -- Superior, West Virginia State University, and Waynesburg University.
Though not specified by the team, the mascot of the Columbus Blue Jackets, named "Stinger, '' closely resembles a yellowjacket. In the years since its original yellow incarnation, the mascot 's color has been changed to a light green, seemingly combining the real insect 's yellow and the team 's blue.
Note that yellowjacket is often spelled as two words (yellow jacket) in popular culture and even in some dictionaries. The proper entomological spelling, according to the Entomological Society of America, is as a single word (yellowjacket).
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role of great britain in the civil war | United Kingdom and the American Civil war - wikipedia
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the British Empire remained officially neutral throughout the American Civil War (1861 -- 1865). It legally recognised the status of Confederate States of America but never recognised it as a nation and neither signed a treaty with it nor exchanged ambassadors. However, top British officials debated intervention in the first 18 months. The elite tended to support the Confederacy, but ordinary people tended to support the United States of America. Large - scale trade continued in both directions, with the Union shipping grain to Britain, and Britain sent manufactured items and munitions. Immigration continued into the US, with Britons volunteering for its army. British trade with the Confederacy fell over 90 % from the prewar period, with a small amount of cotton going to Britain and some munitions slipped in by numerous small blockade runners. They were operated and funded by British private interests, were legal under international law, caused no dispute between the US and the UK.
The Confederate strategy for securing independence was based largely on the hope of military intervention by Britain and France, which never happened, as it probably would have caused war with the US. A serious diplomatic dispute erupted over the "Trent Affair '' in late 1861 but was resolved peacefully after a few months. British intervention was likely only in co-operation with France, which had an imperialistic venture underway in Mexico. By early 1863, intervention was no longer seriously considered, as Britain turned its attention elsewhere, especially toward Russia and Greece.
A long - term issue was a British shipyard (John Laird and Sons) building two warships for the Confederacy, including the CSS Alabama, over vehement protests from the US. Known as the Alabama Claims, the controversy was resolved after the Civil War when the US was awarded $15.5 million in arbitration by an international tribunal for damages caused by the warships.
The fact that British private interests operated blockade runners was not a cause of serious tension. In the end, British involvement did not significantly affect the outcome of the war. The U.S. diplomatic mission headed by Minister Charles Francis Adams, Sr., proved much more successful than the Confederate missions, which were never officially recognized by Britain.
The Confederacy, such as President Jefferson Davis, believed from the beginning in "King Cotton '': British dependence on cotton for its large textile industry would lead to diplomatic recognition and mediation or military intervention. The Confederates had not sent out agents ahead of time to ascertain if the King Cotton policy would be effective. Instead, by popular demand, not government action, shipments of cotton to Europe were ended in spring 1861. When the Confederate diplomats arrived, they tried to convince British leaders that the US naval blockade was an illegal paper blockade. Historian Charles Hubbard writes:
Hubbard added that Davis 's policy was stubborn and coercive. The King Cotton strategy was resisted by the Europeans. Secretary of War Judah Benjamin and Secretary of the Treasury Christopher Memminger warned that cotton should be immediately exported to build up foreign credits.
The Union 's main goal in foreign affairs was to maintain friendly relations and large - scale trade with the world and to prevent any official recognition of the Confederacy by any country, especially Britain. Other concerns included preventing the Confederacy from buying foreign - made warships; gaining European support for policies against slavery; and attracting immigrant laborers, farmers and soldiers. There had been continuous improvement in Anglo - American relations throughout the 1850s. The issues of Oregon, Texas, and the Canada -- US border had all been resolved, and trade was brisk. Secretary of State William H. Seward, the primary architect of American foreign policy during the war, intended to maintain the policy principles that had served the country well since the American Revolution: "non-intervention by the United States in the affairs of other countries and resistance to foreign intervention in the affairs of the United States and other countries in this hemisphere. ''
Even before the war, British Prime Minister Viscount Palmerston urged a policy of neutrality. His international concerns were centred in Europe, where he had to watch both Napoleon III 's ambitions in Europe and Otto von Bismarck 's rise in Germany. During the Civil War, British reactions to American events were shaped by past British policies and their own national interests, both strategically and economically. In the Western Hemisphere, as relations with the United States improved, Britain had become cautious about confronting the US over issues in Central America. As a naval power, Britain had a long record of insisting that neutral nations abide by its blockades, a perspective that led from the earliest days of the war to de facto support for the Union blockade and frustration in the South.
Diplomatic observers were suspicious of British motives. The Russian Minister in Washington, Eduard de Stoeckl, noted, "The Cabinet of London is watching attentively the internal dissensions of the Union and awaits the result with an impatience which it has difficulty in disguising. '' '' De Stoeckl advised his government that Britain would recognize the Confederacy at its earliest opportunity. Cassius Clay, the United States Minister in Russia, stated, "I saw at a glance where the feeling of England was. They hoped for our ruin! They are jealous of our power. They care neither for the South nor the North. They hate both. ''
Lincoln appointed Charles Francis Adams, Sr., as minister to Britain. An important part of his mission was to make clear to the British that the war was strictly an internal insurrection and afforded the Confederacy no rights under international law. Any movement by Britain to recognizing the Confederacy officially would be considered an unfriendly act toward the US. Seward 's instructions to Adams included the suggestion that it should be made clear to Britain that a nation with widely - scattered possessions, as well as a homeland that included Scotland and Ireland, should be very wary of "set (ting) a dangerous precedent. ''
Lord Lyons was appointed as the British minister to the United States in April 1859. An Oxford graduate, he had two decades of diplomatic experience before being given the American post. Lyons, like many British leaders, had reservations about Seward and shared them freely in his correspondence, which was widely circulated within the British government. As early as January 7, 1861, well before the Lincoln administration had even assumed office, Lyons wrote to British Foreign Secretary Lord Russell about Seward:
I can not help fearing that he will be a dangerous foreign minister. His view of the relations between the United States and Britain had always been that they are a good material to make political capital of... I do not think Mr. Seward would contemplate actually going to war with us, but he would be well disposed to play the old game of seeking popularity here by displaying violence toward us.
Despite his distrust of Seward, throughout 1861, Lyons maintained a "calm and measured '' diplomacy that contributed to a peaceful resolution to the Trent crisis.
The Confederate States came into existence after seven of the fifteen slave states seceded because of the election of Republican President Lincoln, whose party committed to the containment of slavery geographically and the weakening of slaveowners ' political power. Slavery was the cornerstone of the South 's plantation economy, although it was repugnant to the moral sensibilities of most people in Britain, which had abolished slavery in its Empire in 1833. Until the Fall of 1862, the immediate end of slavery was not an issue in the war; in fact, some Union states (Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, Delaware, and what became West Virginia) allowed slavery. In 1861, Missouri had sought to extradite an escaped slave from Canada to face trial for a murder committed in his flight for which some in Britain falsely believed the punishment was to be burned alive.
Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation, announced in preliminary form in September 1862, made ending slavery an objective of the war and caused European intervention on the side of the South to be unpopular. However, some British leaders expected it would cause a large scale race war that might need foreign intervention. Pro-Southern leaders in Britain then spoke of mediation, which they understood to mean the independence of the Confederacy and the continuation of slavery.
Outright war between the United States and United Kingdom was a possibility in the fall of 1861, when a US naval officer, Captain Charles Wilkes, took control of a British mail ship and seized two Confederate diplomats. Confederate President Jefferson Davis had named James M. Mason and John Slidell as commissioners to represent Confederate interests abroad; Mason was en route to England and Slidell to France. They slipped out of Charleston, South Carolina, on a blockade runner at the beginning of October and went via the British Bahamas to Spanish Havana, where they took passage for England on the British mail steamer Trent.
USS San Jacinto had put in at a port in Cuba, looking for news of Confederate agents who were reported to be active in that vicinity. Wilkes received word of Mason and Slidell 's presence. It was generally then agreed that a nation at war had the right to stop and search a neutral merchant ship if it suspected that ship of carrying the enemy 's dispatches. Mason and Slidell, Wilkes reasoned, were in effect Confederate dispatches and so he had the right to remove them. On November 8, 1861, he steamed out into the Bahama Channel, fired twice across the bow of the Trent ', sent a boat 's crew aboard, seized the Confederate commissioners, and bore them off in triumph to the US, where they were held prisoner in Boston. Wilkes was hailed as a national hero.
The violation of British neutral rights triggered an uproar in Britain. Britain sent 11,000 troops to Canada, the British fleet was put on a war footing, with plans to capture New York City if war broke out, and a sharp note was dispatched to Washington to demand return of the prisoners and an apology. Lincoln, concerned about Britain entering the war, ignored anti-British sentiment and issued what the British interpreted as an apology, without apologizing, and ordered the prisoners to be released.
War was unlikely in any event, as the United States was providing Britain with over 40 % of its wheat ("corn '') imports during the war years, and suspension would have caused severe disruption to its food supply. Britain imported about 25 - 30 % of its grain, and poor crops in 1861 and 1862 in France made Britain even more dependent on shiploads from New York City. Furthermore, British banks and financial institutions in the City of London had financed many projects such as railways in the US. There were fears that war would result in enormous financial losses as investments were lost and loans defaulted on.
Britain 's shortage of cotton was partially made up by imports from India and Egypt by 1863. The Trent Affair led to the Lyons - Seward Treaty of 1862, an agreement to clamp down hard on the Atlantic slave trade by using the US Navy and the Royal Navy.
The possibility of recognizing the Confederacy came to the fore late in the summer of 1862. At that time, as far as any European could see, the war seemed to be a stalemate. The US attempt to capture the Confederate capital had failed, and in the east and west alike, the Confederates were on the offensive. Charles Francis Adams, Sr., warned Washington that the British government might very soon offer to mediate the difficulty between North and South, which would be a polite but effective way of intimating that in the opinion of Britain, the fight had gone on long enough and should be ended by giving the South what it wanted. Recognition, as Adams warned, risked all - out war with the United States. War would involve an invasion of Canada, a full - scale American attack on British shipping interests worldwide, an end to American grain shipments that were providing a large part of the British food supply, and an end to British sales of machinery and supplies to the US. The British leadership, however, thought that if the Union armies were decisively defeated, the US might soften its position and accept mediation.
Earl Russell, British Foreign Secretary, had given Mason no encouragement, but after news of the Second Battle of Bull Run reached London in early September, Palmerston agreed that in late September, there could be a cabinet meeting at which Palmerston and Russell would ask approval of the mediation proposal. Then, Russell and Palmerston decided not to bring the plan before the cabinet until they got further word about Lee 's invasion of the North. If the Northerners were beaten, the proposal would go through; if Lee failed, it might be well to wait a little longer before taking any action.
The British working - class population, most notably the British cotton workers who suffered the Lancashire Cotton Famine, remained consistently opposed to the Confederacy. A resolution of support was passed by the inhabitants of Manchester and sent to Lincoln. His letter of reply has become famous:
I know and deeply deplore the sufferings which the working people of Manchester and in all Europe are called to endure in this crisis. It has been often and studiously represented that the attempt to overthrow this Government which was built on the foundation of human rights, and to substitute for it one which should rest exclusively on the basis of slavery, was likely to obtain the favor of Europe.
Through the action of disloyal citizens, the working people of Europe have been subjected to a severe trial for the purpose of forcing their sanction to that attempt. Under the circumstances I can not but regard your decisive utterances on the question as an instance of sublime Christian heroism which has not been surpassed in any age or in any country. It is indeed an energetic and re-inspiring assurance of the inherent truth and of the ultimate and universal triumph of justice, humanity and freedom.
I hail this interchange of sentiments, therefore, as an augury that, whatever else may happen, whatever misfortune may befall your country or my own, the peace and friendship which now exists between the two nations will be, as it shall be my desire to make them, perpetual.
-- Abraham Lincoln, 19 January 1863
There is now a statue of Lincoln in Manchester, with an extract from his letter carved on the plinth.
Lincoln became a hero amongst the British working class with progressive views. His portrait, often alongside that of Garibaldi, adorned many parlour walls. One can still be seen in the boyhood home of David Lloyd George, now part of the Lloyd George Museum.
The decisive factor, in the fall of 1862 and increasingly thereafter was the Battle of Antietam and what grew out of it. Lee 's invasion was a failure at Antietam, and he barely escaped back to Virginia. It was now obvious that no final, conclusive Confederate triumph could be anticipated. The swift recession of the high Confederate tide was as visible in Britain as in America, and in the end, Palmerston and Russell dropped any notion of bringing a mediation - recognition program before the cabinet.
During the late spring and early summer of 1862, Lincoln had come to see that he must broaden the base of the war. The Union itself was not enough; the undying vitality and drive of Northern anti-slavery men must be brought into full, vigorous support of the war effort and so the United States chose to declare itself officially against slavery. The Lincoln administration believed that slavery was the basis of the Confederate economy and leadership class and that victory required its destruction. Lincoln had drafted a plan and waited for a battlefield victory to announce it. The Battle of Antietam gave Lincoln victory, and on September 22, he gave the Confederacy 100 days notice to return to the Union or else on January 1, 1863, all slaves held in areas in rebellion would be free. William Ewart Gladstone, the Chancellor of the Exchequer and a senior Liberal leader was friendly toward slavery; his family had grown wealthy through the ownership of slaves in the West Indies. He strongly spoke out for Confederate independence. When the Emancipation Proclamation was announced, he tried to make the counterargument that an independent Confederacy would do a better job of freeing the slaves than an invading northern army would. He warned that a race war was imminent and would justify British intervention. Emancipation also alarmed the British Foreign Secretary Lord John Russell, who expected a bloody slave uprising. The question then would be British intervention on humanitarian grounds. However, there was no slave uprising and no race war. The advice of the war minister against going to war with United States, and the tide of British public opinion, convinced the cabinet to take no action.
Once the war with the US began, the best hope for the survival of the Confederacy was military intervention by Britain and France. The US realized that as well and made it clear that recognition of the Confederacy meant war and the end of food shipments into Britain. The Confederates who had believed in "King Cotton '' (Britain had to support the Confederacy to obtain cotton for its industries) were proven wrong. Britain, in fact, had ample stores of cotton in 1861 and depended much more on grain from the US.
During its existence, the Confederate government sent repeated delegations to Europe; historians do not give them high marks for diplomatic skills. James M. Mason was sent to London as Confederate minister to Queen Victoria, and John Slidell was sent to Paris as minister to Napoleon III. Both were able to obtain private meetings with high British and French officials, but they failed to secure official recognition for the Confederacy. Britain and the US were at sword 's point during the Trent Affair in late 1861. Mason and Slidell had been illegally seized from a British ship by an American warship. Queen Victoria 's husband, Prince Albert, helped calm the situation, and Lincoln released Mason and Slidell and so the episode was no help to the Confederacy.
Throughout the early years of the war, British foreign secretary Lord Russell, Napoleon III, and, to a lesser extent, British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, explored the risks and advantages of recognition of the Confederacy or at least offering a mediation. Recognition meant certain war with the US, loss of American grain, loss of exports, loss of investments in American securities, potential invasion of Canada and other North American colonies, higher taxes, and a threat to the British merchant marine with little to gain in return. Many party leaders and the general public wanted no war with such high costs and meager benefits. Recognition was considered following the Second Battle of Manassas, when the British government was preparing to mediate in the conflict, but the Union victory at the Battle of Antietam and Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation, combined with internal opposition, caused the government to back away.
In 1863, the Confederacy expelled all foreign consuls (all of them British or French diplomats) for advising their subjects to refuse to serve in combat against the US.
Throughout the war, all European powers adopted a policy of neutrality, meeting informally with Confederate diplomats but withholding diplomatic recognition. None ever sent an ambassador or official delegation to Richmond. However, they applied principles of international law and recognized both sides sides as belligerents. Canada allowed both Confederate and Union agents to work openly within its borders.
Northerners were outraged at British tolerance of non-neutral acts, especially the building of warships. The United States demanded vast reparations for the damages caused by British - built commerce raiders, especially CSS Alabama, which Palmerston bluntly refused to pay.
The dispute continued for years after the war. After Palmerston 's death, Prime Minister Gladstone agreed to include the US war claims in treaty discussions on other pending issues, such as fishing rights and border disputes. In 1872, pursuant to the resultant Treaty of Washington, an international arbitration board awarded $15,500,000 to the US, and the British apologized for the destruction caused by the British - built Confederate ships but admitted no guilt.
The Union victory emboldened the forces in Britain that demanded more democracy and public input into the political system. The resulting Reform Act 1867 enfranchised the urban male working class in England and Wales and weakened the upper - class landed gentry, who identified more with the Southern planters. Influential commentators included Walter Bagehot, Thomas Carlyle, John Stuart Mill, and Anthony Trollope.
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what does a weird e mean in math | List of mathematical symbols - wikipedia
This is a list of symbols found in all branches of mathematics to express a formula or to represent a constant.
A mathematical concept is independent of the symbol chosen to represent it. For many of the symbols below, the symbol is usually synonymous with the corresponding concept (ultimately an arbitrary choice made as a result of the cumulative history of mathematics), but in some situations, a different convention may be used. For example, depending on context, the triple bar "≡ '' may represent congruence or a definition. However, in mathematical logic, numerical equality is sometimes represented by "≡ '' instead of "= '', with the latter representing equality of well - formed formulas. In short, convention dictates the meaning.
Each symbol is shown both in HTML, whose display depends on the browser 's access to an appropriate font installed on the particular device, and typeset as an image using TeX.
This list is organized by symbol type and is intended to facilitate finding an unfamiliar symbol by its visual appearance. For a related list organized by mathematical topic, see List of mathematical symbols by subject. That list also includes LaTeX and HTML markup, and Unicode code points for each symbol (note that this article does n't have the latter two, but they could certainly be added).
There is a Wikibooks guide for using maths in LaTeX, and a comprehensive LaTeX symbol list. It is also possible to check to see if a Unicode code point is available as a LaTeX command, or vice versa. Also note that where there is no LaTeX command natively available for a particular symbol (although there may be options that require adding packages), the symbol could be added via other options, such as setting the document up to support Unicode, and entering the character in a variety of ways (e.g. copying and pasting, keyboard shortcuts, the \ unicode (< insertcodepoint >) command) as well as other options and extensive additional information.
The contour integral can also frequently be found with a subscript capital letter C, ∮, denoting that a closed loop integral is, in fact, around a contour C, or sometimes dually appropriately, a circle C. In representations of Gauss 's Law, a subscript capital S, ∮, is used to denote that the integration is over a closed surface.
then
(. 5 7) = − 5.5 ⋅ − 4.5 ⋅ − 3.5 ⋅ − 2.5 ⋅ − 1.5 ⋅ −. 5 ⋅. 5 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 7 = 33 2048 (\ displaystyle (\ begin (pmatrix). 5 \ \ 7 \ end (pmatrix)) = (\ frac (- 5.5 \ cdot - 4.5 \ cdot - 3.5 \ cdot - 2.5 \ cdot - 1.5 \ cdot -. 5 \ cdot. 5) (1 \ cdot 2 \ cdot 3 \ cdot 4 \ cdot 5 \ cdot 6 \ cdot 7)) = (\ frac (33) (2048)) \, \!)
(when u is positive integer) means reverse or rising binomial coefficient.
Then (2) = (..., − 8, − 3, 2, 7,...).
(Note that the notation (a, b) is ambiguous: it could be an ordered pair or an open interval. Set theorists and computer scientists often use angle brackets ⟨ ⟩ instead of parentheses.)
(a, b, c) is an ordered triple (or 3 - tuple).
() is the empty tuple (or 0 - tuple).
(Note that the notation (a, b) is ambiguous: it could be an ordered pair or an open interval. The notation) a, b (can be used instead.)
(0, + ∞) equals the set of positive real numbers.
we can define the structure functions S (τ (\ displaystyle \ tau)):
Note that the notation ⟨ u, v ⟩ may be ambiguous: it could mean the inner product or the linear span. The span of S may also be written as Sp (S).
(The notation (a, b) is often used as well.)
⟨ a, b, c ⟩ (\ displaystyle \ langle a, b, c \ rangle) is an ordered triple (or 3 - tuple).
⟨ ⟩ (\ displaystyle \ langle \ rangle) is the empty tuple (or 0 - tuple).
\ smashtimes requires \ usepackage (unicode - math) and \ setmathfont (XITS Math) or another Open Type Math Font.
⇒ ⇐ (\ displaystyle \ Rightarrow \ Leftarrow) \ Rightarrow \ Leftarrow ⊥ (\ displaystyle \ bot) \ bot
↮ (\ displaystyle \ nleftrightarrow) \ nleftrightarrow
\ textreferencemark Contradiction!
Includes upside - down letters.
Also called diacritics.
denoted by P (S).
P ((0, 1, 2)) = (∅, (0), (1), (2), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 2), (0, 1, 2)).
Z or Z means (1, 2, 3,...). Z means (0, 1, 2, 3,...). Z is used by some authors to mean (0, 1, 2, 3,...) and others to mean (... - 2, - 1, 1, 2, 3,...).
In mathematics written in Persian or Arabic, some symbols may be reversed to make right - to - left writing and reading easier.
Some Unicode charts of mathematical operators and symbols:
Some Unicode cross-references:
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what was the score of the rose bowl today | 2018 Rose Bowl - wikipedia
Offensive: Sony Michel, RB
The 2018 Rose Bowl was a college football bowl game between the Oklahoma Sooners and the Georgia Bulldogs, played on January 1, 2018 at the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena, California. The 104th Rose Bowl Game was a semifinal for the College Football Playoff (CFP), matching two of the top four teams selected by the system 's selection committee. Georgia and Oklahoma competed for a spot at the 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship game, to be played on January 8, 2018 at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia. The Georgia Bulldogs won the game with a 27 - yard run by Sony Michel, shortly after Lorenzo Carter blocked Oklahoma Sooners ' field goal attempt in the second overtime. The game lasted four hours and five minutes. With 26.8 million viewers on ESPN, the game ranked as the fifth most - viewed cable program of all time.
The game was one of the 2017 -- 18 bowl games that concluded the 2017 FBS football season. It was televised on ESPN and ESPN Deportes, and broadcast on ESPN Radio and XM Satellite Radio, with the kickoff at 5 p.m. ET (2 p.m. local time). The Pasadena Tournament of Roses Association organized the game. Sponsored by the Northwestern Mutual financial services organization, the game was officially known as the College Football Playoff Semifinal at the Rose Bowl Game presented by Northwestern Mutual.
In the 2018 Rose Bowl, the # 2 - ranked Oklahoma Sooners, champions of the Big 12 Conference, faced the # 3 - ranked Georgia Bulldogs, champions of the Southeastern Conference. This was the first meeting between the University of Georgia and the University of Oklahoma football teams.
Traditionally, the Rose Bowl pits the winners of the Big Ten Conference and Pac - 12 Conference. However, any teams may be selected every three years, when the Rose Bowl is a CFP semifinal. The Big 12 and SEC champions traditionally meet in the Sugar Bowl. The 2018 Sugar Bowl was used as the other semifinal this year, allowing any team to be selected.
The matchups for the semifinals are geographically selected to ensure the top two teams do not play in road environments. More than one team from the same conference may participate in the game, and avoiding rematches is not a selection factor.
Georgia won their only previous Rose Bowl appearance when their 1942 team, which claims a national championship, beat the Pacific Coast Conference (predecessor to the Pac - 12) champion UCLA 9 -- 0 in 1943, a matchup which occurred prior to the Big Nine - PCC agreement. Oklahoma won their only previous Rose Bowl appearance when their 2002 team beat the then Pac - 10 champion Washington State 34 -- 14 in 2003, a matchup which occurred since Big Ten champion Ohio State was selected for the Fiesta Bowl, which was being used as that year 's BCS National Championship Game, and Oklahoma was selected to replace them.
Georgia opened the 2017 season as the No. 15 team in both the AP and Coaches Polls. In the season opener, the Georgia Bulldogs faced the Appalachian State Mountaineers. During the first quarter, starting quarterback Jacob Eason was injured in an out - of - bounds hit that strained his knee. Freshman quarterback Jake Fromm replaced Eason. Fromm started as quarterback the rest of the season.
Georgia traveled to its first away and out - of - conference game against the No. 24 Notre Dame Fighting Irish on September 9, 2017. The score was back - and - forth the whole game, until Rodrigo Blankenship scored a field goal with 3: 34 to go in the fourth quarter, giving Georgia a 20 -- 19 lead. On 1st - and - 10, Georgia linebacker Davin Bellamy sacked quarterback Brandon Wimbush, and forced a fumble, which Georgia 's Lorenzo Carter recovered. The Bulldogs held the field, winning the game. The Bulldogs returned home for the next two weeks, beating the Samford Bulldogs 42 -- 14 and the No. 17 Mississippi State Bulldogs 31 -- 3.
On September 30, 2017, No. 7 Georgia traveled to Knoxville to play longtime SEC East rival the Tennessee Volunteers after losing to them at home in 2016. The Bulldogs defeated the Volunteers in a 41 -- 0 shutout, which was Tennessee 's worst home loss since 1905. The following week, Georgia returned to Tennessee to play the Vanderbilt Commodores, winning 45 -- 14. Undefeated No. 4 Georgia faced the Missouri Tigers back home in Athens, winning 53 -- 28. During that game, Georgia gained 696 total yards, the second - highest in school history. When Georgia faced their biggest rival, the Florida Gators, in the annual neutral - location game, Georgia remained undefeated and beat Florida 42 -- 7, the biggest win in the rivalry since 1982. After Florida 's loss to Georgia, they fired head coach Jim McElwain. The following week, Georgia beat the South Carolina Gamecocks 24 -- 10, clinching the SEC East and their spot in the SEC Championship.
On November 11, 2017, Georgia lost to the Auburn Tigers 17 -- 40 in what would be their only loss of the regular season. Georgia wrapped up the regular season by beating the Kentucky Wildcats 42 -- 13 and the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets 38 -- 7. On December 2, 2017, No. 6 Georgia joined No. 4 Auburn in the SEC Championship, the only team who beat them during the regular season. In the rematch, Georgia took the lead in the second quarter when Georgia linebacker Davin Bellamy stripped the ball from Auburn quarterback Jarrett Stidham, recovered by Roquan Smith and leading to Georgia 's drive that tied the score. Georgia took the SEC title for the first time since 2005, almost certainly securing their spot in the playoffs.
In the 2017 preseason polls, Oklahoma was ranked No. 7 in the AP Poll and No. 8 in the Coaches Poll. Oklahoma opened the season against the University of Texas at El Paso Miners, winning 56 -- 7 and showcasing a strong offense. Next, No. 6 Oklahoma traveled to the No. 2 Ohio State Buckeyes and won 31 -- 16. In Oklahoma 's first meeting with the Tulane Green Wave, No. 2 Oklahoma won 56 -- 14. They went on to play the Baylor Bears, eking out an expected blowout but still winning 44 -- 34.
In Oklahoma 's big upset of the season, they lost to the Iowa State Cyclones 31 -- 38. They went on to beat the Texas Longhorns 29 -- 24 after Texas recovered from a 20 - point deficit. The Sooners also began the next game against the Kansas State Wildcats with a 14 - point deficit in the first half, but in a second - half comeback, Rodney Anderson scored a 22 - yard touchdown with seven seconds left in the game, winning 42 -- 35. Against the Texas Tech Red Raiders, Mayfield led the team to a 49 -- 27 victory.
Oklahoma met the Oklahoma State Cowboys for their annual rivalry game, and quarterback Baker Mayfield completed 598 yards, winning 62 -- 52. The No. 5 Sooners beat the No. 8 Texas Christian University Horned Frogs 38 -- 20, taking 1st place in the Big 12. In the next away game against the Kansas Jayhawks, Mayfield accounted for his 127th touchdown, breaking Landry Jones 's record as completing the most touchdowns in school history, and they won the game 41 -- 3. During the game, Mayfield lost his captaincy for the following game against the West Virginia Mountaineers when he screamed profanity and grabbed his crotch, which he directed at the Kansas sideline. Mayfield 's replacement, Kyler Murray, started the game, but Mayfield returned and won 59 -- 31.
On December 2, 2017, No. 2 Oklahoma joined No. 10 TCU in a rematch in the Big 12 Championship, winning 41 -- 17. The game secured Oklahoma 's spot in the College Football Playoff semifinals.
Oklahoma scored on five of six possessions in the first half, and they entered halftime leading Georgia by 14 points.
The 54 -- 48 score made this the highest - scoring Rose Bowl, edging out 2017 's University of Southern California 52 -- 49 win over Penn State.
After winning the coin toss, Oklahoma elected to defer and kick off. Georgia was forced to punt the ball on the first drive of the game, giving Oklahoma its first possession. Oklahoma 's quarterback Baker Mayfield completed three passes, the third to Marquise Brown in the end zone, scoring the first touchdown of the day.
Sony Michel rushed for a 75 - yard touchdown.
At the end of the second quarter, the Sooners employed a double reverse, and Baker Mayfield caught his first pass in college to score a 2 - yard touchdown.
Georgia received its possession with only 6 seconds on the clock, and Rodrigo Blankenship scored a 55 - yard field goal. Blankenship set a Rose Bowl record for longest field goal kick.
The Sooners led 31 - 17 at halftime but the Bulldogs scored fourteen unanswered points in the third quarter.
The game went back and forth in the last quarter. Baker Mayfield threw the first interception of the game, as Dominick Sanders intercepted his pass. Jake Fromm completed a 4 - yard pass to Javon Wims, taking the lead for the first time in the game, at 38 -- 31.
Oklahoma tied the game back up, with Dimitri Flowers scoring a touchdown with 8: 47 left in the game. Sony Michel fumbled in the next possession, and Oklahoma 's Steven Parker recovered the fumble and returned it 46 yards to score a touchdown, putting the Sooners in the lead again.
With fifty - five seconds left in the game, Nick Chubb took a direct snap and rushed for two yards for a game - tying touchdown. Oklahoma did not score on its last drive of regulation game, forcing overtime.
The game went into overtime and was the first Rose Bowl in history to do so. The Sooners won the overtime coin toss and elected to play defense first. The teams traded field goals in the first overtime, sending the game into a second overtime.
Georgia 's Lorenzo Carter blocked Oklahoma kicker Austin Seibert 's 27 - yard field goal attempt, meaning Georgia would win the game with any points during its possession. When Georgia had the ball, Sony Michel took a direct snap on a second down and rushed for a 27 - yard touchdown, winning the game for the Bulldogs.
In this game, a number of Rose Bowl records were set:
Pre-game activities were held at the Rose Bowl parking lots and at Brookside Golf Course. The 2017 Rose Bowl Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony was held at the Rose Bowl Stadium Lot K on December 30, 2017 from 12: 00 to 1: 30 PM. The 2017 Class members were Mack Brown (Texas), Cade McNown (UCLA), Charles Woodson (Michigan) and Dr. Charles West (Washington & Jefferson), represented by his daughter.
The 2018 Rose Parade started at 8: 00 a.m. Pacific Time and featured floral floats, marching bands, and equestrian units marching down the 5.5 mile route of the parade down Colorado Boulevard.
The 2018 Rose Parade 's theme was "Making A Difference, '' and actor Gary Sinise was its Grand Marshal.
# denotes national championship game / denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
Pound sign (#) denotes national championship game. Forward slash (/) denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
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who does the voiceover for the arby's commercials | Ving Rhames - Wikipedia
Irving Rameses "Ving '' Rhames (born May 12, 1959) is an American actor known for his roles as Luther Stickell in the Mission: Impossible film series, as well as Pulp Fiction, Don King: Only in America, Rosewood, Dawn of the Dead, and Bringing Out the Dead.
Rhames was born in Harlem, New York City, New York, the son of Reather, a homemaker, and Ernest Rhames, an auto mechanic. His parents were raised as sharecroppers in South Carolina. He was named after the late NBC journalist, Irving R. Levine.
He entered New York 's High School of Performing Arts, where he discovered his love of acting. After high school, he studied drama at SUNY Purchase, where fellow acting student Stanley Tucci gave him his nickname "Ving ''. Rhames later transferred to the Juilliard School 's Drama Division (Group 12: 1979 -- 1983) where he graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in 1983.
Rhames first appeared on Broadway in the play The Boys of Winter in 1984. He started out in film in Wes Craven 's The People Under the Stairs (1991) as Leroy; he watched over Kevin Kline as Secret Service agent Duane Stevensen in Dave (1993); and he played Marsellus Wallace in Pulp Fiction (1994).
Rhames played Dr. Peter Benton 's brother - in - law on the TV medical drama ER, a recurring role he filled for three seasons. He played ace computer hacker Luther Stickell opposite Tom Cruise in Brian De Palma 's Mission: Impossible (1996). In 1997 Rhames portrayed the character of Nathan ' Diamond Dog ' Jones in the popular film Con Air. and Muki in the Ice Cube film Dangerous Ground.
Rhames won a Golden Globe in 1998 for Best Actor -- Miniseries or Television Film in HBO 's Don King: Only in America. At the ceremony Rhames gave his award to fellow nominee Jack Lemmon, saying, "I feel that being an artist is about giving, and I 'd like to give this to you. '' Lemmon was clearly touched by the gesture as was the celebrity audience who gave Lemmon a standing ovation. Lemmon, who tried unsuccessfully to give the award back to Rhames, said it was "one of the nicest, sweetest moments I 've ever known in my life. '' The Hollywood Foreign Press Association announced later that they would have a duplicate award prepared for Rhames. That moment was # 98 on E! 's 101 Awesome Moments in Entertainment. The New York Times lauded Rhames for the act, writing that in doing so he "demonstrated his capacity for abundant generosity. ''
Rhames appeared in Striptease (1996) as the wisecracking bodyguard Shad, Bringing Out the Dead (1999), then reprised his Luther Stickell role for Mission: Impossible 2 (2000). He played Johnnie Cochran in American Tragedy (2000), the ex-con boyfriend of Jodie 's mother in the John Singleton film Baby Boy, portrayed a gay drag queen in the television movie Holiday Heart, contributed his voice for the character of Cobra Bubbles in Lilo & Stitch (2002) and the subsequent TV series, and played a stoic cop fighting zombie hordes in Dawn of the Dead (2004) and Day of the Dead (2008) remakes. Rhames has also appeared in a series of television commercials for RadioShack, usually performing with Vanessa L. Williams.
In March 2005, Rhames played the lead role on a new Kojak series, on the USA Network cable channel (and on ITV4 in the UK). The bald head, lollipops, and "Who loves ya, baby? '' catchphrase remained intact, but little else remained from the Savalas original.
Rhames voiced the part of Tobias Jones in the computer game Driver 3.
Rhames reprised his role in Mission: Impossible III (2006), had a cameo appearance in Mission: Impossible -- Ghost Protocol (2011), and played a major role in the fifth film, Mission: Impossible -- Rogue Nation (2015). He is the only actor besides Tom Cruise to appear in all five Mission: Impossible films. It was announced that he would have a role in the Aquaman - based show Mercy Reef, however due to the integration of The WB and UPN for the new network, CW, Mercy Reef was not picked up. Rhames played a homosexual, possibly also homicidal, firefighter who comes out of the closet in I Now Pronounce You Chuck and Larry. He narrates the BET television series American Gangster.
In the 2008 film Saving God, he played an ex-con who is released from prison a changed man looking to take over his father 's former church congregation in a deteriorating neighborhood. Rhames stars in Phantom Punch, a biopic of boxer Sonny Liston released directly to DVD as well as The Tournament portraying a fighter out to win a no - rules tournament.
Rhames makes an appearance in Ludacris 's song "Southern Gangstas '' on his album Theater of the Mind. Rappers Playaz Circle and Rick Ross are also featured on the track.
In 2010, he filed a lawsuit against the producer of a film titled Red Canvas, claiming that he had only been paid $175,000 of a $200,000 contract.
He filmed the movie Submission with Ernie Reyes, Jr. and UFC lightweight contender Gray Maynard and Randy Couture.
In 2015, he filmed a series of commercials for The ADT Corporation.
Rhames is one of the narrators for UFC.
Rhames introduced the New England Patriots and the Atlanta Falcons in the 2017 Super Bowl LI (51).
Rhames 's deep voice is the center of many recent (2015 - present) Arby 's commercials, with the catchline ' Arby 's, we have the meats! '
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does the baby live in the quiet place | A Quiet Place (film) - wikipedia
A Quiet Place is a 2018 American horror film directed by John Krasinski, who stars with Emily Blunt, his real - life spouse. The film is produced by Michael Bay 's company, Platinum Dunes, which is also run by Andrew Form and Bradley Fuller. Scott Beck and Bryan Woods began working on the story in 2014, and Paramount Pictures bought their spec script in 2017. Krasinski then joined as a director and wrote a new draft of the script. Principal photography took place later in the year in upstate New York. In A Quiet Place, a family must live life in silence while hiding from creatures which hunt by sound.
A Quiet Place premiered at South by Southwest on March 9, 2018, and was released in the United States on April 6, 2018, by Paramount Pictures. It became a major box office hit, grossing $326 million worldwide, and received acclaim from critics, who called it a "smart, wickedly frightening good time ''. A sequel is currently in development.
Over three months in 2020, most of Earth 's human population has been wiped out by sightless creatures with hypersensitive hearing and a seemingly impenetrable armored shell that attack anything that makes noise. The Abbott family -- husband Lee, wife Evelyn, congenitally deaf daughter Regan, and sons Marcus and Beau -- silently scavenge for supplies in a deserted town. While out in the open, the family communicates with American Sign Language. Four - year - old Beau is drawn to a battery - operated space shuttle toy, but his father takes it away. Regan returns the toy to Beau, who unbeknownst to her has also taken the batteries his father removed. Beau activates the shuttle when the family is walking home through the woods, near a bridge. Its noise makes him an instant target for a nearby creature, and he is swiftly killed.
A year later, Regan still struggles with guilt over her brother 's death, Evelyn is in the final stages of pregnancy, and Lee is fruitlessly trying to make radio contact with the outside world. Lee attempts to upgrade Regan 's cochlear implant to restore her hearing, but the device fails. Later, Lee takes Marcus to a nearby river to teach him to fish while Regan visits Beau 's grave. Lee explains to Marcus that they will always be safe from the creatures so long as louder sounds mask their audible movements. Alone at the house, Evelyn goes into labor earlier than expected. While making her way to their specially modified soundproof basement, she steps on a large nail. In pain, she accidentally drops a glass picture frame and alerts a nearby creature. Evelyn flips a switch that changes the exterior house lights to red as a danger signal to the others, and struggles to remain silent during her contractions.
Arriving at the farm and seeing the lights, Lee instructs Marcus to set off fireworks as a diversion. He finds Evelyn hiding in the bathroom with their newborn son. The baby starts crying, attracting a creature, and they narrowly avoid another attack on the way to the basement. Lee leaves to find the other children, after promising Evelyn he will protect them. Evelyn falls asleep but wakes to discover that the basement is flooded with water from a broken pipe and that a creature is stalking her.
Regan hurries back to the farm. She and Marcus take refuge atop a grain silo, lighting a fire to alert their father to their whereabouts. However, they run out of lighter fluid and the fire dies down, causing Lee to assume that they are n't there. A hatch door gives way and Marcus falls into the silo. He sinks into the corn and nearly suffocates, but Regan jumps in and saves him. They avoid further danger by clinging to the fallen silo door and survive a subsequent creature attack by hiding under it. Regan 's repaired cochlear implant reacts to the proximity of the creature by emitting a piercingly loud high - frequency sound that drives the creature away. The children escape from the silo and reunite with Lee.
The creature returns and Lee attacks it with a Pulaski, while Marcus and Regan hide in a pickup truck. Lee is wounded and Marcus shouts, attracting the creature to the truck. Lee uses sign language to tell Regan and Marcus that he loves them before sacrificing himself by yelling to draw the creature away from his children. Regan and Marcus roll the truck down a hill to escape and reunite with Evelyn and the baby at the farmhouse.
Regan, who was not allowed in the basement previously, sees her father 's notes on the creatures and on his experimentation with several different implants. When the creature returns to invade the basement, Regan places the boosted implant on a nearby microphone, magnifying the feedback to ward off the creature. Painfully disoriented, the creature exposes the flesh beneath its armored head, and Evelyn shoots the creature in the head with a shotgun, destroying its head and killing it. The family views a CCTV monitor, showing two creatures attracted by the noise of the shotgun blast approaching the house. With their newly acquired knowledge of the creatures ' weakness, the members of the family arm themselves and prepare to fight back.
A Quiet Place is a production of Sunday Night and Platinum Dunes; it was produced on a budget of $17 million. Krasinski wrote the screenplay with story co-writers Scott Beck and Bryan Woods. Beck and Woods grew up together in the US state of Iowa, and had watched numerous silent films in college. By 2013, they began working on the story that would lead to the film. They used their experience growing up close to farmland as the basis, including a grain silo setting as a place considered dangerous in their upbringing. They initiated their approach with a 15 - page proof of concept. Initially, the writers had considered developing the film into a Cloverfield installment, but after pitching their ideas to the studio collectively, all of those involved decided to keep the film its own entity.
In January 2016, Beck and Woods began writing A Quiet Place in earnest. Krasinski read their spec script the following July. The concept of parents protecting their children appealed to him, especially as his second child with actress Emily Blunt had just been born. Blunt encouraged him to direct the film. By March 2017, Paramount had bought Beck and Woods 's spec script. The studio hired Krasinski to rewrite the script and direct the film, which was his third directorial credit and his first for a major studio. Krasinski cited cinematic influences including Alien (1979), No Country for Old Men (2007), and In the Bedroom (2001) when writing a new draft. Initially, Blunt did not want to be cast in the film but after reading it on the plane, she immediately told her husband "I need to do it. '' He agreed, and they were both cast in the starring roles.
Production took place from May to November 2017 in Dutchess and Ulster counties in upstate New York. Filmmakers spent their budget locally, including a purchase of 20 tons of corn, which they hired local farmers to grow. Some filming took place on a soundstage in the town of Pawling in Dutchess County, as well as on - location in the county 's city of Beacon. Filming also took place on the Wallkill Valley Rail Trail in New Paltz of Ulster County, using the Springtown Truss Bridge. Outside Dutchess and Ulster counties, filming took place on Main Street in Little Falls in Herkimer County, New York.
During filming, the crew avoided making noise so diegetic synchronized sounds (e.g., the sound of rolling dice on a game board) could be recorded; the sounds were amplified in post-production. A traditional musical score was also added, which Krasinski justified in wanting audiences to remain familiar with watching a mainstream film, and not feel like part of a "silence experiment ''.
Supervising sound editors Erik Aadahl and Ethan Van der Ryn worked on A Quiet Place. For scenes from the perspective of the deaf daughter, sound was removed to put greater focus on the visual. They also advised on organizing shots to reflect the creatures ' perspective, like showing them notice a sound, then showing what was causing the sound. Composer Marco Beltrami provided the sound editors music to work with in a way that would not interfere with the sound design throughout the film.
In the film, creatures are blind and communicate through clicking sounds. Aadahl and Van der Ryn said they were inspired by animal echolocation, such as that employed by bats. The sound of feedback, normally avoided by sound editors, was woven into the story at a loudness level that would not bother audiences too much.
Since the characters communicate in American Sign Language to avoid making sound, filmmakers hired deaf mentor Douglas Ridloff to teach ASL to the actors and to be available to make corrections. The filmmakers also hired an ASL interpreter for deaf actress Simmonds, so that spoken and signed language could be interpreted back and forth on set. Simmonds, who grew up with ASL, helped teach her fellow actors to sign. She said of the need to practice ASL, "In the movie, we 've been signing together for years and years. So it should look fluent. '' She observed that the way the others used their sign language reflected their characters ' motivations; the father had short and brief signs that showed his survival mentality, while the mother had more expressive signs as part of her wanting her children to experience more than survival. Krasinski said Simmonds 's character was "a little bit of the warrior princess, the black sheep in the family '', and that she used "signing that 's very defiant, it 's very teenage defiant ''.
Simmonds said that for a scene in which her character fights with her father in sign language, she suggested for the daughter to rebel rather than cower as in the script. She also said that at the end of the film, the script originally had the father sign to his daughter "I love you '', but she suggested for him to follow with "I 've always loved you '' to make up for their arguing earlier in the film.
The producers Andrew Form and Bradley Fuller said they initially planned not to provide on - screen subtitles for sign - language dialogue with "context clues '', but realized that for the scene in which the deaf daughter and her hearing father argue about the modified hearing aid, subtitles were necessary. The producers subsequently added subtitles for all sign - language dialogue in the film. Producer Brad Fuller said, "And I think once you put one subtitle in, you subtitle the whole movie. You do n't take liberties like, ' Oh they probably know what I love you is, but we do n't subtitle it. ' It 's just gon na live everywhere and that 's the world we live by. ''
Production designer Jeffrey Beecroft headed the creature design, and special effects supervisor Scott Farrar created the creatures. The director wanted the creatures to look like they had evolved to no longer need eyes, and to be "somewhat humanoid '' in nature. Farrar said the initial creature design showed them with rhinoceros - like horns out of their faces, later redesigned. Vanity Fair reported, "The team immediately set about pulling references; prehistoric fish, black snakes, and bats, particularly their movement patterns. Inspiration was also drawn from bog people: cadavers that have been mummified in peat, turning the skin black and giving it a sagging, leathery look. ''
Paramount Pictures released the first trailer for A Quiet Place in November 2017. It aired a 30 - second commercial for the film during the US football playoff Super Bowl LII on February 4, 2018. Of the seven trailers that aired during the playoff, A Quiet Place and Red Sparrow were shown during the pregame and had the lowest views and social conversations. A Quiet Place had 149,000 views on YouTube, 275,000 videos on Facebook, and 2,900 social conversations. On February 12, 2018, Krasinski appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show to present the full trailer for A Quiet Place.
A Quiet Place premiered at the South by Southwest Film Festival as the opening - night film on March 9, 2018. It was selected from 2,458 submissions, and earned "raves '' from critics, according to IndieWire. Following its premiere, the film experienced social media growth to under 52 million views across multiple platforms, outpacing Get Out (2017), which had 46.9 million views.
The Tracking Board reported on March 14, "The stellar reviews out of SXSW, coupled with the fact that there is n't anything like it in the marketplace, should help it stand out among its bigger - budget competition. '' Deadline Hollywood said on March 15 that the film was projected to gross around $20 million in its opening weekend. Variety reported on March 27 that the film "is tracking to open between '' $16 million and $30 million, which reached a basement of low - $20 million by the week of its release.
BoxOffice initially estimated on February 9, 2018 that A Quiet Place would gross $17 million in its opening weekend, and that it would gross a total of $60 million in the United States. By March 30, it increased its estimate to an opening weekend gross of $27.5 million and a US total gross of $85 million. The magazine said the film 's trailer was well - received online and that it appeared frequently in previews for Star Wars: The Last Jedi. BoxOffice wrote, "The horror genre has also shown a knack for over-performing against expectations at the box office in recent years, setting this release up for potential success. '' It added that A Quiet Place would have to compete against another horror film, Truth or Dare, which would be released the following weekend. The magazine 's staff drew "very favorable '' comparisons between A Quiet Place and the 2016 films 10 Cloverfield Lane and Do n't Breathe.
A Quiet Place was first commercially released in theaters in the first week of April 2018 in multiple territories, including North America. As of June 17, 2018, A Quiet Place has grossed $186.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $139.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $326.1 million.
Paramount Pictures released the film in 3,508 theaters in the United States and Canada on April 6, 2018, alongside Blockers, Chappaquiddick, and The Miracle Season. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 81 % overall positive score and a 63 % "definite recommend ''. The film made $19 million on its first day (including $4.3 million from Thursday night previews at 2,750 theaters), increasing weekend projections to $47 million. Unlike most horror films, which are front - loaded on Friday and suffer drops the rest of the weekend, A Quiet Place made $19.1 million on Saturday. It went on to debut to $50.2 million, topping the box office and marking the biggest opening for a Paramount film since Star Trek Beyond in July 2016. To that point, it was second biggest domestic debut of 2018, behind Black Panther.
The film made $32.9 million in its second weekend, dropping 34 % (better than the 50 + % that horror films normally see) and finishing second at the box office, behind newcomer Rampage ($35.7 million). The hold represented the second - best - ever second weekend for a scary movie behind It. The film regained the top spot the following week, grossing $20.9 million (a 36 % drop), but dropped back down to second place the following weekend behind newcomer Avengers: Infinity War with $10.7 million.
Through its first two weeks of international release, the film had made $51.7 million, with its top markets being the United Kingdom ($9.2 million), Mexico ($5.1 million), Australia ($4.6 million), Brazil ($3.9 million), Indonesia ($3.4 million) and Taiwan ($1.9 million). It also debuted to $2.2 million in Russia, the biggest - ever opening for a Paramount horror film in the country. In its third weekend overseas, it dip only 37 % for a $15 million from 57 markets. In its fourth weekend in international markets, it grossed $6.6 million. As of May 20, 2018, the film 's largest markets were United Kingdom ($16.3 million), Australia ($9.3 million), Mexico ($7.5 million) and Brazil ($6.9 million). The film was released in China on May 18 and made $17.7 million from 8,731 screens in its opening weekend.
A Quiet Place will be released on Digital HD on June 26, 2018, and will be released on Blu - ray and DVD on July 10, 2018.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 95 % based on 266 reviews, and an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "A Quiet Place artfully plays on elemental fears with a ruthlessly intelligent creature feature that 's as original as it is scary -- and establishes director John Krasinski as a rising talent. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 82 out of 100, based on 55 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, saying, "The question Krasinski tackles is what defines a family and what 's needed to preserve it? ' Who are we ', asks Mom, ' if we ca n't protect our children? ' The answers are worked out with satisfying complexity and genuine feeling, proving indeed that home is where family is. This new horror classic will fry your nerves to a frazzle. '' The Hollywood Reporter 's John DeFore described the film as "a terrifying thriller with a surprisingly warm heart '' and said, "You might have to go back to Jeff Nichols ' 2011 Take Shelter to find a film that has used the fantastic this well to convey the combination of fear and responsibility a good parent feels. ''
Variety 's Owen Gleiberman said, "A Quiet Place is a tautly original genre - bending exercise, technically sleek and accomplished, with some vivid, scary moments, though it 's a little too in love with the stoned logic of its own premise. '' Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 2.5 out of 4 stars and said, "My favorite moment, an encounter between Regan and one of the monsters in a cornfield, plays with sound and image and tension, creatively. Other bits are more shameless... I do n't know if I 'd call A Quiet Place enjoyable; it 's more grueling than cathartic. ''
Horror author Stephen King praised the film in a post on Twitter, "A QUIET PLACE is an extraordinary piece of work. Terrific acting, but the main thing is the SILENCE, and how it makes the camera 's eye open wide in a way few movies manage. ''
Nick Allen of RogerEbert.com called A Quiet Place "Krasinski 's breakthrough as a triple - threat entertainer, but it 's been a long time coming... By no accident, he 's tackled the horror genre while relying on the unique strength that can be seen throughout his acting work, and one that has made him relatable as an everyman across TV and film -- expressive silence. ''
Speaking of the political and social commentary the film encouraged, Krasinski said, "The best compliment you can get on any movie is that it starts a conversation. The fact that people are leaving and talking about anything is really fun -- but certainly about deep stuff like that, is awesome. '' Krasinski, who did not grow up with horror films, said that prior films of the genre such as Do n't Breathe (2016) and Get Out (2017) that had societal commentary were part of his research. In addition to considering his film a metaphor for parenthood, he compared the premise to US politics in 2018, "I think in our political situation, that 's what 's going on now: You can close your eyes and stick your head in the sand, or you can try to participate in whatever 's going on. '' He cited Jaws (1975) as an influence, with how the protagonist police officer moved from New York to an island to avoid frightening situations, and was forced to encounter one in his new location with shark attacks.
Matthew Monagle of Film School Rejects said A Quiet Place seemed to be "the early frontrunner for the sparsely intellectual horror movie of the year '', like previous films The Babadook (2014) and The Witch (2015). Monagle said Krasinski, who had directed two previous films, was "making an unusual pivot into a genre typically reserved for newcomers '', and considered it to be part of a movement toward horror films layered "in storytelling, (with) character beats not typically found in a horror movie ''. Tatiana Tenreyro, writing for Bustle, said while A Quiet Place was not a silent film, "It is the first of its kind within the modern horror genre for how little spoken dialogue it actually has. '' She said the rare moments of spoken dialogue "give depth to this horror movie, showing how the narrative defies the genre 's traditional films even further ''.
Bishop Robert Barron was surprised by strikingly religious themes in the film. He likened the family 's primitive, agrarian life of silence to monasticism, and commends their self - giving love. Barron noted the pervasive pro-life themes, especially in the choices of the parents, as Mrs. Abbott risks everything to give birth to a child, and her husband lays down his own life so that the children can live: what Barron sees as the ultimate expression of parental love. Sonny Bunch of the Washington Post also commented and expanded on a pro-life message.
Krasinski, who had recently become a new father, said in a conference interview "I was already in a state of terror about whether or not I was a good enough father, '' and added that the meaning of parenthood had been elevated for him by imagining being a father in a nightmare world, struggling to simply keep his children alive. Jonathan Hetterly, writing in Shrinktank, see the film 's whole premise as a commentary on modern American paranoid parenting, saying that Krasinski "viewed the premise as a metaphor for a parent 's worst fears ''.
Krasinski himself has told CBS News "The scares were secondary to how powerful this could be as an allegory or metaphor for parenthood. For me, this is all about parenthood. ''
In April 2018, Paramount Chair and CEO Jim Gianopulos said a sequel to the film was "in the works ''. Screenwriters Woods and Beck had previously stated that they had begun thinking of ideas and set pieces for a possible second film.
Films with little or no dialogue
The British Film Institute listed the following noteworthy films with little or no dialogue:
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which of the following has the least influence on job design | Job characteristic theory - wikipedia
Job characteristics theory is a theory of work design. It provides "a set of implementing principles for enriching jobs in organizational settings ''. The original version of job characteristics theory proposed a model of five "core '' job characteristics (i.e. skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) that affect five work - related outcomes (i.e. motivation, satisfaction, performance, and absenteeism and turnover) through three psychological states (i.e. experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility, and knowledge of results).
Work redesign first got its start in the 1960s. Up until then, the prevailing attitude was that jobs should be simplified in order to maximize production, however it was found that when subjected to highly routinized and repetitive tasks, the benefits of simplification sometimes disappeared due to worker dissatisfaction. It was proposed that jobs should be enriched in ways that boosted motivation, instead of just simplified to a string of repetitive tasks. It is from this viewpoint that Job Characteristics Theory emerged.
In 1975, Greg R. Oldham and J. Richard Hackman constructed the original version of the Job Characteristics Theory (JCT), which is based on earlier work by Turner and Lawrence and Hackman and Lawler. Turner and Lawrence, provided a foundation of objective characteristics of jobs in work design. Further, Hackman and Lawler indicated the direct effect of job characteristics on employee 's work related attitudes and behaviors and, more importantly, the individual differences in need for development, which is called Growth Need Strength in Job Characteristics Theory.
In 1980, Hackman and Oldham presented the final form of the Job Characteristics Theory in their book Work Redesign. The main changes included the addition of two more moderators - Knowledge and Skill and Context Satisfaction, removal of the work outcomes of absenteeism and turnover, and increased focus on Internal Work Motivation. Several of the outcome variables were removed or renamed as well. Concentration was shifted to the affective outcomes following results from empirical studies that showed weak support for the relationship between the psychological states and behavioral outcomes.
In addition to the theory, Oldham and Hackman also created two instruments, the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) and the Job Rating Form (JRF), for assessing constructs of the theory. The JDS directly measures jobholders ' perceptions of the five core job characteristics, their experienced psychological states, their Growth Need Strength, and outcomes. The JRF was designed to obtain the assessments from external observers, such as supervisors or researchers, of the core job characteristics.
According to the final version of the theory, five core job characteristics should prompt three critical psychological states, which lead to many favorable personal and work outcomes. The moderators Growth Need Strength, Knowledge and Skill, and Context Satisfaction should moderate the links between the job characteristics and the psychological states, and the psychological states and the outcomes.
Adopted from earlier work the personal and work outcomes of the initial theory were: Internal Work Motivation, Job Satisfaction, Absenteeism and Turnover, and Performance Quality. However, the 1980 revisions to the original model included removing absenteeism and turnover, and breaking performance into Quality of Work and Quantity of Work.
The three critical psychological states of job characteristic theory (JCT) draw upon cognitive motivation theory and some previous work on identifying the presence of certain psychological states could lead to favorable outcomes. JCT provided the chance to systematically assessed the relationship between the previously discovered psychological states (' Experienced Meaningfulness, ' Experienced Responsibility, and Knowledge of Results) and outcomes. More importantly, previous work on work design showed job characteristics can predict individual performance, but did not provide "why '' and "how '' this relationship existed. Job Characteristics Theory filled this gap by building a bridge between job characteristics and work - related outcomes through the use of the three critical psychological states.
The three psychological states, which are also the conceptual core of the theory, include (1) Experienced Meaningfulness of the Work, (2) Experienced Responsibility for the Outcomes of the Work, and (3) Knowledge of the Results of Work Activities. These psychological states are theorized to mediate the relationship between job characteristics and work - related outcomes. According to the theory, these three critical psychological states are noncompensatory conditions, meaning jobholders have to experience all three critical psychological states to achieve the outcomes proposed in the model. For example, when workers experience the three psychological states, they feel good about themselves when they perform well. These positive feelings, in turn, reinforce the workers to keep performing well.
According to the theory, certain core job characteristics are responsible for each psychological state: skill variety, task identity, and task significance shape the experienced meaningfulness; autonomy affects experienced responsibility, and feedback contributes to the knowledge of results. Previous research found that four job characteristics (autonomy, variety, identity, and feedback) could increase workers ' performance, satisfaction, and attendance. Task significance was derived from Greg Oldham 's own work experience as an assembly line worker. Though his job did not provide task variety or identity, he still experienced meaningfulness through the realization that others depended on his work. This realization led to the inclusion of task significance as another job characteristic that would influence experienced meaningfulness of the job. Thus, job characteristics theory proposed the five core job characteristics that could predict work related outcomes.
When a job has a high score on the five core characteristics, it is likely to generate three psychological states, which can lead to positive work outcomes, such as high internal work motivation, high satisfaction with the work, high quality work performance, and low absenteeism and turnover. This tendency for high levels of job characteristics to lead to positive outcomes can be formulated by the motivating potential score (MPS). Hackman and Oldham explained that the MPS is an index of the "degree to which a job has an overall high standing on the person 's degree of motivation... and, therefore, is likely to prompt favorable personal and work outcomes '':
The motivating potential score (MPS) can be calculated, using the core dimensions discussed above, as follows:
Jobs that are high in motivating potential must be also high on at least one of the three factors that lead to experienced meaningfulness, and also must be high on both Autonomy and Feedback. If a job has a high MPS, the job characteristics model predicts that motivation, performance and job satisfaction will be positively affected and the likelihood of negative outcomes, such as absenteeism and turnover, will be reduced.
According to the equation above, a low standing on either autonomy or feedback will substantially compromise a job 's MPS, because autonomy and feedback are the only job characteristics expected to foster experienced responsibility and knowledge of results, respectively. On the contrary, a low score on one of the three job characteristics that lead to experienced meaningfulness may not necessarily reduce a job 's MPS, because a strong presence of one of those three attributes can offset the absence of the others.
In response to one of the disadvantages of Motivator -- Hygiene Theory, Job Characteristics Theory added an individual difference factor into the model. While Herzberg et al. took into account the importance of intrinsically and extrinsically motivating job characteristics there was no consideration of individual differences. The importance of individual differences had been demonstrated by previous work showing that some individuals are more likely to positively respond to an enriched job environment than others. Thus, the original version of the theory posits an individual difference characteristic, Growth Need Strength (GNS), that moderates the effect of the core job characteristics on outcomes. Jobholders with high Growth Need Strength should respond more positively to the opportunities provided by jobs with high levels of the five core characteristics compared to low GNS jobholders.
Taylor 's theory of scientific management emphasized efficiency and productivity through the simplification of tasks and division of labor.
Herzberg et al. 's Motivator -- Hygiene Theory, aka Two - factor Theory, an influence on Job Characteristics Theory, sought to increase motivation and satisfaction through enriching jobs. The theory predicts changes in "motivators '', which are intrinsic to the work, (such as recognition, advancement, and achievement) will lead to higher levels of employee motivation and satisfaction; while "hygiene factors '', which are extrinsic to the work itself, (such as company policies and salary) can lead to lower levels of dissatisfaction, but will not actually effect satisfaction or motivation.
Sociotechnical systems theory predicts an increase in satisfaction and productivity through designing work that optimized person - technology interactions.
Quality improvement theory is based on the idea that jobs can be improved through the analysis and optimized of work processes.
Adaptive structuration theory provides a way to look at the interaction between technology 's intended and actual use in an organization, and how it can influence different work - related outcomes.
Idaszak and Drasgow provided a corrected version of the Job Diagnostic Survey that corrected for one of the measurement errors in the instrument. It had been suggested that reverse scoring on several of the questions was to blame for the inconsistent studies looking at the factors involved in the Job Diagnostic Survey. Following a factor analysis, Idaszak and Drasgow found six factors rather than the theorized five characteristics proposed by the Job Characteristics Theory. Upon further investigation, they were able to show that the sixth factor was made up of the reverse coded items. The authors rephrased the questions, ran the analysis again, and found it removed the measurement error.
Due to the inconsistent findings about the validity of Growth Need Strength as a moderator of the Job characteristic - outcomes relationship, Graen, Scandura, and Graen proposed the GN -- GO model, which added Growth Opportunity as another moderator. They suggested there is n't a simple positive relationship between motivation and Growth Need Strength, but instead there is an underlying incremental (stairstep) relationship with various levels of Growth Opportunity. Growth Opportunity increments are described as "events that change either the characteristics of the job itself or the understanding of the job itself ''. It was hypothesized that as people high in Growth Need Strength met each level of Growth Opportunity they could be motivated to increase their performance, but when people low on Growth Need Strength met these same increments their performance would either maintain or degrade. Field studies found more support for the GN -- GO model than the original Growth Need Strength moderation.
Humphrey, Nahrgang, and Morgeson extended the original model by incorporating many different outcomes and job characteristics. The authors divided the revised set of Job Characteristics into three sections - Motivational, Social, and Work Context Characteristics; and the outcomes were portioned out into four parts - Behavioral, Attitudinal, Role Perception, and Well - being Outcomes. Results showed strong relationships between some of the expanded characteristics and outcomes, suggesting that there are more options for enriching jobs than the original theory would suggest.
Taking from earlier empirical research on Job Characteristics Theory and Psychological Ownership, researchers developed a model that combined the two theories. They replaced the psychological states of the Job Characteristics Theory with Psychological Ownership of the job as the mediator between job characteristics and outcomes. In addition to the positive personal and work outcomes of Job Characteristics Theory, negative outcomes (e.g. Territorial Behaviors, Resistance to Change, and Burden of Responsibility) were added.
Since its inception, Job Characteristics Theory has been scrutinized extensively. The first empirical tests of the theory came from Hackman and Oldham themselves. The authors found the "internal consistency reliability of the scales and the discriminant validity of the items '' to be "satisfactory ''. They also tried to assess the objectivity of the measure by having the supervisors and the researchers evaluate the job in addition to the jobholders. More importantly, the authors reported the relationships predicted by the model were supported by their analysis.
Following these publications, over 200 empirical articles were published examining Job Characteristics Theory over the next decade. Fried and Ferris summarized the research on Job Characteristics Theory and found "modest support '' overall. Fried and Ferris mentioned seven general areas of criticism in their review, which are discussed below:
Over the years since Job Characteristics Theory 's introduction into the organizational literature, there have been many changes to the field and to work itself. Oldham and Hackman suggest that the areas more fruitful for development in work design are social motivation, job crafting, and teams.
Social sources of motivation are becoming more important due to the changing nature of work in this country. More jobs are requiring higher levels of client - employee interaction, as well as increasing interdependence among employees. With this in mind, it would make sense to investigate the effect the social aspects have on affective and behavioral outcomes.
While Job Characteristics Theory was mainly focused on the organization 's responsibility for manipulating job characteristics to enrich jobs there has been a considerable buzz in the literature regarding job crafting. In job crafting the employee has some control over their role in the organization. Hackman and Oldham point out there are many avenues of inquiry regarding job crafting such as: what are the benefits of job crafting, are the benefits due to the job crafting process itself or the actual changes made to the job, and what are the negative effects of job crafting?
Finally, they brought up the potential research directions relevant to team work design. Specifically, they discuss the need to understand when to use work - design aimed at the individual or team level in order to increase performance, and what type of team is best suited to particular tasks.
Job Characteristics Theory is firmly entrenched within the work design (also called job enrichment) literature, moreover the theory has become one of the most cited in all of the organizational behavior field. In practical terms, Job Characteristics Theory provides a framework for increasing employees ' motivation, satisfaction, and performance through enriching job characteristics.
Job Characteristics Theory has been embraced by researchers and used in a multitude of professions and organizations. In the applied domain, Hackman and Oldham have reported that a number of consulting firms have employed their model or modified it to meet their needs.
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who moved my cheese by spencer johnson summary | Who Moved My cheese? - Wikipedia
Who Moved My Cheese? An Amazing Way to Deal with Change in Your Work and in Your Life, published on September 8, 1998, is a motivational business fable. The text describes change in one 's work and life, and four typical reactions to those changes by two mice and two "little people, '' during their hunt for cheese. A New York Times business bestseller upon release, Who Moved My Cheese? remained on the list for almost five years and spent over 200 weeks on Publishers Weekly 's hardcover nonfiction list. It has sold more than 26 million copies worldwide in 37 languages and remains one of the best - selling business books.
Allegorically, Who Moved My Cheese? features four characters: two mice, "Sniff '' and "Scurry, '' and two little people, human metaphor, "Hem '' and "Haw. '' (The names of the little people are taken from the phrase "hem and haw, '' a term for indecisiveness.) They live in a maze, a representation of one 's environment, and look for cheese, representative of happiness and success. Initially without cheese, each group, the mice and humans, paired off and traveled the lengthy corridors searching for cheese. One day both groups happen upon a cheese - filled corridor at "Cheese Station C. '' Content with their find, the humans establish routines around their daily intake of cheese, slowly becoming arrogant in the process.
One day Sniff and Scurry arrive at Cheese Station C to find no cheese left, but they are not surprised. Noticing the cheese supply dwindling, they have mentally prepared beforehand for the arduous but inevitable task of finding more cheese. Leaving Cheese Station C behind, they begin their hunt for new cheese together. Later that day, Hem and Haw arrive at Cheese Station C only to find the same thing, no cheese. Angered and annoyed, Hem demands, "Who moved my cheese? '' The humans have counted on the cheese supply to be constant, and so are unprepared for this eventuality. After deciding that the cheese is indeed gone they get angry at the unfairness of the situation Haw suggests a search for new cheese, but Hem is dead set in his victimized mindset and dismisses the proposal.
Meanwhile, Sniff and Scurry have found "Cheese Station N, '' and new cheese. But back at Cheese Station C, Hem and Haw are affected by their lack of cheese and blame each other for their problem. Hoping to change, Haw again proposes a search for new cheese. However, Hem is comforted by his old routine and is frightened about the unknown. He knocks the idea again. After a while of being in denial, the humans remain without cheese. One day, having discovered his debilitating fears, Haw begins to chuckle at the situation and stops taking himself so seriously. Realizing he should simply move on, Haw enters the maze, but not before chiseling "If You Do Not Change, You Can Become Extinct '' on the wall of Cheese Station C for his friend to ponder.
Still fearful of his trek, Haw jots "What Would You Do If You Were n't Afraid? '' on the wall and, after thinking about that, he begins his venture. Still plagued with worry (perhaps he has waited too long to begin his search...), Haw finds some bits of cheese that nourish him and he is able to continue his search. Haw realizes that the cheese has not suddenly vanished, but has dwindled from continual eating. After a stop at an empty cheese station, Haw begins worrying about the unknown again. Brushing aside his fears, Haw 's new mindset allows him to again enjoy life. He has even begun to smile again! He is realizing that "When you move beyond your fear, you feel free. '' After another empty cheese station, Haw decides to go back for Hem with the few bits of new cheese he has managed to find.
Uncompromising, Hem refuses the new cheese, to his friend 's disappointment. With knowledge learned along the way, Haw heads back into the maze. Getting deeper into the maze, inspired by bits of new cheese here and there, Haw leaves a trail of writings on the wall ("The Handwriting On the Wall ''). These clarify his own thinking and give him hope that his friend will find aid in them during his search for new cheese. Still traveling, Haw one day comes across Cheese Station N, abundant with cheese, including some varieties that are strange to him, and he realizes he has found what he was looking for. After eating, Haw reflects on his experience. He ponders a return to see his old friend. But Haw decides to let Hem find his own way. Finding the largest wall in Cheese Station N, he writes:
Cautious from past experience, Haw now inspects Cheese Station N daily and explores different parts of the maze regularly to prevent any complacency from setting in. After hearing movement in the maze one day, Haw realizes someone is approaching the station. Unsure, Haw hopes that it is his friend Hem who has found the way.
In 1999, Who Moved My Cheese Inc was founded to handle the Who Moved My Cheese? book order demands from businesses. For several years, the company worked 24 / 7 just to keep up with the demand for the book. In 2005, the company was reorganized as Spencer Johnson Partners with the idea of bringing in partners and additional content from Dr. Spencer Johnson, the author. Spencer Johnson Partners focused on creating additional programs and services that would continue to help clients navigate change, including Gaining Change Skills. Then, in 2009, the company was purchased and renamed Red Tree Leadership.
In the corporate environment, management has been known to distribute this book to employees during times of "structural reorganization, '' or during cost - cutting measures, in an attempt to portray unfavorable or unfair changes in an optimistic or opportunistic way. This has been characterized by Barbara Ehrenreich in her book Bright - sided: How the Relentless Promotion of Positive Thinking Has Undermined America as an attempt by organizational management to make employees quickly and unconditionally assimilate management ideals, even if they may prove detrimental to them professionally. Ehrenreich summarizes its message as "the dangerous human tendencies to ' overanalyze ' and complain must be overcome for a more rodentlike approach to life. When you lose a job, just shut up and scamper along to the next one. ''
Dilbert cartoonist Scott Adams said that patronizing parables are one of the top 10 complaints he receives in his email. Scott Adams ' retort to the message in the parable is that it is a "patronizing message for the proletariat to acquiesce. ''
Three more criticisms can be phrased as:
There are multiple parody works called Who Cut the Cheese?.
Andy Borowitz published a parody, Who moved my soap?: the CEO 's guide to surviving prison, Simon & Schuster, c2003.
Darrel Bristow - Bovey published a parody, I Moved Your Cheese, Penguin Random House South Africa, Apr 13, 2012.
The webcomic Abstruse Goose has a strip which is a parody of the book.
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how does elena get her memories of damon back | Do You Remember the First Time? (The Vampire Diaries) - wikipedia
"Do You Remember the First Time? '' is the 7th episode of the sixth season of the American series The Vampire Diaries and the series ' 118th episode overall. "Do You Remember the First Time? '' was originally aired on November 13, 2014, on The CW. The episode was written by Rebecca Sonnenshine and directed by Darren Genet.
Elena, after everyone continues to convince her that she had once loved damon decides to run through the magic free, mystic falls border. So she does, and she gets glimpses of her and Damon but never fully remembers yet that she loves him. Damon pulls her back across the line and she asks about a kiss in the rain. He continues to try to get her to remember.
In the episode "Do You Remember the First Time? '' we can hear the songs:
In its original American broadcast, "Do You Remember the First Time? '' was watched by 1.54 million; slightly down by 0.05 from the previous episode.
"Do You Remember the First Time? '' received positive reviews.
Stephanie Flasher from TV After Dark gave a B+ rating to the episode saying that it was a nice one, especially for the fans of Damon and Elena. "Bittersweet trip down the couple 's history and an epic rain kiss. Finally, Caroline and Stefan have the feelings conversation and Alaric gets his groove back now that he 's a human again. And the music was good. ''
Rebecca Jane Stokes of Den of Geek rated the episode with 4 / 5 saying that it was a sweet episode and that Stefan finally found out about Caroline 's feelings. "The show did what it does best this week. It married romance and longing with the deliberate if piecemeal doling out of key plot points. ''
Ashley Dominique from Geeked Out Nation rated the episode with 7.9 / 10 saying that the episode "forced Damon and Elena to explore the new status of their relationship in another slow drawn out episode. However, it was made interesting by not relying on flashbacks, but let them be in the moment. ''
Sara Ditta of Next Projection rated the episode with 7.2 / 10 saying that the episode "satisfied because of its tempered tone. The drama was n't taken overboard, and viewers could relate to each of our main characters who tried to grasp on to friendships and relationships that had already fallen apart. ''
Leigh Raines from TV Fanatic rated the episode with 3.5. "All in all, a decent episode, with minor developments but not enough. ''
Caroline Preece of Den of Geek gave a good review to the episode saying that the show has improved greatly since it stopped paying attention only to Damon and Elena 's relationship. "The Damon / Elena storyline is still a frustrating mess, but it 's also not the only thing on the show anymore -- and that gives viewers no longer interested in Elena 's love life a reason to come back. Just that simple thing is what fans have been asking for and, now that we have it, it 's glorious. ''
Lindsay Sperling from We Got This Covered gave a mixed review to the episode saying that this episode was the first filler one for season six. "This season of The Vampire Diaries is arguably already better than the last two combined, but there 's a limit to the amount of Elena and Damon drama that fans should have to endure. Either let them be together, or let them move on. (...) There were a few notable plot twists in (the episode) despite the overwhelming feeling that nothing really happened to move the story along. ''
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what is the full form of cgs in physics | Centimetre -- gram -- second system of units - wikipedia
The centimetre -- gram -- second system of units (abbreviated CGS or cgs) is a variant of the metric system based on the centimetre as the unit of length, the gram as the unit of mass, and the second as the unit of time. All CGS mechanical units are unambiguously derived from these three base units, but there are several different ways of extending the CGS system to cover electromagnetism.
The CGS system has been largely supplanted by the MKS system based on the metre, kilogram, and second, which was in turn extended and replaced by the International System of Units (SI). In many fields of science and engineering, SI is the only system of units in use but there remain certain subfields where CGS is prevalent.
In measurements of purely mechanical systems (involving units of length, mass, force, energy, pressure, and so on), the differences between CGS and SI are straightforward and rather trivial; the unit - conversion factors are all powers of 10 as 100 cm = 1 m and 1000 g = 1 kg. For example, the CGS unit of force is the dyne which is defined as 1 g ⋅ cm / s, so the SI unit of force, the newton (1 kg ⋅ m / s), is equal to 100,000 dynes.
On the other hand, in measurements of electromagnetic phenomena (involving units of charge, electric and magnetic fields, voltage, and so on), converting between CGS and SI is more subtle. Formulas for physical laws of electromagnetism (such as Maxwell 's equations) need to be adjusted depending on which system of units one uses. This is because there is no one - to - one correspondence between electromagnetic units in SI and those in CGS, as is the case for mechanical units. Furthermore, within CGS, there are several plausible choices of electromagnetic units, leading to different unit "sub-systems '', including Gaussian units, "ESU '', "EMU '', and Lorentz -- Heaviside units. Among these choices, Gaussian units are the most common today, and "CGS units '' often used specifically refers to CGS - Gaussian units.
The CGS system goes back to a proposal in 1832 by the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss to base a system of absolute units on the three fundamental units of length, mass and time. Gauss chose the units of millimetre, milligram and second. In 1873, a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, including British physicists James Clerk Maxwell and William Thomson recommended the general adoption of centimetre, gram and second as fundamental units, and to express all derived electromagnetic units in these fundamental units, using the prefix "C.G.S. unit of... ''.
The sizes of many CGS units turned out to be inconvenient for practical purposes. For example, many everyday objects are hundreds or thousands of centimetres long, such as humans, rooms and buildings. Thus the CGS system never gained wide general use outside the field of science. Starting in the 1880s, and more significantly by the mid-20th century, CGS was gradually superseded internationally for scientific purposes by the MKS (metre -- kilogram -- second) system, which in turn developed into the modern SI standard.
Since the international adoption of the MKS standard in the 1940s and the SI standard in the 1960s, the technical use of CGS units has gradually declined worldwide, in the United States more slowly than elsewhere. CGS units are today no longer accepted by the house styles of most scientific journals, textbook publishers, or standards bodies, although they are commonly used in astronomical journals such as The Astrophysical Journal. CGS units are still occasionally encountered in technical literature, especially in the United States in the fields of material science, electrodynamics and astronomy. The continued usage of CGS units is most prevalent in magnetism and related fields because the B and H fields have the same units in free space and there is a lot of potential for confusion when converting published measurements from cgs to MKS.
The units gram and centimetre remain useful as prefixed units within the SI system, especially for instructional physics and chemistry experiments, where they match the small scale of table - top setups. However, where derived units are needed, the SI ones are generally used and taught instead of the CGS ones today. For example, a physics lab course might ask students to record lengths in centimetres, and masses in grams, but force (a derived unit) in newtons, a usage consistent with the SI system.
In mechanics, the CGS and SI systems of units are built in an identical way. The two systems differ only in the scale of two out of the three base units (centimetre versus metre and gram versus kilogram, respectively), while the third unit (second as the unit of time) is the same in both systems.
There is a one - to - one correspondence between the base units of mechanics in CGS and SI, and the laws of mechanics are not affected by the choice of units. The definitions of all derived units in terms of the three base units are therefore the same in both systems, and there is an unambiguous one - to - one correspondence of derived units:
Thus, for example, the CGS unit of pressure, barye, is related to the CGS base units of length, mass, and time in the same way as the SI unit of pressure, pascal, is related to the SI base units of length, mass, and time:
Expressing a CGS derived unit in terms of the SI base units, or vice versa, requires combining the scale factors that relate the two systems:
The conversion factors relating electromagnetic units in the CGS and SI systems are made more complex by the differences in the formulae expressing physical laws of electromagnetism as assumed by each system of units, specifically in the nature of the constants that appear in these formulae. This illustrates the fundamental difference in the ways the two systems are built:
Electromagnetic relationships to length, time and mass may be derived by several equally appealing methods. Two of them rely on the forces observed on charges. Two fundamental laws relate (seemingly independently of each other) the electric charge or its rate of change (electric current) to a mechanical quantity such as force. They can be written in system - independent form as follows:
Maxwell 's theory of electromagnetism relates these two laws to each other. It states that the ratio of proportionality constants k C (\ displaystyle k_ (\ rm (C))) and k A (\ displaystyle k_ (\ rm (A))) must obey k C / k A = c 2 (\ displaystyle k_ (\ rm (C)) / k_ (\ rm (A)) = c ^ (2)), where c is the speed of light in vacuum. Therefore, if one derives the unit of charge from the Coulomb 's law by setting k C = 1 (\ displaystyle k_ (\ rm (C)) = 1) then Ampère 's force law will contain a prefactor 2 / c 2 (\ displaystyle 2 / c ^ (2)). Alternatively, deriving the unit of current, and therefore the unit of charge, from the Ampère 's force law by setting k A = 1 (\ displaystyle k_ (\ rm (A)) = 1) or k A = 1 / 2 (\ displaystyle k_ (\ rm (A)) = 1 / 2), will lead to a constant prefactor in the Coulomb 's law.
Indeed, both of these mutually exclusive approaches have been practiced by the users of CGS system, leading to the two independent and mutually exclusive branches of CGS, described in the subsections below. However, the freedom of choice in deriving electromagnetic units from the units of length, mass, and time is not limited to the definition of charge. While the electric field can be related to the work performed by it on a moving electric charge, the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the velocity of the moving charge, and thus the work performed by the magnetic field on any charge is always zero. This leads to a choice between two laws of magnetism, each relating magnetic field to mechanical quantities and electric charge:
These two laws can be used to derive Ampère 's force law above, resulting in the relationship: k A = α L ⋅ α B (\ displaystyle k_ (\ rm (A)) = \ alpha _ (\ rm (L)) \ cdot \ alpha _ (\ rm (B)) \;). Therefore, if the unit of charge is based on the Ampère 's force law such that k A = 1 (\ displaystyle k_ (\ rm (A)) = 1), it is natural to derive the unit of magnetic field by setting α L = α B = 1 (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (\ rm (L)) = \ alpha _ (\ rm (B)) = 1 \;). However, if it is not the case, a choice has to be made as to which of the two laws above is a more convenient basis for deriving the unit of magnetic field.
Furthermore, if we wish to describe the electric displacement field D and the magnetic field H in a medium other than vacuum, we need to also define the constants ε and μ, which are the vacuum permittivity and permeability, respectively. Then we have (generally) D = ε 0 E + λ P (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (D) = \ epsilon _ (0) \ mathbf (E) + \ lambda \ mathbf (P)) and H = B / μ 0 − λ ′ M (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (H) = \ mathbf (B) / \ mu _ (0) - \ lambda ^ (\ prime) \ mathbf (M)), where P and M are polarization density and magnetization vectors. The units of P and M are usually so chosen that the factors λ and λ ′ are equal to the "rationalization constants '' 4 π k C ε 0 (\ displaystyle 4 \ pi k_ (\ rm (C)) \ epsilon _ (0)) and 4 π α B / (μ 0 α L) (\ displaystyle 4 \ pi \ alpha _ (\ rm (B)) / (\ mu _ (0) \ alpha _ (\ rm (L)))), respectively. If the rationalization constants are equal, then c 2 = 1 / (ε 0 μ 0 α L 2) (\ displaystyle c ^ (2) = 1 / (\ epsilon _ (0) \ mu _ (0) \ alpha _ (\ rm (L)) ^ (2))). If they are equal to one, then the system is said to be "rationalized '': the laws for systems of spherical geometry contain factors of 4π (for example, point charges), those of cylindrical geometry -- factors of 2π (for example, wires), and those of planar geometry contain no factors of π (for example, parallel - plate capacitors). However, the original CGS system used λ = λ ′ = 4π, or, equivalently, k C ε 0 = α B / (μ 0 α L) = 1 (\ displaystyle k_ (\ rm (C)) \ epsilon _ (0) = \ alpha _ (\ rm (B)) / (\ mu _ (0) \ alpha _ (\ rm (L))) = 1). Therefore, Gaussian, ESU, and EMU subsystems of CGS (described below) are not rationalized.
The table below shows the values of the above constants used in some common CGS subsystems:
The constant b in SI system is a unit - based scaling factor defined as: b = 10 7 A 2 / N = 10 7 m / H = 4 π / μ 0 = 4 π ε 0 c 2 = c 2 / k C (\ displaystyle b = 10 ^ (7) \, \ mathrm (A) ^ (2) / \ mathrm (N) = 10 ^ (7) \, \ mathrm (m / H) = 4 \ pi / \ mu _ (0) = 4 \ pi \ epsilon _ (0) c ^ (2) = c ^ (2) / k_ (\ rm (C)) \;).
Also, note the following correspondence of the above constants to those in Jackson and Leung:
In system - independent form, Maxwell 's equations can be written as:
∇ → ⋅ E → = 4 π k C ρ ∇ → ⋅ B → = 0 ∇ → × E → = − α L ∂ B → ∂ t ∇ → × B → = 4 π α B J → + α B k C ∂ E → ∂ t (\ displaystyle (\ begin (array) (ccl) (\ vec (\ nabla)) \ cdot (\ vec (E)) & = &4 \ pi k_ (\ rm (C)) \ rho \ \ (\ vec (\ nabla)) \ cdot (\ vec (B)) & = &0 \ \ (\ vec (\ nabla)) \ times (\ vec (E)) & = & \ displaystyle (- \ alpha _ (\ rm (L)) (\ frac (\ partial (\ vec (B))) (\ partial t))) \ \ (\ vec (\ nabla)) \ times (\ vec (B)) & = & \ displaystyle (4 \ pi \ alpha _ (\ rm (B)) (\ vec (J)) + (\ frac (\ alpha _ (\ rm (B))) (k_ (\ rm (C)))) (\ frac (\ partial (\ vec (E))) (\ partial t))) \ end (array)))
Note that of all these variants, only in Gaussian and Heaviside -- Lorentz systems α L (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (\ rm (L))) equals c − 1 (\ displaystyle c ^ (- 1)) rather than 1. As a result, vectors E → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (E))) and B → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (B))) of an electromagnetic wave propagating in vacuum have the same units and are equal in magnitude in these two variants of CGS.
In one variant of the CGS system, Electrostatic units (ESU), charge is defined via the force it exerts on other charges, and current is then defined as charge per time. It is done by setting the Coulomb force constant k C = 1 (\ displaystyle k_ (\ rm (C)) = 1), so that Coulomb 's law does not contain an explicit prefactor.
The ESU unit of charge, franklin (Fr), also known as statcoulomb or esu charge, is therefore defined as follows:
two equal point charges spaced 1 centimetre apart are said to be of 1 franklin each if the electrostatic force between them is 1 dyne.
Therefore, in electrostatic CGS units, a franklin is equal to a centimetre times square root of dyne:
The unit of current is defined as:
Dimensionally in the ESU CGS system, charge q is therefore equivalent to m L t. Hence, neither charge nor current is an independent physical quantity in ESU CGS. This reduction of units is the consequence of the Buckingham π theorem.
All electromagnetic units in ESU CGS system that do not have proper names are denoted by a corresponding SI name with an attached prefix "stat '' or with a separate abbreviation "esu ''.
In another variant of the CGS system, electromagnetic units (EMU), current is defined via the force existing between two thin, parallel, infinitely long wires carrying it, and charge is then defined as current multiplied by time. (This approach was eventually used to define the SI unit of ampere as well). In the EMU CGS subsystem, this is done by setting the Ampere force constant k A = 1 (\ displaystyle k_ (\ rm (A)) = 1), so that Ampère 's force law simply contains 2 as an explicit prefactor (this prefactor 2 is itself a result of integrating a more general formulation of Ampère 's law over the length of the infinite wire).
The EMU unit of current, biot (Bi), also known as abampere or emu current, is therefore defined as follows:
The biot is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed one centimetre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to two dynes per centimetre of length.
Therefore, in electromagnetic CGS units, a biot is equal to a square root of dyne:
The unit of charge in CGS EMU is:
Dimensionally in the EMU CGS system, charge q is therefore equivalent to m L. Hence, neither charge nor current is an independent physical quantity in EMU CGS.
All electromagnetic units in EMU CGS system that do not have proper names are denoted by a corresponding SI name with an attached prefix "ab '' or with a separate abbreviation "emu ''.
The ESU and EMU subsystems of CGS are connected by the fundamental relationship k C / k A = c 2 (\ displaystyle k_ (\ rm (C)) / k_ (\ rm (A)) = c ^ (2)) (see above), where c = 29,979,245,800 ≈ 3 ⋅ 10 is the speed of light in vacuum in centimetres per second. Therefore, the ratio of the corresponding "primary '' electrical and magnetic units (e.g. current, charge, voltage, etc. -- quantities proportional to those that enter directly into Coulomb 's law or Ampère 's force law) is equal either to c or c:
and
Units derived from these may have ratios equal to higher powers of c, for example:
The practical cgs system is a hybrid system that uses the volt and the ampere as the unit of voltage and current respectively. Doing this avoids the inconveniently large and small quantities that arise for electromagnetic units in the esu and emu systems. This system was at one time widely used by electrical engineers because the volt and amp had been adopted as international standard units by the International Electrical Congress of 1881. As well as the volt and amp, the farad (capacitance), ohm (resistance), coulomb (electric charge), and henry are consequently also used in the practical system and are the same as the SI units. However, intensive properties (that is, anything that is per unit length, area, or volume) will not be the same as SI since the cgs unit of distance is the centimetre. For instance electric field strength is in units of volts per centimetre, magnetic field strength is in amps per centimetre, and resistivity is in ohm - cm.
Some physicists and electrical engineers in North America still use these hybrid units.
There were at various points in time about half a dozen systems of electromagnetic units in use, most based on the CGS system. These also include the Gaussian units and the Heaviside -- Lorentz units.
In this table, c = 29,979,245,800 is the numeric value of the speed of light in vacuum when expressed in units of centimetres per second. The symbol "↔ '' is used instead of "= '' as a reminder that the SI and CGS units are corresponding but not equal because they have incompatible dimensions. For example, according to the next - to - last row of the table, if a capacitor has a capacitance of 1 F in SI, then it has a capacitance of (10 c) cm in ESU; but it is usually incorrect to replace "1 F '' with "(10 c) cm '' within an equation or formula. (This warning is a special aspect of electromagnetism units in CGS. By contrast, for example, it is always correct to replace "1 m '' with "100 cm '' within an equation or formula.)
One can think of the SI value of the Coulomb constant k as:
This explains why SI to ESU conversions involving factors of c lead to significant simplifications of the ESU units, such as 1 statF = 1 cm and 1 statΩ = 1 s / cm: this is the consequence of the fact that in ESU system k = 1. For example, a centimetre of capacitance is the capacitance of a sphere of radius 1 cm in vacuum. The capacitance C between two concentric spheres of radii R and r in ESU CGS system is:
By taking the limit as R goes to infinity we see C equals r.
While the absence of explicit prefactors in some CGS subsystems simplifies some theoretical calculations, it has the disadvantage that sometimes the units in CGS are hard to define through experiment. Also, lack of unique unit names leads to a great confusion: thus "15 emu '' may mean either 15 abvolts, or 15 emu units of electric dipole moment, or 15 emu units of magnetic susceptibility, sometimes (but not always) per gram, or per mole. On the other hand, SI starts with a unit of current, the ampere, that is easier to determine through experiment, but which requires extra multiplicative factors in the electromagnetic equations. With its system of uniquely named units, the SI also removes any confusion in usage: 1.0 ampere is a fixed value of a specified quantity, and so are 1.0 henry, 1.0 ohm, and 1.0 volt.
A key virtue of the Gaussian CGS system is that electric and magnetic fields have the same units, 4πε is replaced by 1, and the only dimensional constant appearing in the Maxwell equations is c, the speed of light. The Heaviside -- Lorentz system has these desirable properties as well (with ε equaling 1), but it is a "rationalized '' system (as is SI) in which the charges and fields are defined in such a way that there are many fewer factors of 4π appearing in the formulas, and it is in Heaviside -- Lorentz units that the Maxwell equations take their simplest form.
In SI, and other rationalized systems (for example, Heaviside -- Lorentz), the unit of current was chosen such that electromagnetic equations concerning charged spheres contain 4π, those concerning coils of current and straight wires contain 2π and those dealing with charged surfaces lack π entirely, which was the most convenient choice for applications in electrical engineering. However, modern hand calculators and personal computers have eliminated this "advantage ''. In some fields where formulas concerning spheres are common (for example, in astrophysics), it has been argued that the nonrationalized CGS system can be somewhat more convenient notationally.
Specialized unit systems are used to simplify formulas even further than either SI or CGS, by eliminating constants through some system of natural units. For example, in particle physics a system is in use where every quantity is expressed by only one unit of energy, the electronvolt, with lengths, times, and so on all converted into electronvolts by inserting factors of speed of light c and the Planck constant ħ. This unit system is very convenient for calculations in particle physics, but it would be considered impractical in other contexts.
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how i met your mother chain of screaming | The Chain of Screaming - Wikipedia
Jordan Black (Ferguson) Taran Killam (Gary Blauman) Bryan Callen (Bilson) Bob Odenkirk (Arthur Hobbs)
"The Chain of Screaming '' is the 15th episode in the third season of the television series How I Met Your Mother and 59th overall. It originally aired on April 14, 2008.
Marshall fears being yelled at by his boss, who is nicknamed "Artillery Arthur, '' after failing to turn in on time a report, about decertifying a class action due to lack of commonality and numerosity (which he nicknames "The Ninja Report '' to make it sound cool). Robin, Lily and Ted each describe how they would deal with Arthur 's aggression, and Barney explains that Marshall should n't deal with it - the way that the chain (or circle) of screaming works is that one person screams at someone "below '' him, then that person screams at another person, and so on. Barney and Marshall go to a diner and Barney urges Marshall to scream at the waiter, but Marshall can not do it - the waiter screams at Marshall instead. The next day, Marshall finally lets out his feelings towards Arthur and, in the end, quits his job at Nicholson, Hewitt & West.
Meanwhile, Ted has bought himself a new car, a blue Toyota Camry Hybrid. All of his friends think a nice car is totally unnecessary in New York City and proceed to eat ice cream and smoke cigars inside the car, despite Ted 's protests. Eventually, Ted sells the car and gives the proceeds to Marshall to help pay for the apartment.
Donna Bowman of The A.V. Club rated the episode with a grade A.
Michelle Zoromski of IGN gave the episode 7.4 out of 10.
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back to the future claudia wells elisabeth shue | Claudia Wells - wikipedia
Claudia Grace Wells (born July 5, 1966) is an American actress.
Born in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, she spent her early childhood years growing up in Punto Fijo, Carirubana, Falcón in Venezuela, later graduating from high school in San Francisco, California, where she was also raised.
She started acting with appearances in TV shows.
Then Wells played Jennifer Parker, Marty McFly 's girlfriend, in the 1985 film Back to the Future. She almost did not end up in the first film of the successful franchise. According to Wells, in an interview with Yahoo.com online entertainment series "The Yo Show '', she had been cast, but a pilot she had done for ABC had been picked up, and she was contractually forced to drop out of Back to the Future. During that time, Eric Stoltz had been shooting for five weeks in the role of Marty McFly. Melora Hardin was slated for the role of Jennifer, though she never actually filmed any scenes. The producers halted filming and replaced Stoltz with Michael J. Fox. By then, Wells ' pilot had been finished and she was recast as Jennifer, now shooting alongside Fox, never having filmed a frame with Stoltz.
After her mother was diagnosed with cancer, Wells said family took precedence and told the studio she would not be available to reprise the role for the two sequels; actress Elisabeth Shue replaced her.
That same year (1985), Wells co-starred in Stop the Madness, an anti-drug music video sponsored by the Reagan administration, featuring several famous musicians, actors and athletes. The following year, she appeared in the TV movie Babies Having Babies, and the short - lived series Fast Times, a TV adaptation of the 1982 film Fast Times at Ridgemont High (Wells played Linda Barrett, portrayed by Phoebe Cates in the film). Following Fast Times, she did not again appear on - screen until the 1996 independent film Still Waters Burn (released on DVD February 12, 2008).
After a lengthy absence, Wells returned to acting in 2011 with a small role in the independent science - fiction film Alien Armageddon.
The same year Wells had the opportunity to reprise her role from Back to the Future, 26 years after her last appearance in the series. She provided the voice of Jennifer Parker for Back to the Future: The Game by Telltale Games. Wells announced that her next project would be a horror film titled Room & Board.
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who wrote the songs in hustle and flow | Hustle & Flow (soundtrack) - wikipedia
Hustle & Flow: Music From and Inspired by the Motion Picture is the soundtrack album for the motion picture, Hustle & Flow. It features music by P $ C featuring T.I. & Lil Scrappy, Mike Jones featuring Nicole Wray, Trillville, Juvenile featuring Skip & Wacko, Nasty Nardo, 8Ball & MJG, Lil ' Boosie & Webbie and other artists. Also featured on the album are tracks performed by the film 's star, Terrence Howard, in his lead role as the street hustler - turned - rapper, Djay. The skits on the soundtrack are sound clips from the film. It was released on July 12, 2005 on Grand Hustle and Atlantic Records.
The first single off the collection was the Lil Jon - produced "I 'm a King (Remix) '' by P $ C featuring T.I. and Lil Scrappy. A music video was released for the song which featured all three rappers in the city of Atlanta and clips from Hustle & Flow. The second single was the remix of Webbie 's "Bad Bitch, '' featuring Trina. The soundtrack has sold over 300,000 copies. The chorus to Nasty Nardo 's track entitled "Lets Get a Room '' samples Project Pat 's song entitled "Make Dat Azz Clap (Back Clap) ''. The song number 4 in the track list "It 's Hard out Here for a Pimp '' produced by Three 6 Mafia won the Oscar for Best Original Song at the 78th Academy Awards ceremony and was performed on stage by the members of Three 6 Mafia.
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different type of method by which incentives can be calculated | Incentive - wikipedia
An incentive is something that motivates an individual to perform an action. The study of incentive structures is central to the study of all economic activities (both in terms of individual decision - making and in terms of co-operation and competition within a larger institutional structure). Therefore, economic analysis of the differences between societies (and between organizations within a society) amounts to characterizing the differences in incentive structures faced by individuals involved in these collective efforts. Incentives aim to provide value for money and contribute to organizational success. As such the design of incentive systems is a key management activity.
Incentives can be classified according to the different ways in which they motivate agents to take a particular course of action. One common and useful taxonomy divides incentives into four broad classes:
There is another common usage in which incentive is contrasted with coercion, as when economic moralists contrast incentive - driven work -- such as entrepreneurship, employment, or volunteering motivated by remunerative, moral, or personal incentives -- with coerced work -- such as slavery or serfdom, where work is motivated by the threat or use of violence, pain and / or deprivation. In this usage, the category of "coercive incentives '' is excluded. For the purposes of this article, however, "incentive '' is used in the broader sense defined above.
The categories mentioned above do not exhaust every possible form of incentive that an individual person may have. In particular, they do not encompass the many other forms of incentive -- which may be roughly grouped together under the heading of personal incentives -- which motivate an individual person through their tastes, desires, sense of duty, pride, personal drives to artistic creation or to achieve remarkable feats, and so on. The reason for setting these sorts of incentives to one side is not that they are less important to understanding human action -- after all, social incentive structures can only exist in virtue of the effect that social arrangements have on the motives and actions of individual people. Rather, personal incentives are set apart from these other forms of incentive because the distinction above was made for the purpose of understanding and contrasting the social incentive structures established by different forms of social interaction. Personal incentives are essential to understanding why a specific person acts the way they do, but social analysis has to take into account the situation faced by any individual in a given position within a given society -- which means mainly examining the practices, rules, and norms established at a social, rather than a personal, level.
One and the same situation may, in its different aspects, carry incentives that come under multiple categories. In modern American society, for example, economic prosperity and social esteem are often closely intertwined; and when the people in a culture tend to admire those who are economically successful, or to view those who are not with a certain amount of contempt (see also: classism, Protestant work ethic), the prospect of (for example) getting or losing a job carries not only the obvious remunerative incentives (in terms of the effect on the pocketbook) but also substantial moral incentives (such as honor and respect from others for those who hold down steady work, and disapproval or even humiliation for those who do n't or ca n't).
The study of economics in modern societies is mostly concerned with remunerative incentives rather than moral or coercive incentives -- not because the latter two are unimportant, but rather because remunerative incentives are the main form of incentives employed in the world of business, whereas moral and coercive incentives are more characteristic of the sorts of decisions studied by political science and sociology. A classic example of the economic analysis of incentive structures is the famous Walrasian chart of supply and demand curves: economic theory predicts that the market will tend to move towards the equilibrium price because everyone in the market has a remunerative incentive to do so: by lowering a price formerly set above the equilibrium a firm can attract more customers and make more money; by raising a price formerly set below the equilibrium a customer is more able to obtain the good or service that she wants in the quantity she desires.
In cases with asymmetric information where one user knows some relevant fact about another, principal - agent theory is the guiding framework in optimizing incentive of choice. The classic example for a situation for asymmetric information can be that of a manager and worker, where manager may want a certain level of output from the worker. The manager does not know the capabilities of the worker, and to achieve the best outcome, an optimal scheme of incentive may be chosen to motivate the worker to give their best performance.
An optimal incentive is one that accomplishes the stated goal. If the goal is to maximize profits, then an optimal incentive will be one that encourages workers to balance the risk imposed by the employee for poor performance and the marginal disutility of effort. A weak incentive is any incentive below this level.
Incentive - based regulation can be defined as the conscious use of rewards and penalties to encourage good performance in the utility sector.
Incentives can be used in several contexts. For example, policymakers in the United States used a quid pro quo incentive when some of the U.S. incumbent local telephone companies were allowed to enter long distance markets only if they first cooperated in opening their local markets to competition.
Incentive regulation is often used to regulate the overall price level of utilities. There are four primary approaches to regulating the overall price level: rate of return (or cost of service) regulation, price cap regulation, revenue cap regulation, and benchmarking (or yardstick) regulation.
With benchmarking, for example, the operator 's performance is compared to other operators ' performance and penalties or awards are assessed based on the operator 's relative performance. For instance, the regulator might identify a number of comparable operators and compare their cost efficiency. The most efficient operators would be rewarded with extra profits and the least efficient operators would be penalized. Because the operators are actually in different markets, it is important to make sure that the operators ' situations are similar so that the comparison is valid, and to use statistical techniques to adjust for any quantifiable differences the operators have no control over.
Generally regulators use a combination of these basic forms of regulation. Combining forms of regulation is called hybrid regulation. For example, U.K. regulators (e.g. Ofgem) combine elements of rate of return regulation and price cap regulation to create their form of RPI - X regulation.
Incentive rates are also prevalent in the utility sector, under any of the utility regulatory frameworks noted. Incentive rates are a vehicle for the utility to induce large commercial or industrial customers to locate or maintain a facility in the utility service territory. The incentive is provided in the form of a discount from the utility 's standard tariff rates, terms or conditions. In the U.S., incentive rates (also known as Economic Development Rates and / or Load Retention Rates) are a common component of the utility strategy for supporting the economic development efforts of a particular geographic region or political entity.
Incentive structures, however, are notoriously more tricky than they might appear to people who set them up. Incentives do not only increase motivation, they also contribute to the self - selection of individuals, as different people are attracted by different incentive schemes depending on their attitudes towards risk, uncertainty, competitiveness. Human beings are both finite and creative; that means that the people offering incentives are often unable to predict all of the ways that people will respond to them. Thus, imperfect knowledge and unintended consequences can often make incentives much more complex than the people offering them originally expected, and can lead either to unexpected windfalls or to disasters produced by unintentionally perverse incentives.
For example, decision - makers in for - profit firms often must decide what incentives they will offer to employees and managers to encourage them to act in ways beneficial to the firm. But many corporate policies -- especially of the "extreme incentive '' variant popular during the 1990s -- that aimed to encourage productivity have, in some cases, led to failures as a result of unintended consequences. For example, stock options were intended to boost CEO productivity by offering a remunerative incentive (profits from rising stock prices) for CEOs to improve company performance. But CEOs could get profits from rising stock prices either (1) by making sound decisions and reaping the rewards of a long - term price increase, or (2) by fudging or fabricating accounting information to give the illusion of economic success, and reaping profits from the short - term price increase by selling before the truth came out and prices tanked. The perverse incentives created by the availability of option (2) have been blamed for many of the falsified earnings reports and public statements in the late 1990s and early 2000s.
Also there is the tradeoff of short term gains at the expense of long term gains or even long term company survival. It is easy to plunder the assets of a previously successful company and show spectacular short term gains only to have the enterprise collapse after those responsible have gotten their incentives and left the organization or industry. Although long term incentives could be part of the incentive system, they have been abandoned in the past 20 years. An example of an organization that used long term incentive programs was Hughes Aircraft and was highly successful until the government forced its divestiture from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Recently there has been movement on adopting the benefit corporation or B - Corporation as a way to change the trend away from short term financial incentives to long term financial and non financial incentives.
Not all for profit companies used short term financial incentives at levels below the president or very top executive levels. The trend to move financial incentives down the organization hierarchy started in the 1980s as a way to boost what was considered low productivity. Prior to that time the incentives were associated more with customer satisfaction and producing high quality products. Moving financial incentives down the corporate chain had the unintended consequences of subverting internal processes to save short term costs, forcing obsolescence at the lower levels as investment was deferred or abandoned, and lowering quality. Some of these issues are explored in the British documentary The Trap. This idea of financial incentives and pushing them to the lowest level common denominator has led to a new company structure or organizational ecology where essentially everything is a standalone profit center with the only incentive being short term financial incentives.
A possible solution against the criticism of overpaying executives in boom times and underpaying them in recession times is by linking bonus targets to an operating index. By doing so external effects (economic cycles) can be excluded from performance measurement. This makes incentive pay more fair or likely not certain as bonuses are based on performance relative to other companies in the peer universe.
While the notion of a fair system seems to be an equal deal, those who are outperforming by a large margin will feel slighted by this approach. Thus, a system based on individual company performance has been the standard.
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where has the us manufacturing belt been traditionally located (specific cities) | Rust Belt - Wikipedia
The Rust Belt is a region of the United States, made up mostly of places in the Midwest and Great Lakes, though the term may be used to include any location where industry declined starting around 1980. Rust refers to the deindustrialization, or economic decline, population loss, and urban decay due to the shrinking of its once - powerful industrial sector. The term gained popularity in the U.S. in the 1980s.
The Rust Belt begins in western New York and traverses west through Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, and the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, ending in northern Illinois, eastern Iowa, and southeastern Wisconsin. New England was also hard hit by industrial decline during the same era. Previously known as the industrial heartland of America, industry has been declining in the region since the mid-20th century due to a variety of economic factors, such as the transfer of manufacturing further West, increased automation, and the decline of the US steel and coal industries. While some cities and towns have managed to adapt by shifting focus towards services and high - tech industries, others have not fared as well, witnessing rising poverty and declining populations.
In the 20th century, local economies in these states specialized in large - scale manufacturing of finished medium to heavy industrial and consumer products, as well as the transportation and processing of the raw materials required for heavy industry. The area was referred to as the Manufacturing Belt, Factory Belt, or Steel Belt as distinct from the agricultural Midwestern states forming the so - called Corn Belt and Great Plains states that are often called the "bread - basket of America ''.
The flourishing of industrial manufacturing in the region was caused in part by the close proximity to the Great Lakes waterways, and abundance of paved roads, water canals and railroads. After the transportation infrastructure linked the iron ore found in northern Minnesota, Wisconsin and Upper Michigan with the coal mined from Appalachian Mountains, the Steel Belt was born. Soon it developed into the Factory Belt with its great American manufacturing cities: Chicago, Buffalo, Detroit, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, Toledo, Cleveland, St. Louis, and Pittsburgh among others. This region for decades served as a magnet for immigrants from Austria - Hungary, Poland and Russia who provided the industrial facilities with inexpensive labor.
Following several "boom '' periods from the late - 19th to the mid-20th century, cities in this area struggled to adapt to a variety of adverse economic and social conditions. From 1979 to 1982, the US Federal Reserve decided to raise the base interest rate in the United States to 19 %. High interest rates attracted wealthy foreign "hot money '' into US banks and caused the US dollar to appreciate. This made US products more expensive for foreigners to buy and also made imports much cheaper for Americans to purchase. The misaligned exchange rate was not rectified until 1986, by which time Japanese imports in particular had made rapid inroads into US markets. From 1987 to 1999, the US stock market went into stratospheric rise, and this continued to pull wealthy foreign money into US banks, which biased the exchange rate against manufactured goods. Related issues include the decline of the iron and steel industry, the movement of manufacturing to the southeastern states with their lower labor costs, the layoffs due to the rise of automation in industrial processes, the decreased need for labor in making steel products, the internationalization of American business, and the liberalization of foreign trade policies due to globalization. Cities struggling with these conditions shared several difficulties, including population loss, lack of education, declining tax revenues, high unemployment and crime, drugs, swelling welfare rolls, deficit spending, and poor municipal credit ratings.
As people migrate, they often coin new names for their destinations. Since the term "Rust Belt '' pertains to a set of economic and social conditions rather than to an overall geographical region of the United States per se, the Rust Belt has no precise boundaries. The extent to which a community may have been described as a "Rust Belt city '' depends at least as much on how great a role industrial manufacturing played in its local economy in the past and how it does now, as on perceptions of the economic viability and living standards of the present day.
News media occasionally refer to a patchwork of defunct centres of heavy industry and manufacturing across the Great Lakes and mid-western United States as the snow belt, the manufacturing belt, or the factory belt - because of their vibrant industrial economies in the past. This includes most of the cities of the Midwest as far west as the Mississippi River, including St. Louis, and many of those in the Great Lakes and Northern New York.. At the centre of this expanse lies an area stretching from northern Indiana and southern Michigan in the west to Upstate New York in the east, where local tax revenues as of 2004 relied more heavily on manufacturing than on any other sector.
Before World War II, the cities in the Rust Belt region were among the largest in the United States. However, by the twentieth century 's end their population had fallen the most in the country.
The linking of the former Northwest Territory with the once - rapidly industrializing East Coast was affected through several large - scale infrastructural projects, most notably the Erie Canal in 1825, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1830, the Allegheny Portage Railroad in 1834, and the consolidation of the New York Central after the American Civil War. A gate was thereby opened between a variety of burgeoning industries on the interior North American continent and the markets not only of the large Eastern cities, but of Western Europe as well.
Coal, iron ore and other raw materials were shipped in from surrounding regions which emerged as major ports on the Great Lakes and served as transportation hubs for the region with a proximity to railroad lines. Coming in the other direction were millions of European immigrants, who populated the cities along the Great Lakes shores with then - unprecedented speed. Chicago, famously, was a rural trading post in the 1840s but grew to be as big as Paris by the time of the 1893 Columbian Exposition.
Early signs of the difficulty in the northern states were evident early in the 20th century, before the "boom years '' were even over. Lowell, Massachusetts, once the centre of textile production in the United States, was described in the magazine Harper 's as a "depressed industrial desert '' as early as 1931, as its textile concerns were being uprooted and sent southward, primarily to the Carolinas. After the Great Depression, American entry into the Second World War effected a rapid return to economic growth, during which much of the industrial North reached its peak in population and industrial output.
The northern cities experienced changes that followed the end of the war, with the onset of the outward migration of residents to newer suburban communities, and the declining role of manufacturing in the American economy.
Outsourcing of manufacturing jobs in tradeable goods has been an important issue in the region. One source has been globalization and the expansion of worldwide free trade agreements. Anti-globalization groups argue that trade with developing countries has resulted in stiff competition from countries such as China which pegs its currency to the dollar and has much lower prevailing wages, forcing domestic wages to drift downward. Some economists are concerned that long - run effects of high trade deficits and outsourcing are a cause of economic problems in the U.S. with high external debt (amount owed to foreign lenders) and a serious deterioration in the United States net international investment position (NIIP) (− 24 % of GDP).
Some economists contend that the U.S. is borrowing to fund consumption of imports while accumulating unsustainable amounts of debt. On June 26, 2009, Jeff Immelt, the CEO of General Electric, called for the United States to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20 % of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much in some areas and can no longer rely on the financial sector and consumer spending to drive demand.
Since the 1960s, the expansion of worldwide free trade agreements have been less favorable to U.S. workers. Imported goods such as steel cost much less to produce in Third World countries with cheap foreign labor (see steel crisis). Beginning with the recession of 1970 -- 71, a new pattern of deindustrializing economy emerged. Competitive devaluation combined with each successive downturn saw traditional U.S. manufacturing workers experiencing lay - offs. In general, in the Factory Belt employment in the manufacturing sector declined by 32.9 % between 1969 and 1996.
Wealth - producing primary and secondary sector jobs such as those in manufacturing and computer software were often replaced by much - lower - paying wealth - consuming jobs such as those in retail and government in the service sector when the economy recovered.
A gradual expansion of the U.S. trade deficit with China began in 1985. In the ensuing years the U.S. developed a massive trade deficit with the East Asian nations of China, Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea. As a result, the traditional manufacturing workers in the region have experienced economic upheaval. This effect has devastated government budgets across the U.S. and increased corporate borrowing to fund retiree benefits. Some economists believe that GDP and employment can be dragged down by large long - run trade deficits.
A March 3, 2008 Wall Street Journal editorial claimed that, while Ohio lost 10,000 jobs in the past decade, Texas created 1.6 million new jobs. The editorial stated, "Ohio 's most crippling handicap may be that its politicians -- and thus its employers -- are still in the grip of such industrial unions as the United Auto Workers. '' A September 13, 2008 opinion column by Phil Gramm and Mike Solon stated, "Yes, Michigan lost 83,000 auto manufacturing jobs during the past decade and a half, but more than 91,000 new auto manufacturing jobs sprung up in Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, South Carolina, Virginia and Texas. ''
Francis Fukuyama considers the social and cultural consequences of deindustrialization and manufacturing decline that turned a former thriving Factory Belt into a Rust Belt as a part of a bigger transitional trend that he called the Great Disruption: "People associate the information age with the advent of the Internet, in the 1990s but the shift from the industrial era started more than a generation earlier, with the deindustrialization of the Rust Belt in the United States and comparable movements away from manufacturing in other industrialized countries.... The decline is readily measurable in statistics on crime, fatherless children, broken trust, reduced opportunities for and outcomes from education, and the like ''.
Problems associated with the Rust Belt persist even today, particularly around the eastern Great Lakes states, and many once - booming manufacturing metropolises dramatically slowed down. From 1970 to 2006, Cleveland, Detroit, Buffalo, and Pittsburgh lost about 45 % of their population and median household incomes fell: in Cleveland and Detroit by about 30 percent, in Buffalo by 20 percent, and Pittsburgh by 10 percent.
It seemed that during the mid-1990s in several Rust Belt metro areas the negative growth was suspended as indicated by major statistical indicators: unemployment, wages, population change. However, during the first decade of the 21st century, a negative trend persisted: Detroit lost 25.7 % of its population; Gary, Indiana -- 22 %; Youngstown, Ohio -- 18.9 %; Flint, Michigan -- 18.7 %; and Cleveland, Ohio -- 14.5 %.
In the late - 2000s, American manufacturing recovered faster from the Great Recession of 2008 than the other sectors of the economy, and a number of initiatives, both public and private, are encouraging the development of alternative fuel, nano and other technologies. Together with the neighboring Golden Horseshoe of Southern Ontario, Canada, the so - called Rust Belt still composes one of the world 's major manufacturing regions.
Since the 1980s, presidential candidates have devoted much of their time to the economic concerns of the Rust Belt region, which contains the populous swing states of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Michigan. Those states were also critical and decisive to Donald Trump 's victory in the 2016 US Presidential Election.
Different strategies were proposed in order to reverse the fortunes of the former Factory Belt including building casinos and convention centers, retaining the so - called "creative class '' through arts and downtown renewal, encouraging the "knowledge '' economy type of entrepreneurship, etc. Lately, analysts suggested that industrial comeback might be the actual path for the future resurgence of the region. That includes growing new industrial base with a pool of skilled labor, rebuilding the infrastructure and infrasystems, creating R&D university - business partnerships, and close cooperation between central, state and local government and business.
New types of R&D - intensive nontraditional manufacturing have emerged recently in Rust Belt, such as biotechnology, the polymer industry, infotech, and nanotech. Infotech in particular creates a promising venue for the Rust Belt 's revitalization. Among the successful recent examples is the Detroit Aircraft Corporation, which specializes in unmanned aerial systems integration, testing and aerial cinematography services.
In Pittsburgh, robotics research centres and companies such as National Robotics Engineering Center and Robotics Institute, Aethon Inc., American Robot Corporation, Automatika, Quantapoint, Blue Belt Technologies and Seegrid are creating state - of - the - art robotic technology applications. Akron, a former "Rubber Capital of the World '' that lost 35,000 jobs after major tire and rubber manufacturers Goodrich, Firestone and General Tire closed their production lines, is now again well known around the world as a centre of polymer research with four hundred polymer - related manufacturing and distribution companies operating in the area. The turnaround was accomplished in part due to a partnership between Goodyear Tire & Rubber, which chose to stay, the University of Akron and the city mayor 's office. The Akron Global Business Accelerator that jump - started a score of successful business ventures in Akron resides in the refurbished B.F. Goodrich tire factory.
Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, creates another promising venue for the manufacturing resurgence. Such innovative companies, as MakerGear from Beachwood, Ohio, or ExOne Company from North Huntingdon, PA, are designing and manufacturing industrial and consumer products using 3 - D imaging systems. Not long ago, the London - based Economist pointed towards a growing trend of reshoring, or inshoring, of manufacture when a growing number of American companies are moving their production facilities from overseas back home. Rustbelt states can ultimately benefit from this process of an international insourcing.
However, automation has led to the types of manufacturing that requires fewer workers even with advanced skills. That is why job gains in manufacture in Rust Belt have not been nearly enough to keep pace with lay - offs. As a result, middle class incomes and savings in the Rustbelt states continue to be negatively impacted.
Delving into the past and musing on the future of Rustbelt states, the Brookings Institution report suggests that the Great Lakes region has a sizable potential for transformation, citing already existing global trade networks, clean energy / low carbon capacity, developed innovation infrastructure and higher educational network.
The following regions, areas, and city are known to have some similarities to the rust belt in the United States:
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when was the last time a comet passed earth | Comet Hale -- Bopp - wikipedia
Comet Hale -- Bopp (formally designated C / 1995 O1) is a comet that was perhaps the most widely observed of the 20th century, and one of the brightest seen for many decades.
Hale -- Bopp was discovered on July 23, 1995 separately by Alan Hale and Thomas Bopp prior to it becoming naked - eye visible on Earth. Although predicting the maximum apparent brightness of new comets with any degree of certainty is difficult, Hale -- Bopp met or exceeded most predictions when it passed perihelion on April 1, 1997. It was visible to the naked eye for a record 18 months, twice as long as the previous record holder, the Great Comet of 1811. Accordingly, Hale -- Bopp was dubbed the Great Comet of 1997.
The comet was discovered independently on July 23, 1995 by two observers, Alan Hale and Thomas Bopp, both in the United States.
Hale had spent many hundreds of hours searching for comets without success, and was tracking known comets from his driveway in New Mexico when he chanced upon Hale -- Bopp just after midnight. The comet had an apparent magnitude of 10.5 and lay near the globular cluster M70 in the constellation of Sagittarius. Hale first established that there was no other deep - sky object near M70, and then consulted a directory of known comets, finding that none were known to be in this area of the sky. Once he had established that the object was moving relative to the background stars, he emailed the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams, the clearing house for astronomical discoveries.
Bopp did not own a telescope. He was out with friends near Stanfield, Arizona observing star clusters and galaxies when he chanced across the comet while at the eyepiece of his friend 's telescope. He realized he might have spotted something new when, like Hale, he checked his star maps to determine if any other deep - sky objects were known to be near M70, and found that there were none. He alerted the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams through a Western Union telegram. Brian G. Marsden, who had run the bureau since 1968, laughed, "Nobody sends telegrams anymore. I mean, by the time that telegram got here, Alan Hale had already e-mailed us three times with updated coordinates. ''
The following morning, it was confirmed that this was a new comet, and it was given the designation C / 1995 O1. The discovery was announced in International Astronomical Union circular 6187.
Hale -- Bopp 's orbital position was calculated as 7.2 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun, placing it between Jupiter and Saturn and by far the greatest distance from Earth at which a comet had been discovered by amateurs. Most comets at this distance are extremely faint, and show no discernible activity, but Hale -- Bopp already had an observable coma. An image taken at the Anglo - Australian Telescope in 1993 was found to show the then - unnoticed comet some 13 AU from the Sun, a distance at which most comets are essentially unobservable. (Halley 's Comet was more than 100 times fainter at the same distance from the Sun.) Analysis indicated later that its comet nucleus was 60 ± 20 kilometres in diameter, approximately six times the size of Halley.
Its great distance and surprising activity indicated that comet Hale -- Bopp might become very bright indeed when it reached perihelion in 1997. However, comet scientists were wary -- comets can be extremely unpredictable, and many have large outbursts at great distance only to diminish in brightness later. Comet Kohoutek in 1973 had been touted as a ' comet of the century ' and turned out to be unspectacular.
Hale -- Bopp became visible to the naked eye in May 1996, and although its rate of brightening slowed considerably during the latter half of that year, scientists were still cautiously optimistic that it would become very bright. It was too closely aligned with the Sun to be observable during December 1996, but when it reappeared in January 1997 it was already bright enough to be seen by anyone who looked for it, even from large cities with light - polluted skies.
The Internet was a growing phenomenon at the time, and numerous websites that tracked the comet 's progress and provided daily images from around the world became extremely popular. The Internet played a large role in encouraging the unprecedented public interest in comet Hale -- Bopp.
As the comet approached the Sun, it continued to brighten, shining at 2nd magnitude in February, and showing a growing pair of tails, the blue gas tail pointing straight away from the Sun and the yellowish dust tail curving away along its orbit. On March 9, a solar eclipse in China, Mongolia and eastern Siberia allowed observers there to see the comet in the daytime. Hale -- Bopp had its closest approach to Earth on March 22, 1997 at a distance of 1.315 AU.
As it passed perihelion on April 1, 1997 the comet developed into a spectacular sight. It shone brighter than any star in the sky except Sirius, and its dust tail stretched 40 -- 45 degrees across the sky. The comet was visible well before the sky got fully dark each night, and while many great comets are very close to the Sun as they pass perihelion, comet Hale -- Bopp was visible all night to northern hemisphere observers.
After its perihelion passage, the comet moved into the southern celestial hemisphere. The comet was much less impressive to southern hemisphere observers than it had been in the northern hemisphere, but southerners were able to see the comet gradually fade from view during the second half of 1997. The last naked - eye observations were reported in December 1997, which meant that the comet had remained visible without aid for 569 days, or about 18 and a half months. The previous record had been set by the Great Comet of 1811, which was visible to the naked eye for about 9 months.
The comet continued to fade as it receded, but is still being tracked by astronomers. In October 2007, 10 years after the perihelion and at distance of 25.7 AU from Sun, the comet was still active as indicated by the detection of the CO-driven coma. Herschel Space Observatory images taken in 2010 suggest comet Hale -- Bopp is covered in a fresh frost layer. Hale -- Bopp was again detected in December 2010 when it was 30.7 AU away from the Sun, and on August 7, 2012 at a 33.2 AU distance from the Sun. Astronomers expect that the comet will remain observable with large telescopes until perhaps 2020, by which time it will be nearing 30th magnitude. By this time it will become very difficult to distinguish the comet from the large numbers of distant galaxies of similar brightness.
The comet likely made its previous perihelion 4,200 years ago, in July 2215 BCE. The estimated closest approach to Earth was 1.4 AU, and it may have been observed in ancient Egypt during the 6th dynasty reign of the Pharaoh Pepi II (Reign: 2247 - c. 2216 BCE). Pepi 's pyramid at Saqqara contains a text referring to an "nhh - star '' as a companion of the pharaoh in the heavens, where "nhh '' is the hieroglyph for long hair.
Hale -- Bopp may have had a near collision with Jupiter in early June 2215 BC, which probably caused a dramatic change in its orbit, and 2215 BC may have been its first passage through the inner Solar System. The comet 's current orbit is almost perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, so further close approaches to planets will be rare. However, in April 1996 the comet passed within 0.77 AU of Jupiter, close enough for its orbit to be measurably affected by the planet 's gravity. The comet 's orbit was shortened considerably to a period of roughly 2,533 years, and it will next return to the inner Solar System around the year 4385. Its greatest distance from the Sun (aphelion) will be about 370 AU, reduced from about 525 AU.
The estimated probability of Hale - Bopp 's striking Earth in future passages through the inner Solar System is remote, about 2.5 × 10 per orbit. However, given that the comet nucleus is around 60 km in diameter, the consequences of such an impact would be apocalyptic. Weissman conservatively estimates the diameter at 35 km; an estimated density of 0.6 g / cm then gives a cometary mass of 1.3 × 10 g. At a probable impact velocity of 52.5 km / s, impact energy can be calculated as 1.9 × 10 ergs, or 4.4 × 10 megatons, about 44 times the estimated energy of the K-T impact event.
Over many orbits, the cumulative effect of gravitational perturbations on comets with high orbital inclinations and small perihelion distances is generally to reduce the perihelion distance to very small values. Hale -- Bopp has about a 15 % chance of eventually becoming a sungrazing comet through this process.
Comet Hale -- Bopp was observed intensively by astronomers during its perihelion passage, and several important advances in cometary science resulted from these observations. The dust production rate of the comet was very high (up to 2.0 × 10 kg / s), which may have made the inner coma optically thick. Based on the properties of the dust grains -- high temperature, high albedo and strong 10 μm silicate emission feature -- the astronomers concluded the dust grains are smaller than observed in any other comet.
Hale -- Bopp showed the highest ever linear polarization detected for any comet. Such polarization is the result of solar radiation getting scattered by the dust particles in the coma of the comet and depends on the nature of the grains. It further confirms that the dust grains in the coma of comet Hale -- Bopp were smaller than inferred in any other comet.
One of the most remarkable discoveries was that the comet had a third type of tail. In addition to the well - known gas and dust tails, Hale -- Bopp also exhibited a faint sodium tail, only visible with powerful instruments with dedicated filters. Sodium emission had been previously observed in other comets, but had not been shown to come from a tail. Hale -- Bopp 's sodium tail consisted of neutral atoms (not ions), and extended to some 50 million kilometres in length.
The source of the sodium appeared to be the inner coma, although not necessarily the nucleus. There are several possible mechanisms for generating a source of sodium atoms, including collisions between dust grains surrounding the nucleus, and "sputtering '' of sodium from dust grains by ultraviolet light. It is not yet established which mechanism is primarily responsible for creating Hale -- Bopp 's sodium tail, and the narrow and diffuse components of the tail may have different origins.
While the comet 's dust tail roughly followed the path of the comet 's orbit and the gas tail pointed almost directly away from the Sun, the sodium tail appeared to lie between the two. This implies that the sodium atoms are driven away from the comet 's head by radiation pressure.
The abundance of deuterium in comet Hale -- Bopp in the form of heavy water was found to be about twice that of Earth 's oceans. If Hale -- Bopp 's deuterium abundance is typical of all comets, this implies that although cometary impacts are thought to be the source of a significant amount of the water on Earth, they can not be the only source.
Deuterium was also detected in many other hydrogen compounds in the comet. The ratio of deuterium to normal hydrogen was found to vary from compound to compound, which astronomers believe suggests that cometary ices were formed in interstellar clouds, rather than in the solar nebula. Theoretical modelling of ice formation in interstellar clouds suggests that comet Hale -- Bopp formed at temperatures of around 25 -- 45 kelvins.
Spectroscopic observations of Hale -- Bopp revealed the presence of many organic chemicals, several of which had never been detected in comets before. These complex molecules may exist within the cometary nucleus, or might be synthesised by reactions in the comet.
Hale -- Bopp was the first comet where the noble gas argon was detected. Noble gases are chemically inert and highly volatile, and since different noble elements have different sublimation temperatures, they can be used for probing the temperature histories of the cometary ices. Krypton has a sublimation temperature of 16 -- 20 K and was found to be depleted more than 25 times relative to the solar abundance, while argon with its higher sublimation temperature was enriched relative to the solar abundance. Together these observations indicate that the interior of Hale -- Bopp has always been colder than 35 -- 40 K, but has at some point been warmer than 20 K. Unless the solar nebula was much colder and richer in argon than generally believed, this suggests that the comet formed beyond Neptune in the Kuiper belt region and then migrated outward to the Oort cloud.
Comet Hale -- Bopp 's activity and outgassing were not spread uniformly over its nucleus, but instead came from several specific jets. Observations of the material streaming away from these jets allowed astronomers to measure the rotation period of the comet, which was found to be about 11 hours 46 minutes.
In 1997 a paper was published that hypothesised the existence of a binary nucleus to fully explain the observed pattern of comet Hale -- Bopp 's dust emission observed in October 1995. The paper was based on theoretical analysis, and did not claim an observational detection of the proposed satellite nucleus, but estimated that it would have a diameter of about 30 km, with the main nucleus being about 70 km across, and would orbit in about three days at a distance of about 180 km. This analysis was confirmed by observations in 1996 using Wide - Field Planetary Camera 2 of the Hubble Space Telescope which had taken images of the comet that revealed the satellite.
Although observations using adaptive optics in late 1997 and early 1998 showed a double peak in the brightness of the nucleus, controversy still exists over whether such observations can only be explained by a binary nucleus. The discovery of the satellite was not confirmed by other observations. Also, while comets have been observed to break up before, no case has previously been found of a stable binary nucleus. Given the very small mass of this comet, the orbit of the binary nucleus would be easily disrupted by the gravity of the Sun and planets.
In November 1996 amateur astronomer Chuck Shramek (1950 -- 2000) of Houston, Texas took a CCD image of the comet, which showed a fuzzy, slightly elongated object nearby. When his computer sky - viewing program did not identify the star, Shramek called the Art Bell radio program Coast to Coast AM to announce that he had discovered a "Saturn - like object '' following Hale -- Bopp. UFO enthusiasts, such as remote viewing proponent Courtney Brown, soon concluded that there was an alien spacecraft following the comet.
Several astronomers, including Alan Hale, claimed the object was simply an 8.5 - magnitude star, SAO141894, which did not appear on Shramek 's computer program because the user preferences were set incorrectly. Later, Art Bell even claimed to have obtained an image of the object from an anonymous astrophysicist who was about to confirm its discovery. However, astronomers Olivier Hainaut and David J. Tholen of the University of Hawaii stated that the alleged photo was an altered copy of one of their own comet images.
A few months later, in March 1997, 39 members of the cult Heaven 's Gate committed mass suicide with the intention of teleporting to a spaceship they believed was flying behind the comet.
Nancy Lieder, a self - proclaimed contactee who claims to receive messages from aliens through an implant in her brain, stated that Hale -- Bopp was a fiction designed to distract the population from the coming arrival of "Nibiru '' or "Planet X '', a giant planet whose close passage would disrupt the Earth 's rotation, causing global cataclysm. Although Lieder 's original date for the apocalypse, May 2003, passed without incident, predictions of the imminent arrival of Nibiru continued by various conspiracy websites, most of whom tied it to the 2012 phenomenon.
Its lengthy period of visibility and extensive coverage in the media meant that Hale -- Bopp was probably the most - observed comet in history, making a far greater impact on the general public than the return of Halley 's Comet in 1986, and certainly seen by a greater number of people than witnessed any of Halley 's previous appearances. For instance, 69 % of Americans had seen Hale -- Bopp by April 9, 1997.
Hale -- Bopp was a record - breaking comet -- the farthest comet from the Sun discovered by amateurs, with the largest well - measured cometary nucleus known after 95P / Chiron, and it was visible to the naked eye for twice as long as the previous record - holder. It was also brighter than magnitude 0 for eight weeks, longer than any other recorded comet.
Gene Shoemaker and his wife Carolyn, both famous for co-discovering comet Shoemaker -- Levy 9, were involved in a car crash after photographing the comet. Gene died in the crash and his ashes were sent to the Moon along with an image of the Hale - Bopp comet, "the last comet that the Shoemakers observed together ''.
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community choice credit union convention center at iowa events center | Community Choice Credit Union convention Center - wikipedia
Community Choice Credit Union Convention Center (formerly known as Veterans Memorial Auditorium) is a convention center located in Des Moines, Iowa, that is part of the Iowa Events Center. It opened on February 1, 1955, and was named to honor the World War II veterans of Polk County.
On May 22, 1956, Elvis Presley was the first major act to perform there while on tour of the upper Midwest. Elvis would perform in the auditorium two more times, on June 20, 1974, and his fourth to last concert ever on June 23, 1977.
Home to the Drake Bulldogs 1955 -- 1992, it had 11,411 with the capacity to add an additional 4,000 seats for concerts and an additional 7,500 bleacher seats for basketball games. Commonly known as "Vets '' or "The Barn '', it was the long - time host for minor league basketball, arena football, and Iowa state high school basketball and wrestling tournaments.
Prior to the opening of Wells Fargo Arena, Vets Auditorium had served as the primary venue of sporting events and concerts in the Des Moines area for many years; this was also the site of the January 20, 1982 concert, where Ozzy Osbourne bit the head off a bat. World Wrestling Entertainment also broadcast their WWE Raw program from the venue. It was also the site of the famous 1989 steel cage match between Hulk Hogan and The Big Boss Man on Saturday Night 's Main Event.
With the opening of Wells Fargo Arena, Veterans Memorial Auditorium was relegated to a supporting arena role. In the fall of 2010, the arena was closed and renovated into a state - of - the - art convention facility that added a 28,800 square foot ballroom to the Iowa Events Center in addition to 25 new meeting rooms. At this time, the rights to the convention center 's name were sold to local credit union Community Choice Credit Union. However, the building itself is still referred to as the Veterans Memorial building. Veterans Memorial Hall was also added as a part of the renovation. The Hall showcases Iowa Veterans ' sacrifices since Iowa became a state.
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one acre is equal to bigha in rajasthan | Bigha - wikipedia
The bigha (also formerly beegah; Hindi: बीघा, Assamese: বিঘা, Bengali: বিঘা) is a traditional unit of measurement of area of a land, commonly used in Nepal, Bangladesh and in a number of states of India, including Uttarakhand, Maharashtra, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Gujarat and Rajasthan but not in southern states of India. There is no "standard '' size of bigha. The size of a bigha varies considerably from place to place. The size of Bigha is different in different areas.
Sources have given measurements ranging from 1,500 to 6,771 square metres (16,150 to 72,880 sq ft), but in several smaller pockets, it can be as high as 12,400 square metres (133,000 sq ft). Its sub-unit is Biswa (or Bisa) or Katha (or Katta) in many regions. Again there is no "standard '' size of biswa or katha. A bigha may have 5 to 200 biswa in different regions.
The bigha is a traditional unit of land in several parts of South Asia. Sale and purchase of land (particularly agricultural land) is still done unofficially in this unit. However, the area is recorded in hectare or square metres in official land records. Bigha varies in size from one part of India to another. Various states and often regions within the same state have different sizes attributed to the bigha. It is usually less than one standard acre (4,840 square yard or 4,047 square metre) but can extend up to 3 acres (1.2 hectare).
Bigha is a traditional unit of land in entire Bangladesh, with land purchases still being undertaken in this unit. One bigha is equal to 1,600 square yard as standardized in pre-partition Bengal during the British rule. In other words, 3 bigha are just 0.5 katha / 360 sq ft short of 1 acre.
Measurements of area in terms of bigha
A Bigha is a customary unit of measurement in Nepal, equal to about 6,773 square meters. Officially, most measurement of lands use units of either Bigha (in Terai region) or Ropani (Nepali: रोपनी) (in Hilly regions). Metric system (SI unit of square metre) is very seldom used officially in measuring area of land.
Measurement of area in terms of bigha
For the different Ropani system from the one above
In Fiji Hindi 1 bigha is equal to 1 acre
The classic Hindi movie Do Bigha Zamin by Bimal Roy in year 1953 portrayed the struggle of a poor peasant with very little landholding.
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what movie is the song the shadow of your smile from | The Shadow of Your Smile - wikipedia
"The Shadow of Your Smile '', also known as "Love Theme from The Sandpiper '', is a popular song. The music was written by Johnny Mandel with the lyrics written by Paul Francis Webster. The song was introduced in the 1965 film The Sandpiper, with a trumpet solo by Jack Sheldon and later became a minor hit for Tony Bennett (Johnny Mandel arranged and conducted his version as well). It won the Grammy Award for Song of the Year and the Academy Award for Best Original Song. In 2004 the song finished at # 77 in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs poll of the top tunes in American cinema.
Well - known versions of the song were recorded by Barbra Streisand (on her 1965 album My Name Is Barbra, Two...), by Johnny Mathis (on his 1966 album with the same title), singer Shirley Bassey (on her 1966 album I 've Got a Song for You), Andy Williams, Chris Montez, Percy Faith, Rita Reys, Al Martino, Perry Como, Nancy Sinatra, Astrud Gilberto, Bob Morrison, Peggy Lee, Sammy Davis, Jr., Sarah Vaughan and Frank Sinatra. Connie Francis recorded the song in English, Spanish (La sombra de tu sonrisa), Portuguese (À sombra do teu sorriso) and in Italian (Castelli di sabbia). Trini Lopez included it on his Reprise Records album (Trini). Lill Lindfors recorded it in Swedish as Din skugga stannar kvar for her 1967 album Du är den ende. Elda Viler (sl) recorded a Slovenian rendering entitled "Senca Tvojega Nasmeha ''. Marvin Gaye recorded several versions of the song. One can be found on Romantically Yours, another on Vulnerable, and a live version on Marvin Gaye: Live at the Copa. Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass recorded an instrumental version for their 1966 album, What Now My Love. The Italian singer MINA sang this song in 1968 on television and was later released on a CD called Le canzonissime. German singer Udo Lindenberg included a more rock - oriented cover of the song on his 1986 single "Germans ''. In 2006, The Central Band of the Royal British Legion recorded an album with "The Shadow Of Your Smile '' as the lead title track. Saxophonist Boots Randolph recorded an instrumental version of the song on a album with the Knightbridge Strings "Boots with Strings '' in 1966 which was later released on CD.
Other notable versions include Nancy Ames singing a Spanish version ("La Sombra De Tu Sonrisa '') on her 1966 album Latin Pulse. Pepe Jaramillo recorded a Latin dance version on his 1971 EMI album Tequila Cocktail. Sergio Franchi recorded the song on his 1967 RCA Victor album, From Sergio - With Love. A version by Engelbert Humperdinck is available on YouTube.
The Bobby Darin album, Bobby Darin Sings The Shadow of Your Smile, was notable in that the album 's first side contained all of the songs nominated for the 1965 Academy Award for Best Original Song.
It is the title piece in the Astrud Gilberto album of the same name, released in October, 1965.
Jazz saxophonist Eddie Harris recorded it in 1965. There are many other jazz versions, notably by Ella Fitzgerald, Wes Montgomery, Oscar Peterson, Oliver Nelson and Bill Evans.
The 1966 single by Johnny Mathis reached # 117 in the US publication Record World.
Al Hirt released a version of the song as the B - side to his single "The Silence (Il Silenzio) ''.
Harry James recorded a live version in 1966 on his album Live At The Riverboat (Dot DLP 3728 and DLP 25728)
Bobby Vinton covered it in Bobby Vinton Sings the Newest Hits in 1967.
Organist Brother Jack McDuff recorded a purely instrumental cover of the song in his 1967 album Tobacco Road. The same year, composer / arranger / keyboardist Clare Fischer was the featured soloist on a version included in his LP Songs for Rainy Day Lovers, supported by his own string arrangement. Likewise, Nashville sax man Boots Randolph offered a version on his LP Boots With Strings.
Tommy McCook, a Cuban - Jamaican rocksteady, ska, reggae saxophonist, recorded a version of this theme, which appears in the Trojan Records compilation Down On Bond Street with the Supersonics and other musicians.
In 1983, the R&B group D - Train had a significant dance hit with their version from the 12 '' single "The Shadow of Your Smile '' / "Keep Giving Me Love ''.
In 1983, instrumental group Pieces of a Dream covered the song from their album Imagine This.
Tony Bennett re-recorded this song for his album Duets: An American Classic with Colombian - rock singer Juanes in a "Spanglish '' version. This marked the first time that Juanes sang in English and Tony Bennett in Spanish.
A José Carreras recording of the song appears on his 1997 album, What a Wonderful World.
Vytautas Juozapaitis, a soloist of Lithuanian National Opera and Ballet Theatre recorded a Lithuanian version entitled "Kai Tu Toli '' on his debut album, Negaliu Nemyleti (Ca n't Help Falling In Love) released in 2004.
Ken (L'Arc ~ en ~ Ciel) solo work 1st. single (Speed) (26.08. 2006)
Carly Smithson performed "The Shadow of Your Smile '' on Season 7 of American Idol during the top 24 performances. It was released for download from the iTunes Store on February 21, 2008.
Singer Amel Larrieux recorded "Shadow of Your Smile '' on her 2007 jazz standard album, Lovely Standards.
Saxophonist Dave Koz recorded two versions from his standards album, At the Movies. The first song featured Johnny Mathis on vocals, and Chris Botti on trumpet. The second, an instrumental, features Botti again and guitarist Norman Brown.
Baden Powell, Brazilian guitarist and composer, included "The Shadow of Your Smile '' on his 1971 Columbia album Solitude on Guitar.
Gina Hayes recorded a fresh, updated / jazzy version of the song on her 2014 album Montage.
Roberta Gambarini recorded a jazz interpretation on her 2013 album The Shadow of Your Smile - Homage to Japan.
It was recorded in a Russian translation (Тень твоей улыбки) by Emil Gorovets.
British singer Shirley Bassey recorded the song on her 1966 album I 've Got a Song for You.
Diane Keaton performs the song as a lounge singer in the 2014 film And So It Goes.
Added versions of famous artists are those of Rosemary Clooney, Brenda Lee, Marvin Gaye, Stevie Wonder, Glenn Frey, Lou Rawls, Dean Martin, Matt Monro, Jack Jones, Tom Jones, Jose Feliciano, Chris Montez, Kenny G, and Filipino songstresses Merci Molina and Pilita Corrales.
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which of these terms is defined as the examination and classification of the elements of poetry | Folk music - wikipedia
Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century, but is often applied to music older than that. Some types of folk music are also called world music. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways: as music transmitted orally, music with unknown composers, or music performed by custom over a long period of time. It has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles.
Starting in the mid-20th century, a new form of popular folk music evolved from traditional folk music. This process and period is called the (second) folk revival and reached a zenith in the 1960s. This form of music is sometimes called contemporary folk music or folk revival music to distinguish it from earlier folk forms. Smaller, similar revivals have occurred elsewhere in the world at other times, but the term folk music has typically not been applied to the new music created during those revivals. This type of folk music also includes fusion genres such as folk rock, folk metal, electric folk, and others. While contemporary folk music is a genre generally distinct from traditional folk music, in English it shares the same name, and it often shares the same performers and venues as traditional folk music.
A consistent definition of traditional folk music is elusive. The terms folk music, folk song, and folk dance are comparatively recent expressions. They are extensions of the term folklore, which was coined in 1846 by the English antiquarian William Thoms to describe "the traditions, customs, and superstitions of the uncultured classes ''. The term further derives from the German expression Volk, in the sense of "the people as a whole '' as applied to popular and national music by Johann Gottfried Herder and the German Romantics over half a century earlier. Traditional folk music also includes most indigenous music.
However, despite the assembly of an enormous body of work over some two centuries, there is still no certain definition of what folk music (or folklore, or the folk) is. Some do not even agree that the term Folk Music should be used. Folk music may tend to have certain characteristics but it can not clearly be differentiated in purely musical terms. One meaning often given is that of "old songs, with no known composers '', another is that of music that has been submitted to an evolutionary "process of oral transmission... the fashioning and re-fashioning of the music by the community that give it its folk character ''.
Such definitions depend upon "(cultural) processes rather than abstract musical types... '', upon "continuity and oral transmission... seen as characterizing one side of a cultural dichotomy, the other side of which is found not only in the lower layers of feudal, capitalist and some oriental societies but also in ' primitive ' societies and in parts of ' popular cultures ' ''. One widely used definition is simply "Folk music is what the people sing ''.
For Scholes, as well as for Cecil Sharp and Béla Bartók, there was a sense of the music of the country as distinct from that of the town. Folk music was already, "... seen as the authentic expression of a way of life now past or about to disappear (or in some cases, to be preserved or somehow revived) '', particularly in "a community uninfluenced by art music '' and by commercial and printed song. Lloyd rejected this in favour of a simple distinction of economic class yet for him true folk music was, in Charles Seeger 's words, "associated with a lower class '' in culturally and socially stratified societies. In these terms folk music may be seen as part of a "schema comprising four musical types: ' primitive ' or ' tribal '; ' elite ' or ' art '; ' folk '; and ' popular ' ''.
Music in this genre is also often called traditional music. Although the term is usually only descriptive, in some cases people use it as the name of a genre. For example, the Grammy Award previously used the terms "traditional music '' and "traditional folk '' for folk music that is not contemporary folk music.
From a historical perspective, traditional folk music had these characteristics:
As a side - effect, the following characteristics are sometimes present:
In folk music, a tune is a short instrumental piece, a melody, often with repeating sections, and usually played a number of times. A collection of tunes with structural similarities is known as a tune - family. America 's Musical Landscape says "the most common form for tunes in folk music is AABB, also known as binary form ''.
In some traditions, tunes may be strung together in medleys or "sets ''.
Throughout most of human prehistory and history, listening to recorded music was not possible. Music was made by common people during both their work and leisure, as well as during religious activities. The work of economic production was often manual and communal. Manual labor often included singing by the workers, which served several practical purposes. It reduced the boredom of repetitive tasks, it kept the rhythm during synchronized pushes and pulls, and it set the pace of many activities such as planting, weeding, reaping, threshing, weaving, and milling. In leisure time, singing and playing musical instruments were common forms of entertainment and history - telling -- even more common than today, when electrically enabled technologies and widespread literacy make other forms of entertainment and information - sharing competitive.
Some believe that folk music originated as art music that was changed and probably debased by oral transmission, while reflecting the character of the society that produced it. In many societies, especially preliterate ones, the cultural transmission of folk music requires learning by ear, although notation has evolved in some cultures. Different cultures may have different notions concerning a division between "folk '' music on the one hand and of "art '' and "court '' music on the other. In the proliferation of popular music genres, some traditional folk music became also referred to "World music '' or "Roots music ''.
The English term "folklore '', to describe traditional folk music and dance, entered the vocabulary of many continental European nations, each of which had its folk - song collectors and revivalists. The distinction between "authentic '' folk and national and popular song in general has always been loose, particularly in America and Germany -- for example popular songwriters such as Stephen Foster could be termed "folk '' in America. The International Folk Music Council definition allows that the term can also apply to music that, "... has originated with an individual composer and has subsequently been absorbed into the unwritten, living tradition of a community. But the term does not cover a song, dance, or tune that has been taken over ready - made and remains unchanged. ''
The post -- World War II folk revival in America and in Britain started a new genre, contemporary folk music, and brought an additional meaning to the term "folk music '': newly composed songs, fixed in form and by known authors, which imitated some form of traditional music. The popularity of "contemporary folk '' recordings caused the appearance of the category "Folk '' in the Grammy Awards of 1959: in 1970 the term was dropped in favor of "Best Ethnic or Traditional Recording (including Traditional Blues) '', while 1987 brought a distinction between "Best Traditional Folk Recording '' and "Best Contemporary Folk Recording ''. After that, they had a "Traditional music '' category that subsequently evolved into others. The term "folk '', by the start of the 21st century, could cover singer songwriters, such as Donovan from Scotland and American Bob Dylan, who emerged in the 1960s and much more. This completed a process to where "folk music '' no longer meant only traditional folk music.
Traditional folk music often includes sung words, although folk instrumental music occurs commonly in dance music traditions. Narrative verse looms large in the traditional folk music of many cultures. This encompasses such forms as traditional epic poetry, much of which was meant originally for oral performance, sometimes accompanied by instruments. Many epic poems of various cultures were pieced together from shorter pieces of traditional narrative verse, which explains their episodic structure, repetitive elements, and their frequent in medias res plot developments. Other forms of traditional narrative verse relate the outcomes of battles or describe tragedies or natural disasters.
Sometimes, as in the triumphant Song of Deborah found in the Biblical Book of Judges, these songs celebrate victory. Laments for lost battles and wars, and the lives lost in them, are equally prominent in many traditions; these laments keep alive the cause for which the battle was fought. The narratives of traditional songs often also remember folk heroes such as John Henry or Robin Hood. Some traditional song narratives recall supernatural events or mysterious deaths.
Hymns and other forms of religious music are often of traditional and unknown origin. Western musical notation was originally created to preserve the lines of Gregorian chant, which before its invention was taught as an oral tradition in monastic communities. Traditional songs such as Green grow the rushes, O present religious lore in a mnemonic form, as do Western Christmas carols and similar traditional songs.
Work songs frequently feature call and response structures and are designed to enable the laborers who sing them to coordinate their efforts in accordance with the rhythms of the songs. They are frequently, but not invariably, composed. In the American armed forces, a lively oral tradition preserves jody calls ("Duckworth chants '') which are sung while soldiers are on the march. Professional sailors made similar use of a large body of sea shanties. Love poetry, often of a tragic or regretful nature, prominently figures in many folk traditions. Nursery rhymes and nonsense verse used to amuse or quiet children also are frequent subjects of traditional songs.
Music transmitted by word of mouth through a community, in time, develops many variants, because this kind of transmission can not produce word - for - word and note - for - note accuracy. Indeed, many traditional singers are quite creative and deliberately modify the material they learn.
For example, the words of "I 'm a Man You Do n't Meet Every Day '' (Roud 975) are known from a broadside in the Bodleian Library. The date is almost certainly before 1900, and it seems to be Irish. In 1958 the song was recorded in Canada (My Name is Pat and I 'm Proud of That). Scottish traveler Jeannie Robertson from Aberdeen, made the next recorded version in 1961. She has changed it to make reference to "Jock Stewart '', one of her relatives, and there are no Irish references. In 1976 Scottish artist Archie Fisher deliberately altered the song to remove the reference to a dog being shot. In 1985 The Pogues took it full circle by restoring all the Irish references.
Because variants proliferate naturally, it is naïve to believe that there is such a thing as the single "authentic '' version of a ballad such as "Barbara Allen ''. Field researchers in traditional song (see below) have encountered countless versions of this ballad throughout the English - speaking world, and these versions often differ greatly from each other. None can reliably claim to be the original, and it is possible that the "original '' version ceased to be sung centuries ago. Many versions can lay an equal claim to authenticity.
The influential folklorist Cecil Sharp felt that these competing variants of a traditional song would undergo a process of improvement akin to biological natural selection: only those new variants that were the most appealing to ordinary singers would be picked up by others and transmitted onward in time. Thus, over time we would expect each traditional song to become aesthetically ever more appealing -- it would be collectively composed to perfection, as it were, by the community.
Literary interest in the popular ballad form dates back at least to Thomas Percy and William Wordsworth. English Elizabethan and Stuart composers had often evolved their music from folk themes, the classical suite was based upon stylised folk - dances, and Joseph Haydn 's use of folk melodies is noted. But the emergence of the term "folk '' coincided with an "outburst of national feeling all over Europe '' that was particularly strong at the edges of Europe, where national identity was most asserted. Nationalist composers emerged in Central Europe, Russia, Scandinavia, Spain and Britain: the music of Dvořák, Smetana, Grieg, Rimsky - Korsakov, Brahms, Liszt, de Falla, Wagner, Sibelius, Vaughan Williams, Bartók, and many others drew upon folk melodies.
While the loss of traditional folk music in the face of the rise of popular music is a worldwide phenomenon, it is not one occurring at a uniform rate throughout the world. The process is most advanced "where industrialization and commercialisation of culture are most advanced '' but also occurs more gradually even in settings of lower technological advancement. However, the loss of traditional music is slowed in nations or regions where traditional folk music is a badge of cultural or national identity, for instance in the case of Bangladesh, Hungary, India, Ireland, Pakistan, Scotland, Latvia, Turkey, Portugal, Brittany, Galicia, Greece and Crete. Tourism revenue can provide a potent incentive to preserve local cultural distinctives. Local government often sponsors and promotes performances during tourist seasons, and revives lost traditions.
Much of what is known about folk music prior to the development of audio recording technology in the 19th century comes from fieldwork and writings of scholars, collectors and proponents.
Starting in the 19th century, academics and amateur scholars, taking note of the musical traditions being lost, initiated various efforts to preserve the music of the people. One such effort was the collection by Francis James Child in the late 19th century of the texts of over three hundred ballads in the English and Scots traditions (called the Child Ballads), some of which predated the 16th century.
Contemporaneously with Child, the Reverend Sabine Baring - Gould and later Cecil Sharp worked to preserve a great body of English rural traditional song, music and dance, under the aegis of what became and remains the English Folk Dance and Song Society (EFDSS). Sharp campaigned with some success to have English traditional songs (in his own heavily edited and expurgated versions) to be taught to school children in hopes of reviving and prolonging the popularity of those songs. Throughout the 1960s and early to mid-1970s, American scholar Bertrand Harris Bronson published an exhaustive four - volume collection of the then - known variations of both the texts and tunes associated with what came to be known as the Child Canon. He also advanced some significant theories concerning the workings of oral - aural tradition.
Similar activity was also under way in other countries. One of the most extensive was perhaps the work done in Riga by Krisjanis Barons, who between the years 1894 and 1915 published six volumes that included the texts of 217,996 Latvian folk songs, the Latvju dainas. In Norway the work of collectors such as Ludvig Mathias Lindeman was extensively used by Edvard Grieg in his Lyric Pieces for piano and in other works, which became immensely popular.
Around this time, composers of classical music developed a strong interest in collecting traditional songs, and a number of outstanding composers carried out their own field work on traditional music. These included Percy Grainger and Ralph Vaughan Williams in England and Béla Bartók in Hungary. These composers, like many of their predecessors, both made arrangements of folk songs and incorporated traditional material into original classical compositions. The Latviju dainas are extensively used in the classical choral works of Andrejs Jurāns, Jānis Cimze, and Emilis Melngailis.
The advent of audio recording technology provided folklorists with a revolutionary tool to preserve vanishing musical forms. The earliest American folk music scholars were with the American Folklore Society (AFS), which emerged in the late 1800s. Their studies expanded to include Native American music, but still treated folk music as a historical item preserved in isolated societies as well. In North America, during the 1930s and 1940s, the Library of Congress worked through the offices of traditional music collectors Robert Winslow Gordon, Alan Lomax and others to capture as much North American field material as possible. Lomax was the first prominent scholar to study distinctly American folk music such as that of cowboys and southern blacks. His first major published work was in 1911, Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads. and was arguably the most prominent US folk music scholar of his time, notably during the beginnings of the folk music revival in the 1930s and early 1940s. Cecil Sharp also worked in America, recording the traditional songs of the Appalachian Mountains in 1916 -- 1918 in collaboration with Maud Karpeles and Olive Dame Campbell and is considered the first major scholar covering American folk music. Campbell and Sharp are represented under other names by actors in the modern movie Songcatcher.
One strong theme amongst folk scholars in the early decades of the 20th century was regionalism, the analysis of the diversity of folk music (and related cultures) based on regions of the US rather than based on a given song 's historical roots. Later, a dynamic of class and circumstances was added to this. The most prominent regionalists were literary figures with a particular interest in folklore. Carl Sandburg often traveled the U.S. as a writer and a poet. He also collected songs in his travels and, in 1927, published them in a book American Songbag. "In his collections of folk songs, Sandburg added a class dynamic to popular understandings of American folk music. This was the final element of the foundation upon which the early folk music revivalists constructed their own view of Americanism. Sandburg 's working class Americans joined with the ethnically, racially, and regionally diverse citizens that other scholars, public intellectuals, and folklorists celebrated their own definitions of the American folk, definitions that the folk revivalists used in constructing their own understanding of American folk music, and an overarching American identity ''.
Prior to the 1930s, the study of folk music was primarily the province of scholars and collectors. The 1930s saw the beginnings of larger scale themes, commonalities, themes and linkages in folk music developing in the populace and practitioners as well, often related to the Great Depression. Regionalism and cultural pluralism grew as influences and themes. During this time folk music began to become enmeshed with political and social activism themes and movements. Two related developments were the U.S. Communist Party 's interest in folk music as a way to reach and influence Americans, and politically active prominent folk musicians and scholars seeing communism as a possible better system, through the lens of the Great Depression. Woody Guthrie exemplifies songwriters and artists with such an outlook.
Folk music festivals proliferated during the 1930s. President Franklin Roosevelt was a fan of folk music, hosted folk concerts at the White House, and often patronized folk festivals. One prominent festival was Sarah Gertrude Knott 's National Folk Festival, established in St. Louis, Missouri in 1934. Under the sponsorship of the Washington Post, the festival was held in Washington, DC at Constitution Hall from 1937 -- 1942. The folk music movement, festivals, and the wartime effort were seen as forces for social goods such as democracy, cultural pluralism, and the removal of culture and race - based barriers.
The American folk music revivalists of the 1930s approached folk music in different ways. Three primary schools of thought emerged: "Traditionalists '' (e.g. Sarah Gertrude Knott and John Lomax) emphasized the preservation of songs as artifacts of deceased cultures. "Functional '' folklorists (e.g. Botkin and Alan Lomax) maintained that songs only retain relevance when utilized by those cultures which retain the traditions which birthed those songs. "Left - wing '' folk revivalists (e.g. Charles Seeger and Lawrence Gellert) emphasized music 's role "in ' people 's ' struggles for social and political rights ''. By the end of the 1930s these and others had turned American folk music into a social movement.
Sometimes folk musicians became scholars and advocates themselves. For example, Jean Ritchie (born in 1922) was the youngest child of a large family from Viper, Kentucky that had preserved many of the old Appalachian traditional songs. Ritchie, living in a time when the Appalachians had opened up to outside influence, was university educated and ultimately moved to New York City, where she made a number of classic recordings of the family repertoire and published an important compilation of these songs. (See also Hedy West)
In January 2012, the American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress, with the Association for Cultural Equity, announced that they would release Lomax 's vast archive of 1946 and later recording in digital form. Lomax spent the last 20 years of his life working on an interactive multimedia educational computer project he called the Global Jukebox, which included 5,000 hours of sound recordings, 400,000 feet of film, 3,000 videotapes, and 5,000 photographs. As of March 2012, this has been accomplished. Approximately 17,400 of Lomax 's recordings from 1946 and later have been made available free online. This material from Alan Lomax 's independent archive, begun in 1946, which has been digitized and offered by the Association for Cultural Equity, is "distinct from the thousands of earlier recordings on acetate and aluminum discs he made from 1933 to 1942 under the auspices of the Library of Congress. This earlier collection -- which includes the famous Jelly Roll Morton, Woody Guthrie, Lead Belly, and Muddy Waters sessions, as well as Lomax 's prodigious collections made in Haiti and Eastern Kentucky (1937) -- is the provenance of the American Folklife Center '' at the library of Congress.
Africa is a vast continent and its regions and nations have distinct musical traditions. The music of North Africa for the most part has a different history from Sub-Saharan African music traditions.
The music and dance forms of the African diaspora, including African American music and many Caribbean genres like soca, calypso and Zouk; and Latin American music genres like the samba, Cuban rumba, salsa; and other clave (rhythm) - based genres, were founded to varying degrees on the music of African slaves, which has in turn influenced African popular music.
Many Asian civilizations distinguish between art / court / classical styles and "folk '' music, though cultures that do not depend greatly upon notation and have much anonymous art music must distinguish the two in different ways from those suggested by western scholars. For example, the late Alam Lohar is a good example of a classical South Asian folk singer of great repute. Khunung Eshei / Khuland Eshei is an ancient folk song of Meiteis of Manipur who have maintained it for thousands of years.
Archaeological discoveries date Chinese folk music back 7000 years; it is largely based on the pentatonic scale.
Han traditional weddings and funerals usually include a form of oboe called a suona and apercussive ensembles called a chuigushou. Ensembles consisting of mouth organs (sheng), shawms (suona), flutes (dizi) and percussion instruments (especially yunluo gongs) are popular in northern villages; their music is descended from the imperial temple music of Beijing, Xi'an, Wutai shan and Tianjin. Xi'an drum music, consisting of wind and percussive instruments, is popular around Xi'an, and has received some commercial popularity outside of China. Another important instrument is the sheng, pipes, an ancient instrument that is ancestor of all Western free reed instruments, such as the accordion. Parades led by Western - type brass bands are common, often competing in volume with a shawm / chuigushou band.
In southern Fujian and Taiwan, Nanyin or Nanguan is a genre of traditional ballads. They are sung by a woman accompanied by a xiao and a pipa, as well as other traditional instruments. The music is generally sorrowful and typically deals with a love - stricken women. Further south, in Shantou, Hakka and Chaozhou, erxian and zheng ensembles are popular. Sizhu ensembles use flutes and bowed or plucked string instruments to make harmonious and melodious music that has become popular in the West among some listeners. These are popular in Nanjing and Hangzhou, as well as elsewhere along the southern Yangtze area. Sizhu has been secularized in cities but remains spiritual in rural areas. Jiangnan Sizhu (silk and bamboo music from Jiangnan) is a style of instrumental music, often played by amateur musicians in tea houses in Shanghai; it has become widely known outside of its place of origin. Guangdong Music or Cantonese Music is instrumental music from Guangzhou and surrounding areas. It is based on Yueju (Cantonese Opera) music, together with new compositions from the 1920s onwards. Many pieces have influences from jazz and Western music, using syncopation and triple time. This music tells stories, myths and legends.
The genre of Sri Lankan music is known as Oriental music. The art, music and dances of Sri Lanka derives from the elements of nature, and have been enjoyed and developed in the Buddhist environment. The music is of several types and uses only a few types of instruments. The folk songs and poems were used in social gatherings to work together. The Indian influenced classical music has grown to be unique. The traditional drama, music and songs are typically Sri Lankan. The temple paintings and carvings used birds, elephants, wild animals, flowers and trees, and the Traditional 18 Dances display the dancing of birds and animals. For example:
Musical types include:
The classical Sinhalese Orchestra consists of five categories of instruments, but among the percussion instruments, the drum is essential for dance. The vibrant beat of the rhythm of the drums form the basic of the dance. The dancers feet bounce off the floor and they leap and swirl in patterns that reflect the complex rhythms of the drum beat. This drum beat may seem simple on the first hearing but it takes a long time to master the intricate rhythms and variations, which the drummer sometimes can bring to a crescendo of intensity. There are six common types of drums falling within 3 styles (one - faced, two - faced, and flat - faced):
Other instruments include:
Folk song traditions were taken to Australia by early settlers from England, Scotland and Ireland and gained particular foothold in the rural outback. The rhyming songs, poems and tales written in the form of bush ballads often relate to the itinerant and rebellious spirit of Australia in The Bush, and the authors and performers are often referred to as bush bards. The 19th century was the golden age of bush ballads. Several collectors have catalogued the songs including John Meredith whose recording in the 1950s became the basis of the collection in the National Library of Australia.
The songs tell personal stories of life in the wide open country of Australia. Typical subjects include mining, raising and droving cattle, sheep shearing, wanderings, war stories, the 1891 Australian shearers ' strike, class conflicts between the landless working class and the squatters (landowners), and outlaws such as Ned Kelly, as well as love interests and more modern fare such as trucking. The most famous bush ballad is "Waltzing Matilda '', which has been called "the unofficial national anthem of Australia ''.
Indigenous Australian music includes the music of Australian Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders, who are collectively called Indigenous Australians; it incorporates a variety of distinctive traditional music styles practiced by Indigenous Australian peoples, as well as a range of contemporary musical styles of and fusion with European traditions as interpreted and performed by indigenous Australian artists. Music has formed an integral part of the social, cultural and ceremonial observances of these peoples, down through the millennia of their individual and collective histories to the present day. The traditional forms include many aspects of performance and musical instrumentation unique to particular regions or Indigenous Australian groups. Equal elements of musical tradition are common through much of the Australian continent, and even beyond. The culture of the Torres Strait Islanders is related to that of adjacent parts of New Guinea and so their music is also related. Music is a vital part of Indigenous Australians ' cultural maintenance.
Celtic music is a term used by artists, record companies, music stores and music magazines to describe a broad grouping of musical genres that evolved out of the folk musical traditions of the Celtic peoples. These traditions include Irish, Scottish, Manx, Cornish, Welsh, and Breton traditions. Asturian and Galician music is often included, though there is no significant research showing that this has any close musical relationship. Brittany 's Folk revival began in the 1950s with the "bagadoù '' and the "kan - ha - diskan '' before growing to world fame through Alan Stivell 's work since the mid-1960s.
In Ireland, The Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem (although its members were all Irish - born, the group became famous while based in New York 's Greenwich Village), The Dubliners, Clannad, Planxty, The Chieftains, The Pogues, The Corrs, The Irish Rovers, and a variety of other folk bands have done much over the past few decades to revitalise and re-popularise Irish traditional music. These bands were rooted, to a greater or lesser extent, in a tradition of Irish music and benefited from the efforts of artists such as Seamus Ennis and Peter Kennedy.
In Scotland, The Corries, Silly Wizard, Capercaillie, Runrig, Jackie Leven, Julie Fowlis, Karine Polwart, Alasdair Roberts, Dick Gaughan, Wolfstone, Boys of the Lough, and The Silencers have kept Scottish folk vibrant and fresh by mixing traditional Scottish and Gaelic folk songs with more contemporary genres. These artists have also been commercially successful in continental Europe and North America.
During the Communist era national folk dancing in the Eastern Bloc was actively promoted by the state. Dance troupes from Russia and Poland toured non-communist Europe from about 1937 to 1990. The Red Army Choir recorded many albums. Eastern Europe is also the origin of the Jewish Klezmer tradition.
The polka is a central European dance and also a genre of dance music familiar throughout Europe and the Americas. It originated in the middle of the 19th century in Bohemia. Polka is still a popular genre of folk music in many European countries and is performed by folk artists in Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Netherlands, Croatia, Slovenia, Germany, Hungary, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Ukraine, Belarus, Russia and Slovakia. Local varieties of this dance are also found in the Nordic countries, United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Latin America (especially Mexico), and in the United States.
German Volkslieder perpetuated by Liederhandschriften manuscripts like Carmina Burana date back to medieval Minnesang and Meistersinger traditions. Those folk songs revived in the late 18th century period of German Romanticism, first promoted by Johann Gottfried Herder and other advocates of the Enlightenment, later compiled by Achim von Arnim and Clemens Brentano (Des Knaben Wunderhorn) as well as by Ludwig Uhland.
The Volksmusik and folk dances genre, especially in the Alpine regions of Bavaria, Austria, Switzerland (Kuhreihen) and South Tyrol, up to today has clinged on rustic communities against the backdrop of industrialisation -- Low German shanties or the Wienerlied (Schrammelmusik) being notable exceptions. Slovene folk music in Upper Carniola and Styria also originated from the Alpine traditions. Traditional Volksmusik is not to be confused with commercial Volkstümliche Musik variations, strongly related to German Schlager music.
The Hungarian group Muzsikás played numerous American tours and participated in the Hollywood movie The English Patient while the singer Márta Sebestyén worked with the band Deep Forest. The Hungarian táncház movement, started in the 1970s, involves strong cooperation between musicology experts and enthusiastic amateurs. However, traditional Hungarian folk music and folk culture barely survived in some rural areas of Hungary, and it has also begun to disappear among the ethnic Hungarians in Transylvania. The táncház movement revived broader folk traditions of music, dance, and costume together and created a new kind of music club. The movement spread to ethnic Hungarian communities elsewhere in the world.
The Balkan folk music was influenced by the mingling of Balkan ethnic groups in the period of Ottoman Empire. It comprises the music of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, Romania, Republic of Macedonia, Albania, Turkey, some of the historical states of Yugoslavia or the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro and geographical regions such as Thrace. Some music is characterised by complex rhythm.
A notable act is The Mystery Of The Bulgarian Voices, which won a Grammy Award in 1989.
An important part of the whole Balkan folk music is the music of the local Romani ethnic minority.
Nordic folk music includes a number of traditions in Northern European, especially Scandinavian, countries. The Nordic countries are generally taken to include Iceland, Norway, Finland, Sweden and Denmark. Sometimes it is taken to include Greenland and historically the Baltic countries of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
The many regions of the Nordic countries share certain traditions, many of which have diverged significantly. It is possible to group together the Baltic states (or, sometimes, only Estonia) and parts of northwest Russia as sharing cultural similarities, contrasted with Norway, Sweden, Denmark and the Atlantic islands of, Iceland and the Faroe Islands. Greenland 's Inuit culture has its own musical traditions, influenced by Scandinavian culture. Finland shares many cultural similarities with both the Baltic nations and the Scandinavian nations. The Saami of Sweden, Norway, Finland and Russia have their own unique culture, with ties to the neighboring cultures.
Swedish folk music is a genre of music based largely on folkloric collection work that began in the early 19th century in Sweden. The primary instrument of Swedish folk music is the fiddle. Another common instrument, unique to Swedish traditions, is the nyckelharpa. Most Swedish instrumental folk music is dance music; the signature music and dance form within Swedish folk music is the polska. Vocal and instrumental traditions in Sweden have tended to share tunes historically, though they have been performed separately. Beginning with the folk music revival of the 1970s, vocalists and instrumentalists have also begun to perform together in folk music ensembles.
Folk music on the Americas consists on the encounter and union of three main musical types: European traditional music, traditional music of the American natives and tribal African music that arrived among the slaves, main differences consist on the particular type of each of these main slopes.
Particular case of Latin and South American music points to Andean music among other native musical styles (such as Caribbean, pampean and selvatic), Iberean music (Spain and Portugal) and generally speaking African tribal music, that fused together evolving in differentiated musical forms along South and Central America.
Andean music comes from the general area inhabited by Quechuas, Aymaras and other peoples that roughly in the area of the Inca Empire prior to European contact. It includes folklore music of parts of Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela. Andean music is popular to different degrees across Latin America, having its core public in rural areas and among indigenous populations. The Nueva Canción movement of the 1970s revived the genre across Latin America and bought it to places where it was unknown or forgotten.
Nueva canción (Spanish for ' new song ') is a movement and genre within Latin American and Iberian music of folk music, folk - inspired music and socially committed music. It some respects its development and role is similar to the second folk music revival. This includes evolution of this new genre from traditional folk music, essentially contemporary folk music except that that English genre term is not commonly applied to it. Nueva cancion is recognized as having played a powerful role in the social upheavals in Portugal, Spain and Latin America during the 1970s and 1980s.
Nueva cancion first surfaced during the 1960s as "The Chilean New Song '' in Chile. The musical style emerged shortly afterwards in Spain and other areas of Latin America where it came to be known under similar names. Nueva canción renewed traditional Latin American folk music, and was soon associated with revolutionary movements, the Latin American New Left, Liberation Theology, hippie and human rights movements due to political lyrics. It would gain great popularity throughout Latin America, and is regarded as a precursor to Rock en español.
Cueca is a family of musical styles and associated dances from Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and Argentina.
Trova and Son are styles of traditional Cuban music originating in the province of Oriente that includes influences from Spanish song and dance such as Bolero and contradanza as well as Afro - Cuban rhythm and percussion elements.
Moda de viola is the name designed to Brazilian folk music. Is often performed with a 6 - string nylon acoustic guitar, but the most traditional instrument is the viola caipira. The songs basically detailed the hardness of life of those who work in the country. The themes are usually associated with the land, animals, folklore, impossible love and separation. Although there are some upbeat songs, most of them are nostalgic and melancholic.
Canada 's traditional folk music is particularly diverse. Even prior to liberalizing its immigration laws in the 1960s, Canada was ethnically diverse with dozens of different Indigenous and European groups present. In terms of music, academics do not speak of a Canadian tradition, but rather ethnic traditions (Acadian music, Irish - Canadian music, Blackfoot music, Innu music, Inuit music, Métis fiddle, etc.) and later in Eastern Canada regional traditions (Newfoundland music, Cape Breton fiddling, Quebecois music, etc.)
Traditional folk music of European origin has been present in Canada since the arrival of the first French and British settlers in the 16th and 17th centuries... They fished the coastal waters and farmed the shores of what became Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and the St Lawrence River valley of Quebec.
The fur trade and its voyageurs brought this farther north and west into Canada; later lumbering operations and lumberjacks continued this process.
Agrarian settlement in eastern and southern Ontario and western Quebec in the early 19th century established a favorable milieu for the survival of many Anglo - Canadian folksongs and broadside ballads from Great Britain and the US. Despite massive industrialization, folk music traditions have persisted in many areas until today. In the north of Ontario, a large Franco - Ontarian population kept folk music of French origin alive.
Populous Acadian communities in the Atlantic provinces contributed their song variants to the huge corpus of folk music of French origin centred in the province of Quebec. A rich source of Anglo - Canadian folk music can be found in the Atlantic region, especially Newfoundland. Completing this mosaic of musical folklore is the Gaelic music of Scottish settlements, particularly in Cape Breton, and the hundreds of Irish songs whose presence in eastern Canada dates from the Irish famine of the 1840s, which forced the large migrations of Irish to North America.
"Knowledge of the history of Canada '', wrote Isabelle Mills in 1974, "is essential in understanding the mosaic of Canadian folk song. Part of this mosaic is supplied by the folk songs of Canada brought by European and Anglo - Saxon settlers to the new land. '' She describes how the French colony at Québec brought French immigrants, followed before long by waves of immigrants from Great Britain, Germany, and other European countries, all bringing music from their homelands, some of which survives into the present day. Ethnographer and folklorist Marius Barbeau estimated that well over ten thousand French folk songs and their variants had been collected in Canada. Many of the older ones had by then died out in France.
Music as professionalized paid entertainment grew relatively slowly in Canada, especially remote rural areas, through the 19th and early 20th centuries. While in urban music clubs of the dance hall / vaudeville variety became popular, followed by jazz, rural Canada remained mostly a land of traditional music. Yet when American radio networks began broadcasting into Canada in the 1920s and 1930s, the audience for Canadian traditional music progressively declined in favour of American Nashville - style country music and urban styles like jazz. The Americanization of Canadian music led the Canadian Radio League to lobby for a national public broadcaster in the 1930s, eventually leading to the creation of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) in 1936. The CBC promoted Canadian music, including traditional music, on its radio and later television services, but the mid-century craze for all things "modern '' led to the decline of folk music relative to rock and pop. Canada was however influenced by the folk music revival of the 1960s, when local venues such as the Montreal Folk Workshop, and other folk clubs and coffee houses across the country, became crucibles for emerging songwriters and performers as well as for interchange with artists visiting from abroad.
American traditional music is also called roots music. Roots music is a broad category of music including bluegrass, country music, gospel, old time music, jug bands, Appalachian folk, blues, Cajun and Native American music. The music is considered American either because it is native to the United States or because it developed there, out of foreign origins, to such a degree that it struck musicologists as something distinctly new. It is considered "roots music '' because it served as the basis of music later developed in the United States, including rock and roll, contemporary folk music, rhythm and blues, and jazz. Some of these genres are considered to be traditional folk music.
"Folk music revival '' refers to either a period of renewed interest in traditional folk music, or to an event or period which transforms it; the latter usually includes a social activism component. A prominent example of the former is the British folk revival of approximately 1890 -- 1920. The most prominent and influential example of the latter (to the extent that it is usually called "the folk music revival '') is the folk revival of the mid 20th century, centered in the English - speaking world which gave birth to contemporary folk music. See the "Contemporary folk music '' article for a description of this revival.
One earlier revival influenced western classical music. Such composers as Percy Grainger, Ralph Vaughan Williams and Béla Bartók, made field recordings or transcriptions of folk singers and musicians.
In Spain, Isaac Albéniz (1860 -- 1909) produced piano works reflect his Spanish heritage, including the Suite Iberia (1906 -- 1909). Enrique Granados (1867 -- 1918) composed zarzuela, Spanish light opera, and Danzas Españolas -- Spanish Dances. Manuel de Falla (1876 -- 1946) became interested in the cante jondo of Andalusian flamenco, the influence of which can be strongly felt in many of his works, which include Nights in the Gardens of Spain and Siete canciones populares españolas ("Seven Spanish Folksongs '', for voice and piano). Composers such as Fernando Sor and Francisco Tarrega established the guitar as Spain 's national instrument. Modern Spanish folk artists abound (Mil i Maria, Russian Red, et al.) modernizing while respecting the traditions of their forebears.
Flamenco grew in popularity through the 20th century, as did northern styles such as the Celtic music of Galicia. French classical composers, from Bizet to Ravel, also drew upon Spanish themes, and distinctive Spanish genres became universally recognized.
Folk music revivals or roots revivals also encompass a range of phenomena around the world where there is a renewed interest in traditional music. This is often by the young, often in the traditional music of their own country, and often included new incorporation of social awareness, causes, and evolutions of new music in the same style. Nueva canción, a similar evolution of a new form of socially committed music occurred in several Spanish speaking countries.
The "first '' British folk revival was a roots revival which occurred approximately 1890 -- 1920 and was marked by heightened interest in traditional music and its preservation. It arose from earlier developments, perhaps combined with changes in the nature of British identity, led to a much more intensive and academic attempt to record what was seen as a vanishing tradition, and is now usually referred to as the first English or British folk revival.
It is sometimes claimed that the earliest folk festival was the Mountain Dance and Folk Festival, 1928, in Asheville, North Carolina, founded by Bascom Lamar Lunsford. The National Folk Festival (USA) is an itinerant folk festival in the United States. Since 1934, it has been run by the National Council for the Traditional Arts (NCTA) and has been presented in 26 communities around the nation. After leaving some of these communities, the National Folk Festival has spun off several locally run folk festivals in its wake including the Lowell Folk Festival, the Richmond Folk Festival, the American Folk Festival and, most recently, the Montana Folk Festival.
The Newport Folk Festival is an annual folk festival held near Newport, Rhode Island. It ran most year from 1959 to 1970, and 1985 to the present, with an attendance of approximately 10,000 persons.
The four - day Philadelphia Folk Festival began in 1962. It is sponsored by the non-profit Philadelphia Folksong Society. The event hosts contemporary and traditional artists in genres including World / Fusion, Celtic, Singer / Songwriter, Folk Rock, Country, Klezmer, and Dance. It is held annually on the third weekend in August. The event now hosts approximately 12,000 visitors, presenting bands on 6 stages.
The Feast of the Hunters ' Moon in Indiana draws approximately 60,000 visitors per year.
Sidmouth Festival began in 1954, and Cambridge Folk Festival began in 1965. The Cambridge Folk Festival in Cambridge, England is noted for having a very wide definition of who can be invited as folk musicians. The "club tents '' allow attendees to discover large numbers of unknown artists, who, for ten or 15 minutes each, present their work to the festival audience.
The National Folk Festival is Australia 's premier folk festival event and is attended by over 50,000 people. the Woodford Folk Festival, National Folk Festival and Port Fairy Folk Festival are amongst Australia 's largest major annual events, attracting top international folk performers as well as many local artists.
Stan Rogers is a lasting fixture of the Canadian folk festival Summerfolk, held annually in Owen Sound, Ontario, where the main stage and amphitheater are dedicated as the "Stan Rogers Memorial Canopy ''. The festival is firmly fixed in tradition, with Rogers ' song "The Mary Ellen Carter '' being sung by all involved, including the audience and a medley of acts at the festival. The Canmore Folk Music Festival is Alberta 's longest running folk music festival.
Urkult Näsåker, Ångermanland held August each year is purportedly Sweden 's largest world - music festival.
These references are cited above with multiple abbreviated cites with varying locations.
(does not include those used as references)
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who was involved in the gold rush in australia | Australian gold rushes - Wikipedia
During the Australian gold rushes, significant numbers of workers (both from other areas within Australia and from overseas) relocated to areas in which gold had been discovered. A number of gold finds occurred in Australia prior to 1851, but only the gold found from 1851 onwards created gold rushes. This is mainly because, prior to 1851, the colonial government of New South Wales (Victoria did not become a separate colony until 1 July 1851) had suppressed news of gold finds which it believed would reduce the workforce and destabilise the economy.
After the California gold rush began in 1848, which caused many people to leave Australia for California to look for gold there, the New South Wales government rethought its position, and sought approval from the Colonial Office in England to allow the exploitation of the mineral resources and also offered rewards for the finding of payable gold.
The first gold rush in Australia began in May 1851 after prospector Edward Hargraves claimed to have discovered payable gold near Orange, at a site he called Ophir. Hargraves had been to the Californian goldfields and had learned new gold prospecting techniques such as panning and cradling. Hargraves was offered rewards by the Colony of New South Wales and the Colony of Victoria. Before the end of the year, the gold rush had spread to many other parts of the state where gold had been found, not just to the west, but also to the south and north of Sydney.
The Australian gold rushes changed the convict colonies into more progressive cities with the influx of free immigrants. These hopefuls, termed diggers, brought new skills and professions, contributing to a burgeoning economy. The mateship that evolved between these diggers and their collective resistance to authority led to the emergence of a unique national identity. Although not all diggers found riches on the goldfields, many decided to stay and integrate into these communities.
In July 1851, Victoria 's first gold rush began on the Clunes goldfield. In August, the gold rush had spread to include the goldfield at Buninyong (today a suburb of Ballarat) 45 km (28 m) away and, by early September 1851, to the nearby goldfield at Ballarat (then also known as Yuille 's Diggings), followed in early September to the goldfield at Castlemaine (then known as Forest Creek and the Mount Alexander Goldfield) and the goldfield at Bendigo (then known as Bendigo Creek) in November 1851. Gold, just as in New South Wales, was also found in many other parts of the state. The Victorian Gold Discovery Committee wrote in 1854:
The discovery of the Victorian Goldfields has converted a remote dependency into a country of world wide fame; it has attracted a population, extraordinary in number, with unprecedented rapidity; it has enhanced the value of property to an enormous extent; it has made this the richest country in the world; and, in less than three years, it has done for this colony the work of an age, and made its impulses felt in the most distant regions of the earth.
When the rush began at Ballarat, diggers discovered it was a prosperous goldfield. Lieutenant - Governor, Charles La Trobe visited the site and watched five men uncover 136 ounces of gold in one day. Mount Alexander was even richer than Ballarat. With gold sitting just under the surface, the shallowness allowed diggers to easily unearth gold nuggets. In 7 months, 2.4 million pounds of gold was transported from Mount Alexander to nearby capital cities.
The gold rushes caused a huge influx of people from overseas. Australia 's total population more than tripled from 430,000 in 1851 to 1.7 million in 1871. Australia first became a multicultural society during the gold rush period. Between 1852 and 1860, 290,000 people migrated to Victoria from the British Isles, 15,000 came from other European countries, and 18,000 emigrated from the United States. Non-European immigrants, however, were unwelcome, especially the Chinese.
The Chinese were particularly industrious, with techniques that differed widely from the Europeans. This and their physical appearance and fear of the unknown led to them to being persecuted in a racist way that would be regarded as untenable today.
In 1855, 11,493 Chinese arrived in Melbourne. Chinese travelling outside of New South Wales had to obtain special re-entry certificates. In 1855, Victoria enacted the Chinese Immigration Act 1855, severely limiting the number of Chinese passengers permitted on an arriving vessel. To evade the new law, many Chinese were landed in the south - east of South Australia and travelled more than 400 km across country to the Victorian goldfields, along tracks which are still evident today.
In 1885, following a call by the Western Australian government for a reward for the first find of payable gold, a discovery was made at Halls Creek, sparking a gold rush in that state.
In August 1788, convict James Daley reported to several people that he had found gold, "an inexhaustible source of wealth '', "some distance down the harbour (Port Jackson, Sydney) ''. On the pretense of showing an officer the position of his gold find, Daley absconded into the bush for a day. For this escapade, Daley was to receive 50 lashes. Still insisting that he had found gold, Daley next produced a specimen of gold ore. Governor Arthur Phillip then ordered Daley to again be taken down the harbour to point out where he had found the gold. Before being taken down the harbour, however, on being warned by an officer that he would be put to death if he attempted to deceive him, Daley confessed that his story about finding gold was "a falsehood ''. He had manufactured the specimen of gold ore that he had exhibited from a gold guinea and a brass buckle and he produced the remains of the same as proof. For this deception, Daley received 100 lashes. Many convicts, however, continued to believe that Daley had indeed found gold, and that he had only changed his story to keep the place of the gold find to himself. James Daley 's fate was to hang in December that same year (1788) for breaking and entering and theft.
Some convicts who were employed cutting a road over the Blue Mountains were rumoured to have found small pieces of gold in 1815.
F. Stein was a Russian naturalist with the 1819 -- 1821 Bellinhausen expedition to explore the Southern Ocean. Stein claimed to have sighted gold - bearing ore while he was on a 12 - day trip to the Blue Mountains in March 1820. Many people were sceptical of his claim.
The first officially recognised gold find in Australia was on 15 February 1823, by assistant surveyor James McBrien, at Fish River, between Rydal and Bathurst, New South Wales. McBrien noted the date in his field survey book along with, "At E. (End of the survey line) 1 chain 50 links to river and marked a gum tree. At this place I found numerous particles of gold convenient to river. ''
In 1834 with government help, John Lhotsky travelled to the Monaro district of New South Wales and explored its southern mountains. On returning to Sydney in that same year, he exhibited specimens that he had collected that contained gold.
In 1837, gold and silver ore was found about 30 miles (48 km) from Segenhoe near Aberdeen. The find was described in the newspapers as the discovery of a gold and silver mine about 30 miles from Thomas Potter Macqueen 's Segenhoe Estate, by a Russian stockman employed in the neighbourhood of the discovery, which was located on Crown land.
Paweł Edmund Strzelecki geologist and explorer, found small amounts of gold in silicate in 1839 at the Vale of Clwyd near Hartley, a location on the road to Bathurst.
Gold is believed to have been found in Northern Tasmania at The Den (formerly known as Lefroy or Nine Mile Springs) near George Town in 1840 by a convict. In the 1880s, this became known as the Lefroy goldfields.
The Reverend William Branwhite Clarke found gold on the Coxs River, a location on the road to Bathurst, in 1841. In 1842 he found gold on the Wollondilly River. In 1843, Clarke spoke to many persons of the abundance of gold likely to be found in the colony of New South Wales. On 9 April 1844, Clarke exhibited a sample of gold in quartz to Governor Sir George Gipps. In that same year, Clarke showed the sample and spoke of the probable abundance of gold to some members of the New South Wales Legislative Council including Justice Roger Therry, the member for Camden and Joseph Phelps Robinson, then member for the Town of Melbourne. In evidence that Clarke gave before a Select Committee of the NSW Legislative Council in September 1852, he stated that the subject was not followed up as "the matter was regarded as one of curiosity only, and considerations of the penal character of the colony kept the subject quiet, as much as the general ignorance of the value of such an indication. '' Towards the end of 1853, Clarke was given a grant of £ 1000 by the New South Wales government for his services in connection with the discovery of gold. The same amount (£ 1000) was voted by the Victorian Gold Discovery Committee in 1854.
Gold was found in Pyrenees Ranges near Clunes and in the Plenty Ranges near Melbourne in 1841 and the gold was sent to Hobart where it was sold.
Beginning in 1843, gold samples were brought several times into the watchmaker 's shop of T.J. Thomas in Melbourne by "bushmen ''. The specimens were looked upon as curiosities.
A shepherd named Smith thought that he had found gold near the Ovens River in 1844, and reported the matter to Charles La Trobe, who advised him to say nothing about it.
On 12 December 1845, a shepherd walked into the George Street, Sydney shop of goldsmith E.D. Cohen carrying a specimen of gold embedded in quartz for sale, with the gold weighing about four ounces, with the shepherd saying he had been robbed of double as much on his way to town. The shepherd did not disclose where he had found the gold, just that if men were to take engagements with squatters they, in addition to receiving their wages, may also discover a gold mine.
Gold was found in South Australia and Australia 's first goldmine was established. From the earliest days of the Colony of South Australia men, including Johannes Menge the geologist with the South Australian Company, had been seeking gold. "Armed with miner 's pick, numberless explorers are to be found prying into the depths of the valleys or climbing the mountain tops. No place is too remote ''. Gold was found in January 1846 by Captain Thomas Terrell at the Victoria Mine near Castambul, in the Adelaide Hills, South Australia, about 10 miles (16 km) east of Adelaide. Some of the gold was made into a brooch sent to Queen Victoria and samples were displayed at the Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace in 1851. Share prices rose from £ 2 to £ 30, but soon fell back to £ 3 when no further gold was found. Unfortunately for the investors, and everyone else concerned, the mine 's total gold production never amounted to more than 24 ounces.
Gold was found at Port Phillip (Victoria) by a shepherd. About April 1847 a shepherd took a sample of ore about the size of an apple, that he believed to be copper, into the jewellery store of Charles Brentani in Collins Street, Melbourne, where the sample was purchased by an employee, Joseph Forrester, a gold and silver smith. The shepherd refused to disclose to Forrester where he had obtained the nugget, but stated that "there was plenty more of it where it came from '' on the station where he worked about 60 miles (96 km) from Melbourne. The sample was tested by Forrester and found to be 65 per cent virgin gold. A sample of this ore was given to Captain Clinch who took it to Hobart.
It is said that John Gardner found gold - bearing quartz in 1847 on Blythe Creek, near Beaconsfield, on the other side of the Tamar River from George Town.
Gold was found by a shepherd named McGregor at Mitchells Creek near Wellington, New South Wales, in 1848 on the Montefiore 's squatting run, "Nanima ''. The Bathurst Free Press noted, on 25 May 1850, that "Neither is there any doubt in the fact that Mr M'Gregor found a considerable quantity of the precious metal some years ago, near Mitchell 's Creek, and it is surmised he still gets more in the same locality. ''
William Tipple Smith found gold near Bathurst in 1848. Smith, a mineralogist and manager of an iron works in New South Wales, had been inspired to look for gold near Bathurst by the ideas of Roderick Murchison, president of the Royal Geographical Society, who in 1844 in his first presidential address, had predicted the existence of gold in Australia 's Great Dividing Range, ideas which were published again in "The Sydney Morning Herald '' on 28 September 1847 suggesting that gold "will be found on the western flanks of the dividing ranges ''. Smith sent samples of the gold he found to Murchison.
Gold was first detected in Western Australia in 1848 in specimens sent for assay to Adelaide from copper and lead deposits found in the bed of the Murchison River, near Northampton, by explorer James Perry Walcott, a member of A.C. Gregory 's party.
In 1852 -- 53 rich specimens of gold - bearing stone were found by shepherds and others in the eastern districts, but they were unable afterwards to locate the places where the stone was discovered. The late Hon A.C. Gregory found traces of gold in quartz in the Bowes River in 1854. In 1861 Mr Panton found near Northam, while shortly afterwards a shepherd brought in rich specimens of auriferous quartz which he had found to the eastward of Northam, but he failed to locate the spot again.
Various small finds were made up to 1882, when Alexander McRae found gold between Cossack and Roebourne, with one nugget weighing upwards of 9 dwt (14g).
Edward Hardman, Government Geologist, found traces of gold in the East Kimberley in 1884. His report about his finds subsequently led to the discovery of payable gold and the first Western Australian Goldrush.
Gold was found in the Pyrnees Ranges in 1848 by a shepherd, Thomas Chapman. In December 1848 Chapman came into the jewellery store of Charles Brentani, in Collins Street, Melbourne, with a stone that he had "held for several months ''. Chapman said that he had found the gold where he worked on Charles Browning Hall (later Gold Commissioner) and Edmund McNeill 's station at Daisy Hill (near Amherst) in the Pyrennes Ranges. Alexandre Duchene and Joseph Forrester, both working for Charles Brentani, confirmed the stone contained a total of 38 ounces of 90 per cent pure gold, and Brentani 's wife Ann purchased the stone on behalf of her husband. A sample of this ore was given to Captain Clinch who took it to Hobart, Captain White who took it to England, and Charles La Trobe. As a consequence of the gold find by Chapman official printed notices were posted on a number of prominent places in the town (Melbourne) proclaiming the fact that gold had been found in Port Phillip (Victoria). The Bertini 's shop was thronged by persons wanting to see the nugget and asking where it had been found. This find sparked a mini-gold - rush with about a hundred men rushing to the site. This could perhaps be categorised as the first, though unofficial, gold rush in Victoria, or perhaps the gold rush that was stamped out.
Charles La Trobe quickly put an end to the search for gold in February 1849 by ordering 10 mounted police (William Dana and Richard McLelland in charge of 8 native troopers) to ' take possession of the Gold - mine ', ' prevent any unauthorised occupation of Crown Lands in the neighbourhood ' (Hall and McNeill 's station was leased from the Crown), dismiss the gold - seekers and prevent any further digging at Daisy Hill. The story was then dismissed by some of the press as a hoax. This did not stop people finding gold, however, and in the year 1850, according to Brentani 's wife Ann, the "gold came down from the country in all directions ''. She and her husband purchased as much as they could but had difficulty in supplying the money.
The first substantiated find of gold in Tasmania was reported to have been made by a Mr Riva of Launceston, who is stated to have traced gold in slate rocks in the vicinity of The Den (formerly known as Lefroy or Nine Mile Springs) near George Town in 1849.
The following news item from the "Geelong Advertiser '' of 10 July 1849 shows the attitude of scepticism towards gold finds that were being brought into towns like Geelong during the pre-goldrush period:
GOLD. - A specimen of this valuable mineral was brought into town yesterday, having been picked up in a locality near the Wardy - yallock River. Of the identity of the metal there can be no mistake; but whether it was really taken from the spot indicated, or intended merely as a hoax or perhaps a swindle, it is quite impossible, at the present moment, to say. The piece exhibited, is of very small size; but, of course, as in all such instances, the lucky finder can obtain tons from the same spot by the simple mode of stooping down and picking it up.
The attitude was completely different just a couple of years later in 1853 after the Victorian goldrushes had begun:
Smythe 's Creek, a branch of the Wardy Yallock river, is also attracting its share of the mining population, who are doing tolerably well. One very fine sample of gold has also been received in town during the week from the Wardy Yallock itself, found in the locality where the exploring party of last winter ended their labours. The parcel is small, - only 22 dwts., but was obtained by one man in a week from very shallow surfacing.
In March 1850 pastoralist William Campbell found several minute pieces of native gold in quartz on the station of Donald Cameron at Clunes. William Campbell is notable as having been the first member of the electoral district of Loddon of the Victorian Legislative Council from November 1851 to May 1854. Campbell was in 1854 to receive a £ 1,000 reward from the Victorian Gold Discovery Committee as the original discoverer of gold at Clunes. At the time of the find in March 1850 Campbell was in the company of Donald Cameron, Cameron 's superintendent, and a friend. This find was concealed at the time lest it should bring undesirable strangers to the run. Observing, however, the migration of the population of New South Wales and the panic created throughout the whole colony, and especially in Melbourne, and further motivated by a £ 200 reward that had been offered the day previous to anyone who could find payable gold within 200 miles (320 km) of Melbourne, on 10 June 1851, Campbell addressed a letter to merchant James Graham (member of Victorian Legislative Council 1853 -- 1854 and 1867 -- 1886) stating that within a radius of 15 miles of Burn Bank, on another party 's station, he had procured specimens of gold. Campbell divulged the precise spot where the gold had been found in a letter to Graham dated 5 July 1851. Prior to this date, however, James Esmond and his party were already at work there mining for gold. This was because Cameron had earlier shown specimens of the gold to George Hermann Bruhn, a German doctor and geologist whose services as an analyst were in great demand. Communication of this knowledge by Hermann to James Esmond was to result in the discovery by Esmond on 1 July 1851 of payable quantities of alluvial gold at Clunes which then resulted in the first Victorian gold rush.
Edward Hargraves, accompanied by John Lister, found five specks of alluvial gold at Ophir near Orange in February 1851. Then, in April 1851, John Lister and William Tom, trained by Edward Hargraves, found 120 grams of gold. This discovery, instigated by Hargraves, led directly to the beginning of the gold rush in New South Wales. This was the first gold rush in Australia and was in full operation by May 1851, even before it was officially proclaimed on 14 May 1851, with already an estimated 300 diggers in place by 15 May 1851. Before 14 May 1851 gold was already flowing from Bathurst to Sydney, an example being when Edward Austin brought to Sydney a nugget of gold worth £ 35, which had been found in the Bathurst District.
In 1872 a large gold and quartz "Holtermann Nugget '' discovered by the night shift in a mine part owned by Bernhardt Holtermann at Hill End, near Bathurst, New South Wales: the largest specimen of reef gold ever found, 1.5 meters (59 inches) long, weighing 286 kg (630 pounds), in Hill End, near Bathurst, and with an estimated gold content of 5000 ounces (57 kg).
In January 1851, before Hargraves ' find of gold in February 1851 at Ophir near Orange in New South Wales which started the first Australian gold rush, George Hermann Bruhn had left Melbourne to explore the mineral resources of the countryside of Victoria. On his trek Bruhn found, on a date unknown, indications of gold in quartz about 2 miles (3 km) from Edward Stone Parker 's station at Franklinford (between Castlemaine and Daylesford). After leaving Parker 's station Bruhn arrived at Donald Cameron 's station at Clunes in April 1851. Cameron showed Bruhn samples of the gold that had been found on his station at Clunes in March 1850. Bruhn also explored the countryside and found quartz reefs in the vicinity. "This information he promulgated through the country in the course of his journey. '' One of the people to whom Bruhn communicated this information was James Esmond who was at that time engaged in erecting a building on James Hodgkinson 's station "Woodstock '' at Lexton about 16 miles (25 km) to the west of Clunes. This then indirectly led to the first gold rush in Victoria from Esmond 's subsequent discovery of payable gold at Clunes in July 1851. Bruhn also forwarded specimens of gold to Melbourne which were received by the Gold Discovery Committee on 30 June 1851. Bruhn was in 1854 to receive a £ 500 reward from the Victorian Gold Discovery Committee "in acknowledgment of his services in exploring the country for five or six months, and for diffusing the information of the discovery of gold ''.
Gold was found at the Turon Goldfields at Sofala in June 1851.
On 9 June 1851 a reward of £ 200 was offered to the first person to discover payable gold within 200 miles (320 km) of Melbourne. Henry Frencham, then a reporter for "The Times '', and shortly afterwards for "The Argus '', was determined to be one of the persons to claim this reward. On 11 June 1851 he formed one of a party of 8 to search for gold north and north - east of Melbourne. Only 2 days later the party had dwindled to two men, Frencham and W.H. Walsh, who found what they thought to be gold at Warrandyte. At 5pm on 13 June 1851 Frencham deposited with the Town Clerk at Melbourne, William Kerr, specimens of gold. The next day the headline in "The Times '' newspaper was "Gold Discovery ''. On 24 June 1851 Frencham and Walsh lodged a claim for the reward offered by the Gold Committee for the discovery of a payable goldfield in the Plenty Ranges about 25 miles (40 km) from Melbourne. The claim was not allowed. The specimens were tested by chemists Hood and Sydney Gibbons who could not find a trace of gold, but this may have been because they had little expertise in the area. Even if they had determined that the samples contained gold, however, it was not payable gold. Frencham always claimed to have been the first to find gold in the Plenty Ranges.
On 30 June 1851 gold was definitely found about 36 km (22 miles) north - east of Melbourne in the quartz rocks of the Yarra Ranges at Anderson 's Creek, Warrandyte, Victoria by Louis John Michel, William Haberlin, James Furnival, James Melville, James Headon and B. Gruening. This gold was shown at the precise spot where it had been found to Webb Richmond, on behalf of the Gold Discovery Committee, on 5 July, the full particulars of the locality were communicated to the Lieutenant - Governor on 8 July and a sample was brought to Melbourne and exhibited to the Gold Discovery Committee on 16 July. As a result the Gold Discovery Committee were of the opinion that this find was the first publisher of the location of the discovery of a goldfield in the Colony of Victoria. This site was later named as Victoria 's first official gold discovery. Michel and his party were in 1854 to receive a £ 1,000 reward from the Victorian Gold Discovery Committee "as having, at considerable expense, succeeded in discovering and publishing an available goldfield ''. On 1 September 1851 the first gold licences in Victoria were issued to dig for gold in this locality, "which was previous to their issue on any other Goldfield ''. About 300 people were at work on this goldfield prior to the discovery of Ballarat.
On 1 July 1851 Victoria became a separate colony and, on the same day, James Esmond in company with Pugh, Burns and Kelly, found alluvial gold in payable quantities near Donald Cameron 's station on Creswick 's Creek, a tributary of the Loddon, at Clunes, 34 km (22m) north of Ballarat. Esmond and his party found the gold after Esmond had been told by George Hermann Bruhn of the gold that had been found in March 1850 on Cameron 's property at Clunes and that in the vicinity were quartz reefs which were likely to bear gold. Esmond rode into Geelong with a sample of their discovery on 5 July. News of the discovery was published first in the Geelong Advertiser on 7 July and then in Melbourne on 8 July.
Gold in the Pyrenees. The long sought treasure is at length found! Victoria is a gold country, and from Geelong goes forth the first glad tidings of the discovery. Esmonds arrived in Geelong on Saturday with some beautiful specimens of gold, in quartz, and gold - dust in a "debris '' of the same species of rock. The specimens have been subjected to the most rigid test by Mr Patterson, in the presence of other competent parties, and he pronounced them to be beyond any possibility of doubt pure gold...
The particulars of the precise location, with Esmond 's consent, was published in the Geelong Advertiser on 22 July 1851. Publication of Esmond 's find started the first official gold rush in Victoria in that same month. By 1 August between 300 and 400 diggers were encamped on the Clunes Goldfield, but soon moved to other fields as news of other gold discoveries spread. Esmond was in 1854 to receive a £ 1,000 reward as "the first actual producer of alluvial gold for the market ''.
The following goldfields were discovered in New South Wales during July 1851:
On 20 July 1851 gold was found near present - day Castlemaine, Victoria (Mt Alexander Goldfields) at Specimen Gully in today 's Castlemaine suburb of Barkers Creek. The gold was first found by Christopher Thomas Peters, a shepherd and hut - keeper on the Barker 's Creek, in the service of William Barker. When the gold was shown in the men 's quarters Peters was ridiculed for finding fool 's gold, and the gold was thrown away. Barker did not want his workmen to abandon his sheep, but in August they did just that. John Worley, George Robinson and Robert Keen, also in the employ of Barker as shepherds and a bullock driver, immediately teamed with Peters in working the deposits by panning in Specimen Gully, which they did in relative privacy during the next month. When Barker sacked them and ran them off for trespass, Worley, on behalf of the party "to prevent them getting in trouble '', mailed a letter to The Argus (Melbourne) dated 1 September 1851 announcing this new goldfield with the precise location of their workings. This letter was published on 8 September 1851. "With this obsure notice, rendered still more so by the journalist as ' Western Port ', were ushered to the world the inexhaustible treasures of Mount Alexander '', also to become known as the Forest Creek diggings. Within a month there were about 8,000 diggers working the alluvial beds of the creeks near the present day town of Castlemaine, and particularly Forest Creek which runs through the suburb today known as Chewton where the first small township was established. By the end of the year there were about 25,000 on the field.
On 8 August 1851 an auriferous deposit of gold was found 3 kilometres west of Buninyong, Victoria, near Ballarat. The gold was discovered in a gully in the Buninyong ranges, by a resident of Buninyong, Thomas Hiscock. Hiscock communicated the find, with its precise locality, to the editor of the "Geelong Advertiser '' on 10 August. In that same month prospectors began moving from the Clunes to the Buninyong diggings. Hiscock was in 1854 to receive £ 1,000 reward from the Victorian Gold Discovery Committee as the substantial discoverer of the gold deposits of "superior value '' in the Ballarat area.
On 21 August 1851 gold was found at Ballarat, Victoria in Poverty Point by John Dunlop and James Regan. Ballarat is about 10 km (6m) from Buninyong and upon the same range. John Dunlop and James Regan found their first few ounces of gold while panning in the Canadian Creek after leaving the Buninyong diggings to extend their search for gold. However Henry Frenchman, a newspaper man who in June had claimed, unsuccessfully, the £ 200 reward for finding payable gold within 200 miles (320 km) of Melbourne, had followed them and noticed their work. As a result, they only had the rich Ballarat goldfield to themselves for a week. By early September 1851 what became known as the Ballarat gold rush had begun, as reported from the field by Henry Frencham, then a reporter for the Argus. (Henry Frencham claimed in his article of 19 September 1851 to have been the first to discover gold at Ballarat (then also known as Yuille 's Diggings) "and make it known to the public '', a claim he was later to also make about Bendigo, and which resulted in the sitting of a Select Committee of the Victorian Legislative Assembly in 1890.)
In the report of the Committee on the Claims to Original Discovery of the Goldfields of Victoria published in The Argus (Melbourne) newspaper of 28 March 1854, however, a different picture of the discovery of gold at Golden Point at Ballarat is presented. They stated that Regan and Dunlop were one of two parties working at the same time on opposite sides of the ranges forming Golden Point, the other contenders for the first finders of gold at Ballarat being described as "Mr Brown and his party ''. The committee stated that "where so many rich deposits were discovered almost simultaneously, within a radius of little more than half a mile, it is difficult to decide to whom is due the actual commencement of the Ballarat diggings. '' They also agreed that the prospectors "had been attracted there (Ballarat) by the discoveries in the neighbourhood of Messrs. Esmonds (Clunes) and Hiscock (Buninyong) '' and "by attracting great numbers of diggers to the neighbourhood '' that "the discovery of Ballarat was but a natural consequence of the discovery of Buninyong ''.
in 1858 the "Welcome Nugget '' weighing 2,217 troy ounces 16 pennyweight. (68.98 kg) found at Bakery Hill at Ballarat by a group of 22 Cornish miners working at the mine of the Red Hill Mining Company.
It has been claimed that Gold was first found at Bendigo, Victoria in September 1851.
The name of the first discoverer of gold on the Bendigo goldfield is unknown. A Select Committee of the Victorian Parliament inquiring into this matter in September and October 1890 examined many witnesses but was unable to decide between the various claimants. They were, however, able to decide that the first gold on the Bendigo goldfields was found in 1851 at "The Rocks '' area of Bendigo Creek at Golden Square, which is near where today 's Maple Street crosses the Bendigo Creek.
According to the Bendigo Historical Society, it has today, contrary to the findings of the Select Committee of 1890, become "generally agreed '' or "acknowledged '' that gold was found at Bendigo Creek by two married women from the Mount Alexander North Run (later renamed the Ravenswood Run), Margaret Kennedy and Julia Farrell. A monument to this effect was erected by the City Of Greater Bendigo in front of the Senior Citizens Centre at High Street, Golden Square on 28 September 2001. This acknowledgement is not shared by contemporaneous historians such as Robert Coupe who wrote in his book "Australia 's Gold Rushes '', first published in 2000, that "there are several accounts of the first finds in the Bendigo area ''. Also, as stated by local Bendigo historian Rita Hull: "For decades many historians have made the bold statement that Margaret Kennedy and her friend Julia Farrrell were the first to find gold at Bendigo Creek, but on what grounds do they make this statement? ''. This acknowledgement by the Bendigo Historical Society and the City Of Greater Bendigo is despite the fact that FIRSTLY many others also claimed to have been the first to have found gold at Bendigo Creek; SECONDLY Julia Farrell, deceased before the 1890 Select Committee, is never documented to have made this claim; THIRDLY Margaret Kennedy claimed to have found gold without the help of Julia Farrell and whilst accompanied and helped by her 9 year old son John Drane; FOURTHLY that both their husbands, John "Happy Jack '' Kennedy and Patrick Peter Farrell are also documented to have claimed to have been the first to have found gold, and were also seen at various times with their wives at the Bendigo Creek by witnesses, and FIFTHLY that the 1890 Select Committee of the Victorian Government, after hearing evidence from Margaret Kennedy (her second husband John "Happy Jack '' Kennedy being deceased), Patrick Peter Farrell (his first wife Julia Farrell being deceased), and many others, was unable to decide who had been the first to find gold on what became the Bendigo goldfield.
When Margaret Kennedy gave evidence before the Select Committee in September 1890 she claimed to alone have found gold near "The Rocks '' in early September 1851. She claimed that she had taken her (9 year old) son, John Drane with her to search for gold near "The Rocks '' after her husband had told her that he had seen gravel there that might bear gold, and that she was joined by her husband in the evenings. She also gave evidence that after finding gold she "engaged '' Julia Farrell and went back with her to pan for more gold at the same spot, and it was while there that they were seen by a Mr Frencham, he said in November. She confirmed that they had been panning for gold (also called washing) with a milk dish, and had been using a quart - pot and a stocking as storage vessels.
Margaret Kennedy and Julia Farrell were, however, but one pair of the serious contenders for the first finders of gold on what became the Bendigo Goldfields. The date of September 1851, or soon after, and place, at or near "The Rocks '' on Bendigo Creek, were also mentioned in relation to three other sets of serious contenders for the first finders of gold on what became the Bendigo goldfields, all associated with the Mount Alexander North Run (later renamed the Ravenswood Run).
The four sets of serious contenders for the first finders of gold on what became the Bendigo goldfield are, in no particular order:
In September 1890, a Select Committee of the Victorian Legislative Assembly began sitting to decide who was the first to discover gold at Bendigo. They stated that there were 12 claimants who had made submissions to being the first to find gold at Bendigo (this included Mrs Margaret Kennedy, but not Mrs Julia Farrell who was deceased), plus the journalist Henry Frencham who claimed to have discovered gold at Bendigo Creek in November 1851. (Frencham had previously also claimed to have been the first to have discovered gold at Warrandyte in June 1851 when he, unsuccessfully, claimed the £ 200 reward for finding payable gold within 200 miles (320 km) of Melbourne; and then he also claimed to be the first to have discovered gold at Ballarat (then also known as Yuille 's Diggings) "and make it known to the public '' in September 1851.)
In the evidence that Margaret Kennedy gave before the Select Committee in September 1890, Margaret Kennedy claimed that she and Julia Farrell had been secretly panning for gold before Henry Frencham arrived, evidence that was substantiated by others. The Select Committee found "that Henry Frencham 's claim to be the discoverer of gold at Bendigo has not been sustained '', but could not make a decision as to whom of the other at least 12 claimants had been first as "it would be most difficult, if not impossible, to decide that question now ''... "at this distance of time from the eventful discovery of gold at Bendigo ''. They concluded that there was "no doubt that Mrs Kennedy and Mrs Farrell had obtained gold before Henry Frencham arrived on the Bendigo Creek '', but that Frencham "was the first to report the discovery of payable gold at Bendigo to the Commissioner at Forest Creek (Castlemaine) ''. (An event Frencham dated to 28 November 1851, a date which was, according to Frencham 's own contemporaneous writings, after a number of diggers had already begun prospecting on the Bendigo goldfield. 28 November 1851 was the date on which Frencham had a letter delivered to Chief Commissioner Wright at Forest Creek (Castlemaine) asking for police protection at Bendigo Creek, a request that officially disclosed the new gold - field. Protection was granted and the Assistant Commissioner of Crown Lands for the Gold Districts of Buninyong and Mt Alexander, Captain Robert Wintle Home, arrived with three black troopers (native police) to set up camp at Bendigo Creek on 8 December.)
The Select Committee also decided "that the first place at which gold was discovered on Bendigo was at what is now known as Golden Square, called by the station hands in 1851 "The Rocks '', a point about 200 yards to the west of the junction of Golden Gully with the Bendigo Creek. '' (The straight - line distance is nearer to 650 yards (600 metres).) In October 1893, Alfred Shrapnell Bailes (1849 -- 1928), the man who had proposed the Select Committee, who was one of the men who had sat on the Select Committee, and who was chairman of the Select Committee for 6 of the 7 days that it sat, gave an address in Bendigo where he gave his opinion on the matter of who had first found gold at Bendigo. Alfred Shrapnell Bailes, Mayor of Bendigo 1883 -- 84, and member of the Legislative Council of Victoria 1886 -- 1894 & 1897 -- 1907, stated that:
upon the whole, from evidence which, read with the stations books, can be fairly easily pieced together, it would seem that Asquith, Graham, Johnson and Bannister (the three shepherds residing at the hut on Bendigo Creek and their shepherd visitor Johnson), were the first to discover gold
The first persons digging for gold at the Bendigo Creek in 1851 were people associated with the Mount Alexander North (Ravenswood) Run. They included, in no particular order:
They were soon joined by miners from the Forest Creek (Castlemaine) diggings including the journalist Henry Frencham (1816 -- 1897).
There is no doubt that Henry Frencham, under the pen - name of "Bendigo '', was the first to publicly write anything about gold - mining at Bendigo Creek, with a report about a meeting of miners at Bendigo Creek on 8 and 9 December 1851, published respectively in the Daily News, Melbourne, date unknown and 13 December 1851 editions of the Geelong Advertiser and The Argus, Melbourne. It was Frencham 's words, published in The Argus of 13 December 1851 that were to begin the Bendigo Goldrush: "As regards the success of the diggers, it is tolerably certain the majority are doing well, and few making less than half an ounce per man per day. ''
In late November 1851 some of the miners at Castlemaine (Forest Creek), having heard of the new discovery of gold, began to move to Bendigo Creek joining those from the Mount Alexander North (Ravenswood) Run who were already prospecting there. The beginnings of this gold - mining was reported from the field by Henry Frencham, under the pen - name of "Bendigo '', who stated that the new field at Bendigo Creek, which was at first treated as if it were an extension of the Mount Alexander or Forest Creek (Castlemaine) rush, was already about two weeks old on 8 December 1851. Frencham reported then about 250 miners on the field (not counting hut - keepers). On 13 December Henry Frencham 's article in The Argus was published announcing to the world that gold was abundant in Bendigo. Just days later, in mid-December 1851 the rush to Bendigo had begun, with a correspondent from Castlemaine for the Geelong Advertiser reported on 16 December 1851 that "hundreds are on the wing thither (to Bendigo Creek) ''.
Henry Frencham may not have been the first person to find gold at Bendigo but he was the first person to announce to the authorities (28 November 1851) and then the world ("The Argus '', 13 December 1851) the existence of the Bendigo gold - field. He was also the first person to deliver a quantity of payable gold from the Bendigo gold - field to the authorities when on 28 December 1851, 3 days after the 603 men, women and children then working the Bendigo gold - field had pooled their food resources for a combined Christmas dinner, Frencham and his partner Robert Atkinson, with Trooper Synott as an escort, delivered 30 lbs of gold that they had mined to Assistant Commissioner Charles J.P. Lydiard at Forest Creek (Castlemaine), the first gold received from Bendigo.
Gold was found at Omeo in late 1851 and gold mining continued in the area for many years. Due to the inaccessibility of the area there was only a small Omeo gold rush.
Woods Almanac, 1857, states that gold was possibly found at Fingal (near Mangana) in 1851 by the "Old Major '' who steadily worked at a gully for two to three years guarding his secret. This gold find was probably at Mangana and that there is a gully there known as Major 's Gully. The first payable alluvial gold deposits were reported in Tasmania in 1852 by James Grant at Managa (then known as The Nook) and Tower Hill Creek which began the Tasmanian gold - rushes. The first registered gold strike was made by Charles Gould at Tullochgoram near Fingal and Managa and weighed 2 lb 6ozs. Further small finds were reported during the same year in the vicinity of Nine Mile Springs (Lefroy). In 1854 gold was found at Mt. Mary. During 1859 the first quartz mine started operations at Fingal. In the same year James Smith found gold at the River Forth, and Mr. Peter Leete at the Calder, a tributary of the Inglis. Gold was discovered in 1869 at Nine Mile Springs (Lefroy) by Samuel Richards. The news of this brought the first big rush to Nine Mile Springs. A township quickly developed beside the present main road from Bell Bay to Bridport, and dozens of miners pegged out claims there and at nearby Back Creek. The first recorded returns from the Mangana goldfields date from 1870; Waterhouse, 1871; Hellyer, Denison, and Brandy Creek, 1872; Lisle, 1878 Gladstone and Cam, 1881; Minnow and River Forth, 1882; Brauxholme and Mount Victoria, 1883; and Mount Lyell, 1886.
Payable gold was found in May 1852 at Echunga in the Adelaide Hills in South Australia by William Chapman and his mates Thomas Hardiman and Henry Hampton. After returning to his father 's farm from the Victorian goldfields William Chapman had searched the area around Echunga for gold motivated by his mining experience and the £ 1,000 reward being offered by the South Australian government for the first discoverer of payable gold. Chapman, Hardiman and Hampton were later to receive £ 500 of this reward as the required £ 10,000 of gold had not been raised in two months. Within a few days of the announcement of finding gold 80 gold licenses had been issued. Within seven weeks there were about 600 people, including women and children, camped in tents and wattle - and - daub huts in "Chapman 's Gully ''. A township sprang up in the area as the population grew. Soon there were blacksmiths, butchers and bakers to provide the gold diggers ' needs. Within 6 months 684 licences had been issued. Three police constables were appointed to maintain order and to assist the Gold Commissioner. By August 1852 there were less than 100 gold diggers and the police presence was reduced to two troopers. The gold rush was at its peak for nine months. It was estimated in May 1853 that about £ 18,000 worth of gold, more than 113 kg (4,000 oz, 250 lb), had been sold in Adelaide between September 1852 and January 1853, with an additional unknown value sent overseas to England.
Despite the sales of gold from Echunga, this goldfield could not compete with the richer fields in Victoria and by 1853 the South Australian goldfields were described as being ' pretty deserted '. There were further discoveries of gold in the Echunga area made in 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1858 causing minor rushes. There was a major revival of the Echunga fields in 1868 when Thomas Plane and Henry Saunders found gold at Jupiter Creek. Plane and Saunders were to receive rewards of £ 300 and £ 200 respectively. By September 1868 there were about 1,200 people living at the new diggings and tents and huts were scattered throughout the scrub. A township was established with general stores, butchers and refreshment booths. By the end of 1868 though, the alluvial deposits at Echunga were almost exhausted and the population dwindled to several hundred. During 1869 reef mining was introduced and some small mining companies were established but all had gone into liquidation by 1871. The Echunga goldfields were South Australia 's most productive. By 1900 the estimated gold production was 6,000 kg (13,225 lb), compared with 680g (24oz, 11⁄2lb) from the Victoria Mine at Castambul. After the revival of the Echunga goldfields in 1868, prospectors searched the Adelaide Hills for new goldfields. News of a new discovery would set off another rush. Gold was found at many locations including Balhannah, Forest Range, Birdwood, Para Wirra, Mount Pleasant and Woodside.
Gold was found in Queensland near Warwick as early as 1851, beginning small - scale alluvial gold mining in that state.
The first Queensland goldrush did not occur until late 1858, however, after the discovery of what was rumoured to be payable gold for a large number of men at Canoona near what was to become the town of Rockhampton. According to legend this gold was found at Canoona near Rockhampton by a man named Chappie (or Chapel) in July or August 1858. The gold in the area, however, had first been found north of the Fitroy river on 17 November 1857 by Captain (later Sir) Maurice Charles O'Connell, a grandson of William Bligh the former governor of New South Wales, who was Government Resident at Gladstone. Initially worried that his find would be exaggerated O'Connell wrote to the Chief Commissioner of Crown Lands on 25 November 1857 to inform him that he had found "very promising prospects of gold '' after having some pans of earth washed. Chapel was a flamboyant and extrovert character who in 1858 at the height of the goldrush claimed to have first found the gold. Instead Chapel had been employed by O'Connell as but part of a prospecting party to follow up on O'Connell's initial gold find, a prospecting party which, according to contemporary local pastoralist Colin Archer, "after pottering about for some six months or more, did discover a gold - field near Canoona, yielding gold in paying quantities for a limited number of men ''. O'Connell was in Sydney in July 1858 when he reported to the Government the success of the measures he had initiated for the development of the goldfield which he had discovered.
This first Queensland goldrush resulted in about 15,000 people flocking to this sparsely populated area in the last months of 1858. This was, however, a small goldfield with only shallow gold deposits and with no where near enough gold to sustain the large number of prospectors. This goldrush was given the name of the ' duffer rush ' as destitute prospectors "had, in the end, to be rescued by their colonial governments or given charitable treatment by shipping companies '' to return home when they did not strike it rich and had used up all their capital. The authorities had expected violence to break - out and had supplied contingents of mounted and foot police as well as war ships. The New South Wales government (Queensland was then part of New South Wales) sent up the "Iris '' which remained in Keppel Bay during November to preserve the peace. The Victorian government sent up the "Victoria '' with orders to the captain to bring back all Victorian diggers unable to pay their fares; they were to work out their passage money on return to Melbourne. O'Connell had reported that "we have had some trying moments when it seemed as if the weight of a feather would have turned the balance between comparative order and scenes of great violence '', and according to legend both O'Connel and Chapel were threatened with lynching.
In late 1861 the Clermont goldfield was discovered in Central Queensland near Peak Downs, triggering what has (incorrectly) been described as one of Queensland 's major gold rushes. Mining extended over a large area, but only a small number of miners was involved. Newspapers of the day, which also warned against a repeat of the Canoona experience of 1858, at the same time as describing lucrative gold - finds reveal that this was only a small goldrush. The Rockhampton Bulletin and Central Queensland Advertiser of 3 May 1862 reported that "a few men have managed to earn a subsistence for some months... others have gone there and returned unsuccessful ''. "The Courier '' (Brisbane) of 5 January 1863 describes "40 miners on the diggings at present... and in the course of a few months there will probably be several hundred miners at work ''. The Courier reported 200 diggers at Peak Downs in July 1863. The goldfield covering an area of over 1600 square miles (4000 km) was officially declared in August 1863. The Cornwall Chronicle (Lanceston, Tasmania), citing the Ballarat Star, reported about 300 men at work, many of them new chums, in October 1863.
In 1862, gold was found at Calliope near Gladstone, with the goldfield being officially proclaimed in the next year. The small rush attracted around 800 people by 1864 and after that the population declined as by 1870 the gold deposits were worked out.
In 1863, gold was also found at Canal Creek (Leyburn) and some gold - mining began there at that time, but the short - lived goldrush there did not occur until 1871 -- 72.
In 1865, Richard Daintree discovered 100 km (60 miles) south - west of Charters Towers the Cape River goldfield near Pentland in North Queensland. The Cape River Goldfield which covered an area of over 300 square miles (750 km) was not, however, proclaimed until 4 September 1867, and by the next year the best of the alluvial gold had petered out. This goldrush attracted Chinese diggers to Queensland for the first time. The Chinese miners at Cape River moved to Richard Daintree 's newly discovered Oaks Goldfield on the Gilbert River in 1869.
The Crocodile Creek (Bouldercombe Gorge) field near Rockhampton was also discovered in 1865. By August 1866 it was reported that there were between 800 and 1,000 men on the field. A new rush took place in March 1867. By 1868 the best of the alluvial gold had petered out. The enterprising Chinese diggers who arrived in the area, however, were still able to make a success of their gold - mining endeavours.
Gold was also found at Morinish near Rockhampton in 1866 with miners working in the area by December 1866, and a "new rush '' being described in the newspapers in February 1867 with the population being estimated on the field as 600.
Queensland had plunged into an economic crisis after the separation of Queensland from New South Wales in 1859. This had led to severe unemployment with a peak in 1866. Gold was being mined in the state but the number of men involved was only small. On 8 January 1867 the Queensland Government offered a £ 3,000 reward for the discovery of more payable goldfields in the state. As a direct result 1867 saw new goldrushes.
More goldfields were discovered near Rockhampton in early 1867 being Ridgelands and Rosewood. The rush to Rosewood was described in May 1867 as having "over three hundred miners ''. Ridgelands with its few hundred miners was described as "the most populous gold - field in the colony '' on 5 October 1867, but it was very soon overtaken and far surpassed by Gympie.
The most important discovery in 1867 was later in the year when James Nash discovered gold at Gympie, with the rush under way by November 1867.
J.A. Lewis, Inspector of Police arrived on the Gympie goldfield on 3 November 1867 and wrote on 11 November 1867:
On reaching the diggings I found a population numbering about five hundred, the majority of whom were doing little or nothing in the way of digging for the precious metal. Claims, however, were marked out in all directions, and the ground leading from the gullies where the richest finds have been got was taken up for a considerable distance. I have very little hesitation in stating that two - thirds of the people congregated there had never been on a diggings before, and seemed to be quite at a loss what to do. Very few of them had tents to live in or tools to work with; and I am afraid that the majority of those had not sufficient money to keep them in food for one week... From all that I could glean from miners and others, with whom I had an opportunity of speaking, respecting the diggings, I think it very probable that a permanent gold - field will be established at, or in the vicinity of, Gympie Creek; and if reports - which were in circulation when I left the diggings - to the effect that several prospecting parties had found gold at different points, varying from one to five miles from the township, be correct, there is little doubt but it will be an extensive gold - field, and will absorb a large population within a very short period.
The very rich and productive area, which covered only an area of 120 square miles (300 km), was officially declared the Gympie Goldfield in 1868. In 1868 the mining shanty town which had quickly grown with tents, many small stores and liquor outlets, and was known as "Nashville '', was also renamed Gympie after the Gympie Creek named from the aboriginal name for a local stinging tree. Within months there were 25,000 people on the goldfield. This was the first large goldrush after Canoona in 1858, and Gympie became ' The Town That Saved Queensland ' from bankruptcy.
The Kilkivan Goldfield (N.W of Gympie) was also discovered in 1867 with the rush to that area beginning in that same year, and, as was commonly the case, before the goldfield was officially declared in July 1868.
Townsville was opened up in 1868, the Gilbert River goldfield (110 km from Georgetown) in 1869, and Etheridge (Georgetown) in 1870.
Gold found about 10 km south - east of Gawler in South Australia in 1868. Gold was found by Job Harris and his partners in Spike Valley near the South Para River. This was unsold Crown Land and was proclaimed an official goldfield with a warden appointed. On the second day there were 40 gold seekers, 1,000 within a week and, within a month, 4,000 licensed and 1,000 unlicensed diggers. Three towns were established nearby with about 6,000 people at their peak. Alluvial gold was easily recovered when the gold was in high concentration. As the alluvial was worked out, companies were formed to extract the gold from the ore with crushers and a mercury process. By 1870 only 50 people remained, although one of the three towns, Barossa, lasted until the 1950s. South of the Barossa goldfield, the Lady Alice Mine in Hamlin Gully, discovered in 1871 by James Goddard, was the first South Australian gold mine to pay a dividend.
As settlers took up land north of Adelaide, so more goldfields were discovered in South Australia: Ulooloo in 1870, Waukaringa in 1873, Teetulpa in 1886, Wadnaminga in 1888 and Tarcoola in 1893.
Teetulpa, 11 km (7 miles) north of Yunta, was a rich goldfield where more gold was found than anywhere else in South Australia at that time. Teetulpa had the largest number of diggers of any field at any time in the history of South Australian gold discoveries. By the end of 1886, two months into the rush, there were more than five thousand men on the field. A reporter noted: "All sorts of people are going -- from lawyers to larrikins... Yesterday 's train from Adelaide brought a contingent of over 150... Many arrived in open trucks... Local ironmongers and drapers were busy fitting out intending diggers with tents, picks, shovels, rugs, moleskins, etc. '' Good mining at Teetulpa lasted about ten years. For a time it had a bank, shops, hotel, hospital, church and a newspaper. The largest nugget found weighed 30oz (850g).
A significant Queensland goldfield was discovered at Charters Towers on 24 December 1871 by a young 12 - year - old Aboriginal stockman, Jupiter Mosman, and soon moved attention to this area. The goldrush which followed has been argued to be the most important in Queensland 's gold - mining history. This was a reef - mining area with only a small amount of alluvial gold., and as a result received negative reviews from miners who wanted easier pickings. Nevertheless thousands of men rushed to the field, and a public battery was set up to crush the quartz ore in 1872. The town of Charters Towers grew to become the second largest town in Queensland during the late 1880s with a population of about 30,000.
In 1872 gold was discovered by James Mulligan on the Palmer River inland from Cooktown. This turned out to contain Queensland 's richest alluvial deposits. After the rush began in 1873 over 20,000 people made their way to the remote goldfield. This was one of the largest rushes experienced in Queensland. The rush lasted approximately 3 years and attracted a large number of Chinese. In 1877 over 18,000 of the residents were Chinese miners.
Port Douglas dates from 1873, and the Hodgkinson river (west of Cairns) from 1875.
The celebrated Mount Morgan was first worked in 1882, Croydon in 1886, the Starcke river goldfield near the coast 70 km (45 miles) north of Cooktown in 1890, Coen in 1900, and Alice River in 1904.
Darwin felt the effects of a gold rush at Pine Creek after employees of the Australian Overland Telegraph Line found gold while digging holes for telegraph poles in 1871.
There are numerous deposits of the precious metal at various localities in the Northern Territory, the total yield in 1908 being 8575 ounces (243 kg), valued at £ 27,512, of which 1021 ounces (29 kg) were obtained at the Driffield. In June 1909, a rich find of gold was reported from Tanami... Steps are being taken to open up this field by sinking wells to provide permanent water, of which there is a great scarcity in the district. A large number of Chinese are engaged in mining in the Territory. In 1908, out of a total of 824 miners employed, the Chinese numbered 674.
Donald McDonald and his party discovered two gold - rich quartz reefs at Mount McDonald, as they were prospecting the mountain ranges around Wyangala. This find resulted in the establishment of the township of Mt McDonald. By the early 1900s, mining declined and the town slowly faded away.
In 1872 the Western Australian Government offered a reward of £ 5,000 for the discovery of the colony 's first payable goldfield.
Ten years later, in 1882, small finds of gold were being made in the Kimberley region of Western Australia, prompting in 1883 the appointment of a Government Geologist. In 1884 Edward Hardman, Government Geologist, published a report that he had found traces of gold throughout the east Kimberley, especially in the area around the present - day town of Halls Creek.
On 14 July 1885, having been prompted by Hardman 's report, Charles Hall and Jack Slattery found payable gold at what they called Halls Creek, in the Kimberleys, Western Australia. After working for a few weeks Hall returned to Derby with 200 ounces of gold and reported his find. Once this discovery became known it prompted the Kimberley Rush, the first gold - rush in Western Australia. It is estimated that as many as 10,000 men joined the rush. On 19 May 1886 the Kimberley Goldfield was officially declared.
Thousands of men made their way to the Kimberley from other parts of WA, the eastern colonies, and New Zealand. Most arrived by ship in Derby or Wyndham, and then walked to Halls Creek. Others came overland from the Northern Territory. Most had no previous experience in gold prospecting or of life in the bush. Illness and disease were rife, and when the first warden, C.D. Price, arrived on 3 September 1886, he found that "great numbers were stricken down, in a dying condition, helpless, destitute of money, food, or covering, and without mates or friends simply lying down to die ''. A few were lucky enough to locate rich alluvial or reef gold, but most had little or no success.
In the early days of the gold rush no records or statistics were recorded for either the arrivals or deaths. Also no - one knows how many died trying to get to Halls Creek across the waterless desert, or how many simply turned back. When men actually arrived at Halls Creek, dysentery, scurvy, sun - stroke and thirst continued to take its toll. The Government applied a gold tax of two shillings and sixpence an ounce. It was a very unpopular levy as gold proved so hard to get. The diggers avoided registering and the Government had a great deal of trouble collecting the tax or statistics of any kind.
When the first warden C.D. Price arrived in September 1886 he reported that about 2,000 remained at the diggings. By the end of 1886 the rush had ceased. When in May 1888 the government considered claims for the reward for discovery of the first payable goldfield, it was decided that the Kimberley goldfield, which had proven disappointing, and no reward was paid out as the field had not met the stipulated conditions of a yield of at least 10,000 ounces (280 kg) of gold in a 2 - year period passing through Customs or shipped to England. (It is estimated that as much as 23,000 ounces (650 kg) of gold was taken from the fields around Halls Creek, but with much leaving the field through the Northern Territory.) Hardman 's contribution was recognised, however, with a gift of £ 500 to his widow Louisa Hardman. Another £ 500 was given to Charles Hall and his party.
1887 saw the first discovery of gold in what was to be the huge Eastern Goldfields region. Gold - bearing quartz was found near Lake Deborah in the Yilgarn Hills north of what was to become the town of Southern Cross in October 1887 by the party of Harry Francis Anstey. Anstey and his party were prospecting in the area after having heard that a farmer had found a gold nugget in the Yilgarn while sinking a bore. Others in his party were Dick Greaves and Ted Paine, with Ted Paine being the first to see the gold. As a result of this find Anstey and one of his backers George Leake, the then Solicitor - General and future Premier of Western Australia, were in November 1887 granted a 60,000 acre (24,280 hectare) mining concession for prospecting purposes.
On 30 December 1887, after hearing directly from Anstey of the success of his party, Bernard Norbert Colreavy also discovered a gold - bearing quartz reef in the Golden Valley in the Yilgarn Hills, and on 12 January 1888 Colreavy 's fellow party member, H. Huggins, discovered another gold - bearing quartz reef. They soon found and secured another seven more gold - bearing quartz reefs.
In May 1888 Michael Toomey and Samuel Faulkner were the first to discover gold - bearing quartz at the site of what became the town of Southern Cross on the Yilgarn Goldfield, about 50 km (30 miles) south - east of the Golden Valley. Party leader Thomas Riseley subsequently crushed and panned the samples that had been taken which confirmed that they had found gold, and Riseley and Toomey then proceeding to peg out their claim on behalf of the Phoenix Prospecting Company.
On the news of Anstey 's find the Yilgarn Rush had begun in late 1887. The excitement of the goldrush intensified in early 1888 with the news of the discovery of Golden Valley (named for the Golden Wattle that grows there) by Colreavy and Huggins, and further intensified just a few months later with the news of the discovery of Riseley, Toomey and Faulkner, but the goldfield was not officially proclaimed until 1 October 1888. In 1892 the Government awarded Anstey £ 500, and Colreavy and Huggins £ 250 each, for the discovery of the Yilgarn goldfields. The Yilgarn Rush died out when news arrived of the rich discovery of gold to the east at Coolgardie in September 1892.
The Pilbara Goldfield was officially declared on the same day as the Yilgarn Goldfield, 1 October 1888. The government had offered £ 1,000 reward for the first person to find payable gold in the Pilbara. This was shared by three men: explorers Francis Gregory and N.W. Cook, and pastoralist John Withnell. Gregory also discovered gold in a region known as Nullagine Proper in June 1888 and Harry Wells found gold in Marble Bar. As a result the Pilbara Gold Fields, which covered an area of 34,880 square miles (89,000 km), was divided into two districts, Nullagine and Marble Bar. To support the Pilbara Rush the government developed a railway line between Marble Bar and Port Hedland in 1891. Alluvial gold production started to decline in 1895, after which Mining Companies commenced deep shaft mining.
Gold was found at Cue in 1891 by Michael Fitzgerald, Edward Heffernan and Tom Cue. This became known as the Murchison Rush.
In September 1892 gold was found at Fly Flat (Coolgardie) by Arthur Wesley Bayley and William Ford, who next to a quartz - reef obtaining 554 ozs (15.7 kg) of gold in one afternoon with the aid of a tomahawk. On 17 September 1892 Wesley rode the 185 km (115 miles) with this gold into Southern Cross to register their reward - claim for a new find of gold. Within hours had started what was at first called the Gnarlbine Rush. Overnight the miners who were flocked on the Southern Cross diggings moved to the more lucrative Coolgardie Goldfield. The reward - claim for Bayley 's party for discovering the new goldfield was to be granted a 100 - foot (30.5 - metre) deep claim along the line of reef. This claim was said to cover an area of five acres (2 hectares). On 24 August 1893, less than a year after Arthur Bayley and William Ford 's discovery of gold at Fly Flat, Coolgardie was declared a town site, with an estimated population of 4,000 (with many more mining out in the field).
The Coolgardie goldrush was the beginning of what has been described as "the greatest gold rush in West Australian history ''. It has also been described as "the greatest movement of people in Australia 's history '', but this is an exaggeration. The greatest movement of people in Australia 's history was in the period 1851 to 1861 during the gold - rushes to the Eastern states when the recorded population of Australia rose by 730,484 from 437,665 in 1851 to 1,168,149 in 1861, as against an increase of 20 % of this amount for Western Australia in the period 1891 to 1901, a 137,834 increase of recorded population for Western Australia from 46,290 in 1891 to 184,124 in 1901.
On 17 June 1893 alluvial gold was found near Mount Charlotte, less than 25 miles (40 km) from Coolgardie, at what became the town of Hannan (Kalgoorlie). The announcement of this find by Paddy Hannan only intensified the excitement of the Coolgardie gold - rush, and led to the establishment in Western Australia 's Eastern Goldfields of the twin towns of Kalgoorlie - Boulder. Prior to moving to Western Australia in 1889 to prospect for gold Hannan had prospected at Ballarat in Victoria in the 1860s, Otago in New Zealand in the 1870s, and at Teetulpa (north of Yunta) in South Australia in 1886. The first to find gold at Kalgoorlie were Paddy Hannan and his fellow Irishmen Thomas Flanagan and Daniel Shea.
In the morning Flanagan was fetching the horses when he spotted gold on the ground. As others were camping nearby he kicked a bush over it, took careful note of his bearings, and hastened back to tell Hannan and Dan Shea, another Irishman who had joined them. They tarried there until the others had gone, then recovered Flanagan 's gold and found much more! It was decided one should go back to Southern Cross, the nearest administrative centre, with the gold and seek a reward - claim from the Warden. Tess Thomson in her book "Paddy Hannan, A Claim To Fame '', reveals that it was Hannan who did so. Thus, Flanagan was the ' finder ' and Hannan, who made the find public, was the ' discoverer ', for "dis - cover '' means what it says -- "to take the cover off '', in other words "to reveal; to make public '' which a finder does not necessarily do.
After Hannan registered their reward - claim for a new find of gold with over 100 ounces (2.8 kg) of alluvial gold, an estimated 700 men were prospecting in the area within three days. The reward for Hannan 's party for discovering the best alluvial find ever made in the colony, and without knowing it one of the best reefing fields in the world, was to be granted a six acre (2.4 hectare) mining lease.
Gold was found at Noondamurra Pool on the Greenough River, between Yuna and Mullewa in August 1893 causing a small rush to that area.
Other rich fields were found in the area around Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie in the period 1893 -- 1899.
The population of Coolgardie is estimated to have reached 15,000 at its peak during the goldrush and the town boasted over 26 pubs supplied by 3 breweries, 2 stock exchanges, 14 churches, 6 newspapers, and a courthouse. The population of Kalgoorlie - Boulder is estimated to have reached 30,000 at its peak during the goldrush with over 93 pubs supplied by 8 breweries, a stock exchange, churches, newspapers, and a courthouse.
In 1897 Coolgardie was the third largest town in Western Australia after Perth and Fremantle and the largest town in the Western Australian gold - mining districts with a recorded population of 5,008, while Kalgoorlie - Boulder was the fourth largest town in Western Australia and the second largest in the Western Australian gold - mining districts with an estimated population of 3,400. (Kalgoorlie 's recorded population was 2,018, while numbers for Boulder were not recorded. The estimate of 3,400 for Kalgoorlie - Boulder is based on the proportional numbers in Kalgoorlie and Boulder in the 1901 census.) The total estimated population for 1897 for the many settlements in the Coolgardie Magisterial Districts (which included Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie) was 17,645 (14,047 men and 3,598 women). Many more people were not residing in residential areas but were out in the field mining.
The 1901 census gives a greater idea of the population of the area, and the size of the gold - rush. By 1901 the population of Kalgoorlie - Boulder Municipality had grown to 11,253 (6,652 Kalgoorlie, 4,601 Boulder) making it at that time the third - largest town in Western Australia after Perth and Fremantle and the largest town in the Western Australian gold - mining districts, while that of Coolgardie Municipality had fallen slightly to 4,249. The total population for the Coolgardie Magisterial Districts (which included Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie - Boulder) was 41,816 men, women and children, being: 8,315 in the Coolgardie Magisterial District centred on Coolgardie; 26,101 in the Coolgardie East Magisterial District centred on Kalgoorlie - Boulder; 4,710 in the Coolgardie North Magisterial District centred on Menzies; and 2,690 in the Coolgardie North - East Magisterial District centred on Kanowna.
The far - reaching nature of the mining excitement (in Western Australia) drew men from all over the world... People immigrated from Africa and America, Great Britain and Europe, China and India, New Zealand and the South Sea Islands, and from mining centres in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia.
A website managed by the National Trust of Australia (WA) states:
The gold rush transformed the Western Australian economy as gold production soared from 22,806 ounces in 1890 to 1,643,876 ounces in 1900 and this was matched by the fourfold increase in WA 's population from 46,290 in 1890 to 184,124 reported in the 1901 census.
Gold was rediscovered near Tarnagulla on 6 November 1906 (Melbourne Cup Day), when a miner who had prospected the district for years obtained seven ounces of gold from a shaft nineteen feet deep. With some fairly large nuggets being found soon after, the so - called Poseidon rush, named after the horse that had won the Melbourne Cup that year, set in with "men of all ranks and professions... trying their luck on the field ''. Several of the nuggets were unearthed within a few inches of the surface. The largest weighed 953 ounces (27 kg) and two others weighed 703 (20 kg) and 675 ounces (19 kg) respectively. The shallow ground was soon worked out, but operations have given satisfactory results in the deeper alluvial until 1912.
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what other kingdom claimed ownership of the northern islands of scotland | Northern Isles - wikipedia
The Northern Isles (Scots: Northren Isles; Scottish Gaelic: Na h - Eileanan a Tuath; Old Norse: Norðreyjar) are a pair of archipelagos off the north coast of mainland Scotland, comprising Orkney and Shetland. The climate is cool and temperate and much influenced by the surrounding seas. There are a total of 26 inhabited islands with landscapes of the fertile agricultural islands of Orkney contrasting with the more rugged Shetland islands to the north, where the economy is more dependent on fishing and the oil wealth of the surrounding seas. Both have a developing renewable energy industry. They also share a common Pictish and Norse history. Both island groups were absorbed into the Kingdom of Scotland in the 15th century and remained part of the country following the formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, and later the United Kingdom after 1801. The islands played a significant naval role during the world wars of the 20th century.
Tourism is important to both archipelagos, with their distinctive prehistoric ruins playing a key part in their attraction, and there are regular ferry and air connections with mainland Scotland. The Scandinavian influence remains strong, especially in relation to local folklore, and both island chains have strong, although distinct, local cultures. The place names of the islands are dominated by their Norse heritage, although some may retain pre-Celtic elements.
The phrase "Northern Isles '' generally refers to the main islands of the Orkney and Shetland archipelagos. Stroma, which lies between mainland Scotland and Orkney, is part of Caithness, and so falls under Highland council area for local government purposes, not Orkney. It is, however, clearly one of the "northern isles '' of Scotland. Fair Isle and Foula are outliers of Shetland, but would normally be considered as part of Shetland and thus the Northern Isles. Similarly, Sule Skerry and Sule Stack, although distant from the main group, are part of Orkney and technically amongst the Northern Isles. However, the other small islands that lie off the north coast of Scotland are in Highland and thus not usually considered to be part of the Northern Isles.
Orkney is situated 16 kilometres (10 mi) north of the coast of mainland Scotland, from which it is separated by the waters of the Pentland Firth. The largest island, known as the "Mainland '' has an area of 523.25 square kilometres (202.03 sq mi), making it the sixth largest Scottish island. The total population in 2001 was 19,245 and the largest town is Kirkwall. Shetland is around 170 kilometres (110 mi) north of mainland Scotland, covers an area of 1,468 square kilometres (567 sq mi) and has a coastline 2,702 kilometres (1,679 mi) long. Lerwick, the capital and largest settlement, has a population of around 7,500 and about half of the archipelago 's total population of 22,000 people live within 16 kilometres (10 mi) of the town. Orkney has 20 inhabited islands and Shetland a total of 16.
The superficial rock of Orkney is almost entirely Old Red Sandstone, mostly of Middle Devonian age. As in the neighbouring mainland county of Caithness, this sandstone rests upon the metamorphic rocks of the Moine series, as may be seen on the Orkney Mainland, where a narrow strip of the older rock is exposed between Stromness and Inganess, and again on the small island of Graemsay.
Middle Devonian basaltic volcanic rocks are found on western Hoy, on Deerness in eastern Mainland and on Shapinsay. Correlation between the Hoy volcanics and the other two exposures has been proposed, but differences in chemistry means this remains uncertain. Lamprophyre dykes of Late Permian age are found throughout Orkney. Glacial striation and the presence of chalk and flint erratics that originated from the bed of the North Sea demonstrate the influence of ice action on the geomorphology of the islands. Boulder clay is also abundant and moraines cover substantial areas.
The geology of Shetland is quite different. It is extremely complex, with numerous faults and fold axes. These islands are the northern outpost of the Caledonian orogeny and there are outcrops of Lewisian, Dalriadan and Moine metamorphic rocks with similar histories to their equivalents on the Scottish mainland. There are also small Old Red Sandstone deposits and granite intrusions. The most distinctive feature is the ultrabasic ophiolite, peridotite and gabbro on Unst and Fetlar, which are remnants of the Iapetus Ocean floor. Much of Shetland 's economy depends on the oil - bearing sediments in the surrounding seas.
Geological evidence shows that at around 6100 BC a tsunami caused by the Storegga Slides hit the Northern Isles, (as well as much of the east coast of Scotland), and may have created a wave of up to 25 metres (82 ft) high in the voes of Shetland where modern populations are highest.
The Northern Isles have a cool, temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude, due to the influence of the surrounding seas and the Gulf Stream. In Shetland average peak temperatures are 5 ° C (41 ° F) in February and 15 ° C (59 ° F) in August and temperatures over 21 ° C (70 ° F) are rare. The frost - free period may be as little as 3 months.
The average annual rainfall is 982 millimetres (38.7 in) in Orkney and 1,168 millimetres (46.0 in) in Shetland. Winds are a key feature of the climate and even in summer there are almost constant breezes. In winter, there are frequent strong winds, with an average of 52 hours of gales being recorded annually in Orkney. Burradale wind farm on Shetland, which operates with five Vestas V47 660 kW turbines, achieved a world record of 57.9 % capacity over the course of 2005 due to the persistent strong winds.
Snowfall is usually confined to the period November to February and seldom lies on the ground for more than a day. Less rain falls from April to August although no month receives less than an average of 50 mm (2.0 in). Annual bright sunshine averages 1082 hours in Shetland and overcast days are common.
To tourists, one of the fascinations of the islands is their "nightless '' summers. On the longest day in Shetland there are over 19 hours of daylight and complete darkness is unknown. This long twilight is known in the Northern Isles as the "simmer dim ''. Winter nights are correspondingly long with less than six hours of daylight at midwinter. At this time of year the aurora borealis can occasionally be seen on the northern horizon during moderate auroral activity.
There are numerous important prehistoric remains in Orkney, especially from the Neolithic period, four of which form the Heart of Neolithic Orkney UNESCO World Heritage Site that was inscribed in 1999: Skara Brae; Maes Howe; the Stones of Stenness; and Ring of Brodgar. The Knap of Howar Neolithic farmstead situated on the island of Papa Westray is probably the oldest preserved house in northern Europe. This structure was inhabited for 900 years from 3700 BC but was evidently built on the site of an even older settlement. Shetland is also extremely rich in physical remains of the prehistoric eras and there are over 5,000 archaeological sites all told. Funzie Girt is a remarkable Neolithic dividing wall that ran for 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) across the island of Fetlar, although the Iron Age has provided the most outstanding archaeology on Shetland. Numerous brochs were erected at that time of which the Broch of Mousa is the finest preserved example of these round towers. In 2011 the collective site, "The Crucible of Iron Age Shetland '' including Broch of Mousa, Old Scatness and Jarlshof joined the UK 's "Tentative List '' of World Heritage Sites.
The culture that built the brochs is unknown, but by the late Iron Age the Northern Isles were part of the Pictish kingdom. The main archaeological relics from these times are symbol stones. One of the best examples is located on the Brough of Birsay; it shows three warriors with spears and sword scabbards combined with traditional Pictish symbols. The St Ninian 's Isle Treasure was discovered in 1958. The silver bowls, jewellery and other pieces are believed to date from approximately 800 AD. O'Dell (1959) stated that "the treasure is the best survival of Scottish silver metalwork from the period '' and that "the brooches show a variety of typical Pictish forms, with both animal - head and lobed geometrical forms of terminal ''.
Christianity probably arrived in Orkney in the 6th century and organised church authority emerged in the 8th century. The Buckquoy spindle - whorl found at a Pictish site on Birsay is an Ogham -- inscribed artefact whose interpretation has caused controversy although it is now generally considered to be of Irish Christian origin.
The 8th century was also the time the Viking invasions of the Scottish seaboard commenced and with them came the arrival of a new culture and language for the Northern Isles, the fate of the existing indigenous population being uncertain. According to the Orkneyinga Saga, Vikings then made the islands the headquarters of pirate expeditions carried out against Norway and the coasts of mainland Scotland. In response, Norwegian king Harald Hårfagre ("Harald Fair Hair '') annexed the Northern Isles in 875 and Rognvald Eysteinsson received Orkney and Shetland from Harald as an earldom as reparation for the death of his son in battle in Scotland. (Some scholars believe that this story is apocryphal and based on the later voyages of Magnus Barelegs.)
The islands were fully Christianised by Olav Tryggvasson in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway. The King summoned the jarl Sigurd the Stout and said, "I order you and all your subjects to be baptised. If you refuse, I 'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel. '' Unsurprisingly, Sigurd agreed and the islands became Christian at a stroke, receiving their own bishop in the early 11th century.
In the 14th century Orkney and Shetland remained a Norwegian province, but Scottish influence was growing. Jon Haraldsson, who was murdered in Thurso in 1231, was the last of an unbroken line of Norse jarls, and thereafter the earls were Scots noblemen of the houses of Angus and St. Clair. In 1468 Shetland was pledged by Christian I, in his capacity as King of Norway, as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret, betrothed to James III of Scotland. As the money was never paid, the connection with the crown of Scotland became permanent. In 1470 William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness ceded his title to James III and the following year the Northern Isles were directly annexed to Scotland.
From the early 15th century on the Shetlanders had sold their goods through the Hanseatic League of German merchantmen. This trade with the North German towns lasted until the 1707 Act of Union when high salt duties prohibited the German merchants from trading with Shetland. Shetland then went into an economic depression as the Scottish and local traders were not as skilled in trading with salted fish. However, some local merchant - lairds took up where the German merchants had left off, and fitted out their own ships to export fish from Shetland to the Continent. For the independent farmer / fishermen of Shetland this had negative consequences, as they now had to fish for these merchant - lairds.
British rule came at a price for many ordinary people as well as traders. The Shetlanders ' nautical skills were sought by the Royal Navy: some 3,000 served during the Napoleonic Wars from 1800 to 1815 and press gangs were rife. During this period 120 men were taken from Fetlar alone and only 20 of them returned home. By the late 19th century 90 % of all Shetland was owned by just 32 people, and between 1861 and 1881 more than 8,000 Shetlanders emigrated. With the passing of the Crofters ' Act in 1886 the Liberal prime minister William Gladstone emancipated crofters from the rule of the landlords. The Act enabled those who had effectively been landowners ' serfs to become owner - occupiers of their own small farms.
The Orcadian experience was somewhat different. An influx of Scottish entrepreneurs helped to create a diverse and independent community that included farmers, fishermen and merchants that called themselves comunitatis Orcadie and who proved themselves increasing able to defend their rights against their feudal overlords. In the 17th century, Orcadians formed the overwhelming majority of employees of the Hudson 's Bay Company in Canada. The harsh climate of Orkney and the Orcadian reputation for sobriety and their boat - handling skills made them ideal candidates for the rigours of the Canadian north. During this period, burning kelp briefly became a mainstay of the islands ' economy. For example, on Shapinsay over 3,048 tonnes (3,000 long tons) of burned seaweed were produced per annum to make soda ash, bringing in £ 20,000 to the local economy. Agricultural improvements beginning in the 17th century coincided with the enclosure of the commons and in the Victorian era the emergence of large and well - managed farms using a five - shift rotation system and producing high quality beef cattle. There is little evidence of an Orcadian fishing fleet until the 19th century but it grew rapidly and 700 boats were involved by the 1840s with Stronsay and then later Stromness becoming leading centres of development. Many Orcadian seamen became involved in whaling in Arctic waters during the 19th century, although the boats were generally based elsewhere in Britain.
Orkney was the site of a naval base at Scapa Flow, which played a major role in World War I. After the Armistice in 1918, the German High Seas Fleet was transferred in its entirety to Scapa Flow while a decision was to be made on its future; however, the German sailors opened the sea - cocks and scuttled all the ships. During World War I the 10th Cruiser Squadron was stationed at Swarbacks Minn in Shetland and during a single year from March 1917 more than 4,500 ships sailed from Lerwick as part of an escorted convoy system. In total, Shetland lost more than 500 men, a higher proportion than any other part of Britain, and there were waves of emigration in the 1920s and 1930s.
One month into World War II, the Royal Navy battleship HMS Royal Oak was sunk by a German U-boat in Scapa Flow. As a result barriers were built to close most of the access channels; these had the advantage of creating causeways enabling travellers to go from island to island by road instead of being obliged to rely on ferries. The causeways were constructed by Italian prisoners of war, who also constructed the ornate Italian Chapel. The Scapa Flow base was run down after the war, eventually closing in 1957.
During World War II a Norwegian naval unit nicknamed the "Shetland Bus '' was established by the Special Operations Executive in the autumn of 1940 with a base first at Lunna and later in Scalloway to conduct operations around the coast of Norway. About 30 fishing vessels used by Norwegian refugees were gathered and the Shetland Bus conducted covert operations, carrying intelligence agents, refugees, instructors for the resistance, and military supplies. It made over 200 trips across the sea with Leif Larsen, the most highly decorated allied naval officer of the war, making 52 of them.
The problem of a declining population was significant in the post-war years, although in the last decades of the 20th century there was a recovery and life in the islands focused on growing prosperity and the emergence of a relatively classless society.
Due to their history, the islands have a Norse, rather than a Gaelic flavour, and have historic links with the Faroes, Iceland, and Norway. The similarities of both geography and history are matched by some elements of the current political process. Both Orkney and Shetland are represented in the House of Commons as constituting the Orkney and Shetland constituency, which elects one Member of Parliament (MP), the current incumbent being Alistair Carmichael. Both are also within the Highlands and Islands electoral region for the Scottish Parliament.
However there are also two separate constituencies that elect one Member of the Scottish Parliament each for Orkney and Shetland by the first past the post system. Orkney and Shetland also have separate local Councils which are dominated by independents, that is they are not members of a political party.
The Orkney Movement, a political party that supported devolution for Orkney from the rest of Scotland, contested the 1987 general election as the Orkney and Shetland Movement (a coalition of the Orkney movement and its equivalent for Shetland). Their candidate, John Goodlad, came 4th with 3,095 votes, 14.5 % of those cast, but the experiment has not been repeated.
Ferry services link Orkney and Shetland to the rest of Scotland, the main routes being Scrabster harbour, Thurso to Stromness and Aberdeen to Lerwick, both operated by NorthLink Ferries. Inter-island ferry services are operated by Orkney Ferries and SIC Ferries, which are operated by the respective local authorities and Northlink also run a Lerwick to Kirkwall service. The archipelago is exposed to wind and tide, and there are numerous sites of wrecked ships. Lighthouses are sited as an aid to navigation at various locations.
The main airport in Orkney is at Kirkwall, operated by Highland and Islands Airports. Loganair, a franchise of Flybe, provides services to the Scottish mainland (Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Inverness), as well as to Sumburgh Airport in Shetland. Similar services fly from Sumburgh to the Scottish mainland.
Inter-Island flights are available from Kirkwall to several Orkney islands and from the Shetland Mainland to most of the inhabited islands including those from Tingwall Airport. There are frequent charter flights from Aberdeen to Scatsta near Sullom Voe, which are used to transport oilfield workers and this small terminal has the fifth largest number of international passengers in Scotland. The scheduled air service between Westray and Papa Westray is reputedly the shortest in the world at two minutes ' duration.
The very different geologies of the two archipelagos have resulted in dissimilar local economies. In Shetland, the main revenue producers are agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, renewable energy, the petroleum industry (offshore crude oil and natural gas production), the creative industries and tourism. Oil and gas was first landed at Sullom Voe in 1978, and it has subsequently become one of the largest oil terminals in Europe. Taxes from the oil have increased public sector spending in Shetland on social welfare, art, sport, environmental measures and financial development. Three quarters of the islands ' work force is employed in the service sector and Shetland Islands Council alone accounted for 27.9 % of output in 2003. Fishing remains central to the islands ' economy today, with the total catch being 75,767 tonnes (74,570 long tons; 83,519 short tons) in 2009, valued at over £ 73.2 million.
By contrast, fishing has declined in Orkney since the 19th century and the impact of the oil industry has been much less significant. However, the soil of Orkney is generally very fertile and most of the land is taken up by farms, agriculture being by far the most important sector of the economy and providing employment for a quarter of the workforce. More than 90 % of agricultural land is used for grazing for sheep and cattle, with cereal production utilising about 4 % (4,200 hectares (10,000 acres)), although woodland occupies only 134 hectares (330 acres).
Orkney and Shetland have significant wind and marine energy resources, and renewable energy has recently come into prominence. The European Marine Energy Centre is a Scottish Government - backed research facility that has installed a wave testing system at Billia Croo on the Orkney Mainland and a tidal power testing station on the island of Eday. This has been described as "the first of its kind in the world set up to provide developers of wave and tidal energy devices with a purpose - built performance testing facility. '' Billia Croo also houses an experimental underwater data center run by Microsoft.
The Northern Isles have a rich folklore. For example, there are many Orcadian tales concerning trows, a form of troll that draws on the islands ' Scandinavian connections. Local customs in the past included marriage ceremonies at the Odin Stone that forms part of the Stones of Stenness. The best known literary figures from modern Orkney are the poet Edwin Muir, the poet and novelist George Mackay Brown and the novelist Eric Linklater.
Shetland has a strong tradition of local music. The Forty Fiddlers was formed in the 1950s to promote the traditional fiddle style, which is a vibrant part of local culture today. Notable exponents of Shetland folk music include Aly Bain and the late Tom Anderson and Peerie Willie Johnson. Thomas Fraser was a country musician who never released a commercial recording during his life, but whose work has become popular more than 20 years after his untimely death in 1978.
The Norn language formerly spoken in the islands, a descendant of the Old Norse of the Vikings, became extinct in the 18th or 19th century. The local dialects of the Scots language, collectively known as Insular Scots, are highly distinctive and retain strong Norn influences.
The etymology of the island names is dominated by Norse influence. There follows a listing of the derivation of all the inhabited islands in the Northern Isles.
The oldest version of the modern name Shetland is Hetlandensis recorded in 1190 becoming Hetland in 1431 after various intermediate transformations. This then became Hjaltland in the 16th century. As Shetlandic Norn was gradually replaced by Scots Hjaltland became Ȝetland. When use of the letter yogh was discontinued, it was often replaced by the similar - looking letter z, hence Zetland, the mis pronounced form used to describe the pre-1975 county council. However the earlier name is Innse Chat -- the island of the cats (or the cat tribe) as referred to in early Irish literature and it is just possible that this forms part of the Norse name. The Cat tribe also occupied parts of the northern Scottish mainland -- hence the name of Caithness via the Norse Katanes ("headland of the cat ''), and the Gaelic name for Sutherland, Cataibh, meaning "among the Cats ''.
The location of "Thule '', first mentioned by Pytheas of Massilia when he visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC is not known for certain. When Tacitus mentioned it in AD 98 it is clear he was referring to Shetland.
Pytheas described Great Britain as being triangular in shape, with a northern tip called Orcas. This may have referred to Dunnet Head, from which Orkney is visible. Writing in the 1st century AD, the Roman geographer Pomponius Mela called the Orkney islands Orcades, as did Tacitus in AD 98 "Orc '' is usually interpreted as a Pictish tribal name meaning "young pig '' or "young boar ''. The old Irish Gaelic name for the islands was Insi Orc ("island of the pigs ''). The ogham script on the Buckquoy spindle - whorl is also cited as evidence for the pre-Norse existence of Old Irish in Orkney. The Pictish association with Orkney is leant weight by the Norse name for the Pentland Firth -- Pettaland - fjörðr i.e "Pictland Firth.
The Norse retained the earlier root but changed the meaning, providing the only definite example of an adaption of a pre-Norse place name in the Northern Isles. The islands became Orkneyar meaning "seal islands ''. An alternative name for Orkney is recorded in 1300 -- Hrossey, meaning "horse isle '' and this may also contain a Pictish element of ros meaning "moor '' or "plain ''.
Unlike most of the larger Orkney islands, the derivation of the name "Shapinsay '' is not obvious. The final ' ay ' is from the Old Norse for island, but the first two syllables are more difficult to interpret. Haswell - Smith (2004) suggests the root may be hjalpandis - øy (helpful island) due to the presence of a good harbour, although anchorages are plentiful in the archipelago. The first written record dates from 1375 in a reference to Scalpandisay, which may suggest a derivation from "judge 's island ''. Another suggestion is "Hyalpandi 's island '', although no one of that name is known to have been associated with Shapinsay.
Stroma, from the Norse Straumøy means "current island '' or "island in the tidal stream '', a reference to the strong currents in the Pentland Firth. The Norse often gave animal names to islands and these have been transferred into English in for example, the Calf of Flotta and Horse of Copinsay. Brother Isle is an anglicisation of the Norse breiðareøy meaning "broad beach island ''. The Norse holmr, meaning "a small islet '' has become "Holm '' in English and there are numerous examples of this use including Corn Holm, Thieves Holm and Little Holm. "Muckle '' meaning large or big is one of few Scots words in the island names of the Nordreyar and appears in Muckle Roe and Muckle Flugga in Shetland and Muckle Green Holm and Muckle Skerry in Orkney. Many small islets and skerries have Scots or Insular Scots names such as Da Skerries o da Rokness and Da Buddle Stane in Shetland, and Kirk Rocks in Orkney.
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who played the school teacher in the birds | Grease (film) - wikipedia
Grease is a 1978 American musical romantic comedy film based on the musical of the same name. Written by Bronte Woodard and directed by Randal Kleiser in his theatrical feature film debut, the film depicts the lives of two high school seniors: bad boy Danny (John Travolta) and good girl Sandy (Olivia Newton - John) in the late 1950s. Grease was successful both critically and commercially. Its soundtrack album ended 1978 as the second - best selling album of the year in the United States, behind the soundtrack of the 1977 blockbuster Saturday Night Fever.
A sequel, Grease 2, was released in 1982, with Maxwell Caulfield and Michelle Pfeiffer in lead roles. Few of the original cast members reprised their roles.
In the summer of 1958, Danny Zuko (John Travolta) and vacationing Sandy Olsson (Olivia Newton - John) met at the beach and fell in love. When the summer comes to an end, Sandy, who is going back to Australia, frets that they may never meet again, but Danny tells her that their love is "only the beginning '', and they will stay friends. The film moves to the start of the new school year at Rydell High School ("Grease ''). Danny, a greaser, is a member of the T - Birds, consisting of his best friend Kenickie (Jeff Conaway), Doody (Barry Pearl), Sonny (Michael Tucci), and Putzie (Kelly Ward). The Pink Ladies, a sassy, popular clique of girls, also arrive, consisting of Rizzo (Stockard Channing), Frenchy (Didi Conn), Marty (Dinah Manoff), and Jan (Jamie Donnelly).
After her parents unexpectedly decide to move from Australia, Sandy enrolls at Rydell and is befriended by Frenchy, who considers dropping out of high school to become a beautician by going to a beauty school. Unaware of each other 's presence at Rydell, Danny and Sandy tell their curious groups the accounts of events during the pair 's brief romance, without initially mentioning the other 's name. Sandy 's version emphasizes the romance of the affair, and the truth and purity, while Danny 's version is more sexual (and therefore presumably less honest) ("Summer Nights '' song).
When Sandy finally tells everyone it was Danny Zuko, Rizzo arranges a surprise reunion for the two at a pep rally, where Sandy is cheering along with high - achiever and resident swot, Patty Simcox (Susan Buckner). At the rally, Sandy catches the eye of a muscly member of the football team (Lorenzo Lamas). When Sandy and Danny are reunited, they are initially elated, but Danny soon slips back into his greaser attitude, which offends Sandy. At the same rally, Kenickie reveals his new car, a dilapidated used jalopy, and announces he has entered it into a "pinks '' street race at Thunder Road.
Frenchy invites Sandy to her house for a sleepover. Sandy vomits at trying her first cigarette, drinking a dessert wine, and getting her ears pierced by Frenchy. While she recovers in the bathroom, Rizzo makes fun of her innocent and virtuous nature ("Look At Me, I 'm Sandra Dee ''). The T - Birds arrive in Kenickie 's car, and Rizzo departs with Kenickie, leaving the other T - Birds stranded. Sandy laments over her feelings towards Danny, despite his earlier behavior ("Hopelessly Devoted to You ''). As Kenickie and Rizzo start making love, the condom Kenickie is using breaks. The two are also interrupted by Leo Balmudo (Dennis C. Stewart), leader of the T - Birds ' rival gang, the Scorpions, and his tall and brash girlfriend Cha - Cha (Annette Charles).
The next day, the T - Birds are looking over Kenickie 's car, and although they are initially skeptical of its potential, Danny and Kenickie explain the modifications they could add to make it a hot - rodding sex machine ("Greased Lightnin ' ''). In an attempt to impress Sandy, Danny approaches Coach Calhoun (Sid Caesar) in an effort to become a high school athlete. Danny 's pride and lack of experience lead to him picking fights with the jocks when he tries to play basketball, wrestling or baseball, so Calhoun suggests cross-country running, in which Danny excels. Danny 's running proves to impress Sandy, prompting the two to reconcile for a date at the Frosty Palace; when the other greasers arrive, Danny and Sandy promptly leave in discomfort. Kenickie and a noticeably distressed Rizzo get into an argument and break up, while Putzie and Jan arrange to go to the dance. Left alone, Frenchy -- who dropped out of Rydell to enroll in beauty school, only to quit when she turned her own hair bright pink -- is visited by a guardian angel (Frankie Avalon) who advises her to return to Rydell ("Beauty School Dropout '').
The school dance arrives, broadcast live on television and hosted by DJ Vince Fontaine (Edd Byrnes), who flirts with Marty. Rizzo and Kenickie attempt to spite one another by bringing Leo and Cha - Cha as their dates, while Danny and Sandy arrive together. Danny and Sandy dance well and appear to be on their way to winning the competition, but a drunken Sonny pulls Sandy off the floor partway through. Cha - Cha joins Danny for the rest of the dance, and the two win ("Born to Hand Jive ''). During the last dance ("Blue Moon ''), Putzie leads Sonny and Doody in a mooning of the national TV audience, which Principal McGee (Eve Arden) vows to put on their permanent records.
Danny apologizes to Sandy and tries to make it up to her by taking her to a drive - in theater. She 's unmoved by his pleas for forgiveness until he gives Sandy his ring, which she gleefully accepts. Moments later, Danny tries to aggressively make out with her, causing Sandy to angrily throw his ring at him and depart, leaving Danny distraught ("Sandy ''). Meanwhile, because she skipped a period, Rizzo quietly admits she may be pregnant to Marty, who in turn tells Sonny, and the rumor spreads like wildfire through the drive - in, reaching Kenickie just as Rizzo is walking past. He attempts to talk to Rizzo about it, telling her he does n't run away from his mistakes. Rizzo tells him it was someone else 's mistake, a response that angers Kenickie. At school the next day, word of Rizzo 's pregnancy fears reaches Patty Simcox, who has spread the gossip to her clique and sneers at Rizzo as they walk by. A visibly hurt Rizzo, who thanks Sandy for her offer of help, sings to herself about how her sins are not as bad as they could be ("There Are Worse Things I Could Do '').
On the day of the race, Kenickie asks Danny to be on standby in case he decides to back out. Moments before the race is set to begin, Kenickie suffers a concussion when he bends over to pick up a penny for good luck and Putzie opens the car door on Kenickie 's head, and Danny takes the helm of the car. Leo and Danny run a tight race, with Leo attempting to shred Danny 's tires with bladed hubcaps (in a sequence paying homage to Ben - Hur); Danny eventually wins when Leo skids out. Sandy watches from afar and concludes that she still loves Danny. She decides to change her attitude and image to impress him and asks Frenchy for help ("Look At Me, I 'm Sandra Dee (Reprise) '').
On the last day of school, a sobbing Principal McGee and her equally nostalgic assistant Blanche (Dody Goodman), in a speech over the intercom, tell the students that they could be future leaders. The school hosts a carnival where Sonny and Putzie learn that, because they either never took or failed physical education, they have to take summer school with Coach Calhoun in order to get their diplomas.
Kenickie approaches Rizzo and demands to talk to her, only to have her reveal she is not pregnant after all. Overjoyed, they reunite. Danny shows up wearing a Letterman 's sweater and reveals he is now a letterman for the cross-country team, to the T - Birds ' dismay. Danny confesses it is a decision he has made in an effort to clean up his image so that he can be together with Sandy, telling the T - Birds that they too will have to grow up and stop following people all the time. The group is subsequently stunned when Sandy appears seconds later sporting a new hairstyle, dressed in black leather, and smoking a cigarette. In song, the two admit they love each other and reunite ("You 're the One That I Want '') and Sandy also tells Danny that if she was willing to change for him then it is only fair that he do the same for her by being faithful and more mature.
The gang realizes that high school is now over, and worries that they 'll never see each other again. Danny insists, "Nah, that 'll never happen, '' and everyone celebrates their friendship ("We Go Together ''). As the song nears its conclusion, Danny and Sandy depart in a red hot rod, which takes flight, and the pair wave goodbye to their friends.
John Travolta had previously worked with producer Robert Stigwood on Saturday Night Fever, had a nascent singing career at the time (including the top - 10 hit "Let Her In '' in 1976), and had previously appeared as Doody in a touring production of the stage version of Grease. He made a number of casting recommendations that Stigwood ultimately accepted, including suggesting Randal Kleiser (who had never directed a theatrical feature before this but had directed Travolta in the 1976 telefilm The Boy in the Plastic Bubble) as director, and Olivia Newton - John, then known almost exclusively as a country music singer, as Sandy. Newton - John had done little acting before this film, with only one film credit (the unreleased 1970 film Toomorrow, which predated her singing breakthrough) to her name up to that time. Before accepting the role, Newton - John requested a screen test for Grease to avoid another career setback. The screen test was done with the drive - in movie scene. Newton - John, who is native to England and lived most of her life in Australia, was unable to perform with a convincing American accent, and thus her character was rewritten to be Australian. Before Newton - John was hired, Allan Carr was considering numerous names such as Ann - Margret, Susan Dey and Marie Osmond for the lead role; Newton - John agreed to a reduced asking price in exchange for star billing. In a case of life imitating art, Newton - John 's own musical career would undergo a transformation similar to that of the Sandy Olsson character; her next album after Grease, the provocatively titled Totally Hot, featured a much more sexual and pop - oriented approach, with Newton - John appearing on the album cover in similar all - leather attire and teased hair.
Jeff Conaway, like Travolta, had previously appeared in the stage version of Grease; he had played Danny Zuko during the show 's run on Broadway. Jamie Donnelly reprised her role as Jan from the Broadway show, the only cast member to do so; as her hair had begun to gray by this point, she had to dye her hair to resemble her stage character. Kelly Ward had previously appeared as a similar sarcastic supporting character in The Boy in the Plastic Bubble with Travolta under Kleiser; the role was substantially rewritten from the musical. Whereas "Rump '' in the musical sang lead on two songs and was particularly known for his mooning, the renamed "Putzie '' did not sing and shares the mooning scene with two of the other T - Birds, Sonny and Doody.
Lorenzo Lamas was a last - minute replacement for Steven Ford, who developed stage fright shortly before filming and backed out. His role contained no spoken dialogue and required Lamas to dye his hair blond to avoid looking like most of the other T - Birds (although Conaway and Ward were also blonds).
Henry Winkler was once considered for a lead in the film. Winkler, who was playing Arthur Fonzarelli on Happy Days, was originally chosen to play Danny. His lack of singing experience and fear of being typecast after Happy Days and the film The Lords of Flatbush led him to decline the role. Adult film star Harry Reems was originally signed to play Coach Calhoun; however, executives at Paramount nixed the idea due to Reems ' previous work in adult films, and producers cast Sid Caesar instead. Caesar was one of several veterans of 1950s television (Eve Arden, Frankie Avalon, Joan Blondell, Edd Byrnes, Alice Ghostley, Dody Goodman) to be cast in supporting roles. Coincidentally, Frankie Avalon and Randal Kleiser had both appeared in 1966 's Fireball 500, the latter as an extra.
The opening beach scene was shot at Malibu 's Leo Carrillo State Beach, making explicit reference to From Here to Eternity. The exterior Rydell scenes, including the basketball, baseball and track segments, were shot at Venice High School in Venice, California, while the Rydell interiors, including the high school dance, were filmed at Huntington Park High School. The sleepover was shot at a private house in East Hollywood. The Paramount Pictures studio lot was the location of the scenes that involve Frosty Palace and the musical numbers "Greased Lightning '' and "Beauty School Dropout ''. The drive - in movie scenes were shot at the Burbank Pickwick Drive - In (it was closed and torn down in 1989 and a shopping center took its place). The race was filmed at the Los Angeles River, between the First and Seventh Street Bridges, where many other films have been shot. The final scene where the carnival took place used John Marshall High School. And due to budget cuts a short scene was filmed at Hazard Park in Los Angeles.
Scenes inside the Frosty Palace contain obvious blurring of various Coca - Cola signs. Prior to the film 's release, producer Allan Carr had made a product - placement deal with Coca - Cola 's main competitor Pepsi (for example, a Pepsi logo can be seen in the animated opening sequence). When Carr saw the footage of the scene with Coca - Cola products and signage, he ordered director Randal Kleiser to either reshoot the scene with Pepsi products or remove the Coca - Cola logos from the scene. As reshoots were deemed too expensive and time - consuming, optical mattes were used to cover up or blur out the Coca - Cola references. The ' blurring ' covered up trademarked menu signage and a large wall poster, but a red cooler with the logo could not be sufficiently altered so was left unchanged. According to Kleiser, "We just had to hope that Pepsi would n't complain. They did n't. ''
In the 2010 sing - along version (see below), the blurred Coke poster has been digitally removed. In its place is more of the wavy wall design that surrounded it.
John Wilson did the animated title sequence for the start of the film.
Grease was originally released to North American theaters on June 16, 1978 and was an immediate box office success. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $8,941,717 in 862 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking at No. 2 (behind Jaws 2) at the box office. Grease has grossed $188,755,690 domestically and $206,200,000 internationally, totaling $394,955,690 worldwide. Globally, it was the highest - grossing musical ever, eclipsing the 13 - year - old record held by The Sound of Music, but has since been overtaken by Les Misérables, Mamma Mia! and the 2017 release of Beauty and the Beast. Grease is now the fourth highest - grossing live action musical.
Grease received mostly positive reviews from movie critics and is considered by many as one of the best films of 1978.
Vincent Canby on its initial release in June 1978 called the film "terrific fun '', describing it as a "contemporary fantasy about a 1950s teen - age musical -- a larger, funnier, wittier and more imaginative - than - Hollywood movie with a life that is all its own ''; Canby pointed out that the film was "somewhat in the manner of Close Encounters of the Third Kind, which recalls the science - fiction films of the ' 50s in a manner more elegant and more benign than anything that was ever made then, Grease is a multimillion - dollar evocation of the B - picture quickies that Sam Katzman used to turn out in the ' 50s (Do n't Knock the Rock, 1956) and that American International carried to the sea in the 1960s (Beach Party, 1963). ''
Grease was voted the best musical ever on Channel 4 's 100 greatest musicals in 2004. The film holds a 75 % "Certified Fresh '' rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes based on 61 critic reviews with an average rating of 6.6 / 10 and with a consensus that reads, "Grease is a pleasing, energetic musical with infectiously catchy songs and an ode to young love that never gets old. '' It holds a score of 70 / 100 on similar website Metacritic.
Grease premiered for the first time on American television in 1981 on ABC - TV. It was re-released to theaters in 1998 to mark the 20th anniversary. The film was also ranked number 21 on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the 50 Best High School Movies.
Grease was first released in the US on VHS by Paramount Home Video in 1982, with reissues in 1989 and 1994; the last VHS release was on June 23, 1998 and titled the 20th Anniversary Edition following a theatrical re-release that March. On September 17, 2002, it was released on DVD for the first time. On September 19, 2006, it was re-released on DVD as the Rockin ' Rydell Edition, which came with a black Rydell High T - Bird jacket cover, a white Rydell "R '' letterman 's sweater cover or the Target - exclusive Pink Ladies cover. It was released on Blu - ray Disc on May 5, 2009.
The sequel, Grease 2 (1982), stars Maxwell Caulfield and Michelle Pfeiffer. While only a few cast members from the original movie such as Dody Goodman, Sid Caesar, Eddie Deezen, Didi Conn, Dennis Stewart and Eve Arden reprise their respective roles. Dick Patterson returned, playing a different character. It was not as successful, grossing just $15 million on its $13 million budget. Patricia Birch, the original movie 's choreographer, directed the ill - fated sequel. It would be the only movie that she would direct.
On July 8, 2010, a sing - along version of Grease was released to select theaters around the U.S. A trailer was released in May 2010, with cigarettes digitally removed from certain scenes, implying heavy editing; however, Paramount confirmed these changes were done only for the film 's advertising, and the rating for the film itself changed from its original PG to that of PG - 13 for "sexual content including references, teen smoking and drinking, and language. '' The movie was shown for two weekends only; additional cities lobbied by fans from the Paramount official website started a week later and screened for one weekend.
On March 12, 2013, Grease and Grease 2 were packaged together in a Double Feature DVD set from Warner Home Video.
The soundtrack album ended 1978 as the second - best selling album of the year in the United States, exceeded only by another soundtrack album, from the film Saturday Night Fever, which also starred Travolta. The song "Hopelessly Devoted to You '' was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Music -- Original Song. The song "You 're the One That I Want '' was released as a single prior to the film 's release and became an immediate chart - topper, despite not being in the stage show or having been seen in the film at that time. Additionally, the dance number to "You 're the One That I Want '' was nominated for TV Land 's award for "Movie Dance Sequence You Reenacted in Your Living Room '' in 2008. In the United Kingdom, the two Travolta / Newton - John duets, "You 're the One That I Want '' and "Summer Nights '', were both number one hits and as of 2011 are still among the 20 best - selling singles of all time (at Nos. 6 and 19 respectively). The movie 's title song was also a number - one hit single for Frankie Valli.
The song "Look at Me, I 'm Sandra Dee '' references Sal Mineo in the original stage version. Mineo was stabbed to death a year before filming, so the line was changed to refer to Elvis Presley instead. The references to Troy Donohue, Doris Day, Rock Hudson and Annette Funicello are from the original stage version. Coincidentally, this scene as well as the scene before and the scene after it were filmed on August 16, 1977, the date of Elvis Presley 's death.
Some of the songs were not present in the film; songs that appear in the film but not in the soundtrack are "La Bamba '' by Ritchie Valens, "Whole Lotta Shaking Going On '' by Jerry Lee Lewis, "Alma Mater '', "Alma Mater Parody '', and "Rydell Fight Song ''. "Alone at a Drive - in Movie (instrumental) '', "Mooning '', and "Freddy My Love '' are not present in the film, although all three are listed in the end credits in - addition to being on the soundtrack. (Both "Mooning '' and "Rock'n'Roll Party Queen, '' the latter of which was played in the film as background music, were written in the musical for a character named Roger that was written out of the film, replaced by the non-singing Putzie. In general, all of the songs in the musical that were performed by characters other than Danny, Rizzo, Sandy or Johnny Casino were either taken out of the film or given to other characters, including Marty Maraschino 's number "Freddy My Love, '' Kenickie 's "Greased Lightnin ', '' and Doody 's "Those Magic Changes. '')
The songs appear in the film in the following order:
On August 17, 2009, a television series inspired by the film premiered in Venezuela. The series was produced and directed by Vladimir Perez. The show will explore and expand on the characters and story from the film.
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america's best dance crew season 4 winners | America 's Best Dance Crew (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of America 's Best Dance Crew premiered on August 9, 2009. All three regular judges, host Mario Lopez, and backstage correspondent Layla Kayleigh returned. This was the last season to feature Shane Sparks as a judge. In the live finale, which aired on September 27, 2009, We Are Heroes was declared the winner.
On August 2, 2009, as a prologue for the season, the show premiered a special episode hosted by Randy Jackson called "The Top 10 Performances of All Time '', where Randy showed his favorite routines from the first three seasons.
Nine dance crews were selected to compete on America 's Best Dance Crew. The contestants auditioned in four cities: New York City, Chicago, Orlando, and Los Angeles. Similar to the previous season, the crews were not officially divided by region; however, the regions were still listed on each crew 's banner. This was also the first season to showcase crews from three regions, instead of the usual four. The group Vogue Evolution featured the "Wonder Woman of Vogue, '' Leiomy Maldonado.
The nine new crews chose songs that best showcased their talent in the season premiere. After the bottom three was chosen by the judges, the crews had to face each other in a dance battle to "Boom Boom Pow '' by The Black Eyed Peas.
Beyoncé stopped by to hand out the challenges for the crews, who had to use her music videos and tour performances as inspiration for their routines.
The crews had to incorporate martial arts moves into their routines. Quest Crew 's Steve Terada appeared as a guest instructor.
The six remaining crews were challenged to infuse the flavor of Bollywood culture into their routines. In order to learn the complex Indian - themed dance style, the crews met with Bollywood choreographer Nakul Dev Mahajan.
The five remaining crews put their own spins on popular dance crazes. In addition to the challenge, the crews also had use the trampoline built into the stage sometime during their routines.
The final four crews paid tribute to memorable performances from the MTV Video Music Awards. The crews performed together in an opening number to "Smooth Criminal '' by Michael Jackson.
The crews competed against each other in two challenges: the Decade of Dance Challenge, in which the crews danced to a mix of five songs from the past five decades, and the Last Chance Challenge.
The remaining three crews had to master dance styles from the last five decades. One crew was eliminated halfway through the show.
The two finalists were given one last chance to perform before the lines opened for the final voting session of the season.
All nine crews returned for a group performance in the season finale. The judges each picked three crews that complemented each other and their dance styles. Then, the winner was crowned.
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when did all star by smash mouth come out | All Star (song) - wikipedia
"All Star '' is a song by American rock band Smash Mouth. It was released on May 4, 1999, as the second single from their album Astro Lounge and is one of the group 's most successful songs, peaking at No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100.
"All Star '' is composed in the key of F - sharp major with a tempo of 104 beats per minute. According to a 2017 interview, songwriter Greg Camp was interested in exploring several layers of meaning with the stripped - down song: the social battle cry, the sports anthem, the fanbase affirmation, the poetic lyricism, the sweeping melody, the inclusion, the artistic music videos, and more.
The music video (directed by McG) features cameos by William H. Macy, Ben Stiller, Hank Azaria, Diane Rehm, Paul Reubens, Kel Mitchell, Janeane Garofalo, Doug Jones, and Dane Cook from the film Mystery Men (1999), which prominently featured the song.
The song reached No. 2 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart and No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100. In Canada, it peaked at No. 2 on the RPM singles chart.
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do people still believe in the greek gods | Hellenism (religion) - wikipedia
Hellenism (Greek: Ἑλληνισμός, Ἑllēnismós), the Hellenic ethnic religion (Ἑλληνικὴ ἐθνική θρησκεία), also commonly known as Hellenismos, Hellenic Polytheism, Dodekatheism (Δωδεκαθεϊσμός), or Olympianism (Ὀλυμπιανισμός), refers to various religious movements that revive or reconstruct ancient Greek religious practices, publicly, emerging since the 1990s.
The Hellenic religion is a traditional religion and way of life, revolving around the Greek Gods, primarily focused on the Twelve Olympians, and embracing ancient Hellenic values and virtues.
In 2017, Hellenism was legally recognized as a "Known Religion '' in Greece.
Dodekatheism originated in and is practiced in Greece and in other countries. Leaders of the movement claimed in 2005 that there are as many as 2,000 adherents to the Hellenic tradition in Greece, with an additional 100,000 who have "some sort of interest ''. No official estimates exist for devotees worldwide.
There are no official naming practices for this religion, but there does seem to be an informal naming convention, based on academically accepted descriptive definitions, adhered to by groups and most individual believers. Hellenism is the most common term, used chiefly as an identifier for the modern polytheistic religion by its adherents today but it can also refer to the ancient Greek religion and culture. The term originally stems from a systematization and revival of Greek religion done by the Roman Emperor Julian. Julian used the term to describe traditional religion of the Greeks (the word can also have other unrelated meanings in modern Greek). Additionally, subgroups use a variety of names to distinguish branches focusing on specific schools of thought, or modern traditions focusing on the public practices of individual city - states. These subgroups can be described as denominations. Hellenic religion, and Hellenic polytheism can be said to be used interchangeably to refer to the religion, and are synonymous. The phrase Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism refers more to the methodology used by some practitioners to revive a version of the religion, than the religion itself. Not all Hellenic Polytheists are reconstructionists. Dodekatheism and Olympianism are other names, though less commonly used.
The first Greek organization to openly support the religious revival of Hellenic religion was Ύπατο Συμβούλιο των Ελλήνων Εθνικών (Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes or YSEE), established in 1997, and is publicly active. YSEE is a founding member of the World Congress of Ethnic Religions (now European Congress of Ethnic Religions) and hosted the seventh annual WCER Congress in June 2004. YSEE is also a member of the European Union 's action programme to combat discrimination. The organization primarily refers to the religion as the "Ethnic Polytheistic '' or "genuine Hellenism '' and its practitioners as Ethnikoi Hellenes, "Ethnic (National) Hellenes ''.
Another very active organization since its founding at 2008 is Labrys religious community. Labrys has focused primarily on the religious aspects of Hellenism or Hellenic (Greek) polytheism, avoiding anti-Christian rhetoric and politics, establishing weekly public rituals and engaging in other aspects of practical promotion of polytheism like theater and music. Labrys has also promoted among Hellenes worldwide the need to actively practice household worship and the idea that family and community should be the starting points of religious practice. The community has been organizing since 2008 the largest festival in Athens and also actively participates and supports the religious aspects of the oldest Hellenic festival in Greece, Promitheia which is held every year on Mount Olympus. Labrys religious community has published the book about Hellenic Polytheism: Household Worship. Createspace. 2014 - 11 - 20. ISBN 9781503121881...
Other Greek organizations, such as Dodekatheon (Δωδεκάθεον, Dōdekátheon, Of the Twelve Gods), the Helliniki Hetaireia Archaiophilon (Societas Hellenica Antiquariorum), and the Thyrsos use a combination of terms interchangeably, including ἑλληνικὴ θρησκεία (hellēnikē thrēskeîa, translated as "Hellenic religion ''), Hellenic polytheistic religion, and Hellenism.
Dodecatheon and YSEE both use the terms "traditional '', "ethnic '', and "genuine '' to refer to their religious practices. Greek polytheist author Vlassis Rassias has written a popular series of books on "Christian persecutions against the Hellenes, '' and the "Church of the Hellenes '' organization goes so far as to call for the wholesale extermination of Christianity, while the Athens - based group Ellinais emphasizes "world peace and the brotherhood of man. ''
Outside Greece, Hellenic religious organizations began to emerge around 1998, with some individuals claiming to have been engaging in some form of traditional practice since the 1970s.
In the United States, the Hellenic polytheist organization Hellenion also identifies its practices as "Hellenic Pagan Reconstructionism '' and emphasizes historical accuracy in its mission statement. The group uses the term "Hellenismos '' (Ἑλληνισμός, Hellēnismós) to describe the religion. Hellenion does not provide official membership numbers to the public, but an unofficial estimate of 43 members can be determined for 2007, though this number can only give the roughest approximation, as Hellenion offers hardship waivers to those who can not afford the typical membership fees. In early 2010, the organization reported 1 demos (fully chartered local congregation) and 6 proto - demoi (start - up congregations not fully chartered with less than 3 members) established, which offer rituals and other events for members and frequently for the public as well. Two of the six proto - demoi can not be independently verified to exist. Hellenion offers legal clergy training, basic adult religious education classes, and other educational / training courses for its members.
Another American group, Elaion, uses the term "Dodekatheism '' (Greek: δώδεκα, dodeka, "twelve '' + θεϊσμός, theïsmós, "belief in the gods '') to describe their approach to the Hellenic religion. No reported numbers for current membership levels are known to exist.
Other terms in common usage by Hellenic polytheists include "Greek reconstructionism '' and "Hellenic Traditionalism '', but the two are not synonymous.
In Brazil, in Portuguese language, there is the website of RHB - Reconstrucionismo Helênico no Brasil, built since 2003 by Brazilian members of Hellenion and other international groups, such as the American Neokoroi and the Greek Thyrsos.
Hellenic polytheists worship the ancient Greek Gods, including the Olympians, nature divinities, underworld deities (chthonic gods) and heroes. Both physical and spiritual ancestors are honored. It is primarily a devotional or votive religion, based on the exchange of gifts (offerings) for the gods ' blessings. The ethical convictions of modern Hellenic polytheists are often inspired by ancient Greek virtues such as reciprocity, hospitality, self - control and moderation. The Delphic maxims, Tenets of Solon, the Golden Verses of Pythagoras, or even Aristotle 's Ethics each function as complete moral codes that a Hellenic Polytheist may observe. Key to most ethical systems is the idea of kharis (or "charis '', grace), to establish reciprocity between humanity and the gods, between individuals, and among community members. Another key value in Hellenic Polytheism is eusebeia, often translated as piety. This implies a commitment to the worship of the Hellenic gods and action to back this up.
There is no central "ecclesia '' (church / assembly) or hierarchical clergy, though some groups (i.e., Hellenion) do offer training in that capacity. Individual worshipers are generally expected to perform their own rituals and learn about the religion and the gods by reference to primary and secondary sources on ancient Greek religion and through personal experience of the gods. Information gained from such personal experiences is often referred to in Hellenic groups as "UPG '' (Unverified Personal Gnosis), a term borrowed from Ásatrú, though now commonly used among many pagan religions.
In polytheism, Reconstructionism is a methodology which attempts to accurately base modern religious practice on culturally and historically genuine examples of ancient religious practices. The term is frequently used in the United States to differentiate between syncretic and eclectic Neopagan movements, and those based on the traditions, writings, history, and mythology of a specific ancient polytheistic culture.
In contrast to the eclectic traditions, Reconstructionists are very culturally oriented and attempt to reconstruct historical forms of religion and spirituality, in a modern context. Therefore, Kemetic, Canaanite, Hellenic, Roman, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic and Slavic Reconstructionists aim for the revival of historical practices and beliefs of Ancient Egypt, Ancient Canaan and Phoenicia, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, the Celts, the Germanic peoples, the Balts and the Slavs, respectively.
Most Hellenic polytheist groups unequivocally state that reconstructionism is not the only correct method of practicing the ancient Greek religion, but do identify a practice as Hellenic only when it embraces the humanistic values and ethical virtues of the ancient Greeks, demonstrates loyalty and reverence toward the Greek Gods, and uses a religious structure that would be recognizable to an ancient Greek. These groups make a clear distinction between themselves and the Neopagan movement, and identify some ' Hellenic ' groups as "simply disguised as ' Hellenes ' for reasons that exist hidden within the depths of their own minds. ''
Revivalism focuses more on Hellenic Polytheism as a living, changing religion. Hellenic Revivalism allows more room for practitioners to decide what feels right to them. Most modern Hellenic Polytheists exist somewhere on a Reconstructionist to Revivalist spectrum.
Modern Hellenic polytheist organizations are "revivalist '' or "reconstructionist '' for the most part, but many adherents like Panagiotis Marinis from the group Dodecatheon in Greece, has stated that the religion of ancient Greece has survived throughout the intervening centuries, and that he, himself, was raised in a family that practiced this religion. Whether or not they believe that the Hellenic polytheist religious tradition is continuous, there is evidence that Greek Hellenic polytheists within the modern country of Greece see the movement as an expression of Greek cultural heritage, in opposition to the Orthodox Christianity that is overwhelmingly dominant.
The 2004 Summer Olympics stirred up several disputes concerning Hellenic polytheistic religion.
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who is only bowler to have taken a hat trick in both innings | List of Test cricket hat - tricks - wikipedia
In the sport of cricket, a hat - trick is an occasion where a bowler takes three wickets in consecutive deliveries. As of 31 July 2017, this feat has only been achieved 43 times in more than two thousand Test matches, the form of the sport in which national representative teams compete in matches of up to five days ' duration. The first Test hat - trick was recorded on 2 January 1879, in only the third Test match to take place, by the Australian pace bowler Fred Spofforth, nicknamed "The Demon Bowler '', who dismissed three English batsmen with consecutive deliveries at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. The most recent bowler to achieve the feat was English spin bowler Moeen Ali against South Africa on 31 July 2017. At least one bowler from each of the ten nations that have played Test cricket have taken a Test hat - trick.
A player has taken two hat - tricks in the same Test match only once. Playing for Australia against South Africa in the first match of the 1912 Triangular Tournament at Old Trafford, Manchester, England, leg spinner Jimmy Matthews took a hat - trick in South Africa 's first and second innings, both taken on 28 May 1912. He completed both hat - tricks by dismissing South Africa 's Tommy Ward. Only three other cricketers have taken more than one Test hat - trick: Australian off spinner Hugh Trumble (two years apart, between the same teams at the same ground), Pakistani fast bowler Wasim Akram (just over a week apart, in consecutive matches between the same teams) and English fast bowler Stuart Broad. Three players have taken a hat - trick on their Test debut: English medium pace bowler Maurice Allom in 1930, New Zealand off - spinner Peter Petherick in 1976, and Australian pace bowler Damien Fleming in 1994. Geoff Griffin took the fewest total Test wickets of any player who recorded a hat - trick, taking only eight wickets in his entire Test career. During the match in which he took his hat - trick, Griffin was repeatedly called for throwing by the umpires and never bowled again in a Test match. Australian Peter Siddle is the only bowler to take a hat - trick on his birthday, and Bangladeshi off spinner Sohag Gazi is the only player to score a century and take a hat - trick in the same Test match.
Australian Merv Hughes is the only bowler to take a hat - trick where the wickets fell over three overs. He took a wicket with the final ball of an over. With the first ball of the next over he took the final wicket of the West Indies innings. He then removed the opener Gordon Greenidge with the first ball of the West Indies second innings.
In the five - match series between a Rest of the World XI and England in 1970, a hat - trick was taken by South African Eddie Barlow in the fourth match, at Headingley (the last three of four wickets in five balls). These matches were considered to be Tests at the time, but that status was later removed.
England and Australia combined have taken over half of all Test match hat - tricks to date, 25 of 43 (58.14 %).
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who is the basketball player that went to north korea | Dennis Rodman - wikipedia
Dennis Keith Rodman (born May 13, 1961) is an American retired professional basketball player who played for the Detroit Pistons, San Antonio Spurs, Chicago Bulls, Los Angeles Lakers, and Dallas Mavericks in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was nicknamed "The Worm '' and is famous for his fierce defensive and rebounding abilities.
Rodman played at the small forward position in his early years before becoming a power forward. He earned NBA All - Defensive First Team honors seven times and won the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award twice. He also led the NBA in rebounds per game for a record seven consecutive years and won five NBA championships. His biography at NBA.com states that he is "arguably the best rebounding forward in NBA history ''. On April 1, 2011, the Pistons retired Rodman 's No. 10 jersey, and he was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame later that year.
Rodman experienced an unhappy childhood and was shy and introverted in his early years. After aborting a suicide attempt in 1993, he reinvented himself as a "bad boy '' and became notorious for numerous controversial antics. He repeatedly dyed his hair in artificial colors, had many piercings and tattoos, and regularly disrupted games by clashing with opposing players and officials. He famously wore a wedding dress to promote his 1996 autobiography Bad As I Wanna Be. Rodman pursued a high - profile affair with singer Madonna and was briefly married to actress Carmen Electra. Rodman also attracted international attention for his visits to North Korea and his subsequent befriending of North Korean leader Kim Jong - un in 2013.
In addition to being a retired professional basketball player, Rodman is a retired part - time professional wrestler and actor. He was a member of the nWo and fought alongside Hulk Hogan at two Bash at the Beach events. In professional wrestling, Rodman was the first ever winner of the Celebrity Championship Wrestling tournament. He had his own TV show, The Rodman World Tour, and had lead roles in the action films Double Team (1997) and Simon Sez (1999). Both films were critically panned, with the former earning Rodman a triple Razzie Award. He appeared in several reality TV series and was the winner of the $222,000 main prize of the 2004 edition of Celebrity Mole.
Rodman was born in Trenton, New Jersey, the son of Shirley and Philander Rodman, Jr., an Air Force enlisted member, who later fought in the Vietnam War. When he was young, his father left his family, eventually settling in the Philippines. Rodman has many brothers and sisters: according to his father, he has either 26 or 28 siblings on his father 's side. However, Rodman himself has stated that he is the oldest of a total of 47 children.
After his father left, Shirley took many odd jobs to support the family, up to four at the same time. In his 1997 biography Bad As I Wanna Be, he expresses his feelings for his father: "I have n't seen my father in more than 30 years, so what 's there to miss... I just look at it like this: Some man brought me into this world. That does n't mean I have a father ''. (He would not meet his father again until 2012.)
Rodman and his two sisters, Debra and Kim, grew up in the Oak Cliff section of Dallas, at the time one of the most impoverished areas of the city. Rodman was so attached to his mother that he refused to move when she sent him to a nursery when he was four years old. According to Rodman, his mom was more interested in his two sisters, who were both considered more talented than he was in basketball, and made him a laughing stock whenever he tagged along with them. He felt generally "overwhelmed '' by the all - female household. Debra and Kim would go on to become All - Americans at Louisiana Tech and Stephen F. Austin, respectively. Debra won two national titles with the Lady Techsters.
While attending South Oak Cliff High School, Rodman was a gym class student of future Texas A&M basketball coach Gary Blair. Blair coached Rodman 's sisters Debra and Kim, winning three state championships. However, Rodman was not considered an athletic standout. According to Rodman, he was "unable to hit a layup '' and was listed in the high school basketball teams, but was either benched or cut from the squads. Measuring only 5 ft 6 in (1.68 m) as a freshman in high school, he also failed to make the football teams and was "totally devastated ''. After finishing school, Rodman worked as an overnight janitor at Dallas Fort Worth International Airport. He then experienced a sudden growth spurt and decided to try basketball again despite becoming even more withdrawn because he felt odd in his own body.
A family friend tipped off the head coach of Cooke County College (now North Central Texas College) in Gainesville, Texas. In his single semester there, he averaged 17.6 points and 13.3 rebounds, before flunking out due to poor academic performance. After his short stint in Gainesville, he transferred to Southeastern Oklahoma State University, an NAIA school. There, Rodman was a three - time NAIA All - American and led the NAIA in rebounding in both the 1984 -- 1985 and 1985 -- 1986 seasons. In three seasons there, 1983 -- 1984 through 1985 -- 1986, he averaged 25.7 points and 15.7 rebounds, led the NAIA in rebounding twice and registered a. 637 field goal percentage. At the Portsmouth Invitational Tournament, a pre-draft camp for NBA hopefuls, he won Most Valuable Player honors and caught the attention of the Detroit Pistons.
During college Rodman worked at a summer youth basketball camp, where he befriended camper Bryne Rich, who was shy and withdrawn due to a hunting accident in which he mistakenly shot and killed his best friend. The two became almost inseparable and formed a close bond. Rich invited Rodman to his rural Oklahoma home; at first, Rodman was not well - received by the Riches because he was black. But the Riches were so grateful to him for bringing their son out of his shell that they were able to set aside their prejudices. Although Rodman had severe family and personal issues himself, he "adopted '' the Riches as his own in 1982 and went from the city life to "driving a tractor and messing with cows ''. Though Rodman credited the Riches as his "surrogate family '' that helped him through college, as of 2013 he had stopped communicating with the Rich family for reasons unknown to them.
Rodman made himself eligible for the 1986 NBA draft. He was drafted by the Detroit Pistons as the 3rd pick in the second round (27th overall), joining the rugged team of coach Chuck Daly that was called "Bad Boys '' for their hard - nosed approach to basketball. The squad featured Isiah Thomas and Joe Dumars at the guard positions, Adrian Dantley and Sidney Green at forward, and center Bill Laimbeer. Bench players who played more than 15 minutes per game were sixth man Vinnie Johnson and the backup forwards Rick Mahorn and John Salley. Rodman fit well into this ensemble, providing 6.5 points, 4.7 rebounds and some tough defense in 15.0 minutes of playing time per game.
Winning 52 games, the Pistons comfortably entered the 1987 NBA Playoffs. They swept the Washington Bullets and soundly beat the Atlanta Hawks in five games, but bowed out in seven matches against the archrival Boston Celtics in what was called one of the physically and mentally toughest series ever. Rodman feuded with Celtics guard Dennis Johnson and taunted Johnson in the closing seconds when he waved his right hand over his own head. When the Celtics took Game Seven, Johnson went back at Rodman in the last moments of the game and mimicked his taunting gesture.
After the loss, Rodman made headlines by directly accusing Celtics star Larry Bird of being overrated because he was white: "Larry Bird is overrated in a lot of areas... Why does he get so much publicity? Because he 's white. You never hear about a black player being the greatest ''. Although teammate Thomas supported him, he endured harsh criticism, but avoided being called a racist because, according to him, his own girlfriend Anicka "Annie '' Bakes was white.
In the following 1987 -- 1988 season, Rodman steadily improved his stats, averaging 11.6 points and 8.7 rebounds and starting in 32 of 82 regular season games. The Pistons fought their way into the 1988 NBA Finals, and took a 3 -- 2 lead, but lost in seven games against the Los Angeles Lakers. In Game Six, the Pistons were down by one point with eight seconds to go; Dumars missed a shot, and Rodman just fell short of an offensive rebound and a putback which could have won the title. In Game Seven, L.A. led by 15 points in the fourth quarter, but Rodman 's defense helped cut down the lead to six with 3: 52 minutes to go and to two with one minute to go. But then, he fouled Magic Johnson, who hit a free throw, missed an ill - advised shot with 39 seconds to go, and the Pistons never recovered. In that year, he and his girlfriend Annie had a daughter they named Alexis.
Rodman remained a bench player during the 1988 -- 1989 season, averaging 9.0 points and 9.4 rebounds in 27 minutes, yet providing such effective defense that he was voted into the All - Defensive Team, the first of eight times in his career. He also began seeing more playing time after Adrian Dantley was traded at midseason to Dallas for Mark Aguirre. In that season, the Pistons finally vanquished their playoffs bane by sweeping the Boston Celtics, then winning in six games versus the Chicago Bulls -- including scoring champion Michael Jordan -- and easily defeating the Lakers 4 -- 0 in the 1989 NBA Finals. Although he was hampered by back spasms, Rodman dominated the boards, grabbing 19 rebounds in Game 3 and providing tough interior defense.
In the 1989 -- 1990 season, Detroit lost perennial defensive forward Rick Mahorn when he was taken by the Minnesota Timberwolves in that year 's expansion draft and ended up on the Philadelphia 76ers when the Pistons could not reacquire him. It was feared that the loss of Mahorn -- average in talent, but high on hustle and widely considered a vital cog of the "Bad Boys '' teams -- would diminish the Pistons ' spirit, but Rodman seamlessly took over his role. He went on to win his first big individual accolade. Averaging 8.8 points and 9.7 rebounds while starting in the last 43 regular season games, he established himself as the best defensive player in the game; during this period, the Pistons won 59 games, and Rodman was lauded by the NBA "for his defense and rebounding skills, which were unparalleled in the league ''. For his feats, he won the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award; he also connected on a. 595 field goal percentage, which made him the most precise shooter of the league. In the 1990 NBA Playoffs, the Pistons beat the Bulls again, and in the 1990 NBA Finals, Detroit met the Portland Trail Blazers. Rodman suffered from an injured ankle and was often replaced by Mark Aguirre, but even without his defensive hustle, Detroit beat Portland in five games and claimed their second title.
During the 1990 -- 1991 season, Rodman finally established himself as the starting small forward of the Pistons. He played such strong defense that the NBA stated he "could shut down any opposing player, from point guard to center ''. After coming off the bench for most of his earlier years, he finally started in 77 of the 82 regular season games, averaged 8.2 points and 12.5 rebounds and won his second Defensive Player of the Year Award. In the 1991 NBA Playoffs, however, the Pistons were swept by the championship - winning Chicago Bulls in the Eastern Conference Finals. It was the 1991 -- 1992 season where Rodman made a remarkable leap in his rebounding, collecting an astounding 18.7 rebounds per game (1,530 in total), winning his first of seven consecutive rebounding crowns, along with scoring 9.8 points per game, and making his first All - NBA Team. His 1,530 rebounds (the most since Wilt Chamberlain 's 1,572 in the 1971 -- 1972 season) have never been surpassed since then; the best mark not set by Rodman is by Kevin Willis, who grabbed 1,258 boards that same season. Willis lamented that Rodman had an advantage in winning the rebounding title with his lack of offensive responsibilities. In a March 1992 game, Rodman totaled a career high 34 rebounds. However, the aging Pistons were eliminated by the upcoming New York Knicks in the First round of the 1992 NBA Playoffs.
Rodman experienced a tough loss when coach Chuck Daly, whom he had admired as a surrogate father, resigned in May; Rodman skipped the preseason camp and was fined $68,000. The following 1992 -- 1993 season was even more tumultuous. Rodman and Annie Bakes, the mother of his daughter Alexis, were divorcing after a short marriage, an experience which left him traumatized. The Pistons won only 40 games and missed the 1993 NBA Playoffs entirely. One night in February 1993, Rodman was found asleep in his car with a loaded rifle. Four years later in his biography As Bad As I Wanna Be, he confessed having thought about suicide and described that night as an epiphany: "I decided that instead (of killing myself) I was gon na kill the impostor that was leading Dennis Rodman to a place he did n't want to go... So I just said, ' I 'm going to live my life the way I want to live it and be happy doing it. ' At that moment I tamed (sic) my whole life around. I killed the person I did n't want to be. '' The book was later adapted for a TV movie Bad As I Wanna Be: The Dennis Rodman Story. Although he had three years and $11.8 million remaining on his contract, Rodman demanded a trade. On October 1, 1993, the Pistons dealt him to the San Antonio Spurs.
In the 1993 -- 1994 NBA season, Rodman joined a Spurs team which was built around perennial All - Star center David Robinson, with a supporting cast of forwards Dale Ellis, Willie Anderson and guard Vinny Del Negro. On the hardwood, Rodman now was played as a power forward and won his third straight rebounding title, averaging 17.3 boards per game, along with another All - Defensive Team call - up. Living up to his promise of killing the "shy imposter '' and "being himself '' instead, Rodman began to show first signs of unconventional behavior: before the first game, he shaved his hair and dyed it blonde, which was followed up by stints with red, purple, blue hair and a look inspired from the film Demolition Man. During the season, he headbutted Stacey King and John Stockton, refused to leave the hardwood once after being ejected, and had a highly publicized two - month affair with Madonna. The only player to whom Rodman related was reserve center Jack Haley, who earned his trust by not being shocked after a visit to a gay bar. However, despite a 55 - win season, Rodman and the Spurs did not survive the first round of the 1994 NBA Playoffs and bowed out against the Utah Jazz in four games.
In the following 1994 -- 1995 NBA season, Rodman clashed with the Spurs front office. He was suspended for the first three games, took a leave of absence on November 11, and was suspended again on December 7. He finally returned on December 10 after missing 19 games. After joining the team, he suffered a shoulder separation in a motorcycle accident, limiting his season to 49 games. Normally, he would not have qualified for any season records for missing so many games, but by grabbing 823 rebounds, he just surpassed the 800 - rebound limit for listing players and won his fourth straight rebounding title by averaging 16.8 boards per game and made the All - NBA Team. In the 1995 NBA Playoffs, the 62 - win Spurs with reigning NBA Most Valuable Player Award winner Robinson entered the Western Conference Finals and were considered favorites against the reigning champions Houston Rockets who had only won 47 games. It was thought that Rockets center Hakeem Olajuwon would have a hard time asserting himself versus Robinson and Rodman, who had both been voted into the NBA All - Defensive Teams. However, neither Robinson nor Rodman, who had disrupted a playoff game against the Lakers by sitting down on the court, could stop Olajuwon, who averaged 35.3 points against the elite defensive Spurs frontcourt, and helped eliminate the Spurs in six games.
Rodman admitted his frequent transgressions, but asserted that he lived his own life and thus a more honest life than most other people:
I just took the chance to be my own man... I just said: "If you do n't like it, kiss my ass. ''... Most people around the country, or around the world, are basically working people who want to be free, who want to be themselves. They look at me and see someone trying to do that... I 'm the guy who 's showing people, hey, it 's all right to be different. And I think they feel: "Let 's go and see this guy entertain us. ''
Prior to the 1995 -- 1996 NBA season, Rodman was traded to the Chicago Bulls of perennial scoring champion Michael Jordan for center Will Perdue and cash considerations to fill a large void at power forward left by Horace Grant, who left the Bulls prior to the 1994 -- 1995 season. Given Rodman could not use the 10 jersey as the Bulls had retired it for Bob Love, and the NBA denied him the reversion 01, Rodman instead picked the number 91, whose digits add up to 10. Although the trade for the already 34 - year - old and volatile Rodman was considered a gamble at that time, the power forward quickly adapted to his new environment, helped by the fact that his best friend Jack Haley was also traded to the Bulls. Under coach Phil Jackson, he averaged 5.5 points and 14.9 rebounds per game, winning yet another rebounding title, and was part of the great Bulls team that won 72 of 82 regular season games, an NBA record at the time. About playing next to the iconic Jordan and co-star Scottie Pippen, Rodman said:
On the court, me and Michael are pretty calm and we can handle conversation. But as far as our lives go, I think he is moving in one direction and I 'm going in the other. I mean, he 's goin ' north, I 'm goin ' south. And then you 've got Scottie Pippen right in the middle. He 's sort of the equator.
Although struggling with calf problems early in the season, Rodman grabbed 20 or more rebounds 11 times and had his first triple - double against the Philadelphia 76ers on January 16, 1996 scoring 10 points and adding 21 rebounds and 10 assists; by playing his trademark tough defense, he joined Jordan and Pippen in the All - NBA Defense First Team. Ever controversial, Rodman made negative headlines after a head butt of referee Ted Bernhardt during a game in New Jersey on March 16, 1996; he was suspended for six games and fined $20,000, a punishment that was criticized as too lenient by the local press.
In the 1996 NBA Playoffs, Rodman scored 7.5 points and grabbed 13.7 rebounds per game and had a large part in the six - game victory against the Seattle SuperSonics in the 1996 NBA Finals: in Game Two at home in the Bulls ' United Center, he grabbed 20 rebounds, among them a record - tying 11 offensive boards, and in Game Six, again at the United Center, the power forward secured 19 rebounds and again 11 offensive boards, scored five points in a decisive 12 -- 2 Bulls run, unnerved opposing power forward Shawn Kemp and caused Seattle coach George Karl to say: "As you evaluate the series, Dennis Rodman won two basketball games. We controlled Dennis Rodman for four games. But Game 2 and tonight, he was the reason they were successful. '' His two games with 11 offensive rebounds each tied the NBA Finals record of Elvin Hayes.
In the 1996 -- 1997 NBA season, Rodman won his sixth rebounding title in a row with 16.7 boards per game, along with 5.7 points per game, but failed to rank another All - Defensive Team call - up. However, he made more headlines for his notorious behavior. On January 15, 1997, he was involved in an incident during a game against the Minnesota Timberwolves. After tripping over cameraman Eugene Amos, Rodman kicked Amos in the groin. Though he was not assessed a technical foul at the time, he ultimately paid Amos a $200,000 settlement, and the league suspended Rodman for 11 games without pay. Thus, he effectively lost $1 million. Missing another three games to suspensions, often getting technical fouls early in games and missing an additional 13 matches due to knee problems, Rodman was not as effective in the 1997 NBA Playoffs, in which the Bulls reached the 1997 NBA Finals against the Utah Jazz. He struggled to slow down Jazz power forward Karl Malone, but did his share to complete the six - game Bulls victory.
The regular season of the 1997 -- 1998 NBA season ended with Rodman winning his seventh consecutive rebounding title with 15.0 boards per game, along with 4.7 points per game. He grabbed 20 or more rebounds 11 times, among them a 29 - board outburst against the Atlanta Hawks and 15 offensive boards (along with ten defensive) versus the Los Angeles Clippers. Led by the aging Jordan and Rodman (respectively 35 and 37 years old), the Bulls reached the 1998 NBA Finals, again versus the Jazz. After playing strong defense on Malone in the first three games, he caused major consternation when he left his team prior to Game Four to go wrestling with Hulk Hogan. He was fined $20,000, but it was not even ten percent of what he earned with this stint. However, Rodman 's on - court performance remained top - notch, again shutting down Malone in Game Four until the latter scored 39 points in a Jazz Game Five win, bringing the series to 3 -- 2 from the Bulls perspective. In Game Six, Jordan hit the decisive basket after a memorable drive on Jazz forward Bryon Russell, the Bulls won their third title in a row and Rodman his fifth ring.
Rodman garnered as much publicity for his public antics. He dated Madonna and claimed she tried to conceive a child with him. Shortly after, Rodman famously wore a wedding dress to promote his autobiography Bad As I Wanna Be, claiming that he was bisexual and that he was marrying himself.
After the 1997 -- 1998 NBA season, the Bulls started a massive rebuilding phase, largely at the behest of then - general manager Jerry Krause. Head coach Phil Jackson and several members of the team left via free agency or retirement, including Michael Jordan, Scottie Pippen, Steve Kerr, and Jud Buechler. Rodman was released by the Bulls on January 21, 1999, before the start of the lockout - shortened 1998 -- 99 NBA season. With his sister acting as his agent at the time, Rodman joined the Los Angeles Lakers, for a pro-rated salary for the remainder of the 1998 -- 1999 season. With the Lakers he only played in 23 games and was released.
In the 1999 -- 2000 NBA season, the then - 38 - year - old power forward was signed by the Dallas Mavericks, meaning that Rodman returned to the place where he grew up. Dallas had won 10 of 13 before his arrival, but went just 4 -- 9 until he was waived by the Mavericks. He played 12 games, received six technical fouls, was ejected twice, and served a one - game suspension. He alienated the franchise with his erratic behavior until he was waived again. Rodman averaged 14.3 rebounds per game, above his career average of 13.1, but he was otherwise disinterested and did not provide leadership to a team trying to qualify for their first playoffs in 10 years. Dallas guard Steve Nash commented that Rodman "never wanted to be (a Maverick) '' and therefore was unmotivated.
After his NBA career, Rodman took a long break from basketball and concentrated on his film career and on wrestling.
After a longer hiatus, Rodman returned to play basketball for the Long Beach Jam of the newly formed American Basketball Association during the 2003 -- 04 season, with hopes of being called up to the NBA midseason. While he did not get that wish that season, he did help the Jam win the ABA championship in their inaugural season. He also played in Mexico, with Fuerza Regia in 2004. In the following 2004 -- 05 season, he signed with the ABA 's Orange County Crush and the following season with the league 's Tijuana Dragons. In November 2005, he played one match for Torpan Pojat of the Finland 's basketball league, Korisliiga.
The return to the NBA never materialized, but on January 26, 2006, it was announced that Rodman had signed a one - game "experiment '' deal for the UK basketball team Brighton Bears of the British Basketball League to play Guildford Heat on January 28 and went on to play three games for the Bears. In spring 2006, he played two exhibition games in the Philippines along with NBA ex-stars Darryl Dawkins, Kevin Willis, Calvin Murphy, Otis Birdsong and Alex English. On April 27, they defeated a team of former Philippine Basketball Association stars in Mandaue City, Cebu and Rodman scored five points and grabbed 18 rebounds. On May 1, 2006, Rodman 's team played their second game and lost to the Philippine national basketball team 110 -- 102 at the Araneta Coliseum, where he scored three points and recorded 16 rebounds.
On April 4, 2011, it was announced that Rodman would be inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame.
From the beginning of his career Rodman was known for his defensive hustle, which was later accompanied by his rebounding prowess. In Detroit, he was mainly played as a small forward, and his usual assignment was to neutralize the opponent 's best player; Rodman was so versatile that he could guard centers, forwards, or guards equally well and won two NBA Defensive Player of the Year Awards. From 1991 on, he established himself as one of the best rebounders of all time, averaging at least 15 rebounds per game in six of the next seven years. Playing power forward as member of the Spurs and the Bulls, he had a historical outburst in the 1996 NBA Finals: he twice snared 11 offensive rebounds, equalling an all - time NBA record. In addition, he had a career - high 34 - rebound game on March 4, 1992. Rodman 's rebounding prowess with Detroit and San Antonio was also aided by his decreased attention to defensive positioning and helping teammates on defense. Daly said Rodman was selfish about rebounding, but deemed him a hard worker and coachable. Rodman 's defensive intensity returned while with Chicago.
On offense, Rodman 's output was mediocre. He averaged 11.6 points per game in his second season, but his average steadily dropped: in the three championship seasons with the Bulls, he averaged five points per game and connected on less than half of his field goal attempts. His free throw shooting (lifetime average:. 584) was considered a big liability: on December 29, 1997, Bubba Wells of the Dallas Mavericks committed six intentional fouls against him in only three minutes, setting the record for the fastest foul out in NBA history. The intention was to force him to attempt free throws, which in theory would mean frequent misses and easy ball possession without giving up too many points. However, this plan backfired, as Rodman hit 9 of the 12 attempts. This was Dallas coach Don Nelson 's early version of what would later develop into the famous "Hack - a-Shaq '' method that would be implemented against Shaquille O'Neal, Dwight Howard, and other poor free throw shooters.
In 14 NBA seasons, Rodman played in 911 games, scored 6,683 points, and grabbed 11,954 rebounds, translating to 7.3 points and 13.1 rebounds per game in only 31.7 minutes played per game. NBA.com lauds Rodman as "arguably the best rebounding forward in NBA history and one of the most recognized athletes in the world '' but adds "enigmatic and individualistic, Rodman has caught the public eye for his ever - changing hair color, tattoos and, unorthodox lifestyle ''. On the hardwood, he was recognized as one of the most successful defensive players ever, winning the NBA championship five times in six NBA Finals appearances (1989, 1990, 1996 -- 1998; only loss 1988), being crowned NBA Defensive Player of the Year twice (1990 -- 1991) and making seven NBA All - Defensive First Teams (1989 -- 1993, 1995 -- 1996) and NBA All - Defensive Second Teams (1994). He additionally made two All - NBA Third Teams (1992, 1995), two NBA All - Star Teams (1990, 1992) and won seven straight rebounding crowns (1992 -- 1998) and finally led the league once in field goal percentage (1989).
Rodman was recognized as the prototype bizarre player, stunning basketball fans with his artificial hair colors, numerous tattoos and body piercings, multiple verbal and physical assaults on officials, frequent ejections, and his tumultuous private life. He was ranked No. 48 on the 2009 revision of SLAM Magazine 's Top 50 Players of All - Time. Metta World Peace played one year with the 91 jersey number in homage to Rodman, who he described as a player who he liked "on the court as a hustler, not when he kicked the cameraman. ''
After getting suspended for the rest of the 1996 -- 1997 NBA season, Rodman took up his hobby of professional wrestling seriously and appeared on the edition of March 10 of Monday Nitro with his friend Hollywood Hulk Hogan in World Championship Wrestling (WCW). At the March 1997 Uncensored event, he appeared as a member of the nWo. His first match was at the July 1997 Bash at the Beach event, where he teamed with Hogan in a loss to Lex Luger and The Giant. At the August 1997 Road Wild event, Rodman appeared as the Impostor Sting hitting Luger with a baseball bat to help Hogan win the WCW World Heavyweight Championship.
After the 1997 -- 98 NBA season, where Rodman and the Chicago Bulls defeated Karl Malone and the Utah Jazz in the 1998 NBA Finals, Rodman and Malone squared off again, this time in a tag team match at the July 1998 Bash at the Beach event. He fought alongside Hulk Hogan, and Malone tagged along with Diamond Dallas Page. In a poorly received match, the two power forwards exchanged "rudimentary headlocks, slams and clotheslines '' for 23 minutes. Rodman bested Malone again as he and Hogan picked up the win.
Rodman returned to WCW in 1999 and feuded with Randy Savage. This culminated in a match at Road Wild which Rodman lost.
On July 30, 2000, Rodman competed on the i - Generation Superstars of Wrestling Rodman Down Under pay - per - view event. He fought against i - Generation Champion Curt Hennig in an Australian Outback match; Hennig won the match by disqualification. Following the match, Rodman refrained from wrestling at the top level and retired.
Rodman came out of retirement to appear as a contestant on Hulk Hogan 's Celebrity Championship Wrestling, broadcast on CMT. Rodman was the winner of the series, defeating other challengers such as Butterbean and Dustin Diamond.
In 1996, Rodman had his own MTV reality talk show called The Rodman World Tour, which featured him in a series of odd - ball situations. That same year, Rodman had two appearances in releases by rock band Pearl Jam. A Polaroid picture of Rodman 's eyeball is on the cover of the album No Code, and "Black, Red, Yellow '', B - side of its lead single "Hail, Hail '', was written about Rodman and has him contribute a voice message.
A year later, he made his feature film debut in the action film Double Team alongside Jean - Claude Van Damme and Mickey Rourke. The film was critically panned and his performance earned him three Golden Raspberry Awards: Worst New Star, Worst Supporting Actor and Worst Screen Couple (shared with Van Damme). Rodman starred in Simon Sez, a 1999 action / comedy and co-starred with Tom Berenger in a 2000 action film about skydiving titled Cutaway. In 1998, he joined the cast of the syndicated TV show Special Ops Force, playing ' Deke ' Reynolds, a flamboyant but skilled ex-Army helo pilot and demolitions expert.
In 2005, Rodman became the first man to pose naked for PETA 's advertisement campaign "Rather Go Naked Than Wear Fur ''. That same year, Rodman traveled to Finland, at first, he was present at Sonkajärvi in July in a wife - carrying contest. However, he resigned from the contest due to health problems. Also in 2005, Rodman published his second autobiography, I Should Be Dead By Now; he promoted the book by sitting in a coffin.
Rodman became Commissioner of the Lingerie Football League in 2005.
Since his initial entry into acting, he has appeared in few acting roles outside of playing himself. Rodman has made an appearance in an episode of 3rd Rock from the Sun playing the character of himself, except being a fellow alien with the Solomon family. He voiced an animated version of himself in the Simpsons episode "Treehouse of Horror XVI ''.
Rodman has also appeared in several reality shows: in January 2006, Rodman appeared on the fourth version of Celebrity Big Brother in the UK, and on July 26, 2006, in the UK series Love Island as a houseguest contracted to stay for a week. Finally, he appeared on the show Celebrity Mole on ABC. He wound up winning the $222,000 grand prize.
In 2008, Rodman joined as a spokesman for a sports website OPENSports.com, the brainchild of Mike Levy, founder and former CEO of CBS Sportsline.com. Rodman also writes a blog and occasionally answers members ' questions for OPEN Sports.
In 2009, he appeared as a contestant on Celebrity Apprentice. Throughout the season, each celebrity raised money for a charity of their choice; Rodman selected the Court Appointed Special Advocates of New Orleans. He was the fifth contestant eliminated, on March 29, 2009.
In 2013, he appeared again as a contestant on Celebrity Apprentice. He raised $20,000 for the Make - A-Wish Foundation and was the sixth contestant eliminated, on April 7, 2013.
In March 2013, Rodman arrived at the Vatican City during voting in the papal conclave for the selection of a new pope. The trip was organized by an Irish gambling company. "I 'm just promoting this website. It 's a gambling website, and it 's about people who are going to bet on the new pope, and if he 's black, you get your money back '', said Rodman.
In July 2013, Rodman joined Premier Brands to launch and promote Bad Boy Vodka.
Rodman 's visits to North Korea were depicted in the 2015 documentary film Dennis Rodman 's Big Bang in Pyongyang.
In 2017, Rodman was featured on the alternative R&B / hip - hop duo Mansionz self - titled album Mansionz. He provides vocals on the single "Dennis Rodman '' and uncredited vocals on "i 'm thinking about horses ''.
Rodman 's first wife was Annie Bakes, with whom he had a daughter named Alexis (born 1988). They divorced in the early 1990s. Rodman married model Carmen Electra in November 1998 at the Little Chapel of the Flowers in Las Vegas, Nevada. Electra filed for divorce in April 1999.
In 1999 Rodman met Michelle Moyer, with whom he had a son, Dennis Junior (D.J., born 2000) and a daughter, Trinity (born 2001). Moyer and Rodman married in 2003 on his 42nd birthday. Michelle Rodman filed for divorce in 2004, although the couple spent several years attempting to reconcile. The marriage was officially dissolved in 2012 when Michelle Rodman again petitioned the court to grant a divorce. It was reported that Rodman owed $860,376 in child and spousal support.
Rodman entered an outpatient rehab center in Florida in May 2008. In May 2009, his behavior on Celebrity Apprentice led to an intervention which included Phil Jackson as well as Rodman 's family and other friends. Rodman initially refused to enter rehabilitation because he wanted to attend the Celebrity Apprentice reunion show. In 2009, Rodman agreed to appear on the third season of Celebrity Rehab with Dr. Drew. Rodman remained a patient at the Pasadena Recovery Center for the 21 - day treatment cycle. A week after completion he entered a sober - living facility in the Hollywood Hills, which was filmed for the second season of Sober House. During episode seven of Sober House, Rodman was shown being reunited with his mother Shirley, from whom he had been estranged for seven years. During this same visit Shirley also met Rodman 's two children for the first time. On January 10, 2010, on the same day that Celebrity Rehab premiered, Rodman was removed from an Orange County, California restaurant for disruptive behavior. In March 2012, Rodman 's financial advisor said, "In all honesty, Dennis, although a very sweet person, is an alcoholic. His sickness impacts his ability to get work. ''
On January 15, 2014, Rodman again entered a rehabilitation facility to seek treatment for alcohol abuse. This came on the heels of a well - publicized trip to North Korea where his agent, Darren Prince, reported he had been drinking heavily and to an extent "that none of us had seen before. ''
On November 5, 1999, Rodman and his then - wife, Carmen Electra, were charged with misdemeanors after police were notified of a domestic disturbance. Each posted $2,500 in bail and were released with a temporary restraining order placed on them.
In December 1999 Rodman was arrested for drunken driving and driving without a valid license. In July 2000, Rodman pleaded guilty to both charges and was ordered to pay $2,000 in fines and was required to attend a three - month treatment program.
He was arrested in 2002 for interfering with police investigating a code violation at a restaurant he owned; the charges were eventually dropped. After settling down in Newport Beach, California, the police appeared over 70 times at his home because of loud parties. In early 2003, Rodman was arrested and charged with domestic violence at his home in Newport Beach for allegedly assaulting his then - fiancee.
In April 2004, Rodman pleaded nolo contendere to drunk driving in Las Vegas and was fined $1,000 and served 30 days of home detention. On April 30, 2008, Rodman was arrested following a domestic violence incident at a Los Angeles hotel. On June 24, 2008, he pleaded no contest to the misdemeanor spousal battery charges and was sentenced to one year of domestic violence counseling and three years probation. He received 45 hours of community service, which were to involve some physical labor activities.
On November 21, 2016, Rodman was charged with causing a hit and run accident, lying to police, and driving without a license following an incident on Interstate 5 near Santa Ana, California, in July.
On July 24, 2015, Rodman publicly endorsed Donald Trump 's 2016 presidential campaign. That same month, Rodman sent out an endorsement tweet, stating, "Donald Trump has been a great friend for many years. We do n't need another politician, we need a businessman like Mr. Trump! Trump 2016. '' Rodman and then U.S. Presidential hopeful Trump had previously appeared together on Celebrity Apprentice.
On February 26, 2013, Rodman made a trip to North Korea with Vice Media correspondent Ryan Duffy to host basketball exhibitions. He met North Korean leader Kim Jong - un. Rodman and his travel party were the first Americans known to have met Kim. He later said Kim was "a friend for life '' and suggested that President Barack Obama "pick up the phone and call '' Kim since the two leaders were basketball fans. On May 7, after reading an article in The Seattle Times, Rodman sent out a tweet asking Kim to release American prisoner Kenneth Bae, who had been sentenced to 15 years of hard labor in North Korea. Kim released Bae the following year.
In July 2013, Rodman told Sports Illustrated: "My mission is to break the ice between hostile countries. Why it 's been left to me to smooth things over, I do n't know. Dennis Rodman, of all people. Keeping us safe is really not my job; it 's the black guy 's (Obama 's) job. But I 'll tell you this: If I do n't finish in the top three for the next Nobel Peace Prize, something 's seriously wrong. ''
On September 3, 2013, Rodman flew to Pyongyang for another meeting with Kim Jong - un. Rodman said that Kim has a daughter named Kim Ju - ae, and that he is a "great dad ''. Rodman also noted that he planned to train the North Korean national basketball team. Rodman stated that he is "trying to open Obama 's and everyone 's minds '' and encouraged Obama to reach out to Kim Jong - un.
In December 2013, Rodman announced he would visit North Korea again. He also said he has plans to bring a number of former NBA players with him for an exhibition basketball tour. According to Rory Scott, a spokesman for the exhibitions ' sponsoring organization, Rodman planned to visit December 18 -- 21 and train the North Korean team in preparation for January games. The matchups were scheduled for January 8 (Kim Jong - un 's birthday) and January 10, 2014. Included on the U.S. exhibition team were Kenny Anderson, Cliff Robinson, Vin Baker, Craig Hodges, Doug Christie, Sleepy Floyd, Charles D. Smith, and four streetballers. Rodman departed from Beijing on January 6. Organised by Paddy Power, among his entourage was the Irish media personality Matt Cooper, who had interviewed Rodman a number of times on radio.
On January 7, 2014, in North Korea prior to the exhibition games, Rodman made comments during a CNN interview implying that Kenneth Bae was at fault for his imprisonment. The remarks were widely reported in other media outlets and provoked a storm of criticism. Two days later, Rodman apologized for his comments, saying that he had been drinking and under pressure. He added that he "should know better than to make political statements ''. Some members of the U.S. Congress, the NBA and human rights groups suggested that Rodman had become a public relations stunt for the North Korean government. On May 2, 2016, Kenneth Bae credited Rodman with his early release. He said that Rodman 's rant raised awareness of his case and that he wanted to personally thank him for his expedited release.
The U.S. Department of the Treasury is reportedly investigating whether Rodman broke the law by bringing Kim Jong - un thousands of dollars in luxury gifts on his 2014 trip to North Korea.
On June 13, 2017, Rodman returned to North Korea on what was initially described as a sports - related visit to the country. "My purpose is to go over there and try to see if I can keep bringing sports to North Korea, '' Rodman said. He added that he hoped to accomplish "something that 's pretty positive. '' During the visit, Rodman met with national Olympic athletes, male and female basketball players, viewed a men 's basketball practice, and visited a state - run orphanage. Rodman was not able to meet with Kim Jong Un, but met instead with the nation 's Minister of Sports and handed off several gifts for Kim Jong Un, including two signed basketball jerseys, two soap sets, and a copy of Donald Trump 's 1987 book, The Art of the Deal. Other gifts believed to be intended for the leader 's daughter, included a Where 's Waldo? book and a jigsaw puzzle of a mermaid.
Rodman posted a video on Twitter that was recorded before he left for the visit, in which he and his agent describe the mission of the trip. "He 's going to try to bring peace between both nations, '' Rodman 's agent Chris Volo said, referring to the strained relations between North Korea and the United States. Rodman added, "That 's the main reason why we 're going. We 're trying to bring everything together. If not, at least we tried. '' Rodman further explained, "We 're trying to open doors between both countries. Just a little bit goes a long way. '' The visit was sponsored by the cryptocurrency company PotCoin.
Rodman 's "hoops diplomacy '' inspired a 20th Century Fox comedy, Diplomats. Tim Story and Peter Chernin are set to produce the film while Jonathan Abrams is reportedly writing the script.
Rodman visited North Korea again in June 2018, stating "I 'm just happy to be a part of '' the 2018 North Korea -- United States summit and "because I think I deserve it. I think that I brought awareness to a lot of things around the world. And I think North Korea has given a lot of people this opportunity to do this conference now and I hope it is a success. ''
The Washington Post raised the question of whether President Donald Trump sent Rodman on his 2017 visit to negotiate the release of several American prisoners of North Korea or to open a back channel for diplomatic communications. The U.S. State Department, White House officials, and Rodman all denied any official government involvement in the visit. Rodman, who publicly endorsed Trump during the 2016 Presidential Campaign, is a self - described longtime friend of the president and, as the article put it, "Trump and Kim 's only mutual acquaintance. '' The Washington Post article stated, "Multiple people involved in unofficial talks with North Korea say that the Trump administration has been making overtures toward the Kim regime, including trying to set up a secret back channel to the North Korean leader using ' an associate of Trump 's ' rather than the usual lineup of North Korea experts and former officials who talk to Pyongyang 's representatives. ''
When asked if he had spoken with Trump about the visit, Rodman replied, "Well, I 'm pretty sure he 's pretty much happy with the fact that I 'm over here trying to accomplish something that we both need. '' Rodman publicly presented a copy of Trump 's book, "The Art of the Deal '' to North Korean officials, as a personal gift for Kim Jong Un. In a Twitter video posted by Rodman, his agent Chris Volo said, "He 's the only person on the planet that has the uniqueness, the unbelievable privilege of being friends with President Trump and Marshal Kim Jong Un. '' Rodman went on to say in the video that he wanted to bring peace and "open doors between both countries. ''
Otto Warmbier, an American student held captive in North Korea for 17 months, was released to U.S. officials the same day as Rodman 's visit to North Korea. Despite the timeline of the two events, the U.S. State Department, The White House, and Rodman all flatly denied any diplomatic connection or coordination between Rodman 's visit and the U.S. government. The U.S. State Department said the release of Warmbier was negotiated and secured by high level U.S. diplomats including Joseph Yun, the State Department 's special envoy on North Korea. Warmbier who was in a nonresponsive coma throughout much of his imprisonment in North Korea, died days after being returned to his family in the U.S.
In an emotional interview with Michael Strahan of "Good Morning America '', Rodman expressed sorrow for the death of Warmbier and said, "I was just so happy to see the kid released. Later that day, that 's when we found out he was ill. No one knew that. '' He added that he wished to give "all the prayer and love '' to the Warmbier family and had contacted them and hoped to meet with them personally.
Rodman 's agent, Chris Volo, told ABC News that before they left for the 2017 trip, he had asked North Korean officials to release Warmbier as a symbol of good faith for any future sports - relations visits. "I asked on behalf of Dennis for his release three times, '' Volo said.
In December 2017, Columbia University professor of neurobiology Joseph Terwilliger, who has accompanied Rodman to North Korea, argued that "While I do n't suspect that very many Americans would have chosen him to be an emissary or international goodwill ambassador, Dennis has had a long friendship with Mr. Trump and has also developed a very cordial friendship with Mr. Kim. In this tense climate, as we stand at a perilous crossing, Mr. Rodman 's unique position as a friend to the leaders of both U.S. and North Korea could provide a much - needed bridge to help resolve the current nuclear standoff.
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what is the average rainfall in new york city | Climate of New York - wikipedia
The climate of New York state is generally humid continental, while the extreme southeastern portion of the state (New York City area) lies in the warm Humid Subtropical climate zone. Winter temperatures average below freezing during January and February in much of New York state, but several degrees above freezing along the Atlantic coastline, including New York City.
Seasonally, summer - like conditions prevail from June to early September statewide, while areas in far southern New York and New York City have summer conditions from late May through late September. Cold - air damming east of the Appalachians leads to protracted periods of cloud cover and precipitation east of the range, primarily between the October and April months. Winter - like conditions prevail from November through April in northern New York, and from December through March in southern New York. On average, western New York is much cloudier than points south and east in New York, much of it generated from the Great Lakes. Greenhouse gas emission is low on a per capita basis when compared to most other states due to the extensive use of mass transit, particularly across New York City. The significant urbanization within New York city has led to an urban heat island, which causes temperatures to be warmer overnight in all seasons.
Annual precipitation is fairly even throughout the year across New York state. The Great Lakes region of New York sees the highest annual rain and snow amounts in New York state, and heavy lake - effect snow is common in both western and central New York in winter. In the hotter months, large, long - lived complexes of thunderstorms can invade the state from Canada and the Great Lakes, while tropical cyclones can bring rains and winds from the southwest during the summer and fall. Hurricane impacts on the state occur once every 18 -- 19 years, with major hurricane impacts every 70 -- 74 years. An average of ten tornadoes touch down in New York annually.
The annual average temperature across the state ranges from around 39 ° F (4 ° C) over the Adirondack Mountains to near 53 ° F (12 ° C) across Long Island. Weather in New York is heavily influenced by two air masses: a warm, humid one from the southwest and a cold, dry one from the northwest. A cool, humid northeast airflow from the North Atlantic is much less common, and results in a persistent cloud deck with associated precipitation which linger across the region for prolonged periods of time. Temperature differences between the warmer coast and far northern inland sections can exceed 36 degrees Fahrenheit (20 degrees Celsius), with rain near the coast and frozen precipitation, such as sleet and freezing rain, falling inland. Two - thirds of such events occur between November and April. which moves from northeast to southwest.
Unlike the vast majority of the state, New York City features a humid subtropical climate (Koppen Cfa). New York City is an urban heat island, with temperatures 5 -- 7 degrees Fahrenheit (3 -- 4 degrees Celsius) warmer overnight than surrounding areas. In an effort to fight this warming, roofs of buildings are being painted white across the city in an effort to increase the reflection of solar energy, or albedo.
In both Huntington and Ticonderoga, the average high July temperature is about 27 ° C, the latter much further north, but in the former on Long Island, summer air is cooled by the surrounding ocean. The summer climate is cooler in the Adirondacks, Catskills and higher elevations of the Southern Plateau due to the elevated terrain. The New York City area and lower portions of the Hudson Valley in contrast have much more sultry and tropical summers with frequent bouts of hot temperatures and high dew points. The remainder of New York State enjoys modestly warm summers. Summer temperatures usually range from the upper 70s to mid 80s ° F (25 to 30 ° C), over much of the state. The record high for New York state is 108 ° F (42 ° C), set at Troy on July 22, 1926.
Winters are often cold and snowy above the New York City and Long Island areas of New York. In the majority of winter seasons, a temperature of − 13 ° F (− 25 ° C) or lower can be expected in the northern highlands (Northern Plateau) and 0 ° F (− 18 ° C) or colder in the southwestern and east - central highlands (Southern Plateau). The Adirondack region records from 35 to 45 days with below zero temperatures, in normal to severe winters. Winters are also long and cold in both Western and Central New York, though not as cold as the Adirondack region due to the warming influence of the Great Lakes. The New York City metro area, in comparison to the rest of the state, is milder in the winter (especially in the city itself, which averages several degrees above freezing). The record low for New York state is − 52 ° F (− 47 ° C), set at Stillwater Reservoir on February 9, 1934 and at Old Forge on February 18, 1979. In February 2015, Rochester experienced its coldest month ever, with an average temperature of 12.2 ° F (− 11 ° C); while later that year had a near - record warm November and a record - breaking December. The latter month was about 12 degrees F warmer than average, and several degrees over the previous record.
Southeastern sections of the state near New York City have an average annual cloud cover of 59 - 62 %, while areas of western New York around Buffalo average 71 -- 75 % cloud cover annually.
Average precipitation across the region show maxima within the mountains of the Appalachians. Between 28 inches (710 mm) and 62 inches (1,600 mm) of precipitation falls annually across the Northeastern United States, and New York 's averages are similar, with maxima of over 60 inches (1,500 mm) falling across southwestern Lewis County, northern Oneida County, central and southern Hamilton County, as well as northwestern Ulster County. The lowest amounts occur near the northern borders with Vermont and Ontario, as well as much of southwestern sections of the state. Temporally, a maximum in precipitation is seen around three peak times: 3 a.m., 10 a.m., and 6 p.m. During the summer, the 6 p.m. peak is most pronounced.
Coastal extratropical cyclones, known as nor'easters, bring a bulk of the wintry precipitation to the region during the cold season as they track parallel to the coastline, forming along the natural temperature gradient of the Gulf Stream before moving up the coastline. The Appalachian Mountains largely shield New York City from picking up any lake - effect snow, which develops in the wake of extratropical cyclones downwind of the Great Lakes. The Finger Lakes of New York are long enough for lake - effect precipitation. Lake - effect snow from the Finger Lakes (like elsewhere) occurs in upstate New York until those lakes freeze over. Annual average lake - effect snows exceed 150 inches (380 cm) downwind of Lake Erie and 200 inches (510 cm) downwind of Lake Ontario.
During the summer and early fall, mesoscale convective systems can move into the area from Canada and the Great Lakes. Tropical cyclones and their remains occasionally move into the region from the south and southwest. The region has experienced a couple heavy rainfall events that exceeded the 50 - year return period, during October 1996 and October 1998, which suggest an increase in heavy rainfall along the coast.
Note: An unofficial, but widely accepted record 24 - hr snowfall of 54 inches was observed at Tug Hill Plateau in January, 1976.
In terms of emissions, New York ranks 46th among the 50 states in the amount of greenhouse gases generated per person. This efficiency is primarily due to the state 's higher rate of mass transit use in and around New York City.
However, New York City (particularly Manhattan) has extremely high rates of air pollution, with high particle pollution and high cancer rates, which can be explained by extreme population density, despite low per capita emissions rates.
New York experiences an average of ten tornadoes per year, with one tornado every five years considered strong or violent (EF2 - EF5). The return period for hurricane impacts on the state is 18 -- 19 years, with major hurricane return periods between 70 -- 74 years. In 2016, much of New York experienced a severe drought, including the Finger Lakes region, where the drought was preceded by a very mild winter with minimal snow pack.
See Geography of New York City for additional climate information from the outer boroughs.
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who was the first woman to be nominated for best director at the academy awards | Academy award for Best director - wikipedia
The Academy Award for Best Director (officially known as the Academy Award for Best Directing) is an award presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS). It is given in honor of a film director who has exhibited outstanding directing while working in the film industry.
The 1st Academy Awards ceremony was held in 1929 with the award being split into "Dramatic '' and "Comedy '' categories; Frank Borzage and Lewis Milestone won for 7th Heaven and Two Arabian Knights, respectively. However, these categories were merged for all subsequent ceremonies. Nominees are determined by single transferable vote within the directors branch of AMPAS; winners are selected by a plurality vote from the entire eligible voting members of the Academy.
For the first eleven years of the Academy Awards, directors were allowed to be nominated for multiple films in the same year. However, after the nomination of Michael Curtiz for two films, Angels with Dirty Faces and Four Daughters, at the 11th Academy Awards, the rules were revised so that an individual could only be nominated for one film at each ceremony. That rule has since been amended, although the only director who has received multiple nominations in the same year was Steven Soderbergh for Erin Brockovich and Traffic in 2000, winning the award for the latter. The Academy Awards for Best Director and Best Picture have been very closely linked throughout their history. Of the 89 films that have been awarded Best Picture, 63 have also been awarded Best Director. Since its inception, the award has been given to 69 directors or directing teams. John Ford has received the most awards in this category with four. William Wyler was nominated on twelve occasions, more than any other individual. Martin Scorsese is currently the most nominated living director with 8 Academy Award nominations. As of the 2017 ceremony, Damien Chazelle is the most recent winner in this category for his work on La La Land. Chazelle also became the youngest director in history to receive this award, at the age of 32. Two directing teams have shared the award; Robert Wise and Jerome Robbins for West Side Story in 1961 and Joel and Ethan Coen for No Country for Old Men in 2007. The Coen brothers are the only siblings to have won the award. Kathryn Bigelow is the only woman to have won the award, for 2009 's The Hurt Locker.
In the following table, the years are listed as per Academy convention, and generally correspond to the year of film release in Los Angeles County, California; the ceremonies are always held the following year. For the first five ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned twelve months from August 1 to July 31. For the 6th ceremony held in 1934, the eligibility period lasted from August 1, 1932, to December 31, 1933. Since the 7th ceremony held in 1935, the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year from January 1 to December 31.
The following individuals have won multiple Best Director awards:
The following directors have received four or more Best Director nominations (* indicates no wins):
As of the 90th Academy Awards, three Asian directors have been nominated a total of five times in this category, and one director has won the award twice.
As of the 90th Academy Awards, five black directors have been nominated in this category one time each, and none have won.
As of the 90th Academy Awards, five female directors have been nominated in this category one time each, and one has won the award.
As of the 90th Academy Awards, seven Hispanic directors have been nominated a total of nine times in this category with four wins among them.
As of the 90th Academy Awards, one Indian director has been nominated in this category. No Indian directors have won in this category.
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who made up the roman army during the republic | Military establishment of the Roman Republic - wikipedia
As the Roman kingdom successfully overcame opposition from the Italic hill tribes, and became a larger state, the age of tyranny in the eastern Mediterranean began to subside. Inspired by the idea of new constitutions arising there, the Roman populace threw off the yoke of tyranny and established a republic. The army was now facing threats from all of Europe and could only respond through change. This article covers the military establishment of the Roman Republic. For previous changes in the Roman army, see military establishment of the Roman kingdom.
The historian Polybius gives us a clear picture of the republican army at what is arguably its height in 160 BC. Serving in the army was part of Roman civic duty. To serve in the armies of Rome, one had to purchase one 's own equipment, and soldiers were sorted into different classes according to wealth. Velites made up the lower class soldiers; it was this class which made up the majority of the heavy infantry legions characteristic to Rome. The Equites, or Equestrians, were the higher class citizens so named because they could afford to maintain at least one horse; this class made up the Roman Citizen Cavalry, which, through its evolution, transformed into one of the prizes of the late Republic, only to disappear by the time of the Empire.
In the late republic, the army became an instrument for successful international warfare, due to the reforms of one of Rome 's greatest generals, Gaius Marius, a man admired and imitated by Julius Caesar. His changes were so critical to the success of Roman legions that the army is characterized in history as "pre-Marian '' and "post-Marian '' or just "Marian ''.
The highest officers of the military were the two consuls for that year, who were also the leaders of the senate at Rome. Each of them ordinarily commanded an army group of two legions: they also had responsibility for raising these troops. In militaristic Rome, the highest civilian officers were also the military chiefs of staff and the commanding generals in battle. They answered only to the Roman Senate.
Raising the legions was an annual affair. The term of service was one year, although many candidates no doubt were picked year after year. The magistrates decided who in the tribes were eligible for selection.
The word we translate as "magistrate '' was the title of a tribal official, a tribunus ("of the tribes ''). Here a basic division of the military and civilian branches applied, as well as the subjection of the military to the civilian. The working organizations of the tribe were called comitia (committees). They elected tribunes of plebs, "tribunes of the people '', as well as 24 tribune militaries -- 6 per legion -- who were careerists with at least 5 or 6 years ' service experience. A career would include both military and civilian offices. The 6 military tribunes were to be the senior staff of the legion.
On election day, the presiding tribune sent the men of the tribe to appear before the military tribunes in groups of four. The four senior staffs of the future legions observed a priority of selection, which rotated. Each staff would take its pick, man by man until each had selected 4200 men, the complements of four legions. The selection of 16,800 men must have taken several days.
If the circumstances of the state required it, the complement could be expanded to include more men, or the consuls could draft as many as four legions each. Additional forces could be drafted under ad hoc commanders called proconsules, who served "in place of consuls. '' In the later republic, the relatively small number of legions commanded by the consuls (2 - 4) resulted in their power being overshadowed by the proconsuls, the provincial governors. Provincial governors often would command more loyalty from their troops than their consular counterparts did, and governors were able to raise vast numbers of troops.
While provincial armies technically were supposed to stay within the provinces over which their governors had jurisdiction, by the middle of the 1st century BC this rule was ignored. By the end of the Republic, the various commanders participating in Rome 's civil wars had raised the number of legions throughout the provinces to more than fifty, many under the command of a single man.
The necessity of raising legions quickly, to offset battle losses, resulted in an abbreviation of the recruitment process. The government appointed two boards, of three military tribunes each, empowered to enter any region in the Roman jurisdiction for the purpose of enlisting men. These tribunes were not elected. The experience requirement was dropped in the case of aristocratic appointees. Some were as young as 18, although this age was considered acceptable for a young aristocrat on his way up the cursus honorum, or ladder of offices.
The appointed tribunes conducted an ad hoc draft, or dialects, to recruit men. They tended to select the youngest and most capable - looking. It was similar to later naval press gangs, except that Roman citizens were entitled to some process, no matter how abbreviated. If they had to, the appointed tribunes drafted slaves, as they did after the Battle of Cannae.
Soldiers who had served out their time and had obtained their discharge (mission), but had voluntarily re-enlisted, were called evocati.
A standard Republican legion before the reforms of Gaius Marius ("the early Republic '') contained about 4500 men divided into the velites, the principes, and the hastati -- of 1200 men each -- also the triarii, of 600 men, and the equities, of 300 men. The first three types stood forward in battle; the triarii stood back. The velites and the equites were used mainly for various kinds of support.
The class system of Servius Tullius already had organized society to support the military. He practically had created a "store '' in which officers could "shop '' for the resources they needed. Officers were elected by the civilian centuries, usually from the classic, or from the patricii if the latter were not included in the classic (there is some question about how this worked).
There were available 80 centuries of wealthy classic, 40 of young men ages 17 to 45, and 40 of men 45 and older. These citizens could afford whatever arms and armor the officers thought they needed. The classic could go into any branch of the legion, but generally, veterans were preferred for the triarii, and young men for the velites. The rest was filled out from the young 40 centuries. The older 40 were kept for emergencies, which occurred frequently. These older men were roughly equivalent to the United States Army Reserve.
If the arms requirement was less severe, or the expensive troops were in short supply, the recruiters selected from Classes 2 through 4, which again offered either older or younger men. Class 5 were centuries of specialists, such as carpenters. The Romans preferred not to use Class 6, but if the need was very great they were known to recruit even from slaves and the poor, who would have to be equipped with the state.
The full equipage of arms and armor were the helmet with colored crest and face protectors, breastplates or chain mail (if a soldier could afford it), greaves, the parma (a round shield), the scutum (an oblong wrap - around of hiding on a wood frame, edged with metal, with the insignia of the legion painted on it), the pilum (the hasta veligers, a light javelin of about 3 feet with a 9 - inch metal head), and a short sword they borrowed from Spanish tribes, the gladius. The gladius was both pointed for thrusting and edged for slashing.
These arms could be combined in various ways, except that one battle - line had to be armed in the same way. Most typical was a line of principes armed with pole and gladii and defended by the scuti. The hastati could be armed the same way, or with the hasta and parma. The velites bore the hasta veligers and depended on running to get them away after a throw, which is why only the young were chosen for that job.
The basic unit of the army was the company - sized century of 60 men commanded by a centurion. He had under him two junior officers, the options, each of whom had a standard - bearer, or vexillarius. Presumably, he used the two officers to form two squads. In addition, a squad of 20 elites was attached to the century, probably instructed ad hoc by the centurion.
Two centuries made up a manipulandum of 120 men. Each line of battle contained 10 maniples, 1200 men, except that the triarii numbered only 600. The legion of 4200 infantry created in this way was supported by 300 equities, or cavalry, organized in 10 Turmae (squadrons) of 30 horse each, under a master of horse (magister equisetum), who took orders from the legion commander. Cavalry was used for scouting, skirmishing and various sorts of clean - up -- they also constituted another reserve that could be thrown into the battle. The Republic was ignorant of armies on horseback, which, coming off the steppes of Central Asia in blitzkrieg operations, were to trouble the later empire.
Servius Tullius, who most like originally was an Etruscan soldier of fortune, identified the disadvantages of an army recruited from landowners: such an army depended heavily on a large farmer - class of citizens to provide troops. So Tullius pressed for reforms that granted veterans land. Although he was assassinated he did establish the precedent of granting land to veterans.
The army at first was not overly successful, partly because it faced superior generals, and partly because of its inexperience. Roman commanders gave up trying to defeat Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, by direct combat as he ravaged Italy. The most successful Roman general at that time, Quintus Vabius Maximus Verrucosus, surnamed Cunctator ("the delayer ''), camped at a distance and watched the doings of the Carthaginians, while his troops harassed the Carthaginian army on its fringes.
Later, though, the army came into the hands of a family of careerists and professional soldiers, the Cornelii, a gens of the most ancient stock, patrician in the best sense of the word. They were the first real successors to Servius. After much trial and error, suffering personal losses, they produced one of the best and most influential generals Rome ever had, Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus. He built the Servian army into a victorious fighting machine.
Let the Carthaginians ravage Italy, Scipio declared -- he took the war to Carthage, landing in North Africa with a republican army. The strategy succeeded: Hannibal was recalled at once -- he came home immediately, with a disrupted army, and he was beaten by Scipio at the Battle of Zama, in 202 BC. Using the tactics developed by Scipio -- now entitled Africanus -- plus good generalship, the army, at last, lived up to the potential imparted to it by King Servius.
Roman army tactics worked as follows. The general first picked his ground. The Roman military now understood fairly well the importance of taking the initiative and picking its own ground, with some infamous exceptions. If the terrain was not right, the army remained within its fortified camp (which was virtually unassailable) until the enemy moved on, and then followed, waiting for an opportunity to engage.
The ideal terrain was a gently sloping hill with a stream at the bottom. The enemy would have to ford the stream and move up the slope. The film, Spartacus, recreates this scenario.
The legion was drawn up in three lines of battle, with the thermae and the velites placed as the situation required. The hastati in front and the principles behind were stationed in a line of maniples like chess pieces, 10 per line, separated from each other. The two centuries of a maniple fought side - by - side. The line of principes was offset so as to cover the gaps in the hastati, and the triarii, somewhat more thinly - spread, covered the principes.
Roman soldiers fought in long thin lines. Such open formations allowed the Romans, often outnumbered, to outflank an enemy using a deep formation. The last thing they wanted was to be crushed together and cut down without being able to use their weapons, as they had been so many times before, and as so many armies who never studied Roman warfare were to be later. For the Romans, every man by regulation was allowed one square yard in which to fight, and square yards were separated by gaps of three feet.
Now came the moment of battle... The thermae and the bands of velites (skirmishers) made forays opportunistically, trying to disrupt the ranks of the enemy or prevent them from crossing the stream if there was one. While they were doing this, the rest of the legion advanced. At a signal, the skirmishers retired through or around Roman ranks -- there probably were trumpet calls, but we know little about them.
Picking up speed, the first and second ranks launched spears, the second rank over the heads of the first using light lance with launchers, the first rank at the last moment with pale, or javelins. On impact, the heavy iron points drove through shields and armor both, pinning men together and disrupting the line. The hastati then drew gladii and closed. So great was the impact, we hear from Caesar, that sometimes the men would jump up on the enemy shields to cut downward.
What happened next depended on the success of the hastati. If they were victorious, they were joined by the principles, who merged into their line to fill the gaps and make up the losses. The triarii moved to the flanks to envelop the enemy. If the hastati were not victorious, they merged backward into the principles. The third line remained in reserve unless the other two failed, in which case the front two merged into the third.
As Roman Legions were composed primarily of heavy infantry, they displayed the advantages and drawbacks of classical heavy infantry. It is notable that three of the biggest defeats (Battle of Carrhae, Battle of Teutoburg Forest, Battle of Ctesiphon) all came at the hands of light infantry or light cavalry forces.
By the end of the 2nd century BC, the Republican army was experiencing a severe manpower shortage. Soldiers also were having to serve for longer periods, and fight wars further away from their homes. For more information see Marian reforms
The Gracchi had attempted to resolve the former problem by redistributing public land to the lower classes, thereby increasing the number of men eligible for military service. But they were assassinated before they could achieve this social reform. Rome instead followed the opposite but logical path of making any able - bodied citizen eligible to enlist.
The popular Gaius Marius, at the end of the 2nd century, used his popularity to reorganize the Republican army. He took liberties with the letter of the law, to which few objected, and which later were ratified. First, he recruited men from the lower classes who did not meet the official property requirement. Then he reorganized the legions into the cohort system, doing away with the manipular system.
The new legions were made up of 10 cohorts, each with 6 centuries of 80 men. The first cohort carried the new legionary standard, a silver or gold eagle called the aquila. This cohort contained only 5 centuries, but each century had double the number of men in the normal centuries. Altogether, each legion contained approximately 4,800 men.
The Marian reforms had great political fallout. Although the officer corps still was composed largely of Roman aristocrats, the rank - and - file troops all were lower - class men -- serving in the legions became less every citizen 's traditional civic duty to Rome, and more a means of rising in society. This trend was accelerated by Rome 's wars of conquest, which resulted in huge influxes of slaves. Freemen with or without land could not compete with free labor. Signing up with a legion allowed the possibility of loot and land enfranchisement.
The reforms also meant that legions were now more - or-less permanent formations, not just temporary armies deployed according to need (the Latin word ' legion ' is actually their word for ' levy '). As enduring units, they were able to become more effective fighting forces; more importantly, they could form lasting loyalties to their commanders, rather than keeping loyalties to Rome. The 1 - year consular system began to break down, and generals served for longer durations. This, in turn, meant that troops were more loyal to their commanders, which served as a catalyst for the oppressive and corrupt rule that the Roman military played in the later years under the Emperors.
On the one hand, the reforms of Marius created a professional army for extended service abroad. On the other, it increased the stature of the generals and encouraged competition between them, which is what made the civil wars possible, and it is why scholars often cite the Marian Reforms as the beginning of the end for the Roman Republic. The subsequent emperors ruthlessly eliminated powerful men and potential successors.
Marian reforms
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who signed the constitution and where were they from | Signing of the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The Signing of the United States Constitution occurred on September 17, 1787, at Independence Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, when 39 delegates to the Constitutional Convention, representing 12 states (all but Rhode Island, which declined to send delegates), endorsed the Constitution created during the four - month - long convention. In addition to signatures, this endorsement, the Constitution 's eschatocol, included a brief declaration that the delegates ' work has been successfully completed and that those whose signatures appear on it subscribe to the final document. Included are, a statement pronouncing the document 's adoption by the states present, a formulaic dating of its adoption, along with the signatures of those endorsing it. Additionally, the convention 's secretary, William Jackson, signed the document to authenticate the validity of the delegate signatures. He also made a few secretarial notes.
The language of the concluding endorsement, conceived by Gouverneur Morris and presented to the convention by Benjamin Franklin, was made intentionally ambiguous in hopes of winning over the votes of dissenting delegates. Advocates for the new frame of government, realizing the impending difficulty of obtaining the consent of the states needed for it to become operational, were anxious to obtain the unanimous support of the delegations from each state. It was feared that many of the delegates would refuse to give their individual assent to the Constitution. Therefore, in order that the action of the Convention would appear to be unanimous, the formula, Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present... was devised.
The U.S. Constitution lays out the frame of the nation 's federal government and delineates how its 3 branches (legislative, executive, and judicial) are to function. Of those who signed it, virtually every one had taken part in the American Revolution; seven had signed the Declaration of Independence, and thirty had served on active military duty. In general, they represented a cross-section of 18th - century American leadership, with individuals having experience in local or colonial and state government. Jonathan Dayton, age 26, was the youngest to sign the Constitution, while Benjamin Franklin, age 81, was the oldest.
Attest William Jackson Secretary
On July 24, 1787 convention delegates selected a Committee of Detail to write - up a draft a draft constitution reflective of the resolutions passed by the convention up to that point. The final report of this committee, a twenty - three article (plus a preamble) document, became the first draft of the constitution. Overall, the draft produced by the committee conformed to the resolutions adopted by the Convention, adding some elements.
Even after it issued this report, the committee continued to meet off and on until early September. The draft constitution was discussed, section by section and clause by clause. Details were attended to, and further compromises were effected.
On September 8, 1787, a Committee of Style, with different members, was impaneled to distill a final draft constitution from the twenty - three approved articles. The final draft, presented to the convention on September 12, contained seven articles, a preamble, and a closing statement, cleverly written by Gouverneur Morris so as to make the constitution seem unanimous. The committee also presented a proposed letter to accompany the constitution when delivered to the Congress of the Confederation.
The final document, engrossed by Jacob Shallus, was taken up on Monday, September 17, at the Convention 's final session. Several delegates were disappointed by the numerous compromises contained in the final document, believing that they had impaired its quality.
Alexander Hamilton called the Constitution a "weak and worthless fabric '', certain to be superseded. Luther Martin regarded it as a stab in the back of the goddess of liberty. The most that Madison and the majority of delegates hoped, was that this practical, workable constitution, planned to meet the immediate needs of thirteen states with approximately four million people, would last a generation.
In all, twelve of the thirteen states sent delegates to the Constitutional Convention; a total of 74 were named, 55 attended and 39 signed. Several attendees left before the signing ceremony, and three that did not refused to sign. Benjamin Franklin summed up the sentiments of those who did sign, stating: "There are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them. '' He would accept the Constitution, "because I expect no better and because I am not sure that it is not the best ''.
The closing endorsement of the U.S. Constitution serves an authentication function only. It neither assigns powers to the federal government nor does it provide specific limitations on government action. It does however, provide essential documentation of the Constitution 's validity, a statement of "This is what was agreed to. '' It records who signed the Constitution, plus when and where they signed. It also describes the role played by the signers in developing the document. Due to this limited function, it is frequently overlooked and no court has ever cited it when reaching a judicial decision.
On the final day of the Constitutional Convention, Benjamin Franklin delivered an address (read by James Wilson) strongly endorsing the Constitution despite any perceived imperfections. Hoping to gain the support of critics and create a sense of common accord, Franklin then proposed, and the convention agreed, that the Constitution be endorsed by the delegates as individual witnesses of the unanimous consent of the states present. Thus the signers subscribed their names as witnesses to what was done in convention (rather than on the part and behalf of particular states, as they had in the Articles of Confederation). The signers ' names are, with the exception of Convention President George Washington, grouped by state, with the listing of states arraigned geographically, from north to south.
Seventy - four individuals were selected to attend the Constitutional Convention, but a number of them could not attend or chose not to attend. In all, fifty - five delegates participated in the convention, though thirteen of them dropped out, either for personal reasons in protest over decisions made during the deliberations. Three individuals remained engaged in the work of the convention until its completion, but then refused to sign the final draft.
The names of thirty - nine delegates are inscribed upon the proposed constitution. Among them is John Dickinson, who, indisposed by illness, authorized George Read to sign his name by proxy. Additionally, the convention 's secretary, William Jackson, while not himself a delegate, signed the document to authenticate the results of the Convention 's sessions and the signatures. George Washington, as president of the Convention, signed first, followed by the other delegates, grouped by states in progression from north to south. Washington, however, signed near the right margin of the page, and when the delegates ran out of space they began a second column of signatures to the left.
Jonathan Dayton, aged 26, was the youngest to sign the Constitution, while Benjamin Franklin, aged 81, was the oldest. Franklin was also the first signer to die, in April 1790, while James Madison was the last, dying in June 1836. Virtually every signer had taken part in the Revolution; at least 29 had served in the Continental forces, most of them in positions of command. All but seven were native to the thirteen colonies: Pierce Butler, Thomas Fitzsimons, James McHenry, and William Paterson were born in Ireland, Robert Morris in England, James Wilson in Scotland, and Alexander Hamilton in the West Indies.
When the Constitutional Convention adjourned on September 17, 1787 William Jackson was ordered to carry the Constitution to Congress in New York City. He also carried two letters with him. One was a resolution, adopted by the delegates, that the recommendation of the Constitutional Convention be received by Congress and distributed to the states, for their approval or disapproval. The other was written by George Washington, on behalf of the delegates, to the President of the Continental Congress, Arthur St. Clair, regarding the proposed Constitution.
Monday September 17. 1787
The States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Mr. Hamilton from New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.
RESOLVED
THAT the preceding Constitution be laid before the United States in Congress assembled, and that it is the Opinion of this Convention, that it should afterwards be submitted to a Convention of Delegates, chosen in each State by the People thereof, under the Recommendation of its Legislature, for their Assent and Ratification; and that each Convention assenting to, and ratifying the Same, should give Notice thereof to the United States in Congress assembled.
Resolved, That it is the Opinion of this Convention, that as soon as the Conventions of nine States shall have ratified this Constitution, the United States in Congress assembled should fix a Day on which Electors should be appointed by the States which shall have ratified the same, and a Day on which the Electors should assemble to vote for the President, and the Time and place for commencing Proceedings under this Constitution. That after such Publication the Electors should be appointed, and the Senators and Representatives elected: That the Electors should meet on the Day fixed for the Election of the President, and should transmit their votes certified signed, sealed and directed, as the Constitution requires, to the Secretary of the United States in Congress assembled, that the Senators and Representatives should convene at the Time and Place assigned; that the Senators should appoint a President of the Senate, for the sole Purpose of receiving, opening and counting the Votes for President; and, that after he shall be chosen, the Congress, together with the President, should, without Delay, proceed to execute this Constitution.
By the Unanimous Order of the Convention, GEORGE WASHINGTON President. William Jackson Secretary
Sir, We have now the honor to submit to the consideration of the United States in Congress assembled, that Constitution which has appeared to us the most advisable.
The friends of our country have long seen and desired, that the power of making war, peace and treaties, that of levying money and regulating commerce, and the correspondent executive and judicial authorities should be fully and effectually vested in the general government of the Union: but the impropriety of delegating such extensive trust to one body of men is evident -- Hence results the necessity of a different organization.
It is obviously impracticable in the federal government of these States, to secure all rights of independent sovereignty to each, and yet provide for the interest and safety of all -- Individuals entering into society, must give up a share of liberty to preserve the rest. The magnitude of the sacrifice must depend as well on situation and circumstance, as on the object to be obtained. It is at all times difficult to draw with precision the line between those rights which must be surrendered, and those which may be reserved; and on the present occasion this difficulty was increased by a difference among the several States as to their situation, extent, habits, and particular interests.
In all our deliberations on this subject we kept steadily in our view, that which appears to us the greatest interest of every true American, the consolidation of our Union, in which is involved our prosperity, felicity, safety, perhaps our national existence. This important consideration, seriously and deeply impressed on our minds, led each State in the Convention to be less rigid on points of inferior magnitude, than might have been otherwise expected; and thus the Constitution, which we now present, is the result of a spirit of amity, and of that mutual deference and concession which the peculiarity of our political situation rendered indispensable.
That it will meet the full and entire approbation of every State is not perhaps to be expected; but each will doubtless consider, that had her interest alone been consulted, the consequences might have been particularly disagreeable or injurious to others; that it is liable to as few exceptions as could reasonably have been expected, we hope and believe; that it may promote the lasting welfare of that country so dear to us all, and secure her freedom and happiness, is our most ardent wish.
With great respect,
We have the honor to be.
SIR,
Your Excellency 's most
Obedient and humble Servants,
GEORGE WASHINGTON, PRESIDENT.
By unanimous Order of the Convention.
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list of the best selling artists of all time | List of best - selling Music artists - wikipedia
This list includes music artists with claims of 75 million or more record sales. The artists in the following tables are listed with both their claimed sales figure along with their total of certified units and are ranked in descending order, with the artist with the highest amount of claimed sales at the top. If two or more artists have the same claimed sales, they are then ranked by certified units. The claimed sales figure and the total of certified units (for each country) within the provided sources include sales of albums, singles, compilation - albums, music videos as well as downloads of singles and full - length albums. Sales figures, such as those from Soundscan, which are sometimes published by Billboard magazine, have not been included in the certified units column. As of 2017, based on both sales claims and certified units, The Beatles are considered the highest - selling band. Elvis Presley is considered the highest - selling individual artist based on sales claims and Rihanna is the highest - selling individual artist based on certified units.
All artists included on this list, which have begun charting on official albums or singles charts have their available claimed figures supported by at least 20 % in certified units. That is why Cliff Richard, Diana Ross, Scorpions, Charles Aznavour, Bing Crosby, Gloria Estefan, Deep Purple, Iron Maiden, Tom Jones, The Jackson 5, Dionne Warwick, the Spice Girls, Luciano Pavarotti, Dolly Parton, Ozzy Osbourne, Andrea Bocelli and others have not been included on this list. The more recent the artist, the higher the required percentage of certified units, so artists such as Rihanna, Taylor Swift, Flo Rida, Katy Perry, Justin Bieber, Adele, Lady Gaga, Bruno Mars and Nicki Minaj are expected to have their claimed figures supported by over 75 % in certified units. The certified units are sourced from available online databases of local music industry associations. All certified units are converted from Gold / Platinum / Diamond certification awards based on criteria provided by certifying bodies. The certified sales percentage varies according to the first year that an artist appeared in the charts.
The requirements of certified sales are designed to avoid inflated sales figures, which are frequently practiced by record companies for promotional purposes. The claimed figures are referenced from online articles created by highly reliable sources. For clarity, the sources used, say the term "records '' (singles, albums, videos) and not "albums ''. However, if all available sources for an artist or band say "albums '', such sources are only used if the certified album units of the said artist meet the required percentage amount. This list uses claimed figures that are closest to artists ' available certified units: inflated claimed figures that meet the required certified units amount but are unrealistically high, are not used.
The claimed figures are upgraded only when there is a significant progress in artists ' certified sales. In other words, the available certified sales for each artist should get relatively closer to already listed claimed figure in order for higher figures to replace the listed ones.
The certified sales of the newer artists may sometimes be higher than their listed claimed figures. This is because Recording Industry Association of America and almost all other certifying bodies count streaming towards Gold and Platinum thresholds required for Digital Single Award certification. For this reason, some singles and even albums get over certified by hundreds of thousands of units. The over certified figures, however, are often in millions of units for RIAA certifications, one such example is Rihanna 's single "We Found Love '', which is certified at nine times Platinum by the RIAA, yet during the time of the certification, it had sold 5.4 million downloads.
The certified sales for some artists / bands who have multi-disc albums can be higher than their listed claimed figures due to Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) counting each unit within set as one unit toward certification.
The Beatles
Elvis Presley
Michael Jackson
Madonna
Elton John
Led Zeppelin
Pink Floyd
Rihanna
Mariah Carey
Celine Dion
AC / DC
Whitney Houston
Queen
The Rolling Stones
Taylor Swift
Garth Brooks
Eminem
Eagles
U2
Bruno Mars
Kanye West
Justin Bieber
Katy Perry
Adele
Lady Gaga
Metallica
Jay Z
Bon Jovi
B'z
Shania Twain
Coldplay
Flo Rida
Nicki Minaj
Ayumi Hamasaki
Van Halen
Journey
The Black Eyed Peas
Kenny G
Usher
Tupac Shakur
Robbie Williams
Enya
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who is the most paid player in europe | List of most expensive association football transfers - wikipedia
The following is a list of most expensive football association transfers, which details the highest transfer fees ever paid for players as of the summer transfer window of 2017.
As well as the most expensive transfers of all time, the page also lists transfers which broke the world transfer record. The first recorded record transfer was of Willie Groves from West Bromwich Albion to Aston Villa for £ 100 in 1893. This occurred just eight years after the introduction of professionalism by The FA in 1885. The current transfer record was set by the transfer of Neymar from Barcelona to Paris Saint - Germain for € 222 million (£ 198 million) on 3 August 2017.
Most of the highest - value transfers on this list are to clubs under UEFA 's jurisdiction, and most of the purchasing clubs are from England, Spain, Italy and France. However, in the mid 2010s a few Chinese teams have made expensive purchases.
The default order in this table is based on the transfer amount in euros. Due to exchange rate fluctuations the order is different in pound sterling, which are also shown in the table. Transfers that took place before the adoption of the euro are given in their approximate euro equivalent. The list includes only the top fifty disclosed transfer fees.
Three players appear on the list twice: Neymar, James Rodriguez and Ángel Di María. All of the players on the list are of either European (UEFA) or South American (CONMEBOL) origin. There are no players from the remaining regions, namely Africa (CAF), Asia (AFC), North America (CONCACAF) and Oceania (OFC).
As of 1 September 2017; after the 2017 summer transfer window.
Notes
The first player to ever be transferred for a fee of over £ 100 was Scottish striker Willie Groves when he together with Jack Reynolds (£ 50) made the switch from West Bromwich Albion to Aston Villa in 1893, eight years after the legalisation of professionalism in the sport. It took just twelve years for the figure to become £ 1000, when Sunderland striker Alf Common moved to Middlesbrough.
It was not until 1928 that the first five - figure transfer took place. David Jack of Bolton Wanderers was the subject of interest from Arsenal, and in order to negotiate the fee down, Arsenal manager Herbert Chapman got the Bolton representatives drunk. Subsequently, David Jack was transferred for a world record fee when Arsenal paid £ 10,890 to Bolton for his services, after Bolton had asked for £ 13,000, which was double the previous record made when Sunderland signed Burnley 's Bob Kelly a fee of for £ 6,500.
The first player from outside Great Britain to break the record was Bernabé Ferreyra, a player known as La Fiera for his powerful shot. His 1932 transfer from Tigre to River Plate cost £ 23k, and the record would last for 17 years (the longest the record has lasted) until it was broken by Manchester United 's sale of Johnny Morris to Derby County for £ 24k in March 1949. The record was broken seven further times between 1949 and 1961, when Luis Suárez Miramontes was sold by FC Barcelona to Inter Milan for £ 152k, becoming the first ever player sold for more than £ 100k.
In 1968, Pietro Anastasi became the first £ 500k player when Juventus purchased him from Varese, which was followed seven years later with Giuseppe Savoldi becoming the first million pound player when he transferred from Bologna to Napoli.
The second player to twice be transferred for world record fees is Diego Maradona. His transfers from Boca Juniors to Barcelona for £ 3m, and then to Napoli for £ 5m, both broke the record in 1982 and 1984 respectively. The third became Ronaldo with his record - breaking move from PSV Eindhoven to Barcelona in 1996 for £ 13.2 m, although Alan Shearer 's transfer to Newcastle broke the record the same summer. A year later Inter Milan paid £ 19.5 m for Ronaldo and again he became the player with the highest transfer fee.
In the space of 61 days in 1992, three transfers broke the record, all by Italian clubs: Jean - Pierre Papin transferred from Marseille to A.C. Milan, becoming the first ever £ 10m player. Almost immediately, rivals Juventus topped that with the signing of Gianluca Vialli for a fee of £ 12m from Sampdoria. Milan then completed the signing of Gianluigi Lentini for a fee of £ 13m which stood as the record for three years.
The 1996 transfer of Alan Shearer from Blackburn Rovers to Newcastle United, for a fee of £ 15m, kickstarted a year - by - year succession of record breaking transfers: Ronaldo moved the following year to Inter Milan from FC Barcelona for a fee of £ 17m, which was followed in 1998 by the shock transfer of his fellow countryman Denílson from São Paulo to Real Betis for a fee of approximately £ 21m.
In 1999 and 2000, Italian clubs returned to their record - breaking ways, with Christian Vieri transferring from Lazio to Inter Milan for £ 28m, while Hernán Crespo 's transfer from Parma to Lazio ensured he became the first player to cost more than £ 30m. The transfer prompted the BBC to ask "has the world gone mad ''? It took two weeks for the record to be broken when Luís Figo made a controversial £ 37m move from Barcelona to rivals Real Madrid. A year later, Real increased the record again with a signing of Zinedine Zidane for £ 48 million (150 billion lire).
Zidane 's record stood for 8 years, the longest since the 1940s. Real Madrid continued with the Galácticos policy by buying Kaká from Milan for € 67 million (£ 56 million), which was the world record in pound sterling. However, both world record in euro and in pound sterling were broke by Real themselves when signing Cristiano Ronaldo for £ 80m (€ 94m) from Manchester United in the same transfer window, 4 years later Real Madrid broke the record again after completed the signing of Gareth Bale from Tottenham Hotspur in 2013. Although Real initially insisted that the transfer cost € 91.59 million, slightly less than the Ronaldo fee, the deal was widely reported to be around € 100 million (around £ 85.1 million). Documents leaked in 2016 by Football Leaks revealed that installments brought the final Bale fee up to a total of € 100,759,418. In 2016, Manchester United eventually took the record away from Real Madrid, signing French midfielder Paul Pogba for € 105 million (£ 89 million), four years after having released him to Juventus for training compensation.
A year after the Pogba transfer, however, there was a major jump in the record fee. Paris St. Germain matched the € 222 million buyout fee of Barcelona 's Neymar, converted to a reported £ 198 million or £ 200 million by different sources. This was the first time that the record fee was paid by a French club.
Comparison of fees in different nations is complicated by varying exchange rates. This table uses British Pound Sterling prior to 1999 and Euro for transfers since then.
Paul Pogba, the joint-most expensive European player, the most expensive player purchased by an English team, the most expensive midfielder
Ousmane Dembélé, the joint-most expensive European player, the most expensive player purchased by a Spanish team, the most expensive teenager
Zinedine Zidane, the most expensive player for 8 years from 2001 to 2009
Gonzalo Higuaín, the most expensive player purchased by an Italian team, and the most expensive player in a domestic transfer
Oscar, the most expensive player purchased by a non-European team
Gianluigi Buffon, the most expensive goalkeeper; only goalkeeper in the top 50 most expensive football association transfers
Mohamed Salah, the most expensive African player
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how many genes in the human genome project | Human genome - wikipedia
3,234.83 Mb (Mega-basepairs) per haploid genome
The human genome is the complete set of nucleic acid sequences for humans, encoded as DNA within the 23 chromosome pairs in cell nuclei and in a small DNA molecule found within individual mitochondria. Human genomes include both protein - coding DNA genes and noncoding DNA. Haploid human genomes, which are contained in germ cells (the egg and sperm gamete cells created in the meiosis phase of sexual reproduction before fertilization creates a zygote) consist of three billion DNA base pairs, while diploid genomes (found in somatic cells) have twice the DNA content. While there are significant differences among the genomes of human individuals (on the order of 0.1 %), these are considerably smaller than the differences between humans and their closest living relatives, the chimpanzees (approximately 4 %) and bonobos.
The Human Genome Project produced the first complete sequences of individual human genomes, with the first draft sequence and initial analysis being published on February 12, 2001. The human genome was the first of all vertebrates to be completely sequenced. As of 2012, thousands of human genomes have been completely sequenced, and many more have been mapped at lower levels of resolution. The resulting data are used worldwide in biomedical science, anthropology, forensics and other branches of science. There is a widely held expectation that genomic studies will lead to advances in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases, and to new insights in many fields of biology, including human evolution.
Although the sequence of the human genome has been (almost) completely determined by DNA sequencing, it is not yet fully understood. Most (though probably not all) genes have been identified by a combination of high throughput experimental and bioinformatics approaches, yet much work still needs to be done to further elucidate the biological functions of their protein and RNA products. Recent results suggest that most of the vast quantities of noncoding DNA within the genome have associated biochemical activities, including regulation of gene expression, organization of chromosome architecture, and signals controlling epigenetic inheritance.
There are an estimated 19,000 - 20,000 human protein - coding genes. The estimate of the number of human genes has been repeatedly revised down from initial predictions of 100,000 or more as genome sequence quality and gene finding methods have improved, and could continue to drop further. Protein - coding sequences account for only a very small fraction of the genome (approximately 1.5 %), and the rest is associated with non-coding RNA molecules, regulatory DNA sequences, LINEs, SINEs, introns, and sequences for which as yet no function has been determined.
In June 2016, scientists formally announced HGP - Write, a plan to synthesize the human genome.
The total length of the human genome is over 3 billion base pairs. The genome is organized into 22 paired chromosomes, plus the X chromosome (one in males, two in females) and, in males only, one Y chromosome. These are all large linear DNA molecules contained within the cell nucleus. The genome also includes the mitochondrial DNA, a comparatively small circular molecule present in each mitochondrion. Basic information about these molecules and their gene content, based on a reference genome that does not represent the sequence of any specific individual, are provided in the following table. (Data source: Ensembl genome browser release 87, December 2016 for most values; Ensembl genome browser release 68, July 2012 for miRNA, rRNA, snRNA, snoRNA.)
Table 1 (above) summarizes the physical organization and gene content of the human reference genome, with links to the original analysis, as published in the Ensembl database at the European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI) and Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. Chromosome lengths were estimated by multiplying the number of base pairs by 0.34 nanometers, the distance between base pairs in the DNA double helix. The number of proteins is based on the number of initial precursor mRNA transcripts, and does not include products of alternative pre-mRNA splicing, or modifications to protein structure that occur after translation.
Variations are unique DNA sequence differences that have been identified in the individual human genome sequences analyzed by Ensembl as of December, 2016. The number of identified variations is expected to increase as further personal genomes are sequenced and analyzed. In addition to the gene content shown in this table, a large number of non-expressed functional sequences have been identified throughout the human genome (see below). Links open windows to the reference chromosome sequences in the EBI genome browser.
Small non-coding RNAs are RNAs of as many as 200 bases that do not have protein - coding potential. These include: microRNAs, or miRNAs (post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression), small nuclear RNAs, or snRNAs (the RNA components of spliceosomes), and small nucleolar RNAs, or snoRNA (involved in guiding chemical modifications to other RNA molecules). Long non-coding RNAs are RNA molecules longer than 200 bases that do not have protein - coding potential. These include: ribosomal RNAs, or rRNAs (the RNA components of ribosomes), and a variety of other long RNAs that are involved in regulation of gene expression, epigenetic modifications of DNA nucleotides and histone proteins, and regulation of the activity of protein - coding genes. Small discrepancies between total - small - ncRNA numbers and the numbers of specific types of small ncNRAs result from the former values being sourced from Ensembl release 87 and the latter from Ensembl release 68.
Although the human genome has been completely sequenced for all practical purposes, there are still hundreds of gaps in the sequence. A recent study noted more than 160 euchromatic gaps of which 50 gaps were closed. However, there are still numerous gaps in the heterochromatic parts of the genome which is much harder to sequence due to numerous repeats and other intractable sequence features.
The human reference genome (GRC v38) has been successfully compressed to ~ 5.2-fold (marginal less than 550 MB) in 155 minutes using a desktop computer with 6.4 GB of RAM.
The content of the human genome is commonly divided into coding and noncoding DNA sequences. Coding DNA is defined as those sequences that can be transcribed into mRNA and translated into proteins during the human life cycle; these sequences occupy only a small fraction of the genome (< 2 %). Noncoding DNA is made up of all of those sequences (ca. 98 % of the genome) that are not used to encode proteins.
Some noncoding DNA contains genes for RNA molecules with important biological functions (noncoding RNA, for example ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA). The exploration of the function and evolutionary origin of noncoding DNA is an important goal of contemporary genome research, including the ENCODE (Encyclopedia of DNA Elements) project, which aims to survey the entire human genome, using a variety of experimental tools whose results are indicative of molecular activity.
Because non-coding DNA greatly outnumbers coding DNA, the concept of the sequenced genome has become a more focused analytical concept than the classical concept of the DNA - coding gene.
Mutation rate of human genome is a very important factor in calculating evolutionary time points. Researchers calculated the number of genetic variations between human and apes. Dividing that number by age of fossil of most recent common ancestor of humans and ape, researchers calculated the mutation rate. Recent studies using next generation sequencing technologies concluded a slow mutation rate which does n't add up with human migration pattern time points and suggesting a new evolutionary time scale. 100,000 year old human fossils found in Israel have served to compound this new found uncertainty of the human migration timeline.
Protein - coding sequences represent the most widely studied and best understood component of the human genome. These sequences ultimately lead to the production of all human proteins, although several biological processes (e.g. DNA rearrangements and alternative pre-mRNA splicing) can lead to the production of many more unique proteins than the number of protein - coding genes.
The complete modular protein - coding capacity of the genome is contained within the exome, and consists of DNA sequences encoded by exons that can be translated into proteins. Because of its biological importance, and the fact that it constitutes less than 2 % of the genome, sequencing of the exome was the first major milepost of the Human Genome Project.
Number of protein - coding genes. About 20,000 human proteins have been annotated in databases such as Uniprot. Historically, estimates for the number of protein genes have varied widely, ranging up to 2,000,000 in the late 1960s, but several researchers pointed out in the early 1970s that the estimated mutational load from deleterious mutations placed an upper limit of approximately 40,000 for the total number of functional loci (this includes protein - coding and functional non-coding genes).
The number of human protein - coding genes is not significantly larger than that of many less complex organisms, such as the roundworm and the fruit fly. This difference may result from the extensive use of alternative pre-mRNA splicing in humans, which provides the ability to build a very large number of modular proteins through the selective incorporation of exons.
Protein - coding capacity per chromosome. Protein - coding genes are distributed unevenly across the chromosomes, ranging from a few dozen to more than 2000, with an especially high gene density within chromosomes 19, 11, and 1 (Table 1). Each chromosome contains various gene - rich and gene - poor regions, which may be correlated with chromosome bands and GC - content. The significance of these nonrandom patterns of gene density is not well understood.
Size of protein - coding genes. The size of protein - coding genes within the human genome shows enormous variability (Table 2). The median size of a protein - coding gene is 26,288 bp (mean = 66,577 bp; Table 2 in). For example, the gene for histone H1a (HIST1HIA) is relatively small and simple, lacking introns and encoding mRNA sequences of 781 nt and a 215 amino acid protein (648 nt open reading frame). Dystrophin (DMD) is the largest protein - coding gene in the human reference genome, spanning a total of 2.2 MB, while Titin (TTN) has the longest coding sequence (114,414 bp), the largest number of exons (363), and the longest single exon (17,106 bp). Over the whole genome, the median size of an exon is 122 bp (mean = 145 bp), the median number of exons is 7 (mean = 8.8), and the median coding sequence encodes 367 amino acids (mean = 447 amino acids; Table 21 in).
Table 2. Examples of human protein - coding genes. Chrom, chromosome. Alt splicing, alternative pre-mRNA splicing. (Data source: Ensembl genome browser release 68, July 2012)
Recently, a systematic meta - analysis of updated data of the human genome found that the largest protein - coding gene in the human reference genome is RBFOX1 (RNA binding protein, fox - 1 homolog 1), spanning a total of 2.47 MB. Over the whole genome, considering a curated set of protein - coding genes, the median size of an exon is currently estimated to be 133 bp (mean = 309 bp), the median number of exons is currently estimated to be 8 (mean = 11), and the median coding sequence is currently estimated to encode 425 amino acids (mean = 553 amino acids; Tables 2 and 5 in).
Noncoding DNA is defined as all of the DNA sequences within a genome that are not found within protein - coding exons, and so are never represented within the amino acid sequence of expressed proteins. By this definition, more than 98 % of the human genomes is composed of ncDNA.
Numerous classes of noncoding DNA have been identified, including genes for noncoding RNA (e.g. tRNA and rRNA), pseudogenes, introns, untranslated regions of mRNA, regulatory DNA sequences, repetitive DNA sequences, and sequences related to mobile genetic elements.
Numerous sequences that are included within genes are also defined as noncoding DNA. These include genes for noncoding RNA (e.g. tRNA, rRNA), and untranslated components of protein - coding genes (e.g. introns, and 5 ' and 3 ' untranslated regions of mRNA).
Protein - coding sequences (specifically, coding exons) constitute less than 1.5 % of the human genome. In addition, about 26 % of the human genome is introns. Aside from genes (exons and introns) and known regulatory sequences (8 -- 20 %), the human genome contains regions of noncoding DNA. The exact amount of noncoding DNA that plays a role in cell physiology has been hotly debated. Recent analysis by the ENCODE project indicates that 80 % of the entire human genome is either transcribed, binds to regulatory proteins, or is associated with some other biochemical activity.
It however remains controversial whether all of this biochemical activity contributes to cell physiology, or whether a substantial portion of this is the result transcriptional and biochemical noise, which must be actively filtered out by the organism. Excluding protein - coding sequences, introns, and regulatory regions, much of the non-coding DNA is composed of: Many DNA sequences that do not play a role in gene expression have important biological functions. Comparative genomics studies indicate that about 5 % of the genome contains sequences of noncoding DNA that are highly conserved, sometimes on time - scales representing hundreds of millions of years, implying that these noncoding regions are under strong evolutionary pressure and positive selection.
Many of these sequences regulate the structure of chromosomes by limiting the regions of heterochromatin formation and regulating structural features of the chromosomes, such as the telomeres and centromeres. Other noncoding regions serve as origins of DNA replication. Finally several regions are transcribed into functional noncoding RNA that regulate the expression of protein - coding genes (for example), mRNA translation and stability (see miRNA), chromatin structure (including histone modifications, for example), DNA methylation (for example), DNA recombination (for example), and cross-regulate other noncoding RNAs (for example). It is also likely that many transcribed noncoding regions do not serve any role and that this transcription is the product of non-specific RNA Polymerase activity.
Pseudogenes are inactive copies of protein - coding genes, often generated by gene duplication, that have become nonfunctional through the accumulation of inactivating mutations. Table 1 shows that the number of pseudogenes in the human genome is on the order of 13,000, and in some chromosomes is nearly the same as the number of functional protein - coding genes. Gene duplication is a major mechanism through which new genetic material is generated during molecular evolution.
For example, the olfactory receptor gene family is one of the best - documented examples of pseudogenes in the human genome. More than 60 percent of the genes in this family are non-functional pseudogenes in humans. By comparison, only 20 percent of genes in the mouse olfactory receptor gene family are pseudogenes. Research suggests that this is a species - specific characteristic, as the most closely related primates all have proportionally fewer pseudogenes. This genetic discovery helps to explain the less acute sense of smell in humans relative to other mammals.
Noncoding RNA molecules play many essential roles in cells, especially in the many reactions of protein synthesis and RNA processing. Noncoding RNA include tRNA, ribosomal RNA, microRNA, snRNA and other non-coding RNA genes including about 60,000 long non coding RNAs (lncRNAs). Although the number of reported lncRNA genes continues to rise and the exact number in the human genome is yet to be defined, many of them are argued to be non-functional.
Many ncRNAs are critical elements in gene regulation and expression. Noncoding RNA also contributes to epigenetics, transcription, RNA splicing, and the translational machinery. The role of RNA in genetic regulation and disease offers a new potential level of unexplored genomic complexity.
In addition to the ncRNA molecules that are encoded by discrete genes, the initial transcripts of protein coding genes usually contain extensive noncoding sequences, in the form of introns, 5 ' - untranslated regions (5 ' - UTR), and 3 ' - untranslated regions (3 ' - UTR). Within most protein - coding genes of the human genome, the length of intron sequences is 10 - to 100 - times the length of exon sequences (Table 2).
The human genome has many different regulatory sequences which are crucial to controlling gene expression. Conservative estimates indicate that these sequences make up 8 % of the genome, however extrapolations from the ENCODE project give that 20 - 40 % of the genome is gene regulatory sequence. Some types of non-coding DNA are genetic "switches '' that do not encode proteins, but do regulate when and where genes are expressed (called enhancers).
Regulatory sequences have been known since the late 1960s. The first identification of regulatory sequences in the human genome relied on recombinant DNA technology. Later with the advent of genomic sequencing, the identification of these sequences could be inferred by evolutionary conservation. The evolutionary branch between the primates and mouse, for example, occurred 70 -- 90 million years ago. So computer comparisons of gene sequences that identify conserved non-coding sequences will be an indication of their importance in duties such as gene regulation.
Other genomes have been sequenced with the same intention of aiding conservation - guided methods, for exampled the pufferfish genome. However, regulatory sequences disappear and re-evolve during evolution at a high rate.
As of 2012, the efforts have shifted toward finding interactions between DNA and regulatory proteins by the technique ChIP - Seq, or gaps where the DNA is not packaged by histones (DNase hypersensitive sites), both of which tell where there are active regulatory sequences in the investigated cell type.
Repetitive DNA sequences comprise approximately 50 % of the human genome.
About 8 % of the human genome consists of tandem DNA arrays or tandem repeats, low complexity repeat sequences that have multiple adjacent copies (e.g. "CAGCAGCAG... ''). The tandem sequences may be of variable lengths, from two nucleotides to tens of nucleotides. These sequences are highly variable, even among closely related individuals, and so are used for genealogical DNA testing and forensic DNA analysis.
Repeated sequences of fewer than ten nucleotides (e.g. the dinucleotide repeat (AC)) are termed microsatellite sequences. Among the microsatellite sequences, trinucleotide repeats are of particular importance, as sometimes occur within coding regions of genes for proteins and may lead to genetic disorders. For example, Huntington 's disease results from an expansion of the trinucleotide repeat (CAG) within the Huntingtin gene on human chromosome 4. Telomeres (the ends of linear chromosomes) end with a microsatellite hexanucleotide repeat of the sequence (TTAGGG).
Tandem repeats of longer sequences (arrays of repeated sequences 10 -- 60 nucleotides long) are termed minisatellites.
Transposable genetic elements, DNA sequences that can replicate and insert copies of themselves at other locations within a host genome, are an abundant component in the human genome. The most abundant transposon lineage, Alu, has about 50,000 active copies, and can be inserted into intragenic and intergenic regions. One other lineage, LINE - 1, has about 100 active copies per genome (the number varies between people). Together with non-functional relics of old transposons, they account for over half of total human DNA. Sometimes called "jumping genes '', transposons have played a major role in sculpting the human genome. Some of these sequences represent endogenous retroviruses, DNA copies of viral sequences that have become permanently integrated into the genome and are now passed on to succeeding generations.
Mobile elements within the human genome can be classified into LTR retrotransposons (8.3 % of total genome), SINEs (13.1 % of total genome) including Alu elements, LINEs (20.4 % of total genome), SVAs and Class II DNA transposons (2.9 % of total genome).
With the exception of identical twins, all humans show significant variation in genomic DNA sequences. The human reference genome (HRG) is used as a standard sequence reference.
There are several important points concerning the human reference genome:
Most studies of human genetic variation have focused on single - nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which are substitutions in individual bases along a chromosome. Most analyses estimate that SNPs occur 1 in 1000 base pairs, on average, in the euchromatic human genome, although they do not occur at a uniform density. Thus follows the popular statement that "we are all, regardless of race, genetically 99.9 % the same '', although this would be somewhat qualified by most geneticists. For example, a much larger fraction of the genome is now thought to be involved in copy number variation. A large - scale collaborative effort to catalog SNP variations in the human genome is being undertaken by the International HapMap Project.
The genomic loci and length of certain types of small repetitive sequences are highly variable from person to person, which is the basis of DNA fingerprinting and DNA paternity testing technologies. The heterochromatic portions of the human genome, which total several hundred million base pairs, are also thought to be quite variable within the human population (they are so repetitive and so long that they can not be accurately sequenced with current technology). These regions contain few genes, and it is unclear whether any significant phenotypic effect results from typical variation in repeats or heterochromatin.
Most gross genomic mutations in gamete germ cells probably result in inviable embryos; however, a number of human diseases are related to large - scale genomic abnormalities. Down syndrome, Turner Syndrome, and a number of other diseases result from nondisjunction of entire chromosomes. Cancer cells frequently have aneuploidy of chromosomes and chromosome arms, although a cause and effect relationship between aneuploidy and cancer has not been established.
Whereas a genome sequence lists the order of every DNA base in a genome, a genome map identifies the landmarks. A genome map is less detailed than a genome sequence and aids in navigating around the genome.
An example of a variation map is the HapMap being developed by the International HapMap Project. The HapMap is a haplotype map of the human genome, "which will describe the common patterns of human DNA sequence variation. '' It catalogs the patterns of small - scale variations in the genome that involve single DNA letters, or bases.
Researchers published the first sequence - based map of large - scale structural variation across the human genome in the journal Nature in May 2008. Large - scale structural variations are differences in the genome among people that range from a few thousand to a few million DNA bases; some are gains or losses of stretches of genome sequence and others appear as re-arrangements of stretches of sequence. These variations include differences in the number of copies individuals have of a particular gene, deletions, translocations and inversions.
Single - nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) do not occur homogeneously across the human genome. In fact, there is enormous diversity in SNP frequency between genes, reflecting different selective pressures on each gene as well as different mutation and recombination rates across the genome. However, studies on SNPs are biased towards coding regions, the data generated from them are unlikely to reflect the overall distribution of SNPs throughout the genome. Therefore, the SNP Consortium protocol was designed to identify SNPs with no bias towards coding regions and the Consortium 's 100,000 SNPs generally reflect sequence diversity across the human chromosomes. The SNP Consortium aims to expand the number of SNPs identified across the genome to 300 000 by the end of the first quarter of 2001.
Changes in non-coding sequence and synonymous changes in coding sequence are generally more common than non-synonymous changes, reflecting greater selective pressure reducing diversity at positions dictating amino acid identity. Transitional changes are more common than transversions, with CpG dinucleotides showing the highest mutation rate, presumably due to deamination.
A personal genome sequence is a (nearly) complete sequence of the chemical base pairs that make up the DNA of a single person. Because medical treatments have different effects on different people due to genetic variations such as single - nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), the analysis of personal genomes may lead to personalized medical treatment based on individual genotypes.
The first personal genome sequence to be determined was that of Craig Venter in 2007. Personal genomes had not been sequenced in the public Human Genome Project to protect the identity of volunteers who provided DNA samples. That sequence was derived from the DNA of several volunteers from a diverse population. However, early in the Venter - led Celera Genomics genome sequencing effort the decision was made to switch from sequencing a composite sample to using DNA from a single individual, later revealed to have been Venter himself. Thus the Celera human genome sequence released in 2000 was largely that of one man. Subsequent replacement of the early composite - derived data and determination of the diploid sequence, representing both sets of chromosomes, rather than a haploid sequence originally reported, allowed the release of the first personal genome. In April 2008, that of James Watson was also completed. Since then hundreds of personal genome sequences have been released, including those of Desmond Tutu, and of a Paleo - Eskimo. In November 2013, a Spanish family made their personal genomics data publicly available under a Creative Commons public domain license. The work was led by Manuel Corpas and the data obtained by direct - to - consumer genetic testing with 23andMe and the Beijing Genomics Institute). This is believed to be the first such public genomics dataset for a whole family.
The sequencing of individual genomes further unveiled levels of genetic complexity that had not been appreciated before. Personal genomics helped reveal the significant level of diversity in the human genome attributed not only to SNPs but structural variations as well. However, the application of such knowledge to the treatment of disease and in the medical field is only in its very beginnings. Exome sequencing has become increasingly popular as a tool to aid in diagnosis of genetic disease because the exome contributes only 1 % of the genomic sequence but accounts for roughly 85 % of mutations that contribute significantly to disease.
In humans, gene knockouts naturally occur as heterozygous or homozygous loss - of - function gene knockouts. These knockouts are often difficult to distinguish, especially within heterogeneous genetic backgrounds. They are also difficult to find as they occur in low frequencies.
Populations with high rates of consanguinity, such as countries with high rates of first - cousin marriages, display the highest frequencies of homozygous gene knockouts. Such populations include Pakistan, Iceland, and Amish populations. These populations with a high level of parental - relatedness have been subjects of human knock out research which has helped to determine the function of specific genes in humans. By distinguishing specific knockouts, researchers are able to use phenotypic analyses of these individuals to help characterize the gene that has been knocked out.
Knockouts in specific genes can cause genetic diseases, potentially have beneficial effects, or even result in no phenotypic effect at all. However, determining a knockout 's phenotypic effect and in humans can be challenging. Challenges to characterizing and clinically interpreting knockouts include difficulty calling of DNA variants, determining disruption of protein function (annotation), and considering the amount of influence mosaicism has on the phenotype.
One major study that investigated human knockouts is the Pakistan Risk of Myocardial Infarction study. It was found that individuals possessing a heterozygous loss - of - function gene knockout for the APOC3 gene had lower triglycerides in the blood after consuming a high fat meal as compared to individuals without the mutation. However, individuals possessing homozygous loss - of - function gene knockouts of the APOC3 gene displayed the lowest level of triglycerides in the blood after the fat load test, as they produce no functional APOC3 protein.
Most aspects of human biology involve both genetic (inherited) and non-genetic (environmental) factors. Some inherited variation influences aspects of our biology that are not medical in nature (height, eye color, ability to taste or smell certain compounds, etc.). Moreover, some genetic disorders only cause disease in combination with the appropriate environmental factors (such as diet). With these caveats, genetic disorders may be described as clinically defined diseases caused by genomic DNA sequence variation. In the most straightforward cases, the disorder can be associated with variation in a single gene. For example, cystic fibrosis is caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, and is the most common recessive disorder in caucasian populations with over 1,300 different mutations known.
Disease - causing mutations in specific genes are usually severe in terms of gene function, and are fortunately rare, thus genetic disorders are similarly individually rare. However, since there are many genes that can vary to cause genetic disorders, in aggregate they constitute a significant component of known medical conditions, especially in pediatric medicine. Molecularly characterized genetic disorders are those for which the underlying causal gene has been identified, currently there are approximately 2,200 such disorders annotated in the OMIM database.
Studies of genetic disorders are often performed by means of family - based studies. In some instances population based approaches are employed, particularly in the case of so - called founder populations such as those in Finland, French - Canada, Utah, Sardinia, etc. Diagnosis and treatment of genetic disorders are usually performed by a geneticist - physician trained in clinical / medical genetics. The results of the Human Genome Project are likely to provide increased availability of genetic testing for gene - related disorders, and eventually improved treatment. Parents can be screened for hereditary conditions and counselled on the consequences, the probability it will be inherited, and how to avoid or ameliorate it in their offspring.
As noted above, there are many different kinds of DNA sequence variation, ranging from complete extra or missing chromosomes down to single nucleotide changes. It is generally presumed that much naturally occurring genetic variation in human populations is phenotypically neutral, i.e. has little or no detectable effect on the physiology of the individual (although there may be fractional differences in fitness defined over evolutionary time frames). Genetic disorders can be caused by any or all known types of sequence variation. To molecularly characterize a new genetic disorder, it is necessary to establish a causal link between a particular genomic sequence variant and the clinical disease under investigation. Such studies constitute the realm of human molecular genetics.
With the advent of the Human Genome and International HapMap Project, it has become feasible to explore subtle genetic influences on many common disease conditions such as diabetes, asthma, migraine, schizophrenia, etc. Although some causal links have been made between genomic sequence variants in particular genes and some of these diseases, often with much publicity in the general media, these are usually not considered to be genetic disorders per se as their causes are complex, involving many different genetic and environmental factors. Thus there may be disagreement in particular cases whether a specific medical condition should be termed a genetic disorder. The categorized table below provides the prevalence as well as the genes or chromosomes associated with some human genetic disorders.
Comparative genomics studies of mammalian genomes suggest that approximately 5 % of the human genome has been conserved by evolution since the divergence of extant lineages approximately 200 million years ago, containing the vast majority of genes. The published chimpanzee genome differs from that of the human genome by 1.23 % in direct sequence comparisons. Around 20 % of this figure is accounted for by variation within each species, leaving only ~ 1.06 % consistent sequence divergence between humans and chimps at shared genes. This nucleotide by nucleotide difference is dwarfed, however, by the portion of each genome that is not shared, including around 6 % of functional genes that are unique to either humans or chimps.
In other words, the considerable observable differences between humans and chimps may be due as much or more to genome level variation in the number, function and expression of genes rather than DNA sequence changes in shared genes. Indeed, even within humans, there has been found to be a previously unappreciated amount of copy number variation (CNV) which can make up as much as 5 -- 15 % of the human genome. In other words, between humans, there could be + / - 500,000,000 base pairs of DNA, some being active genes, others inactivated, or active at different levels. The full significance of this finding remains to be seen. On average, a typical human protein - coding gene differs from its chimpanzee ortholog by only two amino acid substitutions; nearly one third of human genes have exactly the same protein translation as their chimpanzee orthologs. A major difference between the two genomes is human chromosome 2, which is equivalent to a fusion product of chimpanzee chromosomes 12 and 13. (later renamed to chromosomes 2A and 2B, respectively).
Humans have undergone an extraordinary loss of olfactory receptor genes during our recent evolution, which explains our relatively crude sense of smell compared to most other mammals. Evolutionary evidence suggests that the emergence of color vision in humans and several other primate species has diminished the need for the sense of smell.
In September 2016, scientists reported that, based on human DNA genetic studies, all non-Africans in the world today can be traced to a single population that exited Africa between 50,000 and 80,000 years ago.
The human mitochondrial DNA is of tremendous interest to geneticists, since it undoubtedly plays a role in mitochondrial disease. It also sheds light on human evolution; for example, analysis of variation in the human mitochondrial genome has led to the postulation of a recent common ancestor for all humans on the maternal line of descent (see Mitochondrial Eve).
Due to the lack of a system for checking for copying errors, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) has a more rapid rate of variation than nuclear DNA. This 20-fold higher mutation rate allows mtDNA to be used for more accurate tracing of maternal ancestry. Studies of mtDNA in populations have allowed ancient migration paths to be traced, such as the migration of Native Americans from Siberia or Polynesians from southeastern Asia. It has also been used to show that there is no trace of Neanderthal DNA in the European gene mixture inherited through purely maternal lineage. Due to the restrictive all or none manner of mtDNA inheritance, this result (no trace of Neanderthal mtDNA) would be likely unless there were a large percentage of Neanderthal ancestry, or there was strong positive selection for that mtDNA (for example, going back 5 generations, only 1 of your 32 ancestors contributed to your mtDNA, so if one of these 32 was pure Neanderthal you would expect that ~ 3 % of your autosomal DNA would be of Neanderthal origin, yet you would have a ~ 97 % chance to have no trace of Neanderthal mtDNA).
Epigenetics describes a variety of features of the human genome that transcend its primary DNA sequence, such as chromatin packaging, histone modifications and DNA methylation, and which are important in regulating gene expression, genome replication and other cellular processes. Epigenetic markers strengthen and weaken transcription of certain genes but do not affect the actual sequence of DNA nucleotides. DNA methylation is a major form of epigenetic control over gene expression and one of the most highly studied topics in epigenetics. During development, the human DNA methylation profile experiences dramatic changes. In early germ line cells, the genome has very low methylation levels. These low levels generally describe active genes. As development progresses, parental imprinting tags lead to increased methylation activity.
Epigenetic patterns can be identified between tissues within an individual as well as between individuals themselves. Identical genes that have differences only in their epigenetic state are called epialleles. Epialleles can be placed into three categories: those directly determined by an individual 's genotype, those influenced by genotype, and those entirely independent of genotype. The epigenome is also influenced significantly by environmental factors. Diet, toxins, and hormones impact the epigenetic state. Studies in dietary manipulation have demonstrated that methyl - deficient diets are associated with hypomethylation of the epigenome. Such studies establish epigenetics as an important interface between the environment and the genome.
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when did world war ii in europe end | End of World war II in Europe - wikipedia
The final battles of the European Theatre of World War II as well as the German surrender to the Allies took place in late April and early May 1945.
Allied forces begin to take large numbers of Axis prisoners: The total number of prisoners taken on the Western Front in April 1945 by the Western Allies was 1,500,000. April also witnessed the capture of at least 120,000 German troops by the Western Allies in the last campaign of the war in Italy. In the three to four months up to the end of April, over 800,000 German soldiers surrendered on the Eastern Front. In early April, the first Allied - governed Rheinwiesenlagers were established in western Germany to hold hundreds of thousands of captured or surrendered Axis Forces personnel. Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) reclassified all prisoners as Disarmed Enemy Forces, not POWs (prisoners of war). The legal fiction circumvented provisions under the Geneva Convention of 1929 on the treatment of former combatants. By October, thousands had died in the camps from starvation, exposure and disease.
Liberation of Nazi Concentration Camps and refugees: Allied forces began to discover the scale of the Holocaust. The advance into Germany uncovered numerous Nazi concentration camps and forced labor facilities. Up to 60,000 prisoners were at Bergen - Belsen when it was liberated on 15 April 1945, by the British 11th Armoured Division. Four days later troops from the American 42nd Infantry Division found Dachau. Allied troops forced the remaining SS guards to gather up the corpses and place them in mass graves. Due to the prisoners ' poor physical condition, thousands continued to die after liberation. Captured SS guards were subsequently tried at Allied war crimes tribunals where many were sentenced to death. However, up to 10,000 Nazi war criminals eventually fled Europe using ratlines such as ODESSA.
German forces leave Finland: On 25 April 1945, the last German formations withdrew from Finnish Lapland into occupied Norway. On 27 April 1945, the Raising the Flag on the Three - Country Cairn photograph was taken.
Mussolini 's death: On 25 April 1945, Italian partisans liberated Milan and Turin. On 27 April 1945, as Allied forces closed in on Milan, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was captured by Italian partisans. It is disputed whether he was trying to flee from Italy to Switzerland (through the Splügen Pass), and was traveling with a German anti-aircraft battalion. On 28 April, Mussolini was executed in Giulino (a civil parish of Mezzegra); the other Fascists captured with him were taken to Dongo and executed there. The bodies were then taken to Milan and hung up on the Piazzale Loreto of the city. On 29 April, Rodolfo Graziani surrendered all Fascist Italian armed forces at Caserta. This included Army Group Liguria. Graziani was the Minister of Defence for Mussolini 's Italian Social Republic.
Hitler 's death: On 30 April, as the Battle of Nuremberg and the Battle of Hamburg ended with American and British occupation, in addition to the Battle of Berlin raging above him with the Soviets surrounding the city, along with his escape route cut off by the Americans, realizing that all was lost and not wishing to suffer Mussolini 's fate, German dictator Adolf Hitler committed suicide in his Führerbunker along with Eva Braun, his long - term partner whom he had married less than 40 hours before their joint suicide. In his will, Hitler dismissed Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, his second - in - command and Interior minister Heinrich Himmler after each of them separately tried to seize control of the crumbling Third Reich. Hitler appointed his successors as follows; Großadmiral Karl Dönitz as the new Reichspräsident ("President of Germany '') and Joseph Goebbels as the new Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany). However, Goebbels committed suicide the following day, leaving Dönitz as the sole leader of Germany.
German forces in Italy surrender: On 29 April, the day before Hitler died, Oberstleutnant Schweinitz and Sturmbannführer Wenner, plenipotentiaries for Generaloberst Heinrich von Vietinghoff and SS Obergruppenführer Karl Wolff, signed a surrender document at Caserta after prolonged unauthorised secret negotiations with the Western Allies, which were viewed with great suspicion by the Soviet Union as trying to reach a separate peace. In the document, the Germans agreed to a ceasefire and surrender of all the forces under the command of Vietinghoff at 2pm on 2 May. Accordingly, after some bitter wrangling between Wolff and Albert Kesselring in the early hours of 2 May, nearly 1,000,000 men in Italy and Austria surrendered unconditionally to British Field Marshal Sir Harold Alexander at 2pm on 2 May.
German forces in Berlin surrender: The Battle of Berlin ended on 2 May. On that date, General der Artillerie Helmuth Weidling, the commander of the Berlin Defense Area, unconditionally surrendered the city to General Vasily Chuikov of the Soviet army. On the same day the officers commanding the two armies of Army Group Vistula north of Berlin, (General Kurt von Tippelskirch, commander of the German 21st Army and General Hasso von Manteuffel, commander of Third Panzer Army), surrendered to the Western Allies. 2 May is also believed to have been the day when Hitler 's deputy Martin Bormann died, from the account of Artur Axmann who saw Bormann 's corpse in Berlin near the Lehrter Bahnhof railway station after encountering a Soviet Red Army patrol. Lehrter Bahnhof is close to where the remains of Bormann, confirmed as his by a DNA test in 1998, were unearthed on 7 December 1972.
German forces in North West Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands surrender: On 4 May 1945, the British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery took the unconditional military surrender at Lüneburg from Generaladmiral Hans - Georg von Friedeburg, and General Eberhard Kinzel, of all German forces "in Holland (sic), in northwest Germany including the Frisian Islands and Heligoland and all other islands, in Schleswig - Holstein, and in Denmark... includ (ing) all naval ships in these areas '', at the Timeloberg on Lüneburg Heath; an area between the cities of Hamburg, Hanover and Bremen. The number of German land, sea and air forces involved in this surrender amounted to 1,000,000 men. On 5 May, Großadmiral Dönitz ordered all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to their bases. At 16: 00, General Johannes Blaskowitz, the German commander - in - chief in the Netherlands, surrendered to Canadian General Charles Foulkes in the Dutch town of Wageningen in the presence of Prince Bernhard (acting as commander - in - chief of the Dutch Interior Forces).
German forces in Bavaria surrender: At 14: 30 on 4 May 1945, General Hermann Foertsch surrendered all forces between the Bohemian mountains and the Upper Inn river to the American General Jacob L. Devers, commander of the American 6th Army Group.
Central Europe: On 5 May 1945, the Czech resistance started the Prague uprising. The following day, the Soviets launched the Prague Offensive. In Dresden, Gauleiter Martin Mutschmann let it be known that a large - scale German offensive on the Eastern Front was about to be launched. Within two days, Mutschmann abandoned the city, but was captured by Soviet troops while trying to escape.
Hermann Göring 's surrender: On 6 May, Reichsmarshall and Hitler 's second - in - command, Hermann Göring, surrendered to General Carl Spaatz, who was the commander of the operational United States Air Forces in Europe, along with his wife and daughter at the Germany - Austria border. He was by this time the most powerful Nazi official still alive.
German forces in Breslau surrender: At 18: 00 on 6 May, General Hermann Niehoff, the commandant of Breslau, a ' fortress ' city surrounded and besieged for months, surrendered to the Soviets.
Jodl and Keitel surrender all German armed forces unconditionally: Thirty minutes after the fall of "Festung Breslau '' (Fortress Breslau), General Alfred Jodl arrived in Reims and, following Dönitz 's instructions, offered to surrender all forces fighting the Western Allies. This was exactly the same negotiating position that von Friedeburg had initially made to Montgomery, and like Montgomery the Supreme Allied Commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, threatened to break off all negotiations unless the Germans agreed to a complete unconditional surrender to all the Allies on all fronts. Eisenhower explicitly told Jodl that he would order western lines closed to German soldiers, thus forcing them to surrender to the Soviets. Jodl sent a signal to Dönitz, who was in Flensburg, informing him of Eisenhower 's declaration. Shortly after midnight, Dönitz, accepting the inevitable, sent a signal to Jodl authorizing the complete and total surrender of all German forces.
At 02: 41 on the morning of 7 May, at SHAEF headquarters in Reims, France, the Chief - of - Staff of the German Armed Forces High Command, General Alfred Jodl, signed an unconditional surrender document for all German forces to the Allies, committing representatives of the German High Command to attend a definitive signing ceremony in Berlin. General Franz Böhme announced the unconditional surrender of German troops in Norway on 7 May. It included the phrase "All forces under German control to cease active operations at 2301 hours Central European Time on May 8, 1945. '' The next day, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel and other German OKW representatives travelled to Berlin, and shortly before midnight signed an amended and definitive document of unconditional surrender, explicitly surrendering to all the Allied forces in the presence of Marshal Georgi Zhukov and representatives of SHAEF. The signing ceremony took place in a former German Army Engineering School in the Berlin district of Karlshorst; it now houses the German - Russian Museum Berlin - Karlshorst.
German forces on the Channel Islands surrender: At 10: 00 on 8 May, the Channel Islanders were informed by the German authorities that the war was over. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill made a radio broadcast at 15: 00 during which he announced: "Hostilities will end officially at one minute after midnight tonight, but in the interests of saving lives the ' Cease fire ' began yesterday to be sounded all along the front, and our dear Channel Islands are also to be freed today. ''
VE - Day: News of the imminent surrender broke in the West on 8 May, and celebrations erupted throughout Europe and parts of the British Empire. In the US, Americans awoke to the news and declared 8 May V-E Day. As the Soviet Union was to the east of Germany it was 9 May Moscow Time when the German military surrender became effective, which is why Russia and many other European countries east of Germany commemorate Victory Day on 9 May.
German units cease fire: Although the military commanders of most German forces obeyed the order to surrender issued by the (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) -- the German Armed Forces High Command), not all commanders did so. The largest contingent were Army Group Centre under the command of Generalfeldmarschall Ferdinand Schörner who had been promoted to Commander - in - Chief of the Army on 30 April in Hitler 's last will and testament. On 8 May, Schörner deserted his command and flew to Austria; the Soviet Army sent overwhelming force against Army Group Centre in the Prague Offensive, forcing German units in Army Group Centre to capitulate by 11 May. The other forces which did not surrender on 8 May surrendered piecemeal:
Dönitz government ordered dissolved by Eisenhower: Karl Dönitz continued to act as if he were the German head of state, but his Flensburg government (so - called because it was based at Flensburg in northern Germany and controlled only a small area around the town), was not recognized by the Allies. On 12 May an Allied liaison team arrived in Flensburg and took quarters aboard the passenger ship Patria. The liaison officers and the Supreme Allied Headquarters soon realized that they had no need to act through the Flensburg government and that its members should be arrested. On 23 May, acting on SHAEF 's orders and with the approval of the Soviets, American Major General Rooks summoned Dönitz aboard the Patria and communicated to him that he and all the members of his Government were under arrest, and that their government was dissolved. The Allies had a problem, because they realized that although the German armed forces had surrendered unconditionally, SHAEF had failed to use the document created by the "European Advisory Commission '' (EAC) and so there had been no formal surrender by the civilian German government. This was considered a very important issue, because just as the civilian, but not military, surrender in 1918 had been used by Hitler to create the "stab in the back '' argument, the Allies did not want to give any future hostile German regime a legal argument to resurrect an old quarrel.
Order JCS 1067 was signed into effect by President Harry S. Truman on 10 May 1945. This was part of the post-war economic plan that advocated how the Allied occupation would include measures to prevent Germany from waging further war by eliminating its armament industry, and the removal or destruction of other key industries required for military strength. This included the removal or destruction of all industrial plants and equipment in the Ruhr. In 1947, JCS 1067 was replaced by JCS 1779 that aimed at restoring a "stable and productive Germany ''; this led to the introduction of the Marshall Plan.
Declaration Regarding the Defeat of Germany and the Assumption of Supreme Authority by Allied Powers was signed by the four Allies on 5 June. It included the following:
The Governments of the United States of America, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom and the Provisional Government of the French Republic, hereby assume supreme authority with respect to Germany, including all the powers possessed by the German Government, the High Command and any state, municipal, or local government or authority. The assumption, for the purposes stated above, of the said authority and powers does not effect the annexation of Germany.
It is disputed whether this assumption of power constituted debellation -- the end of a war caused by the complete destruction of a hostile state.
The Potsdam Agreement was signed on 12 August 1945. In connection with this, the leaders of the United States, Britain and the Soviet Union planned the new postwar German government, resettled war territory boundaries, de facto annexed a quarter of pre-war Germany situated east of the Oder - Neisse line, and mandated and organized the expulsion of the millions of Germans who remained in the annexed territories and elsewhere in the east. They also ordered German demilitarization, denazification, industrial disarmament and settlements of war reparations. But, as France (at American insistence) had not been invited to the Potsdam Conference, so the French representatives on the Allied Control Council subsequently refused to recognise any obligation to implement the Potsdam Agreement; with the consequence that much of the programme envisaged at Potsdam, for the establishment of a German government and state adequate for accepting a peace settlement, remained a dead letter.
Allied Control Council created to effect the Allies assumed supreme authority over Germany, specifically to implement their assumed joint authority over Germany. On 30 August, the Control Council constituted itself and issued its first proclamation, which informed the German people of the Council 's existence and asserted that the commands and directives issued by the Commanders - in - Chief in their respective zones were not affected by the establishment of the Council. Cessation of hostilities between the United States and Germany was proclaimed on 13 December 1946 by US President Truman.
Paris Peace Conference ended on 10 February 1947 with the signing of peace treaties by the wartime Allies with the minor European Axis powers (Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland; although Italy by some was considered a major power).
The Federal Republic of Germany, that had been founded on 23 May 1949 (when its Basic Law was promulgated) had its first government formed on 20 September 1949 while the German Democratic Republic was formed on 7 October.
End of state of war with Germany was declared by many former Western Allies in 1950. In the Petersberg Agreement of 22 November 1949, it was noted that the West German government wanted an end to the state of war, but the request could not be granted. The US state of war with Germany was being maintained for legal reasons, and though it was softened somewhat it was not suspended since "the US wants to retain a legal basis for keeping a US force in Western Germany ''. At a meeting for the Foreign Ministers of France, the UK, and the US in New York from 12 September -- 19 December 1950, it was stated that among other measures to strengthen West Germany 's position in the Cold War that the western allies would "end by legislation the state of war with Germany ''. In 1951, many former Western Allies did end their state of war with Germany: Australia (9 July), Canada, Italy, New Zealand, the Netherlands (26 July), South Africa, the United Kingdom (9 July), and the United States (19 October). The state of war between Germany and the Soviet Union was ended in early 1955.
"The full authority of a sovereign state '' was granted to the Federal Republic of Germany on 5 May 1955 under the terms of the Bonn -- Paris conventions. The treaty ended the military occupation of West German territory, but the three occupying powers retained some special rights, e.g. vis - à - vis West Berlin.
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany: Under the terms of this peace treaty, the Four Powers renounced all rights they formerly held in Germany, including Berlin. As a result, Germany became fully sovereign on 15 March 1991. Under the terms of the Treaty, the Allies were allowed to keep troops in Berlin until the end of 1994 (articles 4 and 5). In accordance with the Treaty, occupying troops were withdrawn by that deadline.
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who was the girl that broke her ankle in the olympics | Kerri Strug - wikipedia
Kerri Allyson Strug Fischer (born November 19, 1977) is an American retired gymnast from Tucson, Arizona. She was a member of the Magnificent Seven, the victorious all - around women 's gymnastics team that represented the United States at the Atlanta Olympics in 1996, and is best remembered for performing the vault despite having injured her ankle and for subsequently being carried to the podium by her coach, Béla Károlyi.
Strug began training in gymnastics at the age of three. She began competing in gymnastics at the age of eight. Her sister Lisa was already competing in gymnastics at the time that Strug was born. Strug was trained by American coach Jim Gault until January 1991, when she moved to Houston, Texas to train with coach Béla Károlyi. At that time, she also joined the United States National Team. In 1992, at age 14, she won a team bronze medal at the Barcelona Olympics, at which she was the youngest member of the entire U.S. team. Throughout the Team Compulsories and Optionals, she and Kim Zmeskal competed for the final US available spot to compete in the all - around. She was eventually edged out by Zmeskal, with Shannon Miller and Betty Okino as the other two American gymnasts to qualify for the all - around.
Coach Béla Károlyi retired after the 1992 Games, leaving Strug to decide whether to continue gymnastics with a different coach or quit. Strug chose to move to Edmond, Oklahoma to train under the coaching of Steve Nunno at the Dynamo Gymnastics Club, where she trained with Shannon Miller. There, she struggled with severe weight loss and a serious injury to her stomach.
At the 1993 Nationals, Strug placed 3rd in the all - around, 2nd on the uneven bars, and 3rd on floor exercise. She completed the Yurchenko 1⁄2 vault. However, she had a weak second vault and did not medal in that event. After this competition, Strug left Edmond to return home to Tucson, Arizona where she trained with Arthur Akopian, who flew in from California to train her, with the assistance of Jim Gault. Gault was Strug 's coach when she started gymnastics at age 3.
While performing the compulsory uneven bars set in 1994, she pinged off the bar, subsequently releasing too early to be able to make the transition to low bar. She lost control and flew off the high bar backwards, landing in a twisted position on her side beneath the low bar. She was carried out of the gym on a stretcher and was taken to Desert Regional Hospital. The injury turned out to be a badly pulled back muscle, which required extensive rehabilitation. She recovered in time for the 1994 World Championships.
In 1995, Strug graduated from Green Fields Country Day School in Tucson, Arizona. Eventually, the coaching arrangement with Gault and Akopian became untenable as Gault was restricted in his coaching by NCAA recruiting rules. Strug once again left home, in July 1995, to train at Aerials Gymnastics in Colorado Springs, Colorado with Tom and Lori Forster. Later that year, at the 1995 Nationals, Strug placed 5th in the AA (All - Around competition) and came in 3rd on the UB (Uneven Bars). At the 1995 World Championships, she was a member of the bronze medal - winning U.S. team, and she placed 7th in the AA.
She trained with the Forsters from July 1995 until December 1995, when Béla Károlyi came out of retirement. She moved back to Houston to train with Károlyi in preparation for the 1996 Olympics. She beat the competition at the 1996 American Cup in the AA by almost 0.5 points, which was a huge margin under the old scoring system. She also placed 1st on FX (Floor Exercises) and BB (Balance Beam) and 2nd on VT (Vault) and UB in the event finals. At the 1996 U.S. Nationals, Strug placed 5th in the AA and came in 2nd on both vault and floor.
Strug participated in the 1996 Olympics as a member of the U.S. women 's team, often referred to as the Magnificent Seven. After compulsories, Strug was ranked 9th overall and had placed high enough to qualify herself for the all - around. She posted the second - highest score on floor exercise -- but qualified first in floor exercise event finals after the team final and ahead of eventual FX Gold Medalist Lilia Podkopayeva -- and fourth - highest on vault, which would qualify her for event finals in her two strongest events. In the team competition, an event dominated by the Russians for decades and never won by the United States, the U.S. competed with the Russian, Romanian, and Ukrainian teams. The Russians came into the team competition with a very narrow lead. The event came down to the final rotation on the final day of the team competition, July 23, 1996.
Going into the final rotation, with the Russians on floor exercise and the U.S. on vault, the U.S. women held a commanding 0.897 - point lead over the Russian team. At that point, it was possible for the Russians to take the gold if the U.S. women collapsed. The first four U.S. gymnasts landed their vaults, but struggled to land them cleanly, taking steps and hops. To add to the drama, Strug 's teammate Dominique Moceanu fell twice, registering a poor score. Strug was the last to vault for the United States.
Strug under - rotated the landing of her first attempt, causing her to fall and damage her ankle. As a result, the attempt was awarded 9.162 points. Retrospectively, after a poor performance from the final Russian Roza Galieva on floor, Moceanu 's score (9.200) would have been sufficient to beat the Russians even if Strug had not performed a second vault, as the lowest score for each team was dropped. However, Galieva performed after Strug, and therefore Strug needed to land a second vault on her feet in order to mathematically clinch the gold.
In the time interval between Strug 's two vaults, she asked, "Do we need this? '' Károlyi replied, "Kerri, we need you to go one more time. We need you one more time for the gold. You can do it, you better do it. '' Strug thus limped slightly to the end of the runway to make her second attempt. She landed the vault briefly on both feet, almost instantly hopping onto only her good foot, saluting the judges. She then collapsed onto her knees and needed assistance off the landing platform, to which sportscaster John Tesh commented, "Kerri Strug is hurt! She is hurt badly. '' The completed vault received score of 9.712, guaranteeing the Americans the gold medal. Károlyi carried her onto the medals podium to join her team, after which she was treated at a hospital for a third - degree lateral sprain and tendon damage. Due to her injury, she was unable to compete in the individual all - around competition and event finals, despite having qualified for both; so Moceanu was chosen to take her place in the all - around, Dawes took her place in the floor final, and Miller took her place in the vault final.
Strug became a national sports hero for her final vault, visiting President Bill Clinton, appearing at various television talk shows, making the cover of Sports Illustrated and appearing on a Wheaties cereal box with other team members. Actor Chris Kattan notably parodied her adolescent - sounding voice (as her "brother '' Kippi Strug,) and appeared on Saturday Night Live (in a segment in which she appeared alongside him). ESPN 's "This is SportsCenter '' ad campaign poked good - natured fun at her injury with two ads featuring various ESPN workers carrying her around.
Shortly after her feat, Strug participated in the Ice Capades and Disney 's World On Ice, then announced her retirement and enrolled in UCLA where she was a member of the Kappa Alpha Theta sorority. As a professional, she could not compete in NCAA gymnastics events, so she worked for a time as team manager instead, a behind - the - scenes role. She later transferred to Stanford University where she earned a master 's degree in Sociology. Strug also took part in a Semester at Sea in the Fall of 2000.
After graduation, Strug worked as an elementary school teacher at Tom Matsumoto Elementary School in San Jose, CA before moving to Washington, D.C. in 2003.
She worked as a staff assistant with the White House Office of Presidential Student Correspondence, moved to a job at the General Counsel in the Treasury Department, and in March 2005, joined the Justice Department 's Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention staff as a presidential appointee. Strug has also been an active marathon runner, having run marathons in Houston, New York, Boston and Chicago.
During the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Strug was a correspondent for Yahoo! in artistic gymnastics. In 2008, she appeared in a television commercial for the Zaxby 's restaurant chain. Also in 2008, her history - making ordeal at the 1996 Olympic games was featured in a commercial, narrated by actor Morgan Freeman for the "Go World '' campaign.
Strug is Jewish. She married attorney Robert Fischer at the Skyline Country Club in Tucson, Arizona, on April 25, 2010. On March 1, 2012, Strug gave birth to the couple 's son, Tyler William Fischer. In 2014, she gave birth to a daughter, Alayna Madaleine.
Strug did a cameo on Beverly Hills, 90210.
Strug was shown in Marie Claire magazine 's "The 8 Greatest Moments for Women in Sports ''.
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how did the case of wabash vs. illinois impact american commerce and travel | Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway Co. v. Illinois - wikipedia
Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway Company v. Illinois, 118 U.S. 557 (1886), also known as the Wabash Case, was a Supreme Court decision that severely limited the rights of states to control interstate commerce. It led to the creation of the Interstate Commerce Commission.
The majority 's opinion was written by Justice Samuel Miller; joining him were Justices Stephen Field, John Harlan, William Woods, Thomas Matthews, and Samuel Blatchford. Dissenting were Chief Justice Morrison Waite and Justices Joseph Bradley and Horace Gray.
The case was argued on April 14, 1886 - April 15, 1886 and was decided on October 25, 1886 by vote of 6 to 3. Associate Justice Miller wrote for the Court with Associate Justices Field, Harlan, Woods, Matthews, and Blatchford concurring; Associate Justices Bradley and Gray, along with Chief Justice Waite, dissented.
In Wabash, "direct '' burdens on interstate commerce were not permitted by the Export Tax Clause of the Constitution (Article I, Section 9); however, those "indirect '' burdens were permitted under the Commerce Clause. This was a standard enacted in Cooley v. Board of Wardens (1852).
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who organized a march on washington to protest discrimination on july 1 1941 | March on Washington Movement - wikipedia
Origins of the civil rights movement Civil rights movement Black Power movement
The March on Washington Movement (MOWM), 1941 -- 1946, organized by activists A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin as a tool to produce a mass march on Washington, D.C., was designed to pressure the U.S. government into desegregating the armed forces and providing fair working opportunities for African Americans. When President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 in 1941, prohibiting discrimination in the defense industry under contract to federal agencies, Randolph and collaborators called off the march.
Randolph continued to promote non-violent actions to advance goals for African Americans. Future civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. and other younger men were strongly influenced by Randolph and his ideals and methods.
In the lead - up to the United States ' entry into World War II, African Americans resented calls to "defend democracy '' against Nazi racism while having to deal with discrimination in all sectors of life and business in the United States, especially the South, where they had been disenfranchised since the turn of the century and oppressed by Jim Crow laws.
By the fall of 1940, the American economy was emerging from the Depression. The defense boom benefited whites, but black workers were denied opportunities because of widespread racial discrimination in employment. Some government training programs excluded blacks based on their being refused entry to defense industries, and many skilled black workers with proper training were unable to gain employment. In 1940 the president of the North American Aviation Co. was quoted as saying, "While we are in complete sympathy with the Negro, it is against company policy to employ them as aircraft workers or mechanics... regardless of their training... There will be some jobs as janitors for Negroes. '' It was in this climate that activists began to develop the March on Washington Movement.
The March on Washington Movement was an attempt to pressure the United States government and President Franklin D. Roosevelt into establishing policy and protections against employment discrimination as the nation prepared for war. A. Philip Randolph was the driving force behind the movement, with allies from the NAACP and other civil rights organizations. He had formed and led the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters beginning in 1925. His leadership in the March on Washington Movement, in which organizing middle and lower class members would be so important, was based on his strong experience in grassroots and union organizing. Randolph 's independence from white sources of power was shown when he said of the movement, "If it costs money to finance a march on Washington, let Negroes pay for it. If any sacrifices are made for Negro rights in national defense, let Negroes make them... ''
Randolph 's leadership and strategy defined the nature of the March on Washington Movement. His reliance on grassroots activism and African - American media and organizations was influenced by his childhood. His father was an African Methodist Episcopal (AME) preacher, and Randolph heard numerous parishioners complain about the state of race relations and discrimination. He and his brother were privately tutored, and raised to believe that they were "as intellectually competent as any white ''. On September 26, 1942, after the MOWM had succeeded in gaining an Executive Order against discrimination in industry, Randolph reiterated that the fight would continue despite these gains. He said, "Unless this war sound the death knell to the old Anglo - American empire systems, the hapless story of which is one of exploitation for the profit and power of a monopoly - capitalist economy, it will have been fought in vain. ''
The Women 's Auxiliary was a group of mostly wives and relatives of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. They were active within the MOWM primarily in fundraising and community efforts, as well as working broadly to promote ideas of "concepts of black manhood, female respectability, and class consciousness. ''
Early lobbying efforts to desegregate the military previous to 1941 did not persuade President Roosevelt to take action. On September 27, 1940, the first delegation composed of A. Philip Randolph, Walter White (NAACP), and T. Arnold Hill (National Urban League), met with President Roosevelt and his top officials. The delegation presented a memorandum demanding immediate integration of all blacks in the armed services. The White House issued a statement saying, "The policy of the War Department is not to intermingle colored and white enlisted personnel in the same regimental organizations. '' The armed forces were not integrated until 1948, under President Harry S. Truman.
Concerned that traditional meetings were not effective, on January 25, 1941, A. Philip Randolph officially proposed a March on Washington to "highlight the issue. '' In the following months, chapters of the MOWM began to organize for a mass march scheduled for July first of that year. During the spring, organizers estimated they could attract 100,000 marchers for the event.
A week before the march was to take place, Mayor Fiorello La Guardia of New York City met with MOWM leadership to inform them of the president 's intentions to issue an executive order establishing the first Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) that would prohibit discrimination in federal vocational and training programs. Before the order was signed, the MOWM demanded also that it included a provision for desegregation of war industries. Roosevelt agreed and issued Executive Order 8802, which prohibited discrimination in federal vocational and training programs, and in employment in defense industries contracting with the government. Given this major victory, Randolph agreed to cancel the march. He continued the March on Washington Movement as a way to maintain an organization that could track and lobby for progress, and hold the FEPC to its mission.
The MOWM continued rallies throughout the summer on these issues, but the high water mark had passed. The movement 's continued call for nonviolent civil disobedience alienated some black organizations, such as the NAACP, whose leaders withdrew some support. Although organized to bring about the 1941 march on Washington, the MOWM operated until 1947; its representatives collaborated with other groups to continue pressure on the federal government. In 1943 Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9346, which expanded coverage of the FEPC to federal agencies beyond those in defense.
Randolph continued to promote non-violent actions to advance goals for African Americans. Future civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. and other younger men were strongly influenced by his methods.
While mainstream media had a role in reporting on the movement, African - American media outlets covered it most thoroughly. Early in the spring of 1941, black newspapers expressed skepticism of the movement 's ambitious goals to attract tens of thousands of marchers. The Chicago Defender worried whether even "2,000 Negroes would march ''.
Their tone changed, however, as the date of the march approached. By May, black newspapers reported on growing support for the march; The Amsterdam News of New York City ran the front page headline: "100,000 in March to Capitol. '' If it was simply a tactic of bluffing, the same tactic was shared by black press as a whole. The Chicago Defender by that time reported "50,000 preparing for a March for jobs and justice ''.
The MOWM had an uneasy relationship with communist organizations in the U.S. Communists supported the idea of a proletariat uprising but "they constantly drew a line between the ' job - march ' and its ' war - mongering leadership. ' '' Randolph used various tactics to avoid having communists be part of the March on Washington Movement, as he knew it caused difficulties in gaining support for the larger goals of African Americans. He restricted membership to African Americans; although black Communists might participate, only a small percentage of the disciplined Communist party members were black.
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when did us and great britain become allies | United Kingdom -- United States relations - wikipedia
British -- American relations, also referred to as Anglo - American relations, encompass many complex relations ranging from two early wars to competition for world markets. Since 1940 they have been close military allies enjoying the Special Relationship built as wartime allies, and NATO partners.
The two nations are bound together by shared history, an overlap in religion and a common language and legal system, and kinship ties that reach back hundreds of years, including kindred, ancestral lines among English Americans, Scottish Americans, Welsh Americans, Scotch - Irish Americans and American Britons respectively. Today large numbers of expatriates live in both countries.
Through times of war and rebellion, peace and estrangement, as well as becoming friends and allies, Britain and the US cemented these deeply rooted links during World War II into what is known as the "Special Relationship. '' In long - term perspective, the historian Paul Johnson has called it the "cornerstone of the modern, democratic world order ''.
In the early 20th century, the United Kingdom affirmed its relationship with the United States as its "most important bilateral partnership '' in the current British foreign policy, and the American foreign policy also affirms its relationship with Britain as its most important relationship, as evidenced in aligned political affairs, mutual cooperation in the areas of trade, commerce, finance, technology, academics, as well as the arts and sciences; the sharing of government and military intelligence, and joint combat operations and peacekeeping missions carried out between the United States Armed Forces and the British Armed Forces. Canada has historically been the largest importer of U.S. goods and the principal exporter of goods to the USA. As of January 2015 the UK was fifth in terms of exports and seventh in terms of import of goods.
The two countries also have had a significant impact of the cultures of many other countries. They are the two main nodes of the Anglosphere, with a combined population of around 385 million in 2015. Together, they have given the English language a dominant role in many sectors of the modern world.
Leaders of United Kingdom and United States from 1940
The Special Relationship characterises the exceptionally close political, diplomatic, cultural, economic, military and historical relations between the two countries. It is specially used for relations since 1940.
After several failed attempts, the first permanent English settlement in mainland North America was established in 1607 at Jamestown in the Colony and Dominion of Virginia. By 1624, the Colony and Dominion of Virginia ceased to be a charter colony administered by the Virginia Company of London and became a crown colony. The Pilgrims were a small Protestant sect based in England and Amsterdam; they sent a group of settlers on the Mayflower. After drawing up the Mayflower Compact by which they gave themselves broad powers of self - governance, they established the small Plymouth Colony in 1620. In 1630 the Puritans established the much larger Massachusetts Bay Colony; they sought to reform the Church of England by creating a new and "more pure '' church in the New World.
Other colonies followed in Province of Maine (1622), Province of Maryland (1632), Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (1636) and Connecticut Colony (1636). Later came the founding of Province of Carolina (1663) (divided in 1729 into the Province of North Carolina and the Province of South Carolina). The Province of New Hampshire was founded in 1691. Next came the Province of Georgia in 1732.
The Province of New York was formed from the conquered Dutch colony of New Netherland. In 1674, the Province of New Jersey was split off from New York. In 1681 William Penn was awarded a royal charter by King Charles II to found Province of Pennsylvania.
The colonies each reported separately to London. There was a failed effort to group the colonies into the Dominion of New England, 1686 - 89.
During the 17th century, an estimated 350,000 English and Welsh migrants arrived as permanent residents in the Thirteen Colonies. In the century after the Acts of Union 1707 this was surpassed in rate and number by Scottish and Irish migrants.
During British settler colonization, liberal administrative, juridical, and market institutions were introduced, positively associated with socioeconomic development. At the same time, colonial policy was also quasi-mercantilist, encouraging trade within the Empire, discouraging trade with other powers, and discouraging the rise of manufacturing in the colonies, which had been established to increase the trade and wealth of the mother country. Britain made much greater profits from the sugar trade of its commercial colonies in the Caribbean.
The introduction of coercive labor institutions was another feature of the colonial period. All of the Thirteen Colonies were involved in the slave trade. Slaves in the Middle Colonies and New England Colonies typically worked as house servants, artisans, laborers and craftsmen. Early on, slaves in the Southern Colonies worked primarily in agriculture, on farms and plantations growing indigo, rice, cotton, and tobacco for export.
The French and Indian War, fought between 1754 and 1763, was the North American theatre of the Seven Years ' War. The conflict, the fourth such colonial war between France and Britain in North America, resulted in the British acquisition of New France, with its French Catholic population. Under the Treaty of Paris signed in 1763, the French ceded control of French Louisiana east of the Mississippi River to the British, which became known as the Indian Reserve.
The religious ties between the metropole and the colonies were pronounced. Most of the churches were transplants from England (or Germany). The Puritans of New England seldom kept in touch with nonconformists in England. Much closer were the transatlantic relationships maintained by the Quakers, especially in Pennsylvania. The Methodists also maintained close ties.
The Anglican Church was officially established in the Southern colonies, which meant that local taxes paid the salary of the minister, the parish had civic responsibilities such as poor relief, and the local gentry controlled the parish. The church was disestablished during the American Revolution. The Anglican churches in America were under the authority of the Bishop of London, and there was a long debate over whether to establish an Anglican bishop in America. The other Protestants blocked any such appointment. After the Revolution the newly formed Episcopal Church selected its own bishop and kept its distance from London.
Proportions of English ancestry
Proportions of Scots ancestry
Proportions of Scots - Irish ancestry
Proportions of Welsh ancestry
The Thirteen Colonies gradually obtained more, albeit limited, self - government. British mercantilist policies became more stringent, benefiting the mother country which resulted in trade restrictions, thereby limiting the growth of the colonial economy and artificially constraining colonial merchants ' earning potential. The American Colonies were expected to help repay debt that had accrued during the French and Indian War. Tensions escalated from 1765 to 1775 over issues of taxation without representation and control by King George III. Stemming from the Boston Massacre of 1770 when British Redcoats opened fire on civilians, rebellion consumed the outraged colonists. The British Parliament had imposed a series of taxes such as the Stamp Act of 1765, and later the Tea Act of 1773, against which an angry mob of colonists protested in the Boston Tea Party by dumping chests of tea into Boston Harbor. The British Parliament responded to the defiance of the colonists by passing what the colonials called the Intolerable Acts in 1774. This course of events ultimately triggered the first shots fired in the Battles of Lexington and Concord in 1775 and the beginning of the American War of Independence. A British victory at the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775 agitated tensions even further. While the goal of attaining independence was sought by a majority known as Patriots, a minority known as Loyalists wished to remain as British subjects indefinitely. When the Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia in May 1775, deliberations conducted by notable figures such as Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Hancock, Samuel Adams, and John Adams eventually resulted in seeking full independence from the mother country. Thus, the Declaration of Independence, unanimously ratified on 4 July 1776, was a radical and decisive break. The United States of America became the first colony in the world to successfully achieve independence in the modern era.
In early 1775 the Patriots forced all the British officials and soldiers out of the new nation. The British returned in force in August 1776, and captured New York City, which became their base until the war ended in 1783. The British, using their powerful navy, could capture major ports, but 90 % of the Americans lived in rural areas where they had full control. After the Patriots captured a British invasion force moving down from Canada in the Saratoga campaign of 1777, France entered the war as an ally of the US, and added the Netherlands and Spain as French allies. Britain lost naval superiority and had no major allies and few friends in Europe. The British strategy was then refocused on the South, where they expected large numbers of Loyalists would fight alongside the redcoats. Far fewer Loyalists took up arms than Britain needed; royal efforts to control the countryside in the South failed. When the British army tried to return to New York, its rescue fleet was turned back by the French fleet and its army was captured by combined French - American forces under General George Washington at the Siege of Yorktown in October 1781. That effectively ended the fighting.
The Treaty of Paris ended the war in 1783 on terms quite favourable to the new nation.
The key events were in September 1782, when the French Foreign Minister Vergennes proposed a solution that was strongly opposed by his ally the United States. France was exhausted by the war, and everyone wanted peace except Spain, which insisted on continuing the war until it captured Gibraltar from the British. Vergennes came up with a deal that Spain would accept instead of Gibraltar. The United States would gain its independence but be confined to the area east of the Appalachian Mountains. Britain would take the area north of the Ohio River. In the area south of that would be set up an independent Indian state under Spanish control. It would be an Indian barrier state. The Americans realised that French friendship was worthless during these negotiations: they could get a better deal directly from London. John Jay promptly told the British that he was willing to negotiate directly with them, cutting off France and Spain. The British Prime Minister Lord Shelburne agreed. He was in full charge of the British negotiations and he now saw a chance to split the United States away from France and make the new country a valuable economic partner. The western terms were that the United States would gain all of the area east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of Canada. The northern boundary would be almost the same as today. The United States would gain fishing rights off Canadian coasts, and agreed to allow British merchants and Loyalists to try to recover their property. It was a highly favourable treaty for the United States, and deliberately so from the British point of view. Shelburne foresaw a highly profitable two - way trade between Britain and the rapidly growing United States, which indeed came to pass.
The treaty was finally ratified in 1784. The British evacuated their soldiers and civilians in New York, Charleston and Savannah in late 1783. Over 80 percent of the half - million Loyalists remained in the United States and became American citizens. The others mostly went to Canada, and referred to themselves as the United Empire Loyalists. Merchants and men of affairs often went to Britain to reestablish their business connections. Rich southern Loyalists, taking their slaves with them, typically headed to plantations in the West Indies. The British also took away about 3000 free blacks, former slaves who fought the British army; they went to Nova Scotia. Many found it inhospitable and went to Sierra Leone, the British colony in Africa.
The new nation gained control of nearly all the land east of the Mississippi and south of the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes. The British colonies of East and West Florida were given to Spain as its reward. The Native American tribes allied with Britain struggled in the aftermath; the British ignored them at the Peace conference, and most came under American control unless they moved to Canada or to Spanish territory. The British kept forts in the American Midwest (especially in Michigan and Wisconsin), where they supplied weapons to Indian tribes.
Trade resumed between the two nations when the war ended. The British allowed all exports to America but forbade some American food exports to its colonies in the West Indies. British exports reached £ 3.7 million, compared with imports of only £ 750,000. The imbalance caused a shortage of gold in the US.
In 1785, John Adams became the first American plenipotentiary minister, now known as an ambassador, to the Court of St James 's. King George III received him graciously. In 1791, Great Britain sent its first diplomatic envoy, George Hammond, to the United States.
When Great Britain and France went to war in 1793, relations between the United States and Great Britain also verged on war. Tensions were subdued when the Jay Treaty was signed in 1794, which established a decade of peace and prosperous trade relations. The historian Marshall Smelser argues that the treaty effectively postponed war with Britain, or at least postponed it until the United States was strong enough to handle it.
Bradford Perkins argued that the treaty was the first to establish a special relationship between Britain and the United States, with a second installment under Lord Salisbury. In his view, the treaty worked for ten years to secure peace between Britain and America: "The decade may be characterised as the period of "The First Rapprochement. '' As Perkins concludes,
"For about ten years there was peace on the frontier, joint recognition of the value of commercial intercourse, and even, by comparison with both preceding and succeeding epochs, a muting of strife over ship seizures and impressment. Two controversies with France... pushed the English - speaking powers even more closely together. ''
Starting at swords ' point in 1794, the Jay treaty reversed the tensions, Perkins concludes: "Through a decade of world war and peace, successive governments on both sides of the Atlantic were able to bring about and preserve a cordiality which often approached genuine friendship. ''
Historian Joseph Ellis finds the terms of the treaty "one - sided in Britain 's favor '', but asserts a consensus of historians agrees that it was
"a shrewd bargain for the United States. It bet, in effect, on England rather than France as the hegemonic European power of the future, which proved prophetic. It recognised the massive dependence of the American economy on trade with England. In a sense it was a precocious preview of the Monroe Doctrine (1823), for it linked American security and economic development to the British fleet, which provided a protective shield of incalculable value throughout the nineteenth century. Mostly, it postponed war with England until America was economically and politically more capable of fighting one. ''
The US proclaimed its neutrality in the wars between Britain and France (1793 -- 1815), and profited greatly by selling food, timber and other supplies to both sides.
Thomas Jefferson had bitterly opposed the Jay Treaty because he feared it would strengthen anti-republican political enemies. When Jefferson became president in 1801, he did not repudiate the treaty. He kept the Federalist minister, Rufus King in London to negotiate a successful resolution to outstanding issues regarding cash payments and boundaries. The amity broke down in 1805, as relations turned increasingly hostile as a prelude to the War of 1812. Jefferson rejected a renewal of the Jay Treaty in the Monroe -- Pinkney Treaty of 1806 as negotiated by his diplomats and agreed to by London; he never sent it to the Senate.
The legal international slave trade was largely suppressed after Great Britain passed the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act in 1807. At the urging of President Jefferson, the United States passed the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves in 1807, to take effect January 1, 1808.
The United States imposed a trade embargo, namely the Embargo Act of 1807, in retaliation for Britain 's blockade of France, which involved the visit and search of neutral merchantmen, and resulted in the suppression of Franco - United States trade for the duration of the Napoleonic Wars. The Royal Navy also boarded American ships and impressed sailors suspected of being British deserters. Western expansion into the American Midwest (Ohio to Wisconsin) was hindered by Indian tribes given munitions and support by British agents. Indeed, Britain 's goal was the creation of an independent Indian state to block American expansion.
After diplomacy and the boycott had failed, the issue of national honour and independence came to the fore. Brands says, "The other war hawks spoke of the struggle with Britain as a second war of independence; (Andrew) Jackson, who still bore scars from the first war of independence held that view with special conviction. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. ''
Finally in June 1812 President James Madison called for war, and overcame the opposition of Northeastern business interests. The American strategy called for a war against British shipping and especially cutting off food shipments to the British sugar plantations in the West Indies. Conquest of the northern colonies that later became Canada was a tactic designed to give the Americans a strong bargaining position. The main British goal was to defeat France, so until that happened in 1814 the war was primarily defensive. To enlist allies among the Indians, led by Tecumseh, the British promised an independent Indian state would be created in American territory. Repeated American invasions of Canada were fiascoes, because of inadequate preparations, very poor generals, and the refusal of militia units to leave their home grounds. The Americans took control of Lake Erie in 1813 and destroyed the power of the Indian allies of the British in the Northwest and Southeast. The British invasion of the Chesapeake Bay in 1814 culminated in the "Burning of Washington '', but the subsequent British attack on Baltimore was repelled. The British invasion of New York state in 1814 was defeated at the Battle of Plattsburgh, and the invasion of Louisiana that launched before word of a ceasefire had reached General Andrew Jackson was decisively defeated at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815. Negotiations began in 1814 and produced the Treaty of Ghent, which restored the status quo ante bellum. No territorial gains were made by either side, and the British plan to create an Indian nation was abandoned. The United Kingdom retained the theoretical right of impressment, but stopped impressing any sailors, while the United States dropped the issue for good. The US celebrated the outcome as a victorious "second war of independence. '' The British, having finally defeated Napoleon at Waterloo, celebrated that triumph and largely forgot the war with America. Tensions between the US and Canada were resolved through diplomacy. The War of 1812 marked the end of a long period of conflict (1775 -- 1815) and ushered in a new era of peace between the two nations.
The Monroe Doctrine, a unilateral response in 1823 to a British suggestion of a joint declaration, expressed American hostility to further European encroachment in the Western hemisphere. Nevertheless, the United States benefited from the common outlook in British policy and its enforcement by the Royal Navy. In the 1840s several states defaulted on bonds owned by British investors. London bankers avoided state bonds afterwards, but invested heavily in American railroad bonds.
In several episodes the American general Winfield Scott proved a sagacious diplomat by tamping down emotions and reaching acceptable compromises. Scott handled the Caroline affair in 1837. Rebels from British North America (now Ontario) fled to New York and used a small American ship called the Caroline to smuggle supplies into Canada after their rebellion was suppressed. In late 1837, Canadian militia crossed the border into the US and burned the ship, leading to diplomatic protests, a flare - up of Anglophobia, and other incidents.
Tensions on the vague Maine -- New Brunswick boundary involved rival teams of lumberjacks in the bloodless Aroostook War of 1839. There was no shooting but both sides tried to uphold national honor and gain a few more miles of timber land. Each side had an old secret map that apparently showed the other side had the better legal case, so compromise was easily reached in the Webster -- Ashburton Treaty of 1842, which settled the border in Maine and Minnesota. In 1859, the bloodless Pig War determined the position of the border in relation to the San Juan Islands and Gulf Islands.
British leaders were constantly annoyed from the 1840s to the 1860s by what they saw as Washington 's pandering to the democratic mob, as in the Oregon boundary dispute in 1844 - 46. However British middle - class public opinion sensed a "special relationship '' between the two peoples based on language, migration, evangelical Protestantism, liberal traditions, and extensive trade. This constituency rejected war, forcing London to appease the Americans. During the Trent affair of late 1861, London drew the line and Washington retreated.
In 1844 - 48 the two nations had overlapping claims to Oregon. The area was largely unsettled, making it easy to end the crisis in 1848 by a compromise that split the region evenly, with British Columbia to Great Britain, and Washington, Idaho, and Oregon to America. The US then turned its attention to Mexico, which threatened war over the annexation of Texas. Britain tried without success to moderate the Mexicans, but when the war began it remained neutral. The US gained California, in which the British had shown only passing interest.
The British wanted a stable Mexico to block American expansion to the Southwest, but an unstable Mexico attacked Texas and wanted revenge for its defeat. The result was a vast American expansion. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 brought a heavy demand for passage to the gold fields, with the main routes crossing Panama to avoid a very long slow sailing voyage around all of South America. A railroad was built that carried 600,000 despite the dangerous environment in Panama. A canal in Nicaragua was a much more healthier and attractive possibility, and American businessmen gained the necessary permissions, along with a U.S. treaty with Nicaragua. However the British were determined to block an American canal, and seized key locations on the mosquito coast on the Atlantic that blocked it. The Whigs were in charge in Washington and unlike the bellicose Democrats wanted a business - like peaceful solution. The Whigs took a lesson from the British experience monopolizing the chokepoint of Gibraltar, which produced no end of conflicts, wars, and military and naval expenses for the British. The United States decided that a canal should be open and neutral to all the world 's traffic, and not be militarized. Tensions escalated locally, with small - scale physical confrontations in the field. Washington and London found a diplomatic solution. The Clayton - Bulwer Treaty of 1850 guaranteed equal canal rights to both the U.S. and Britain. Each agreed not to colonize Central America. However, disagreements arose and no Nicaragua canal was ever started. By 1857 - 59, the London government dropped its opposition to American territorial expansion.
The opening of the transcontinental railroad in 1869 made travel to California fast, cheap and safe. Americans lost interest in canals and focused their attention on building long - distance railways. The British, meanwhile, turned their attention to building the Suez Canal through Egypt. London maintained a veto on on American canal building in Nicaragua. In 1890s, the French made a major effort to build a canal through Panama, but it self - destructed through mismanagement, severe corruption, and especially the deadly disease environment. By the late 1890s Britain saw the need for much improved relations with the United States, and agreed to allow the U.S. to build a canal through either Nicaragua or Panama. The choice was Panama. The Hay -- Pauncefote Treaty of 1901 replaced the Clayton -- Bulwer Treaty, and adopted the rule of neutralization for the Panama Canal which the U.S. built; it opened in 1914..
In the American Civil War a major Confederate goal was to win recognition from Britain and France, which it expected would lead them to war with the US and enable the Confederacy to win independence. Because of astute American diplomacy, no nation ever recognised the Confederacy and war with Britain was averted. Nevertheless, there was considerable British sentiment in favour of weakening the US by helping the South win. At the beginning of the war Britain issued a proclamation of neutrality. The Confederate States of America had assumed all along that Britain would surely enter the war to protect its vital supply of cotton. This "King Cotton '' argument was one reason the Confederates felt confident in the first place about going to war, but the Southerners had never consulted the Europeans and were tardy in sending diplomats. Even before the fighting began in April 1861 Confederate citizens (acting without government authority) cut off cotton shipments in an effort to exert cotton diplomacy. It failed because Britain had warehouses filled with cotton, whose value was soaring; not until 1862 did shortages become acute.
The Trent Affair in late 1861 nearly caused a war. A warship of the U.S. Navy stopped the British civilian vessel RMS Trent and took off two Confederate diplomats, James Murray Mason and John Slidell. Britain prepared for war and demanded their immediate release. President Lincoln released the diplomats and the episode ended quietly.
Britain realised that any recognition of an independent Confederacy would be treated as an act of war against the United States. The British economy was heavily reliant on trade with the United States, most notably cheap grain imports which in the event of war, would be cut off by the Americans. Indeed, the Americans would launch all - out naval war against the entire British merchant fleet.
Despite outrage and intense American protests, London allowed the British - built CSS Alabama to leave port and become a commerce raider under the naval flag of the Confederacy. The war ended in 1865; arbitration settled the issue in 1871, with a payment of $15.5 million in gold for the damages caused.
In January 1863 Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which was strongly supported by liberal elements in Britain. The British government predicted that emancipation of the slaves would create a race war, and that intervention might be required on humanitarian grounds. There was no race war, and the declining capabilities of the Confederacy -- such as loss of major ports and rivers -- made its likelihood of success smaller and smaller.
Relations were chilly during the 1860s as Americans resented British and Canadian roles during the Civil War. After the war American authorities looked the other way as Irish Catholic "Fenians '' plotted and even attempted an invasion of Canada to create pressure for an independent ireland. The Fenians movement collapsed from its own incompetence. Irish American politicians, a growing power in the Democratic Party demanded more independence for Ireland and made anti-British rhetoric -- called "twisting the lion 's tail '' -- a staple of election campaign appeals to the Irish vote.
The arbitration of the Alabama Claims in 1872 provided a satisfactory reconciliation; The British paid the United States $15.5 million for the economic damage caused by Confederate warships purchased from it. Canada could never be defended so the British decided to cut their losses and eliminate the risk of a conflict with the U.S. The first ministry of William Gladstone withdrew from all its historic military and political responsibilities in North America. It brought home its troops (keeping Halifax as an Atlantic naval base), and turned responsibility over to the locals. That made it wise in 1867 to unify the separate Canadian colonies into a self - governing confederation named the "Dominion of Canada ''.
Britain persisted in its free trade policy even as its major rivals, the US and Germany, turned to high tariffs (as did Canada). American heavy industry grew faster than Britain, and by the 1890s was crowding British machinery and other products out of the world market. London, however, remained the world 's financial center, even as much of its investment was directed toward American railways. The Americans remained far behind the British in international shipping and insurance.
The American economic "invasion '' of the British home market demanded a response. Tariffs, although increasingly under consideration, were not imposed until the 1930s. Therefore, British businessmen were obliged to lose their market or else rethink and modernise their operations. The boot and shoe industry faced increasing imports of American footwear; Americans took over the market for shoe machinery. British companies realised they had to meet the competition so they re-examined their traditional methods of work, labour utilisation, and industrial relations, and to rethink how to market footwear in terms of the demand for fashion.
In 1895 the Venezuela Crisis with the United States erupted. A border dispute between British Guiana and Venezuela caused a major Anglo - American crisis when the United States intervened to take Venezuela 's side. Propaganda sponsored by Venezuela convinced American public opinion that the British were infringing on Venezuelan territory. The United States demanded an explanation and Prime Minister Salisbury refused. The crisis escalated when President Grover Cleveland, citing the Monroe Doctrine, issued an ultimatum in late 1895. Salisbury 's cabinet convinced him he had to go to arbitration. Both sides calmed down and the issue was quickly resolved through arbitration which largely upheld the British position on the legal boundary line. Salisbury remained angry but a consensus was reached in London, led by Lord Landsdowne, to seek much friendlier relations with the United States. By standing with a Latin American nation against the encroachment of the British, the US improved relations with the Latin Americans, and the cordial manner of the procedure improved diplomatic relations with Britain.
The Olney - Pauncefote Treaty of 1897 was a proposed treaty between the United States and Britain in 1897 that required arbitration of major disputes. Despite wide public and elite support, the treaty was rejected by the U.S. Senate, which was jealous of its prerogatives, and never went into effect.
Arbitration was used to settle the dispute over the boundary between Alaska and Canada, but the Canadians felt betrayed by the result. The Alaska Purchase of 1867 drew the boundary between Canada and Alaska in ambiguous fashion. With the gold rush into the Yukon in 1898, miners had to enter through Alaska and Canada wanted the boundary redrawn to obtain its own seaport. Canada rejected the American offer of a long - term lease on an American port. The issue went to arbitration and the Alaska boundary dispute was finally resolved by an arbitration in 1903. The decision favoured the US when the British judge sided with the three American judges against the two Canadian judges on the arbitration panel. Canadian public opinion was outraged that their interests were sacrificed by London for the benefit of British - American harmony.
The Great Rapprochement is a term used to describe the convergence of social and political objectives between the United Kingdom and the United States from 1895 until World War I began in 1914. The large Irish Catholic element in the US provided a major base for demands for Irish independence, and occasioned anti-British rhetoric, especially at election time.
The most notable sign of improving relations during the Great Rapprochement was Britain 's actions during the Spanish -- American War (started 1898). Initially Britain supported the Spanish Empire and its colonial rule over Cuba, since the perceived threat of American occupation and a territorial acquisition of Cuba by the United States might harm British trade and commercial interests within its own imperial possessions in the West Indies. However, after the United States made genuine assurances that it would grant Cuba 's independence (which eventually occurred in 1902 under the terms dictated in the Platt Amendment), the British abandoned this policy and ultimately sided with the United States, unlike most other European powers who supported Spain. In return the US government supported Britain during the Boer War, although many Americans favoured the Boers.
Victory in the Spanish -- American War had given the United States its own rising empire. This new status was demonstrated in 1900 -- 01, when the US and Britain, as part of the Eight - Nation Alliance, suppressed the Boxer Rebellion and maintained foreign Concessions (colonies) in Qing Dynasty China.
The naval blockade of several months (1902 - 1903) imposed against Venezuela by Britain, Germany and Italy over President Cipriano Castro 's refusal to pay foreign debts and damages suffered by European citizens in a recent failed civil war. Castro assumed that the Monroe Doctrine would see the U.S. prevent European military intervention, but at the time President Theodore Roosevelt saw the Doctrine as concerning European seizure of territory, rather than intervention per se. Roosevelt also was concerned with the threat of penetration into the region by Germany and Britain. With Castro failing to back down under U.S. pressure and increasingly negative British and American press reactions to the affair, President Roosevelt persuaded the blockading nations agreed to a compromise, but maintained the blockade, during negotiations over the details of refinacial the debt on Washington Protocols. This incident was a major driver of the Roosevelt Corollary and the subsequent U.S. Big Stick policy and Dollar Diplomacy in Latin America.
In 1907 -- 09, President Theodore Roosevelt sent the "Great White Fleet '' on an international tour, to demonstrate the power projection of the United States ' blue - water navy, which had become second only to the Royal Navy in size and firepower.
The United States had a policy of strict neutrality. The United States was willing to export any product to any country. Germany could not import anything due to the British blockade, so the American trade was with the Allies. It was financed by the sale of American bonds and stocks owned by the British. When that was exhausted the British borrowed heavily from New York banks. When that credit ran dry in late 1916, a financial crisis was at hand for Britain.
American public opinion moved steadily against Germany, especially in the wake of the Belgian atrocities in 1914 and the sinking of the RMS Lusitania in 1915. The large German American and Irish Catholic element called for staying out of the war, but the German Americans were increasingly marginalised. The Germans renewed unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917 knowing it would lead to war with the US. Germany 's invitation to Mexico to join together in war against the US in the Zimmermann Telegram was the last straw, and the US declared war in April 1917. The Balfour Mission in April and May tried to promote cooperation between the UK and US. The Americans planned to send money, food and munitions, but it soon became clear that millions of soldiers would be needed to decide the war on the Western Front.
The US sent two million soldiers to Europe under the command of General John J. Pershing, with more on the way as the war ended. Many of the Allied forces were skeptical of the competence of the American Expeditionary Force, which in 1917 was severely lacking in training and experience. By summer 1918, the American doughboys were arriving at 10,000 a day, as the German forces were shrinking because they had run out of manpower.
The first summit conference took place in London in late 1918, between Wilson and Prime Minister David Lloyd George. It went poorly, as Wilson distrusted Lloyd George as a schemer, and Lloyd George grumbled that the president was excessively moralistic. The two did work together at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919, as part of the Big Four. They moderated the demands of French Prime Minister Clemenceau to permanently weaken Germany. Lloyd George later quipped that sitting between them was like "being seated between Jesus Christ and Napoleon. ''
By 1921 a cardinal principle of British foreign - policy was to "cultivate the closest relations with the United States. '' As a result, Britain decided not to renew its military alliance with Japan, which was becoming a major rival to the United States in the Pacific.
The US sponsored a successful Washington Naval Conference in 1922 that largely ended the naval arms race for a decade. World War I marked the end of the Royal Navy 's superiority, an eclipse acknowledged in the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, when the United States and Britain agreed to equal tonnage quotas on warships. By 1932, the 1922 treaty was not renewed and Britain, Japan and the US were again in a naval race.
In the 1920s, bilateral relations were generally friendly. In 1923 London renegotiated its ₤ 978 million war debt to the U.S. Treasury by promising regular payments of ₤ 34 million for ten years then ₤ 40 million for 52 years. The idea was for the US to loan money to Germany, which in turn paid reparations to Britain, which in turn paid off its loans from the US government. In 1931 all German payments ended, and in 1932 Britain suspended its payments to the US. The debt was finally repaid after 1945.
The League of Nations was established, but Wilson refused to negotiate with Republican supporters of the League. They objected to the provision that allowed the League to force the United States to join in a war declared by the League without the approval of Congress or the president. It was defeated in the Senate. The United States never joined the League, leaving Britain and France to dominate the organization. In any case, it had very little effect on major issues and was replaced in 1945 with a United Nations in which both Britain and the United States had veto power. Major conferences, especially the Washington Conference of 1922 occurred outside League auspices. The US refused to send official delegates to League committees, instead sending unofficial "observers. ''
The second summit took place between President Herbert Hoover and Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald in the United States in 1929. Both men were seriously devoted to peace, and the meeting went smoothly in discussions regarding naval arms limitations, and the application of the Kellogg -- Briand Pact peace pact of 1928. One result was the successful London Naval Treaty of 1930, which continued the warship limitations among the major powers first set out in 1922.
During the Great Depression, starting in late 1929, the U.S. was preoccupied with its own internal affairs and economic recovery, espousing an isolationist policy. When the US raised tariffs in 1930, the British retaliated by raising their tariffs against outside countries (such as the US) while giving special trade preferences inside the Commonwealth. The US demanded these special trade preferences be ended in 1946 in exchange for a large loan.
The overall world total of all trade plunged by over two - thirds, while trade between the US and Britain shrank from $848 million in 1929 to $288 million in 1932, a decline of almost two - thirds (66 %).
When Britain in 1933 called a worldwide London Economic Conference to help resolve the depression, President Franklin D. Roosevelt killed it by refusing to cooperate.
Tensions over the Irish question faded with the independence of the Irish Free State in 1922. The American Irish had achieved their goal, and in 1938 its leader Joseph P. Kennedy became ambassador to the Court of St. James 's. He moved in high London society and his daughter married into the aristocracy. Kennedy supported the Neville Chamberlain policy of appeasement toward Germany, and when the war began he advised Washington that prospects for Britain 's survival were bleak. When Winston Churchill came to power in 1940, Kennedy lost all his influence in London and Washington.
Although many of the American people were sympathetic to Britain during the war with Nazi Germany, there was widespread opposition to American intervention in European affairs. This was reflected in a series of Neutrality Acts ratified by the United States Congress in 1935, 1936, and 1937. However, President Roosevelt 's policy of cash - and - carry still allowed Britain and France to order munitions from the United States and carry them home.
Churchill, who had long warned against Germany and demanded rearmament, became prime minister after Chamberlain 's policy of appeasement had totally collapsed and Britain was unable to reverse the German invasion of Norway in April 1940. After the fall of France in June 1940, Roosevelt gave Britain and (after June 1941) the Soviet Union all aid short of war. The Destroyers for Bases Agreement which was signed in September 1940, gave the United States a 99 - year rent - free lease of numerous land and air bases throughout the British Empire in exchange for the Royal Navy receiving 50 old destroyers from the United States Navy. Beginning in March 1941, the United States enacted Lend - Lease in the form of tanks, fighter airplanes, munitions, bullets, food, and medical supplies. Britain received $31.4 billion out of a total of $50.1 billion sent to the Allies. Roosevelt insisted on avoiding the blunder that Wilson had made in the First World War of setting up the financing as loans that had to be repaid by the recipients. Lend lease aid was freely given, with no payments. Also there were also cash loans were repaid at low rates over a half - century.
Summit meetings became a standard practice carting starting with August 1941, when Churchill and Roosevelt met on British territory, and announced the Atlantic Charter. It became a fundamental document -- All the Allies had to sign it -- and it led to the formation of the United Nations. Shortly after Pearl Harbor, Churchill spent several weeks in Washington with the senior staff hammering out wartime strategy with the American counterparts at the Arcadia Conference. They set up the Combined Chiefs of Staff to plot and coordinate strategy and operations. Military cooperation was close and successful.
Technical collaboration was even closer, as the two nations shared secrets and weapons regarding the proximity fuze (fuse) and radar, as well as airplane engines, Nazi codes, and the atomic bomb.
Millions of American servicemen were based in Britain during the war. Americans were paid five times more than comparable British servicemen, which led to a certain amount of friction with British men and intermarriage with British women.
In 1945 Britain sent a portion of the British fleet to assist the planned October invasion of Japan by the USA, but this was cancelled when Japan was forced to surrender unconditionally in August.
Serious tension erupted over American demands that India be given independence, a proposition Churchill vehemently rejected. For years Roosevelt had encouraged Britain 's disengagement from India. The American position was based on principled opposition to colonialism, practical concern for the outcome of the war, and the expectation of a large American role in a post-colonial era. In 1942 when the Congress Party launched a Quit India movement, the British authorities immediately arrested tens of thousands of activists (including Mahatma Gandhi). Meanwhile, India became the main American staging base for aid to China. Churchill threatened to resign if Roosevelt pushed too hard, so Roosevelt backed down.
In Spring 1949 the Bank of England issued instructions to British banks restricting the conversion of sterling for any oil that was purchased outside the sterling area. This was particularly damaging to the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO) -- Standard Oil of Jersey and Socony had been invited to join the Saudi concession because of their extensive overseas contacts who were now subject to London 's embargo. Britain also began bartering oil for payment in kind in defiance of international agreements with the US. Britain devalued its currency in September 1949 and promptly reduced exchanges - for - dollars by restricting American - affiliated oil companies from selling dollar oil within the sterling area until all the sterling oil had been sold. The disagreement was especially dire because Americans wanted to sell the oil they purchased from Saudi Arabia under the new concession arrangement. Eventually the British and the Americans reached an agreement that allowed American companies to sell Saudi oil in the sterling area.
In the aftermath of the war Britain faced a financial crisis, whereas the United States was in the midst of an economic boom. The process of de-colonization accelerated with the independence Britain granted to India, Pakistan and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) in 1947. The Labour government, which was alarmed at the threat of Communism in the Balkans, implored the US to take over the British role in Greece, which led to the Truman Doctrine in 1947, with financial and military aid to Greece and Turkey as Britain withdrew from the region.
The US provided financial aid in the form of the Anglo - American loan of 1946, a 50 - year loan with a low 2 % interest rate starting in 1950. A more permanent solution was the Marshall Plan of 1948 -- 51, which poured $13 billion into western Europe, of which $3.3 billion went to Britain to help modernise its infrastructure and business practices. The aid was a gift and carried requirements that Britain balance its budget, control tariffs and maintain adequate currency reserves.
The need to form a united front against the Soviet threat compelled the US and Britain to cooperate in helping to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization with their European allies. NATO is a mutual defence alliance whereby an attack on one member country is deemed an attack on all members.
The United States had an anti-colonial and anti-communist stance in its foreign policy throughout the Cold War. Military forces from the United States and the United Kingdom were heavily involved in the Korean War, fighting under a United Nations mandate. Military forces withdrew when a stalemate was implemented in 1953. When the Suez Crisis erupted in October 1956, the United States feared a wider war, after the Soviet Union threatened to intervene on the Egyptian side. Thus the United States applied sustained econo - financial pressure to encourage and ultimately force the United Kingdom, Israel and France to end their invasion of Egypt. British post-war debt was so large that economic sanctions could have caused a devaluation of sterling. This was something the UK government intended to avoid at all costs, and when it became clear that the international sanctions were serious, the British and their French allies withdrew their forces back to pre-war positions. The following year saw the resignation of Sir Anthony Eden.
Anglo - American cooperation during Eisenhower 's presidency was troubled, approaching in 1956 a complete breakdown that represented the lowest point in the relations between the two countries since the 1920s.
Through the US - UK Mutual Defence Agreement signed in 1958, the United States assisted the United Kingdom in their own development of a nuclear arsenal. The British, however, were financially unable to develop their own delivery systems for nuclear weapons. In April 1963, the Polaris Sales Agreement called for the U.S. to sell the UGM - 27 Polaris ballistic missile for use in the Royal Navy 's submarine fleet starting in 1968.
The American containment policy called for military resistance to the expansion of communism, and Vietnam became the main battlefield in the 1950s down to the communist victory in 1975. Harold Wilson, the Prime Minister (1964 - 1970) believed in a strong "Special Relationship '' and wanted to highlight his dealings with the White House to strengthen his own prestige as a statesman. President Lyndon Johnson disliked Wilson, and ignored any "special '' relationship. He agreed to provide financial help but he strongly opposed British plans to devalue the pound and withdraw military units east of Suez. Vietnam was the sore point. As the American military involvement deepened after 1964, Johnson repeatedly asked for British ground units to validate international support for American intervention. Wilson never sent troops, but he did provide help with intelligence, and training in jungle warfare, as well as verbal support. He also took the initiative in attempting numerous mediation schemes, typically involving Russian intervention, none of which gained traction. Wilson 's policy Divided the Labour Party; the Conservative opposition generally supported the American position on Vietnam. Issues of foreign policy were rarely salient in general elections. Wilson and Johnson also differed sharply on British economic weakness and its declining status as a world power. Historian Jonathan Colman concludes it made for the most unsatisfactory "special '' relationship in the 20th century.
Edward Heath (Prime minister 1970 - 74) and Richard Nixon (President 1969 - 74) maintained a close working relationship. Heath deviated from his predecessors by supporting Nixon 's decision to bomb Hanoi and Haiphong in Vietnam in April 1972. Nevertheless, relations deteriorated noticeably during the early 1970s. Throughout his premiership, Heath insisted on using the phrase "natural relationship '' instead of "special relationship '' to refer to Anglo - American relations, acknowledging the historical and cultural similarities but carefully denying anything special beyond that. Heath was determined to restore a measure of equality to Anglo - American relations which the USA had increasingly dominated as the power and economy of the United Kingdom flagged in the post-colonial era.
Heath 's renewed push for British admittance to the European Economic Community (EEC) brought new tensions between the United Kingdom and the United States. French President Charles De Gaulle, who believed that British entry would allow undue American influence on the organisation, had vetoed previous British attempts at entry. Heath 's final bid benefited from the more moderate views of Georges Pompidou, De Gaulle 's successor as President of France, and his own Eurocentric foreign policy schedule. The Nixon administration viewed this bid as a pivot away from close ties with the United States in favour of continental Europe. After Britain 's admission to the EEC in 1973, Heath confirmed this interpretation by notifying his American counterparts that the United Kingdom would henceforth be formulating European policies with other EEC members before discussing them with the United States. Furthermore, Heath indicated his potential willingness to consider a nuclear partnership with France and questioned what the United Kingdom got in return for American use of British military and intelligence facilities worldwide. In return, Nixon and his Secretary of State Henry Kissinger briefly cut off the Anglo - American intelligence tap in August 1973. Kissinger then attempted to restore American influence in Europe with his abortive 1973 "Year of Europe '' policy plan to update the NATO agreements. Members of the Heath administration, including Heath himself in later years, regarded this announcement with derision.
In 1973, American and British officials disagreed in their handling of the Arab - Israeli Yom Kippur War. While the Nixon administration immediately increased military aid to Israel, Heath maintained British neutrality in the conflict and imposed a British arms embargo on all combatants, which mostly hindered the Israelis by preventing them obtaining spares for their Centurion tanks. Anglo - American disagreement intensified over Nixon 's unilateral decision to elevate American forces, stationed at British bases, to DEFCON 3 status on October 25 in response to the breakdown of the United Nations ceasefire. Heath disallowed American intelligence gathering, resupplying, or refueling from British bases in Cyprus, which greatly limited the effective range of American reconnaissance planes. In return, Kissinger imposed a second intelligence cutoff over this disagreement and some in the administration even suggested that the United States should refuse to assist in the British missile upgrade to the Polaris system. Tensions between the United States and United Kingdom relaxed as the second ceasefire took effect. Wilson 's return to power in 1974 helped to return Anglo - American relations to normality.
On July 23, 1977, officials from the United Kingdom and the United States renegotiated the previous Bermuda I Agreement, and signed the Bermuda II Agreement under which only four airlines, two from the United Kingdom and two from the United States, were allowed to operate flights between London Heathrow Airport and specified "gateway cities '' in the United States. The Bermuda II Agreement was in effect for nearly 30 years until it was eventually replaced by the EU - US Open Skies Agreement, which was signed on April 30, 2007 and entered into effect on March 30, 2008.
Throughout the 1980s, Margaret Thatcher was strongly supportive of Ronald Reagan 's unwavering stance towards the Soviet Union. Often described as "political soulmates '' and a high point in the "Special Relationship '', Reagan and Thatcher met many times throughout their political careers, speaking in concert when confronting Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev.
In 1982, the British Government made a request to the United States, which the Americans agreed upon in principle, to sell the Trident II D5 ballistic missile, associated equipment, and related system support for use on four Vanguard class nuclear submarines in the Royal Navy. The Trident II D5 ballistic missile replaced the United Kingdom 's previous use of the UGM - 27 Polaris ballistic missile, beginning in the mid-1990s.
In the Falklands War in 1982, the United States initially tried to mediate between the United Kingdom and Argentina, but ended up supporting the United Kingdom 's counter-invasion. The U.S. supplied the British military with equipment as well as logistical support.
In October 1983, the United States and a coalition of Caribbean nations undertook Operation Urgent Fury, codename for the invasion of the Commonwealth to the island nation of Grenada. A bloody Marxist coup had overrun Grenada, and neighboring countries in the region asked the United States to intervene militarily, which it did successfully despite having made assurances to a deeply resentful British Government.
On 15 April 1986, the U.S. military launched Operation El Dorado Canyon from RAF air bases in England. Thatcher allowed Reagan to use Royal Air Force stations for its bombing of Tripoli and Benghazi in Libya. It was a counter-attack by the United States in response to Muammar Gaddafi 's export of state - sponsored terrorism directed towards civilians and American servicemen stationed in Berlin.
On 21 December 1988, Pan American Worldways ' Flight 103 from London Heathrow Airport to New York 's John F. Kennedy International Airport exploded over the town of Lockerbie, Scotland, killing 169 Americans and 40 Britons on board. The motive that is generally attributed to Libya can be traced back to a series of military confrontations with the United States Navy in the 1980s in the Gulf of Sidra, the whole of which Libya claimed as its territorial waters. Despite a guilty verdict on January 31, 2001 by the Scottish High Court of Justiciary which ruled against Abdelbaset al - Megrahi, the bomber, on charges of murder and conspiracy to commit murder, Libya never formally admitted carrying out the 1988 bombing over Scotland until 2003.
During the Soviet -- Afghan War, the United States and the United Kingdom throughout the 1980s provided arms to the Mujahideen rebels in Afghanistan until the last troops from the Soviet Union left Afghanistan in February 1989.
When the United States became the world 's lone superpower after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, new threats emerged which confronted the United States and its NATO allies. With military build - up beginning in August 1990 and the use of force beginning in January 1991, the United States, followed at a distance by Britain, provided the two largest forces respectively for the coalition army which liberated Kuwait from Saddam Hussein 's regime during the Persian Gulf War.
In 1997, the British Labour Party was elected to office for the first time in eighteen years. The new prime minister, Tony Blair, and Bill Clinton both used the expression "Third Way '' to describe their centre - left ideologies. In August 1997, the American people expressed solidarity with the British people, sharing in their grief and sense of shock on the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, who perished in a car crash in Paris, France.
Throughout 1998 and 1999, the United States and Britain sent troops to impose peace during the Kosovo War.
67 Britons were among the 2,977 victims killed during the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City, the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, and in an open field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, on September 11, 2001, which were orchestrated by al - Qaeda. Following the 11 September 2001 attacks, there was an enormous outpouring of sympathy from the United Kingdom for the American people, and Tony Blair was one of George W. Bush 's strongest international supporters for bringing al - Qaeda and the Taliban to justice. Indeed, Blair became the most articulate spokesman. He was the only foreign leader to attend an emergency joint session of Congress called immediately after the attacks (and remains the only foreign leader ever to attend such a session), where he received two standing ovations from members of Congress. During this session of Congress, President George W. Bush stated matter - of - factly that "America has no truer friend than Great Britain ''.
The United States declared a War on Terror following the attacks. British forces participated in NATO 's war in Afghanistan. Blair took the lead (against the opposition of France, Canada, Germany, China, and Russia) in advocating the invasion of Iraq in 2003. Again Britain was second only to the US in sending forces to Iraq. Both sides wound down after 2009, and withdrew their last troops in 2011. President Bush and Prime Minister Blair provided sustained mutual political and diplomatic support and won votes in Congress and parliament against their critics at home. During this period Secretary of State Donald Rumsfeld said that "America has no finer ally than the United Kingdom. ''
The 7 July 2005 London bombings emphasised the difference in the nature of the terrorist threat to both nations. The United States concentrated primarily on global enemies, like the al - Qaeda network and other Islamic extremists from the Middle East. The London bombings were carried out by homegrown extremist Muslims, and it emphasised the United Kingdom 's threat from the radicalisation of its own people.
By 2007, support amongst the British public for the Iraq war had plummeted. Despite Tony Blair 's historically low approval ratings with the British people, mainly due to allegations of faulty government intelligence of Iraq possessing weapons of mass destruction, his unapologetic and unwavering stance for the British alliance with the United States can be summed up in his own words. He said, "We should remain the closest ally of the US... not because they are powerful, but because we share their values. '' The alliance between George W. Bush and Tony Blair seriously damaged the prime minister 's standing in the eyes of many British citizens. Tony Blair argued it was in the United Kingdom 's interest to "protect and strengthen the bond '' with the United States regardless of who is in the White House. A perception that the relationship was unequal led to use of the term "Poodle - ism '' in the British media, that Britain and its leaders were lapdogs to the Americans.
All British servicemen were withdrawn with the exception of 400 who remained in Iraq until 31 July 2009.
On 11 June 2009, the British Overseas Territory of Bermuda accepted four Chinese Uighurs from the United States ' detainment facility known as Guantanamo Bay detention camp located on the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba. At the request of the United States Government, Bermudan officials agreed to host Khaleel Mamut, Hozaifa Parhat, Salahidin Abdulahat, and Abdullah Abdulqadirakhun as guest workers in Bermuda who seven years ago, were all captured by Pakistani bounty hunters during the United States - led invasion of Afghanistan in October 2001. This decision agreed upon by American and Bermudan officials drew considerable consternation and contempt by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office as it was viewed by British officials in London that they should have been consulted on whether or not the decision to take in four Chinese Uighurs was a security and foreign issue of which the Bermudian government does not have delegated responsibility over.
On 20 August 2009, The Scottish government headed by Alex Salmond announced that it would release Abdelbaset al - Megrahi on medical grounds. He was the only person convicted of the terrorist plot which killed 169 Americans and 40 Britons on Pan American Worldways ' Flight 103 over the town of Lockerbie, Scotland on 21 December 1988. He was sentenced to life in prison in 2001, but was released after being diagnosed with terminal cancer, with around three months to live. Americans said the decision was uncompassionate and insensitive to the memory of the victims of the 1988 Lockerbie bombing. President Barack Obama said that the decision was "highly objectionable. '' U.S. Ambassador Louis Susman said that although the decision made by Scotland to release Abdelbaset al - Megrahi was seen by the United States as extremely regrettable, relations with the United Kingdom would remain fully intact and strong. The British government led by Gordon Brown was not involved in the release and Gordon Brown stated at a press conference that they had played ' no role ' in the decision. Abdelbaset al - Megrahi died 20 May 2012 at the age of 60.
In April 2010, the explosion, sinking and resultant oil spill from the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig led to diplomatic friction and populist anti-British sentiment, even though the rig was owned and operated by the Swiss company Transocean and the cement work carried out by the US company Halliburton. Commentators referred to "British Petroleum '' even though the company had been known as "BP '' since 1998. UK politicians expressed concerns about anti-British rhetoric in the US. BP 's CEO Tony Hayward was called "the most hated man in America ''. Conversely, the widespread public demonisation of BP and the effects on the company and its image, coupled with Obama 's statements with regard to BP caused a degree of anti-American sentiment in the UK. This was particularly evidenced by the comments of the Business Secretary Vince Cable, who said that "It 's clear that some of the rhetoric in the US is extreme and unhelpful '', for reasons of British pension funds, loss of revenues for the exchequer and the adverse effect such the rhetoric was having on the share price of one of the UK 's largest companies. The meeting between Barack Obama and David Cameron in July somewhat helped strained diplomatic relations, and President Obama stated that there lies a "truly special relations '' between the two countries. The degree to which anti-British or anti-American hostilities continue to exist, remains to be seen.
British policy is that the relationship with the United States represents the United Kingdom 's "most important bilateral relationship '' in the world. United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton paid tribute to the relationship in February 2009 by saying, "it stands the test of time ''.
On 3 March 2009, Gordon Brown made his first visit to the Obama White House. During his visit, he presented the president a gift in the form of a pen holder carved from HMS Gannet, which served anti-slavery missions off the coast of Africa. Barack Obama 's gift to the prime minister was a box of 25 DVDs with movies including Star Wars and E.T. The wife of the prime minister, Sarah Brown, gave the Obama daughters, Sasha and Malia, two dresses from British clothing retailer Topshop, and a few unpublished books that have not reached the United States. Michelle Obama gave the prime minister 's sons two Marine One helicopter toys. During this visit to the United States, Gordon Brown made an address to a joint session of the United States Congress, a privilege rarely accorded to foreign heads of government.
In March 2009, a Gallup poll of Americans showed 36 % identified Britain as their country 's "most valuable ally '', followed by Canada, Japan, Israel, and Germany rounding out the top five. The poll also indicated that 89 % of Americans view the United Kingdom favourably, second only to Canada with 90 %. According to the Pew Research Center, a global survey conducted in July 2009 revealed that 70 % of Britons who responded had a favourable view of the United States.
In 2010, Obama stated "the United States has no closer friend and ally than the United Kingdom, and I reiterated my deep and personal commitment to the special relationship between our two countries. ''
In February 2011, The Daily Telegraph, based on evidence from WikiLeaks, reported that the United States had tendered sensitive information about the British Trident nuclear arsenal (whose missile delivery systems are manufactured and maintained in the United States) to the Russian Federation as part of a deal to encourage Russia to ratify the New START Treaty. Professor Malcolm Chalmers of the Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies speculated that serial numbers could undermine Britain 's non-verification policy by providing Russia "with another data point to gauge the size of the British arsenal ''.
On 25 May 2011, during his official visit to the UK, Obama reaffirmed the relationship between the United Kingdom and the United States of America in an address to Parliament at Westminster Hall. Amongst other points, Obama stated: "I 've come here today to reaffirm one of the oldest; one of the strongest alliances the World has ever known. It 's long been said that the United States and the United Kingdom share a special relationship. ''
In the final days before the Scottish independence referendum in September 2014, Obama announced in public the vested interest of the United States of America in enjoying the continued partnership with a ' strong and united ' UK which he described as "one of the closest allies we will ever have. ''
During a joint press conference with Prime Minister Theresa May, Obama stated "The bottom line is, is that we do n't have a stronger partner anywhere in the world than the United Kingdom. ''
President Donald Trump and British Prime Minister Theresa May are continuing the United Kingdom -- United States special relationship. May was the first foreign leader Trump hosted in Washington after taking office, and UK Independence Party leader Nigel Farage was the first foreign politician Trump met with after winning the presidential election, when he was still President - elect of the United States. However, Trump was the subject of popular protests in Britain even before he took office, particularly because of his anti-immigration proposals and perceived racism. During his presidency there were protests when he was inaugurated, when he announced his first immigration ban on citizens from certain Muslim countries, and when he said he would recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.
On 4 June 2017, Trump responded to a terror attack on London Bridge by attacking London Mayor Sadiq Khan for saying that there "was no reason to be alarmed ''. The comments were condemned by Khan who stated that his remarks were deliberately taken out of context in that he was referring to an increased police presence in the days after the attack, which should not alarm the public. Trump also suggested that, "we must stop being politically correct and get down to the business of security for our people ''.
On 29 November 2017, Trump re-tweeted three videos posted by Jayda Fransen, deputy leader of the far - right nationalist Britain First party. One of the videos, titled ' Muslim immigrant beats up Dutch boy on crutches ', was subsequently discredited by the Dutch embassy in the United States. The spokesperson for the Prime Minister said that what the President had done was ' wrong ' and Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson said that ' hate speech had no place in the UK '. In response, Trump tweeted at the Prime Minister suggesting that she worry about immigration in her own country rather than whom he chose to retweet. White House spokeswoman Sarah Sanders said that the President attempted to start a conversation about immigration.
May was the first foreign leader to visit Trump after his inauguration, and she invited him to make a return visit. More than 1.8 million U.K citizens signed a petition to rescind the invitation, and Parliament debated a nonbinding resolution to that effect in February 2017. The visit was tentatively planned for late February 2018, and would include a ceremonial opening of the new American embassy in Nine Elms. However, on 11 January 2018, he cancelled the visit and denounced the new embassy in a tweet saying
Reason I canceled my trip to London is that I am not a big fan of the Obama Administration having sold perhaps the best located and finest embassy in London for "peanuts, '' only to build a new one in an off location for 1.2 billion dollars. Bad deal. Wanted me to cut ribbon - NO!
This was despite the official reason for relocating the embassy due to the security, as the Grosvenor Square site could n't accommodate the requirements for being 100 ft (30.5 m) away from the street, and the fact that the move was decided by Obama 's predecessor Bush, who approved the relocation in 2008. It was speculated that the real reason for cancelling the visit was due to Trump 's unpopularity and the possibility of large protests against him in London.
The United States accounts for the United Kingdom 's largest single export market, buying $57 billion worth of British goods in 2007. Total trade of imports and exports between the United Kingdom and the United States amounted to the sum of $107.2 billion in 2007.
The United States and the United Kingdom share the world 's largest foreign direct investment partnership. In 2005, American direct investment in the United Kingdom totaled $324 billion while British direct investment in the United States totaled $282 billion.
In a press conference that made several references to the special relationship, US Secretary of State John Kerry, in London with UK Foreign Secretary William Hague on 9 September 2013, said
"We are not only each other 's largest investors in each of our countries, one to the other, but the fact is that every day almost one million people go to work in America for British companies that are in the United States, just as more than one million people go to work here in Great Britain for American companies that are here. So we are enormously tied together, obviously. And we are committed to making both the U.S. - UK and the U.S. - EU relationships even stronger drivers of our prosperity. ''
More than 4.5 million Britons visit the United States every year, spending approximately $14 billion. Around 3 million people from the United States visit the United Kingdom every year, spending approximately $10 billion.
Two of the three major American airlines, American Airlines & United Airlines fly directly between the US and the UK, principally between London and New York. While the third major US carrier Delta, code - shares with the UK 's Virgin Atlantic which it owns a 49 % stake in. Low - cost carriers JetBlue & Southwest fly between the eastern US and the British overseas territories of Bermuda and the British Virgin Islands. The British flag carrier British Airways flies to over twenty destinations in the US. Also two main British charter airlines, Thomas Cook Airlines and TUI Airways fly to the US although principally to the holiday destinations of Florida and California. While long - haul low - cost carrier Norwegian Air Shuttle flies from Gatwick, Edinburgh & Belfast to fifteen American airports. Both American Airlines and BA are founders of the airline alliance, Oneworld. Both BA and TUI Airways are major purchasers of American - made Boeing aircraft.
New York 's John F. Kennedy International Airport is the most popular international destination for people flying out of London Heathrow Airport. Approximately 2,802,870 people on multiple daily non-stop flights flew from Heathrow to JFK in 2008. Concorde, British Airways flagship supersonic airliner, began trans - Atlantic service to Washington Dulles International Airport in the United States on May 24, 1976. The trans - Atlantic route between London 's Heathrow and New York 's JFK in under 31⁄2 hours, had its first operational flight between the two hubs on October 19, 1977 and the last being on October 23, 2003.
In the 20th century, there were 78 formal and informal summits bringing together the president and the prime minister to deal with an agreed - upon agenda. The first was 1918, the second in 1929. The rest began in 1941, which marked the decline of ambassadors as the key transmitters of policy discussions. In three out of four of the summits, the British delegation traveled to America. Summits have become much less important in the 21st century, with its new communication modes.
State visits involving the head of state have been made over the years by four presidents and two monarchs. Queen Elizabeth II has met all the presidents since Truman except Johnson. In addition, the Queen made three private visits in 1984, 1985, and 1991 to see stallion stations and stud farms.
The Strategic Alliance Cyber Crime Working Group is an initiative by Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and headed by the United States as a "formal partnership between these nations dedicated to tackling larger global crime issues, particularly organised crime. '' The cooperation consists of "five countries from three continents banding together to fight cyber crime in a synergistic way by sharing intelligence, swapping tools and best practices, and strengthening and even synchronising their respective laws. ''
Within this initiative, there is increased information sharing between the United Kingdom 's National Crime Agency and the United States ' Federal Bureau of Investigation on matters relating to serious fraud or cyber crime.
The UK - USA Security Agreement is an alliance of five English - speaking countries; Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States, for the sole purpose of sharing intelligence. The precursor to this agreement is essentially an extension of the historic BRUSA Agreement which was signed in 1943. In association with the ECHELON system, all five nations are assigned to intelligence collection and analysis from different parts of the world. For example, the United Kingdom hunts for communications in Europe, Africa, and Russia west of the Ural Mountains whereas the United States has responsibility for gathering intelligence in Latin America, Asia, Asiatic Russia, and northern mainland China.
The United States and Britain share many threads of cultural heritage.
Since English is the main language of both the British and the Americans, both nations belong to the English - speaking world. Their common language comes with (relatively minor) differences in spelling, pronunciation, and the meaning of words.
The American legal system is largely based on English common law. The American system of local government is rooted in English precedents, such as the offices of county courts and sheriffs. Although the US, unlike Britain, remains highly religious, the largest Protestant denominations emerged from British churches brought across the Atlantic, such as the Baptists, Methodists, Congregationalists and Episcopalians.
Britain and the United States practise what is commonly referred to as an Anglo - Saxon economy in which levels of regulation and taxes are relatively low, and government provides a low to medium level of social services in return.
Independence Day, July 4, is a national celebration which commemorates the July 4, 1776 adoption of the Declaration of Independence from the British Empire. American defiance of Britain is expressed in the American national anthem, "The Star Spangled Banner '', written during the War of 1812 to the tune of a British celebratory song as the Americans beat off a British attack on Baltimore.
It is estimated that between 40.2 million and 72.1 million Americans today have British ancestry, i.e. between 13 % and 23.3 % of the US population. In the 1980 US Census, 61,311,449 Americans reported British ancestry reaching 32.56 % of the US population at the time which, even today, would make them the largest ancestry group in the United States.
Particular symbols of the close relationship between the two countries are the JFK Memorial and the American Bar Association 's Magna Carta Memorial, both at Runnymede in England.
Both the U.S. and UK are considered "cultural superpowers '', with both countries having a large scale influence around the world in film, cuisine, music, literature, and television.
Literature is transferred across the Atlantic Ocean, as evidenced by the appeal of British authors such as William Shakespeare, Charles Dickens, J.R.R. Tolkien, Jackie Collins, and J.K. Rowling in the United States, and American authors such as Harriet Beecher Stowe, Mark Twain, Ernest Hemingway, Stephen King and Dan Brown in Britain. Henry James moved to Britain and was well known in both countries, as was T.S. Eliot. Eliot moved to England in 1914 and became a British subject in 1927. He was a dominant figure in literary criticism and greatly influenced the Modern period of British literature.
In the UK, many noted American novels including The Catcher in the Rye, Roll of Thunder, Hear my Cry, Of Mice & Men, To Kill a Mockingbird, The Great Gatsby & The Color Purple are frequently used texts for British secondary - level education English and English Literature exams as set by the main examination boards.
In area of press, connections between the US and the UK in terms of print content there is slight, however it is strong in online content. Until 2016, a condensed version of The New York Times was inside The Observer newspaper. In some newsagents in the UK, you can find international editions of USA Today, The New York Times International Edition, The Wall Street Journal Europe, the Europe edition of Time, Newsweek, The New Yorker, New York magazine and Foreign Affairs. While in the US you would be able to find the international edition of The Economist and in New York City, the Financial Times. After Rupert Murdoch 's purchase of the New York Post in November 1976, he redesigned the newspaper into a populist right - wing tabloid, likewise his earlier relaunch of the British Sun newspaper as a down - market tabloid from 1969.
In magazine publishing, the three big American magazine publishing houses of Time, Hearst and Condé Nast have operations in the UK, with British editions of Good Housekeeping, GQ, Men 's Health, Cosmopolitan, Vogue, National Geographic and Wired among others. On occasions, some of the American editions are also available for purchase usually next to the local edition or in the international section. In British magazines in the US, Northern & Shell has since 2005 created an American version of OK! magazine.
There are a number of Americans and British in each other countries ' press corp, including editors, correspondents, journalists and columnists. Individuals born in the United States active in the British press corp include the FT 's news editor Peter Spiegel, Daily Telegraph columnist Janet Daley, and Guardian columnists Tim Dowling and Hadley Freeman. Originally from the UK were Christopher Hitchens (1949 -- 2011) and the current editor of Vogue, Anna Wintour. The current CEO of The New York Times Company is the former Director - General of the BBC (effectively a CEO), Mark Thompson. The current editor - in - chief of the London - based Guardian since 2015, Katharine Viner was previously the editor of The Guardian 's American website between 2014 and 2015.
In terms of online content, three newspaper - online sites have American editions, TheGuardian.com, Mail Online and The Independent. BBC News Online is a frequently visited by Americans. The American online news sites BuzzFeed, Breitbart News and HuffPost (formerly The Huffington Post) all possess British - based editions.
There is much crossover appeal in the modern entertainment culture of the United Kingdom and the United States. For example, Hollywood blockbuster movies made by Steven Spielberg and George Lucas have had a large effect on British audiences in the United Kingdom, while the James Bond and Harry Potter series of films have attracted high interest in the United States. Also, the animated films of Walt Disney as well as those of Pixar, DreamWorks, Don Bluth, Blue Sky, Illumination and others have continued to make an indelible mark and impression on British audiences, young and old, for almost 100 years. Films by Alfred Hitchcock continuously make a lasting impact on a loyal fan base in the United States, as Alfred Hitchcock himself influenced notable American film makers such as John Carpenter, in the horror and slasher film genres.
Production of films are often shared between the two nations, whether it be a concentrated use of British and American actors or the use of film studios located in London or Hollywood.
Broadway theatre in New York City has toured London 's West End theatre over the years, with notable performances such as The Lion King, Grease, Wicked, and Rent. British productions, such as Mamma Mia! and several of Andrew Lloyd Webber 's musicals, including Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat, Cats and The Phantom of the Opera have found success on Broadway. For over 150 years, Shakespeare 's plays have been overwhelmingly popular with upscale American audiences.
Both the United Kingdom and the United States have television shows which are similar, as they are either carried by the other nations ' networks, or are re-created for distribution in their own nations. Some popular British television shows that were re-created for the American market in more recent years include House of Cards, The Office, Pop Idol (American Idol), Strictly Come Dancing (Dancing with the Stars), Top Gear, Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, Weakest Link and The X Factor. Some American television shows re-created for the British market in more recent years include The Apprentice and Deal or No Deal. Popular American television shows that are currently popular in the United Kingdom include The Big Bang Theory, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation series, Family Guy, Friends, Modern Family, Scrubs, The Simpsons, and South Park.
The BBC airs two networks in the United States, BBC America and BBC World News. The American network PBS collaborates with the BBC and rebroadcasts British television shows in the United States such as Doctor Who, Keeping Up Appearances, Masterpiece Theatre, Monty Python 's Flying Circus, Nova. The BBC also frequently collaborates with American network HBO, showing recent American mini-series in the United Kingdom such as Band of Brothers, The Gathering Storm, John Adams, and Rome. Likewise, the American network Discovery Channel has partnered with the BBC by televising recent British mini-series in the United States such as Planet Earth and The Blue Planet, the latter popularly known as The Blue Planet: Seas of Life in the American format. The United States ' public affairs channel C - SPAN, broadcasts Prime Minister 's Questions every Sunday.
On some British digital television platforms, it is also possible to watch American television channels direct from the United Kingdom, such as Fox News Channel, as well as American television channels tailored for British audiences such as CNBC Europe, CNN International, ESPN Classic, Comedy Central, and Fox. The Super Bowl, the National Football League 's championship tournament of American football which occurs every February, has been broadcast in the United Kingdom since 1982. Conversely, the Premier League has been shown on NBC Sports Network in the United States. Until 2017, Formula One television coverage in the United States has used an American - based team but the announcers are British; from 2018 Sky Sports has taken over Formula One coverage through ESPN2.
Compared to music and television broadcasting, radio broadcasting is very limited between both sides of the pond.
There are several reasons for this. The major one the majority of radio broadcasting in the US is commercial and funded by advertising and the small public radio stations are supported by donations, compared to the UK where the national public broadcaster is the major player which funded by the television licence. This leads to a completely different structure of radio stations and schedules. Other factors include differing technical standards of radio broadcasting. This is influenced by their countries ' broadcasting authorities which shapes over-the - air radio. In the UK, it is influenced by authorities of Ofcom and the EBU which are working towards DAB and DRM. While in the United States, it influenced by FCC which is working towards satellite radio and HD radio.
Due to broadcasting rights, the internet radio feeds of American and British radio stations are sometimes blocked or on restricted bandwidth. For example, BBC Radio 2 is on a 128 kbit / s AAC domestic stream, while internationally it 's on a 48 kbit / s AAC+ stream. However both the American and the British international broadcasters Voice of America and the BBC World Service is fully accessible online.
The BBC World Service is sometimes syndicated on various major city public radio stations in the United States such as WNYC, and on SiriusXM satellite radio. From 2005 to 2011, a time - shifted version of BBC Radio 1 was available on Sirius satellite radio. There has been attempts in the past to bring British formats to American audiences, such as the News Quiz USA. While in the UK, A Prairie Home Companion (called Garrison Keillor 's Radio Show) was available weekly until 2016 on BBC Radio 4 Extra and the joint - produced BBC and WGBH factual programme Boston Calling is available on the domestic feed of the World Service. The radio programme Democracy Now! is available on the WRN station, which is accessible on channel 0122 on Sky satellite radio and online.
There has been a number of American personalities that have been on British airwaves included music journalist Paul Gambaccini, disc jockey Suzi Quattro and comedians Rich Hall and Greg Proops. While New Zealand - born disc jockey Zane Lowe, who spent much of career in the UK was recruited to Apple 's Beats 1 station.
A special mention should be made to the factual programme "Letter from America '' presented by Alistair Cooke, which was broadcast from 1946 to 2004 initially on the BBC Home Service and later on BBC Radio 4, plus on the BBC World Service. It was one of the BBC 's longest running radio programmes. Which in itself was based on a similar programme by Alistair Cooke in the 1930s for American listeners about life in the UK on NBC Red Network.
American artists such as Whitney Houston, Madonna, Tina Turner, Cher, Michael Jackson, Bing Crosby, Elvis Presley, Bob Dylan, Jimi Hendrix, Diana Ross, Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera, Frank Sinatra, Lady Gaga, Taylor Swift and Beyoncé, are popular in the United Kingdom. British artists such as The Beatles, Led Zeppelin, The Rolling Stones, Sting, The Who, Queen, Shirley Bassey, Tom Jones, David Bowie, Pink Floyd, the Spice Girls, the Bee Gees, Amy Winehouse, KT Tunstall, Leona Lewis, Elton John (Elton John recorded "Candle in the Wind '' which, to date, is the best ever selling single worldwide), Coldplay and Adele have achieved much success in the large American market. Undoubtedly, the popular music of both nations has had a strong sway on each other.
In the United Kingdom, many Hollywood films as well as Broadway musicals are closely associated and identified with the musical scores and soundtracks created by famous American composers such as George Gershwin, Rodgers and Hammerstein, Henry Mancini, John Williams, Alan Silvestri, Jerry Goldsmith, and James Horner.
The Celtic music of the United Kingdom has had a dynamic effect upon American music. In particular, the traditional music of the Southern United States is descended from traditional Celtic music and English folk music of the colonial period, and the musical traditions of the South eventually gave rise to country music and, to a lesser extent, American folk.
The birth of jazz, swing, big band, and especially rock and roll, all developed and originating in the United States, had greatly influenced the later development of rock music in the United Kingdom, particularly British rock bands such as The Beatles and Herman 's Hermits, The Rolling Stones, while its American precursor, the blues, greatly influenced British electric rock.
Despite sports being a major cultural interest in both the United States and the United Kingdom. The most popular team sports in each country, which are in the UK: football (soccer), rugby union, rugby league and cricket and the US: (American) football, baseball, ice hockey and basketball are considered minor sports in either other country. However, there is a growing interest the other countries sports in each other country. Another area of differing tastes in sports between the UK and the US is motorsport, In the UK: Formula 1, rallying and speedway are popular. While in the US, the main popular motorsports are NASCAR and the Indianapolis 500.
There are currently three Americans in the FA 's Premier League: Geoff Cameron, Danny Williams & DeAndre Yedlin. All play for the U.S. national team. While there are 14 English and two Scottish players currently playing in the Major League Soccer. None of the English or Scottish players play for their national teams. The most noted Briton that is currently playing MLS is Ashley Cole, and the most noted former player is David Beckham who played from 2007 to 2012, both players played for LA Galaxy. The last match between the national teams of England and the USA, was at the 2010 World Cup in South Africa. The match ended in a draw 1 - 1. The Premier League can be watched in the United States on NBC Sports, while a few MLS games can be watched in the UK on Sky Sports.
King George VI and Queen Elizabeth with First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt in London, 1942.
First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone, and Clementine Churchill at the Second Quebec Conference, 1944.
Prime Minister Winston Churchill and President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Yalta Conference, 1945.
President John F. Kennedy and Prime Minister Harold Macmillan at Key West, 1961.
President Richard Nixon and First Lady Pat Nixon with Queen Elizabeth II and Prime Minister Edward Heath, 1970.
President Richard Nixon with Prince Edward, Duke of Windsor and Wallis, Duchess of Windsor, 1970.
President Gerald Ford dancing with Queen Elizabeth II at the White House, 1976.
President Jimmy Carter and Prime Minister James Callaghan in the Oval Office, 1978.
President Ronald Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan with Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh at Rancho del Cielo, 1983.
President Ronald Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan with Charles, Prince of Wales and Diana, Princess of Wales at the White House during the Waleses ' official visit to the United States, 1985.
President Ronald Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan with Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and Denis Thatcher at the beginning of an official dinner at the White House, 1988.
President George H.W. Bush and First Lady Barbara Bush with Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh at the beginning of an official dinner at the White House, 1991.
President George H.W. Bush and Prime Minister John Major conducting a press conference at Camp David, 1992.
First Lady Hillary Clinton and Diana, Princess of Wales chatting in the Map Room, 1997.
President Bill Clinton and Prime Minister Tony Blair embracing each other at a conference in Florence, Italy, 1999.
Prime Minister Tony Blair and President George W. Bush conducting a press conference at Camp David, 2001.
President George W. Bush and First Lady Laura Bush with Charles, Prince of Wales and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall at the White House during the Waleses ' official visit to the United States, 2005.
President George W. Bush and First Lady Laura Bush with Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh at the beginning of an official dinner at the White House, 2007.
Prime Minister Gordon Brown and President George W. Bush having their first meeting at Camp David, 2007.
Prime Minister Gordon Brown and President Barack Obama in the Oval Office, 2009.
President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama with Queen Elizabeth II in the Buckingham Palace, 2009.
Prime Minister David Cameron and President Barack Obama at the bilateral meeting during the G20 Summit in Toronto, Canada, 2010.
President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama with Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge in the Buckingham Palace, 2011.
Prime Minister Theresa May and President Donald Trump conducting a press conference at the East Room, 2017.
First Lady Melania Trump and Prince Harry at the Invictus Games in Toronto, Canada, 2017.
Prince Harry with his then - fiancée, American actress Meghan Markle, Belfast, 2018.
President Donald Trump and First Lady Melania Trump with Queen Elizabeth II in the Windsor Castle, 2018.
States, 1930 - 1945 (1999) 403pp
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what is the use of esc in computer | Esc key - wikipedia
On computer keyboards, the Esc key (named Escape key in the international standard series ISO / IEC 9995) is a key used to generate the escape character (which can be represented as ASCII code 27 in decimal, Unicode U + 001B, or Ctrl + (). The escape character, when sent from the keyboard to a computer, often is interpreted by software as "stop '', and when sent from the computer to an external device (including many printers since the 1980s, computer terminals and Linux consoles, for example) marks the beginning of an escape sequence to specify operating modes or characteristics generally.
It is now generally placed at the top left corner of the keyboard, a convention dating at least to the original IBM PC keyboard, though the key itself originated decades earlier with teletypewriters.
The keyboard symbol for the ESC key (which may be used when the usual Latin lettering "Esc '' is not preferred for labelling the key) is standardized in ISO / IEC 9995 - 7 as symbol 29, and in ISO 7000 "Graphical symbols for use on equipment '' as symbol ISO - 7000 - 2029. This symbol is encoded in Unicode as U + 238B broken circle with northwest arrow (⎋).
The name of the equivalent key on some early Teletype Model 33 keyboards was labeled Alt Mode..., the alternative mode of operation causing the escapement to treat the following one character in a special way. Much later printers and computer terminals that would use escape sequences often would take more than one following byte as part of a special sequence.
The VT05 CRT did not have an ESC key; the VT50, which came 4 years later, did.
As most computer users are no longer concerned with the details of controlling their computer 's peripherals, the task for which the escape sequences were originally designed, the escape key was appropriated by application programmers, most often to mean Stop. This use continues today in Microsoft Windows 's use of escape as a shortcut in dialog boxes for No, Quit, Exit, Cancel, or Abort, as well as a common shortcut key for the Stop button in many web browsers.
On machines running Microsoft Windows, prior to the implementation of the Windows key on keyboards, the typical practice for invoking the "start '' button was to hold down the Control key and press escape. This key combination still works as of Windows 10.
Microsoft Windows makes use of "Esc '' for many key shortcuts. Many of these shortcuts have been present since Windows 3.0, through Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, and Windows 10.
In macOS, "Esc '' usually closes or cancels a dialog box or sheet. The ⌘ Command + ⌥ Option + ⎋ Esc combination opens the Force Quit dialog box, allowing users to end non-responsive applications. Another use for the Esc key, in combination with the Command key, is switching to Front Row, if installed.
In most computer games, the escape key is used as a pause button and / or as a way to bring up the in - game menu, usually containing ways to exit the program.
In the vi family of text editors, escape is used to switch modes. This usage is due to escape being conveniently placed in what is now the tab position on the ADM - 3A terminal keyboard used to develop vi, though it is now inconveniently placed. This is similar to how the extensive modifier keys in Emacs were easily used on the original keyboard (the space - cadet keyboard), being placed together, but these keys have now been spread around the keyboard, becoming more difficult to use.
Old keyboard Send / Receive (KSR) printers, and visual display units (VDUs), would normally be controlled by escape sequences sent by the computer to the peripheral device, but there were situations where these devices could be used "off - line '' with the keyboard effectively connected to the output device, and so the need could arise to type escape sequences "by hand '' to control the peripheral. Although such devices are long out of use, standard processing of ANSI Escape sequences very similar to 1970 's VT100, is implemented in both ANSI. SYS and other more modern pseudo-terminal interfaces used in Unix - like environments, one example being Linux consoles, meaning newer, higher - level abstractions have n't changed the fact that typing the escape key followed by something like the six characters (32; 1m affects subsequently text in output, in this case turning it green.
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where is statue of liberty located on a map | Statue of Liberty - wikipedia
The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World; French: La Liberté éclairant le monde) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor in New York City, in the United States. The copper statue, a gift from the people of France to the people of the United States, was designed by French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and built by Gustave Eiffel. The statue was dedicated on October 28, 1886.
The Statue of Liberty is a figure of a robed woman representing Libertas, a Roman goddess. She holds a torch above her head with her right hand, and in her left hand carries a tabula ansata inscribed in Roman numerals with "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI '' (July 4, 1776), the date of the U.S. Declaration of Independence. A broken chain lies at her feet. The statue became an icon of freedom and of the United States, and was a welcoming sight to immigrants arriving from abroad.
Bartholdi was inspired by a French law professor and politician, Édouard René de Laboulaye, who is said to have commented in 1865 that any monument raised to U.S. independence would properly be a joint project of the French and American peoples. Because of the post-war instability in France, work on the statue did not commence until the early 1870s. In 1875, Laboulaye proposed that the French finance the statue and the U.S. provide the site and build the pedestal. Bartholdi completed the head and the torch - bearing arm before the statue was fully designed, and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at international expositions.
The torch - bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, and in Madison Square Park in Manhattan from 1876 to 1882. Fundraising proved difficult, especially for the Americans, and by 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened by lack of funds. Publisher Joseph Pulitzer, of the New York World, started a drive for donations to finish the project and attracted more than 120,000 contributors, most of whom gave less than a dollar. The statue was built in France, shipped overseas in crates, and assembled on the completed pedestal on what was then called Bedloe 's Island. The statue 's completion was marked by New York 's first ticker - tape parade and a dedication ceremony presided over by President Grover Cleveland.
The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War; since 1933 it has been maintained by the National Park Service. Public access to the balcony around the torch has been barred for safety since 1916.
According to the National Park Service, the idea for the Statue of Liberty was first proposed by Édouard René de Laboulaye the president of the French Anti-Slavery Society and a prominent and important political thinker of his time. The project is traced to a mid-1865 conversation between de Laboulaye, a staunch abolitionist and Frédéric Bartholdi, a sculptor. In after - dinner conversation at his home near Versailles, Laboulaye, an ardent supporter of the Union in the American Civil War, is supposed to have said: "If a monument should rise in the United States, as a memorial to their independence, I should think it only natural if it were built by united effort -- a common work of both our nations. '' The National Park Service, in a 2000 report, however, deemed this a legend traced to an 1885 fundraising pamphlet, and that the statue was most likely conceived in 1870. In another essay on their website, the Park Service suggested that Laboulaye was minded to honor the Union victory and its consequences, "With the abolition of slavery and the Union 's victory in the Civil War in 1865, Laboulaye 's wishes of freedom and democracy were turning into a reality in the United States. In order to honor these achievements, Laboulaye proposed that a gift be built for the United States on behalf of France. Laboulaye hoped that by calling attention to the recent achievements of the United States, the French people would be inspired to call for their own democracy in the face of a repressive monarchy. ''
According to sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, who later recounted the story, Laboulaye 's comment was not intended as a proposal, but it inspired Bartholdi. Given the repressive nature of the regime of Napoleon III, Bartholdi took no immediate action on the idea except to discuss it with Laboulaye. Bartholdi was in any event busy with other possible projects; in the late 1860s, he approached Isma'il Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, a plan to build Progress or Egypt Carrying the Light to Asia, a huge lighthouse in the form of an ancient Egyptian female fellah or peasant, robed and holding a torch aloft, at the northern entrance to the Suez Canal in Port Said. Sketches and models were made of the proposed work, though it was never erected. There was a classical precedent for the Suez proposal, the Colossus of Rhodes: an ancient bronze statue of the Greek god of the sun, Helios. This statue is believed to have been over 100 feet (30 m) high, and it similarly stood at a harbor entrance and carried a light to guide ships.
Any large project was further delayed by the Franco - Prussian War, in which Bartholdi served as a major of militia. In the war, Napoleon III was captured and deposed. Bartholdi 's home province of Alsace was lost to the Prussians, and a more liberal republic was installed in France. As Bartholdi had been planning a trip to the United States, he and Laboulaye decided the time was right to discuss the idea with influential Americans. In June 1871, Bartholdi crossed the Atlantic, with letters of introduction signed by Laboulaye.
Arriving at New York Harbor, Bartholdi focused on Bedloe 's Island (now named Liberty Island) as a site for the statue, struck by the fact that vessels arriving in New York had to sail past it. He was delighted to learn that the island was owned by the United States government -- it had been ceded by the New York State Legislature in 1800 for harbor defense. It was thus, as he put it in a letter to Laboulaye: "land common to all the states. '' As well as meeting many influential New Yorkers, Bartholdi visited President Ulysses S. Grant, who assured him that it would not be difficult to obtain the site for the statue. Bartholdi crossed the United States twice by rail, and met many Americans who he thought would be sympathetic to the project. But he remained concerned that popular opinion on both sides of the Atlantic was insufficiently supportive of the proposal, and he and Laboulaye decided to wait before mounting a public campaign.
Bartholdi had made a first model of his concept in 1870. The son of a friend of Bartholdi 's, American artist John LaFarge, later maintained that Bartholdi made the first sketches for the statue during his U.S. visit at La Farge 's Rhode Island studio. Bartholdi continued to develop the concept following his return to France. He also worked on a number of sculptures designed to bolster French patriotism after the defeat by the Prussians. One of these was the Lion of Belfort, a monumental sculpture carved in sandstone below the fortress of Belfort, which during the war had resisted a Prussian siege for over three months. The defiant lion, 73 feet (22 m) long and half that in height, displays an emotional quality characteristic of Romanticism, which Bartholdi would later bring to the Statue of Liberty.
Bartholdi and Laboulaye considered how best to express the idea of American liberty. In early American history, two female figures were frequently used as cultural symbols of the nation. One of these symbols, the personified Columbia, was seen as an embodiment of the United States in the manner that Britannia was identified with the United Kingdom and Marianne came to represent France. Columbia had supplanted the earlier figure of an Indian princess, which had come to be regarded as uncivilized and derogatory toward Americans. The other significant female icon in American culture was a representation of Liberty, derived from Libertas, the goddess of freedom widely worshipped in ancient Rome, especially among emancipated slaves. A Liberty figure adorned most American coins of the time, and representations of Liberty appeared in popular and civic art, including Thomas Crawford 's Statue of Freedom (1863) atop the dome of the United States Capitol Building.
Artists of the 18th and 19th centuries striving to evoke republican ideals commonly used representations of Libertas as an allegorical symbol. A figure of Liberty was also depicted on the Great Seal of France. However, Bartholdi and Laboulaye avoided an image of revolutionary liberty such as that depicted in Eugène Delacroix 's famed Liberty Leading the People (1830). In this painting, which commemorates France 's Revolution of 1830, a half - clothed Liberty leads an armed mob over the bodies of the fallen. Laboulaye had no sympathy for revolution, and so Bartholdi 's figure would be fully dressed in flowing robes. Instead of the impression of violence in the Delacroix work, Bartholdi wished to give the statue a peaceful appearance and chose a torch, representing progress, for the figure to hold.
Crawford 's statue was designed in the early 1850s. It was originally to be crowned with a pileus, the cap given to emancipated slaves in ancient Rome. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis, a Southerner who would later serve as President of the Confederate States of America, was concerned that the pileus would be taken as an abolitionist symbol. He ordered that it be changed to a helmet. Delacroix 's figure wears a pileus, and Bartholdi at first considered placing one on his figure as well. Instead, he used a diadem, or crown, to top its head. In so doing, he avoided a reference to Marianne, who invariably wears a pileus. The seven rays form a halo or aureole. They evoke the sun, the seven seas, and the seven continents, and represent another means, besides the torch, whereby Liberty enlightens the world.
Bartholdi 's early models were all similar in concept: a female figure in neoclassical style representing liberty, wearing a stola and pella (gown and cloak, common in depictions of Roman goddesses) and holding a torch aloft. According to popular accounts, the face was modeled after that of Charlotte Beysser Bartholdi, the sculptor 's mother, but Regis Huber, the curator of the Bartholdi Museum is on record as saying that this, as well as other similar speculations, have no basis in fact. He designed the figure with a strong, uncomplicated silhouette, which would be set off well by its dramatic harbor placement and allow passengers on vessels entering New York Bay to experience a changing perspective on the statue as they proceeded toward Manhattan. He gave it bold classical contours and applied simplified modeling, reflecting the huge scale of the project and its solemn purpose. Bartholdi wrote of his technique:
The surfaces should be broad and simple, defined by a bold and clear design, accentuated in the important places. The enlargement of the details or their multiplicity is to be feared. By exaggerating the forms, in order to render them more clearly visible, or by enriching them with details, we would destroy the proportion of the work. Finally, the model, like the design, should have a summarized character, such as one would give to a rapid sketch. Only it is necessary that this character should be the product of volition and study, and that the artist, concentrating his knowledge, should find the form and the line in its greatest simplicity.
Bartholdi made alterations in the design as the project evolved. Bartholdi considered having Liberty hold a broken chain, but decided this would be too divisive in the days after the Civil War. The erected statue does rise over a broken chain, half - hidden by her robes and difficult to see from the ground. Bartholdi was initially uncertain of what to place in Liberty 's left hand; he settled on a tabula ansata, used to evoke the concept of law. Though Bartholdi greatly admired the United States Constitution, he chose to inscribe "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI '' on the tablet, thus associating the date of the country 's Declaration of Independence with the concept of liberty.
Bartholdi interested his friend and mentor, architect Eugène Viollet - le - Duc, in the project. As chief engineer, Viollet - le - Duc designed a brick pier within the statue, to which the skin would be anchored. After consultations with the metalwork foundry Gaget, Gauthier & Co., Viollet - le - Duc chose the metal which would be used for the skin, copper sheets, and the method used to shape it, repoussé, in which the sheets were heated and then struck with wooden hammers. An advantage of this choice was that the entire statue would be light for its volume, as the copper need be only 0.094 inches (2.4 mm) thick. Bartholdi had decided on a height of just over 151 feet (46 m) for the statue, double that of Italy 's Sancarlone and the German statue of Arminius, both made with the same method.
By 1875, France was enjoying improved political stability and a recovering postwar economy. Growing interest in the upcoming Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia led Laboulaye to decide it was time to seek public support. In September 1875, he announced the project and the formation of the Franco - American Union as its fundraising arm. With the announcement, the statue was given a name, Liberty Enlightening the World. The French would finance the statue; Americans would be expected to pay for the pedestal. The announcement provoked a generally favorable reaction in France, though many Frenchmen resented the United States for not coming to their aid during the war with Prussia. French monarchists opposed the statue, if for no other reason than it was proposed by the liberal Laboulaye, who had recently been elected a senator for life. Laboulaye arranged events designed to appeal to the rich and powerful, including a special performance at the Paris Opera on April 25, 1876, that featured a new cantata by composer Charles Gounod. The piece was titled La Liberté éclairant le monde, the French version of the statue 's announced name.
Despite its initial focus on the elites, the Union was successful in raising funds from across French society. Schoolchildren and ordinary citizens gave, as did 181 French municipalities. Laboulaye 's political allies supported the call, as did descendants of the French contingent in the American Revolutionary War. Less idealistically, contributions came from those who hoped for American support in the French attempt to build the Panama Canal. The copper may have come from multiple sources and some of it is said to have come from a mine in Visnes, Norway, though this has not been conclusively determined after testing samples. According to Cara Sutherland in her book on the statue for the Museum of the City of New York, 90,800 kilos (200,000 pounds) was needed to build the statue, and the French copper industrialist Eugène Secrétan donated 58,100 kilos (128,000 pounds) of copper.
Although plans for the statue had not been finalized, Bartholdi moved forward with fabrication of the right arm, bearing the torch, and the head. Work began at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop. In May 1876, Bartholdi traveled to the United States as a member of a French delegation to the Centennial Exhibition, and arranged for a huge painting of the statue to be shown in New York as part of the Centennial festivities. The arm did not arrive in Philadelphia until August; because of its late arrival, it was not listed in the exhibition catalogue, and while some reports correctly identified the work, others called it the "Colossal Arm '' or "Bartholdi Electric Light ''. The exhibition grounds contained a number of monumental artworks to compete for fairgoers ' interest, including an outsized fountain designed by Bartholdi. Nevertheless, the arm proved popular in the exhibition 's waning days, and visitors would climb up to the balcony of the torch to view the fairgrounds. After the exhibition closed, the arm was transported to New York, where it remained on display in Madison Square Park for several years before it was returned to France to join the rest of the statue.
During his second trip to the United States, Bartholdi addressed a number of groups about the project, and urged the formation of American committees of the Franco - American Union. Committees to raise money to pay for the foundation and pedestal were formed in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. The New York group eventually took on most of the responsibility for American fundraising and is often referred to as the "American Committee ''. One of its members was 19 - year - old Theodore Roosevelt, the future governor of New York and president of the United States. On March 3, 1877, on his final full day in office, President Grant signed a joint resolution that authorized the President to accept the statue when it was presented by France and to select a site for it. President Rutherford B. Hayes, who took office the following day, selected the Bedloe 's Island site that Bartholdi had proposed.
On his return to Paris in 1877, Bartholdi concentrated on completing the head, which was exhibited at the 1878 Paris World 's Fair. Fundraising continued, with models of the statue put on sale. Tickets to view the construction activity at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop were also offered. The French government authorized a lottery; among the prizes were valuable silver plate and a terracotta model of the statue. By the end of 1879, about 250,000 francs had been raised.
The head and arm had been built with assistance from Viollet - le - Duc, who fell ill in 1879. He soon died, leaving no indication of how he intended to transition from the copper skin to his proposed masonry pier. The following year, Bartholdi was able to obtain the services of the innovative designer and builder Gustave Eiffel. Eiffel and his structural engineer, Maurice Koechlin, decided to abandon the pier and instead build an iron truss tower. Eiffel opted not to use a completely rigid structure, which would force stresses to accumulate in the skin and lead eventually to cracking. A secondary skeleton was attached to the center pylon, then, to enable the statue to move slightly in the winds of New York Harbor and as the metal expanded on hot summer days, he loosely connected the support structure to the skin using flat iron bars which culminated in a mesh of metal straps, known as "saddles '', that were riveted to the skin, providing firm support. In a labor - intensive process, each saddle had to be crafted individually. To prevent galvanic corrosion between the copper skin and the iron support structure, Eiffel insulated the skin with asbestos impregnated with shellac.
Eiffel 's design made the statue one of the earliest examples of curtain wall construction, in which the exterior of the structure is not load bearing, but is instead supported by an interior framework. He included two interior spiral staircases, to make it easier for visitors to reach the observation point in the crown. Access to an observation platform surrounding the torch was also provided, but the narrowness of the arm allowed for only a single ladder, 40 feet (12 m) long. As the pylon tower arose, Eiffel and Bartholdi coordinated their work carefully so that completed segments of skin would fit exactly on the support structure. The components of the pylon tower were built in the Eiffel factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois - Perret.
The change in structural material from masonry to iron allowed Bartholdi to change his plans for the statue 's assembly. He had originally expected to assemble the skin on - site as the masonry pier was built; instead he decided to build the statue in France and have it disassembled and transported to the United States for reassembly in place on Bedloe 's Island.
In a symbolic act, the first rivet placed into the skin, fixing a copper plate onto the statue 's big toe, was driven by United States Ambassador to France Levi P. Morton. The skin was not, however, crafted in exact sequence from low to high; work proceeded on a number of segments simultaneously in a manner often confusing to visitors. Some work was performed by contractors -- one of the fingers was made to Bartholdi 's exacting specifications by a coppersmith in the southern French town of Montauban. By 1882, the statue was complete up to the waist, an event Barthodi celebrated by inviting reporters to lunch on a platform built within the statue. Laboulaye died in 1883. He was succeeded as chairman of the French committee by Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal. The completed statue was formally presented to Ambassador Morton at a ceremony in Paris on July 4, 1884, and de Lesseps announced that the French government had agreed to pay for its transport to New York. The statue remained intact in Paris pending sufficient progress on the pedestal; by January 1885, this had occurred and the statue was disassembled and crated for its ocean voyage.
The committees in the United States faced great difficulties in obtaining funds for the construction of the pedestal. The Panic of 1873 had led to an economic depression that persisted through much of the decade. The Liberty statue project was not the only such undertaking that had difficulty raising money: construction of the obelisk later known as the Washington Monument sometimes stalled for years; it would ultimately take over three - and - a-half decades to complete. There was criticism both of Bartholdi 's statue and of the fact that the gift required Americans to foot the bill for the pedestal. In the years following the Civil War, most Americans preferred realistic artworks depicting heroes and events from the nation 's history, rather than allegorical works like the Liberty statue. There was also a feeling that Americans should design American public works -- the selection of Italian - born Constantino Brumidi to decorate the Capitol had provoked intense criticism, even though he was a naturalized U.S. citizen. Harper 's Weekly declared its wish that "M. Bartholdi and our French cousins had ' gone the whole figure ' while they were about it, and given us statue and pedestal at once. '' The New York Times stated that "no true patriot can countenance any such expenditures for bronze females in the present state of our finances. '' Faced with these criticisms, the American committees took little action for several years.
The foundation of Bartholdi 's statue was to be laid inside Fort Wood, a disused army base on Bedloe 's Island constructed between 1807 and 1811. Since 1823, it had rarely been used, though during the Civil War, it had served as a recruiting station. The fortifications of the structure were in the shape of an eleven - point star. The statue 's foundation and pedestal were aligned so that it would face southeast, greeting ships entering the harbor from the Atlantic Ocean. In 1881, the New York committee commissioned Richard Morris Hunt to design the pedestal. Within months, Hunt submitted a detailed plan, indicating that he expected construction to take about nine months. He proposed a pedestal 114 feet (35 m) in height; faced with money problems, the committee reduced that to 89 feet (27 m).
Hunt 's pedestal design contains elements of classical architecture, including Doric portals, as well as some elements influenced by Aztec architecture. The large mass is fragmented with architectural detail, in order to focus attention on the statue. In form, it is a truncated pyramid, 62 feet (19 m) square at the base and 39.4 feet (12.0 m) at the top. The four sides are identical in appearance. Above the door on each side, there are ten disks upon which Bartholdi proposed to place the coats of arms of the states (between 1876 and 1889, there were 38 U.S. states), although this was not done. Above that, a balcony was placed on each side, framed by pillars. Bartholdi placed an observation platform near the top of the pedestal, above which the statue itself rises. According to author Louis Auchincloss, the pedestal "craggily evokes the power of an ancient Europe over which rises the dominating figure of the Statue of Liberty ''. The committee hired former army General Charles Pomeroy Stone to oversee the construction work. Construction on the 15 - foot - deep (4.6 m) foundation began in 1883, and the pedestal 's cornerstone was laid in 1884. In Hunt 's original conception, the pedestal was to have been made of solid granite. Financial concerns again forced him to revise his plans; the final design called for poured concrete walls, up to 20 feet (6.1 m) thick, faced with granite blocks. This Stony Creek granite came from the Beattie Quarry in Branford, Connecticut. The concrete mass was the largest poured to that time.
Norwegian immigrant civil engineer Joachim Goschen Giæver designed the structural framework for the Statue of Liberty. His work involved design computations, detailed fabrication and construction drawings, and oversight of construction. In completing his engineering for the statue 's frame, Giæver worked from drawings and sketches produced by Gustave Eiffel.
Fundraising for the statue had begun in 1882. The committee organized a large number of money - raising events. As part of one such effort, an auction of art and manuscripts, poet Emma Lazarus was asked to donate an original work. She initially declined, stating she could not write a poem about a statue. At the time, she was also involved in aiding refugees to New York who had fled anti-Semitic pogroms in eastern Europe. These refugees were forced to live in conditions that the wealthy Lazarus had never experienced. She saw a way to express her empathy for these refugees in terms of the statue. The resulting sonnet, "The New Colossus '', including the iconic lines "Give me your tired, your poor / Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free '', is uniquely identified with the Statue of Liberty and is inscribed on a plaque in the museum in its base.
Even with these efforts, fundraising lagged. Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York, vetoed a bill to provide $50,000 for the statue project in 1884. An attempt the next year to have Congress provide $100,000, sufficient to complete the project, also failed. The New York committee, with only $3,000 in the bank, suspended work on the pedestal. With the project in jeopardy, groups from other American cities, including Boston and Philadelphia, offered to pay the full cost of erecting the statue in return for relocating it.
Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the New York World, a New York newspaper, announced a drive to raise $100,000 -- the equivalent of $2.3 million today. Pulitzer pledged to print the name of every contributor, no matter how small the amount given. The drive captured the imagination of New Yorkers, especially when Pulitzer began publishing the notes he received from contributors. "A young girl alone in the world '' donated "60 cents, the result of self denial. '' One donor gave "five cents as a poor office boy 's mite toward the Pedestal Fund. '' A group of children sent a dollar as "the money we saved to go to the circus with. '' Another dollar was given by a "lonely and very aged woman. '' Residents of a home for alcoholics in New York 's rival city of Brooklyn -- the cities would not merge until 1898 -- donated $15; other drinkers helped out through donation boxes in bars and saloons. A kindergarten class in Davenport, Iowa, mailed the World a gift of $1.35. As the donations flooded in, the committee resumed work on the pedestal.
On June 17, 1885, the French steamer Isère, laden with the Statue of Liberty, reached the New York port safely. New Yorkers displayed their new - found enthusiasm for the statue, as the French vessel arrived with the crates holding the disassembled statue on board. Two hundred thousand people lined the docks and hundreds of boats put to sea to welcome the Isère. After five months of daily calls to donate to the statue fund, on August 11, 1885, the World announced that $102,000 had been raised from 120,000 donors, and that 80 percent of the total had been received in sums of less than one dollar.
Even with the success of the fund drive, the pedestal was not completed until April 1886. Immediately thereafter, reassembly of the statue began. Eiffel 's iron framework was anchored to steel I - beams within the concrete pedestal and assembled. Once this was done, the sections of skin were carefully attached. Due to the width of the pedestal, it was not possible to erect scaffolding, and workers dangled from ropes while installing the skin sections. Nevertheless, no one died during the construction. Bartholdi had planned to put floodlights on the torch 's balcony to illuminate it; a week before the dedication, the Army Corps of Engineers vetoed the proposal, fearing that ships ' pilots passing the statue would be blinded. Instead, Bartholdi cut portholes in the torch -- which was covered with gold leaf -- and placed the lights inside them. A power plant was installed on the island to light the torch and for other electrical needs. After the skin was completed, renowned landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, co-designer of New York 's Central Park and Brooklyn 's Prospect Park, supervised a cleanup of Bedloe 's Island in anticipation of the dedication.
A ceremony of dedication was held on the afternoon of October 28, 1886. President Grover Cleveland, the former New York governor, presided over the event. On the morning of the dedication, a parade was held in New York City; estimates of the number of people who watched it ranged from several hundred thousand to a million. President Cleveland headed the procession, then stood in the reviewing stand to see bands and marchers from across America. General Stone was the grand marshal of the parade. The route began at Madison Square, once the venue for the arm, and proceeded to the Battery at the southern tip of Manhattan by way of Fifth Avenue and Broadway, with a slight detour so the parade could pass in front of the World building on Park Row. As the parade passed the New York Stock Exchange, traders threw ticker tape from the windows, beginning the New York tradition of the ticker - tape parade.
A nautical parade began at 12: 45 p.m., and President Cleveland embarked on a yacht that took him across the harbor to Bedloe 's Island for the dedication. De Lesseps made the first speech, on behalf of the French committee, followed by the chairman of the New York committee, Senator William M. Evarts. A French flag draped across the statue 's face was to be lowered to unveil the statue at the close of Evarts 's speech, but Bartholdi mistook a pause as the conclusion and let the flag fall prematurely. The ensuing cheers put an end to Evarts 's address. President Cleveland spoke next, stating that the statue 's "stream of light shall pierce the darkness of ignorance and man 's oppression until Liberty enlightens the world ''. Bartholdi, observed near the dais, was called upon to speak, but he declined. Orator Chauncey M. Depew concluded the speechmaking with a lengthy address.
No members of the general public were permitted on the island during the ceremonies, which were reserved entirely for dignitaries. The only females granted access were Bartholdi 's wife and de Lesseps 's granddaughter; officials stated that they feared women might be injured in the crush of people. The restriction offended area suffragists, who chartered a boat and got as close as they could to the island. The group 's leaders made speeches applauding the embodiment of Liberty as a woman and advocating women 's right to vote. A scheduled fireworks display was postponed until November 1 because of poor weather.
Shortly after the dedication, The Cleveland Gazette, an African American newspaper, suggested that the statue 's torch not be lit until the United States became a free nation "in reality '':
"Liberty enlightening the world, '' indeed! The expression makes us sick. This government is a howling farce. It can not or rather does not protect its citizens within its own borders. Shove the Bartholdi statue, torch and all, into the ocean until the "liberty '' of this country is such as to make it possible for an inoffensive and industrious colored man to earn a respectable living for himself and family, without being ku - kluxed, perhaps murdered, his daughter and wife outraged, and his property destroyed. The idea of the "liberty '' of this country "enlightening the world, '' or even Patagonia, is ridiculous in the extreme.
When the torch was illuminated on the evening of the statue 's dedication, it produced only a faint gleam, barely visible from Manhattan. The World characterized it as "more like a glowworm than a beacon. '' Bartholdi suggested gilding the statue to increase its ability to reflect light, but this proved too expensive. The United States Lighthouse Board took over the Statue of Liberty in 1887 and pledged to install equipment to enhance the torch 's effect; in spite of its efforts, the statue remained virtually invisible at night. When Bartholdi returned to the United States in 1893, he made additional suggestions, all of which proved ineffective. He did successfully lobby for improved lighting within the statue, allowing visitors to better appreciate Eiffel 's design. In 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt, once a member of the New York committee, ordered the statue 's transfer to the War Department, as it had proved useless as a lighthouse. A unit of the Army Signal Corps was stationed on Bedloe 's Island until 1923, after which military police remained there while the island was under military jurisdiction.
The statue rapidly became a landmark. Many immigrants who entered through New York saw it as a welcoming sight. Oral histories of immigrants record their feelings of exhilaration on first viewing the Statue of Liberty. One immigrant who arrived from Greece recalled,
I saw the Statue of Liberty. And I said to myself, "Lady, you 're such a beautiful! (sic) You opened your arms and you get all the foreigners here. Give me a chance to prove that I am worth it, to do something, to be someone in America. '' And always that statue was on my mind.
Originally, the statue was a dull copper color, but shortly after 1900 a green patina, also called verdigris, caused by the oxidation of the copper skin, began to spread. As early as 1902 it was mentioned in the press; by 1906 it had entirely covered the statue. Believing that the patina was evidence of corrosion, Congress authorized US $62,800 (equivalent to $1,673,969 in 2016) for various repairs, and to paint the statue both inside and out. There was considerable public protest against the proposed exterior painting. The Army Corps of Engineers studied the patina for any ill effects to the statue and concluded that it protected the skin, "softened the outlines of the Statue and made it beautiful. '' The statue was painted only on the inside. The Corps of Engineers also installed an elevator to take visitors from the base to the top of the pedestal.
On July 30, 1916, during World War I, German saboteurs set off a disastrous explosion on the Black Tom peninsula in Jersey City, New Jersey, in what is now part of Liberty State Park, close to Bedloe 's Island. Carloads of dynamite and other explosives that were being sent to Britain and France for their war efforts were detonated, and seven people were killed. The statue sustained minor damage, mostly to the torch - bearing right arm, and was closed for ten days. The cost to repair the statue and buildings on the island was about US $100,000 (equivalent to $2,200,917 in 2016). The narrow ascent to the torch was closed for public - safety reasons, and it has remained closed ever since.
That same year, Ralph Pulitzer, who had succeeded his father Joseph as publisher of the World, began a drive to raise US $30,000 (equivalent to $660,275 in 2016) for an exterior lighting system to illuminate the statue at night. He claimed over 80,000 contributors, but failed to reach the goal. The difference was quietly made up by a gift from a wealthy donor -- a fact that was not revealed until 1936. An underwater power cable brought electricity from the mainland and floodlights were placed along the walls of Fort Wood. Gutzon Borglum, who later sculpted Mount Rushmore, redesigned the torch, replacing much of the original copper with stained glass. On December 2, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson pressed the telegraph key that turned on the lights, successfully illuminating the statue.
After the United States entered World War I in 1917, images of the statue were heavily used in both recruitment posters and the Liberty Bond drives that urged American citizens to support the war financially. This impressed upon the public the war 's stated purpose -- to secure liberty -- and served as a reminder that embattled France had given the United States the statue.
In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge used his authority under the Antiquities Act to declare the statue a National Monument. The only successful suicide in the statue 's history occurred five years later, when a man climbed out of one of the windows in the crown and jumped to his death, glancing off the statue 's breast and landing on the base.
In 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt ordered the statue to be transferred to the National Park Service (NPS). In 1937, the NPS gained jurisdiction over the rest of Bedloe 's Island. With the Army 's departure, the NPS began to transform the island into a park. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) demolished most of the old buildings, regraded and reseeded the eastern end of the island, and built granite steps for a new public entrance to the statue from its rear. The WPA also carried out restoration work within the statue, temporarily removing the rays from the statue 's halo so their rusted supports could be replaced. Rusted cast - iron steps in the pedestal were replaced with new ones made of reinforced concrete; the upper parts of the stairways within the statue were replaced, as well. Copper sheathing was installed to prevent further damage from rainwater that had been seeping into the pedestal. The statue was closed to the public from May until December 1938.
During World War II, the statue remained open to visitors, although it was not illuminated at night due to wartime blackouts. It was lit briefly on December 31, 1943, and on D - Day, June 6, 1944, when its lights flashed "dot - dot - dot - dash '', the Morse code for V, for victory. New, powerful lighting was installed in 1944 -- 1945, and beginning on V-E Day, the statue was once again illuminated after sunset. The lighting was for only a few hours each evening, and it was not until 1957 that the statue was illuminated every night, all night. In 1946, the interior of the statue within reach of visitors was coated with a special plastic so that graffiti could be washed away.
In 1956, an Act of Congress officially renamed Bedloe 's Island as Liberty Island, a change advocated by Bartholdi generations earlier. The act also mentioned the efforts to found an American Museum of Immigration on the island, which backers took as federal approval of the project, though the government was slow to grant funds for it. Nearby Ellis Island was made part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument by proclamation of President Lyndon Johnson in 1965. In 1972, the immigration museum, in the statue 's base, was finally opened in a ceremony led by President Richard Nixon. The museum 's backers never provided it with an endowment to secure its future and it closed in 1991 after the opening of an immigration museum on Ellis Island.
In 1970, Ivy Bottini led a demonstration at the statue where she and others from the National Organization for Women 's New York chapter draped an enormous banner over a railing which read "WOMEN OF THE WORLD UNITE! ''
Beginning December 26, 1971, 15 anti-Vietnam War veterans occupied the statue, flying a US flag upside down from her crown. They left December 28 following a Federal Court order. The statue was also several times taken over briefly by demonstrators publicizing causes such as Puerto Rican independence, opposition to abortion, and opposition to US intervention in Grenada. Demonstrations with the permission of the Park Service included a Gay Pride Parade rally and the annual Captive Baltic Nations rally.
A powerful new lighting system was installed in advance of the American Bicentennial in 1976. The statue was the focal point for Operation Sail, a regatta of tall ships from all over the world that entered New York Harbor on July 4, 1976, and sailed around Liberty Island. The day concluded with a spectacular display of fireworks near the statue.
The statue was examined in great detail by French and American engineers as part of the planning for its centennial in 1986. In 1982, it was announced that the statue was in need of considerable restoration. Careful study had revealed that the right arm had been improperly attached to the main structure. It was swaying more and more when strong winds blew and there was a significant risk of structural failure. In addition, the head had been installed 2 feet (0.61 m) off center, and one of the rays was wearing a hole in the right arm when the statue moved in the wind. The armature structure was badly corroded, and about two percent of the exterior plates needed to be replaced. Although problems with the armature had been recognized as early as 1936, when cast iron replacements for some of the bars had been installed, much of the corrosion had been hidden by layers of paint applied over the years.
In May 1982, President Ronald Reagan announced the formation of the Statue of Liberty -- Ellis Island Centennial Commission, led by Chrysler Corporation chair Lee Iacocca, to raise the funds needed to complete the work. Through its fundraising arm, the Statue of Liberty -- Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., the group raised more than $350 million in donations. The Statue of Liberty was one of the earliest beneficiaries of a cause marketing campaign. A 1983 promotion advertised that for each purchase made with an American Express card, the company would contribute one cent to the renovation of the statue. The campaign generated contributions of $1.7 million to the restoration project.
In 1984, the statue was closed to the public for the duration of the renovation. Workers erected the world 's largest free - standing scaffold, which obscured the statue from view. Liquid nitrogen was used to remove layers of paint that had been applied to the interior of the copper skin over decades, leaving two layers of coal tar, originally applied to plug leaks and prevent corrosion. Blasting with baking soda powder removed the tar without further damaging the copper. The restorers ' work was hampered by the asbestos - based substance that Bartholdi had used -- ineffectively, as inspections showed -- to prevent galvanic corrosion. Workers within the statue had to wear protective gear, dubbed "moon suits '', with self - contained breathing circuits. Larger holes in the copper skin were repaired, and new copper was added where necessary. The replacement skin was taken from a copper rooftop at Bell Labs, which had a patina that closely resembled the statue 's; in exchange, the laboratory was provided some of the old copper skin for testing. The torch, found to have been leaking water since the 1916 alterations, was replaced with an exact replica of Bartholdi 's unaltered torch. Consideration was given to replacing the arm and shoulder; the National Park Service insisted that they be repaired instead. The original torch was removed and replaced in 1986 with the current one, whose flame is covered in 24 - carat gold. The torch reflects the sun 's rays in daytime and is lighted by floodlights at night.
The entire puddled iron armature designed by Gustave Eiffel was replaced. Low - carbon corrosion - resistant stainless steel bars that now hold the staples next to the skin are made of Ferralium, an alloy that bends slightly and returns to its original shape as the statue moves. To prevent the ray and arm making contact, the ray was realigned by several degrees. The lighting was again replaced -- night - time illumination subsequently came from metal - halide lamps that send beams of light to particular parts of the pedestal or statue, showing off various details. Access to the pedestal, which had been through a nondescript entrance built in the 1960s, was renovated to create a wide opening framed by a set of monumental bronze doors with designs symbolic of the renovation. A modern elevator was installed, allowing handicapped access to the observation area of the pedestal. An emergency elevator was installed within the statue, reaching up to the level of the shoulder.
July 3 -- 6, 1986, was designated "Liberty Weekend '', marking the centennial of the statue and its reopening. President Reagan presided over the rededication, with French President François Mitterrand in attendance. July 4 saw a reprise of Operation Sail, and the statue was reopened to the public on July 5. In Reagan 's dedication speech, he stated, "We are the keepers of the flame of liberty; we hold it high for the world to see. ''
Following the September 11 attacks, the statue and Liberty Island were immediately closed to the public. The island reopened at the end of 2001, while the pedestal and statue remained off - limits. The pedestal reopened in August 2004, but the National Park Service announced that visitors could not safely be given access to the statue due to the difficulty of evacuation in an emergency. The Park Service adhered to that position through the remainder of the Bush administration. New York Congressman Anthony Weiner made the statue 's reopening a personal crusade. On May 17, 2009, President Barack Obama 's Secretary of the Interior, Ken Salazar, announced that as a "special gift '' to America, the statue would be reopened to the public as of July 4, but that only a limited number of people would be permitted to ascend to the crown each day.
The statue, including the pedestal and base, closed on October 29, 2011, for installation of new elevators and staircases and to bring other facilities, such as restrooms, up to code. The statue was reopened on October 28, 2012, only to close again a day later due to Hurricane Sandy. Although the storm did not harm the statue, it destroyed some of the infrastructure on both Liberty Island and Ellis Island, severely damaging the dock used by the ferries bearing visitors to the statue. On November 8, 2012, a Park Service spokesperson announced that both islands would remain closed for an indefinite period for repairs to be done. Due to lack of electricity on Liberty Island, a generator was installed to power temporary floodlights to illuminate the statue at night. The superintendent of Statue of Liberty National Monument, David Luchsinger, whose home on the island was severely damaged, stated that it would be "optimistically... months '' before the island was reopened to the public. The statue and Liberty Island reopened to the public on July 4, 2013. Ellis Island remained closed for repairs for several more months but reopened in late October 2013. For part of October 2013, Liberty Island was closed to the public due to the United States federal government shutdown of 2013, along with other federally funded museums, parks, monuments, construction projects and buildings.
On October 7, 2016, construction started on a new Statue of Liberty museum on Liberty Island. The new $70 million, 26,000 - square - foot (2,400 m) museum will be able to accommodate all of the island 's visitors when it opens in 2019, as opposed to the current museum, which only 20 % of the island 's visitors can visit. The original torch will be relocated here, and in addition to exhibits relating to the statue 's construction and history, there will be a theater where visitors can watch an aerial view of the statue. The museum, designed by FXFOWLE Architects, will integrate with the parkland around it. It is being funded privately by Diane von Fürstenberg, Michael Bloomberg, Jeff Bezos, Coca - Cola, NBCUniversal, the family of Laurence Tisch and Preston Robert Tisch, Mellody Hobson, and George Lucas. Von Fürstenberg heads the fundraising for the museum, and the project had garnered more than $40 million in fundraising as of groundbreaking.
The statue is situated in Upper New York Bay on Liberty Island south of Ellis Island, which together comprise the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Both islands were ceded by New York to the federal government in 1800. As agreed in an 1834 compact between New York and New Jersey that set the state border at the bay 's midpoint, the original islands remain New York territory despite their location on the New Jersey side of the state line. Liberty Island is one of the islands that are part of the borough of Manhattan in New York. Land created by reclamation added to the 2.3 acres (0.93 ha) original island at Ellis Island is New Jersey territory.
No charge is made for entrance to the national monument, but there is a cost for the ferry service that all visitors must use, as private boats may not dock at the island. A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, replacing Circle Line, which had operated the service since 1953. The ferries, which depart from Liberty State Park in Jersey City and Battery Park in Lower Manhattan, also stop at Ellis Island when it is open to the public, making a combined trip possible. All ferry riders are subject to security screening, similar to airport procedures, prior to boarding. Visitors intending to enter the statue 's base and pedestal must obtain a complimentary museum / pedestal ticket along with their ferry ticket. Those wishing to climb the staircase within the statue to the crown purchase a special ticket, which may be reserved up to a year in advance. A total of 240 people per day are permitted to ascend: ten per group, three groups per hour. Climbers may bring only medication and cameras -- lockers are provided for other items -- and must undergo a second security screening.
There are several plaques and dedicatory tablets on or near the Statue of Liberty.
A group of statues stands at the western end of the island, honoring those closely associated with the Statue of Liberty. Two Americans -- Pulitzer and Lazarus -- and three Frenchmen -- Bartholdi, Eiffel, and Laboulaye -- are depicted. They are the work of Maryland sculptor Phillip Ratner.
In 1984, the Statue of Liberty was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The UNESCO "Statement of Significance '' describes the statue as a "masterpiece of the human spirit '' that "endures as a highly potent symbol -- inspiring contemplation, debate and protest -- of ideals such as liberty, peace, human rights, abolition of slavery, democracy and opportunity. ''
Hundreds of replicas of the Statue of Liberty are displayed worldwide. A smaller version of the statue, one - fourth the height of the original, was given by the American community in Paris to that city. It now stands on the Île aux Cygnes, facing west toward her larger sister. A replica 30 feet (9.1 m) tall stood atop the Liberty Warehouse on West 64th Street in Manhattan for many years; it now resides at the Brooklyn Museum. In a patriotic tribute, the Boy Scouts of America, as part of their Strengthen the Arm of Liberty campaign in 1949 -- 1952, donated about two hundred replicas of the statue, made of stamped copper and 100 inches (2,500 mm) in height, to states and municipalities across the United States. Though not a true replica, the statue known as the Goddess of Democracy temporarily erected during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 was similarly inspired by French democratic traditions -- the sculptors took care to avoid a direct imitation of the Statue of Liberty. Among other recreations of New York City structures, a replica of the statue is part of the exterior of the New York - New York Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas.
As an American icon, the Statue of Liberty has been depicted on the country 's coinage and stamps. It appeared on commemorative coins issued to mark its 1986 centennial, and on New York 's 2001 entry in the state quarters series. An image of the statue was chosen for the American Eagle platinum bullion coins in 1997, and it was placed on the reverse, or tails, side of the Presidential Dollar series of circulating coins. Two images of the statue 's torch appear on the current ten - dollar bill. The statue 's intended photographic depiction on a 2010 forever stamp proved instead to be of the replica at the Las Vegas casino.
Depictions of the statue have been used by many regional institutions. Between 1986 and 2000, New York State issued license plates with an outline of the statue to either the front or the side of the serial number. The Women 's National Basketball Association 's New York Liberty use both the statue 's name and its image in their logo, in which the torch 's flame doubles as a basketball. The New York Rangers of the National Hockey League depicted the statue 's head on their third jersey, beginning in 1997. The National Collegiate Athletic Association 's 1996 Men 's Basketball Final Four, played at New Jersey 's Meadowlands Sports Complex, featured the statue in its logo. The Libertarian Party of the United States uses the statue in its emblem.
The statue is a frequent subject in popular culture. In music, it has been evoked to indicate support for American policies, as in Toby Keith 's song "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue (The Angry American) '', and in opposition, appearing on the cover of the Dead Kennedys ' album Bedtime for Democracy, which protested the Reagan administration. In film, the torch is the setting for the climax of director Alfred Hitchcock 's 1942 movie Saboteur. The statue makes one of its most famous cinematic appearances in the 1968 picture Planet of the Apes, in which it is seen half - buried in sand. It is knocked over in the science - fiction film Independence Day and in Cloverfield the head is ripped off. In Jack Finney 's time - travel novel Time and Again, the right arm of the statue, on display in the early 1880s in Madison Square Park, plays a crucial role. Robert Holdstock, consulting editor of The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, wondered in 1979,
Where would science fiction be without the Statue of Liberty? For decades it has towered or crumbled above the wastelands of deserted (E) arth -- giants have uprooted it, aliens have found it curious... the symbol of Liberty, of optimism, has become a symbol of science fiction 's pessimistic view of the future.
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Bibliography
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when does sergeant wu find out about nick | Grimm (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the NBC American supernatural drama series Grimm was announced on February 5, 2015. It premiered on October 30, 2015 and concluded on May 20, 2016. The season consisted of 22 episodes. The series was created by David Greenwalt, Jim Kouf and Stephen Carpenter, and produced by NBC, GK Productions, Hazy Mills Productions, and Universal Television. It follows a descendant of the Grimm line, Nick Burkhardt, as he deals with being a cop, and trying not to expose his secret as a Grimm.
Rodriguez returned as Chavez in the episode "The Grimm Identity '', as she revealed on her instagram account. In late August, Carlson Young was cast as Selina Golias, a character forced to hide the survivor of an attack that resulted in her boyfriend 's death, resulting in Selina becoming the target of a Wesen "Rat King '' who does n't mind if she becomes collateral damage in a never - ending Wesen feud. In early September, Madeline Brewer was cast as Billie Trump for episodes 6 and 7 of the season. Billie is a Skalengeck described as "a fierce lieutenant in an up - and - coming Wesen street gang who is raising hell in Portland. '' It was announced in November that Bailey Chase had been cast as Lucien Petrovich, "the leader of a Wesen revolutionary group. '' The news was broken by Deadline.
Like the previous four seasons, the majority of filming takes place in the Portland, Oregon area. Filming for the season began on July 7, 2015.
After airing the last 9 episodes of the previous season on Fridays at 8 p.m., the show moved back to its normal time slot of Fridays at 9 p.m.
Trubel, Juliette, and the severed head of Nick 's mother, Kelly, are hustled out of Nick 's house by unknown assailants. Chavez and Nick meet at an arranged time in a vacant warehouse; Chavez 's mysterious caller is Meisner, who with the aid of the Resistance helped Adalind escape from the Royals. Nick and Chavez are attacked by a group of Wesen and Chavez is killed. Before she dies, Chavez gives Trubel 's dark knight chess piece to Nick. Nick answers Agent Chavez 's phone and speaks to Meisner, who tells Nick to keep the phone. Nick goes to the hospital to visit Adalind and their newborn son; Adalind names the child Kelly, after Nick 's mother.
Nick takes Adalind and baby Kelly home. Captain Renard assigns Hank a new partner, who is unaware of the whole Wesen thing. Their next case clearly involves a Wesen killer, and complications grow when the US Marshals get involved and the killer flees. With Hank and his partner in pursuit, it becomes evident that these killings are somehow related to a mysterious secret society.
Rosalee 's life is in danger when a group of orphaned Wesen children -- Peter, Lily, Big John, and Miguel -- in need of a mother - figure to guide them, decide that Rosalee fits the bill. Nick and Hank find a vital clue in a fairly recent missing - person case. Nick decides to move out of his home to a safer location. Meanwhile, Renard is informed of the King 's "accident '' and that his daughter is safe with the Resistance. (A basis of Peter Pan and The Lost Boys).
While investigating an assassination attempt against nightclub owner Frankie Adkins, who was saved by a mysterious Wesen, Nick and Hank stumble onto the archaic Wesen tradition of Maagd Zoektocht, by which a Weten Ogen (a lynx - like Wesen) pits three suitors against each other for the hand of a maiden. In this case, Daniel Troyer is making them fight for his daughter Emily 's hand, and their first trial is to kill Frankie, whose henchmen had killed Troyer 's son. After a second unsuccessful attempt on Frankie 's life, the first suitor 's mother points Frankie to Troyer. Frankie tries to kill Troyer, who is also saved by the mysterious Wesen: Emily herself. Troyer explains to his daughter that the test was for her to prove she was worthy of succeeding him. Meanwhile, home life brings Nick and Adalind closer together, and Captain Renard is asked to support the mayoral campaign of Andrew Dixon, an old friend. In the closing scene, an injured Trubel, assumed to be dead, shows up at the door of Nick 's new home, and collapses in his arms.
Nick brings a wounded Trubel to the hospital; he finds three false IDs and a fingerprint - locked phone in her jacket. Trubel tells the nurse her name is "Lauren Cole '', matching one of the IDs and the registration of an expensive, weaponized motorcycle. The next day, Nick and Hank investigate the murder of two Klaustreich. Selina, the girlfriend of one of the victims, mentions a dump where they went to sport - hunt Reinigen (rat - like Wesen), and informs them of a third missing Klaustreich, Johnny. Monroe and Rosalee explain the legend of the Riesen - ratte, "the rat king '', a creature formed when several Reinigen combine. Johnny and Selina are captured by the Reinigen at the dump. Nick, Hank, Monroe, and Rosalee confront the Reinigen who transform into the Riesen - ratte. They manage to save Selina and use power cables to shock the giant rat - king, which separates into several dozen Reinigen laying on the ground in pain. Afterwards, Meisner, with Adalind 's help, convinces Nick to trust him; they rush to the hospital and save Trubel from a group of Wesen chanting "Occultatum Libera ''. Meanwhile, Andrew Dixon continues to push Captain Renard to endorse his run for mayor, promising promotion to Chief of Police.
Trubel tells Nick about Hadrian 's Wall, the resistance group Agent Chavez worked with and that Trubel now works for. They are fighting Black Claw, the organization coordinating the global Wesen uprising. Nick, Hank and Wu are called to investigate a case of vandalism, murder, and kidnapping, where they find another claw mark drawn at the scene. They suspect the victims are Wesen, which Monroe, Rosalee and Bud confirm. Monroe explains that many historical revolts were instigated by Wesen. The kidnapped victim, Xavier -- a friend of Monroe and Rosalee -- returns, claiming he escaped, and points them to a woman, Billy. Nick and Hank come clean to Renard about Chavez 's death and her last message: "They 're coming to Portland, it 's war. '' After Nick, acting as a Grimm, threatens Billy, she leads Nick, Hank, Renard, and Monroe to the gang 's location. Meanwhile, Rosalee drives Xavier home and he confesses that he lied: Billy is leading them into an ambush. Rosalee warns Monroe, but it 's too late and they are forced into a room. Suddenly it becomes quiet, and they find their attackers have all been killed by someone who bears an uncanny resemblance to Juliette. Meanwhile, Renard publicly endorses Andrew Dixon for mayor.
Nick confronts Trubel, who reveals Chavez 's plan to turn Hexenbiest Juliette into a weapon. Trubel meets with Meisner to arrange for Nick to meet Juliette. Monroe, Rosalee, Renard and Hank interrogate Xavier, who reveals the Wesen gang had targeted Nick and Monroe, and any Wesen who does n't join them will be killed. Hank and Renard bring Xavier to the precinct but Black Claw 's leader, Lucien, sends an assassin who infiltrates the jail, woges, and kills Xavier; a cop shoots him dead before the others can intervene. Monroe and Rosalee alert the Wesen Council, and Alexander informs them that Schwarzkralle (Black Claw) is behind the uprising. Later, a Council member reveals himself to be part of Black Claw and guns down a Council meeting; sole survivor Alexander informs Rosalee. Nick meets Juliette at a restaurant, where she introduces herself as Eve. She evades most of Nick 's questions but claims to remember everything. Suddenly, she gets up, woges, and telekinetically kills a man. The target 's bodyguards draw their guns, forcing Nick to shoot them. Meisner explains to Nick that it was a test -- Hadrian 's Wall needed Nick 's help to take out an important Black Claw organizer.
Nick tells Wu, Hank, and Renard that the incident at the restaurant was a test. He also tells them about Hadrian 's Wall member Meisner, who works with Eve and Trubel, and had worked with Agent Chavez; Renard knows him through the Resistance. Nick and Hank investigate the death of tourists at Diamond Lake, reported home of the Diamond Lake Monster. The local bait shop is owned by the Dunbar brothers, Oliver and Wayne, who are Luisant - Pecheur (otter - like Wesen). Meisner, with Trubel 's help, tries to recruit Nick to Hadrian 's Wall; at its Portland Command Center, funded by a branch of the federal government, Nick sees a map of Black Claw - affiliated Wesen uprisings worldwide. Back at Diamond Lake, Sheriff Parcell tells Nick and Hank that the story about the lake monster is a myth like the Loch Ness Monster or Ogopogo. With Trubel 's help, Nick and Hank look for the Diamond Lake Monster, who they suspect is a "Wasser Zahne ''. The Wasser Zahne turns out to be Logan Cobb, a man who has been working with the Dunbar brothers in keeping the myth of the lake monster alive for a share of the profits.
Nick and his team hunt for a Wesen serial - killer, a "Fuilcre '', who uses an ancient barbarian Wesen water - rune / rain - crucifixion ritual with a symbol of the Golden Dawn. Monroe goes undercover at a pep rally to help Nick investigate a lead -- the rally is actually a recruiting tool for Black Claw. Eve and Trubel interrogate a Black Claw suspect; Eve uses a "See No Evil, Speak No Evil, Hear No Evil '' technique. Adalind helps Nick solve his case when she tells him about an Aztec ceremony, Fire Drill, involving Orion 's Belt -- whenever it rose above the horizon, a man would be sacrificed on top of a pyramid. This information leads to the next sacrificial site.
In Leipzig, Monroe 's uncle Felix Dietrich is asked by Andrea Stroh to appraise books from the estate of Joseph Nebojsa. Two Anubis Wesen from Black Claw kill Andrea, and Felix flees to Portland with one of the books -- written by and for Grimms -- to show Nick, asking $100,000 for the collection. Nick is desperate to replace the books lost when Juliette burnt his Aunt Marie 's trailer, but does n't have the money. The two Anubis Wesen arrive in Portland and kill Felix in his hotel room, where Nick and Monore find a shipping slip which they follow to the killers; in a fit of rage, Monroe tears out their throats. Nick and Monroe find Felix 's trunk and take it to the spice shop. In addition to detailed catalogs of Wesen, the books contain Grimm family trees, including Nick 's ancestry. Monroe finds a secret compartment and, using his watchmaker skills, unlocks it. It contains three keys, and using these with the two keys Nick already had, they stamp together the five pieces of the Map of the Seven Knights, ancestors of the Grimm. It leads to a spot in the Schwarzwald (The Black Forest, Germany).
Nick, Hank, Wu, Monroe, Rosalee, and Trubel continue to search for clues in the Map of the Seven Knights. Nick has a flashback of his mother, Kelly, telling him about the legendary seven keys belonging to seven knights, ancestors to all Grimm. The knights fought for seven royal families in the Fourth Crusade. The seven keys together made a map showing where the knights hid the wealth they took from Constantinople when it was sacked and burnt. Nick believes the treasure could be found. Trubel thinks they may have buried it in seven churches. Nick and Monroe travel to Germany on counterfeit passports, using Frederick Calvert (Rosalee 's late brother) and Felix Dietrich as aliases, to avoid detection from the Black Claw. They travel to the church locations marked on the map, but find little that is old enough to be a possible location, and local Wesen become suspicious of their questions. Nick and Monroe travel at night to a spot in the forest near the site of the German Peasants ' War, where they believe an ancient church may have stood. They discover chisel marks on old stones and end up falling into an old underground cavern.
Nick and Monroe fall into the catacombs of the ancient church, where they find a small brass chest. As they emerge from the catacombs, they are discovered by the local Wesen and narrowly escape, though Monroe is bitten. Meanwhile, Portland mayoral candidate Andrew Dixon is killed by a Marwan assassin. While visiting the spice shop Adalind is threatened by Rosalee 's ex, Tony, causing her Hexenbiest powers to return. Tipped by Black Claw to the whereabouts of the Marwan, Renard tracks him and kills him during a fight. Unbeknownst to Renard, this foils the Hadrian 's Wall plan to use the Marwan for information. Later, Renard is confronted with a Black Claw plan to become the new mayoral candidate, and is tempted by this position of power. Nick and Monroe arrive at the spice shop and open the chest with Rosalee, Hank, and Wu present, finding an old shard of wood wrapped in a cloth. While debating its nature, Monroe begins to get sicker from the now - infected wound on his arm. Still holding the shard, Nick tries to help a stumbling Monroe, and the group is astonished when the wound on Monroe 's arm fades; they deduce that the shard has healing powers.
Benito is a Wesen called Vibora Dorada (a version of Xipe Totec adapted by Santeria priests) who owns Benito 's Masks; some of his masks are endowed with special powers. Goyo, an ambitious professional wrestler, asks for a mask to help him win. Benito tries to dissuade Goyo, but Goyo convinces him he can handle it. Benito heads out that night and attacks a Wesen called Balam, biting the victim 's neck which paralyzes the Balam so he stays woged. Benito then surgically removes the skin of the Wesen 's face to make this special luchador mask. Nick and Hank investigate when the body is discovered. Benito warns Goyo to only wear the mask in the ring, but Goyo can not resist the power and wears it in his apartment and on the street. He encounters one of his opponents in an alley and, unable to control himself, kills him. Nick and Hank visit the scene of the killing and gain leads indicating Goyo and Benito 's involvement. Meanwhile, Goyo seeks Benito 's help to get the now - unremoveable mask off. Nick, Hank, Monroe, and Rosalee enter Benito 's Masks to find Benito dead and Goyo dying. Rosalee, chanting in Spanish, performs the ceremonia de desgracias (misfortune ceremony).
On the first night of the full moon, a young successful entrepreneur is driving on a deserted wooded road to visit his mother. His tire blows and his car, out of control, hits a tree, leaving him to walk the last three miles. The next day, Nick and Hank, responding to an injured man on the road, meet the driver. Something does n't seem right, so returning to the scene with Monroe (and his extraordinary Blutbad sense of smell), they find two hikers that have been brutally attacked by what seems like a Blutbad. In the course of their investigation, Monroe and Rosalee mention a disease, Lycanthropia, that turns Blutbaden into uncontrollable beasts when there is a full moon. Nick, Hank and Wu suspect the young entrepreneur, and hold him at the station to see whether he woges. It quickly becomes clear, however, that the Lycanthrope is his mother. They race to her house, confront her, and try to sedate her in her Wesen form. She is accidentally killed, but not before Wu is scratched on his left leg. Meanwhile, Adalind is offered an opportunity to reunite with her missing daughter, Diana. Eve discovers that Black Claw is actively recruiting Renard.
Nick, Hank, and Wu investigate the death of a woman who aged seventy years overnight, only to learn they are dealing with a Wesen, operating as a photographer, who sucks youthfulness out of young people and regurgitates it as a goo. He sells this goo to a doctor operating a clinic that caters to the youth - obsessed. The doctor has created a successful anti-aging cream, for which he has become dependent. In addition to removing his wrinkles, the dosage he is taking is also making him quite insane. Rosalee goes undercover to help expose the racket. Meanwhile, Eve devises a plan to go undercover as Renard to learn more about his involvement with Black Claw.
An evangelical preacher named Dwight Eleazer has a tent revival unlike any other, using his Wesen identity to gain more believers. Nick and Hank are called to the scene as things escalate when a group of "true believers '' are hell - bent on saving the preacher and his flock by any means necessary. Meanwhile, Captain Renard takes further steps to gain power in local government. Elsewhere, Eve uses Adalind 's old hat trick to gain more access to Black Claw.
When Brian Johnson 's head is found under a bridge, Nick and Hank link it to a Japanese Wesen family whose son was previously killed by the victim. Nick learns about the possibility that the beheader was an inugami (ghost dog). Adalind accepts a job at her old law firm while Monroe and Rosalee volunteer to explore the tunnels under Nick 's place while she is at work. Meanwhile, Wu is still feeling the after - effects of the fight with the Lycanthrope, including strange dreams and intense headaches. Elsewhere, Rachel has a surprise for Renard, much to his joy.
Adalind and Nick enjoy an intimate moment. Hank has dinner with Zuri Ellis, his former therapist. A drunk driver is repeatedly run - over by his kidnapper, a bird - like Wesen, who uses a tongue - like appendage to dissolve and ingest his victim 's bones for later regurgitation to his sick parents. Nick, Hank, and Wu investigate the boneless body. Nick tells Adalind that Renard is working with Black Claw; Adalind wonders whether Renard will use their daughter, Diana, in his mayoral campaign. Eve, who continues to monitor Adalind, learns about Diana. A trap is set for the bone - sucking killer, using Monroe as bait. Wu 's Lycanthrope symptoms worsen, triggered by the full moon, and he woges to chase a stray dog, stumbling and knocking himself unconscious. The bone - sucker starts to drag Wu away, but is thwarted by Nick and Hank. In his attempt to flee, the bone - sucker is hit by a truck and dies. Given a few moments alone with their son at the morgue, the parents decide to not waste his bones. Meanwhile, Rosalee babysits Kelly so Adalind can secretly meet with Renard, but Renard knocks her out and takes her to an unknown location to reunite with Diana.
When Sgt. Wu becomes involved in an altercation that results in the killing of a petty thief, he decides to go to the spice shop and figure out what is happening to him. Meanwhile, Meisner and Trubel go to Diana 's safehouse; they find that she was taken by Black Claw as leverage to convince Renard, Adalind and Nick to join their cause. Not knowing what to do, Adalind takes Kelly and disappears, leaving Nick a note saying that she has to protect her children and Nick.
Distraught over Adalind leaving with Kelly, Nick tries to contact Hank then goes to Sean Renard 's house, only to find it completely empty. Monroe and Rosalee manage to calm Nick down and they decide to inform Hadrian 's Wall about what has happened. Renard asks Nick to meet him at the police station, where he admits to having Adalind, Diana, and Kelly, as well as working with Black Claw, but insists that Nick should also join them. Meanwhile, Hank arrests Tony (Rosalee 's ex) for breaking into Zuri 's house, only to find out that they are both working for Black Claw. Nick decides to show Trubel what he found in Germany, in case anything should happen to him. The episode ends with Renard being elected mayor, while Trubel and Eve start to interrogate Zuri.
After Renard is declared mayor, Hank is arrested when two bodies are found in his house. Nick realizes this was set - up by Black Claw and, with Monroe 's help, learns Hank 's location from Tony. Nick, Trubel, and Eve go to rescue Hank, only to find out this was a trap to get them away from the Hadrian 's Wall headquarters. They return to find everyone dead, including Meisner. Unable to control himself, Nick attacks Renard at the police station, and Renard has him arrested for assault.
Black Claw starts to make their move when they learn of Nick 's arrest for assaulting Renard. From jail, Nick instructs Hank to gather Monroe, Rosalee, Trubel, and Eve at the loft. Wu later calls them when the station is suddenly bombarded with 911 calls, leaving it almost empty. Monroe and Rosalee return to the spice shop to hide the Grimm books and weapons while the others go to rescue Nick, but by the time they get there they find out he was already taken by Black Claw. They manage to rescue Nick, but Eve is wounded after fighting Conrad Bonaparte. They all regroup at the loft where Nick tries to heal Eve with the wooden shard, but things become worse when Diana warns them that Bonaparte was able to learn their location. Nick stays behind to fight while the others escape through the tunnels. After Nick manages to kill all the attackers, Bonaparte and Renard appear to confront him. Just as Bonaparte attempts to kill Nick, Diana -- in retaliation for coercing Adalind to reveal Nick 's location -- takes control of Renard 's body long enough to kill Bonaparte, leaving both Nick and Renard in shock.
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when did england stop having a king and queen | Monarchy of the United Kingdom - wikipedia
The monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom, its dependencies and its overseas territories. The current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, ascended the throne on the death of her father, King George VI, on 6 February 1952.
The monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic and representational duties. As the monarchy is constitutional, the monarch is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch is commander - in - chief of the British Armed Forces. Though the ultimate formal executive authority over the government of the United Kingdom is still by and through the monarch 's royal prerogative, these powers may only be used according to laws enacted in Parliament and, in practice, within the constraints of convention and precedent.
The British monarchy traces its origins from the petty kingdoms of early medieval Scotland and Anglo - Saxon England, which consolidated into the kingdoms of England and Scotland by the 10th century AD. In 1066, the last crowned Anglo - Saxon monarch, Harold Godwinson, was defeated and killed during the Norman conquest of England and the English monarchy passed to the Normans ' victorious leader, William the Conqueror, and his descendants.
From the 1080s, the lordships of South Wales were held by a succession of Norman families inter-married with older Welsh houses loyal to the English throne, with many lordships also held by the English King in his own right. The process was completed in the 13th century when the north of Wales, as a principality, became a client state of the English kingdom, while Magna Carta began a process of reducing the English monarch 's political powers.
From 1603, when the Scottish monarch James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England, which followed the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The Act of Settlement 1701 excluded Roman Catholics, or those who married Catholics, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain, and in 1801, the Kingdom of Ireland joined to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the world 's surface at its greatest extent in 1921.
In the early 1920s, five - sixths of Ireland seceded from the Union as the Irish Free State, and the Balfour Declaration recognised the evolution of the dominions of the empire into separate, self - governing countries within a Commonwealth of Nations. After the Second World War, the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, effectively bringing the empire to an end. George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states.
The United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth monarchies that share the same person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms. The terms British monarchy and British monarch are frequently still employed in reference to the shared individual and institution; however, each country is sovereign and independent of the others, and the monarch has a different, specific, and official national title and style for each realm.
In the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom, the Monarch (otherwise referred to as the Sovereign or "His / Her Majesty '', abbreviated H.M.) is the Head of State. Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors. "God Save the Queen '' (or "God Save the King '') is the British national anthem, and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins and banknotes.
The Monarch takes little direct part in Government. The decisions to exercise sovereign powers are delegated from the Monarch, either by statute or by convention, to Ministers or officers of the Crown, or other public bodies, exclusive of the Monarch personally. Thus the acts of state done in the name of the Crown, such as Crown Appointments, even if personally performed by the Monarch, such as the Queen 's Speech and the State Opening of Parliament, depend upon decisions made elsewhere:
The Sovereign 's role as a constitutional monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions, such as granting honours. This role has been recognised since the 19th century. The constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the "dignified part '' rather than the "efficient part '' of government.
Whenever necessary, the Monarch is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister (who by convention appoints and may dismiss every other Minister of the Crown, and thereby constitutes and controls the government). In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the Sovereign must appoint an individual who commands the support of the House of Commons, usually the leader of the party or coalition that has a majority in that House. The Prime Minister takes office by attending the Monarch in private audience, and after "kissing hands '' that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument.
In a hung parliament where no party or coalition holds a majority, the monarch has an increased degree of latitude in choosing the individual likely to command the most support, though it would usually be the leader of the largest party. Since 1945, there have only been three hung parliaments. The first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilson 's Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party. The second followed the May 2010 general election, in which the Conservatives (the largest party) and Liberal Democrats (the third largest party) agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II. The third occurred shortly thereafter, in June 2017, when the Conservative Party lost its majority in a snap election, though the party remained in power as a minority government.
In 1950 the King 's Private Secretary Sir Alan "Tommy '' Lascelles, writing pseudonymously to The Times newspaper asserted a constitutional convention: according to the Lascelles Principles, if a minority government asked to dissolve Parliament to call an early election to strengthen its position, the monarch could refuse, and would do so under three conditions. When Harold Wilson requested a dissolution late in 1974, the Queen granted his request as Heath had already failed to form a coalition. The resulting general election gave Wilson a small majority. The monarch could in theory unilaterally dismiss a Prime Minister, but a Prime Minister 's term now comes to an end only by electoral defeat, death, or resignation. The last monarch to remove a Prime Minister was William IV, who dismissed Lord Melbourne in 1834. The Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 removed the monarch 's authority to dissolve Parliament; the Act specifically retained the monarch 's power of prorogation however, which is a regular feature of the parliamentary calendar.
Some of the government 's executive authority is theoretically and nominally vested in the Sovereign and is known as the royal prerogative. The monarch acts within the constraints of convention and precedent, exercising prerogative only on the advice of ministers responsible to Parliament, often through the Prime Minister or Privy Council. In practice, prerogative powers are exercised only on the Prime Minister 's advice -- the Prime Minister, and not the Sovereign, has control. The monarch holds a weekly audience with the Prime Minister. No records of these audiences are taken and the proceedings remain fully confidential. The monarch may express his or her views, but, as a constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the decisions of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet (providing they command the support of the House). In Bagehot 's words: "the Sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy... three rights -- the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn. ''
Although the Royal Prerogative is extensive and parliamentary approval is not formally required for its exercise, it is limited. Many Crown prerogatives have fallen out of use or have been permanently transferred to Parliament. For example, the monarch can not impose and collect new taxes; such an action requires the authorisation of an Act of Parliament. According to a parliamentary report, "The Crown can not invent new prerogative powers '', and Parliament can override any prerogative power by passing legislation.
The Royal Prerogative includes the powers to appoint and dismiss ministers, regulate the civil service, issue passports, declare war, make peace, direct the actions of the military, and negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements. However, a treaty can not alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The monarch is the Head of the Armed Forces (the Royal Navy, the British Army, and the Royal Air Force), and accredits British High Commissioners and ambassadors, and receives heads of missions from foreign states.
It is the prerogative of the monarch to summon and prorogue Parliament. Each parliamentary session begins with the monarch 's summons. The new parliamentary session is marked by the State Opening of Parliament, during which the Sovereign reads the Speech from the throne in the Chamber of the House of Lords, outlining the Government 's legislative agenda. Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session begins, and formally concludes the session. Dissolution ends a parliamentary term, and is followed by a general election for all seats in the House of Commons. A general election is normally held five years after the previous one under the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011, but can be held sooner if the Prime Minister loses a motion of confidence, or if two - thirds of the members of the House of Commons vote to hold an early election.
Before a bill passed by the legislative Houses can become law, the royal assent (the monarch 's approval) is required. In theory, assent can either be granted (making the bill law) or withheld (vetoing the bill), but since 1707 assent has always been granted.
The monarch has a similar relationship with the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The Sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland on the nomination of the Scottish Parliament, and the First Minister of Wales on the nomination of the National Assembly for Wales. In Scottish matters, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Government. However, as devolution is more limited in Wales, in Welsh matters the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Sovereign can veto any law passed by the Northern Ireland Assembly, if it is deemed unconstitutional by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.
The Sovereign is deemed the "fount of justice ''; although the Sovereign does not personally rule in judicial cases, judicial functions are performed in his or her name. For instance, prosecutions are brought on the monarch 's behalf, and courts derive their authority from the Crown. The common law holds that the Sovereign "can do no wrong ''; the monarch can not be prosecuted for criminal offences. The Crown Proceedings Act 1947 allows civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government), but not lawsuits against the monarch personally. The Sovereign exercises the "prerogative of mercy '', which is used to pardon convicted offenders or reduce sentences.
The monarch is the "fount of honour '', the source of all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom. The Crown creates all peerages, appoints members of the orders of chivalry, grants knighthoods and awards other honours. Although peerages and most other honours are granted on the advice of the Prime Minister, some honours are within the personal gift of the Sovereign, and are not granted on ministerial advice. The monarch alone appoints members of the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of Merit.
Following Viking raids and settlement in the ninth century, the Anglo - Saxon kingdom of Wessex emerged as the dominant English kingdom. Alfred the Great secured Wessex, achieved dominance over western Mercia, and assumed the title "King of the English ''. His grandson Æthelstan was the first king to rule over a unitary kingdom roughly corresponding to the present borders of England, though its constituent parts retained strong regional identities. The 11th century saw England become more stable, despite a number of wars with the Danes, which resulted in a Danish monarchy for one generation. The conquest of England in 1066 by William, Duke of Normandy, was crucial in terms of both political and social change. The new monarch continued the centralisation of power begun in the Anglo - Saxon period, while the Feudal System continued to develop.
William was succeeded by two of his sons: William II, then Henry I. Henry made a controversial decision to name his daughter Matilda (his only surviving child) as his heir. Following Henry 's death in 1135, one of William I 's grandsons, Stephen, laid claim to the throne and took power with the support of most of the barons. Matilda challenged his reign; as a result, England descended into a period of disorder known as the Anarchy. Stephen maintained a precarious hold on power but agreed to a compromise under which Matilda 's son Henry would succeed him. Henry accordingly became the first Angevin king of England and the first monarch of the Plantagenet dynasty as Henry II in 1154.
The reigns of most of the Angevin monarchs were marred by civil strife and conflicts between the monarch and the nobility. Henry II faced rebellions from his own sons, the future monarchs Richard I and John. Nevertheless, Henry managed to expand his kingdom, forming what is retrospectively known as the Angevin Empire. Upon Henry 's death, his elder son Richard succeeded to the throne; he was absent from England for most of his reign, as he left to fight in the Crusades. He was killed besieging a castle, and John succeeded him.
John 's reign was marked by conflict with the barons, particularly over the limits of royal power. In 1215, the barons coerced the king into issuing Magna Carta (Latin for "Great Charter '') to guarantee the rights and liberties of the nobility. Soon afterwards, further disagreements plunged England into a civil war known as the First Barons ' War. The war came to an abrupt end after John died in 1216, leaving the Crown to his nine - year - old son Henry III. Later in Henry 's reign, Simon de Montfort led the barons in another rebellion, beginning the Second Barons ' War. The war ended in a clear royalist victory and in the death of many rebels, but not before the king had agreed to summon a parliament in 1265.
The next monarch, Edward Longshanks, was far more successful in maintaining royal power and responsible for the conquest of Wales. He attempted to establish English domination of Scotland. However, gains in Scotland were reversed during the reign of his successor, Edward II, who also faced conflict with the nobility. In 1311, Edward II was forced to relinquish many of his powers to a committee of baronial "ordainers ''; however, military victories helped him regain control in 1322. Nevertheless, in 1327, Edward was deposed by his wife Isabella. His 14 - year - old son became Edward III. Edward III claimed the French Crown, setting off the Hundred Years ' War between England and France.
His campaigns conquered much French territory, but by 1374, all the gains had been lost. Edward 's reign was also marked by the further development of Parliament, which came to be divided into two Houses. In 1377, Edward III died, leaving the Crown to his 10 - year - old grandson Richard II. Like many of his predecessors, Richard II conflicted with the nobles by attempting to concentrate power in his own hands. In 1399, while he was campaigning in Ireland, his cousin Henry Bolingbroke seized power. Richard was deposed, imprisoned, and eventually murdered, probably by starvation, and Henry became king as Henry IV.
Henry IV was the grandson of Edward III and the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster; hence, his dynasty was known as the House of Lancaster. For most of his reign, Henry IV was forced to fight off plots and rebellions; his success was partly due to the military skill of his son, the future Henry V. Henry V 's own reign, which began in 1413, was largely free from domestic strife, leaving the king free to pursue the Hundred Years ' War in France. Although he was victorious, his sudden death in 1422 left his infant son Henry VI on the throne and gave the French an opportunity to overthrow English rule.
The unpopularity of Henry VI 's counsellors and his belligerent consort, Margaret of Anjou, as well as his own ineffectual leadership, led to the weakening of the House of Lancaster. The Lancastrians faced a challenge from the House of York, so called because its head, a descendant of Edward III, was Richard, Duke of York. Although the Duke of York died in battle in 1460, his eldest son, Edward IV, led the Yorkists to victory in 1461. The Wars of the Roses, nevertheless, continued intermittently during his reign and those of his son Edward V and brother Richard III. Edward V disappeared, presumably murdered by Richard. Ultimately, the conflict culminated in success for the Lancastrian branch led by Henry Tudor, in 1485, when Richard III was killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field.
Now King Henry VII, he neutralised the remaining Yorkist forces, partly by marrying Elizabeth of York, a Yorkist heir. Through skill and ability, Henry re-established absolute supremacy in the realm, and the conflicts with the nobility that had plagued previous monarchs came to an end. The reign of the second Tudor king, Henry VIII, was one of great political change. Religious upheaval and disputes with the Pope led the monarch to break from the Roman Catholic Church and to establish the Church of England (the Anglican Church).
Wales -- which had been conquered centuries earlier, but had remained a separate dominion -- was annexed to England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. Henry VIII 's son and successor, the young Edward VI, continued with further religious reforms, but his early death in 1553 precipitated a succession crisis. He was wary of allowing his Catholic elder half - sister Mary I to succeed, and therefore drew up a will designating Lady Jane Grey as his heiress. Jane 's reign, however, lasted only nine days; with tremendous popular support, Mary deposed her and declared herself the lawful sovereign. Mary I married Philip of Spain, who was declared king and co-ruler, pursued disastrous wars in France and attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism, burning Protestants at the stake as heretics in the process. Upon her death in 1558, the pair were succeeded by her Protestant half - sister Elizabeth I. England returned to Protestantism and continued its growth into a major world power by building its navy and exploring the New World.
In Scotland, as in England, monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of the Roman empire from Britain in the early fifth century. The three groups that lived in Scotland at this time were the Picts in the north east, the Britons in the south, including the Kingdom of Strathclyde, and the Gaels or Scotti (who would later give their name to Scotland), of the Irish petty kingdom of Dál Riata in the west. Kenneth MacAlpin is traditionally viewed as the first king of a united Scotland (known as Scotia to writers in Latin, or Alba to the Scots). The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next two centuries, as other territories such as Strathclyde were absorbed.
Early Scottish monarchs did not inherit the Crown directly; instead the custom of tanistry was followed, where the monarchy alternated between different branches of the House of Alpin. As a result, however, the rival dynastic lines clashed, often violently. From 942 to 1005, seven consecutive monarchs were either murdered or killed in battle. In 1005, Malcolm II ascended the throne having killed many rivals. He continued to ruthlessly eliminate opposition, and when he died in 1034 he was succeeded by his grandson, Duncan I, instead of a cousin, as had been usual. In 1040, Duncan suffered defeat in battle at the hands of Macbeth, who was killed himself in 1057 by Duncan 's son Malcolm. The following year, after killing Macbeth 's stepson Lulach, Malcolm ascended the throne as Malcolm III.
With a further series of battles and deposings, five of Malcolm 's sons as well as one of his brothers successively became king. Eventually, the Crown came to his youngest son, David I. David was succeeded by his grandsons Malcolm IV, and then by William the Lion, the longest - reigning King of Scots before the Union of the Crowns. William participated in a rebellion against King Henry II of England but when the rebellion failed, William was captured by the English. In exchange for his release, William was forced to acknowledge Henry as his feudal overlord. The English King Richard I agreed to terminate the arrangement in 1189, in return for a large sum of money needed for the Crusades. William died in 1214, and was succeeded by his son Alexander II. Alexander II, as well as his successor Alexander III, attempted to take over the Western Isles, which were still under the overlordship of Norway. During the reign of Alexander III, Norway launched an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland; the ensuing Treaty of Perth recognised Scottish control of the Western Isles and other disputed areas.
Alexander III 's unexpected death in a riding accident in 1286 precipitated a major succession crisis. Scottish leaders appealed to King Edward I of England for help in determining who was the rightful heir. Edward chose Alexander 's three - year - old Norwegian granddaughter, Margaret. On her way to Scotland in 1290, however, Margaret died at sea, and Edward was again asked to adjudicate between 13 rival claimants to the throne. A court was set up and after two years of deliberation, it pronounced John Balliol to be king. Edward proceeded to treat Balliol as a vassal, and tried to exert influence over Scotland. In 1295, when Balliol renounced his allegiance to England, Edward I invaded. During the first ten years of the ensuing Wars of Scottish Independence, Scotland had no monarch, until Robert the Bruce declared himself king in 1306.
Robert 's efforts to control Scotland culminated in success, and Scottish independence was acknowledged in 1328. However, only one year later, Robert died and was succeeded by his five - year - old son, David II. On the pretext of restoring John Balliol 's rightful heir, Edward Balliol, the English again invaded in 1332. During the next four years, Balliol was crowned, deposed, restored, deposed, restored, and deposed until he eventually settled in England, and David remained king for the next 35 years.
David II died childless in 1371 and was succeeded by his nephew Robert II of the House of Stuart. The reigns of both Robert II and his successor, Robert III, were marked by a general decline in royal power. When Robert III died in 1406, regents had to rule the country; the monarch, Robert III 's son James I, had been taken captive by the English. Having paid a large ransom, James returned to Scotland in 1424; to restore his authority, he used ruthless measures, including the execution of several of his enemies. He was assassinated by a group of nobles. James II continued his father 's policies by subduing influential noblemen but he was killed in an accident at the age of thirty, and a council of regents again assumed power. James III was defeated in a battle against rebellious Scottish earls in 1488, leading to another boy - king: James IV.
In 1513 James IV launched an invasion of England, attempting to take advantage of the absence of the English King Henry VIII. His forces met with disaster at Flodden Field; the King, many senior noblemen, and hundreds of soldiers were killed. As his son and successor, James V, was an infant, the government was again taken over by regents. James V led another disastrous war with the English in 1542, and his death in the same year left the Crown in the hands of his six - day - old daughter, Mary I. Once again, a regency was established.
Mary, a Roman Catholic, reigned during a period of great religious upheaval in Scotland. As a result of the efforts of reformers such as John Knox, a Protestant ascendancy was established. Mary caused alarm by marrying her Catholic cousin, Lord Darnley, in 1565. After Lord Darnley 's assassination in 1567, Mary contracted an even more unpopular marriage with the Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of Darnley 's murder. The nobility rebelled against the Queen, forcing her to abdicate. She fled to England, and the Crown went to her infant son James VI, who was brought up as a Protestant. Mary was imprisoned and later executed by the English queen Elizabeth I.
Elizabeth I 's death in 1603 ended Tudor rule in England. Since she had no children, she was succeeded by the Scottish monarch James VI, who was the great - grandson of Henry VIII 's older sister and hence Elizabeth 's first cousin twice removed. James VI ruled in England as James I after what was known as the "Union of the Crowns ''. Although England and Scotland were in personal union under one monarch -- James I became the first monarch to style himself "King of Great Britain '' in 1604 -- they remained two separate kingdoms. James I 's successor, Charles I, experienced frequent conflicts with the English Parliament related to the issue of royal and parliamentary powers, especially the power to impose taxes. He provoked opposition by ruling without Parliament from 1629 to 1640, unilaterally levying taxes and adopting controversial religious policies (many of which were offensive to the Scottish Presbyterians and the English Puritans). His attempt to enforce Anglicanism led to organised rebellion in Scotland (the "Bishops ' Wars '') and ignited the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In 1642, the conflict between the King and English Parliament reached its climax and the English Civil War began.
The Civil War culminated in the execution of the king in 1649, the overthrow of the English monarchy, and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England. Charles I 's son, Charles II, was proclaimed King of Great Britain in Scotland, but he was forced to flee abroad after he invaded England and was defeated at the Battle of Worcester. In 1653, Oliver Cromwell, the most prominent military and political leader in the nation, seized power and declared himself Lord Protector (effectively becoming a military dictator, but refusing the title of king). Cromwell ruled until his death in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son Richard. The new Lord Protector had little interest in governing; he soon resigned. The lack of clear leadership led to civil and military unrest, and for a popular desire to restore the monarchy. In 1660, the monarchy was restored and Charles II returned to Britain.
Charles II 's reign was marked by the development of the first modern political parties in England. Charles had no legitimate children, and was due to be succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. A parliamentary effort to exclude James from the line of succession arose; the "Petitioners '', who supported exclusion, became the Whig Party, whereas the "Abhorrers '', who opposed exclusion, became the Tory Party. The Exclusion Bill failed; on several occasions, Charles II dissolved Parliament because he feared that the bill might pass. After the dissolution of the Parliament of 1681, Charles ruled without a Parliament until his death in 1685. When James succeeded Charles, he pursued a policy of offering religious tolerance to Roman Catholics, thereby drawing the ire of many of his Protestant subjects. Many opposed James 's decisions to maintain a large standing army, to appoint Roman Catholics to high political and military offices, and to imprison Church of England clerics who challenged his policies. As a result, a group of Protestants known as the Immortal Seven invited James II 's daughter Mary and her husband William III of Orange to depose the king. William obliged, arriving in England on 5 November 1688 to great public support. Faced with the defection of many of his Protestant officials, James fled the realm and William and Mary (rather than James II 's Catholic son) were declared joint Sovereigns of England, Scotland and Ireland.
James 's overthrow, known as the Glorious Revolution, was one of the most important events in the long evolution of parliamentary power. The Bill of Rights 1689 affirmed parliamentary supremacy, and declared that the English people held certain rights, including the freedom from taxes imposed without parliamentary consent. The Bill of Rights required future monarchs to be Protestants, and provided that, after any children of William and Mary, Mary 's sister Anne would inherit the Crown. Mary died childless in 1694, leaving William as the sole monarch. By 1700, a political crisis arose, as all of Anne 's children had died, leaving her as the only individual left in the line of succession. Parliament was afraid that the former James II or his supporters, known as Jacobites, might attempt to reclaim the throne. Parliament passed the Act of Settlement 1701, which excluded James and his Catholic relations from the succession and made William 's nearest Protestant relations, the family of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, next in line to the throne after his sister - in - law Anne. Soon after the passage of the Act, William III died, leaving the Crown to Anne.
After Anne 's accession, the problem of the succession re-emerged. The Scottish Parliament, infuriated that the English Parliament did not consult them on the choice of Sophia 's family as the next heirs, passed the Act of Security 1704, threatening to end the personal union between England and Scotland. The Parliament of England retaliated with the Alien Act 1705, threatening to devastate the Scottish economy by restricting trade. The Scottish and English parliaments negotiated the Acts of Union 1707, under which England and Scotland were united into a single Kingdom of Great Britain, with succession under the rules prescribed by the Act of Settlement.
In 1714, Queen Anne was succeeded by her second cousin, and Sophia 's son, George I, Elector of Hanover, who consolidated his position by defeating Jacobite rebellions in 1715 and 1719. The new monarch was less active in government than many of his British predecessors, but retained control over his German kingdoms, with which Britain was now in personal union. Power shifted towards George 's ministers, especially to Sir Robert Walpole, who is often considered the first British prime minister, although the title was not then in use. The next monarch, George II, witnessed the final end of the Jacobite threat in 1746, when the Catholic Stuarts were completely defeated. During the long reign of his grandson, George III, Britain 's American colonies were lost, the former colonies having formed the United States of America, but British influence elsewhere in the world continued to grow, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created by the Acts of Union 1800.
From 1811 to 1820, George III suffered a severe bout of what is now believed to be porphyria, an illness rendering him incapable of ruling. His son, the future George IV, ruled in his stead as Prince Regent. During the Regency and his own reign, the power of the monarchy declined, and by the time of his successor, William IV, the monarch was no longer able to effectively interfere with parliamentary power. In 1834, William dismissed the Whig Prime Minister, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, and appointed a Tory, Sir Robert Peel. In the ensuing elections, however, Peel lost. The king had no choice but to recall Lord Melbourne. During William IV 's reign, the Reform Act 1832, which reformed parliamentary representation, was passed. Together with others passed later in the century, the Act led to an expansion of the electoral franchise and the rise of the House of Commons as the most important branch of Parliament.
The final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made during the long reign of William IV 's successor, Victoria. As a woman, Victoria could not rule Hanover, which only permitted succession in the male line, so the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover came to an end. The Victorian era was marked by great cultural change, technological progress, and the establishment of the United Kingdom as one of the world 's foremost powers. In recognition of British rule over India, Victoria was declared Empress of India in 1876. However, her reign was also marked by increased support for the republican movement, due in part to Victoria 's permanent mourning and lengthy period of seclusion following the death of her husband in 1861.
Victoria 's son, Edward VII, became the first monarch of the House of Saxe - Coburg and Gotha in 1901. In 1917, the next monarch, George V, changed "Saxe - Coburg and Gotha '' to "Windsor '' in response to the anti-German sympathies aroused by the First World War. George V 's reign was marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom, and the Irish Free State, an independent nation, in 1922.
During the twentieth century, the Commonwealth of Nations evolved from the British Empire. Prior to 1926, the British Crown reigned over the British Empire collectively; the Dominions and Crown Colonies were subordinate to the United Kingdom. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 gave complete self - government to the Dominions, effectively creating a system whereby a single monarch operated independently in each separate Dominion. The concept was solidified by the Statute of Westminster 1931, which has been likened to "a treaty among the Commonwealth countries ''.
The monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution, although it is often still referred to as "British '' for legal and historical reasons and for convenience. The monarch became separately monarch of the United Kingdom, monarch of Canada, monarch of Australia, and so forth. The independent states within the Commonwealth would share the same monarch in a relationship likened to a personal union.
George V 's death in 1936 was followed by the accession of Edward VIII, who caused a public scandal by announcing his desire to marry the divorced American Wallis Simpson, even though the Church of England opposed the remarriage of divorcées. Accordingly, Edward announced his intention to abdicate; the Parliaments of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth countries granted his request. Edward VIII and any children by his new wife were excluded from the line of succession, and the Crown went to his brother, George VI. George served as a rallying figure for the British people during World War II, making morale - boosting visits to the troops as well as to munitions factories and to areas bombed by Nazi Germany. In June 1948 George VI relinquished the title Emperor of India, although remaining head of state of the Dominion of India.
At first, every member of the Commonwealth retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, but when the Dominion of India became a republic in 1950, it would no longer share in a common monarchy. Instead, the British monarch was acknowledged as "Head of the Commonwealth '' in all Commonwealth member states, whether they were realms or republics. The position is purely ceremonial, and is not inherited by the British monarch as of right but is vested in an individual chosen by the Commonwealth heads of government. Member states of the Commonwealth that share the same person as monarch are known as Commonwealth realms.
In 1155 the only English pope, Adrian IV, authorised King Henry II of England to take possession of Ireland as a feudal territory nominally under papal overlordship. The pope wanted the English monarch to annex Ireland and bring the Irish church into line with Rome, despite this process already underway in Ireland by 1155. An all - island kingship of Ireland had been created in 854 by Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid. His last successor was Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, who had become King of Ireland in early 1166, and exiled Diarmait Mac Murchada, King of Leinster. Diarmait asked Henry II for help, gaining a group of Anglo - Norman aristocrats and adventurers, led by Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, to help him regain his throne. Diarmait and his Anglo - Norman allies succeeded and he became King of Leinster again. De Clare married Diarmait 's daughter, and when Diarmait died in 1171, de Clare became King of Leinster. Henry was afraid that de Clare would make Ireland a rival Norman kingdom, so he took advantage of the papal bull and invaded, forcing de Clare and the other Anglo - Norman aristocrats in Ireland and the major Irish kings and lords to recognise him as their overlord. English lords came close to colonising the entire island, but a Gaelic resurgence from the 1260s resulted in the island divided between Gaelic - Irish and Anglo - Irish lords by 1400. Many of the latter became completely Gaelicised, and did not recognise England 's kings except perhaps nominally. Some, such as Manus O'Donnell and Conn O'Neill, 1st Earl of Tyrone, were kings themselves.
By 1541, King Henry VIII of England had broken with the Church of Rome and declared himself Supreme Head of the Church of England. The pope 's grant of Ireland to the English monarch became invalid, so Henry summoned a meeting of the Irish Parliament to change his title from Lord of Ireland to King of Ireland. However much of the island was beyond English control, resulting in the extended Tudor conquest of Ireland that only made the Kingdom of Ireland a reality in 1603, at the conclusion of the Nine Years ' War (Ireland). Nevertheless, Ireland retained its own parliament, becoming an independent state in 1642 - 1649 (Confederate Ireland), and again in 1688 - 91. Only warfare such as the Williamite War in Ireland and subsequent occupation enabled the English crown from 1692, and successive British states from 1707, to retain the country.
In 1800, as a result of the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the Act of Union merged the kingdom of Great Britain and the kingdom of Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The whole island of Ireland continued to be a part of the United Kingdom until 1922, when what is now the Republic of Ireland won independence as the Irish Free State, a separate Dominion within the Commonwealth. The Irish Free State was renamed Éire (or "Ireland '') in 1937, and in 1949 declared itself a republic, left the Commonwealth and severed all ties with the monarchy. Northern Ireland remained within the Union. In 1927, the United Kingdom changed its name to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, while the monarch 's style for the next twenty years became "of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India ''.
In the 1990s, republicanism in the United Kingdom grew, partly on account of negative publicity associated with the Royal Family (for instance, immediately following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales). However, polls from 2002 to 2007 showed that around 70 -- 80 % of the British public supported the continuation of the monarchy.
The sovereign is the Supreme Governor of the established Church of England. Archbishops and bishops are appointed by the monarch, on the advice of the Prime Minister, who chooses the appointee from a list of nominees prepared by a Church Commission. The Crown 's role in the Church of England is titular; the most senior clergyman, the Archbishop of Canterbury, is the spiritual leader of the Church and of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The monarch takes an oath to preserve Church of Scotland and he or she holds the power to appoint the Lord High Commissioner to the Church 's General Assembly, but otherwise plays no part in its governance, and exerts no powers over it. The Sovereign plays no formal role in the disestablished Church in Wales or Church of Ireland.
The relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the laws governing succession to the shared throne requires the unanimous consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes such as the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701 and the Acts of Union 1707. The rules of succession may only be changed by an Act of Parliament; it is not possible for an individual to renounce his or her right of succession. The Act of Settlement restricts the succession to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover (1630 -- 1714), a granddaughter of James I.
Upon the death of a sovereign, his or her heir immediately and automatically succeeds (hence the phrase "The king is dead, long live the king! ''), and the accession of the new sovereign is publicly proclaimed by an Accession Council that meets at St James 's Palace. Upon their accession, a new sovereign is required by law to make and subscribe several oaths: the Accession Declaration as first required by the Bill of Rights, and an oath that they will "maintain and preserve '' the Church of Scotland settlement as required by the Act of Union. The monarch is usually crowned in Westminster Abbey, normally by the Archbishop of Canterbury. A coronation is not necessary for a sovereign to reign; indeed, the ceremony usually takes place many months after accession to allow sufficient time for its preparation and for a period of mourning.
After an individual ascends the throne, he or she reigns until death. The only voluntary abdication, that of Edward VIII, had to be authorised by a special Act of Parliament, His Majesty 's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936. The last monarch involuntarily removed from power was James VII and II, who fled into exile in 1688 during the Glorious Revolution.
Succession was largely governed by male - preference cognatic primogeniture, under which sons inherit before daughters, and elder children inherit before younger ones of the same gender. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, David Cameron, announced at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011 that all 16 Commonwealth realms, including the United Kingdom, had agreed to abolish the gender - preference rule for anyone born after the date of the meeting, 28 October 2011. They also agreed that future monarchs would no longer be prohibited from marrying a Roman Catholic -- a law which dated from the Act of Settlement 1701. However, since the monarch is also the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, the law which prohibits a Roman Catholic from acceding to the throne remains. The necessary UK legislation making the changes received the royal assent on 25 April 2013 and was brought into force in March 2015 after the equivalent legislation was approved in all the other Commonwealth realms.
Only individuals who are Protestants may inherit the Crown. Roman Catholics are prohibited from succeeding. An individual thus disabled from inheriting the Crown is deemed "naturally dead '' for succession purposes, and the disqualification does not extend to the individual 's legitimate descendants.
The Regency Acts allow for regencies in the event of a monarch who is a minor or who is physically or mentally incapacitated. When a regency is necessary, the next qualified individual in the line of succession automatically becomes regent, unless they themselves are a minor or incapacitated. Special provisions were made for Queen Elizabeth II by the Regency Act 1953, which stated that the Duke of Edinburgh (the Queen 's husband) could act as regent in these circumstances.
During a temporary physical infirmity or an absence from the kingdom, the sovereign may temporarily delegate some of his or her functions to Counsellors of State, the monarch 's spouse and the first four adults in the line of succession. The present Counsellors of State are: the Duke of Edinburgh, the Prince of Wales, the Duke of Cambridge, the Duke of Sussex and the Duke of York.
Until 1760 the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues, which included the profits of the Crown Estate (the royal property portfolio). King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List, and this arrangement persisted until 2012. An annual Property Services Grant - in - aid paid for the upkeep of the royal residences, and an annual Royal Travel Grant - in - Aid paid for travel. The Civil List covered most expenses, including those for staffing, state visits, public engagements, and official entertainment. Its size was fixed by Parliament every 10 years; any money saved was carried forward to the next 10 - year period. From 2012 until 2020, the Civil List and Grants - in - Aid are to be replaced with a single Sovereign Grant, which will be set at 15 % of the revenues generated by the Crown Estate.
The Crown Estate is one of the largest property owners in the United Kingdom, with holdings of £ 7.3 billion in 2011. It is held in trust, and can not be sold or owned by the Sovereign in a private capacity. In modern times, the profits surrendered from the Crown Estate to the Treasury have exceeded the Civil List and Grants - in - Aid. For example, the Crown Estate produced £ 200 million in the financial year 2007 -- 8, whereas reported parliamentary funding for the monarch was £ 40 million during the same period.
Like the Crown Estate, the land and assets of the Duchy of Lancaster, a property portfolio valued at £ 383 million in 2011, are held in trust. The revenues of the Duchy form part of the Privy Purse, and are used for expenses not borne by the parliamentary grants. The Duchy of Cornwall is a similar estate held in trust to meet the expenses of the monarch 's eldest son. The Royal Collection, which includes artworks and the Crown Jewels, is not owned by the Sovereign personally and is held in trust, as are the occupied palaces in the United Kingdom such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle.
The sovereign is subject to indirect taxes such as value - added tax, and since 1993 the Queen has paid income tax and capital gains tax on personal income. Parliamentary grants to the Sovereign are not treated as income as they are solely for official expenditure. Republicans estimate that the real cost of the monarchy, including security and potential income not claimed by the state, such as profits from the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall and rent of Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle, is £ 334 million a year.
Estimates of the Queen 's wealth vary, depending on whether assets owned by her personally or held in trust for the nation are included. Forbes magazine estimated her wealth at US $450 million in 2010, but no official figure is available. In 1993, the Lord Chamberlain said estimates of £ 100 million were "grossly overstated ''. Jock Colville, who was her former private secretary and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth in 1971 at £ 2 million (the equivalent of about £ 26 million today).
The Sovereign 's official residence in London is Buckingham Palace. It is the site of most state banquets, investitures, royal christenings and other ceremonies. Another official residence is Windsor Castle, the largest occupied castle in the world, which is used principally at weekends, Easter and during Royal Ascot, an annual race meeting that is part of the social calendar. The Sovereign 's official residence in Scotland is the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh. The monarch stays at Holyrood for at least one week each year, and when visiting Scotland on state occasions.
Historically, the Palace of Westminster and the Tower of London were the main residences of the English Sovereign until Henry VIII acquired the Palace of Whitehall. Whitehall was destroyed by fire in 1698, leading to a shift to St James 's Palace. Although replaced as the monarch 's primary London residence by Buckingham Palace in 1837, St James 's is still the senior palace and remains the ceremonial Royal residence. For example, foreign ambassadors are accredited to the Court of St James 's, and the Palace is the site of the meeting of the Accession Council. It is also used by other members of the Royal Family.
Other residences include Clarence House and Kensington Palace. The palaces belong to the Crown; they are held in trust for future rulers, and can not be sold by the monarch. Sandringham House in Norfolk and Balmoral Castle in Aberdeenshire are privately owned by the Queen.
The present Sovereign 's full style and title is "Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith ''. The title "Head of the Commonwealth '' is held by the Queen personally, and is not vested in the British Crown. Pope Leo X first granted the title "Defender of the Faith '' to King Henry VIII in 1521, rewarding him for his support of the Papacy during the early years of the Protestant Reformation, particularly for his book the Defence of the Seven Sacraments. After Henry broke from the Roman Church, Pope Paul III revoked the grant, but Parliament passed a law authorising its continued use.
The Sovereign is known as "His Majesty '' or "Her Majesty ''. The form "Britannic Majesty '' appears in international treaties and on passports to differentiate the British monarch from foreign rulers. The monarch chooses his or her regnal name, not necessarily his or her first name -- King George VI, King Edward VII and Queen Victoria did not use their first names.
If only one monarch has used a particular name, no ordinal is used; for example, Queen Victoria is not known as "Victoria I '', and ordinals are not used for English monarchs who reigned before the Norman conquest of England. The question of whether numbering for British monarchs is based on previous English or Scottish monarchs was raised in 1953 when Scottish nationalists challenged the Queen 's use of "Elizabeth II '', on the grounds that there had never been an "Elizabeth I '' in Scotland. In MacCormick v Lord Advocate, the Scottish Court of Session ruled against the plaintiffs, finding that the Queen 's title was a matter of her own choice and prerogative. The Home Secretary told the House of Commons that monarchs since the Acts of Union had consistently used the higher of the English and Scottish ordinals, which in the applicable four cases has been the English ordinal. The Prime Minister confirmed this practice, but noted that "neither The Queen nor her advisers could seek to bind their successors ''. Future monarchs will apply this policy.
Traditionally, the signature of the monarch includes their regnal name but not ordinal, followed by the letter R, which stands for rex or regina (Latin for king and queen, respectively). The present monarch 's signature is "Elizabeth R ''. From 1877 until 1948 reigning monarchs added the letter I to their signatures, for imperator or imperatrix (emperor or empress in Latin), from their status as Emperor or Empress of India. For example, Queen Victoria signed as "Victoria RI '' from 1877.
The Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom are "Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory - counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland) ''. The supporters are the Lion and the Unicorn; the motto is "Dieu et mon droit '' (French: "God and my Right ''). Surrounding the shield is a representation of a Garter bearing the motto of the Chivalric order of the same name; "Honi soit qui mal y pense ''. (Old French: "Shame be to him who thinks evil of it ''). In Scotland, the monarch uses an alternative form of the arms in which quarters I and IV represent Scotland, II England, and III Ireland. The mottoes are "In Defens '' (an abbreviated form of the Scots "In My Defens God Me Defend '') and the motto of the Order of the Thistle; "Nemo me impune lacessit ''. (Latin: "No - one provokes me with impunity ''); the supporters are the unicorn and lion, who support both the escutcheon and lances, from which fly the flags of Scotland and England.
The monarch 's official flag in the United Kingdom is the Royal Standard, which depicts the Royal Arms in banner form. It is flown only from buildings, vessels and vehicles in which the Sovereign is present. The Royal Standard is never flown at half - mast because there is always a sovereign: when one dies, his or her successor becomes the sovereign instantly.
When the monarch is not in residence, the Union Flag is flown at Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle and Sandringham House, whereas in Scotland the Royal Standard of Scotland is flown at Holyrood Palace and Balmoral Castle.
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what is the largest mall in united states | List of largest Shopping malls in the United States - wikipedia
List of the shopping malls in the United States of America and its territories greater than or equal to 2,000,000 total square feet of retail space (gross leasable area). The list is based in part on information provided by the International Council of Shopping Centers and by the Department of American Studies at Eastern Connecticut State University as part of its Shopping Mall Studies.
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when did school leaving age rise to 15 | Raising of school leaving age in England and Wales - Wikipedia
The raising of school leaving age (shortened to ROSLA) is the name given by the government to refer to changes regarding the legal age a child is permitted to leave compulsory education as specified under an Education Act. In most countries, the school leaving age often reflects when young people are seen to be mature enough within their society, but not necessarily when they are old enough to be regarded as an adult.
In England and Wales, this age has been raised numerous times since the introduction of compulsory education in 1870. On 1 September 1972, the age was raised from 15 to 16, following preparations which began eight years earlier in 1964. This left a gap year of school leavers who, by law, had to complete an additional year of education from 1973 onwards.
There are several reasons why the government may wish to increase the school leaving age, considering it has raised the age numerous times over the 19th and 20th centuries, the last time being in 2015. With past age raisings, the reasons given have been focused mainly on generating more skilled labour by providing additional time for students to gain additional skills and qualifications. In recent years, it became apparent that most 16 to 18 year - olds have not been motivated to continue their education after completion of their GCSEs, thus increasing the overall unemployment rate given many are unable to find work. The British government hoped that by making education compulsory up to the age of 17 by 2013 and 18 by 2015, it could change this.
Prior to the 19th century, there were very few schools. Most of those that existed were run by the church, for the church, stressing religious education. In the latter part of the 19th Century, compulsory attendance at school ceased to be a matter for local option, with the introduction of the Elementary Education Act 1870 a milestone in the British school education system. Children had to attend between the ages of 5 and 10 though with some local discretion such as early leaving in agricultural areas.
The introduction of the Elementary Education Act 1870 (applying to England and Wales), commonly known as Forster 's Education Act having been drawn up by William Edward Forster, created the concept of compulsory education for children under thirteen, although the decision to make education compulsory was at the discretion of school boards; education was compulsory in approximately 40 % of schools by 1873. In areas where education was considered a problem, elected school boards could be set up. These boards could, at their discretion, create local by - laws, confirmed by Parliament, to require attendance and fine the parents of children who did not attend. There were exemptions for illness, living more than a certain distance (typically one mile) from a school, or certification of having reached the required standard (which varied by board) which were made mandatory across England and Wales by the 1880 Act.
The Elementary Education Act 1880 insisted on compulsory attendance from 5 -- 10 years. For poorer families, ensuring their children attended school proved difficult, as it was more tempting to send them working if the opportunity to earn an extra income was available. Attendance Officers often visited the homes of children who failed to attend school, which often proved to be ineffective. Children under the age of 13 who were employed were required to have a certificate to show they had reached the educational standard; employers of these children who were n't able to show this were penalised. An act brought into force thirteen years later went under the name of the Elementary Education (School Attendance) Act 1893, which stated a raised minimum leaving age to 11. Later the same year, the act was also extended for blind and deaf children, who previously had no means of an official education. This act was later amended in 1899 to raise the school leaving age up to 12 years of age.
The start of the 20th century saw school boards abolished in 1902 and replaced with local education authorities, which are still in use to the present day.
The year 1918 saw the introduction of the Education Act 1918, commonly also known as the Fisher Act as it was devised by Herbert Fisher. The act enforced compulsory education from 5 -- 14 years, but also included provision for compulsory part - time education for all 14 to 18 - year - olds. There were also plans for expansion in tertiary education, by raising the participation age to 18 though cuts in public spending after World War I made this impractical. This is the first act which starting planning provisions for young people to remain in education until the age of 18. The 1918 act was not implemented until a further act of 1921 was passed.
In 1944, Rab Butler introduced the Education Act 1944 which amongst other changes, including the introduction of the Tripartite System, included raising the school leaving age to 15. Although the act should have been brought into effect as from September 1939, it was not implemented because of the effects of World War II, but was eventually enforced from April 1947. The Comprehensive school system has since replaced the Tripartite System brought in by this act across most of England. This act also recommended compulsory part - time education for all children until the age of 18, but was dropped, in similar fashion to the 1918 Act, to cut spending after World War II.
Changes in government approaches towards education meant that it was no longer regarded adequate for a child to leave education aged 14, as that is the age when they were seen to really understand and appreciate the value of education, as well as being the period when adolescence was at its height. It was beginning to be seen as the worst age for a sudden switch from education to employment, with around 80 % of children in 1938 leaving education at this age, many having only had primary - school level education. Although there were concerns about the effects of having less labour from these children, it was hoped that the outcome of a larger quantity of more qualified, skilled workers would eliminate the deficit problem from the loss of unskilled labour.
This act introduced the 11 + examination to determine if a child should be eligible for a grammar school, secondary modern or technical college, under the Tripartite System, but has since been phased out across the majority of the United Kingdom, with just several boroughs in England and Northern Ireland still using it. League tables published in March 2007 showed grammar schools throughout the country were outperforming comprehensive schools; data published ten years later in 2017 suggested a similar clear division between student attainment in grammar schools compared to comprehensive schools.
Changes in society and approaches towards education, including equal opportunities, has meant that it is now recognised that all children deserve to have the same educational opportunities without singling out those who learn at a slower rate than others, thus every child has the opportunity to gain secondary school level qualifications or similar, regardless of background or intelligence.
In 1964, preparations began to raise the school leaving age to 16. These were delayed in 1968, and eventually the decision was taken in 1971 that the new upper age limit be enforced from 1 September 1972 onwards. As well as raising the school leaving age in 1972, the year also saw the introduction of the Education (Work Experience) Act, allowing LEAs to organise work experience for the additional final year school students. In some counties around the country, these changes also led to the introduction of middle schools in 1968, where students were kept at primary or junior school for an additional year, meaning that the number of students in secondary schools within these areas remained virtually constant through the change. In others, more radical changes led to middle schools for pupils aged up to 13 opening in smaller secondary school buildings, with other schools accommodating students over 13. As of 2010, there are fewer than 300 middle schools across England, situated in just 22 local education authorities; the number of remaining middle schools has gradually fallen since the mid-1980s.
For many secondary schools around England and Wales in areas without a Middle School, accommodating for the new 5th year students would be a struggle. A popular solution was to provide those schools with a pre-fabricated building (often referred to as ROSLA Buildings or ROSLA Blocks) that were in need of additional capacity, providing them with the resources to cope with the new generation of 5th year students. This solution proved popular with many schools across the country, not least due to the low cost involved for materials and construction, but also the speed which these buildings could be erected. Many were supplied by F. Pratten and Co Ltd.
The ROSLA Buildings were delivered to schools in self assembly packs, being assembled by a team often within days, regardless of weather conditions. Consequently, they were not intended to stand long - term, though some have proven to have stood much longer than was initially planned. Many ROSLA Buildings shared similar exterior attributes such as their design, with the only difference being the separation of rooms within the building. The room separation within the building was decided upon by senior school management, hence many walls are false from being added in after construction.
Although the majority of schools around England and Wales have since replaced the ROSLA Building at their site, there are still numerous schools around the country which are still actively using these buildings.
Between 1976 and 1997, the minimum school leaving arrangements were:
Under the Education Act 1996, a new single school leaving date was set for 1998 and all subsequent years thereafter. This was set as the last Friday in June in the school year which the child reaches the age of 16.
Reports published in November 2006 suggested that Education Secretary Alan Johnson was exploring ways to raise the school leaving age in England to 18, just over 40 years later than the last rise in 1972, pointing to the decline in unskilled jobs and the need for young people to be equipped for modern day employment.
A year later, on 6 November 2007, Prime Minister Gordon Brown unveiled the government 's plans in his Queen 's Speech. The plans included the duty for parents to assist their children in education or training participation until the date of their 18th birthday, as well as detailing proposed moves to reform the apprenticeship system and to improve achievement for children in care. The Education and Skills Act 2008, when it came into force in the 2013 academic year, initially required participation in some form of education or training until the school year in which the child turned 17, followed by the age being raised to the young person 's 18th birthday in 2015. This was referred to as raising the "participation age '' to distinguish it from the school leaving age which remains at 16. To qualify as participation the young person must be in education or training for the equivalent of one day a week (at a minimum). The local council is responsible for ensuring that a suitable place is available. The Act makes similar powers available to the National Assembly for Wales. A spokesperson for the Welsh Assembly indicated that it would want to encourage more young people to stay in education, but without compulsion, so school leavers there are not required to continue with any education or training.
Figures were published in June 2006 showing that 76.2 % of all young people aged 16 -- 18 are already in further education or training, meaning that the rise might only affect around 25 % of young people who may have otherwise sought employment immediately upon finishing compulsory education. This did not specifically state that young people would remain in secondary school, but rather by law be required to continue their education full or part - time, whether that be in sixth form, college or work based training. Around 80 % of 16 - year - olds stay in full - time academic or vocational education, or go on a government - financed training course. In a survey of 859 people, 9 / 10 supported the plans for the age increase.
Reports published by the DfES showed that although there are around 70 % of 16 year olds who remain in full - time education, this declines to less than 50 % by the time they reach 18, with the majority finding unskilled employment and even fewer going into employment where their training has relevance. There is also a small increase in those who become unemployed by the time they reach 18, which the government hoped to reduce with the act. It is these cases of unemployment which the government believes to be the toughest, whom it classifies as NEET (Not in Education, Employment or Training). In 2006 an additional 7 % of 16 year olds fell into this category and the proportion rose to 13 % among 18 year olds. In practice, only 1 % of young people are classified as NEET during their time aged 16 -- 18, due to churn between training, employment and NEET classification. In 2015 the percentage of 16 - 18 classified as NEET fell to 7.5 %, the lowest figure since 2000.
The government believed that the changes were needed because of the collapse in unskilled jobs in the economy, which means that young school leavers at 16 years of age are finding it increasingly more difficult to find employment, consequentially in many cases making them unemployable. Within the last 40 years, the number of unskilled jobs available have more than halved, from 8 million in the 1960s to 3.5 by 2007, with predictions of further drops to just 600,000 by 2020 due to the increasing demand for skilled labour. This, together with fewer students continuing their further education, increase the difficulty for young school leavers to find work if they were either not able, or chose not to, stay on at school and complete further education. s
Whilst the government is eager to implement the changes, many oppose the proposal, some on civil liberties grounds. Compulsory school attendance is usually justified by reference to the argument that minors are incapable of making sufficiently reasoned choices. However, the 16 - 18 age group falls into a grey area, being regarded as effectively adult in a number of contexts. Indeed, in some jurisdictions (e.g. Scotland), individuals are considered to reach full maturity at 16.
The proposal of using criminal sanctions to enforce attendance under this new system was opposed by MPs from both the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats, who believed compulsion and threats were the wrong approach to increasing participation. A spokesperson for the DfES said the proposals were not about "forcing young people to do something they do n't want to '', and that "we are letting young people down if we allow them to leave education and training without skills at the age of 16. '' However, the Prime Minister 's Queen 's Speech in November 2007, which discussed the raise in school leaving age, suggested that pupils who failed to comply with new laws are to be expected to face fines or community service, rather than custodial sentencing which had previously been proposed. Local Authorities will also be expected to ensure pupils are participating up to 18 years of age.
The downward trend in the number of unskilled jobs available throughout the country is continuing. The government believes that the extension of compulsory education until the age of 18 will mean many more young people will leave education in a much better position to find skilled employment. Speaking in March 2007, Chancellor Gordon Brown stated that around 50,000 teenagers would be paid a training allowance to sign up to college - based courses, with estimates on the available number of apprenticeships available to double to around 500,000 by 2020, with 80 % being available in England, which will be an increase from the current 250,000 apprenticeships available, offered by 130,000 employers.
A skills commission report released in 2013, backed by Labour MP Barry Sheerman, suggests that young people were being let down by the education system, with particular criticism aimed towards the lack of information, advice and guidance available to 14 - 19 year olds. The government were hopeful that the changes would have an effect on preventing the increase in crime levels, as figures reported a substantial percentage of young people leaving school were turning to a life of crime, with many being unable to find suitable work due to lack of skills and qualifications.
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what is the meaning of biryani in kannada | Biryani - wikipedia
Biryani (pronounced (bɪr. jaːniː)), also known as biriyani, biriani, birani or briyani, _̈ spicy rice _̈ is a South Asian mixed rice dish with its origins among the Muslims of the Indian subcontinent. It is popular throughout the Indian subcontinent and among the diaspora from the region. It is made with spices, rice and meat (chicken, mutton, beef, prawn, or fish) or vegetables. Sometimes egg is also added.
Biryani is an Urdu word derived from the Persian language, which was used as an official language in different parts of medieval India, by various Islamic dynasties. One theory is that it originates from birinj, the Persian word for rice. Another is that it derives from biryan or beriyan, to fry or roast.
The exact origin of the dish is uncertain. In North India, different varieties of biryani developed in the Muslim centers of Delhi (Mughlai cuisine), Lucknow (Awadhi cuisine) and other small principalities. In South India, where rice is more widely used as a staple food, several distinct varieties of biryani emerged from Telangana (specifically Hyderabad), Tamil Nadu (Ambur), Kerala (Malabar), and Karnataka, where minority Muslim communities were present. Andhra is the only region of South India that does not have many native varieties of biryani. During the Safavid dynasty (1501 -- 1736) in Persia, a dish called Berian Pilao (Nastaliq script: بریان پلو ) was made with lamb or chicken, marinated overnight -- with dahi (yogurt), herbs, spices, dried fruits like raisins, prunes or pomegranate seeds -- and later cooked in a tannour oven. It was then served with steamed rice.
According to historian Lizzie Collingham, the modern biryani developed in the royal kitchens of the Mughal Empire (1526 - 1857), as a confluence of the native spicy rice dishes of India and the Persian pilaf. Indian restaurateur Kris Dhillon believes that the dish originated in Persia, and was brought to India by the Mughals. However, another theory claims that the dish was known in India before the first Mughal emperor Babur came to India. The 16th - century Mughal text Ain - i - Akbari makes no distinction between biryanis and pilaf (or pulao): it states that the word "biryani '' is of older usage in India. A similar theory, that biryani came to India with Timur 's invasion, appears to be incorrect, because there is no record of biryani having existed in his native land during that period.
According to Pratibha Karan, the biryani is of South Indian origin, derived from pilaf varieties brought to the Indian subcontinent by the Arab traders. She speculates that the pulao was an army dish in medieval India. The armies, unable to cook elaborate meals, would prepare a one - pot dish where they cooked rice with whichever meat was available. Over time, the dish became biryani due to different methods of cooking, with the distinction between "pulao '' and "biryani '' being arbitrary. According to Vishwanath Shenoy, the owner of a biryani restaurant chain in India, one branch of biryani comes from the Mughals, while another was brought by the Arab traders to Malabar in South India.
Pilaf or pulao, as it is known in the Indian subcontinent, is another mixed rice dish popular in South Asian and Middle Eastern cuisine. Opinions differ on the differences between pulao and biryani, and whether there is a difference between the two at all.
According to Delhi - based historian Sohail Nakhvi, pulao tends to be (comparatively) plainer than the biryani and consists of meat (or vegetables) cooked with rice. Biryani on the other hand contains more gravy (due to the use of yakhni in it), is often cooked for longer (hence yielding more tender meat or vegetables) and with additional condiments. Pratibha Karan states that while the terms are often applied arbitrarily, the main distinction is that a biryani comprises two layers of rice with a layer of meat (or vegetables) in the middle; the pulao is not layered.
Colleen Taylor Sen lists the following distinctions between biryani and pulao:
Ingredients vary according to the type of meat used and the region the biryani is from. Meat (of either chicken, mutton, beef, prawn or fish) is the prime ingredient with rice. As is common in dishes of the Indian subcontinent, some vegetables are also used when preparing biryani. Corn may be used depending on the season and availability. Navratan biryani tends to use sweeter richer ingredients such as cashew, kismis and fruits such as apples and pineapples.
The spices and condiments used in biryani may include ghee (clarified butter), nutmeg, mace, pepper, cloves, cardamom, cinnamon, bay leaves, coriander, mint leaves, ginger, onions, tomatoes, and garlic. The premium varieties include saffron. In all biryani, the main ingredient that accompanies the spices is the chicken and mutton; special varieties also use beef and seafood. The dish may be served with dahi chutney or raita, korma, curry, a sour dish of aubergine (brinjal), boiled egg (optional), and salad.
Kacchi Biryani
Tehari
Beef biryani
Depending on the region and the condiments available and popular in that region, there are different varieties of biryani. The variety often takes the name of the region (for example, Sindhi biryani developed in the Sindh region of what is now Pakistan, Hyderabadi biryani developed in the city of Hyderabad in South India, etc.). Some have taken the name of the shop that sells it (for example: Haji Biriyani, Haji Nanna Biriyani in Old Dhaka, Fakhruddin Biriyani in Dhaka, Students biryani in Karachi, Lucky biryani in Bandra, Mumbai and Baghdadi biryani in Colaba, Mumbai). Biryanis are often specific to the respective Muslim community from where it comes, as it is usually the defining dish of that community. Cosmopolitanism has also created these native versions to suit the tastes of others as well.
Delhi biryani
Dhakai / Haji Biriyani
Sindhi biryani
Hyderabadi biryani
Thalassery biryani
Kolkata biryani
Ambur / Vaniyambadi biryani
Chettinad biryani
Bhatkali / Navayathi biryani
Memoni / Kutchi biryani
Dindigul biryani
Bohri biryani
Kalyani biryani
Sri Lankan biryani
Rawther biryani
In Myanmar (Burma), biryani is known in Burmese as danpauk or danbauk, from Persian dum pukht. Featured ingredients include cashew nuts, yogurt, raisins and peas, chicken, cloves, cinnamon, saffron and bay leaf. In Burmese biryani, the chicken is cooked with the rice. biryani is also eaten with a salad of sliced onions and cucumber.
One form of "Arabic '' biryani is the Iraqi preparation (برياني: "biryani ''), where the rice is usually saffron - based with chicken usually being the meat or poultry of choice. Most variations also include vermicelli, fried onions, fried potato cubes, almonds and raisins spread liberally over the rice. Sometimes, a sour / spicy tomato sauce is served on the side (maraq).
During the Safavid dynasty (1501 -- 1736), a dish called Berian (Nastaliq script: بریان پلو ) was made with lamb or chicken, marinated overnight -- with yogurt, herbs, spices, dried fruits like raisins, prunes or pomegranate seeds -- and later cooked in a tannour oven. It was then served with steamed rice.
A different dish called biryan is popular in Afghanistan. Biryan traces its origins to the same source as biryani, and is today sold in Afghanistan as well as in Bhopal, India. Biryan is prepared by cooking gosht and rice together, but without the additional gravy (yakhni) and other condiments that are used in biryani. The Delhi - based historian Sohail Hashmi refers to the biryan as midway between the pulao and biryani. The Afghani biryani tends to use a lot of dry fruit and lesser amounts of meat, often cut into tiny pieces.
Nasi kebuli is an Indonesian spicy steamed rice dish cooked in goat broth, milk and ghee. Nasi kebuli is descended from Kabuli Palaw which is an Afghani rice dish, similar to biryani served in the Indian subcontinent.
Nasi Briyani dishes are very popular in Malaysia and Singapore. As an important part of Malaysian Indian cuisine, they are popularized through Mamak stalls, hawker centres, food courts as well as fine dining restaurants.
Biryani dishes are very popular in Mauritius especially at Hindu and Muslim weddings. It is also widely available at street food places.
Kapampangan cuisine of Philippines (often in Pampanga) features a special dish called Nasing Biringyi (chicken saffron rice), that is typically prepared only during special occasions such as weddings, family get - togethers or fiestas. It is not a staple diet as it is difficult to prepare compared to other usual dishes. Nasing Biringyi is similar to the Nasi Briyani dish of Malaysia in style and taste, but is also compared to a saffron - cooked version of Spanish Paella.
In the Cape Malay culture, a variation of biriyani incorporates lentils as a key ingredient into the dish along with meat (usually mutton or chicken). The dish may be seasoned with garam masala or a curry spice mix (though this is not authentic to the local style) and coloured, sometimes heavily, with turmeric.
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how much mass was converted to energy in the hiroshima bomb | Little Boy - wikipedia
"Little Boy '' was the codename for the atomic bomb dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 during World War II by the Boeing B - 29 Superfortress Enola Gay, piloted by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, Jr., commander of the 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces. It was the first atomic bomb to be used in warfare. The Hiroshima bombing was the second artificial nuclear explosion in history, after the Trinity test, and the first uranium - based detonation. It exploded with an energy of approximately 15 kilotons of TNT (63 TJ). The bomb caused significant destruction to the city of Hiroshima and its occupants.
Little Boy was developed by Lieutenant Commander Francis Birch 's group of Captain William S. Parsons 's Ordnance (O) Division at the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II. Parsons flew on the Hiroshima mission as weaponeer. The Little Boy was a development of the unsuccessful Thin Man nuclear bomb. Like Thin Man, it was a gun - type fission weapon, but derived its explosive power from the nuclear fission of uranium - 235, whereas Thin Man was based on fission of plutonium - 239. Fission was accomplished by shooting a hollow cylinder of enriched uranium (the "bullet '') onto a solid cylinder of the same material (the "target '') by means of a charge of nitrocellulose propellant powder. It contained 64 kg (141 lb) of enriched uranium, of which less than a kilogram underwent nuclear fission. Its components were fabricated at three different plants so that no one would have a copy of the complete design.
After the war ended, it was not expected that the inefficient Little Boy design would ever again be required, and many plans and diagrams were destroyed. However, by mid-1946 the Hanford Site reactors were suffering badly from the Wigner effect, the dislocation of atoms in a solid caused by neutron radiation, so six Little Boy assemblies were produced at Sandia Base. The Navy Bureau of Ordnance built another 25 Little Boy assemblies in 1947 for use by the Lockheed P2V Neptune nuclear strike aircraft (which could be launched from, but not land on, the Midway - class aircraft carriers). All the Little Boy units were withdrawn from service by the end of January 1951.
The names for the first two atomic bomb design projects during World War II -- Fat Man and Thin Man -- were created by Robert Serber, a former student of Los Alamos Laboratory director Robert Oppenheimer who worked on the Manhattan Project. According to Serber, he chose the two names based on their design shapes. The "Thin Man '' was a long device, and its name came from the Dashiell Hammett detective novel and series of movies of the same name. The "Fat Man '' was round and fat, and was named after Kasper Gutman, Sydney Greenstreet 's character in The Maltese Falcon, based on the Hammett novel of that name. Little Boy, being a newer version of Thin Man, was named by others in comparison.
Because uranium - 235 was known to be fissionable, it was the first material pursued in the approach to bomb development. As the first design developed (as well as the first deployed for combat), it is sometimes known as the Mark I. The vast majority of the work came in the form of the isotope enrichment of the uranium necessary for the weapon, since uranium - 235 makes up only 1 part in 140 of natural uranium. Enrichment was performed at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, where the electromagnetic separation plant, known as Y - 12, became fully operational in March 1944. The first shipments of highly enriched uranium were sent to the Los Alamos Laboratory in June 1944.
Most of the uranium necessary for the production of the bomb came from the Shinkolobwe mine and was made available thanks to the foresight of the CEO of the High Katanga Mining Union, Edgar Sengier, who had 1,000 long tons (1,000 t) of uranium ore transported to a New York warehouse in 1939. At least part of the 1,200 long tons (1,200 t) of uranium ore and uranium oxide captured by the Alsos Mission in 1944 and 1945 was used in the bomb.
Little Boy was a simplification of Thin Man, the previous gun - type fission weapon design. Thin Man, 17 feet (5.2 m) long, was designed to use plutonium, so it was also more than capable of using enriched uranium. The Thin Man design was abandoned after experiments by Emilio G. Segrè and his P - 5 Group at Los Alamos on the newly reactor - produced plutonium from Oak Ridge and the Hanford site showed that it contained impurities in the form of the isotope plutonium - 240. This has a far higher spontaneous fission rate and radioactivity than the cyclotron - produced plutonium on which the original measurements had been made, and its inclusion in reactor - bred plutonium (needed for bomb - making due to the quantities required) appeared unavoidable. This meant that the background fission rate of the plutonium was so high that it would be highly likely the plutonium would predetonate and blow itself apart in the initial forming of a critical mass.
In July 1944, almost all research at Los Alamos was redirected to the implosion - type plutonium weapon. Overall responsibility for the uranium gun - type weapon was assigned to Captain William S. Parsons 's Ordnance (O) Division. All the design, development, and technical work at Los Alamos was consolidated under Lieutenant Commander Francis Birch 's group.
In contrast to the plutonium implosion - type nuclear weapon and the plutonium gun - type fission weapon, the uranium gun - type weapon was straightforward if not trivial to design. The concept was pursued so that in case of a failure to develop a plutonium bomb, it would still be possible to use the gun principle. The gun - type design henceforth had to work with enriched uranium only, and this allowed the Thin Man design to be greatly simplified. A high - velocity gun was no longer required, and a simpler weapon could be substituted. The simplified weapon was short enough to fit into a B - 29 bomb bay.
The design specifications were completed in February 1945, and contracts were let to build the components. Three different plants were used so that no one would have a copy of the complete design. The gun and breech were made by the Naval Gun Factory in Washington, D.C.; the target case and some other components were by the Naval Ordnance Plant in Center Line, Michigan; and the tail fairing and mounting brackets by the Expert Tool and Die Company in Detroit, Michigan. The bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945. The uranium - 235 projectile was completed on 15 June, and the target on 24 July. The target and bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the fissile components) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard, California, on 16 July aboard the heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis, arriving on 26 July. The target inserts followed by air on 30 July.
Although all of its components had been tested, no full test of a gun - type nuclear weapon occurred before the Little Boy was dropped over Hiroshima. The only test explosion of a nuclear weapon concept had been of an implosion - type device employing plutonium as its fissile material, and took place on 16 July 1945 at the Trinity nuclear test. There were several reasons for not testing a Little Boy type of device. Primarily, there was little uranium - 235 as compared with the relatively large amount of plutonium which, it was expected, could be produced by the Hanford Site reactors. Additionally, the weapon design was simple enough that it was only deemed necessary to do laboratory tests with the gun - type assembly. Unlike the implosion design, which required sophisticated coordination of shaped explosive charges, the gun - type design was considered almost certain to work.
The danger of accidental detonation made safety a concern. Little Boy incorporated basic safety mechanisms, but an accidental detonation could still occur. Tests were conducted to see whether a crash could drive the hollow "bullet '' onto the "target '' cylinder resulting in a massive release of radiation, or possibly nuclear detonation. These showed that this required an impact of 500 times the force of gravity, which made it highly unlikely. There was still concern that a crash and a fire could trigger the explosives. If immersed in water, the uranium halves were subject to a neutron moderator effect. While this would not have caused an explosion, it could have created widespread radioactive contamination. For this reason, pilots were advised to crash on land rather than at sea.
The Little Boy was 120 inches (300 cm) in length, 28 inches (71 cm) in diameter and weighed approximately 9,700 pounds (4,400 kg). The design used the gun method to explosively force a hollow sub-critical mass of uranium - 235 and a solid target cylinder together into a super-critical mass, initiating a nuclear chain reaction. This was accomplished by shooting one piece of the uranium onto the other by means of four cylindrical silk bags of cordite. The bomb contained 64 kg (141 lb) of enriched uranium. Most was enriched to 89 % but some was only 50 % uranium - 235, for an average enrichment of 80 %. Less than a kilogram of uranium underwent nuclear fission, and of this mass only 0.6 g (0.021 oz) was transformed into several forms of energy, mostly kinetic energy, but also heat and radiation.
Inside the weapon, the uranium - 235 material was divided into two parts, following the gun principle: the "projectile '' and the "target ''. The projectile was a hollow cylinder with 60 % of the total mass (38.5 kg (85 lb)). It consisted of a stack of 9 uranium rings, each 6.25 - inch (159 mm) in diameter with a 4 - inch (100 mm) bore in the center, and a total length of 7 inches (180 mm), pressed together into the front end of a thin - walled projectile 16.25 inches (413 mm) long. Filling in the remainder of the space behind these rings in the projectile was a tungsten carbide disc with a steel back. At ignition, the projectile slug was pushed 42 inches (1,100 mm) along the 72 - inch (1,800 mm) long, 6.5 - inch (170 mm) smooth - bore gun barrel. The slug "insert '' was a 4 inches (100 mm) cylinder, 7 inches (180 mm) in length with a 1 inch (25 mm) axial hole. The slug comprised 40 % of the total fissile mass (25.6 kg or 56 lb). The insert was a stack of 6 washer - like uranium discs somewhat thicker than the projectile rings that were slid over a 1 inch (25 mm) rod. This rod then extended forward through the tungsten carbide tamper plug, impact - absorbing anvil, and nose plug backstop, eventually protruding out of the front of the bomb casing. This entire target assembly was secured at both ends with locknuts.
When the hollow - front projectile reached the target and slid over the target insert, the assembled super-critical mass of uranium would be completely surrounded by a tamper and neutron reflector of tungsten carbide and steel, both materials having a combined mass of 2,300 kg (5,100 lb). Neutron initiators at the base of the projectile were activated by the impact.
For the first fifty years after 1945, every published description and drawing of the Little Boy mechanism assumed that a small, solid projectile was fired into the center of a larger, stationary target. However, critical mass considerations dictated that in Little Boy the larger, hollow piece would be the projectile. The assembled fissile core had more than two critical masses of uranium - 235. This required one of the two pieces to have more than one critical mass, with the larger piece avoiding criticality prior to assembly by means of shape and minimal contact with the neutron - reflecting tungsten carbide tamper.
A hole in the center of the larger piece dispersed the mass and increased the surface area, allowing more fission neutrons to escape, thus preventing a premature chain reaction. But, for this larger, hollow piece to have minimal contact with the tamper, it must be the projectile, since only the projectile 's back end was in contact with the tamper prior to detonation. The rest of the tungsten carbide surrounded the sub-critical mass target cylinder (called the "insert '' by the designers) with air space between it and the insert. This arrangement packs the maximum amount of fissile material into a gun - assembly design.
The bomb employed a fusing system that was designed to detonate the bomb at the most destructive altitude. Calculations showed that for the largest destructive effect, the bomb should explode at an altitude of 580 metres (1,900 ft). The resultant fuze design was a three - stage interlock system:
The Little Boy pre-assemblies were designated L - 1, L - 2, L - 3, L - 4, L - 5, L - 6, L - 7, and L - 11. L - 1, L - 2, L - 5, and L - 6 were expended in test drops. The first drop test was conducted with L - 1 on 23 July 1945. It was dropped over the sea near Tinian in order to test the radar altimeter by the B - 29 later known as Big Stink, piloted by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, the commander of the 509th Composite Group. Two more drop tests over the sea were made on 24 and 25 July, using the L - 2 and L - 5 units in order to test all components. Tibbets was the pilot for both missions, but this time the bomber used was the one subsequently known as Jabit. L - 6 was used as a dress rehearsal on 29 July. The B - 29 Next Objective, piloted by Major Charles W. Sweeney, flew to Iwo Jima, where emergency procedures for loading the bomb onto a standby aircraft were practiced. This rehearsal was repeated on 31 July, but this time L - 6 was reloaded onto a different B - 29, Enola Gay, piloted by Tibbets, and the bomb was test dropped near Tinian. L - 11 was the assembly used for the Hiroshima bomb.
Parsons, the Enola Gay 's weaponeer, was concerned about the possibility of an accidental detonation if the plane crashed on takeoff, so he decided not to load the four cordite powder bags into the gun breech until the aircraft was in flight. Parsons and his assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson, made their way into the bomb bay along the narrow catwalk on the port side. Jeppson held a flashlight while Parsons disconnected the primer wires, removed the breech plug, inserted the powder bags, replaced the breech plug, and reconnected the wires. Before climbing to altitude on approach to the target, Jeppson switched the three safety plugs between the electrical connectors of the internal battery and the firing mechanism from green to red. The bomb was then fully armed. Jeppson monitored the bomb 's circuits.
The bomb was dropped at approximately 08: 15 (JST) 6 August 1945. After falling for 44.4 seconds, the time and barometric triggers started the firing mechanism. The detonation happened at an altitude of 1,968 ± 50 feet (600 ± 15 m). It was less powerful than the Fat Man, which was dropped on Nagasaki, but the damage and the number of victims at Hiroshima were much higher, as Hiroshima was on flat terrain, while the hypocenter of Nagasaki lay in a small valley. According to figures published in 1945, 66,000 people were killed as a direct result of the Hiroshima blast, and 69,000 were injured to varying degrees. Of those deaths, 20,000 were members of the Imperial Japanese Army.
The exact measurement of the yield was problematic since the weapon had never been tested. President Harry S. Truman officially announced that the yield was 20 kilotons of TNT (84 TJ). This was based on Parsons 's visual assessment that the blast was greater than what he had seen at the Trinity nuclear test. Since that had been estimated at 18 kilotons of TNT (75 TJ), speech writers rounded up to 20 kilotons. Further discussion was then suppressed, for fear of lessening the impact of the bomb on the Japanese. Data had been collected by Luis Alvarez, Harold Agnew, and Lawrence H. Johnston on the instrument plane, The Great Artiste, but this was not used to calculate the yield at the time.
After hostilities ended, a survey team from the Manhattan Project that included William Penney, Robert Serber, and George T. Reynolds was sent to Hiroshima to evaluate the effects of the blast. From evaluating the effects on objects and structures, Penney concluded that the yield was 12 ± 1 kilotons. Later calculations based on charring pointed to a yield of 13 to 14 kilotons. In 1953, Frederick Reines calculated the yield as 13 kilotons. This figure became the official yield.
In 1962, scientists at Los Alamos created a mockup of Little Boy known as "Project Ichiban '' in order to answer some of the unanswered questions, but it failed to clear up all the issues. In 1982, Los Alamos created a replica Little Boy from the original drawings and specifications. This was then tested with enriched uranium but in a safe configuration that would not cause a nuclear explosion. A hydraulic lift was used to move the projectile, and experiments were run to assess neutron emission. Based on this and the data from The Great Artiste, the yield was estimated at 16.6 ± 0.3 kilotons. After considering many estimation methods, a 1985 report concluded that the yield was 15 kilotons ± 20 %.
When 1 pound (0.45 kg) of uranium - 235 undergoes complete fission, the yield is 8 kilotons. The 16 kiloton yield of the Little Boy bomb was therefore produced by the fission of 2 pounds (0.91 kg) of uranium - 235, out of the 141 pounds (64 kg) in the pit. The remaining 139 pounds (63 kg), 98.5 % of the total, contributed nothing to the energy yield.
After being selected in April 1945, Hiroshima was spared conventional bombing to serve as a pristine target, where the effects of a nuclear bomb on an undamaged city could be observed. While damage could be studied later, the energy yield of the untested Little Boy design could be determined only at the moment of detonation, using instruments dropped by parachute from a plane flying in formation with the one that dropped the bomb. Radio - transmitted data from these instruments indicated a yield of about 15 kilotons.
Comparing this yield to the observed damage produced a rule of thumb called the 5 psi lethal area rule. Approximately 100 % of people inside the area where the shock wave carries an overpressure of 5 psi or greater would be killed. At Hiroshima, that area was 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) in diameter.
The damage came from three main effects: blast, fire, and radiation.
The blast from a nuclear bomb is the result of X-ray - heated air (the fireball) sending a shock wave or pressure wave in all directions, initially at a velocity greater than the speed of sound, analogous to thunder generated by lightning. Knowledge about urban blast destruction is based largely on studies of Little Boy at Hiroshima. Nagasaki buildings suffered similar damage at similar distances, but the Nagasaki bomb detonated 3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi) from the city center over hilly terrain that was partially bare of buildings.
In Hiroshima almost everything within 1.6 kilometres (1.0 mi) of the point directly under the explosion was completely destroyed, except for about 50 heavily reinforced, earthquake - resistant concrete buildings, only the shells of which remained standing. Most were completely gutted, with their windows, doors, sashes, and frames ripped out. The perimeter of severe blast damage approximately followed the 5 psi (34 kPa) contour at 1.8 kilometres (1.1 mi).
Later test explosions of nuclear weapons with houses and other test structures nearby confirmed the 5 psi overpressure threshold. Ordinary urban buildings experiencing it will be crushed, toppled, or gutted by the force of air pressure. The picture at right shows the effects of a nuclear - bomb - generated 5 psi pressure wave on a test structure in Nevada in 1953.
A major effect of this kind of structural damage was that it created fuel for fires that were started simultaneously throughout the severe destruction region.
The first effect of the explosion was blinding light, accompanied by radiant heat from the fireball. The Hiroshima fireball was 370 metres (1,200 ft) in diameter, with a surface temperature of 6,000 ° C (10,830 ° F). Near ground zero, everything flammable burst into flame. One famous, anonymous Hiroshima victim, sitting on stone steps 260 metres (850 ft) from the hypocenter, left only a shadow, having absorbed the fireball heat that permanently bleached the surrounding stone. Simultaneous fires were started throughout the blast - damaged area by fireball heat and by overturned stoves and furnaces, electrical shorts, etc. Twenty minutes after the detonation, these fires had merged into a firestorm, pulling in surface air from all directions to feed an inferno which consumed everything flammable.
The Hiroshima firestorm was roughly 3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi) in diameter, corresponding closely to the severe blast damage zone. (See the USSBS map, right.) Blast - damaged buildings provided fuel for the fire. Structural lumber and furniture were splintered and scattered about. Debris - choked roads obstructed fire fighters. Broken gas pipes fueled the fire, and broken water pipes rendered hydrants useless. At Nagasaki, the fires failed to merge into a single firestorm, and the fire - damaged area was only one fourth as great as at Hiroshima, due in part to a southwest wind that pushed the fires away from the city.
As the map shows, the Hiroshima firestorm jumped natural firebreaks (river channels), as well as prepared firebreaks. The spread of fire stopped only when it reached the edge of the blast - damaged area, encountering less available fuel.
Accurate casualty figures are impossible to determine, because many victims were cremated by the firestorm, along with all record of their existence. The Manhattan Project report on Hiroshima estimated that 60 % of immediate deaths were caused by fire, but with the caveat that "many persons near the center of explosion suffered fatal injuries from more than one of the bomb effects. '' In particular, many fire victims also received lethal doses of nuclear radiation.
Local fallout is dust and ash from a bomb crater, contaminated with radioactive fission products. It falls to earth downwind of the crater and can produce, with radiation alone, a lethal area much larger than that from blast and fire. With an air burst, the fission products rise into the stratosphere, where they dissipate and become part of the global environment. Because Little Boy was an air burst 580 metres (1,900 ft) above the ground, there was no bomb crater and no local radioactive fallout.
However, a burst of intense neutron and gamma radiation came directly from the fireball. Its lethal radius was 1.3 kilometres (0.8 mi), covering about half of the firestorm area. An estimated 30 % of immediate fatalities were people who received lethal doses of this direct radiation, but died in the firestorm before their radiation injuries would have become apparent. Over 6,000 people survived the blast and fire, but died of radiation injuries. Among injured survivors, 30 % had radiation injuries from which they recovered, but with a lifelong increase in cancer risk. To date, no radiation - related evidence of heritable diseases has been observed among the survivors ' children.
Although Little Boy exploded with the energy equivalent of 16,000 tons of TNT, the Strategic Bombing Survey estimated that the same blast and fire effect could have been caused by 2,100 tons of conventional bombs: "220 B - 29s carrying 1,200 tons of incendiary bombs, 400 tons of high - explosive bombs, and 500 tons of anti-personnel fragmentation bombs. '' Since the target was spread across a two - dimensional plane, the vertical component of a single spherical nuclear explosion was largely wasted. A cluster bomb pattern of smaller explosions would have been a more energy - efficient match to the target.
When the war ended, it was not expected that the inefficient Little Boy design would ever again be required, and many plans and diagrams were destroyed. However, by mid-1946 the Hanford Site reactors were suffering badly from the Wigner effect. Faced with the prospect of no more plutonium for new cores and no more polonium for the initiators for the cores that had already been produced, the Director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R. Groves, ordered that some Little Boys be prepared as an interim measure until a cure could be found. No Little Boy assemblies were available, and no comprehensive set of diagrams of the Little Boy could be found, although there were drawings of the various components, and stocks of spare parts.
At Sandia Base, three Army officers, Captains Albert Bethel, Richard Meyer, and Bobbie Griffin attempted to re-create the Little Boy. They were supervised by Harlow W. Russ, an expert on Little Boy who served with Project Alberta on Tinian, and was now leader of the Z - 11 Group of the Los Alamos Laboratory 's Z Division at Sandia. Gradually, they managed to locate the correct drawings and parts, and figured out how they went together. Eventually, they built six Little Boy assemblies. Although the casings, barrels, and components were tested, no enriched uranium was supplied for the bombs. By early 1947, the problem caused by the Wigner effect was on its way to solution, and the three officers were reassigned.
The Navy Bureau of Ordnance built 25 Little Boy assemblies in 1947 for use by the nuclear - capable Lockheed P2V Neptune aircraft carrier aircraft (which could be launched from but not land on the Midway - class aircraft carriers). Components were produced by the Naval Ordnance Plants in Pocatello, Idaho, and Louisville, Kentucky. Enough fissionable material was available by 1948 to build ten projectiles and targets, although there were only enough initiators for six. All the Little Boy units were withdrawn from service by the end of January 1951.
The Smithsonian Institution displayed a Little Boy (complete, except for enriched uranium), until 1986. The Department of Energy took the weapon from the museum to remove its inner components, so the bombs could not be stolen and detonated with fissile material. The government returned the emptied casing to the Smithsonian in 1993. Three other disarmed bombs are on display in the United States; another is at the Imperial War Museum in London.
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who does the voice for dodge truck commercials | Sam Elliott - wikipedia
Samuel Pack Elliott (born August 9, 1944) is an American actor. His lanky physique, thick moustache, deep and resonant voice, and Western drawl have led to frequent roles as cowboys and ranchers. His other credits over the years have included playing The Stranger in The Big Lebowski (1998), Gar in Mask (1985), General John Buford in Gettysburg (1993), Virgil Earp in Tombstone (1993), Sergeant Major Basil L. Plumley in We Were Soldiers (2002) and Marvel Comics characters Thunderbolt Ross in Hulk (2003) and The Caretaker in Ghost Rider (2007).
Elliott was born in Sacramento, California, to a mother who was a physical training instructor and a father who worked for the Department of the Interior. He moved to Portland, Oregon, with his family during his teenage years, graduating from David Douglas High School. He attended Clark College in Vancouver, Washington, where he completed a two - year program and was cast as one of the leads in Guys and Dolls. The local newspaper suggested that Elliott should be a professional actor. Soon after, Elliott declared he was going to Hollywood to become a star.
Elliott is a member of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity at California State University, Los Angeles. He worked in construction while studying acting and served in the California Army National Guard. He also lived for a short time in Princeton, West Virginia. He has said that he has heritage from the west, specifically the state of Texas, with a relative who was in the Battle of the Alamo.
Elliott began his career as a character actor; his appearance, voice, and bearing were well - suited to Westerns. One of his first film roles was as a card player in Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969). In the 1970 -- 1971 television season, Elliott starred as Doug Robert in the hit series Mission: Impossible, and played the lead character Sam Damon in Once an Eagle, an NBC miniseries during the 1976 -- 1977 season. He played Tom Keating in the mini-series Aspen in 1977. He had the starring role as Rick Carlson in the summer sleeper hit Lifeguard (1976). In 1979, he played the oldest brother in the made - for - TV miniseries The Sacketts. He later played a wife killer in the miniseries Murder in Texas (1981) and A Death in California (1985).
Elliott 's breakthrough came with his supporting role in Mask (1985). He has made guest appearances on shows such as Felony Squad, Gunsmoke, Lancer, and Hawaii Five - O, and has been featured in many TV movies, including Prancer (1989) and Buffalo Girls (1995), in which he played Wild Bill Hickok. In 1986, he starred in TV movie Gone to Texas, based on a biography of Sam Houston. The role allowed him to play Houston as both fighter and a man who grew into a skillful political leader; the film depicted his disgrace as Governor of Tennessee, his return to his Cherokee Nation friends, and his pivotal role in the liberation of Texas from Mexico in 1836. Elliott played Wade Garrett in Road House (1989) and Virgil Earp in Tombstone (1993).
In 1998, Elliot was named the grand marshal of the Calgary Stampede parade and rode in the procession before an estimated 300,000 spectators. He co-starred in We Were Soldiers, which is based on the book We Were Soldiers Once... And Young, portraying Sgt. Maj. Basil L. Plumley. He portrayed General John Buford in the 1993 film Gettysburg. He played General Thunderbolt Ross in the 2003 film Hulk. Elliott played The Stranger, a character narrating the story of The Big Lebowski (1998). In 2005, he appeared in Thank You for Smoking, as a former Marlboro Man advertisement cowboy who has developed lung cancer. In 2007, Elliott joined the comic book adaptation Ghost Rider and The Golden Compass as Lee Scoresby. In 2009, Elliott had a small role in Up In The Air in which he portrayed the Chief Pilot of American Airlines. He has appeared three times on Parks and Recreation as Ron Dunn, the Eagleton equivalent of Ron Swanson; Dunn is a hippie, compared to Swanson 's staunch survivalist and Libertarian personality. He has a supporting role in the film The Company You Keep and played a college football coach in 2014 's Draft Day.
In 2015, Elliott played Karl in Paul Weitz 's film Grandma, appeared in the romance I 'll See You in My Dreams, and had a role in the independent film Digging for Fire. In 2015, he won the Critics ' Choice Television Award for best guest performer in a drama for his role in the FX Network 's show Justified.
In 2015, it was confirmed that Elliot would appear in the new Netflix series The Ranch. He plays Phil Millstein in the second season of Netflix 's Grace and Frankie.
In 2017 it was confirmed that Elliott will appear in the upcoming movie The Man Who Killed Hitler And Then The Bigfoot.
Elliott has performed voice - over narration for various commercials. He has lent his voice to campaigns for Dodge, IBM, Kinney Drugs, Union Pacific, and, most notably, the American Beef Council, succeeding Robert Mitchum in the latter. Since late 2007, Elliott has done voice - overs for Coors beer, bringing his deep, rich voice and "western '' appeal to the brand brewed in Colorado. In 2010, Ram Trucks hired Elliott to do the voice - over for their Ram Heavy Duty truck commercial; he has been voicing their commercials since. Starting in 2008, he has voiced Smokey Bear, and shares the mascot 's birth date (August 9, 1944). For animated films, Elliott lent his voice to Ben the Cow in Barnyard, Buster (a.k.a. Chupadogra) in Marmaduke, and Butch in The Good Dinosaur. He also narrated the Pittsburgh Steelers and Green Bay Packers team introductions to Super Bowl XLV, played at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas at the conclusion of the 2010 NFL season for NFL on Fox.
Elliott married actress Katharine Ross in 1984. Ross starred in Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, in which Elliott had a very small role, but the two did not meet and begin dating until 1978, when they both starred in The Legacy. They have a daughter, Cleo Rose Elliott (born 1984), who is now a musician in Malibu, California.
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dogs and cats the revenge of kitty galore | Cats & Dogs: the Revenge of Kitty Galore - Wikipedia
Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore (also known as Cats & Dogs 2 or Cats & Dogs 2: The Revenge of Kitty Galore) is a 2010 American - Australia spy comedy film directed by Brad Peyton, produced by Andrew Lazar, Polly Johnsen, Greg Michael and Brent O'Connor with music by Christopher Lennertz and Shirley Bassey and written by Ron J. Friedman and Steve Bencich. The film stars Chris O'Donnell and Jack McBrayer. The film also stars the voices of James Marsden, Nick Nolte, Christina Applegate, Katt Williams, Bette Midler, and Neil Patrick Harris. The film is a stand - alone sequel to the 2001 film Cats & Dogs, with more focus on its animal characters than the previous film, and was released on July 30, 2010 by Warner Bros. Pictures. It received extremely negative reviews from film critics and it earned $112.5 million on an $85 million budget. A video game of the same title was developed by 505 Games and was released on July 20, 2010 for the Nintendo DS.
In Germany, a bloodhound named Rex discovers a Cocker Spaniel puppy stealing secret codes before revealing itself as Kitty Galore, a hairless Sphynx cat. Rex reports this incident to D.O.G. HQ. At a car dealership in San Francisco, the mascot Crazy Carlito plans to destroy the dealership building. The police arrive, and officer Shane Larson and his police dog Diggs arrive to stop Carlito. Diggs takes the remote detonator from Carlito but bites it in the process, blowing up the building. Butch and Lou, now a fully grown Beagle and the head of D.O.G. HQ, watch Diggs blowing up the car dealership. Lou wants to recruit Diggs as an agent, and Butch reluctantly agrees.
Diggs gets locked up in the police kennels to prevent him from causing any more incidents. When Shane leaves, Butch comes in through the floor, recruits him, and takes him to D.O.G. HQ. After tracking down a pigeon named Seamus with valuable information, Diggs and Butch meet a M.E.O.W.S. (Mousers Enforcing Our World 's Safety) agent named Catherine who was after Seamus for the same reason the dogs were. Catherine reveals to Diggs that Kitty Galore was a former M.E.O.W.S. agent named Ivana Clawyu who, while on a mission at a cosmetics factory, was chased by a guard dog and fell into a vat of hair removal gel, causing her to lose all her fur. Unrecognized and humiliated by her fellow agents and humans, Kitty left M.E.O.W.S. and vowed to exact revenge on humans and dogs.
Lou forms an alliance with Tab Lazenby, the head of M.E.O.W.S, to take down Kitty Galore. At a cat lady 's home, the team discover that Calico, the middle - cat who was Mr. Tinkles ' former aid, has been sending parts of stolen technology to Kitty using pigeons that work for her. Diggs tries to attack Calico, who then attempts to drown the team in cat litter; due to some quick thinking they eventually manage to escape. Afterwards, they interrogate Calico as to Kitty 's whereabouts, but he claims that he does n't know where she is because the pigeon couriers are flying the stolen technology to a secret location.
The group travels to Alcatraz where Mr. Tinkles is currently a mental patient. They try to get him to tell him Kitty Galore 's whereabouts, but he only gives them one clue: A cat 's eye reveals everything. When Kitty Galore learns about the cats and dogs working together, she hires two mercenaries named Angus and Duncan MacDougall to attempt to assassinate Seamus on the boat returning from the prison. Diggs subdues Angus and accidentally throws him overboard. Fed up with Diggs ruining the mission, Butch dismisses him from the team and leaves with Seamus to salvage clues.
Catherine takes Diggs to her home. She learns that the reason why Diggs never follows orders is because his past experiences have caused him to believe that he can not trust anyone except himself, which led to him spending the majority of his life in kennels. She tells Diggs if he continues to think in this way, no one will able to help him. Diggs realizes how stupid he has been. Catherine takes Diggs to M.E.O.W.S. HQ, where they learn that Kitty is hiding at a fairground with her new master, an amateur magician named Chuck the Magnificent.
Not long after arriving, Diggs and Catherine are captured by Kitty Galore and her henchcat, Paws. Kitty reveals to Diggs and Catherine that she plots to transmit "The Call of the Wild '' via an orbiting satellite which only dogs can hear through televisions, radios and cell phones to cause them to act hostile towards their humans. They will then be left alone and unwanted in kennels. Diggs and Catherine escape and meet up with Butch and Seamus. Kitty uses the roof of the fairground 's flying swings ride for a satellite dish. Diggs, Butch, Catherine and Seamus arrive. Seamus presses a red button, thinking it is a shutdown button, but it instead loads the "Call of the Wild '' signal. Dogs around the world start acting insane in their homes. Paws battles them, revealing he is a robot in the process. Diggs tricks Paws into biting the wires, destroying the satellite. Kitty 's pet mouse, Scrumptious, fed up with Kitty 's abuse towards him, fires her away. Kitty gets covered in cotton candy and lands in the magician 's hat with the humans thinking it was a stunt.
After the mission, Diggs goes to live with Shane before returning to H.Q. to learn that Mr. Tinkles has escaped from prison with Calico.
John Whitesell was attached to direct this film, but Brad Peyton replaced him as director.
Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore earned $4,225,000 on opening day, and $12,279,363 on its opening weekend reaching # 5 at the box office and having a $3,314 average from a very wide 3,705 theaters. In its second weekend, its drop was very similar to the first movie, retreating 44 % to $6,902,116 to 7th place and lifting its total to $26,428,266 in 2 weeks. It held better in its third weekend, dropping 39 % to $4,190,426 and remaining in the Top 10. The film closed on October 21, 2010 after 84 days of release, earning $43,585,753 domestically. Produced on an $85 million budget, the movie is considered a huge box office bomb, as it grossed less than half of the first Cats & Dogs, but it did manage to do better business than fellow summer talking animal competition Marmaduke. It earned an additional $69 million overseas for a worldwide total of $112.5 million. During its initial American theatre release, the film was preceded by the new 3D animated short film titled Coyote Falls with Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner.
Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 14 % of 96 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 3.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Dull and unfunny, this inexplicable sequel offers little more than the spectacle of digitally rendered talking animals with celebrity voices. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 30 out of 100 based on 22 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B - '' on an A+ to F scale, down from the first film 's "B + ''.
Joe Leydon of Variety wrote a positive - leaning review towards the film which reads "Nine years after Cats & Dogs fetched more than $200 million worldwide with its comic take on interspecies animosity, Warners is unleashing Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore, a faster, funnier follow - up in which CGI - enhanced canines and felines effect a temporary truce to combat a common enemy. '' Critics cited the plot as recycled. Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club negatively reviewed the film 's plot saying "it 's still about a feline plot for world domination, and the slobbering secret agents who stand in the way. '' The film was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for "Worst Eye - Gouging Misuse of 3D '', but it lost to The Last Airbender.
TBA
A video game was developed by 505 Games and it was released on July 20, 2010 for the Nintendo DS. It is called Cats and Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore after the movie with the same name.
The DVD, Blu - ray, and 3D Blu - ray copies of Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore were released on November 16, 2010.
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joan osborne - what if god was one of us | One of Us (Joan Osborne song) - wikipedia
"One of Us '' is a song written by Eric Bazilian (of The Hooters) and originally released by Joan Osborne. Released in March 1995 on the album Relish and produced by Rick Chertoff, it became a top 40 hit in November of that year. The song is the theme song for the American television series Joan of Arcadia. The song was nominated for three Grammys and peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100. The song samples "In My Life '' by The Beatles.
In an interview, Bazilian said, "I wrote (' One of Us ') one night -- the quickest song I ever wrote -- to impress a girl. Which worked, because we 're married and have two kids. But we were in the middle of writing Joan 's album, which was a group effort with Rick Chertoff and Joan and Rob and I, and I did a demo of ' One of Us, ' this wacky little demo which I ended up putting as a hidden track on the CD of my first solo record, and I played (it) for them. And it really had n't even occurred to me that it was something that Joan might do, but Rick, in his wisdom, asked Joan if she thought she could sing it. And I think it was better that he asked it that way rather than ' Do you want to sing it? ' Because the answer to that might not have been yes. But she definitely said she could sing it, and we did a little live demo of a guitar and her singing it. And when I got into my car and popped the cassette in, I started practicing the Grammy speech that I should 've gotten to give. ''
The song deals with various aspects of belief in God by asking questions inviting the listener to consider how they might relate to God, such as "Would you call (God 's name) to his face? '' or "Would you want to see (God 's face) if seeing meant that you would have to believe in things like heaven and in Jesus and the saints and all the prophets? ''
The album version starts off with the first four lines of a recording titled "The Aeroplane Ride '', made on October 27, 1937 by American folklorist Alan Lomax and his wife Elizabeth for the Archive of American Folk Song at the Library of Congress, with Mrs. Nell Hampton of Salyersville, Kentucky singing a variation of the 1928 John S. McConnell hymn "Heavenly Aeroplane ''.
Directed by Mark Seliger and Fred Woodward, the video was mainly shot on Coney Island, with various attractions like rollercoasters, ferris wheels and the New York Aquarium shown, interchanged with the vintage - looking shots in sepia and Joan singing in front of the camera.
Roch Parisien called the song "a simple, direct statement of faith, honest and unadorned, one framed in a near - perfect chorus and delectable Neil Young - ish guitar riff. '' In 2007, the song was ranked at number 54 on "VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the ' 90s ''. and number 10 on the network 's 40 Greatest One Hit Wonders of the ' 90s.
CD single -- France
CD single -- US
CD maxi single -- Europe
The song received Grammy nominations in 1996 for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, Record of the Year, and Song of the Year.
In January 1996, "One of Us '' hit the top 10 in the US, peaking at number four on the Billboard Hot 100.
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when did the celebration of mother's day began | Mother 's Day - wikipedia
Mother 's Day is a celebration honoring the mother of the family, as well as motherhood, maternal bonds, and the influence of mothers in society. It is celebrated on various days in many parts of the world, most commonly in the months of March or May. It complements similar celebrations honoring family members, such as Father 's Day, Siblings Day, and Grandparents Day.
The modern Mother 's day began in the United States, at the initiative of Ann Reeves Jarvis in the early 20th century. This is not (directly) related to the many traditional celebrations of mothers and motherhood that have existed throughout the world over thousands of years, such as the Greek cult to Cybele, the Roman festival of Hilaria, or the Christian Mothering Sunday celebration (originally a commemoration of Mother Church, not motherhood). However, in some countries, Mother 's Day is still synonymous with these older traditions.
The U.S. - derived modern version of Mother 's Day has been criticized for having become too commercialized. Founder Jarvis herself regretted this commercialism and expressed views on how that was never her intention.
The modern holiday of Mother 's Day was first celebrated in 1908, when Anna Jarvis held a memorial for her mother at St Andrew 's Methodist Church in Grafton, West Virginia. St Andrew 's Methodist Church now holds the International Mother 's Day Shrine. Her campaign to make Mother 's Day a recognized holiday in the United States began in 1905, the year her mother, Ann Reeves Jarvis, died. Ann Jarvis had been a peace activist who cared for wounded soldiers on both sides of the American Civil War, and created Mother 's Day Work Clubs to address public health issues. Anna Jarvis wanted to honor her mother by continuing the work she started and to set aside a day to honor all mothers because she believed a mother is "the person who has done more for you than anyone in the world ''.
In 1908, the U.S. Congress rejected a proposal to make Mother 's Day an official holiday, joking that they would also have to proclaim a "Mother - in - law 's Day ''. However, owing to the efforts of Anna Jarvis, by 1911 all U.S. states observed the holiday, with some of them officially recognizing Mother 's Day as a local holiday (the first being West Virginia, Jarvis ' home state, in 1910). In 1914, Woodrow Wilson signed a proclamation designating Mother 's Day, held on the second Sunday in May, as a national holiday to honor mothers.
Although Jarvis was successful in founding Mother 's Day, she became resentful of the commercialization of the holiday. By the early 1920s, Hallmark Cards and other companies had started selling Mother 's Day cards. Jarvis believed that the companies had misinterpreted and exploited the idea of Mother 's Day, and that the emphasis of the holiday was on sentiment, not profit. As a result, she organized boycotts of Mother 's Day, and threatened to issue lawsuits against the companies involved. Jarvis argued that people should appreciate and honor their mothers through handwritten letters expressing their love and gratitude, instead of buying gifts and pre-made cards. Jarvis protested at a candy makers ' convention in Philadelphia in 1923, and at a meeting of American War Mothers in 1925. By this time, carnations had become associated with Mother 's Day, and the selling of carnations by the American War Mothers to raise money angered Jarvis, who was arrested for disturbing the peace.
In 1912 Anna Jarvis trademarked the phrases "Second Sunday in May '' and "Mother 's Day '', and created the Mother 's Day International Association. She specifically noted that "Mother 's '' should "be a singular possessive, for each family to honor its own mother, not a plural possessive commemorating all mothers in the world. '' This is also the spelling used by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in his 1914 presidential proclamation, by the U.S. Congress in relevant bills, and by various U.S. presidents in their proclamations concerning Mother 's Day.
While the United States holiday was adopted by some other countries, existing celebrations, held on different dates, honouring motherhood have become described as "Mother 's Day '', such as Mothering Sunday in the United Kingdom or, in Greece, the Eastern Orthodox celebration of the presentation of Jesus Christ to the temple (2 February of Julian Calendar). Both the secular and religious Mother Day are present in Greece. Mothering Sunday is often referred to as "Mother 's Day '' even though it is an unrelated celebration.
In some countries, the date adopted is one significant to the majority religion, such as Virgin Mary Day in Catholic countries. Other countries selected a date with historical significance. For example, Bolivia 's Mother 's Day is the date of a battle in which women participated. See the "International history and tradition '' section for the complete list.
Some ex-communist countries, such as Russia, celebrated International Women 's Day instead of Mother 's Day or simply celebrate both holidays, which is the custom in Ukraine. Kyrgyzstan has recently introduced Mother 's Day, but "year on year (International Women 's Day) is certainly increasing in status ''.
Second Sunday of February
Feb 12, 2017 Feb 11, 2018 Feb 10, 2019
Norway
3 March
Georgia
8 March (with International Women 's Day)
Fourth Sunday in Lent (Mothering Sunday)
26 Mar 2017 11 Mar 2018 31 Mar 2019
21 March (Spring equinox)
25 March
Slovenia
7 April (Annunciation day)
Armenia (Motherhood and Beauty Day)
First Sunday of May
May 7, 2017 May 6, 2018 May 5, 2019
8 May
South Korea (Parents ' Day)
10 May
Second Sunday of May
May 14, 2017 May 13, 2018 May 12, 2019 May 10, 2020
14 May
Benin
15 May
Paraguay (same day as Día de la Patria)
19 May
Kyrgyzstan (Russian: День матери, Kyrgyz: Энэ күнү)
26 May
Poland (Polish: Dzień Matki)
27 May
Bolivia
Last Sunday of May (sometimes First Sunday of June if the last Sunday of May is Pentecost)
May 28, 2017 May 27, 2018 May 26, 2019
French Antilles (First Sunday of June if Pentecost occurs on this day)
30 May
Nicaragua
1 June
Mongolia (together with Children 's Day)
Second Sunday of June
Jun 11, 2017 Jun 10, 2018 Jun 9, 2019
Luxembourg
First Monday of July
Jul 3, 2017 Jul 2, 2018 Jul 1, 2019
South Sudan
12 August
Thailand (birthday of Queen Sirikit)
15 August (Assumption of Mary)
Costa Rica Antwerp (Belgium)
14 October
Belarus (since 1996)
15 October
Malawi (Observed on 15 October or following work day)
Third Sunday of October
Oct 15, 2017 Oct 21, 2018 Oct 20, 2019
Argentina (Día de la Madre)
3 November
Timor Leste
16 November
North Korea
Last Sunday of November
Russia
8 December (Feast of the Immaculate Conception)
Panama
22 December
Indonesia
Shevat 30
Israel
Baisakh Amavasya (Mata Tirtha Aunsi)
6 May 2016 26 April 2017
Nepal
21 Ordibehesht
20 April 2014 10 April 2015 30 March 2016
Iran
In most countries, Mother 's Day is an observance derived from the holiday as it has evolved in the United States, promoted by companies who saw benefit in making it popular. As adopted by other countries and cultures, the holiday has different meanings, is associated with different events (religious, historical or legendary), and is celebrated on different dates.
In some cases, countries already had existing celebrations honoring motherhood, and their celebrations then adopted several external characteristics from the US holiday, such as giving carnations and other presents to one 's mother.
The extent of the celebrations varies greatly. In some countries, it is potentially offensive to one 's mother not to mark Mother 's Day. In others, it is a little - known festival celebrated mainly by immigrants, or covered by the media as a taste of foreign culture.
In the Roman Catholic Church, the holiday is strongly associated with revering the Virgin Mary. In some Catholic homes, families have a special shrine devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary. In many Eastern Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, a special prayer service is held in honor of the Theotokos Virgin Mary.
In Islam there is no concept of Mother 's Day, but the Quran teaches that children should give priority to loving their mother over their father.
In Hindu tradition, Mother 's Day is called "Mata Tirtha Aunshi '' or "Mother Pilgrimage fortnight '', and is celebrated in countries with a Hindu population, especially in Nepal. The holiday is observed on the new moon day in the month of Baisakh, i.e., April / May. This celebration is based on Hindu religion and it pre-dates the creation of the US - inspired celebration by at least a few centuries.
In Buddhism, the festival of Ullambana is derived from the story of Maudgalyayana and his mother.
Mother 's day is celebrated in 8 March. The origin of the 8th of March holiday dates back to 1908 and is associated with a tragic event. A group of workers at a textile factory in New York strikes against extreme working conditions. On 8 March, the factory was shut down and the workers remained trapped inside. Suddenly a fire broke out, where 129 mothers died.
Mother 's Day in most Arab countries is celebrated on 21 March. It was introduced in Egypt by journalist Mustafa Amin and was first celebrated in 1956. The practice has since been copied by other Arab countries.
In Argentina, Mother 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of October. The holiday was originally celebrated on 11 October, the old liturgical date for the celebration of the Maternity of the Blessed Virgin Mary but after the Second Vatican Council, which moved the Virgin Mary festivity to 1 January, the Mother 's Day started to be celebrated the third Sunday of October because of popular tradition. Argentina is the only country in the world that celebrates Mother 's Day on this date.
In Armenia, Mother 's Day is celebrated on 8 March, and on 7 April as Maternity and Beauty Day.
In Australia, Mother 's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May. The tradition of giving gifts to mothers on Mother 's Day in Australia was started by Janet Heyden, a resident of Leichhardt, Sydney, in 1924. She began the tradition during a visit to a patient at the Newington State Home for Women, where she met many lonely and forgotten mothers. To cheer them up, she rounded up support from local school children and businesses to donate and bring gifts to the women. Every year thereafter, Mrs Heyden raised increasing support for the project from local businesses and even the local Mayor. The day has since become commercialised.
Belarus celebrates Mother 's Day on 14 October. Like other ex-Communist republics, Belarus used to celebrate only International Women 's Day on 8 March. Mother 's Day in Belarus was officially established by the Belarusian government, and it was celebrated for the first time in 1996. The celebration of the Virgin Mary (the holiday of Protection of the Holy Mother of God) is celebrated in the same day.
Mother 's Day in Bhutan is celebrated on 8 May. It was introduced in Bhutan by the Tourism Council of Bhutan.
In Belgium, Mother 's Day (Moederdag or Moederkesdag in Dutch and Fête des Mères in French) is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. In the week before this holiday children make little presents at primary school, which they give to their mothers in the early morning of Mother 's Day. Typically, the father will buy croissants and other sweet breads and pastries and bring these to the mother while she is still in bed -- the beginning of a day of pampering for the mother. There are also many people who celebrate Mother 's Day on 15 August instead; these are mostly people around Antwerp, who consider that day (Assumption) the classical Mother 's Day and the observance in May an invention for commercial reasons. It was originally established on that day as the result of a campaign by Frans Van Kuyck, a painter and Alderman from Antwerp.
In Bolivia, Mother 's Day is celebrated on 27 May. El Día de la Madre Boliviana was passed into law on 8 November 1927, during the presidency of Hernando Siles Reyes. The date commemorates the Battle of La Coronilla, which took place on 27 May 1812, during the Bolivian War of Independence, in what is now the city of Cochabamba. In this battle, women fighting for the country 's independence were slaughtered by the Spanish army. It is not a public holiday, but all schools hold activities and festivities throughout the day.
In Brazil, Mother 's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. The first Mother 's Day in Brazil was promoted by Associação Cristã de Moços de Porto Alegre (Young Men 's Christian Association of Porto Alegre) on 12 May 1918. In 1932, then President Getúlio Vargas made the second Sunday of May the official date for Mother 's Day. In 1947, Archbishop Jaime de Barros Câmara, Cardinal - Archbishop of Rio de Janeiro, decided that this holiday would also be included in the official calendar of the Catholic Church.
Mother 's Day is not an official holiday (see Public holidays in Brazil), but it is widely observed and typically involves spending time with and giving gifts to one 's mother. Because of this, it is considered one of the celebrations most related to consumerism in the country, second only to Christmas Day as the most commercially lucrative holiday.
Mother 's Day in Canada is celebrated on the second Sunday in May (it is not a public holiday or bank holiday), and typically involves small celebrations and gift - giving to one 's mother, grandmother, or other important female figures in one 's family. Celebratory practices are very similar to those of other western nations. A Québécois tradition is for Québécois men to offer roses or other flowers to the women.
Mother 's Day is becoming more popular in China. Carnations are a very popular Mother 's Day gift and the most sold flowers in relation to the day. In 1997 Mother 's Day was set as the day to help poor mothers and to remind people of the poor mothers in rural areas such as China 's western region. In the People 's Daily, the Chinese government 's official newspaper, an article explained that "despite originating in the United States, people in China accept the holiday without hesitation because it is in line with the country 's traditional ethics -- respect for the elderly and filial piety towards parents. ''
In recent years, the Communist Party member Li Hanqiu began to advocate for the official adoption of Mother 's Day in memory of Meng Mu, the mother of Mèng Zǐ. He formed a non-governmental organization called Chinese Mothers ' Festival Promotion Society, with the support of 100 Confucian scholars and lecturers of ethics. Li and the Society want to replace the Western - style gift of carnations with lilies, which, in ancient times, were planted by Chinese mothers when children left home. Mother 's Day remains an unofficial festival, except in a small number of cities.
In the Czech Republic, Mother 's Day is celebrated every second Sunday in May. It started in former Czechoslovakia in 1923. The promoter of this celebration was Alice Masaryková. After World War II communists replaced Mother 's Day with International Woman 's Day, celebrated on 8 March. The former Czechoslovakia celebrated Women 's Day until the Velvet Revolution in 1989. After the split of the country in 1993, the Czech Republic started celebrating Mother 's Day again.
Mother 's Day in Egypt is celebrated on 21 March, the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere. It was introduced in Egypt by journalist Mustafa Amin in his book Smiling America (1943). The idea was overlooked at the time. Later Amin heard the story of a widowed mother who devoted her whole life to raising her son until he became a doctor. The son then married and left without showing any gratitude to his mother. Hearing this, Amin became motivated to promote "Mother 's Day ''. The idea was first ridiculed by president Gamal Abdel Nasser but he eventually accepted it and Mother 's Day was first celebrated on 21 March 1956. The practice has since been copied by other Arab countries.
When Mustafa Amin was arrested and imprisoned, there were attempts to change the name of the holiday from "Mother 's Day '' to "Family Day '' as the government wished to prevent the occasion from reminding people of its founder. These attempts were unsuccessful and celebrations continued to be held on that day; classic songs celebrating mothers remain famous to this day.
Mother 's Day is celebrated for three days in Ethiopia, after the end of rainy season. It comes in mid-fall where people enjoy a three - day feast called "Antrosht ''.
For the feast, ingredients will be brought by the children for a traditional hash recipe. The ingredients are divided along genders, with girls bringing spices, vegetables, cheese and butter, while the boys bring a lamb or bull. The mother hands out to the family the hash.
A celebration takes place after the meal. The mothers and daughters anoint themselves using butter on their faces and chests. While honoring their family and heroes, men sing songs.
In Estonia, Mother 's Day (emadepäev in Estonian) is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is recognized nationally, but is not a public holiday.
In Finland, Mother 's Day (äitienpäivä in Finnish) is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is recognized nationally, and is a public holiday. It is usually celebrated at homes where children or grandchildren bring Mother _́ s day cards that they have drawn to their mothers and grandmothers. Usually some food, coffee and cakes are served for guests. Grown up children visit their parents homes and bring traditionally Mother _́ s day roses or other flowers accompanied with a Mother _́ s day card. The president of Finland honors with medals every year some mothers who have done something exceptional and positive during the year.
In France, amidst alarm at the low birth rate, there were attempts in 1896 and 1904 to create a national celebration honoring the mothers of large families. In 1906 ten mothers who had nine children each were given an award recognising "High Maternal Merit '' ("Haut mérite maternel ''). American World War I soldiers fighting in France popularized the US Mother 's Day holiday created by Anna Jarvis. They sent so much mail back to their country for Mother 's Day that the Union Franco - Américaine created a postal card for that purpose. In 1918, also inspired by Jarvis, the town of Lyon wanted to celebrate a "journée des Mères '', but instead decided to celebrate a "Journée Nationale des Mères de familles nombreuses. '' The holiday was more inspired by anti-depopulation efforts than by the US holiday, with medals awarded to the mothers of large families. The French government made the day official in 1920 as a day for mothers of large families. Since then the French government awards the Médaille de la Famille française to mothers of large families.
In 1941, by initiative of Philippe Pétain, the wartime Vichy government used the celebration in support of their policy to encourage larger families, but all mothers were now honored, even mothers with smaller families.
In 1950, after the war, the celebration was reinstated. The law of 24 May 1950 required (in Article 1) that the Republic pay official homage to French Mothers. Article 2 stated it should be celebrated on the last Sunday in May as the "Fête des Mères '' (except when Pentecost fell on that day, in which case it was moved to the first Sunday in June). Article 3 stated that all expenditure shall be covered from the budget of the Ministry of Public Health and Population.
During the 1950s, the celebration lost all its patriotic and natalist ideologies, and became heavily commercialized.
In 1956, the celebration was given a budget and integrated into the new Code de l'action Sociale et des familles. In 2004 responsibility for the holiday was transferred to the Minister responsible for families.
Georgia celebrates Mother 's Day on 3 March. It was declared by the first President of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia in order to replace the International Women Day, and it was officially approved by the Supreme Council in 1991. Nowadays Georgia celebrates both Mother 's Day on 3 March and International Women 's Day on 8 March.
In the 1920s, Germany had the lowest birthrate in Europe, and the declining trend was continuing. This was attributed to women 's participation in the labor market. At the same time, influential groups in society (politicians of left and right, churchwomen, and feminists) believed that mothers should be honored but could not agree on how to do so. However, all groups strongly agreed on the promotion of the values of motherhood. In 1923, this resulted in the unanimous adoption of Muttertag, the Mother 's Day holiday as imported from America and Norway. The head of the Association of German Florists cited "the inner conflict of our Volk and the loosening of the family '' as his reason for introducing the holiday. He expected that the holiday would unite the divided country. In 1925, the Mother 's Day Committee joined the task force for the recovery of the volk, and the holiday stopped depending on commercial interests and began emphasizing the need to increase the population in Germany by promoting motherhood.
The holiday was then seen as a means to encourage women to bear more children, which nationalists saw as a way to rejuvenate the nation. The holiday did not celebrate individual women, but an idealized standard of motherhood. The progressive forces resisted the implementation of the holiday because it was backed by so many conservatives, and because they saw it as a way to eliminate the rights of working women. Die Frau, the newspaper of the Federation of German Women 's Associations, refused to recognize the holiday. Many local authorities adopted their own interpretation of the holiday: it would be a day to support economically larger families or single - mother families. The guidelines for the subsidies had eugenics criteria, but there is no indication that social workers ever implemented them in practice, and subsidies were given preferentially to families in economic need rather than to families with more children or "healthier '' children.
With the Nazi party in power during 1933 -- 1945, the situation changed radically. The promotion of Mother 's Day increased in many European countries, including the UK and France. From the position of the German Nazi government, the role of mothers was to give healthy children to the German nation. The Nazi party 's intention was to create a pure "Aryan race '' according to nazi eugenics. Among other Mother 's Day ideas, the government promoted the death of a mother 's sons in battle as the highest embodiment of patriotic motherhood.
The Nazis quickly declared Mother 's Day an official holiday and put it under the control of the NSV (National Socialist People 's Welfare Association) and the NSF (National Socialist Women Organization). This created conflicts with other organizations that resented Nazi control of the holiday, including Catholic and Protestant churches and local women 's organizations. Local authorities resisted the guidelines from the Nazi government and continued assigning resources to families who were in economic need, much to the dismay of the Nazi officials.
In 1938, the government began issuing an award called Mother 's Cross (Mutterkreuz), according to categories that depended on the number of children a mother had. The medal was awarded on Mother 's Day and also on other holidays due to the large number of recipients. The Cross was an effort to encourage women to have more children, and recipients were required to have at least four.
In Hungary, Mother 's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of May. It was first celebrated in 1925 by the Hungarian Red Cross Youth.
The modern Mother 's Day has been assimilated into Indian culture, and it is celebrated every year on the second Sunday of May. Indians do not celebrate the occasion as a religious event, and it is celebrated primarily in urban centers.
Indonesian Mother 's Day (Indonesian: Hari Ibu) is celebrated nationally on 22 December. The date was made an official holiday by President Soekarno under Presidential Decree (Indonesian: Dekrit Presiden) no. 316 in 1953, on the 25th anniversary of the 1928 Indonesian Women Congress. The day originally sought to celebrate the spirit of Indonesian women and to improve the condition of the nation. Today, the meaning of Mother 's Day has changed, and it is celebrated by expressing love and gratitude to mothers. People present gifts to mothers (such as flowers) and hold surprise parties and competitions, which include cooking and kebaya wearing. People also allow mothers a day off from domestic chores.
The holiday is celebrated on the anniversary of the opening day of the first Indonesian Women Congress (Indonesian: Kongres Perempuan Indonesia), which was held from 22 to 25 December 1928. The Congress took place in a building called Dalem Jayadipuran, which now serves as the office of the Center of History and Traditional Values Preservation (Indonesian: Balai Pelestarian Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional) in Brigjen Katamso Street, Yogyakarta. The Congress was attended by 30 feminist organizations from 12 cities in Java and Sumatra. In Indonesia, feminist organizations have existed since 1912, inspired by Indonesian heroines of the 19th century, e.g., Kartini, Martha Christina Tiahahu, Cut Nyak Meutia, Maria Walanda Maramis, Dewi Sartika, Nyai Ahmad Dahlan, Rasuna Said, etc. The Congress intended to improve women 's rights in education and marriage.
Indonesia also celebrates the Kartini Day (Indonesian: Hari Kartini) on 21 April, in memory of activist Raden Ajeng Kartini. This is a celebration of the emancipation of women. The observance was instituted at the 1938 Indonesian Women Congress.
During President Suharto 's New Order (1965 -- 1998), government propaganda used Mother 's Day and Kartini Day to inculcate into women the idea that they should be docile and stay at home.
In Iran, Mother 's Day is celebrated on 20 Jumada al - thani. This is the sixth month in the Islamic calendar (a lunar calendar) and every year the holiday falls on a different day of the Gregorian calendar. This is the birthday anniversary of Fatimah, Prophet Muhammad 's only daughter according to Shia Islam. On this day, banners reading "Ya Fatemeah (O! Fatemeh) '' are displayed on "government buildings, private buildings, public streets and car windows. '' Mother 's Day was originally observed on 16 December but the date was changed after the Iranian Revolution in 1979. The celebration is both Women 's Day (replacing International Women 's Day) and Mother 's Day.
In 1960, the Institute for Women Protection adopted the Western holiday and established it on 25 Azar (16 December), the date the Institute was founded. The Institute 's action had the support of Queen Farah Pahlavi, the wife of the last Shah of Persia, who promoted the construction of maternity clinics in remote parts of the country to commemorate the day. Pahlavi regime used the holiday to promote "gender ideologies '' of the regime. The Shah 's government honored and gave awards to women who represented the idealized view of the regime, including mothers who had many healthy children.
According to Shahla Haeri, the Islamic Republic government has used the holiday to "control and channel women 's movements '' and to promote role models for the traditional concept of family. Fatimah is seen by these critics as the chosen model of a woman completely dedicated to certain traditionally sanctioned feminine roles. However, supporters of the choice contend that there is much more to her life story than simply such "traditional '' roles.
The Jewish population of Israel used to celebrate Mother 's Day on Shevat 30 of the Jewish calendar, which falls between 30 January and 1 March. The celebration was set as the same date that Henrietta Szold died (13 February 1945). Henrietta had no biological children, but her organization Youth Aliyah rescued many Jewish children from Nazi Germany and provided for them. She also championed children 's rights. Szold is considered the "mother '' of all those children, and that is why her annual remembrance day (יום השנה) was set as Mother 's Day (יוֹם הָאֵם, yom ha'em). The holiday has evolved over time, becoming a celebration of mutual love inside the family, called Family Day (יוֹם הַמִשְּפָּחָה, yom hamishpacha). This holiday is mainly celebrated in preschools with an activity to which parents are invited. Mother 's Day is mainly celebrated by children at kindergartens. There are no longer mutual gifts among members of the family, and there is no longer any commercialization of the celebration. It is not an official holiday.
Mother 's Day in Italy was celebrated for the first time on 24 December 1933 as the "Day of the mother and the child '' (Giornata della madre e del fanciullo). It was instituted by the Opera nazionale maternità e infanzia in order to publicly reward the most prolific Italian women every year.
After World War II, Mother 's Day was first celebrated on 12 May 1957 in Assisi, at the initiative of Reverend Otello Migliosi, the parish priest of the Tordibetto church. This celebration was so popular that in the following year Mother 's Day was adopted throughout Italy. On 18 December 1958, a proposal was presented to the Italian Senate to make the holiday official.
In Japan, Mother 's Day (母 の 日, Haha no Hi) was initially commemorated during the Shōwa period as the birthday of Empress Kōjun (mother of Emperor Akihito) on 6 March. This was established in 1931 when the Imperial Women 's Union was organized. In 1937, the first meeting of "Praise Mothers '' was held on 8 May, and in 1949 Japanese society adopted the second Sunday of May as the official date for Mother 's Day in Japan. Today, people typically give their mothers gifts of flowers such as red carnations and roses. Japan is most known for giving carnations on Mother 's Day.
In Kyrgyzstan, Mother 's Day is celebrated on 19 May every year. The holiday was first celebrated in 2012. Mothers are also honored on International Women 's Day
Mother 's Day in Latvia was celebrated for the first time in 1922. Since 1934, Mother 's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. After the end of the soviet occupation of Baltic states celebration was resumed in 1992. Mothers are also honored on International Women 's Day.
Mother 's Day in Lithuania was celebrated for the first time in 1928. In Lithuania, Mother 's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of May.
In Malawi. Mother 's Day is a public holiday. The day is observed on 15 October or the following workday. It is celebrated on the UN 's World Rural Women 's Day.
In the Maldives, Mother 's Day is celebrated on 13 May. The day is celebrated in different ways. Children give gifts and spend time with their mothers. Daughters give their mothers cards and handmade gifts and sons give their mothers gifts and flowers. Maldivians love to celebrate Mother 's day, and they have it specially written on their calendar.
The first mention of Mother 's Day in Malta occurred during the Radio Children 's Programmes run by Frans H. Said in May 1961. Within a few years, Mother 's Day became one of the most popular dates in the Maltese calendar. In Malta, this day is commemorated on the second Sunday in May. Mothers are invariably given gifts and invited for lunch, usually at a good quality restaurant.
In Mexico, the government of Álvaro Obregón imported the Mother 's Day holiday from the US in 1922, and the newspaper Excélsior held a massive promotional campaign for the holiday that year. The conservative government tried to use the holiday to promote a more conservative role for mothers in families, but that perspective was criticized by the socialists as promoting an unrealistic image of a woman who was not good for much more than breeding.
In the mid-1930s, the leftist government of Lázaro Cárdenas promoted the holiday as a "patriotic festival ''. The Cárdenas government tried to use the holiday as a vehicle for various efforts: to stress the importance of families as the basis for national development; to benefit from the loyalty that Mexicans felt towards their mothers; to introduce new morals to Mexican women; and to reduce the influence that the church and the Catholic right exerted over women. The government sponsored the holiday in the schools. However, ignoring the strict guidelines from the government, theatre plays were filled with religious icons and themes. Consequently, the "national celebrations '' became "religious fiestas '' despite the efforts of the government.
Soledad Orozco García, the wife of President Manuel Ávila Camacho, promoted the holiday during the 1940s, resulting in an important state - sponsored celebration. The 1942 celebration lasted a full week and included an announcement that all women could reclaim their pawned sewing machines from the Monte de Piedad at no cost.
Due to Orozco 's promotion, the Catholic National Synarchist Union (UNS) took heed of the holiday around 1941. Shop - owner members of the Party of the Mexican Revolution (now the Institutional Revolutionary Party) observed a custom allowing women from humble classes to pick a free Mother 's Day gift from a shop to bring home to their families. The Synarchists worried that this promoted both materialism and the idleness of lower classes, and in turn, reinforced the systemic social problems of the country. Currently this holiday practice is viewed as very conservative, but the 1940s ' UNS saw Mother 's Day as part of the larger debate on the modernization that was happening at the time. This economic modernization was inspired by US models and was sponsored by the state. The fact that the holiday was originally imported from the US was seen as evidence of an attempt at imposing capitalism and materialism in Mexican society.
The UNS and the clergy of the city of León interpreted the government 's actions as an effort to secularize the holiday and to promote a more active role for women in society. They concluded that the government 's long - term goal was to cause women to abandon their traditional roles at home in order to spiritually weaken men. They also saw the holiday as an attempt to secularize the cult to the Virgin Mary, inside a larger effort to dechristianize several holidays. The government sought to counter these claims by organizing widespread masses and asking religious women to assist with the state - sponsored events in order to "depaganize '' them. The clergy preferred to promote 2 July celebration of the Santísima Virgen de la Luz, the patron of León, Guanajuato, in replacement of Mother 's Day. In 1942, at the same time as Soledad 's greatest celebration of Mother 's Day, the clergy organized the 210th celebration of the Virgin Mary with a large parade in León.
There is a consensus among scholars that the Mexican government abandoned its revolutionary initiatives during the 1940s, including its efforts to influence Mother 's Day.
Today the "Día de las Madres '' is an unofficial holiday in Mexico held each year on 10 May, the day on which it was first celebrated in Mexico.
In Mexico, to show affection and appreciation to the mother, it is traditional to start the celebration with the famous song "Las Mañanitas '', either a cappella, with the help of a mariachi or a contracted trio. Many families usually gather to celebrate this special day trying to spend as much time as possible with mothers to honor them on their day. They are organized to bring some dishes and eat all together or maybe to visit any restaurant.
In Nepal, there is a festival equivalent to Mother 's Day, called Mata Tirtha Aunsi ("Mother Pilgrimage New Moon ''), or Mata Tirtha Puja ("Mother Pilgrimage Worship ''). It is celebrated according to the lunar calendar. It falls on the last day of the dark fortnight in the month of Baishakh which falls in April -- May (in 2015, it will occur on 18 April). The dark fortnight lasts for 15 days from the full moon to the new moon. This festival is observed to commemorate and honor mothers, and it is celebrated by giving gifts to mothers and remembering mothers who are no more.
To honor mothers who have died, it is the tradition to go on a pilgrimage to the Mata Tirtha ponds, located 6 km to the southwest of downtown Kathmandu. The nearby Mata Tirtha village is named after these ponds. Previously, the tradition was observed primarily by the Newar community and other people living in the Kathmandu Valley. Now this festival is widely celebrated across the country.
Many tragic folklore legends have been created, suggesting different reasons why this pond became a pilgrimage site. The most popular version says that, in ancient times, the mother of a shepherd died, and he made offerings to a nearby pond. There he saw the face of his mother in the water, with her hand taking the offerings. Since then, many people visited the pond, hoping to see their deceased mother 's face. Pilgrims believe that they will bring peace to their mothers ' souls by visiting the sacred place. There are two ponds. The larger one is for ritual bathing. The smaller one is used to "look upon mother 's face '', and is fenced by iron bars to prevent people from bathing in it.
Traditionally, in the Kathmandu valley the South - Western corner is reserved for women and women - related rituals, and the North - Eastern is for men and men - related rituals. The worship place for Mata Tirtha Aunsi is located in Mata Tirtha in the South - Western half of the valley, while the worship place for Gokarna Aunsi, the equivalent celebration for deceased fathers, is located in Gokarna, Nepal, in the North - Eastern half. This division is reflected in many aspects of the life in Kathmandu valley.
Mother 's Day is known as Aama ko Mukh Herne Din in Nepali, which literally means "day to see mother 's face ''. In Nepal Bhasa, the festival is known as Mām yā Khwā Swayegu, which can be translated as "to look upon mother 's face ''.
In the Netherlands, Mother 's Day was introduced as early as 1910 by the Dutch branch of the Salvation Army. The Royal Dutch Society for Horticulture and Botany, a group protecting the interest of Dutch florists, worked to promote the holiday; they hoped to emulate the commercial success achieved by American florists. They were imitating the campaign already underway by florists in Germany and Austria, but they were aware that the traditions had originated in the US.
Florists launched a major promotional effort in 1925. This included the publication of a book of articles written by famous intellectuals, radio broadcasts, newspapers ads, and the collaboration of priests and teachers who wanted to promote the celebration for their own reasons. In 1931 the second Sunday of May was adopted as the official celebration date. In the mid-1930s the slogan Moederdag -- Bloemendag (Mother 's Day -- Flowers ' Day) was coined, and the phrase was popular for many years. In the 1930s and 1940 's "Mother 's Day cakes '' were given as gifts in hospitals and to the Dutch Queen, who is known as the "mother of the country ''. Other trade groups tried to cash in on the holiday and to give new meaning to the holiday in order to promote their own wares as gifts.
Roman Catholic priests complained that the holiday interfered with the honoring of the Virgin Mary, the divine mother, which took place during the whole month of May. In 1926 Mother 's Day was celebrated on 7 July in order to address these complaints. Catholic organizations and priests tried to Christianize the holiday, but those attempts were rendered futile around the 1960s when the church lost influence and the holiday was completely secularized.
In later years, the initial resistance disappeared, and even leftist newspapers stopped their criticism and endorsed Mother 's Day.
In the 1980s, the American origin of the holiday was still not widely known, so feminist groups who opposed the perpetuation of gender roles sometimes claimed that Mother 's Day was invented by Nazis and celebrated on the birthday of Klara Hitler, Hitler 's mother.
In New Zealand, Mother 's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May. Mother 's Day is not a public holiday. The New Zealand tradition is to give cards and gifts and to serve mothers breakfast in bed.
In Nicaragua, the Día de la Madre has been celebrated on 30 May since the early 1940s. The date was chosen by President Anastasio Somoza García because it was the birthday of Casimira Sacasa, his wife 's mother.
Mother 's Day is celebrated on 16 November as a public holiday in North Korea. The date takes its significance from the First National Meeting of Mothers held in 1961, for which Kim Il - sung, the leader of the country, published a work called The Duty of Mothers in the Education of Children. The date was designated as Mother 's Day in May 2012 by the Presidium of the Supreme People 's Assembly but only became a public holiday and appeared on the North Korean calendar starting in 2015.
Mother 's Day was first celebrated on 9 February 1919 and was initially organized by religious institutions. Later it has become a family day, and the mother is often treated to breakfast in bed, flowers and cake.
It has gradually become a major commercial event, with special pastries, flowers and other presents offered by retailers. Day - cares and primary schools often encourage children to make cards and other gifts.
In Pakistan, Mother 's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. Media channels celebrate with special shows. Individuals honor their mothers by giving gifts and commemorative articles. Individuals who have lost their mothers pray and pay their respects to their loved ones lost. Schools hold special programs in order to acknowledge the efforts of their mothers.
In Panama, Mother 's Day is celebrated on 8 December, the same day as the Feast of the Immaculate Conception. This date was suggested in 1930 by the wife of Panama 's President Florencio Harmodio Arosemena. 8 December was adopted as Mother 's Day under Law 69, which was passed the same year.
According to another account, in 1924 the Rotary Club of Panama asked that Mother 's Day be celebrated on 11 May. Politician Aníbal D. Ríos changed the proposal so that the celebration would be held on 8 December. He then established Mother 's Day as a national holiday on that date.
In Paraguay, Mother 's Day is celebrated on 15 May, the same day as the Dia de la Patria, which celebrates the independence of Paraguay. This date was chosen to honor the role played by Juana María de Lara in the events of 14 May 1811 that led to Paraguay 's independence.
In 2008, the Paraguayan Minister of Culture, Bruno Barrios, lamented this coincidence because, in Paraguay, Mother 's Day is much more popular than independence day and the independence celebration goes unnoticed. As a result, Barrios asked that the celebration be moved to the end of the month. A group of young people attempted to gather 20,000 signatures to ask the Parliament to move Mother 's Day. In 2008, the Comisión de festejos (Celebration Committee) of the city of Asunción asked that Mother 's Day be moved to the second Sunday of May.
In the Philippines, Mother 's Day is officially celebrated on the second Sunday of May, but it is not a public holiday. Although not a traditional Filipino holiday, the occasion owes its popularity to American Colonial Period influence.
According to a 2008 article by the Philippine News Agency, in 1921 the Ilocos Norte Federation of Women 's Clubs asked to declare the first Monday of December as Mother 's Day "to honor these fabulous women who brought forth God 's children into this world. '' In response, Governor - General Charles Yeater issued Circular No. 33 declaring the celebration. In 1937 President Manuel L. Quezon issued Presidential Proclamation No. 213, changing the name of the occasion from "Mother 's Day '' to "Parent 's Day '' to address the complaints that there was n't a "Father 's Day ''. In 1980 President Ferdinand Marcos issued Presidential Proclamation No. 2037 proclaiming the date as both Mother 's Day and Father 's Day. In 1988 President Corazon Aquino issued Presidential Proclamation No. 266, changing Mother 's Day to the second Sunday of May, and Father 's Day to the third Sunday of June, discontinuing the traditional date. In 1998 President Joseph Estrada returned both celebrations to the first Monday of December.
In Portugal, the "Dia da Mãe '' ("Mother 's Day '') is an unofficial holiday held each year on the first Sunday of May (sometimes coinciding with Labour Day). The weeks leading up to this Sunday, school children spend a few hours a day to prepare a gift for their mothers, aided by their school teachers. In general, mothers receive gifts by their family members and this day is meant to be celebrated with the whole family. It used to be celebrated on the 8th December, the same date of the Conception of the Virgin celebration.
In Romania, Mother 's Day has been celebrated on the first Sunday of May since 2010. Law 319 / 2009 made both Mother 's Day and Father 's Day official holidays in Romania. The measure was passed thanks to campaign efforts from the Alliance Fighting Discrimination Against Fathers (TATA). Previously, Mother 's Day was celebrated on 8 March, as part of International Women 's Day (a tradition dating back to when Romania was part of the Eastern bloc). Today, Mother 's Day and International Women 's Day are two separate holidays, with International Women 's Day being held on its original date of 8 March.
Traditionally Russia had celebrated International Women 's Day and Mother 's Day on 8 March, an inheritance from the Soviet Union, and a public holiday.
Women 's Day was first celebrated on the last Sunday in February in 1913 in Russia.
In 1917, demonstrations marking International Women 's Day in Saint Petersburg on the last Sunday in February (which fell on 8 March on the Gregorian calendar) initiated the February Revolution. Following the October Revolution later that year, the Bolshevik Alexandra Kollontai persuaded Vladimir Lenin to make it an official holiday in the Soviet Union, and it was established, but was a working day until 1965.
On 8 May 1965, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, International Women 's Day was declared a non-working day in the Soviet Union "in commemoration of the outstanding merits of Soviet women in communistic construction, in the defense of their Fatherland during the Great Patriotic War, in their heroism and selflessness at the front and in the rear, and also marking the great contribution of women to strengthening friendship between peoples, and the struggle for peace. But still, women 's day must be celebrated as are other holidays. ''
In Samoa, Mother 's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May, and as a recognised national holiday on the Monday following.
In Singapore, Mother 's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is not recognized as a holiday by the government.
Czechoslovakia celebrated only Women 's Day until the Velvet Revolution in 1989. After the country split in 1993, Slovakia started celebrating both Women 's Day and Mother 's Day. The politicization of Women 's Day has affected the official status of Mother 's Day. Center - right parties want Mother 's Day to replace Women 's Day, and social - democrats want to make Women 's Day an official holiday. Currently, both days are festive, but they are not "state holidays ''. In the Slovak Republic, Mother 's Day is celebrated every second Sunday in May.
In South Africa, Mother 's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is not recognized as a holiday by the government. The tradition is to give cards and gifts and to serve mothers breakfast in bed or to go out to lunch together as a family.
In South Sudan, Mother 's Day is celebrated on the first Monday in July. The president Salva Kiir Mayardit proclaimed Mother 's Day as the first Monday in July after handing over from Sudan. Children in South Sudan are presenting mothers with gifts and flowers. The first Mother 's Day was held in that country on 2 July 2012.
In Spain, Mother 's Day or Día de la Madre is celebrated on the first Sunday of May. The weeks leading up to this Sunday, school children spend a few hours a day to prepare a gift for their mothers, aided by their school teachers. In general, mothers receive gifts by their family members & this day is meant to be celebrated with the whole family. It is also said to be celebrated in May, as May is the month dedicated to the Virgin Mary (mother of Jesus) according to Catholicism. The idea of a month dedicated specifically to Mary can be traced back to baroque times. Although it was n't always held during May, Mary Month included thirty daily spiritual exercises honoring Mary.
In Sri Lanka, Mother 's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May.
In Sweden, Mother 's Day was first celebrated in 1919, by initiative of the author Cecilia Bååth - Holmberg. It took several decades for the day to be widely recognized. Swedes born in the early nineteen hundreds typically did not celebrate the day because of the common belief that the holiday was invented strictly for commercial purposes. This was in contrast to Father 's Day, which has been widely celebrated in Sweden since the late 1970s. Mother 's Day in Sweden is celebrated on the last Sunday in May. A later date was chosen to allow everyone to go outside and pick flowers.
In Switzerland, the "règle de Pentecôte '' law allows Mother 's Day to be celebrated a week late if the holiday falls on the same day as Pentecost. In 2008, merchants declined to move the date.
In Taiwan, Mother 's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of the month of May, coinciding with Buddha 's birthday and the traditional ceremony of "washing the Buddha ''. In 1999 the Taiwanese government established the second Sunday of May as Buddha 's birthday, so they would be celebrated in the same day.
Since 2006, the Tzu Chi, the largest charity organization in Taiwan, celebrates the Tzu Chi Day, Mother 's Day and Buddha 's birthday all together, as part of a unified celebration and religious observance.
Mother 's day in Thailand is celebrated on the birthday of the Queen of Thailand, Queen Sirikit (12 August). The holiday was first celebrated around the 1980s as part of the campaign by the Prime Minister of Thailand Prem Tinsulanonda to promote Thailand 's Royal family. Father 's Day is celebrated on the late King Bhumibol Adulyadej 's birthday.
Ukraine celebrates Mother 's Day (Ukrainian: День Матері) on the second Sunday of May. In Ukraine, Mother 's Day officially became a holiday only in 1999 and is celebrated since 2000. Since then Ukrainian society struggles to transition the main holiday that recognizes woman from the International Women 's Day, a holiday adopted under the Soviet Union that remained as a legacy in Ukraine after its collapse, to Mother 's Day.
The United Kingdom celebrates Mothering Sunday, which falls on the fourth Sunday of Lent (26 March in 2017). This holiday has its roots in the church and was originally unrelated to the American holiday. Most historians believe that Mothering Sunday evolved from the 16th - century Christian practice of visiting one 's mother church annually on Laetare Sunday. As a result of this tradition, most mothers were reunited with their children on this day when young apprentices and young women in service were released by their masters for that weekend. As a result of the influence of the American Mother 's Day, Mothering Sunday transformed into the tradition of showing appreciation to one 's mother. The holiday is still recognized in the original historical sense by many churches, with attention paid to Mary the mother of Jesus Christ and the concept of the Mother Church.
The custom was still popular by the start of the 19th century, but with the Industrial Revolution, traditions changed and the Mothering Day customs declined. By 1935, Mothering Sunday was less celebrated in Europe. Constance Penswick - Smith worked unsuccessfully to revive the festival in the 1910s -- 1920s. However, US World War II soldiers brought the US Mother 's Day celebration to the UK, and the holiday was merged with the Mothering Sunday traditions still celebrated in the Church of England. By the 1950s, the celebration became popular again in the whole of the UK, thanks to the efforts of UK merchants, who saw in the festival a great commercial opportunity. People from UK started celebrating Mother 's Day on the fourth Sunday of Lent, the same day on which Mothering Sunday had been celebrated for centuries. Some Mothering Sunday traditions were revived, such as the tradition of eating cake on that day, although celebrants now eat simnel cake instead of the cakes that were traditionally prepared at that time. The traditions of the two holidays are now mixed together and celebrated on the same day, although many people are not aware that the festivities have quite separate origins.
Mothering Sunday occurs 3 weeks prior to Easter Sunday or the fourth Sunday of Lent, meaning it can fall at the earliest on 1 March (in years when Easter Day falls on 22 March) and at the latest on 4 April (when Easter Day falls on 25 April).
The United States celebrates Mother 's Day on the second Sunday in May. In 1872 Julia Ward Howe called for women to join in support of disarmament and asked for 2 June 1872, to be established as a "Mother 's Day for Peace ''. Her 1870 "Appeal to womanhood throughout the world '' is sometimes referred to as Mother 's Day Proclamation. But Howe 's day was not for honouring mothers but for organizing pacifist mothers against war. In the 1880s and 1890s there were several further attempts to establish an American "Mother 's Day '', but these did not succeed beyond the local level.
In the United States, Mother 's Day remains one of the biggest days for sales of flowers, greeting cards, and the like; Mother 's Day is also the biggest holiday for long - distance telephone calls. Moreover, churchgoing is also popular on Mother 's Day, yielding the highest church attendance after Christmas Eve and Easter. Many worshippers celebrate the day with carnations, coloured if the mother is living and white if she is dead.
Mother 's Day continues to be one of the most commercially successful U.S. occasions.
It is possible that the holiday would have withered over time without the support and continuous promotion of the florist industries and other commercial industries. Other Protestant holidays from the same time, such as Children 's Day and Temperance Sunday, do not have the same level of popularity.
Enstam, Elizabeth York. "The Dallas equal suffrage association, political style, and popular culture: grassroots strategies of the Woman Suffrage Movement, 1913 -- 1919. '' Journal of Southern History 68.4 (2002): 817 +. Student Resources in Context. Web. 14 November 2014.
General
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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what are the different types of molecular movements found in living organisms | Cell (Biology) - wikipedia
The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room '') is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the "building blocks of life ''. The study of cells is called cell biology.
Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals). While the number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species, humans contain more than 10 trillion (10) cells. Most plant and animal cells are visible only under a microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres.
Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named them for their resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago.
Cells are of two types: eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic, which do not. Prokaryotes are single - celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single - celled or multicellular.
Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea, two of the three domains of life. Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterised by having vital biological processes including cell signaling. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane - bound organelles such as a nucleus. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single chromosome that is in direct contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid. Most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 μm in diameter.
A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions:
Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, and algae are all eukaryotic. These cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as a thousand times greater in volume. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes is compartmentalization: the presence of membrane - bound organelles (compartments) in which specific activities take place. Most important among these is a cell nucleus, an organelle that houses the cell 's DNA. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true kernel (nucleus) ''. Other differences include:
All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell, regulates what moves in and out (selectively permeable), and maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the membrane, the cytoplasm takes up most of the cell 's volume. All cells (except red blood cells which lack a cell nucleus and most organelles to accommodate maximum space for hemoglobin) possess DNA, the hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing the information necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell 's primary machinery. There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells. This article lists these primary cellular components, then briefly describes their function.
The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is a biological membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell. In animals, the plasma membrane is the outer boundary of the cell, while in plants and prokaryotes it is usually covered by a cell wall. This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a double layer of phospholipids, which are amphiphilic (partly hydrophobic and partly hydrophilic). Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer, or sometimes a fluid mosaic membrane. Embedded within this membrane is a variety of protein molecules that act as channels and pumps that move different molecules into and out of the cell. The membrane is semi-permeable, and selectively permeable, in that it can either let a substance (molecule or ion) pass through freely, pass through to a limited extent or not pass through at all. Cell surface membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow cells to detect external signaling molecules such as hormones.
The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell 's shape; anchors organelles in place; helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and mobility. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules. There are a great number of proteins associated with them, each controlling a cell 's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments. The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is less well - studied but is involved in the maintenance of cell shape, polarity and cytokinesis. The subunit protein of microfilaments is a small, monomeric protein called actin. The subunit of microtubules is a dimeric molecule called tubulin. Intermediate filaments are heteropolymers whose subunits vary among the cell types in different tissues. But some of the subunit protein of intermediate filaments include vimentin, desmin, lamin (lamins A, B and C), keratin (multiple acidic and basic keratins), neurofilament proteins (NF -- L, NF -- M).
Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Cells use DNA for their long - term information storage. The biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA sequence. RNA is used for information transport (e.g., mRNA) and enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal RNA). Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are used to add amino acids during protein translation.
Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular bacterial chromosome in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different, linear molecules called chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts (see endosymbiotic theory).
A human cell has genetic material contained in the cell nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in the mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome). In humans the nuclear genome is divided into 46 linear DNA molecules called chromosomes, including 22 homologous chromosome pairs and a pair of sex chromosomes. The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule distinct from the nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial DNA is very small compared to nuclear chromosomes, it codes for 13 proteins involved in mitochondrial energy production and specific tRNAs.
Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell by a process called transfection. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell 's genome, or stable, if it is. Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the genome.
Organelles are parts of the cell which are adapted and / or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions, analogous to the organs of the human body (such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different function). Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have organelles, but prokaryotic organelles are generally simpler and are not membrane - bound.
There are several types of organelles in a cell. Some (such as the nucleus and golgi apparatus) are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands). The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles.
Many cells also have structures which exist wholly or partially outside the cell membrane. These structures are notable because they are not protected from the external environment by the semipermeable cell membrane. In order to assemble these structures, their components must be carried across the cell membrane by export processes.
Many types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a cell wall. The cell wall acts to protect the cell mechanically and chemically from its environment, and is an additional layer of protection to the cell membrane. Different types of cell have cell walls made up of different materials; plant cell walls are primarily made up of cellulose, fungi cell walls are made up of chitin and bacteria cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan.
A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell membrane and cell wall. The capsule may be polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as Bacillus anthracis or hyaluronic acid as in streptococci. Capsules are not marked by normal staining protocols and can be detected by India ink or methyl blue; which allows for higher contrast between the cells for observation.
Flagella are organelles for cellular mobility. The bacterial flagellum stretches from cytoplasm through the cell membrane (s) and extrudes through the cell wall. They are long and thick thread - like appendages, protein in nature. A different type of flagellum is found in archaea and a different type is found in eukaryotes.
A fimbria also known as a pilus is a short, thin, hair - like filament found on the surface of bacteria. Fimbriae, or pili are formed of a protein called pilin (antigenic) and are responsible for attachment of bacteria to specific receptors of human cell (cell adhesion). There are special types of specific pili involved in bacterial conjugation.
Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells. This leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation (vegetative reproduction) in unicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission, while eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division, called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis. A diploid cell may also undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells, usually four. Haploid cells serve as gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells.
DNA replication, or the process of duplicating a cell 's genome, always happens when a cell divides through mitosis or binary fission. This occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle.
In meiosis, the DNA is replicated only once, while the cell divides twice. DNA replication only occurs before meiosis I. DNA replication does not occur when the cells divide the second time, in meiosis II. Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the job.
Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism. Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient molecules. Metabolism has two distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell breaks down complex molecules to produce energy and reducing power, and anabolism, in which the cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological functions. Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be broken down into simpler sugar molecules called monosaccharides such as glucose. Once inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that possesses readily available energy, through two different pathways.
Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and maintenance of cellular activities. This process involves the formation of new protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA / RNA. Protein synthesis generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.
Transcription is the process where genetic information in DNA is used to produce a complementary RNA strand. This RNA strand is then processed to give messenger RNA (mRNA), which is free to migrate through the cell. mRNA molecules bind to protein - RNA complexes called ribosomes located in the cytosol, where they are translated into polypeptide sequences. The ribosome mediates the formation of a polypeptide sequence based on the mRNA sequence. The mRNA sequence directly relates to the polypeptide sequence by binding to transfer RNA (tRNA) adapter molecules in binding pockets within the ribosome. The new polypeptide then folds into a functional three - dimensional protein molecule.
Unicellular organisms can move in order to find food or escape predators. Common mechanisms of motion include flagella and cilia.
In multicellular organisms, cells can move during processes such as wound healing, the immune response and cancer metastasis. For example, in wound healing in animals, white blood cells move to the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection. Cell motility involves many receptors, crosslinking, bundling, binding, adhesion, motor and other proteins. The process is divided into three steps -- protrusion of the leading edge of the cell, adhesion of the leading edge and de-adhesion at the cell body and rear, and cytoskeletal contraction to pull the cell forward. Each step is driven by physical forces generated by unique segments of the cytoskeleton.
Multicellular organisms are organisms that consist of more than one cell, in contrast to single - celled organisms.
In complex multicellular organisms, cells specialize into different cell types that are adapted to particular functions. In mammals, major cell types include skin cells, muscle cells, neurons, blood cells, fibroblasts, stem cells, and others. Cell types differ both in appearance and function, yet are genetically identical. Cells are able to be of the same genotype but of different cell type due to the differential expression of the genes they contain.
Most distinct cell types arise from a single totipotent cell, called a zygote, that differentiates into hundreds of different cell types during the course of development. Differentiation of cells is driven by different environmental cues (such as cell -- cell interaction) and intrinsic differences (such as those caused by the uneven distribution of molecules during division).
Multicellularity has evolved independently at least 25 times, including in some prokaryotes, like cyanobacteria, myxobacteria, actinomycetes, Magnetoglobus multicellularis or Methanosarcina. However, complex multicellular organisms evolved only in six eukaryotic groups: animals, fungi, brown algae, red algae, green algae, and plants. It evolved repeatedly for plants (Chloroplastida), once or twice for animals, once for brown algae, and perhaps several times for fungi, slime molds, and red algae. Multicellularity may have evolved from colonies of interdependent organisms, from cellularization, or from organisms in symbiotic relationships.
The first evidence of multicellularity is from cyanobacteria - like organisms that lived between 3 and 3.5 billion years ago. Other early fossils of multicellular organisms include the contested Grypania spiralis and the fossils of the black shales of the Palaeoproterozoic Francevillian Group Fossil B Formation in Gabon.
The evolution of multicellularity from unicellular ancestors has been replicated in the laboratory, in evolution experiments using predation as the selective pressure.
The origin of cells has to do with the origin of life, which began the history of life on Earth.
There are several theories about the origin of small molecules that led to life on the early Earth. They may have been carried to Earth on meteorites (see Murchison meteorite), created at deep - sea vents, or synthesized by lightning in a reducing atmosphere (see Miller -- Urey experiment). There is little experimental data defining what the first self - replicating forms were. RNA is thought to be the earliest self - replicating molecule, as it is capable of both storing genetic information and catalyzing chemical reactions (see RNA world hypothesis), but some other entity with the potential to self - replicate could have preceded RNA, such as clay or peptide nucleic acid.
Cells emerged at least 3.5 billion years ago. The current belief is that these cells were heterotrophs. The early cell membranes were probably more simple and permeable than modern ones, with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid. Lipids are known to spontaneously form bilayered vesicles in water, and could have preceded RNA, but the first cell membranes could also have been produced by catalytic RNA, or even have required structural proteins before they could form.
The eukaryotic cell seems to have evolved from a symbiotic community of prokaryotic cells. DNA - bearing organelles like the mitochondria and the chloroplasts are descended from ancient symbiotic oxygen - breathing proteobacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively, which were endosymbiosed by an ancestral archaean prokaryote.
There is still considerable debate about whether organelles like the hydrogenosome predated the origin of mitochondria, or vice versa: see the hydrogen hypothesis for the origin of eukaryotic cells.
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who sang the suite life on deck song | The Suite Life on Deck - wikipedia
The Suite Life on Deck is an American sitcom that aired on Disney Channel from September 26, 2008 to May 6, 2011. It is a sequel / spin - off of the Disney Channel Original Series The Suite Life of Zack & Cody. The series follows twin brothers Zack and Cody Martin and hotel heiress London Tipton in a new setting, the SS Tipton, where they attend classes at "Seven Seas High School '' and meet Bailey Pickett while Mr. Moseby manages the ship. The ship travels around the world to nations such as Italy, France, Greece, India, Sweden and the United Kingdom where the characters experience different cultures, adventures, and situations.
The series ' pilot aired in the UK on September 19, 2008, and in U.S. markets on September 26, 2008. The series premiere on the Disney Channel in the U.S. drew 5.7 million viewers, and it became the most watched series premiere in Canada on the Family Channel. The show was also TV 's No. 1 series in Kids 6 -- 11 and No. 1 scripted series in tweens 9 -- 14 in 2008, outpacing veteran series Hannah Montana and Wizards of Waverly Place in the ratings. On October 19, 2009, it was announced that the series had been renewed for a third season, which began production in January 2010 and debuted on July 2, 2010. The series is also 2009 's top rated scripted series in the children and tween demographic (6 -- 14).
The series has been broadcast in more than 30 countries worldwide, and was shot at Hollywood Center Studios in Los Angeles (as was the original series). The series was taped in front of a live studio audience, though a laugh track is used for some scenes. The series is the second spin - off of a Disney Channel series (after the short - lived That 's So Raven spinoff Cory in the House); as well as the last Disney Channel series to debut broadcasting exclusively in standard definition, and the first of three Disney Channel shows to transition from standard definition to high definition, which occurred on August 7, 2009 with the season 2 premiere, "The Spy Who Shoved Me, '' and the third multi-camera comedy (after Sonny with a Chance and Jonas) to utilize a filmized appearance instead of the Filmlook appearance that was used in the first season.
On March 25, 2011, a film based on The Suite Life on Deck and its parent series titled The Suite Life Movie aired on the Disney Channel. The series ' forty - minute finale episode, "Graduation on Deck '', aired on Disney Channel on May 6, 2011, officially ending the series.
On February 4, 2008, it was announced that the Disney Channel was developing a new contemporary sequel to the Disney channel sitcom The Suite Life of Zack & Cody. The announcement was made by Gary Marsh, the President of the Disney Channel. He stated, "Our audience has shown us that after 88 episodes, ' The Suite Life of Zack & Cody ' remains one of their favorite sitcoms ever, we decided to find a new way for Zack, Cody, London, and Mr. Moseby to live ' The Suite Life ' in a whole new setting -- this time aboard a luxury cruise liner. '' The series original creator, Danny Kallis was announced to be involved with the project. The elements from the original series remain the same though the setting is completely different.
In December 2008, it was reported that the Disney Channel had renewed the series for a thirteen episode second season. On May 11, 2009, Disney issued a press release stating that the second season had been extended to include a larger number of episodes than the original thirteen. Gary Marsh, the president of Disney Channels Worldwide said: "With this second - season extension, the cast of ' The Suite Life ' makes Disney Channel history by becoming the longest running continuous characters on our air -- 138 half - hour episodes. We are thrilled for them, and for the brilliant, inspired production team that made this extraordinary run possible. ''
As of 2011, The Suite Life series holds the record (162 episodes) for having the longest running continuous characters on air and the most canon episodes for any Disney Channel series.
According to show creators and producers, the choice of setting was made to appeal to an international audience with different ports - of - call, such as India, Greece, Italy, Morocco, the United Kingdom and Thailand. An on - board theater serves as an "organic '' set - up for musical numbers. Most of the action in the series occurs on board the SS Tipton. However, the ship travels to a variety of places around the world which are often unfamiliar places to both Zack and Cody Martin.
The SS Tipton is a cruise ship belonging to London Tipton 's father. The ship had its first canon appearance in The Suite Life of Zack and Cody episode "Let Us Entertain You ''. Unlike most cruise ships it also includes a school, Seven Seas High School, which is a common setting on the ship, as are the Sky Deck, the lobby, the corridors outside the students ' cabins and the cabins themselves. In the third season, the Aqua Lounge, a newly refurbished space on the ship, was shown, and it replaced the Sky Deck as the main hangout (although the Sky Deck is still commonly shown). There are also various areas on the SS Tipton that are mentioned, but never seen, including several decks and the ship 's putt - putt golf course, where the captain spends most of his time. In the crossover episode of Wizards of Waverly Place, "Cast - Away (To Another Show), '' Mr. Moseby reveals that the ship itself weighs 87,000 tons. After the events in "Graduation on Deck '' the SS Tipton was sold and later dismantled. Mr Moseby mentioned in the season 1 episode "Cruisin ' for a Bruisin ' '', that the ship was not the first ship with the SS Tipton name (indicating that the Tipton cruiseline had been in service long before the events of the first series). Mr Tipton commissioned a scale model "replica - in - a-bottle '' of the first SS Tipton as a gift for Captain Lansferd.
The show 's theme song, "Livin ' the Suite Life, '' was written by John Adair and Steve Hampton (who also wrote the themes for fellow Disney Channel series The Suite Life of Zack & Cody, Phil of the Future, and Wizards of Waverly Place, as well as the theme for the ABC Kids series Power Rangers: RPM), with music composed by Gary Scott (who also composed the music cues to signal scene changes and promo breaks, some of which are styled similarly to the theme), and is performed by British singer Steve Rushton (who is only credited for performing the theme in the second season).
The series was one of only 4 of Disney Channel shows still running in 2011 whose theme song is not performed by a star of the series (Phineas and Ferb, Fish Hooks and Shake It Up are the others).
Note: The show 's first ever air date was in the United Kingdom on September 19, 2008.
The episode "Double - Crossed '' is the second part of a three - way crossover that begins on Wizards of Waverly Place and concludes on Hannah Montana. Cody promises to get tickets for himself and Bailey to a concert in Hawaii featuring Hannah Montana, who has boarded the SS Tipton. In the meantime, the Russo siblings enjoy a cruise of their own until Alex pulls a prank that causes Justin to turn blue.
On September 20, 2010, Disney Channel announced that production had begun for a Disney Channel Original Movie based on The Suite Life of Zack & Cody and The Suite Life on Deck.
The Suite Life Movie premiered on the Disney Channel in the United States and Canada on March 25, 2011.
In 2013, during an interview with Gawker, Dylan Sprouse revealed he and his brother had pitched an idea to the Disney Channel about continuing the Suite Life series. The show would see Zack and Cody return to the Tipton Hotel in Boston to live with their mother, and would become mentors to a boy who lived with his father at the hotel. Disney rejected the idea initially, but contacted the twins a year later with an edited concept that retained the boy and his father storyline, but Zack and Cody would move to a Miami hotel instead, Selena Gomez would also star and the twins would not get producer credits like they had requested. The Sprouses rejected the concept, leaving the project abandoned.
The Suite Life on Deck premiered in Australia and New Zealand October 6, 2008. It is broadcast on Disney Channel and on NZ MediaWorks TV3 and FOUR.
The Canadian Family Channel debuted the series October 13, 2008. VRAK.TV broadcast the series as La vie de croisière de Zack et Cody (The Cruise Life of Zack and Cody) beginning August 27, 2009. The series also aired on Disney XD (Canada) beginning June 1, 2011.
In Ireland, the series debuted on Disney XD September 4, 2010.
Disney Channel broadcast the series in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland February 6, 2009, with an advance airing September 19, 2008. The series also aired on Disney XD beginning July 16, 2012.
The Suite Life on Deck premiered in the United States September 26, 2008 on Disney Channel. Disney XD began broadcasting the series February 13, 2009.
An activity book based on the series was released on July 13, 2009. The book is called "The Suite Life on Deck Sink or Swim Sticker Activity Book ''. A photo album based on the series was also released, and it includes several posters, colored images from the series, captions and activities for the reader. In August 2009, two new books titled "Suite Life on Deck: A Day in the Life '' and "Suite Life on Deck Party Planner '' were released by Walt Disney.
The show 's pilot premiered on the Disney Channel in the U.S. on September 26, 2008, and gathered 5.7 million viewers on the night of its premiere. The series premiere in Canada was also the most watched series premiere on Family channel. In December 2008, Business Wire reported the show was 2008 's # 1 top scripted television series for children between the ages 6 to 11 and pre-teenagers between the ages 9 to 14, beating the veteran series Hannah Montana and Wizards of Waverly Place in the ratings. The show was in the # 1 spot for the top rated children 's television series for many months. The show has been one of the top 4 live - action television series for many months. Since then, "The Suite Life on Deck '' held a commanding lead in the time slot (Friday 8: 00 p.m.), ranking as TV 's # 1 program among the key children demographics, virtually doubling Nickelodeon among children between the age of 9 -- 14, and defeating it by a 6 % among children between the age of 6 -- 11. In addition, the series is # 1 in total viewers on all cable, outperforming # 2 rank (Fox News and Nickelodeon) by 800,000 more viewers.
As of August 2009, the highest rated episode of The Suite Life on Deck was "Double - Crossed, '' the second part of Wizards On Deck with Hannah Montana, a trilogy of crossover episodes featuring guest stars from Wizards of Waverly Place and Hannah Montana which premiered on July 17, 2009 on Disney Channel. The special was viewed by more than 10.6 million viewers, program of the night across both cable and broadcast television, and ranks as one of the highest - rated episodes for a Disney Channel original series. This was the first episode that Cody and Bailey go out on a date.
In early October 2009, the series one - hour special episode "Lost at Sea '' became the most watched episode of the series, with 7.6 million total viewers, including 3.2 million in the Kids 6 -- 11 demographic, and 2.8 million in the Tweens 9 -- 13 demographic. The episode delivered Disney Channel 's best numbers in the hour with regular programming in the net 's history. In 2009, the series was the most watched scripted series in the children and tween demographic (6 -- 14), outpacing Hannah Montana and several other teenage shows. The series second season 's ratings grew 25 % higher than the show 's season one ratings, the second season has averaged approximately 5.1 million viewers.
Before the series officially made its debut on air, the first episode entitled "The Suite Life Sets Sail '' was made available as a free download on iTunes. All series have since been made available.
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when was the word internet of things coined | Internet of Things - wikipedia
The Internet of things (IoT) is the network of physical devices, vehicles, home appliances, and other items embedded with electronics, software, sensors, actuators, and connectivity which enables these things to connect, collect and exchange data.
IoT involves extending Internet connectivity beyond standard devices, such as desktops, laptops, smartphones and tablets, to any range of traditionally dumb or non-internet - enabled physical devices and everyday objects. Embedded with technology, these devices can communicate and interact over the Internet, and they can be remotely monitored and controlled. With the arrival of driverless vehicles, a branch of IoT, i.e. the Internet of Vehicles starts to gain more attention.
The definition of the Internet of things has evolved due to convergence of multiple technologies, real - time analytics, machine learning, commodity sensors, and embedded systems. Traditional fields of embedded systems, wireless sensor networks, control systems, automation (including home and building automation), and others all contribute to enabling the Internet of things.
The concept of a network of smart devices was discussed as early as 1982, with a modified Coke machine at Carnegie Mellon University becoming the first Internet - connected appliance, able to report its inventory and whether newly loaded drinks were cold. Mark Weiser 's 1991 paper on ubiquitous computing, "The Computer of the 21st Century '', as well as academic venues such as UbiComp and PerCom produced the contemporary vision of IoT. In 1994, Reza Raji described the concept in IEEE Spectrum as "(moving) small packets of data to a large set of nodes, so as to integrate and automate everything from home appliances to entire factories ''. Between 1993 and 1997, several companies proposed solutions like Microsoft 's at Work or Novell 's NEST. The field gained momentum when Bill Joy envisioned Device to Device (D2D) communication as a part of his "Six Webs '' framework, presented at the World Economic Forum at Davos in 1999.
The term "Internet of things '' was likely coined by Kevin Ashton of Procter & Gamble, later MIT 's Auto - ID Center, in 1999, though he prefers the phrase "Internet for things ''. At that point, he viewed Radio - frequency identification (RFID) as essential to the Internet of things, which would allow computers to manage all individual things.
A research article mentioning the Internet of things was submitted to the conference for Nordic Researchers in Logistics, Norway, in June 2002, which was preceded by an article published in Finnish in January 2002. The implementation described there was developed by Kary Främling and his team at Helsinki University of Technology and more closely matches the modern one, i.e. an information system infrastructure for implementing smart, connected objects.
Defining the Internet of things as "simply the point in time when more ' things or objects ' were connected to the Internet than people '', Cisco Systems estimated that IoT was "born '' between 2008 and 2009, with the things / people ratio growing from 0.08 in 2003 to 1.84 in 2010.
The extensive set of applications for IoT devices is often divided into consumer, commercial, industrial, and infrastructure spaces.
A growing portion of IoT devices are created for consumer use, including connected vehicles, home automation, wearable technology, connected health, and appliances with remote monitoring capabilities.
IoT devices are a part of the larger concept of home automation, which can include lighting, heating and air conditioning, media and security systems. Long term benefits could include energy savings by automatically ensuring lights and electronics are turned off.
A smart home or automated home could be based on a platform or hubs that control smart devices and appliances. For instance, using Apple 's HomeKit, manufacturers can get their home products and accessories be controlled by an application in iOS devices such as the iPhone and the Apple Watch. This could be a dedicated app or iOS native applications such as Siri. This can be demonstrated in the case of Lenovo 's Smart Home Essentials, which is a line of smart home devices that are controlled through Apple 's Home app or Siri without the need for a Wi - Fi bridge. There are also dedicated smart home hubs that are offered as standalone platforms to connect different smart home products and these include the Amazon Echo, Apple 's HomePod, and Samsung 's SmartThings Hub.
One key application of smart home is to provide assistance for those with disabilities and elderly individuals. These home systems use assistive technology to accommodate an owner 's specific disabilities. Voice control can assist users with sight and mobility limitations while alert systems can be connected directly to cochlear implants worn by hearing impaired users. They can also be equipped with additional safety features. These features can include sensors that monitor for medical emergencies such as falls or seizures. Smart home technology applied in this way can provide users with more freedom and a higher quality of life.
The term "Enterprise IoT '' refers to devices used in business and corporate settings. By 2019, it is estimated that EIoT will account for 9.1 billion devices.
The Internet of Medical Things (also called the internet of health things) is an application of the IoT for medical and health related purposes, data collection and analysis for research, and monitoring. This ' Smart Healthcare ', as it can also be called, led to the creation of a digitized healthcare system, connecting available medical resources and healthcare services.
IoT devices can be used to enable remote health monitoring and emergency notification systems. These health monitoring devices can range from blood pressure and heart rate monitors to advanced devices capable of monitoring specialized implants, such as pacemakers, Fitbit electronic wristbands, or advanced hearing aids. Some hospitals have begun implementing "smart beds '' that can detect when they are occupied and when a patient is attempting to get up. It can also adjust itself to ensure appropriate pressure and support is applied to the patient without the manual interaction of nurses. A 2015 Goldman Sachs report indicated that healthcare IoT devices "can save the United States more than $300 billion in annual healthcare expenditures by increasing revenue and decreasing cost. '' Moreover, the use of mobile devices to support medical follow - up led to the creation of ' m - health ', used "to analyze, capture, transmit and store health statistics from multiple resources, including sensors and other biomedical acquisition systems ''.
Specialized sensors can also be equipped within living spaces to monitor the health and general well - being of senior citizens, while also ensuring that proper treatment is being administered and assisting people regain lost mobility via therapy as well. These sensors create a network of intelligent sensors that are able to collect, process, transfer and analyse valuable information in different environments, such as connecting in - home monitoring devices to hospital - based systems. Other consumer devices to encourage healthy living, such as connected scales or wearable heart monitors, are also a possibility with the IoT. End - to - end health monitoring IoT platforms are also available for antenatal and chronic patients, helping one manage health vitals and recurring medication requirements.
As of 2018 IoMT was not only being applied in the clinical laboratory industry, but also in the healthcare and health insurance industries. IoMT in the healthcare industry is now permitting doctors, patients and others involved (i.e. guardians of patients, nurses, families, etc.) to be part of a system, where patient records are saved in a database, allowing doctors and the rest of the medical staff to have access to the patient 's information. Moreover, IoT - based systems are patient - centered, which involves being flexible to the patient 's medical conditions. IoMT in the insurance industry provides access to better and new types of dynamic information. This includes sensor - based solutions such as biosensors, wearables, connected health devices and mobile apps to track customer behaviour. This can lead to more accurate underwriting and new pricing models.
The IoT can assist in the integration of communications, control, and information processing across various transportation systems. Application of the IoT extends to all aspects of transportation systems (i.e. the vehicle, the infrastructure, and the driver or user). Dynamic interaction between these components of a transport system enables inter and intra vehicular communication, smart traffic control, smart parking, electronic toll collection systems, logistic and fleet management, vehicle control, and safety and road assistance. In Logistics and Fleet Management for example, The IoT platform can continuously monitor the location and conditions of cargo and assets via wireless sensors and send specific alerts when management exceptions occur (delays, damages, thefts, etc.). If combined with Machine Learning then it also helps in reducing traffic accidents by introducing drowsiness alerts to drivers and providing self driven cars too.
IoT devices can be used to monitor and control the mechanical, electrical and electronic systems used in various types of buildings (e.g., public and private, industrial, institutions, or residential) in home automation and building automation systems. In this context, three main areas are being covered in literature:
The IoT can realize the seamless integration of various manufacturing devices equipped with sensing, identification, processing, communication, actuation, and networking capabilities. Based on such a highly integrated smart cyberphysical space, it opens the door to create whole new business and market opportunities for manufacturing. Network control and management of manufacturing equipment, asset and situation management, or manufacturing process control bring the IoT within the realm of industrial applications and smart manufacturing as well. The IoT intelligent systems enable rapid manufacturing of new products, dynamic response to product demands, and real - time optimization of manufacturing production and supply chain networks, by networking machinery, sensors and control systems together.
Digital control systems to automate process controls, operator tools and service information systems to optimize plant safety and security are within the purview of the IoT. But it also extends itself to asset management via predictive maintenance, statistical evaluation, and measurements to maximize reliability. Smart industrial management systems can also be integrated with the Smart Grid, thereby enabling real - time energy optimization. Measurements, automated controls, plant optimization, health and safety management, and other functions are provided by a large number of networked sensors.
The term industrial Internet of things (IIoT) is often encountered in the manufacturing industries, referring to the industrial subset of the IoT. IIoT in manufacturing could generate so much business value that it will eventually lead to the fourth industrial revolution, so the so - called Industry 4.0. It is estimated that in the future, successful companies will be able to increase their revenue through Internet of things by creating new business models and improve productivity, exploit analytics for innovation, and transform workforce. The potential of growth by implementing IIoT may generate $12 trillion of global GDP by 2030.
While connectivity and data acquisition are imperative for IIoT, they should not be the purpose, rather the foundation and path to something bigger. Among all the technologies, predictive maintenance is probably a relatively "easier win '' since it is applicable to existing assets and management systems. The objective of intelligent maintenance systems is to reduce unexpected downtime and increase productivity. And to realize that alone would generate around up to 30 % over the total maintenance costs. Industrial big data analytics will play a vital role in manufacturing asset predictive maintenance, although that is not the only capability of industrial big data. Cyber-physical systems (CPS) is the core technology of industrial big data and it will be an interface between human and the cyber world. Cyber-physical systems can be designed by following the 5C (connection, conversion, cyber, cognition, configuration) architecture, and it will transform the collected data into actionable information, and eventually interfere with the physical assets to optimize processes.
An IoT - enabled intelligent system of such cases was proposed in 2001 and later demonstrated in 2014 by the National Science Foundation Industry / University Collaborative Research Center for Intelligent Maintenance Systems (IMS) at the University of Cincinnati on a bandsaw machine in IMTS 2014 in Chicago. Bandsaw machines are not necessarily expensive, but the bandsaw belt expenses are enormous since they degrade much faster. However, without sensing and intelligent analytics, it can be only determined by experience when the band saw belt will actually break. The developed prognostics system will be able to recognize and monitor the degradation of band saw belts even if the condition is changing, advising users when is the best time to replace the belt. This will significantly improve user experience and operator safety and ultimately save on costs.
There are numerous IoT applications in farming such as collecting data on temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, pest infestation, and soil content. This data can be used to automate farming techniques, take informed decisions to improve quality and quantity, minimize risk and waste, and reduce effort required to manage crops. For example, farmers can now monitor soil temperature and moisture from afar, and even apply IoT - acquired data to precision fertilization programs.
In August 2018, Toyota Tsusho began a partnership with Microsoft to create fish farming tools using the Microsoft Azure application suite for IoT technologies related to water management. Developed in part by researchers from Kindai University, the water pump mechanisms use artificial intelligence to count the number of fish on a conveyor belt, analyze the number of fish, and deduce the effectiveness of water flow from the data the fish provide. The specific computer programs used in the process fall under the Azure Machine Learning and the Azure IoT Hub platforms.
Monitoring and controlling operations of sustainable urban and rural infrastructures like bridges, railway tracks and on - and offshore wind - farms is a key application of the IoT. The IoT infrastructure can be used for monitoring any events or changes in structural conditions that can compromise safety and increase risk. IoT can benefit the construction industry by cost saving, time reduction, better quality workday, paperless workflow and increase in productivity. It can help in taking faster decisions and save money with Real - Time Data Analytics. It can also be used for scheduling repair and maintenance activities in an efficient manner, by coordinating tasks between different service providers and users of these facilities. IoT devices can also be used to control critical infrastructure like bridges to provide access to ships. Usage of IoT devices for monitoring and operating infrastructure is likely to improve incident management and emergency response coordination, and quality of service, up - times and reduce costs of operation in all infrastructure related areas. Even areas such as waste management can benefit from automation and optimization that could be brought in by the IoT.
There are several planned or ongoing large - scale deployments of the IoT, to enable better management of cities and systems. For example, Songdo, South Korea, the first of its kind fully equipped and wired smart city, is gradually being built, with approximately 70 percent of the business district completed as of June 2018. Much of the city is planned to be wired and automated, with little or no human intervention.
Another application is a currently undergoing project in Santander, Spain. For this deployment, two approaches have been adopted. This city of 180,000 inhabitants has already seen 18,000 downloads of its city smartphone app. The app is connected to 10,000 sensors that enable services like parking search, environmental monitoring, digital city agenda, and more. City context information is used in this deployment so as to benefit merchants through a spark deals mechanism based on city behavior that aims at maximizing the impact of each notification.
Other examples of large - scale deployments underway include the Sino - Singapore Guangzhou Knowledge City; work on improving air and water quality, reducing noise pollution, and increasing transportation efficiency in San Jose, California; and smart traffic management in western Singapore. French company, Sigfox, commenced building an ultra-narrowband wireless data network in the San Francisco Bay Area in 2014, the first business to achieve such a deployment in the U.S. It subsequently announced it would set up a total of 4000 base stations to cover a total of 30 cities in the U.S. by the end of 2016, making it the largest IoT network coverage provider in the country thus far.
Another example of a large deployment is the one completed by New York Waterways in New York City to connect all the city 's vessels and be able to monitor them live 24 / 7. The network was designed and engineered by Fluidmesh Networks, a Chicago - based company developing wireless networks for critical applications. The NYWW network is currently providing coverage on the Hudson River, East River, and Upper New York Bay. With the wireless network in place, NY Waterway is able to take control of its fleet and passengers in a way that was not previously possible. New applications can include security, energy and fleet management, digital signage, public Wi - Fi, paperless ticketing and others.
Significant numbers of energy - consuming devices (e.g. switches, power outlets, bulbs, televisions, etc.) already integrate Internet connectivity, which can allow them to communicate with utilities to balance power generation and energy usage and optimize energy consumption as a whole. These devices allow for remote control by users, or central management via a cloud - based interface, and enable functions like scheduling (e.g., remotely powering on or off heating systems, controlling ovens, changing lighting conditions etc.). The smart grid is a utility - side IoT application; systems gather and act on energy and power - related information to improve the efficiency of the production and distribution of electricity. Using advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) Internet - connected devices, electric utilities not only collect data from end - users, but also manage distribution automation devices like transformers.
Environmental monitoring applications of the IoT typically use sensors to assist in environmental protection by monitoring air or water quality, atmospheric or soil conditions, and can even include areas like monitoring the movements of wildlife and their habitats. Development of resource - constrained devices connected to the Internet also means that other applications like earthquake or tsunami early - warning systems can also be used by emergency services to provide more effective aid. IoT devices in this application typically span a large geographic area and can also be mobile. It has been argued that the standardization IoT brings to wireless sensing will revolutionize this area.
The IoT 's major significant trend in recent years is the explosive growth of devices connected and controlled by the Internet. The wide range of applications for IoT technology mean that the specifics can be very different from one device to the next but there are basic characteristics shared by most.
IoT creates opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer - based systems, resulting in efficiency improvements, economic benefits, and reduced human exertions.
The number of IoT devices increased 31 % year - over-year to 8.4 billion in the year 2017 and it is estimated that there will be 30 billion devices by 2020. The global market value of IoT is projected to reach $7.1 trillion by 2020.
Ambient intelligence and autonomous control are not part of the original concept of the Internet of things. Ambient intelligence and autonomous control do not necessarily require Internet structures, either. However, there is a shift in research (by companies such as Intel) to integrate the concepts of IoT and autonomous control, with initial outcomes towards this direction considering objects as the driving force for autonomous IoT.
In the future, the Internet of Things may be a non-deterministic and open network in which auto - organized or intelligent entities (web services, SOA components) and virtual objects (avatars) will be interoperable and able to act independently (pursuing their own objectives or shared ones) depending on the context, circumstances or environments. Autonomous behavior through the collection and reasoning of context information as well as the object 's ability to detect changes in the environment (faults affecting sensors) and introduce suitable mitigation measures constitutes a major research trend, clearly needed to provide credibility to the IoT technology. Modern IoT products and solutions in the marketplace use a variety of different technologies to support such context - aware automation, but more sophisticated forms of intelligence are requested to permit sensor units and intelligent cyber-physical systems to be deployed in real environments.
IIoT system architecture, in its simplistic view, consists of three tiers: Tier 1: devices, Tier 2: the Edge Gateway, and Tier 3: the cloud
Tier 1 of the IIoT architecture consists of networked things, typically sensors and actuators, from the IIoT equipment, which use protocols such as Modbus, Zigbee, or proprietary protocols, to connect to an Edge Gateway. Tier 2 includes sensor data aggregation systems called Edge Gateways that provide functionality, such as pre-processing of the data, securing connectivity to cloud, using systems such as WebSockets, the event hub, and, even in some cases, edge analytics or fog computing. Tier 3 includes the cloud application built for IIoT using the microservices architecture, which are usually polyglot and inherently secure in nature using HTTPS / OAuth. Tier 3 also includes storage of sensor data using various database systems, such as time series databases or asset stores using backend data storage systems such as Cassandra or Postgres. In addition to the data storage, we analyze the data using various analytics, predictive or threshold - based or regression - based, to get more insights on the IIoT equipment.
Building on the Internet of things, the web of things is an architecture for the application layer of the Internet of things looking at the convergence of data from IoT devices into Web applications to create innovative use - cases. In order to program and control the flow of information in the Internet of things, a predicted architectural direction is being called BPM Everywhere which is a blending of traditional process management with process mining and special capabilities to automate the control of large numbers of coordinated devices.
The Internet of things requires huge scalability in the network space to handle the surge of devices. IETF 6LoWPAN would be used to connect devices to IP networks. With billions of devices being added to the Internet space, IPv6 will play a major role in handling the network layer scalability. IETF 's Constrained Application Protocol, ZeroMQ, and MQTT would provide lightweight data transport.
Fog computing is a viable alternative to prevent such large burst of data flow through Internet. The edge devices ' computation power can be used to analyse and process data, thus providing easy real time scalability.
In semi-open or closed loops (i.e. value chains, whenever a global finality can be settled) IoT will often be considered and studied as a complex system due to the huge number of different links, interactions between autonomous actors, and its capacity to integrate new actors. At the overall stage (full open loop) it will likely be seen as a chaotic environment (since systems always have finality). As a practical approach, not all elements in the Internet of things run in a global, public space. Subsystems are often implemented to mitigate the risks of privacy, control and reliability. For example, domestic robotics (domotics) running inside a smart home might only share data within and be available via a local network. Managing and controlling high dynamic ad hoc IoT things / devices network is a tough task with the traditional networks architecture, Software Defined Networking (SDN) provides the agile dynamic solution that can cope with the special requirements of the diversity of innovative IoT applications.
The Internet of things would encode 50 to 100 trillion objects, and be able to follow the movement of those objects. Human beings in surveyed urban environments are each surrounded by 1000 to 5000 trackable objects. In 2015 there were already 83 million smart devices in people ` s homes. This number is about to grow up to 193 million devices in 2020 and will for sure go on growing in the near future.
The figure of online capable devices grew 31 % from 2016 to 8.4 billion in 2017.
In the Internet of things, the precise geographic location of a thing -- and also the precise geographic dimensions of a thing -- will be critical. Therefore, facts about a thing, such as its location in time and space, have been less critical to track because the person processing the information can decide whether or not that information was important to the action being taken, and if so, add the missing information (or decide to not take the action). (Note that some things in the Internet of things will be sensors, and sensor location is usually important.) The GeoWeb and Digital Earth are promising applications that become possible when things can become organized and connected by location. However, the challenges that remain include the constraints of variable spatial scales, the need to handle massive amounts of data, and an indexing for fast search and neighbor operations. In the Internet of things, if things are able to take actions on their own initiative, this human - centric mediation role is eliminated. Thus, the time - space context that we as humans take for granted must be given a central role in this information ecosystem. Just as standards play a key role in the Internet and the Web, geospatial standards will play a key role in the Internet of things.
Many IoT devices have a potential to take a piece of this market. Jean - Louis Gassée (Apple initial alumni team, and BeOS co-founder) has addressed this topic in an article on Monday Note, where he predicts that the most likely problem will be what he calls the "basket of remotes '' problem, where we 'll have hundreds of applications to interface with hundreds of devices that do n't share protocols for speaking with one another. For improved user interaction, some technology leaders are joining forces to create standards for communication between devices to solve this problem. Others are turning to the concept of predictive interaction of devices, "where collected data is used to predict and trigger actions on the specific devices '' while making them work together.
IoT frameworks might help support the interaction between "things '' and allow for more complex structures like distributed computing and the development of distributed applications. Currently, some IoT frameworks seem to focus on real - time data logging solutions, offering some basis to work with many "things '' and have them interact. Future developments might lead to specific software - development environments to create the software to work with the hardware used in the Internet of things. Companies are developing technology platforms to provide this type of functionality for the Internet of things. Newer platforms are being developed, which add more intelligence.
REST is a scalable architecture that allows things to communicate over Hypertext Transfer Protocol and is easily adopted for IoT applications to provide communication from a thing to a central web server.
There are many technologies that enable IoT. Crucial to the field is the network used to communicate between devices of an IoT installation, a role that several wireless or wired technologies may fulfill:
The original idea of the Auto - ID Center is based on RFID - tags and unique identification through the Electronic Product Code, however, this has evolved into objects having an IP address or URI. An alternative view, from the world of the Semantic Web focuses instead on making all things (not just those electronic, smart, or RFID - enabled) addressable by the existing naming protocols, such as URI. The objects themselves do not converse, but they may now be referred to by other agents, such as powerful centralized servers acting for their human owners. Integration with the Internet implies that devices will use an IP address as a unique identifier. Due to the limited address space of IPv4 (which allows for 4.3 billion unique addresses), objects in the IoT will have to use the next generation of the Internet protocol (IPv6) to scale to the extremely large address space required. Internet - of - things devices additionally will benefit from the stateless address auto - configuration present in IPv6, as it reduces the configuration overhead on the hosts, and the IETF 6LoWPAN header compression. To a large extent, the future of the Internet of things will not be possible without the support of IPv6; and consequently, the global adoption of IPv6 in the coming years will be critical for the successful development of the IoT in the future.
This is a list of technical standards for the IoT, most of which are open standards, and the standards organizations that aspire to successfully setting them.
Some scholars and activists argue that the IoT can be used to create new models of civic engagement if device networks can be open to user control and inter-operable platforms. Philip N. Howard, a professor and author, writes that political life in both democracies and authoritarian regimes will be shaped by the way the IoT will be used for civic engagement. For that to happen, he argues that any connected device should be able to divulge a list of the "ultimate beneficiaries '' of its sensor data and that individual citizens should be able to add new organizations to the beneficiary list. In addition, he argues that civil society groups need to start developing their IoT strategy for making use of data and engaging with the public.
One of the key drivers of the IoT is data. The success of the idea of connecting devices to make them more efficient is dependent upon access to and storage & processing of data. For this purpose, companies working on IoT collect data from multiple sources and store it in their cloud network for further processing. This leaves the door wide open for privacy and security dangers and single point vulnerability of multiple systems. The other issues pertain to consumer choice and ownership of data and how it is used. Though still in their infancy, regulations and governance regarding these issues of privacy, security, and data ownership continue to develop. IoT regulation depends on the country. Some examples of legislation that is relevant to privacy and data collection are: the US Privacy Act of 1974, OECD Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Personal Data of 1980, and the EU Directive 95 / 46 / EC of 1995.
Current regulatory environment:
A report published by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in January 2015 made the following three recommendations:
However, the FTC stopped at just making recommendations for now. According to an FTC analysis, the existing framework, consisting of the FTC Act, the Fair Credit Reporting Act, and the Children 's Online Privacy Protection Act, along with developing consumer education and business guidance, participation in multi-stakeholder efforts and advocacy to other agencies at the federal, state and local level, is sufficient to protect consumer rights.
A resolution passed by the Senate in March 2015, is already being considered by the Congress. This resolution recognized the need for formulating a National Policy on IoT and the matter of privacy, security and spectrum. Furthermore, to provide an impetus to the IoT ecosystem, in March 2016, a bipartisan group of four Senators proposed a bill, The Developing Innovation and Growing the Internet of Things (DIGIT) Act, to direct the Federal Communications Commission to assess the need for more spectrum to connect IoT devices.
Several standards for the IoT industry are actually being established relating to automobiles because most concerns arising from use of connected cars apply to healthcare devices as well. In fact, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) is preparing cybersecurity guidelines and a database of best practices to make automotive computer systems more secure.
A recent report from the World Bank examines the challenges and opportunities in government adoption of IoT. These include -
IoT suffers from platform fragmentation and lack of technical standards a situation where the variety of IoT devices, in terms of both hardware variations and differences in the software running on them, makes the task of developing applications that work consistently between different inconsistent technology ecosystems hard. Customers may be hesitant to bet their IoT future on a proprietary software or hardware devices that uses proprietary protocols that may fade or become difficult to customize and interconnect.
IoT 's amorphous computing nature is also a problem for security, since patches to bugs found in the core operating system often do not reach users of older and lower - price devices. One set of researchers say that the failure of vendors to support older devices with patches and updates leaves more than 87 % of active Android devices vulnerable.
Philip N. Howard, a professor and author, writes that the Internet of things offers immense potential for empowering citizens, making government transparent, and broadening information access. Howard cautions, however, that privacy threats are enormous, as is the potential for social control and political manipulation.
Concerns about privacy have led many to consider the possibility that big data infrastructures such as the Internet of things and data mining are inherently incompatible with privacy. Writer Adam Greenfield claims that these technologies are not only an invasion of public space but are also being used to perpetuate normative behavior, citing an instance of billboards with hidden cameras that tracked the demographics of passersby who stopped to read the advertisement.
The Internet of Things Council compared the increased prevalence of digital surveillance due to the Internet of things to the conceptual panopticon described by Jeremy Bentham in the 18th Century. The assertion was defended by the works of French philosophers Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze. In Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison Foucault asserts that the panopticon was a central element of the discipline society developed during the Industrial Era. Foucault also argued that the discipline systems established in factories and school reflected Bentham 's vision of panopticism. In his 1992 paper "Postscripts on the Societies of Control, '' Deleuze wrote that the discipline society had transitioned into a control society, with the computer replacing the panopticon as an instrument of discipline and control while still maintaining the qualities similar to that of panopticism.
The privacy of households could be compromised by solely analyzing smart home network traffic patterns without dissecting the contents of encrypted application data, yet a synthetic packet injection scheme can be used to safely overcome such invasion of privacy.
Peter - Paul Verbeek, a professor of philosophy of technology at the University of Twente, Netherlands, writes that technology already influences our moral decision making, which in turn affects human agency, privacy and autonomy. He cautions against viewing technology merely as a human tool and advocates instead to consider it as an active agent.
Justin Brookman, of the Center for Democracy and Technology, expressed concern regarding the impact of IoT on consumer privacy, saying that "There are some people in the commercial space who say, ' Oh, big data -- well, let 's collect everything, keep it around forever, we 'll pay for somebody to think about security later. ' The question is whether we want to have some sort of policy framework in place to limit that. ''
Tim O'Reilly believes that the way companies sell the IoT devices on consumers are misplaced, disputing the notion that the IoT is about gaining efficiency from putting all kinds of devices online and postulating that "IoT is really about human augmentation. The applications are profoundly different when you have sensors and data driving the decision - making. ''
Editorials at WIRED have also expressed concern, one stating "What you 're about to lose is your privacy. Actually, it 's worse than that. You are n't just going to lose your privacy, you 're going to have to watch the very concept of privacy be rewritten under your nose. ''
The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) expressed concern regarding the ability of IoT to erode people 's control over their own lives. The ACLU wrote that "There 's simply no way to forecast how these immense powers -- disproportionately accumulating in the hands of corporations seeking financial advantage and governments craving ever more control -- will be used. Chances are big data and the Internet of things will make it harder for us to control our own lives, as we grow increasingly transparent to powerful corporations and government institutions that are becoming more opaque to us. ''
In response to rising concerns about privacy and smart technology, in 2007 the British Government stated it would follow formal Privacy by Design principles when implementing their smart metering program. The program would lead to replacement of traditional power meters with smart power meters, which could track and manage energy usage more accurately. However the British Computer Society is doubtful these principles were ever actually implemented. In 2009 the Dutch Parliament rejected a similar smart metering program, basing their decision on privacy concerns. The Dutch program later revised and passed in 2011.
A challenge for producers of IoT applications is to clean, process and interpret the vast amount of data which is gathered by the sensors. There is a solution proposed for the analytics of the information referred to as Wireless Sensor Networks. These networks share data among sensor nodes that are sent to a distributed system for the analytics of the sensory data.
Another challenge is the storage of this bulk data. Depending on the application, there could be high data acquisition requirements, which in turn lead to high storage requirements. Currently the Internet is already responsible for 5 % of the total energy generated, and a "daunting challenge to power '' IoT devices to collect and even store data still remains.
Concerns have been raised that the IoT is being developed rapidly without appropriate consideration of the profound security challenges involved and the regulatory changes that might be necessary. Most of the technical security concerns are similar to those of conventional servers, workstations and smartphones, but security challenges unique to the IoT continue to develop, including industrial security controls, hybrid systems, IoT - specific business processes, and end nodes.
Security is the biggest concern in adopting Internet of things technology. In particular, as the Internet of things spreads widely, cyber attacks are likely to become an increasingly physical (rather than simply virtual) threat. In a January 2014 article in Forbes, cyber-security columnist Joseph Steinberg listed many Internet - connected appliances that can already "spy on people in their own homes '' including televisions, kitchen appliances, cameras, and thermostats. Computer - controlled devices in automobiles such as brakes, engine, locks, hood and trunk releases, horn, heat, and dashboard have been shown to be vulnerable to attackers who have access to the on - board network. In some cases, vehicle computer systems are Internet - connected, allowing them to be exploited remotely. By 2008 security researchers had shown the ability to remotely control pacemakers without authority. Later hackers demonstrated remote control of insulin pumps and implantable cardioverter defibrillators.
The U.S. National Intelligence Council in an unclassified report maintains that it would be hard to deny "access to networks of sensors and remotely - controlled objects by enemies of the United States, criminals, and mischief makers... An open market for aggregated sensor data could serve the interests of commerce and security no less than it helps criminals and spies identify vulnerable targets. Thus, massively parallel sensor fusion may undermine social cohesion, if it proves to be fundamentally incompatible with Fourth - Amendment guarantees against unreasonable search. '' In general, the intelligence community views the Internet of things as a rich source of data.
In 2016, a distributed denial of service attack powered by Internet of things devices running the Mirai malware took down a DNS provider and major web sites. The Mirai Botnet had infected roughly 65,000 IoT devices within the first 20 hours. Eventually the infections increased to 200,000 to 300,000 infections. Brazil, Columbia and Vietnam made up of 41.5 % of the infections. The Mirai Botnet had singled out specific IoT devices that consisted of DVRs, IP cameras, routers and printers. Top vendors that contained the most infected devices were identified as Dahua, Huawei, ZTE, Cisco, ZyXEL and MikroTik. In May 2017, Junade Ali, a Computer Scientist at Cloudflare noted that native DDoS vulnerabilities exist in IoT devices due to a poor implementation of the Publish -- subscribe pattern. These sorts of attacks have caused security experts to view IoT as a real threat to Internet services.
There have been a range of responces to concerns over security. The Internet of Things Security Foundation (IoTSF) was launched on 23 September 2015 with a mission to secure the Internet of things by promoting knowledge and best practice. Its founding board is made from technology providers and telecommunications companies. In addition, large IT companies are continuously developing innovative solutions to ensure the security for IoT devices. In 2017, Mozilla launched Project Things, which allows to route IoT devices through a safe Web of Things gateway.As per the estimates from KBV Research, the overall IoT security market would grow at 27.9 % rate during 2016 -- 2022 as a result of growing infrastructural concerns and diversified usage of Internet of things.
Governmental regulation is argued by some to be necessary to secure IoT devices and the wider Internet - as market incentives to secure IoT devices is insufficient.
IoT systems are typically controlled by event - driven smart apps that take as input either sensed data, user inputs, or other external triggers (from the Internet) and command one or more actuators towards providing different forms of automation. Examples of sensors include smoke detectors, motion sensors, and contact sensors. Examples of actuators include smart locks, smart power outlets, and door controls. Popular control platforms on which third - party developers can build smart apps that interact wirelessly with these sensors and actuators include Samsung 's SmartThings, Apple 's HomeKit, and Amazon 's Alexa, among others.
A problem specific to IoT systems is that buggy apps, unforeseen bad app interactions, or device / communication failures, can cause unsafe and dangerous physical states, e.g., "unlock the entrance door when no one is at home '' or "turn off the heater when the temperature is below 0 degrees Celcius and people are sleeping at night ''. Detecting flaws that lead to such states, requires a holistic view of installed apps, component devices, their configurations, and more importantly, how they interact. Recently, researchers from the University of California Riverside have proposed IotSan, a novel practical system that uses model checking as a building block to reveal "interaction - level '' flaws by identifying events that can lead the system to unsafe states. They have evaluated IotSan on the Samsung SmartThings platform. From 76 manually configured systems, IotSan detects 147 vulnerabilities (i.e., violations of safe physical states / properties).
Given widespread recognition of the evolving nature of the design and management of the Internet of things, sustainable and secure deployment of IoT solutions must design for "anarchic scalability. '' Application of the concept of anarchic scalability can be extended to physical systems (i.e. controlled real - world objects), by virtue of those systems being designed to account for uncertain management futures. This hard anarchic scalability thus provides a pathway forward to fully realize the potential of Internet - of - things solutions by selectively constraining physical systems to allow for all management regimes without risking physical failure.
Brown University computer scientist Michael Littman has argued that successful execution of the Internet of things requires consideration of the interface 's usability as well as the technology itself. These interfaces need to be not only more user - friendly but also better integrated: "If users need to learn different interfaces for their vacuums, their locks, their sprinklers, their lights, and their coffeemakers, it 's tough to say that their lives have been made any easier. ''
A concern regarding Internet - of - things technologies pertains to the environmental impacts of the manufacture, use, and eventual disposal of all these semiconductor - rich devices. Modern electronics are replete with a wide variety of heavy metals and rare - earth metals, as well as highly toxic synthetic chemicals. This makes them extremely difficult to properly recycle. Electronic components are often incinerated or placed in regular landfills. Furthermore, the human and environmental cost of mining the rare - earth metals that are integral to modern electronic components continues to grow. This leads to societal questions concerning the environmental impacts of IoT devices over its lifetime.
The Electronic Frontier Foundation has raised concerns that companies can use the technologies necessary to support connected devices to intentionally disable or "brick '' their customers ' devices via a remote software update or by disabling a service necessary to the operation of the device. In one example, home automation devices sold with the promise of a "Lifetime Subscription '' were rendered useless after Nest Labs acquired Revolv and made the decision to shut down the central servers the Revolv devices had used to operate. As Nest is a company owned by Alphabet (Google 's parent company), the EFF argues this sets a "terrible precedent for a company with ambitions to sell self - driving cars, medical devices, and other high - end gadgets that may be essential to a person 's livelihood or physical safety. ''
Owners should be free to point their devices to a different server or collaborate on improved software. But such action violates the United States DMCA section 1201, which only has an exemption for "local use ''. This forces tinkerers who want to keep using their own equipment into a legal grey area. EFF thinks buyers should refuse electronics and software that prioritize the manufacturer 's wishes above their own.
Examples of post-sale manipulations include Google Nest Revolv, disabled privacy settings on Android, Sony disabling Linux on PlayStation 3, enforced EULA on Wii U.
Kevin Lonergan at Information Age, a business - technology magazine, has referred to the terms surrounding IoT as a "terminology zoo ''. The lack of clear terminology is not "useful from a practical point of view '' and a "source of confusion for the end user ''. A company operating in the IoT space could be working in anything related to sensor technology, networking, embedded systems, or analytics. According to Lonergan, the term IoT was coined before smart phones, tablets, and devices as we know them today existed, and there is a long list of terms with varying degrees of overlap and technological convergence: Internet of things, Internet of everything (IoE), Internet of Goods (Supply Chain), industrial Internet, pervasive computing, pervasive sensing, ubiquitous computing, cyber-physical systems (CPS), wireless sensor networks (WSN), smart objects, digital twin, cyberobjects or avatars, cooperating objects, machine to machine (M2M), ambient intelligence (AmI), Operational technology (OT), and information technology (IT). Regarding IIoT, an industrial sub-field of IoT, the Industrial Internet Consortium 's Vocabulary Task Group has created a "common and reusable vocabulary of terms '' to ensure "consistent terminology '' across publications issued by the Industrial Internet Consortium. IoT One has created an IoT Terms Database including a New Term Alert to be notified when a new term is published. As of March 2017, this database aggregates 711 IoT - related terms, while keeping material "transparent and comprehensive. ''
Despite a shared belief in the potential of IoT, industry leaders and consumers are facing barriers to adopt IoT technology more widely. Mike Farley argued in Forbes that while IoT solutions appeal to early adopters, they either lack interoperability or a clear use case for end - users. A study by Ericsson regarding the adoption of IoT among Danish companies suggests that many struggle "to pinpoint exactly where the value of IoT lies for them ''.
According to a recent study by Noura Aleisa and Karen Renaud at the University of Glasgow, "the Internet of things ' potential for major privacy invasion is a concern '' with much of research "disproportionally focused on the security concerns of IoT. '' Among the "proposed solutions in terms of the techniques they deployed and the extent to which they satisfied core privacy principles '', only very few turned out to be fully satisfactory. Louis Basenese, investment director at Wall Street Daily, has criticized the industry 's lack of attention to security issues:
"Despite high - profile and alarming hacks, device manufacturers remain undeterred, focusing on profitability over security. Consumers need to have ultimate control over collected data, including the option to delete it if they choose... Without privacy assurances, wide - scale consumer adoption simply wo n't happen. ''
In a post-Snowden world of global surveillance disclosures, consumers take a more active interest in protecting their privacy and demand IoT devices to be screened for potential security vulnerabilities and privacy violations before purchasing them. According to the 2016 Accenture Digital Consumer Survey, in which 28000 consumers in 28 countries were polled on their use of consumer technology, security "has moved from being a nagging problem to a top barrier as consumers are now choosing to abandon IoT devices and services over security concerns. '' The survey revealed that "out of the consumers aware of hacker attacks and owning or planning to own IoT devices in the next five years, 18 percent decided to terminate the use of the services and related services until they get safety guarantees. '' This suggests that consumers increasingly perceive privacy risks and security concerns to outweigh the value propositions of IoT devices and opt to postpone planned purchases or service subscriptions.
A study issued by Ericsson regarding the adoption of Internet of things among Danish companies identified a "clash between IoT and companies ' traditional governance structures, as IoT still presents both uncertainties and a lack of historical precedence. '' Among the respondents interviewed, 60 percent stated that they "do not believe they have the organizational capabilities, and three of four do not believe they have the processes needed, to capture the IoT opportunity. '' This has led to a need to understand organizational culture in order to facilitate organizational design processes and to test new innovation management practices. A lack of digital leadership in the age of digital transformation has also stifled innovation and IoT adoption to a degree that many companies, in the face of uncertainty, "were waiting for the market dynamics to play out '', or further action in regards to IoT "was pending competitor moves, customer pull, or regulatory requirements. '' Some of these companies risk being ' kodaked ' -- "Kodak was a market leader until digital disruption eclipsed film photography with digital photos '' -- failing to "see the disruptive forces affecting their industry '' and "to truly embrace the new business models the disruptive change opens up. '' Scott Anthony has written in Harvard Business Review that Kodak "created a digital camera, invested in the technology, and even understood that photos would be shared online '' but ultimately failed to realize that "online photo sharing was the new business, not just a way to expand the printing business. ''
According to 2018 study, 70 -- 75 % of IoT deployments were stuck in the pilot or prototype stage, unable to reach scale due in part to a lack of business planning.
Studies on IoT literature and projects show a disproportionate prominence of technology in the IoT projects, which are often driven by technological interventions rather than business model innovation.
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what is the basic wage in australia in 2017 | List of minimum wages by Country - wikipedia
This is a list of official minimum wage rates of the 193 United Nations member states, and also inclusive of these limited recognition states: Taiwan, Hong Kong, Northern Cyprus, Kosovo, and Palestine.
Some countries may have a very complicated minimum wage system; for example, India has more than 1202 minimum wage rates.
The minimum wages given refer to a gross amount, that is before deduction of taxes and social security contributions, which vary from one country to another. Also excluded from calculations are regulated paid days off, including public holidays, sick pay, annual leave and social insurance contributions paid by the employer.
For the sake of comparison, an annual wage column is provided in international dollars, a hypothetical unit of currency calculated based on the purchasing power parity of household final consumption expenditure. For calculating the annual wage, the lowest general minimum wage was used.
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7003866100000000000 ♠ 8,661
7000347000000000000 ♠ 3.47
7003601400000000000 ♠ 6,014
7000241000000000000 ♠ 2.41
7003662300000000000 ♠ 6,623
7000265000000000000 ♠ 2.65
7004124660000000000 ♠ 12,466
7000599000000000000 ♠ 5.99
7003984400000000000 ♠ 9,844
7000473000000000000 ♠ 4.73
7003899400000000000 ♠ 8,994
7000432000000000000 ♠ 4.32
7003310600000000000 ♠ 3,106
7000149000000000000 ♠ 1.49
7003889800000000000 ♠ 8,898
7000428000000000000 ♠ 4.28
7003329800000000000 ♠ 3,298
7000159000000000000 ♠ 1.59
7003224000000000000 ♠ 2,240
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7004253060000000000 ♠ 25,306
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7004190170000000000 ♠ 19,017
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7003628700000000000 ♠ 6,287
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7003248000000000000 ♠ 2,480
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7003867700000000000 ♠ 8,677
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7004144010000000000 ♠ 14,401
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7002948000000000000 ♠ 948
6999410009999900000 ♠ 0.41
7004130970000000000 ♠ 13,097
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7003249900000000000 ♠ 2,499
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7003126600000000000 ♠ 1,266
6999610000000000000 ♠ 0.61
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7002616000000000000 ♠ 616
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7004150800000000000 ♠ 15,080
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7003576600000000000 ♠ 5,766
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7001120000000000000 ♠ 12
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discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using intra net web technology | Intranet - Wikipedia
An intranet is a private network accessible only to an organisation 's staff. Generally a wide range of information and services from the organization 's internal IT systems are available that would not be available to the public from the Internet. A company - wide intranet can constitute an important focal point of internal communication and collaboration, and provide a single starting point to access internal and external resources. In its simplest form an intranet is established with the technologies for local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs).
Intranets began to appear in a range of larger organizations from 1994.
Increasingly, intranets are being used to deliver tools, e.g. collaboration (to facilitate working in groups and teleconferencing) or sophisticated corporate directories, sales and customer relationship management tools, project management etc., to advance productivity.
Intranets are also being used as corporate culture - change platforms. For example, large numbers of employees discussing key issues in an intranet forum application could lead to new ideas in management, productivity, quality, and other corporate issues.
In large intranets, website traffic is often similar to public website traffic and can be better understood by using web metrics software to track overall activity. User surveys also improve intranet website effectiveness.
Larger businesses allow users within their intranet to access public internet through firewall servers. They have the ability to screen messages coming and going keeping security intact. When part of an intranet is made accessible to customers and others outside the business, that part becomes part of an extranet. Businesses can send private messages through the public network, using special encryption / decryption and other security safeguards to connect one part of their intranet to another.
Intranet user - experience, editorial, and technology teams work together to produce in - house sites. Most commonly, intranets are managed by the communications, HR or CIO departments of large organizations, or some combination of these.
Because of the scope and variety of content and the number of system interfaces, intranets of many organizations are much more complex than their respective public websites. Intranets and their use are growing rapidly. According to the Intranet design annual 2007 from Nielsen Norman Group, the number of pages on participants ' intranets averaged 200,000 over the years 2001 to 2003 and has grown to an average of 6 million pages over 2005 -- 2007.
Most organizations devote considerable resources into the planning and implementation of their intranet as it is of strategic importance to the organization 's success. Some of the planning would include topics such as determining the purpose and goals of the intranet, identifying persons or departments responsible for implementation and management and devising functional plans, page layouts and designs.
The appropriate staff would also ensure that implementation schedules and phase - out of existing systems were organized, while defining and implementing security of the intranet and ensuring it lies within legal boundaries and other constraints. In order to produce a high - value end product, systems planners should determine the level of interactivity (e.g. wikis, on - line forms) desired.
Planners may also consider whether the input of new data and updating of existing data is to be centrally controlled or devolve. These decisions sit alongside to the hardware and software considerations (like content management systems), participation issues (like good taste, harassment, confidentiality), and features to be supported.
Intranets are often static sites; they are a shared drive, serving up centrally stored documents alongside internal articles or communications (often one - way communication). By leveraging firms which specialise in ' social ' intranets, organisations are beginning to think of how their intranets can become a ' communication hub ' for their entire team. The actual implementation would include steps such as securing senior management support and funding., conducting a business requirement analysis and identifying users ' information needs.
From the technical perspective, there would need to be a co-ordinated installation of the web server and user access network, the required user / client applications and the creation of document framework (or template) for the content to be hosted.
The end - user should be involved in testing and promoting use of the company intranet, possibly through a parallel adoption methodology or pilot programme. In the long term, the company should carry out ongoing measurement and evaluation, including through benchmarking against other company services.
Another useful component in an intranet structure might be key personnel committed to maintaining the Intranet and keeping content current. For feedback on the intranet, social networking can be done through a forum for users to indicate what they want and what they do not like.
Microsoft SharePoint is the dominant software used for creating intranets. Estimates indicate that around 50 % of all intranets are developed using SharePoint; however, there are many alternatives.
An enterprise private network is a computer network built by a business to interconnect its various company sites (such as production sites, offices and shops) in order to share computer resources.
Beginning with the digitalisation of telecommunication networks, started in the 1970s in the USA by AT&T, and propelled by the growth in computer systems availability and demands, enterprise networks have been built for decades without the need to append the term private to them. The networks were operated over telecommunication networks and, as for voice communications, a certain amount of security and secrecy was expected and delivered.
But with the Internet in the 1990s came a new type of network, virtual private networks, built over this public infrastructure, using encryption to protect the data traffic from eaves - dropping. So the enterprise networks are now commonly referred to enterprise private networks in order to clarify that these are private networks, in contrast to public networks.
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i don't want to lose your love tonight wiki | I Do n't Wanna Lose Your Love - Wikipedia
"I Do n't Wanna Lose Your Love '' is a song written by Joey Carbone, and recorded by American country music artist Crystal Gayle. It was released in February 1984 as the second single from the album Cage the Songbird. The song reached number 2 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart. This is originally sung by John O'Banion in 1982.
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what is teddy's real name in grey's anatomy | Teddy Altman - wikipedia
Theodora "Teddy '' Altman, M.D. is a fictional character from the ABC medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, portrayed by actress Kim Raver. She was an attending cardiothoracic surgeon at Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, the fictional institution where the show is set. She leaves the show in the 8th - season finale after it is revealed that she has been offered a chief position with Army Medical Command, but has turned it down out of loyalty to Dr. Owen Hunt. In order to liberate her from the hospital where her husband died, Hunt fires her from Seattle Grace. Teddy returns for a few episodes in season 14.
Teddy attended the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center. She completed her surgical residency at George Washington University Medical School and her fellowship at the Mayo Clinic in Florida. As an attending physician, Teddy worked at Columbia, but after her best friend was killed during the collapse of the second tower on September 11, 2001, she left and joined the army, meeting trauma surgeon Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) during her tour in Baghdad.
Owen brings Teddy to Seattle Grace Mercy West hospital to mentor his girlfriend, Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh). Teddy admits that she is in love with Owen, but he tells her that he loves Cristina. When Teddy assigns Cristina a difficult surgery for her first solo cardiothoracic case and refuses to assist, Owen questions Teddy 's motives. Teddy decides to leave Seattle Grace; Cristina pleads with her to stay, even offering to break up with Owen if Teddy will continue to teach her. Although Teddy agrees to stay, Owen convinces Cristina to stay with him, and Teddy briefly removes her from her service.
Teddy develops a friendship with pediatric surgeon Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw), who sets her up with plastic surgeon Mark Sloan (Eric Dane). They have a brief relationship, which they both enjoy despite knowing that neither wants the other -- Teddy still wants Owen, and Mark is in love with Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh). The two separate amicably when Teddy walks in on Mark sleeping with resident Reed Adamson (Nora Zehetner).
Towards the end of season six, Teddy has to fight for her job as Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery. Cristina asks Owen to put in a good word for Teddy; he does the opposite by telling Chief of Surgery Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) that she would land on her feet. Ultimately another candidate refuses to take the post and Teddy receives a full - time contract. Teddy later learns of, and is hurt by Owen 's betrayal.
Teddy has a brief relationship with Dr. Andrew Perkins, whose service at the hospital is temporary. Before his departure, he suggests that Teddy has a tendency to fall for people who are either otherwise engaged or only in town for a month. She later meets Henry Burton, a patient with the rare genetic condition Von Hippel - Lindau disease, who can no longer afford to pay for his medical care. Teddy marries him so that he can use her health insurance, and only comes to appreciate the gravity of this decision when Henry suffers a near fatal complication of his illness. Teddy discovers that he has listed her as his emergency contact and is forced to make a life - or - death decision regarding his care, not as his doctor but as his wife. Though the newly - weds both maintain that theirs is a simple marriage of convenience, and Teddy continues to date other men, Henry later confesses that he has feelings for Teddy. She tells him she does not feel the same way.
Teddy again removes Cristina from her service when she performs a surgery despite Teddy 's opposition. She tells Owen that Cristina 's over-abundance of confidence makes her dangerous, and that she will keep Cristina off her service until she feels she is ready to return. When Andrew returns and asks Teddy to move to Germany with him, she accepts, and agrees to divorce Henry. However, in the seventh season finale, Teddy changes her mind and tells Henry that she is falling in love with him. The two begin their married life properly, but in season eight, Henry dies, leaving Teddy distraught. She blames Owen because she was n't told that Henry had died until after her surgery on another patient. Feeling that he put the hospital before her, she breaks off her friendship with him, causing problems with them being able to work together that are later made worse by Cristina 's own relationship troubles with Owen (During this time, Cristina tells Owen that he has to grant Teddy her anger, to which an enraged Owen lashes out the hypocrisy in the situation, given that when Cristina discovered she was pregnant with Owen 's child, she told him that keeping the pregnancy was non negotiable and wanted to pursue an abortion, despite Owen 's desire to have a child, and his pleas to keep the pregnancy, points out that Cristina never "granted him any anger '' over what he thought was her selfish decision). After a particularly bad case, Dr. Bailey sternly tells Teddy that what happened with Henry was not Owen 's fault and that Teddy knows this and needs to get over it, which pushes Teddy to behave more civilly towards Owen, but she finally lets go of her anger after she desperately begs Owen to convince Cristina (who by this point has broken up with him) to not transfer away from Seattle and is left shocked and silent when Owen furiously tells her he will not do that because he and Teddy are only co-workers and, as she made very clear, not friends and therefore she has no right to ask him for any help or favors. She and Owen eventually make up in the season finale. Owen finds out she was offered a job at the United States Army Medical Command, but turned it down because she wanted to be there for Owen, if he and Cristina were to separate. He ultimately fires her and she does take the military job, and tells her that he 'll be okay as they part having restored their friendship. Teddy and Owen make up and hug each other goodbye as he wants her to take the job offer, which would be good for her.
Teddy was later mentioned in season thirteen episode "True Colors. '' Army officers knocked at Owen 's door stating that his sister Megan is believed to have been found alive ten years after her disappearance. At first, Owen is not sure what to believe, but his wife Amelia Shepherd mentioned to Owen that Teddy saw Megan and recognized her. This seemed to be the first time Teddy was mentioned after her departure.
In October 2009, it was reported that actress Kim Raver would play the character and have a recurring role on the show 's sixth season. In January 2010, Raver was promoted to a series regular.
On May 18, 2012, the day after the season eight finale, Grey 's Anatomy creator, Shonda Rhimes, announced that it was Raver 's decision to leave the show, "I know this season 's finale had some surprises for viewers and the exit of Kim Raver was one of the big ones. But Kim 's series option was up and she was ready to give Teddy Altman a much - needed vacation. It 's been a pleasure working with someone as talented and funny and kind as Kim; everyone is going to miss her terribly. I like to imagine that Teddy is still out there in the Grey 's Anatomy universe, running Army Medical Command and building a new life. '' When the news of the character 's departure was released, Raver wrote on her Twitter, "I 've had one of the best times of my creative career working on Grey 's with Shonda, Betsy and the best cast on Television, '' she wrote, adding: "I feel fortunate and grateful to have worked with such an amazing team at GA (Grey 's Anatomy). (I) am going to miss everyone!! And to the GA (Grey 's Anatomy) fans, you guys rock! I am sure S9 (season nine) will be great! '' On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Raver would be reprising her role as Teddy Altman for a guest arc during the show 's 14th season.
We see Teddy as a person who is willing to do whatever possible to make herself a much appreciated doctor and friend at Grey Sloan. Teddy is referred to as the "Desert Barbie. '' In Season 14 's premiere, "Break Down the House '', Teddy and Owen Reunite after long times away from each other. Teddy comforts Owen after he is on the verge of having a meltdown. Is this just the beginning of a newly discovered friendship between the two after so much time away from each other?
Entertainment Weekly writer Tanner Stransky found Altman had not been given a good storyline until the arrival of Henry: "I think Kim Raver has always been rather under - used on this show, until more recently. ''
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who becomes president if speaker of the house dies | United States Presidential line of succession - wikipedia
The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which persons may become or act as President of the United States if the incumbent President becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns, or is removed from office (by impeachment by the House of Representatives and subsequent conviction by the Senate). The line of succession is set by the United States Constitution and the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 as subsequently amended to include newly created cabinet offices. The succession follows the order of Vice President, Speaker of the House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the Senate, and then the heads of federal executive departments who form the Cabinet of the United States. The Cabinet currently has fifteen members, beginning with the Secretary of State, and followed by the rest in the order of their positions ' creation. Those heads of department who are ineligible to act as President are also ineligible to succeed the President by succession, for example most commonly if they are not a natural - born U.S. citizen.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency, and in 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission raised a number of other issues with the current line of succession.
The current presidential order of succession is as follows:
Cabinet officers are in line according to the chronological order of their department 's creation or the department of which their department is the successor (the Department of Defense being successor to the Department of War, and the Department of Health and Human Services being successor to the Department of Health, Education and Welfare).
To be eligible to serve as President, a person must be a natural - born U.S. citizen, at least 35 years of age, and a resident within the United States for at least 14 years. These eligibility requirements are specified both in the U.S. Constitution, Article II, Section 1, Clause 5, and in the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 (3 U.S.C. § 19 (e)).
Acting officers may be eligible. In 2009, the Continuity of Government Commission, a private non-partisan think tank, reported,
The language in the current Presidential Succession Act is less clear than that of the 1886 Act with respect to Senate confirmation. The 1886 Act refers to "such officers as shall have been appointed by the advice and consent of the Senate to the office therein named... '' The current act merely refers to "officers appointed, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. '' Read literally, this means that the current act allows for acting secretaries to be in the line of succession as long as they are confirmed by the Senate for a post (even for example, the second or third in command within a department). It is common for a second in command to become acting secretary when the secretary leaves office. Though there is some dispute over this provision, the language clearly permits acting secretaries to be placed in the line of succession. (We have spoken to acting secretaries who told us they had been placed in the line of succession.)
Two months after succeeding Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Harry S. Truman proposed that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate be granted priority in the line of succession over the Cabinet so as to ensure the President would not be able to appoint his successor to the Presidency.
The Secretary of State and the other Cabinet officials are appointed by the President, while the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate are elected officials. The Speaker is chosen by the U.S. House of Representatives, and every Speaker has been a member of that body for the duration of their term as Speaker, though this is not technically a requirement; the President pro tempore is chosen by the U.S. Senate and customarily the Senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service fills this position. The Congress approved this change and inserted the Speaker and President pro tempore in line, ahead of the members of the Cabinet in the order in which their positions were established.
In his speech supporting the changes, Truman noted that the House of Representatives is more likely to be in political agreement with the President and Vice President than the Senate. The succession of a Republican to a Democratic Presidency would further complicate an already unstable political situation. However, when the changes to the succession were signed into law, they placed Republican House Speaker Joseph W. Martin first in the line of succession after the Vice President.
Some of Truman 's critics said that his ordering of the Speaker before the President pro tempore was motivated by his dislike of the then - current holder of the latter rank, Senator Kenneth McKellar. Further motivation may have been provided by Truman 's preference for House Speaker Sam Rayburn to be next in the line of succession, rather than Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.
The line of succession is mentioned in three places in the Constitution:
Article II, Section 1 of the United States Constitution provides that:
In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President... until the disability be removed, or a President elected.
This originally left open the question whether "the same '' refers to "the said office '' or only "the powers and duties of the said office. '' Some historians, including Edward Corwin and John D. Feerick, have argued that the framers ' intention was that the Vice President would remain Vice President while executing the powers and duties of the Presidency; however, there is also much evidence to the contrary, the most compelling of which is Article I, section 3, of the Constitution itself, the relevant text of which reads:
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse (sic) their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.
This text appears to answer the hypothetical question of whether the office or merely the powers of the Presidency devolved upon the Vice President on his succession. Thus, the 25th Amendment merely restates and reaffirms the validity of existing precedent, apart from adding new protocols for Presidential disability. Not everyone agreed with this interpretation when it was first actually tested, and it was left to Vice President John Tyler, the first presidential successor in U.S. history, to establish the precedent that was respected in the absence of the 25th Amendment.
Upon the death of President William Henry Harrison in 1841 and after a brief hesitation, Tyler took the position that he was the President and not merely acting President upon taking the presidential oath of office. However, some contempories -- including John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and other members of Congress Whig party leaders and even Tyler 's own cabinet -- believed that he was only acting as President and did not have the office itself.
Nonetheless, Tyler adhered to his position, even returning, unopened, mail addressed to the "Acting President of the United States '' sent by his detractors. Tyler 's view ultimately prevailed when the Senate voted to accept the title "President, '' and this precedent was followed thereafter. The question was finally resolved by Section 1 of the 25th Amendment, which specifies that "In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President. '' The Amendment does not specify whether officers other than the Vice President can become President rather than Acting President in the same set of circumstances. The Presidential Succession Act refers only to other officers acting as President rather than becoming President.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1792 was the first succession law passed by Congress. The act was contentious because the Federalists did not want the then Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, who had become the leader of the Democratic - Republicans, to follow the Vice President in the succession. There were also separation of powers concerns over including the Chief Justice of the United States in the line. The compromise they worked out established the President pro tempore of the Senate as next in line after the Vice President, followed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
In either case, these officers were to "act as President of the United States until the disability be removed or a president be elected. '' The Act called for a special election to be held in November of the year in which dual vacancies occurred (unless the vacancies occurred after the first Wednesday in October, in which case the election would occur the following year; or unless the vacancies occurred within the last year of the presidential term, in which case the next election would take place as regularly scheduled). The people elected President and Vice President in such a special election would have served a full four - year term beginning on March 4 of the next year, but no such election ever took place.
In 1881, after the death of President Garfield, and in 1885, after the death of Vice President Hendricks, there had been no President pro tempore in office, and as the new House of Representatives had yet to convene, no Speaker either, leaving no one at all in the line of succession after the vice president. When Congress convened in December 1885, President Cleveland asked for a revision of the 1792 act, which was passed in 1886. Congress replaced the President pro tempore and Speaker with officers of the President 's Cabinet with the Secretary of State first in line. In the first 100 years of the United States, six former Secretaries of State had gone on to be elected President, while only two congressional leaders had advanced to that office. As a result, changing the order of the line of succession seemed reasonable.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1947, signed into law by President Harry S. Truman, added the Speaker of the House and President pro tempore back in the line, but switched the two from the 1792 order. It remains the sequence used today. Since the reorganization of the military in 1947 had merged the War Department (which governed the Army) with the Department of the Navy into the Department of Defense, the Secretary of Defense took the place in the order of succession previously held by the Secretary of War. The office of Secretary of the Navy, which had existed as a Cabinet - level position since 1798, had become subordinate to the Secretary of Defense in the military reorganization, and so was dropped from the line of succession in the 1947 Succession Act.
Until 1971, the Postmaster General, the head of the Post Office Department, was a member of the Cabinet, initially the last in the presidential line of succession before new officers were added. Once the Post Office Department was re-organized into the United States Postal Service, a special agency independent of the executive branch, the Postmaster General ceased to be a member of the Cabinet and was thus removed from the line of succession.
The United States Department of Homeland Security was created in 2002. On March 9, 2006, pursuant to the renewal of the Patriot Act as Pub. L. 109 -- 177, the Secretary of Homeland Security was added to the line of succession. The order of Cabinet members in the line has always been the same as the order in which their respective departments were established. Despite custom, many in Congress had wanted the Secretary to be placed at number eight on the list -- below the Attorney General, above the Secretary of the Interior, and in the position held by the Secretary of the Navy prior to the creation of the Secretary of Defense -- because the Secretary, already in charge of disaster relief and security, would presumably be more prepared to take over the presidency than some of the other Cabinet secretaries. Despite this, the 2006 law explicitly specifies that the "Secretary of Homeland Security '' follows the "Secretary of Veterans Affairs '' in the succession, effectively at the end of the list.
While nine Vice Presidents have succeeded to the office upon the death or resignation of the President, and two Vice Presidents have temporarily served as acting President, no other officer has ever been called upon to act as President. On March 4, 1849, President Zachary Taylor 's term began, but he declined to be sworn in on a Sunday, citing religious beliefs, and the Vice President was not sworn either. As the last President pro tempore of the Senate, David Rice Atchison was thought by some to be next in line after the Vice President, and his tombstone claims that he was US President for the day. However, Atchison took no oath of office to the presidency either, and his term as Senate President pro tempore had by then expired.
In 1865, when Andrew Johnson assumed the Presidency on the death of Abraham Lincoln, the office of Vice President became vacant. At that time, the Senate President pro tempore was next in line to the presidency. In 1868, Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives and subjected to trial in the Senate, and if he had been convicted and thereby removed from office, Senate President pro tempore Benjamin Wade would have become acting President. This posed a conflict of interest, as Wade 's "guilty '' vote could have been decisive in removing Johnson from office and giving himself presidential powers and duties. (Johnson was acquitted by a one - vote margin.)
In his book The Shadow Presidents, which he published in 1979, Michael Medved describes a situation that arose prior to the 1916 election, when the First World War was raging in Europe. In view of the contemporary international turmoil, President Woodrow Wilson thought that if he lost the election it would be better for his opponent to begin his administration straight away, instead of waiting through the lame duck period, which at that time had a duration of almost four months. President Wilson and his aides formed a plan to exploit the rule of succession so that his rival Charles Evans Hughes could take over the Presidency as soon as the result of the election was clear. The plan was that Wilson would appoint Hughes to the post of Secretary of State. Wilson and his Vice President Thomas R. Marshall would then resign, and as the Secretary of State was at that time designated next in line of succession, Hughes would become President immediately. As it happened, President Wilson won re-election, so the plan was never put into action.
Since the 25th Amendment 's ratification, its Second Section, which addresses Vice Presidential succession as noted above, has been invoked twice.
During the 1973 Vice Presidential vacancy, House Speaker Carl Albert was first in line. As the Watergate scandal made President Nixon 's removal or resignation possible, Albert would have become Acting President and -- under Title 3, Section 19 (c) of the U.S. Code -- would have been able to "act as President until the expiration of the then current Presidential term '' on January 20, 1977. Albert openly questioned whether it was appropriate for him, a Democrat, to assume the powers and duties of the presidency when there was a public mandate for the Presidency to be held by a Republican. Albert announced that should he need to assume the Presidential powers and duties, he would do so only as a caretaker. However, with the nomination and confirmation of Gerald Ford to the Vice Presidency, which marked the first time the Second Section of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked, these series of events were never tested. Albert again became first - in - line during the first four months of Ford 's Presidency, before the confirmation of Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, which marked the second time Section 2 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked.
In 1981, when President Ronald Reagan was shot, Vice President George H.W. Bush was traveling in Texas. Secretary of State Alexander Haig responded to a reporter 's question regarding who was running the government by stating:
Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the President, the Vice President and the Secretary of State in that order, and should the President decide he wants to transfer the helm to the Vice President, he will do so. He has not done that. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending return of the Vice President and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course.
A bitter dispute ensued over the meaning of Haig 's remarks. Most people believed that Haig was referring to the line of succession and erroneously claimed to have temporary Presidential authority, due to his implied reference to the Constitution. Haig and his supporters, noting his familiarity with the line of succession from his time as White House Chief of Staff during Richard Nixon 's resignation, said he only meant that he was the highest - ranking officer of the Executive branch on - site, managing things temporarily until the Vice President returned to Washington.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency. James Madison, one of the authors of the Constitution, raised similar constitutional questions about the Presidential Succession Act of 1792 in a 1792 letter to Edmund Pendleton. Two of these issues can be summarized:
In 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission suggested that the current law has "at least seven significant issues... that warrant attention '', specifically:
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who led the charge on little round top | Little Round Top - wikipedia
Little Round Top is the smaller of two rocky hills south of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania -- the companion to the adjacent, taller hill named Big Round Top. It was the site of an unsuccessful assault by Confederate troops against the Union left flank on July 2, 1863, the second day of the Battle of Gettysburg.
Considered by some historians to be the key point in the Union Army 's defensive line that day, Little Round Top was defended successfully by the brigade of Col. Strong Vincent. The 20th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment, commanded by Col. Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, fought the most famous engagement there, culminating in a dramatic downhill bayonet charge that is one of the most well - known actions at Gettysburg and in the American Civil War.
Little Round Top is a large diabase spur of Big Round Top with an oval crest (despite its name) that forms a short ridgeline with a summit of 63 ft (19 m) prominence above the saddle point to Big Round Top to the south. Located in Cumberland Township, approximately two miles (3 km) south of Gettysburg, with a rugged, steep slope rising 150 feet (46 m) above nearby Plum Run to the west (the peak is 650 feet (198 m) above sea level), strewn with large boulders. The western slope was generally free from vegetation, while the summit and eastern and southern slopes were lightly wooded. Directly to the south was its companion hill, Big Round Top, 130 feet (40 m) higher and densely wooded.
There is no evidence that the name "Little Round Top '' was used by soldiers or civilians during the battle. Although the larger hill was known before the battle as Round Top, Round Top Mountain, and sometimes Round Hill, accounts written in 1863 referred to the smaller hill with a variety of names: Rock Hill, High Knob, Sugar Loaf Hill, Broad Top Summit, and granite spur of Round Top. Historian John B. Bachelder, who had an enormous influence on the preservation of the Gettysburg battlefield, personally favored the name "Weed 's Hill, '' in honor of Brig. Gen. Stephen H. Weed, who was mortally wounded on Little Round Top. Bachelder abandoned that name by 1873. One of the first public uses of "Little Round Top '' was by Edward Everett in his oration at the dedication of the Soldiers ' National Cemetery on November 19, 1863.
The igneous landform was created 200 million years ago when the "outcrop of the Gettysburg sill '' intruded through the Triassic "Gettysburg plain ''. Subsequent periglacial frost wedging during the Pleistocene formed the hill 's extensive boulders.
About 4 p.m. on July 2, 1863, Confederate Lt. Gen. James Longstreet 's First Corps began an attack ordered by General Robert E. Lee that was intended to drive northeast up the Emmitsburg Road in the direction of Cemetery Hill, rolling up the Union left flank. Maj. Gen. John Bell Hood 's division was assigned to attack up the eastern side of the road, Maj. Gen. Lafayette McLaws 's division the western side. Hood 's division stepped off first, but instead of guiding on the road, elements began to swing directly to the east in the direction of the Round Tops. Instead of driving the entire division up the spine of Houck 's Ridge (the boulder - strewn area known to the soldiers as the Devil 's Den), parts of Hood 's division detoured over Round Top and approached the southern slope of Little Round Top. There were four probable reasons for the deviation in the division 's direction: first, regiments from the Union III Corps were unexpectedly in the Devil 's Den area and they would threaten Hood 's right flank if they were not dealt with; second, fire from the 2nd U.S. Sharpshooters at Slyder 's farm drew the attention of lead elements of Brig. Gen. Evander M. Law 's brigade, moving in pursuit and drawing his brigade to the right; third, the terrain was rough and units naturally lost their parade - ground alignments; finally, Hood 's senior subordinate, General Law, was unaware that he was now in command of the division, so he could not exercise control.
In the meantime, Little Round Top was undefended by Union troops. Maj. Gen. George Meade, commander of the Army of the Potomac, had ordered Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles 's III Corps to defend the southern end of Cemetery Ridge, which would have just included Little Round Top. But Sickles, defying Meade 's orders, moved his corps a few hundred yards west to the Emmitsburg Road and the Peach Orchard, causing a large salient in the line, which was also too long to defend properly. His left flank was anchored in Devil 's Den. When Meade discovered this situation, he dispatched his chief engineer, Brig. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren, to attempt to deal with the situation south of Sickles 's position. Climbing Little Round Top, Warren found only a small Signal Corps station there. He saw the glint of bayonets in the sun to the southwest and realized that a Confederate assault into the Union flank was imminent. He hurriedly sent staff officers, including Washington Roebling, to find help from any available units in the vicinity.
The response to this request for help came from Maj. Gen. George Sykes, commander of the Union V Corps. Sykes quickly dispatched a messenger to order his 1st Division, commanded by Brig. Gen. James Barnes, to Little Round Top. Before the messenger could reach Barnes, he encountered Col. Strong Vincent, commander of the third brigade, who seized the initiative and directed his four regiments to Little Round Top without waiting for permission from Barnes. He and Oliver W. Norton, the brigade bugler, galloped ahead to reconnoiter and guide his four regiments into position. Upon arrival on Little Round Top, Vincent and Norton received fire from Confederate batteries almost immediately. On the western slope he placed the 16th Michigan, and then proceeding counterclockwise were the 44th New York, the 83rd Pennsylvania, and finally, at the end of the line on the southern slope, the 20th Maine. Arriving only ten minutes before the Confederates, Vincent ordered his brigade to take cover and wait, and he ordered Col. Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, commander of the 20th Maine, to hold his position, the extreme left of the Army of the Potomac, at all costs. Chamberlain and his 385 men waited for what was to come.
The approaching Confederates were the Alabama Brigade of Hood 's Division, commanded by Brig. Gen. Evander Law. (As the battle progressed and Law realized he was in command of the division, Col. James L. Sheffield was eventually notified to assume brigade command.) Dispatching the 4th, 15th, and 47th Alabama, and the 4th and 5th Texas to Little Round Top, Law ordered his men to take the hill. The men were exhausted, having marched more than 20 miles (32 km) that day to reach this point. The day was hot and their canteens were empty; Law 's order to move out reached them before they could refill their water. Approaching the Union line on the crest of the hill, Law 's men were thrown back by the first Union volley and withdrew briefly to regroup. The 15th Alabama, commanded by Col. William C. Oates, repositioned further right and attempted to find the Union left flank.
The left flank consisted of the 386 officers and men of the 20th Maine regiment and the 83rd Pennsylvania. Seeing the Confederates shifting around his flank, Chamberlain first stretched his line to the point where his men were in a single - file line, then ordered the southernmost half of his line to swing back during a lull following another Confederate charge. It was there that they "refused the line '' -- formed an angle to the main line in an attempt to prevent the Confederate flanking maneuver. Despite heavy losses, the 20th Maine held through two subsequent charges by the 15th Alabama and other Confederate regiments for a total of ninety minutes.
Chamberlain (knowing that his men were out of ammunition, his numbers were being depleted, and his men would not be able to repulse another Confederate charge) ordered his men to equip bayonets and counterattack. He ordered his left flank, which had been pulled back, to advance in a ' right - wheel forward ' maneuver. As soon as they were in line with the rest of the regiment, the remainder of the regiment would charge akin to a door swinging shut. This simultaneous frontal assault and flanking maneuver halted and captured a good portion of the 15th Alabama. While Chamberlain ordered the advance, Lieutenant Holman Melcher spontaneously and separate to Chamberlain 's command initiated a charge from the center of the line that further aided the regiment 's efforts.
During their retreat, the Confederates were subjected to a volley of rifle fire from Company B of the 20th Maine, commanded by Captain Walter G. Morrill, and a few of the 2nd U.S. Sharpshooters, who had been placed by Chamberlain behind a stone wall 150 yards to the east, hoping to guard against an envelopment. This group, who had been hidden from sight, caused considerable confusion in the Confederate ranks.
Thirty years later, Chamberlain received a Medal of Honor for his conduct in the defense of Little Round Top. The citation read that it was awarded for "daring heroism and great tenacity in holding his position on the Little Round Top against repeated assaults, and ordering the advance position on the Great Round Top. ''
Despite this victory, the rest of the Union regiments on the hill were in dire straits. While the Alabamians had pressed their attacks on the Union left, the 4th and 5th Texas were attacking Vincent 's 16th Michigan, on the Union right. Rallying the crumbling regiment (the smallest in his brigade, with only 263 men) several times, Vincent was mortally wounded during one Texas charge and was succeeded by Colonel James C. Rice. Vincent died on July 7, but not before receiving a deathbed promotion to brigadier general.
Before the Michiganders could be demoralized, reinforcements summoned by Warren -- who had continued on to find more troops to defend the hill -- had arrived in the form of the 140th New York and a battery of four guns -- Battery D, 5th U.S. Artillery, commanded by Lt. Charles E. Hazlett. (Simply maneuvering these guns by hand up the steep and rocky slope of the hill was an amazing achievement. However, this effort had little effect on the action of July 2. The artillerymen were exposed to constant sniper fire and could not work effectively. More significantly, however, they could not depress their barrels sufficiently to defend against incoming infantry attacks.)
The 140th charged into the fray of the battle, driving the Texans back and securing victory for the Union forces on the hill. Col. Patrick "Paddy '' O'Rorke, who personally led his regiment in the charge, was killed. Reinforced further by Stephen Weed 's brigade of the V Corps, Union forces held the hill throughout the rest of the battle, enduring persistent fire from Confederate sharpshooters stationed around Devil 's Den. General Weed was among the victims, and as his old friend Charles Hazlett leaned over to comfort Weed, the artilleryman was also shot dead.
Later that day, Little Round Top was the site of constant skirmishing. It was fortified by Weed 's brigade, five regiments of the Pennsylvania Reserves, and an Ohio battery of six guns. Most of the stone breastworks that are currently visible on the hill were constructed by these troops after the fighting stopped. Troops of the II, V, VI, and XII Corps passed through the area and also occupied Round Top.
Little Round Top was the starting point for a Union counterattack at dusk on July 2, conducted by the 3rd Division of the V Corps (the Pennsylvania Reserves) under Brig. Gen. Samuel W. Crawford, launched to the west in the direction of the Wheatfield.
On July 3, Hazlett 's battery (six 10 - pound Parrott rifles, now under the command of Lt. Benjamin F. Rittenhouse) fired into the flank of the Confederate assault known as Pickett 's Charge. Near the end of that engagement, General Meade observed from Little Round Top and contemplated his options for a possible counterattack against Lee.
Of the 2,996 Union troops engaged at Little Round Top, there were 565 casualties (134 killed, 402 wounded, 29 missing); Confederate losses of 4,864 engaged were 1,185 (279 killed, 868 wounded, 219 missing).
While agreeing that the fighting on Little Round Top was extremely fierce and soldiers on both sides fought valiantly, historians disagree as to the impact of this particular engagement on the overall outcome of the Battle of Gettysburg. The traditional view -- one that emerged in the 1880s -- is that the left flank of the Union army was a crucial position. An example of this view is from 1900: "If the Confederates had seized (Little Round Top) and dragged some of their artillery up there, as they easily could have done, they would have enfiladed Meade 's entire line and made it too unhealthy for him to remain there. '' An alternative claim is that the hill 's terrain offered a poor platform for artillery, and that had Longstreet secured the hill, the Union army would have been forced back to a better defensive position, making the attack on the hill a distraction from the Confederates ' true objective. This latter theory is supported by General Lee 's writings, in which he appears to have considered Little Round Top irrelevant. In Lee 's report after the Gettysburg Campaign, he stated in part, "General Longstreet was delayed by a force occupying the high, rocky hills on the enemy 's extreme left, from which his troops could be attacked in reverse as they advanced '', suggesting Longstreet was ordered on a course intended to bypass Little Round Top -- had the hill been a key objective of the assault, Lee would not have used the phrase "delayed by '' in describing the effects of the engagement.
Garry Adelman has countered the argument that a Confederate capture of Little Round Top would have badly hurt the Union effort. Examining the number of troops available in the vicinity in the late afternoon, he determined that at most 2,650 Confederates could have been available to defend the hill after capturing it, and that these men would have been exhausted from combat and short on ammunition. In contrast, 11,600 fresh Union reinforcements were available within a mile, primarily from Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick 's VI Corps. In addition, the value of Little Round Top as an artillery position has been overstated -- the shape of the crest of the hill forces guns to be placed one behind the other, limiting their effectiveness when engaging targets directly to the north, such as the Union line on Cemetery Ridge.
While Chamberlain and the 20th Maine have gained popularity in the American national consciousness, other historical figures such as Strong Vincent, Patrick O'Rourke, and Charles Hazlett arguably played equal roles in the Union success at Little Round Top. Their deaths at the scene, however, did not allow their personal stories to be told.
During visits by 13 generals in 1865, points were identified on Little Round Top at which markers were subsequently erected, and a 40 ft (12 m) observatory had been built by 1886 before the stone monument with observation deck was dedicated to the 44th New York in 1892. In the late 1880s, the 20th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment monument on Little Round Top was dedicated with a speech by Joshua Chamberlain.
In 1935, two "hairpin curves '' of the avenue on Little Round Top were removed by the Continental Contracting Company to create a "by - pass, a stretch of. 399 mile, '' from the Round Top Museum southward to north of the guard station on the south slope at Sykes Avenue and Chamberlain Avenue was subsequently closed. The summit parking lot was also created at this time.
The battle for Little Round Top is a key plot point of Ward Moore 's 1953 alternate history novel, Bring the Jubilee. The 1974 novel The Killer Angels, and its 1993 film adaptation, Gettysburg, depicted a portion of this battle. Ken Burns praised Chamberlain in his PBS documentary The Civil War and in subsequent interviews for possibly saving the Union.
Coordinates: 39 ° 47 ′ 31 '' N 77 ° 14 ′ 11 '' W / 39.7920 ° N 77.2363 ° W / 39.7920; - 77.2363
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who plays the hairdresser in orange is the new black | Laverne Cox - wikipedia
Laverne Cox is an American actress and LGBT advocate. She rose to prominence with her role as Sophia Burset on the Netflix series Orange Is the New Black, becoming the first openly transgender person to be nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in the acting category, and the first to be nominated for an Emmy Award since composer / musician Angela Morley in 1990. In 2015, she won a Daytime Emmy Award in Outstanding Special Class Special as executive producer for Laverne Cox Presents: The T Word. This made her the first openly transgender woman to win a Daytime Emmy as an executive producer. Also in 2015, she became the first openly transgender person to have a wax figure of herself at Madame Tussauds. In 2017, she became the first transgender person to play a transgender series regular on broadcast TV as Cameron Wirth on CBS 's Doubt.
Cox appeared as a contestant on the first season of VH1 's reality show I Want to Work for Diddy, and co-produced and co-hosted the VH1 makeover television series TRANSform Me. In April 2014, Cox was honored by GLAAD with its Stephen F. Kolzak Award for her work as an advocate for the transgender community. In June 2014, Cox became the first openly transgender person to appear on the cover of Time magazine. In February 2018, Cox became the first openly transgender person to appear on the cover of any Cosmopolitan magazine (specifically, Cosmopolitan South Africa)..
Laverne Cox was born in Mobile, Alabama and was raised by a single mother and grandmother within the AME Zion church. She has an identical twin brother, M Lamar, who portrays the pre-transitioning Sophia (as Marcus) in Orange Is the New Black. Cox stated she attempted suicide at the age of 11, when she noticed that she had developed feelings about her male classmates and had been bullied for several years for not acting "the way someone assigned male at birth was supposed to act ''.
She is a graduate of the Alabama School of Fine Arts in Birmingham, Alabama, where she studied creative writing before switching to dance. She then studied for two years at Indiana University Bloomington before transferring to Marymount Manhattan College in New York City, where she switched from dancing (specifically classical ballet) to acting. During her first season on Orange Is the New Black, she was still appearing at a restaurant on the Lower East Side as a drag queen (where she had applied initially to work as a waitress).
Cox appeared as a contestant on the first season of I Want to Work for Diddy; afterwards she was approached by VH1 about show ideas. From that came the makeover television series TRANSform Me, which made Cox the first African - American transgender person to produce and star in her own TV show. Both those shows were nominated for GLAAD media awards for outstanding reality programs, and when Diddy won in 2009, Cox accepted the award at the GLAAD ceremony, giving a speech described by the San Francisco Sentinel as "among the most poignant because (it) reminded us how important it is to tell our stories, all of our stories. '' She has also acted in a number of TV shows and films, including Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, Bored to Death, and Musical Chairs.
In 2013, Cox began her recurring role in the Netflix series Orange Is the New Black as Sophia Burset, a trans woman sent to prison for credit - card fraud. In that year, she stated, "Sophia is written as a multi-dimensional character who the audience can really empathize with -- all of the sudden they 're empathizing with a real Trans person. And for Trans folks out there, who need to see representations of people who are like them and of their experiences, that 's when it becomes really important. '' Cox 's role in Orange Is the New Black provides her a platform to speak on the rights of trans people.
In January 2014, Cox joined trans woman Carmen Carrera on Katie Couric 's syndicated show, Katie. Couric referred to transgender people as "transgenders '', and after being rebuffed by Carrera on the subject of her surgeries, specifically what genital reconstruction she had done, turned the same question to Cox. Cox responded,
I do feel there is a preoccupation with that. The preoccupation with transition and surgery objectifies trans people. And then we do n't get to really deal with the real lived experiences. The reality of trans people 's lives is that so often we are targets of violence. We experience discrimination disproportionately to the rest of the community. Our unemployment rate is twice the national average; if you are a trans person of color, that rate is four times the national average. The homicide rate is highest among trans women. If we focus on transition, we do n't actually get to talk about those things.
News outlets such as Salon, The Huffington Post, and Business Insider covered what was characterized by Salon writer Katie McDonough as Couric 's "clueless '' and "invasive '' line of questioning.
Cox was on the cover of the June 9, 2014, issue of Time, and was interviewed for the article "The Transgender Tipping Point '' by Katy Steinmetz, which ran in that issue and the title of which was also featured on the cover; this makes Cox the first openly transgender person on the cover of Time.
Later in 2014, Cox became the first openly transgender person to be nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in an acting category: Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her role as Sophia Burset in Orange Is the New Black.
Also in 2014, Cox appeared in John Legend 's video for the song "You & I (Nobody in the World) ''.
Cox also joined a campaign that year against a Phoenix, Arizona law which allows police to arrest anyone suspected of "manifesting prostitution '', and which she feels targets transgender women of color, following the conviction of activist (and transgender woman of color) Monica Jones. Cox stated, "'' All over the country, trans women are targeted simply for being who they are. Laws like this manifestation law really support systematically the idea that girls like me, girls like me and Monica, are less than (others) in this country, '' Later that year the Sylvia Rivera Law Project released a video in which Cox read a letter from transgender inmate Synthia China Blast, addressing common issues faced by trans inmates. But when Cox learned that Blast was found guilty of the 1993 rape and murder of 13 - year - old Ebony Williams, she wrote on her Tumblr, "I was not aware of the charges for which she was convicted. If I had been aware of those charges, I would have never agreed to read the letter. ''
Cox was featured in the annual "Rebels '' issue of V in late 2014. For the issue, V asked celebrities and artists to nominate who they saw as their personal rebels, and Natasha Lyonne nominated Cox. Cox was also on the cover of the October 2014 issue of Essence magazine, along with actresses Alfre Woodard, Nicole Beharie, and Danai Gurira.
On October 17, 2014, Laverne Cox Presents: The T Word, an hour - long documentary executive - produced and narrated by Cox, premiered on MTV and Logo simultaneously.
Also in 2014, Cox was featured on the fifth anniversary cover of C ☆ NDY magazine along with 13 other transgender women -- Janet Mock, Carmen Carrera, Geena Rocero, Isis King, Gisele Alicea, Leyna Ramous, Dina Marie, Nina Poon, Juliana Huxtable, Niki M'nray, Pêche Di, Carmen Xtravaganza (House of Xtravaganza), and Yasmine Petty.
In 2015, Cox won a Daytime Emmy Award in Outstanding Special Class Special as Executive Producer for Laverne Cox Presents: The T Word. This made Cox the first openly transgender woman to win a Daytime Emmy as an Executive Producer; as well, The T Word is the first trans documentary to win a Daytime Emmy.
Also in 2015, Cox (among others) posed nude for the Allure annual "Nudes '' issue, becoming the first openly transgender actress to do so.
Cox is the cover subject for the June 11, 2015 "totally not - straight issue '' of Entertainment Weekly, the first issue of the magazine in 15 years to focus exclusively on gay, lesbian, and transgender entertainment.
In June 2016, the Human Rights Campaign released a video in tribute to the victims of the 2016 Orlando gay nightclub shooting; in the video, Cox and others told the stories of the people killed there.
In 2017, Cox began her role as transgender attorney Cameron Wirth on Doubt on CBS. However, after only two episodes had aired, CBS announced that they were pulling the series from their schedule, leaving the future of the remaining unaired episodes uncertain. It was the first official cancellation of the 2016 -- 17 season, following weak viewership. CBS later announced that the remaining 11 episodes would be broadcast on Saturday, beginning July 1.
Also in 2017, Cox was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for her role in Orange Is the New Black.
Also in 2017, Cox collaborated with the ACLU, Zackary Drucker, Molly Crabapple, and Kim Boekbinder, in making a video about transgender history and resistance, called "Time Marches Forward & So Do We '', which Cox narrated.
Also in that year Cox became one of the four faces of the fall campaign for the Ivy Park line of clothing.
Laverne Cox has been noted by her LGBT peers, and many others, for being a trailblazer for the transgender community, and has won numerous awards for her activist approach in spreading awareness. Her impact and prominence in the media has led to a growing conversation about transgender people, specifically transgender women, and how being transgender intersects with one 's race. She is the first openly transgender person to be on the cover of Time magazine, be nominated for a Primetime Emmy, and have a wax work in Madame Tussauds, as well as the first openly transgender woman to win a Daytime Emmy as an Executive Producer. In May 2016, Cox was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from The New School in New York City for her progressive work in the fight for gender equality.
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any five points to improve the level of professional education in nepal | Education in Nepal - wikipedia
Education in Nepal was long based on home - schooling and gurukulas. The first formal school, established in 1853, was intended for the elite. The birth of Nepalese democracy in 1951 opened its classrooms to a more diverse population. Education in Nepal from the primary school to the university level has been modeled from the very inception on the Indian system, which is in turn the legacy of the old British Raj.
Nepal 's 1971 education plan hastened its development in the country. In 1951 Nepal had 10,000 students in 300 schools and an adult literacy rate of five percent. There were 49,000 schools in 2010, and by 2015 the overall adult literacy rate was 63.9 percent (males 76.4 percent and females 53.1 percent). It has already been more than half decade that public schools started imparting the education in the country. Curriculum developed in the country is not oriented towards the practical education. Public schools are criticized for not being able to provide quality education. Lower - caste discrimination, and indigenous bias are now the primary barriers to equitable access to education. After thorough review of secondary literature, analysis through macro perspective under the influence of critical pedagogy it is found lack of physical and infrastructures, textbooks, centralized curriculum, monolingual instructional, lack of constructive and critical pedagogical strategies, poverty and social exclusion are the major factors contributing for poor performance.
The Ministry of Education is responsible for managing educational activities in Nepal. The Minister of Education (assisted by the state or assistant minister) is the political leader of the ministry. The ministry, as a part of the government, is headed by the Secretary of Education and consists of the central office and other offices at the regional and district levels. Its central office is primarily responsible for policy development, planning, monitoring, and evaluation.
The ministry has established directorates in each of the five development regions and education offices in each of Nepal 's 75 districts to bring educational administration to the people. These decentralized offices are responsible for overseeing local informal and school - level educational activities. Regional directorates are primarily responsible for coordinating, monitoring and evaluating educational activities, and the district education offices provide services.
The National Center for Educational Development (NCED) is Nepal 's teacher - training body. It has 34 educational training centers (ETCs) to provide pedagogical support for teachers.
Nepal has two primary types of schools: community and institutional. Community (public) schools receive government grants, and institutional (private) schools are self - funded. Institutional schools are non-profit trusts or companies.
With one exception, all universities and academies are publicly managed and supported by public funding. Public universities also provide affiliation to private colleges. Academies of higher education are typically single - college institutes, and universities have constituent and affiliated colleges across Nepal.
Primary education in Nepal consists of grades one through five. Lower secondary levels are grades six through eight, and secondary levels cover grades nine and ten. Pre-primary education is available in some areas, and students usually begin grade one at age six. A national School Leaving Certificate (SLC) examination was conducted at the end of grade 10; according to the new Education Act, the national grade - 12 examination will result in an SLC; the grade - 10 examination will be known as the Secondary Education Examination (SEE).
Grades 11 and 12 are considered the higher secondary level. The Higher Secondary Education Board (HSEB) supervises higher secondary schools, most of which are private. These grades had been controlled by the university system, and awarded proficiency certificates. Although some universities still offer these programs, most of these grades are now part of the school system.
Higher education consists of bachelor 's, master 's, and Ph. D. levels. Depending upon the educational stream and subject, a bachelor 's degree may require three to five years of study; two years is the typical course. Some universities offer M. Phil. and post-graduate diplomas.
Vocational education begins after lower secondary education, and students can follow a two - year curriculum leading to a Technical School Leaving Certificate. Universities also offer professional and technical degrees. In addition to the formal track, one - year programs focusing on skills development are also available. The District Level Examination is given in grade eight. The new educational system has two levels: basic (grades one through eight) and secondary (grades nine through twelve).
Although the Chitwan District was declared 100 % literate in 2014, many children in remote villages do not have access to education past the primary level. The Chepang people have been called the "poorest of the poor '' (in Nepal) by sociologists. Students often leave primary schools after they learn to read and write, but without additional education these skills may be forgotten. The April 2015 earthquake and 2015 blockade destroyed schools and severely impacted the nation 's ability to keep its remaining schools open.
Government schools use Janak textbooks, and private schools use reference books such as Ekta, Read More, Reliant, Asia, and Vidyarthi. Government schools perform poorly in the SLC exam due to the lack of skilled teachers and neglect by the Ministry of Education of textbook reform.
Nepal 's first college was Tri-Chandra College, founded in 1918. Until 1985, Tribhuvan University was the country 's only university. During the early 1980s, the government developed the concept of a multi-university system in which each school would have its own nature, content, and function.
The first new university was Mahendra Sanskrit University. It was followed by Kathmandu University (the first private university) in 1990 and Purbanchal and Pokhara Universities in 1995 and 1996, respectively.
Medical colleges, mostly private, exist throughout Nepal. Local students are admitted after an entrance exam, and foreign students are admitted after an interview. To be eligible for admission to MBBS courses in Nepal 's medical colleges, students must pass the higher secondary examination in science or its equivalent. Medical education is regulated by the Medical Council of Nepal. In addition to accrediting the country 's medical colleges, the council conducts the licensing examination for new doctors, makes policies related to curriculum, admission, terms and examinations and makes registration recommendations.
Engineering colleges also exist throughout Nepal, with most admitting local students through an entrance exam. Like the country 's medical colleges, foreign students are admitted after an interview. To be eligible for admission to Nepalese engineering colleges, candidates are encouraged to pass the Intermediate in Science or have a diploma in engineering (or its equivalent).
The Institute of Engineering of Tribhuvan University is the country 's oldest engineering school. It has four colleges, and 13 private engineering colleges are affiliated with it. The IOE 's central campus is Pulchowk Campus, considered to the best engineering college in Nepal. Pulchowk offers bachelor 's, master 's and Ph. D. degrees in engineering. More than 16,000 students from around the world take the school 's entrance examination.
Nepal Engineering College (NEC) in Changunarayan is the country 's first private engineering college to offer bachelor 's - and master 's - level courses. Popular engineering fields in Nepal are architecture, civil engineering, computer engineering, electronics and communications, electrical and electronics, energy and rural engineering. The B.E. architecture courses take five years to complete, and other bachelor 's - degree courses take four years.
Nepal ranks 11th in countries of origin for international students in the United States. According to "Open Doors 2009 '', the annual report on international academic mobility published by the Institute of International Education with support from the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the United States Department of State, the number of Nepali students enrolled in U.S. institutions of higher education increased from 8,936 in the 2007 -- 08 academic year to 11,581 in 2008 -- 09 (a 29.6 - percent increase). In the 2006 -- 07 academic year, Nepal ranked 13th among countries of origin of international students.
According to Terry J. White, counselor for public affairs at the U.S. Embassy in Kathmandu, "America 's nearly 3,000 accredited schools of higher education continue to attract new students in what is becoming a highly competitive international ' market ' around the world. '' The U.S. is the preferred destination for students from Nepal who want to study abroad because of the quality and prestige associated with an American degree. Another contributing factor is access to comprehensive, accurate information about study in the U.S. through EducationUSA offices in Nepal and increased activity by United States colleges and universities to attract students from Nepal. However, "a culture of disrespect '' for humble Nepalese by U.S. Embassy staff has been reported by a co-founder of Nepali / American NGO, Possible Health.
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detroit was founded by an explorer with what last name | Antoine de La Mothe Cadillac - wikipedia
Antoine Laumet de la Mothe, sieur de Cadillac (/ ˈkædɪlæk /, French: (kadijak); March 5, 1658 -- October 16, 1730), usually referred to as Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac (also spelled Motte), was a French explorer and adventurer in New France which stretched from Eastern Canada to Louisiana on the Gulf of Mexico. He rose from a modest beginning in Acadia in 1683 as an explorer, trapper, and a trader of alcohol and furs, and he achieved various positions of political importance in the colony. He was the commander of Fort de Buade in St. Ignace, Michigan in 1694. In 1701, he founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit which became the city of Detroit, which he commanded until 1710. Between 1710 and 1716, he was the governor of Louisiana, although he did not arrive in that territory until 1713.
His knowledge of the coasts of New England and the Great Lakes area was appreciated by Frontenac, governor of New France, and Pontchartrain, Secretary of State for the Navy. This earned him various favors, including the Order of Saint Louis from King Louis XIV. The Jesuits in Canada, however, accused him of perverting the Indians with his alcohol trading, and he was imprisoned for a few months in Quebec in 1704, and again in the Bastille on his return to France in 1717.
Upon his arrival in America, La Mothe adopted his title after the town of Cadillac, Gironde in southwestern France. The city of Detroit became the world center of automobile production in the 20th century. William H. Murphy and Henry M. Leland founded the Cadillac auto company and paid homage to him by using his name for their company and his armorial bearings as its logo in 1902. Various places bear his name in America, in particular Cadillac Mountain in Maine and the town of Cadillac, Michigan.
He was widely hailed as a hero until the 1950s and the rise of liberal scholarship, but more recent writers have not admired him. Zoltvany claims that "he most definitely was not one of the ' great early heroes ' and probably deserves to be ranked with the ' worst scoundrels ever to set foot in New France '. ''
Cadillac was born Antoine Laumet on March 5, 1658, in the small town of Saint - Nicolas - de-la - Grave in the French Province of Gascony (today in the Tarn - et - Garonne département of the Occitanie administrative region). His father, Jean Laumet, was born in the village of Caumont - sur - Garonne (Occitania). He became a lawyer in the Parliament of Toulouse. In 1652 Jean was appointed lieutenant to the judge of Saint - Nicolas - de-la - Grave by Cardinal Mazarin. He was appointed as a judge in 1664. Antoine 's mother, Jeanne Péchagut, was the daughter of a merchant and landowner. La Mothe 's adult correspondence reveals that his youth included rigorous study at a Jesuit institution where he learned theology, the law, agriculture, botany and zoology.
In a record of service he filled out in 1675, he said that he had enlisted in the military as a cadet at the age of 17 in the Dampierre regiment, in Charleroi, nowadays Belgium. Two years later in personal letters, however, he reported that he had been an officer in the Clérambault regiment in Thionville, and in 1682 he had joined the Albret regiment, in Thionville.
At the age of 25, Antoine Laumet departed from France to the New World. His father lost a lawsuit against a lawyer in Castelsarrasin that caused him financial difficulties. In addition, he had lost financial support following the death of Cardinal Mazarin and suffered the current intolerance against Protestants. Laumet may have embarked on his voyage by devious means, as historians have not found his name on any passenger list of ships departing from a French port.
In 1683, Antoine Laumet arrived at Port Royal, the capital of Acadia. During the next four years, he explored his new country in all directions, extending his explorations to New England and New Holland, pushing south to the Caroline, now North Carolina and South Carolina, and learning some Native American languages and habits. He probably entered into a business relationship with Denis Guyon, a merchant of Quebec. On June 25, 1687, he married Guyon 's daughter, Marie - Thérèse, 17, in Quebec.
The marriage certificate is the first document that records his new identity. He identified as "Antoine de Lamothe, écuyer, sieur de Cadillac '', and signed as "De Lamothe Launay ''. Like many immigrants, he took advantage of emigrating to the New World to create a new identity, perhaps to conceal the reasons that drove him from France. This new identity "ne sort pas de son sac '' ("I did not create this identity out of nowhere ''), as he wrote later. Antoine Laumet likely remembered Sylvestre d'Esparbes de Lussan de Gout, baron of Lamothe - Bardigues, lord of Cadillac, Launay and Le Moutet; adviser to the Parliament of Toulouse. He knew him for at least two reasons: Bardigues, Cadillac, Launay and Le Moutet are villages and localities close to his birthplace, Saint - Nicolas - de-la - Grave, and Antoine 's father Jean Laumet was a lawyer in the Parliament of Toulouse.
The sons likely encountered each other during their studies. Second son in his family, Laumet identified with the second son of the baron. He used the phonic similarity between his own name and that of Launay, creating the name: Antoine de Lamothe - Launay. He took the title of écuyer (squire), the rank held by a family 's second son, followed by the title sieur (sire) of Cadillac. This accorded with the Gascon custom whereby the junior family member succeeds the elder son upon the latter 's death. Laumet created a new name, identity and noble origin, while protecting himself from possible recognition by persons who knew him in France.
In addition, he presented his own titles of nobility, as illustrated by armorial bearings that he created by associating the shield with the three "merlettes '' (birds with no legs or bill) of the baron de Lamothe - Bardigues and that of the Virès family (of France 's Languedoc region) Origins of Cadillac Crest.
The marriage proved to be a fertile one. The Lamothe - Cadillac couple had six daughters and seven sons: Judith (1689), Magdeleine (1690), Marie Anne (1701
In 1688, the governor Jacques - René de Brisay de Denonville gave him the concession of the seigniory (estate) of Les Douacques (which later became the town of Bar Harbor, Maine, well known today as a tourist town, but then for fishing and lobsters). His concession brought him no income, even from agriculture. Lamothe entered into a trading partnership with officers of Port Royal, an activity facilitated by using a ship owned by his brothers - in - law Guyon. In 1689, he was sent on an expedition in the vicinity of Boston. Upon his return, he asked the governor of Acadia, Louis - Alexandre des Friches de Méneval, for a job as notary, to bring in a minimum income; his request was turned down. Then, Cadillac was introduced to the governor Louis de Buade de Frontenac in Quebec, who sent him on an exploratory mission along the coasts of New England, aboard the frigate L'Embuscade (The Ambush). Strong head winds forced the ship to return to France.
In 1690, Cadillac was in Paris. He became part of the circle of the Secretary of State for the Navy, the marquis de Seignelay, then of his successor Louis Phélypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain, who appointed him officer of marine troops. On his return to Port Royal, LaMothe learned that the English admiral William Phips had seized the city, and that his wife, daughter, and son were being held captives. They were released in exchange for some English prisoners. In 1691, Cadillac repatriated his family to Quebec, but their ship was attacked by a privateer out of Boston, who took possession of all their goods.
Cadillac was promoted to lieutenant in 1692. He was sent with the cartographer Jean - Baptiste - Louis Franquelin to draw charts of the New England coastline in preparation for a French attack on the English colonies. He set out again for France to hand over the charts, together with a report, to the Secretary of State Pontchartrain. In 1693, he got an allowance of 1500 pounds for his work and was sent back on a further mission to supplement his observations. Frontenac promoted him to captain, then lieutenant commander in 1694.
Cadillac was appointed commander of all the stations of the "Pays d'En - Haut '' (the upper countries). He left France at the peak of his career to take up his command of Fort de Buade or Michilimackinac, which controlled all fur trading between Missouri, Mississippi, the Great Lakes, and the Ohio valley. Cadillac gave his wife power of attorney to sign contracts and notarize documents in his absence.
In 1695, Cadillac traveled to explore the area of the Great Lakes and to draw up charts. He had the idea of starting a fort in the straits between Lakes Erie and Huron to compete with the English. In Michilimackinac, he came into conflict with the Jesuit fathers, such as Étienne de Carheil, who accused him of supplying alcohol to the Indians. This was prohibited by a royal decree.
In 1696, to mitigate the difficulties of fur trading, the king ordered the closing of all trading posts, including Michilimackinac. Cadillac returned to Montreal. In 1697, he was authorized to return to France to present his project of a new fort on the strait to the Secretary of State Pontchartrain; Frontenac requested that he be promoted to lieutenant commander. However, Canadian notables strongly opposed the project which, they believed, would lead to the ruin of Quebec and Montreal. Only in 1699 did Cadillac get the support of Pontchartrain to implant the new fort; this was authorized in 1700 by the king, who entrusted its command to Cadillac.
On July 24, 1701, Antoine de La Mothe - Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain and the parish of Sainte - Anne on the straits ("le détroit '' in French). He was helped by Alphonse de Tonti. Their wives joined them in October. In 1702, Cadillac went back to Quebec to request the monopoly of all fur - trading activities and the transfer to his authority of the Amerindian tribes in the area of the straits. He became a shareholder in the "Company of the Colony. '' After return to the straits, he helped in welcoming and settling the native tribes formerly installed at Michillimakinac.
A fire devastated Fort Pontchartrain in 1703. This disaster destroyed all the registers and records. Cadillac was recalled to Quebec in 1704 to face charges of trafficking in alcohol and furs. Although he was imprisoned as a preventive measure for a few months, his name was cleared in 1705. The king guaranteed him all his titles and granted him the fur - trading monopoly he sought. Two years later, Cadillac was charged with multiple counts of abuse of authority; Pontchartrain appointed a representative, Daigremont, to investigate. He formulated an indictment against Cadillac in 1708.
In 1709, the troops stationed on the straits were given the order to return to Montreal. In 1710, the king named Cadillac governor of La Louisiane, the expansive Louisiana (New France) territory, and ordered him to take up his duties immediately, traveling via the Mississippi River.
Cadillac did not obey. He drew up a general inventory of the straits, and then, in 1711, boarded a ship, with his family, bound for France. In Paris, in 1712, he convinced the Toulouse - born financier Antoine Crozat to invest in Louisiana.
In June 1713, the Cadillac family arrived at Fort Louis, Louisiana (now Mobile, Alabama), after a tiring crossing. In 1714, Crozat recommended the construction of forts along the Mississippi River, whereas Cadillac wished to strengthen defenses at the mouth of the River and to develop trade with nearby Spanish colonies.
In 1715, Cadillac and his son Joseph prospected in the Illinois Country (Upper Louisiana), where they claimed to have discovered a copper mine, although there is no copper ore in that area. They established a farm and founded the settlement of St. Philippe on the east side of the Mississippi River. Cadillac directed the first mining of lead in present - day Missouri at what is now called Mine La Motte on the west side of the river. The French brought in slaves to work at the mine; they were the first people of African descent in the future state of Missouri. The production of lead was important for ammunition in the colonies. The Southeast Missouri Lead District is still a major source of that metal.
After many arguments, Crozat withdrew any authority Cadillac had in the company. The following year, he ordered Cadillac removed from colonial office.
The Cadillac family returned to France and, in 1717, settled in La Rochelle. Cadillac went to Paris with his son Joseph. They were arrested immediately and imprisoned in the Bastille for five months. They were released in 1718, and Cadillac was decorated with the Order of Saint Louis to reward his 30 years of loyal services. He settled in the paternal home, where he dealt with his parents ' estate.
He also made many trips to Paris to have his rights to the concession on the straits recognized. He prolonged his stay in Paris in 1721, giving another general power of attorney to his wife to sign documents in his absence. He was finally vindicated in 1722. He sold his estate on the straits to Jacques Baudry de Lamarche, a Canadian. The French government appointed Cadillac as governor and major of Castelsarrasin, close to his birthplace.
Antoine de Lamothe - Cadillac died on October 16, 1730 in Castelsarrasin (Occitanie), "around the midnight hour '', at the age of 72. He was buried in a vault of the Carmelite Fathers ' church.
Some of Antoine de Lamothe - Cadillac 's far - reaching visions were developed after he had left New France. For instance, Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville founded the city of New Orleans, near the mouth of the Mississippi River, in 1718, and it became a major port and city of New France.
The straits became a strategic location. Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit enjoyed an ideal location between the Great Lakes and the river basins. The fort would be succeeded by Fort Detroit and Fort Wayne and by Fort Amherstburg and Fort Malden on the opposite shore.
The car brand Cadillac was named after him, and its headquarters was in Detroit (it has since been moved to New York City), where Cadillac himself explored.
Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac was honored with a 3 - cent stamp on July 24, 1951, to commemorate the 250th anniversary of his landing at Detroit in 1701. The stamp 's background design depicts Detroit 's skyline as it appeared in 1951 and the foreground shows Cadillac 's landing at Detroit in 1701.
On 20 April 2016, the public French high school in Windsor, Ontario was renamed in Cadillac 's honour.
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what is unique about the function of african sculpture | African sculpture - wikipedia
Most African sculpture was historically in wood and other organic materials that have not survived from earlier than at most a few centuries ago; older pottery figures are found from a number of areas. Masks are important elements in the art of many peoples, along with human figures, often highly stylized. There is a vast variety of styles, often varying within the same context of origin depending on the use of the object, but wide regional trends are apparent; sculpture is most common among "groups of settled cultivators in the areas drained by the Niger and Congo rivers '' in West Africa. Direct images of deities are relatively infrequent, but masks in particular are or were often made for religious ceremonies; today many are made for tourists as "airport art ''. African masks were an influence on European Modernist art, which was inspired by their lack of concern for naturalistic depiction.
The Nubian Kingdom of Kush in modern Sudan was in close and often hostile contact with Egypt, and produced monumental sculpture mostly derivative of styles to the north. In West Africa, the earliest known sculptures are from the Nok culture which thrived between 500 BC and 500 AD in modern Nigeria, with clay figures typically with elongated bodies and angular shapes. Later West African cultures developed bronze casting for reliefs to decorate palaces like the famous Benin Bronzes, and very fine naturalistic royal heads from around the Yoruba town of Ife in terracotta and metal from the 12th to the 14th centuries. Akan goldweights are a form of small metal sculptures produced over the period 1400 -- 1900, some apparently representing proverbs and so with a narrative element rare in African sculpture, and royal regalia included impressive gold sculptured elements.
Many West African figures are used in religious rituals and are often coated with materials placed on them for ceremonial offerings. The Mande - speaking peoples of the same region make pieces of wood with broad, flat surfaces and arms and legs are shaped like cylinders. In Central Africa, however, the main distinguishing characteristics include heart - shaped faces that are curved inward and display patterns of circles and dots.
Eastern Africans are not known for their sculpture, but one style from the region is pole sculptures, carved in human shapes and decorated with geometric forms, while the tops are carved with figures of animals, people, and various objects. These poles are, then, placed next to graves and are associated with death and the ancestral world. The culture known from Great Zimbabwe left more impressive buildings than sculpture but the eight soapstone Zimbabwe Birds appear to have had a special significance and were mounted on monoliths. Modern Zimbabwean sculptors in soapstone have achieved considerable international success. Southern Africa 's oldest known clay figures date from 400 to 600 AD and have cylindrical heads with a mixture of human and animal features.
Nok terracotta, 6th century BC -- 6th century CE
Ife head, terracotta, probably 12 -- 14th centuries CE
Yoruba bronze head sculpture, Ife, Nigeria c. 12th century
Sculpture of a "Queen Mother '' from Benin, 16th century.
Yombe - sculpture, 19th century
16th century Benin ivory mask
One of the Benin Bronzes, 16th -- 18th century, Nigeria.
Mask from Burkina Faso, 19th century
Mambila figure, Nigeria
Waga sculptures from Ethiopia
Mahafaly. Gravepost (Aloalo), Brooklyn Museum
Mende, Fragment of a Female Figure, Brooklyn Museum
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where are the cliffs of insanity from princess bride | Cliffs of Moher - wikipedia
The Cliffs of Moher (/ ˈm oːhɚ /; Irish: Aillte an Mhothair) are located at the southwestern edge of the Burren region in County Clare, Ireland. They rise 120 metres (390 ft) above the Atlantic Ocean at Hag 's Head, and, eight kilometres to the north, reach their maximum height of 214 metres (702 ft) just north of O'Brien's Tower, which is a round stone tower near the midpoint of the cliffs that was built in 1835 by Sir Cornelius O'Brien. From the cliffs, and from atop the tower, visitors can see the Aran Islands in Galway Bay, the Maumturks and Twelve Pins mountain ranges to the north in County Galway, and Loop Head to the south. The cliffs rank amongst the most visited tourist sites in Ireland and receive approximately one million visitors a year. The closest settlements are Liscannor (6 km south) and Doolin (7 km north).
The cliffs take their name from an old promontory fort called Mothar or Moher, which once stood on Hag 's Head, the southernmost point of the cliffs, now the site of Moher Tower. The writer Thomas Johnson Westropp referred to it in 1905 as Moher Uí Ruis or Moher Uí Ruidhin. The fort still stood in 1780 and is mentioned in an account from John Lloyd 's A Short Tour Of Clare (1780). It was demolished in 1808 to provide material for a lookout / telegraph tower that was intended to provide warning in case of a French invasion during the Napoleonic wars.
The cliffs are one of the most popular tourist destinations in Ireland and topped the list of attractions in 2006 by drawing almost one million visitors. Since 2011, they have formed a part of the Burren and Cliffs of Moher Geopark, one of a family of geotourism destinations throughout Europe that are members of the European Geoparks Network.
In the 1990s, Clare County Council initiated development plans to enable visitors to experience the cliffs without significant intrusive man - made amenities. In keeping with this approach, the Cliffs of Moher Visitor Experience was built into a hillside approaching the cliffs. The centre is also intended to be environmentally sensitive in its use of renewable energy systems including geothermal heating and cooling, solar panels, and grey water recycling.
The € 32 million facility was planned and built over a 17 - year period and officially opened in February 2007. Facility exhibits include interactive media displays covering the geology, history, flora and fauna of the cliffs. A large multimedia screen displays a bird 's - eye view from the cliffs, as well as video from the underwater caves below the cliffs.
The visitor 's centre charges € 6 per adult, with children under 16 admitted free. This covers parking, access to the visitor centre and Atlantic Edge exhibition, and a contribution towards conservation and safety at the cliffs.
The Cliffs of Moher Visitor Experience won an award in the Interpret Britain & Ireland Awards 2007 awarded by the Association of Heritage Interpretation (AHI). Although the award was specifically for the Atlantic Edge exhibition, the AHI assessed the entire visitor centre and site. The citation stated that the entire visitor centre was "one of the best facilities that the judges had ever seen. ''
In July 2016 the so - called Cliff Walk, outside the official Cliffs of Moher amenities, was temporarily closed because of the risk of rock falls. People were warned to stay on the official path further of the cliff edge instead of the unofficial seaside trail.
Separate ferry trips also allow tourists to view the cliffs from sea level.
The cliffs consist mainly of beds of Namurian shale and sandstone, with the oldest rocks being found at the bottom of the cliffs. It is possible to see 300 - million - year - old river channels cutting through, forming unconformities at the base of the cliffs.
There are an estimated 30,000 birds living on the cliffs, representing more than 20 species. These include Atlantic puffins, which live in large colonies at isolated parts of the cliffs and on the small Goat Island, and razorbills. The site is an Important Bird Area.
The Cliffs of Moher have appeared in numerous media. In cinema, the cliffs have appeared in several films, including The Princess Bride (1987) (as the filming location for "The Cliffs of Insanity ''), Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince (2009), and Leap Year (2010). The cliffs are mentioned in the Martin Scorsese film Bringing Out the Dead (1999) and are noted in the 2008 documentary Waveriders as the location of a large surfing wave known as "Aileens ''.
In music, the cliffs have appeared in music videos, including Maroon 5 's "Runaway '' video, Westlife 's "My Love '', and Rich Mullins ' "The Color Green ''. Most of singer Dusty Springfield 's ashes were scattered at the cliffs by her brother, Tom.
Bus Éireann route 350 links the Cliffs of Moher to several locations: Ennis, Ennistymon, Doolin, Lisdoonvarna, Kinvara and Galway. This service includes a number of journeys each way daily. There is also a privately operated shuttle bus that serves the site from Doolin.
A wide perspective
A 200 - metre drop
The cliffs from the sea
Local feral Bilberry goats
Branaunmore sea stack
Looking south over the Cliffs of Moher
Panorama from below O'Brien's Tower
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bob dylan knock knock knocking on heaven's door | Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door - wikipedia
"Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door '' is a song written and sung by Bob Dylan, for the soundtrack of the 1973 film Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid. Released as a single, it reached No. 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart. Described by Dylan biographer Clinton Heylin as "an exercise in splendid simplicity '', the song, in terms of the number of other artists who have covered it, is one of Dylan 's most popular post-1960s compositions.
Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.
In January 1975 Eric Clapton played on Jamaican singer Arthur Louis ' recording of "Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door '' arranged in a reggae style. Subsequently, Clapton recorded his own reggae - style version of the song which was released in August 1975, two weeks after Louis 's version was released as a single in July 1975. Clapton 's single peaked at No. 38 in the UK Singles Chart. The single was less successful in the US, only reaching No. 109 in Cash Box. Clapton 's 1996 boxed set Crossroads 2: Live in the Seventies features a performance recorded in London in April 1977. The song was also performed during the Journeyman and One More Car, One More Rider world tours in 1990 and 2003. Additionally, the song has been included on several Clapton compilation albums, such as Time Pieces: The Best of Eric Clapton, Backtrackin ', The Cream of Clapton and Complete Clapton.
In 1987, Guns N ' Roses started including the song in their live sets. A live version of the song was released on the maxi - single of "Welcome to the Jungle '' the same year. They recorded a studio version in 1990 for the soundtrack of the film Days of Thunder which reached No. 18 on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart in 1990. This version was later slightly modified for the 1991 album Use Your Illusion II (basically discarding the responses in the second verse). Released as the fourth single from the album, it reached No. 2 on the UK Singles Chart and the New Zealand Singles Chart. Elsewhere, the single topped the charts of Belgium and the Netherlands. In Ireland, where the song also reached No. 1, it became Guns N ' Roses ' third (and to date last) number - one single as well as their ninth consecutive top - five hit.
Their performance of the song at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert in 1992 was used as the B - side for the single release and was also included on their Live Era: ' 87 -- ' 93 album, released in 1999. The music video for this version of the song was directed by Andy Morahan.
Weekly charts
Year - end charts
In 1996 and with the consent of Dylan, Scottish musician Ted Christopher wrote a new verse for "Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door '' in memory of the schoolchildren and teacher killed in the Dunblane school massacre. This has been, according to some sources, one of the few times Dylan has officially authorized anybody to add or change the lyrics to one of his songs. This version of the song, including children from the village singing the chorus with guitarist and producer of Dylan 's album Infidels (1983), Mark Knopfler, was released on December 9 in the UK and reached No. 1 on the UK Singles Chart and Scottish Singles Chart. The proceeds went to charities for children. The song was featured on the compilation album Hits 97, where all royalties from the song were given to three separate charities.
Gabrielle 's single "Rise '' (2000) sampled from this song.
Nick Talevski used the title for his book, Knocking On Heaven 's Door: Rock Obituaries. A version of this song was performed by Raign for the TV show "The 100 ''
An alternate name for the 24th episode of Neon Genesis Evangelion is "Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door ''.
The title is used as the name of Rohan Kishibe 's Stand, "Heaven 's Door '', in the fourth part of the manga "Jojo 's Bizarre Adventure '', Diamond is Unbreakable.
The title was used for the 12th episode of Angel Beats! and Bob Dylan along with the song was mentioned in the episode by T.K. and Hinata
Covered by The Jenerators, the song was used during a tribute to the death of cast member Miguel Ferrer of NCIS: Los Angeles at the end of the Season 8 Episode 16 "New Tricks '', broadcast on March 5, 2017. Ferrer was a member of The Jenerators.
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when was the first flat screen tv sold | Flat panel display - wikipedia
Flat - panel displays are electronic viewing technologies used to enable people to see content (still images, moving images, text, or other visual material) in a range of entertainment, consumer electronics, personal computer, and mobile devices, and many types of medical, transportation and industrial equipment. They are far lighter and thinner than traditional cathode ray tube (CRT) television sets and video displays and are usually less than 10 centimetres (3.9 in) thick. Flat - panel displays can be divided into two display device categories: volatile and static. Volatile displays require that pixels be periodically electronically refreshed to retain their state (e.g., liquid - crystal displays (LCD)). A volatile display only shows an image when it has battery or AC mains power. Static flat - panel displays rely on materials whose color states are bistable (e.g., e-book reader tablets from Sony), and as such, flat - panel displays retain the text or images on the screen even when the power is off. As of 2016, flat - panel displays have almost completely replaced old CRT displays. In many 2010 - era applications, specifically small portable devices such as laptops, mobile phones, smartphones, digital cameras, camcorders, point - and - shoot cameras, and pocket video cameras, any display disadvantages of flat - panels (as compared with CRTs) are made up for by portability advantages (thinness and lightweightness).
Most 2010s - era flat - panel displays use LCD and / or LED technologies. Most LCD screens are back - lit to make them easier to read or view in bright environments. Flat - panel displays are thin and lightweight and provide better linearity and they are capable of higher resolution than typical consumer - grade TVs from earlier eras. The highest resolution for consumer - grade CRT TVs was 1080i; in contrast, many flat - panels can display 1080p or even 4K resolution. As of 2016, some devices that use flat - panels, such as tablet computers, smartphones and, less commonly, laptops, use touchscreens, a feature that enables users to select onscreen icons or trigger actions (e.g., playing a digital video) by touching the screen. Many touchscreen - enabled devices can display a virtual QWERTY or numeric keyboard on the screen, to enable the user to type words or numbers.
A multifunctional monitor (MFM) is a flat - panel display that has additional video inputs (more than a typical LCD monitor) and is designed to be used with a variety of external video sources, such as VGA input, HDMI input from a VHS VCR or video game console and, in some cases, a USB input or card reader for viewing digital photos). In many instances, an MFM also includes a TV tuner, making it similar to a LCD TV that offers computer connectivity.
The first engineering proposal for a flat - panel TV was by General Electric as a result of its work on radar monitors. Their publication of their findings gave all the basics of future flat - panel TVs and monitors. But GE did not continue with the R&D required and never built a working flat panel at that time. The first production flat - panel display was the Aiken tube, developed in the early 1950s and produced in limited numbers in 1958. This saw some use in military systems as a heads up display, but conventional technologies overtook its development. Attempts to commercialize the system for home television use ran into continued problems and the system was never released commercially. The Philco Predicta featured a relatively flat (for its day) cathode ray tube setup and would be the first commercially released "flat panel '' upon its launch in 1958; the Predicta was a commercial failure. The plasma display panel was invented in 1964 at the University of Illinois, according to The History of Plasma Display Panels. The first active - matrix addressed display was made by T Peter Brody 's Thin - Film Devices department at Westinghouse Electric Corporation in 1968. In 1977, James P Mitchell prototyped and later demonstrated what was perhaps the earliest monochromatic flat panel LED television display LED Display. As of 2012, 50 % of global market share in flat - panel display (FPD) production is by Taiwanese manufacturers such as AU Optronics and Chimei Innolux Corporation.
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) are lightweight, compact, portable, cheap, more reliable, and easier on the eyes than cathode ray tube screens. LCD screens use a thin layer of liquid crystal, a liquid that exhibits crystalline properties. It is sandwiched between two electrically conducting plates. The top plate has transparent electrodes deposited on it, and the back plate is illuminated so that the viewer can see the images on the screen. By applying controlled electrical signals across the plates, various segments of the liquid crystal can be activated, causing changes in their light diffusing or polarizing properties. These segments can either transmit or block light. An image is produced by passing light through selected segments of the liquid crystal to the viewer. They are used in various electronics like watches, calculators, and notebook computers.
Some LCD screens are backlit with a number of light - emitting diodes (LEDs). LEDs are two - lead semiconductor light source that resembles a basic "pn - junction '' diode, except that an LED also emits light. This form of LCD (liquid crystal display) is the most prevalent in the 2010s. This form of LCD is still a Liquid Crystal Display panel. It is not a separate technology from an LCD.
A plasma display consists of two glass plates separated by a thin gap filled with a gas such as neon. Each of these plates has several parallel electrodes running across it. The electrodes on the two plates are at right angles to each other. A voltage applied between the two electrodes one on each plate causes a small segment of gas at the two electrodes to glow. The glow of gas segments is maintained by a lower voltage that is continuously applied to all electrodes. In the 2010s, plasma displays have been discontinued by numerous manufacturers.
In an electroluminescent display (ELD), the image is created by applying electrical signals to the plates which makes the phosphor glow.
An OLED (organic light - emitting diode) is a light - emitting diode (LED) in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound which emits light in response to an electric current. This layer of organic semiconductor is situated between two electrodes; typically, at least one of these electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens, computer monitors, portable systems such as mobile phones, handheld game consoles and PDAs. A major area of research is the development of white OLED devices for use in solid - state lighting applications. (1) (2) (3)
Volatile displays require that pixels be periodically refreshed to retain their state, even for a static image. As such, a volatile screen needs electrical power, either from mains electricity (being plugged into a wall socket) or a battery to maintain an image on the display or change the image. This refresh typically occurs many times a second. If this is not done, for example, if there is a power outage, the pixels will gradually lose their coherent state, and the image will "fade '' from the screen.
Only a few of these displays are commercially available in the 2010s, though OLED displays are beginning deployment in smartphones and very recent in televisions.
Static flat - panel displays rely on materials whose color states are bistable. This means that the image they hold requires no energy to maintain, but instead requires energy to change. This results in a much more energy - efficient display, but with a tendency towards slow refresh rates which are undesirable in an interactive display. Bistable flat - panel displays are beginning deployment in limited applications (Cholesteric displays, manufactured by Magink, in outdoor advertising; electrophoretic displays in e-book reader devices from Sony and iRex; anlabels).
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janet jackson love will never do with out you | Love Will Never Do (Without You) - wikipedia
"Love Will Never Do (Without You) '' is a song recorded by American singer Janet Jackson, recorded for her fourth studio album Janet Jackson 's Rhythm Nation 1814 (1989). It was written and produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. The song was released as the seventh single from the album on October 2, 1990, by A&M Records. It topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart for one week and the Radio & Records airplay chart for three weeks.
Pitchfork included the song on their "The 200 Best Songs of the 1980s '' list at number 27.
Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis considered the idea of making this song a duet. According to Fred Bronson 's The Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits, they thought about possibly getting Prince, Johnny Gill, Ralph Tresvant, or someone else working with them at the time. However, there was no concrete plan. During the recording of the first verse, Jimmy Jam told Jackson, "Sing it low like some guy would sing it. '' As a result, they kept the idea of her singing the first verse in a low octave but go an octave up on the second verse.
In 1996, the song was remixed by Roger Sanchez. The Single Edit was included on the international release of Jackson 's 1996 greatest hits compilation Design of a Decade: 1986 -- 1996. Although being one of the album 's last singles, it was one of the first songs recorded for Janet Jackson 's Rhythm Nation 1814. The song 's background vocals were recorded in late 1988, while Jackson recorded the lead vocals in January 1989. Herb Alpert plays trumpet on the track.
"Love Will Never Do '' is written in the key of A ♭ major and has a tempo of 103 beats per minute in common time. Jackson 's vocals span from F to C in the song.
The video was directed by photographer Herb Ritts and choreographed by Ritts, Jackson and Tina Landon on September 13, 1990. Jackson originally planned to wear a dress for the video, but Ritts envisioned Jackson in nothing more than a black top, a pair of jeans, and blond hair. The video features cameos by actors Antonio Sabàto, Jr. and Djimon Hounsou. Ritts commented,
"Because Janet is known for her instinctive talent for dance, as well as being an all around entertainer, Janet and I decided to try something innovative on the video. The video is a departure from her elaborate dance production routines and focuses, instead, on her alone, She is fresh, sensual, womanly and vulnerable as she reveals herself to the camera. We wanted to show this intimate and more personal side of Janet ''.
The video begins with the shadows of Jackson and a dancer, leading to images of a man running through a desert. As she starts singing the song, accompanied by her love interest, a man doing stunts also appears. As the video advances, a black man is seen running in a large wheel, and also begins lip - synching to the song. He then appears on top of a white half circle. The video ends with Jackson sharing caresses with her lover. Calvin Thomas on his book Masculinity, Psychoanalysis, Straight Queer Theory noted a lightening of Jackson 's skin tone and a notable transformation of the shape of her body in the music video. Two versions of the video were produced, one in black - and - white, and the other colorized, both of which appear on the Design of a Decade: 1986 -- 1996 video compilation.
The video won for Best Female Video and was nominated for Best Choreography and Best Art Direction at the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards. It ranked 13 on Rolling Stone 's The 100 Top Music Videos, 72 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Videos, and 88 on MTV 's 100 Greatest Videos Ever Made. Britney Spears was inspired by the video for her "Do n't Let Me Be the Last to Know '' clip, saying "he did Janet Jackson - remember when she made her comeback? '' she says, alluding to Janet 's makeover, which was orchestrated by Ritts when he directed her "Love Will Never Do (Without You) '' video. '' American recording artist Nicole Scherzinger revealed that she was inspired by the video for her "Your Love '' clip.
The song became Jackson 's fifth number - one single on the Billboard Hot 100, and the final of seven top five singles from the album, making her the only artist to achieve seven top five singles from one album. On the Radio & Records Airplay chart the song debuted at # 24 on the November 23, 1990 issue, after four weeks it reached # 1 staying at the top of the chart for three weeks and staying on the top 10 for seven weeks, the single remained on the chart for twelve weeks. The success of "Love Will Never Do (Without You) '' also helped the album to become the only one in history to produce number - one hits on the Billboard Hot 100 in three separate calendar years, those being "Miss You Much '' in 1989, "Escapade '' and "Black Cat '' in 1990, and "Love Will Never Do (Without You) '' in 1991.
The single was certified Gold by the RIAA, but achieved even greater airplay success, topping the Airplay Hot 100 for seven consecutive weeks, becoming the longest - running airplay number one single at the time.
Jackson has performed the song on most of her tours including the janet. Tour, The Velvet Rope Tour, All for You Tour, Rock Witchu Tour, Number Ones, Up Close and Personal, Unbreakable World Tour, and State of the World Tour.
Sally Yeh and Alex To covered the Cantonese version "信 自己 '' (Believe Myself) in 1991 on Sally 14th album. Macy Gray sang the song live as a tribute to Jackson during MTV 's MTV Icon special in 2001. The song was recorded by Sahara Hotnights in 2009 on their album Sparks. Manilyn Reynes performed the song on the film, Kung sino pa ang minahal (1991). Carnie Wilson revealed to Billboard that while creating a song for a Trident commercial as a task for The New Celebrity Apprentice it was inspired by this song.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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pirates of the caribbean 1 full movie in hindi free | Orlando Bloom - wikipedia
Orlando Jonathan Blanchard Bloom (born 13 January 1977) is an English actor. After having his breakthrough as Legolas in The Lord of the Rings trilogy, he rose to fame by further appearing in epic fantasy, historical epic, and fantasy adventure films. His other roles include Legolas in The Hobbit trilogy, Will Turner in the Pirates of the Caribbean series, Paris in Troy, and Balian de Ibelin in Kingdom of Heaven.
Bloom subsequently established himself as a leading man in Hollywood films such as Balian de Ibelin in Ridley Scott 's Kingdom of Heaven (2005) and Elizabethtown (2005). He made his professional stage debut in West End 's In Celebration at the Duke of York 's Theatre in London in 2007 and starred in a Broadway adaption of Romeo and Juliet in 2013. In 2009, Bloom was named a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador. In 2015 he received the BAFTA Britannia Humanitarian Award.
Bloom was born in 1977 in Canterbury, Kent, and was named after the 16th century English composer Orlando Gibbons. He has an older sister, Samantha Bloom.
Orlando initially believed that his biological father was his mother 's husband, the Jewish South African - born anti-Apartheid novelist Harry Saul Bloom (1913 -- 81), who died when Bloom was four years old. However, when he was thirteen, Bloom 's mother revealed to him that his biological father was actually Colin Stone, his mother 's partner and family friend. Stone, the principal of the Concorde International language school, became Orlando Bloom 's legal guardian after Harry Bloom 's death.
Bloom 's mother, Sonia Constance Josephine (née Copeland), was born in Calcutta, India, the daughter of Francis John Copeland, a physician and surgeon, and Betty Constance Josephine (née Walker). Through her, Bloom is a cousin of photographer Sebastian Copeland. Bloom 's mother 's family lived in Tasmania (Australia), Japan, and India, and were of English descent, some of them having originally come from Kent.
Bloom was brought up in the Church of England. He attended St Peter 's Methodist Primary School, then the junior school of the King 's School before proceeding to St Edmund 's School in Canterbury. Bloom was discovered to be dyslexic, and was encouraged by his mother to take art and drama classes. After being spurred into action following his school prize submission to panto actor Richard Sieben in 1992, in 1993, he moved to London to follow a two - year A Level course in Drama, Photography and Sculpture at Fine Arts College, Hampstead. He then joined the National Youth Theatre, spending two seasons there and earning a scholarship to train at the British American Drama Academy. Bloom began acting professionally with television roles in episodes of Casualty and Midsomer Murders, and subsequently made his film debut in Wilde (1997), opposite Stephen Fry, before entering the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in London, where he studied acting.
Bloom 's first appearance on the screen was in a small role, as a rent boy, in the 1997 film Wilde. Two days after graduating from Guildhall in 1999, he was cast in his first major role, playing Legolas in The Lord of the Rings film trilogy (2001 -- 2003). He had originally auditioned for the part of Faramir, who does not appear until the second movie, but the director, Peter Jackson, cast him as Legolas instead. While shooting a scene, he broke a rib after falling off a horse, but eventually recovered and continued shooting. At the same time, Bloom also played a brief role in Ridley Scott 's war film Black Hawk Down as PFC Todd Blackburn. In 2002, he was chosen as one of the Teen People "25 Hottest Stars Under 25 '' and was named People 's hottest Hollywood bachelor in the magazine 's 2004 list. All members of the cast of the Rings films were nominated for Best Ensemble Acting at the Screen Actors Guild Awards for three years in a row, finally winning in 2003 for the third film, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King. Bloom has also won other awards, including European Film Awards, Hollywood Festival Award, Empire Awards and Teen Choice Awards, and has been nominated for many others. Most of Bloom 's box office successes have been as part of an ensemble cast.
Bloom next starred opposite Keira Knightley and Johnny Depp in Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, which was a blockbuster hit during the summer of 2003. After the success of Pirates, Bloom next took to the screen as Paris, the man who effectively started the Trojan War, in the 2004 Spring blockbuster, Troy opposite Brad Pitt, Eric Bana and Peter O'Toole. He subsequently played the lead roles in Ridley Scott 's Kingdom of Heaven and Cameron Crowe 's Elizabethtown (both 2005). In 2006, Bloom starred in sequel Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man 's Chest and in the independently made Haven, of which he was also executive producer. In the same year he was one of the guest stars in the sitcom Extras, in which he portrayed an exaggeratedly arrogant, narcissistic version of himself who had a great loathing for Johnny Depp (his co-star in Pirates of the Caribbean); Bloom pushed for Extras to go further by making his part unlikable, and contributed to the gag about him admiring Depp out of sheer jealousy, that Depp was far more talented than he was, not to mention rated higher than him on the ' top hottest ' charts. Also in 2006, Bloom was the most searched male on Google News. As of May 2007, Bloom has appeared in four of the top 15 highest - grossing films of all time.
Bloom then again portrayed Will Turner, in Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End, released on 24 May 2007. Bloom, who had intended to become a stage actor after graduating from the Guildhall School of Music and Drama, had stated that he would like to leave films for a time and instead appear in stage roles, and is "avidly looking for the right sort of material that (he) can do something with '' and go "back to basics. '' During the summer of 2007 he appeared in a London revival of In Celebration, a play by David Storey. His character was one of three brothers returning home for their parents ' 40th wedding anniversary. On 24 August 2007 he made his first ever TV commercial appearance on late - night Japanese TV, promoting the Uno brand of cosmetics maker Shiseido. A "one night only '', 2 - minute version of the Sci - Fi themed commercial kicked off the product 's marketing campaign. In 2008 he signed on to play a small role in the British film An Education but dropped out to take the lead in Johnnie To 's film Red Circle. Also in 2009, he was one of many stars to appear in New York, I Love You, which contained 12 short films in one. He then appeared in The Three Musketeers opposite Milla Jovovich, Logan Lerman, Matthew Macfadyen, Ray Stevenson, Luke Evans, Juno Temple and Christoph Waltz, released in 2011.
Bloom reprised his role as Legolas in parts two and three of The Hobbit, Peter Jackson 's three - part prequel to The Lord of the Rings trilogy.
Bloom made his Broadway stage debut as Romeo in Romeo and Juliet in August 2013 at the Richard Rodgers Theatre. The New York Times theatre critic Ben Brantley described Bloom 's performance as "a first - rate Broadway debut '' in the title role: "For once, we have a Romeo who evolves substantively, from a posturing youth in love with love, to a man who discovers the startling revelation of real love, with a last - act descent into bilious, bitter anger that verges on madness. ''
In October 2011, Bloom stated that he would like to return for a fifth Pirates of the Caribbean film. Bloom did reprise his character, Will Turner, in a supporting role in the fifth film, Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales, which was released in May 2017.
Bloom has said that he tries "not to exclude (himself) from real life as much as possible. '' During filming in Morocco for Kingdom of Heaven, Bloom rescued and adopted a dog, Sidi (a black Saluki mix with a white mark on his chest).
Bloom is a practising Buddhist under Soka Gakkai International. In 2004, he became a full member of SGI - UK (the UK branch of Soka Gakkai International), a lay Buddhist association affiliated with the teachings of Nichiren.
Bloom has also been a part of Global Green, an environmental company, since the early 2000s. As part of his environmental involvement, he has renovated his London home to use solar panels, incorporate recycled materials, and utilise energy efficient lightbulbs. Bloom has been approached by UNICEF to act as an international ambassador.
Bloom has a tattoo of the Elvish word "nine '' on his right wrist, written in fictional Tengwar Elvish script, a reference to his involvement in the Lord of the Rings as one of the nine members of the Fellowship of the Ring. The other actors of "The Fellowship '' (Sean Astin, Sean Bean, Billy Boyd, Ian McKellen, Dominic Monaghan, Viggo Mortensen, and Elijah Wood) got the same tattoo with the exception of John Rhys - Davies whose stunt double got the tattoo instead. Bloom also has a tattoo of a sun on his lower left abdomen, which he got at the age of 15 just before moving to London.
On 12 February 2009, Bloom actively participated in the ' Australia Unites ' fundraiser to raise support for the victims of the Australian bushfires on 7 February 2009.
On 12 October 2009, Bloom was named a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador. He has been involved in the organisation since 2007 and has visited schools and villages in Nepal in support of sanitation and education programmes.
Bloom has sustained several injuries: he broke his left arm and cracked his skull three times, broke his nose while playing rugby union, broke his right leg skiing in Switzerland, broke his left leg in a motorbike crash, and broke his right wrist while snowboarding. He also broke his back when he slipped trying to reach a roof terrace of a friend 's house and fell three floors. He also broke some ribs while shooting The Lord of the Rings.
On 13 July 2009, four hooded teenagers broke into the Hollywood Hills home of Orlando Bloom and stole nearly half a million dollars worth of possessions. The burglars, dubbed the "Bling Ring '', targeted the homes of young celebrities. Most of Bloom 's stolen items were retrieved.
Bloom had an "on - and - off relationship '' with American actress Kate Bosworth, from 2003 until splitting up in September 2006.
In late 2007 Bloom began dating Australian supermodel Miranda Kerr. They announced their engagement in June 2010, and were married the following month. Kerr gave birth to their son, Flynn Christopher Bloom, in January 2011 in Los Angeles. On 25 October 2013, Bloom and Kerr announced that they had separated several months earlier, and intended to end their marriage. The two were divorced by the end of 2013.
Bloom began dating singer Katy Perry shortly after the 73rd Golden Globe Awards in January 2016. However, the couple confirmed their split in March 2017.
In a 2004 poll of cultural experts conducted for the BBC, Bloom was named the twelfth most influential person in British culture. On 13 July 2010, Bloom appeared in his home town of Canterbury where he was presented with an Honorary Degree from the University of Kent at Canterbury Cathedral. Bloom received the 2,521 st star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on 2 April 2014.
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an outside party would be more likely to be called in for the | Gerrymandering - Wikipedia
Gerrymandering is a practice intended to establish a political advantage for a particular party or group by manipulating district boundaries. The resulting district is known as a gerrymander (/ ˈdʒɛriˌmændər, ˈɡɛri - /); however, that word is also a verb for the process. The term gerrymandering has negative connotations. Two principal tactics are used in gerrymandering: "cracking '' (i.e. diluting the voting power of the opposing party 's supporters across many districts) and "packing '' (concentrating the opposing party 's voting power in one district to reduce their voting power in other districts). The third tactic, shown in the top - left diagram in the diagrams to the right, is that of homogenization of all districts.
In addition to its use achieving desired electoral results for a particular party, gerrymandering may be used to help or hinder a particular demographic, such as a political, ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious, or class group, such as in U.S. federal voting district boundaries that produce a majority of constituents representative of African - American or other racial minorities, known as "majority - minority districts ''. Gerrymandering can also be used to protect incumbents.
Gerrymandering should not be confused with malapportionment, whereby the number of eligible voters per elected representative can vary widely without relation to how the boundaries are drawn. Nevertheless, the - mander suffix has been applied to particular malapportionments. Sometimes political representatives use both gerrymandering and malapportionment to try to maintain power.
The word gerrymander (originally written Gerry - mander) was used for the first time in the Boston Gazette on 26 March 1812. The word was created in reaction to a redrawing of Massachusetts state senate election districts under Governor Elbridge Gerry (/ ˈɡɛri /; 1744 -- 1814). In 1812, Governor Gerry signed a bill that redistricted Massachusetts to benefit his Democratic - Republican Party. When mapped, one of the contorted districts in the Boston area was said to resemble the shape of a mythological salamander.
The original gerrymander, and original 1812 gerrymander cartoon, depict the Essex South state senatorial district for the legislature of The Commonwealth of Massachusetts.
Gerrymander is a portmanteau of the governor 's last name and the word salamander. The redistricting was a notable success. Although in the 1812 election both the Massachusetts House and governorship were won by Federalists by a comfortable margin and cost Gerry his job, the redistricted state senate remained firmly in Democratic - Republican hands.
The author of the term gerrymander may never be definitively established. Historians widely believe that the Federalist newspaper editors Nathan Hale, and Benjamin and John Russell coined the term, but the historical record does not have definitive evidence as to who created or uttered the word for the first time.
Appearing with the term, and helping spread and sustain its popularity, was a political cartoon depicting a strange animal with claws, wings and a dragon - like head satirizing the map of the oddly shaped district. This cartoon was most likely drawn by Elkanah Tisdale, an early 19th - century painter, designer, and engraver who was living in Boston at the time. Tisdale had the engraving skills to cut the woodblocks to print the original cartoon. These woodblocks survive and are preserved in the Library of Congress.
The word gerrymander was reprinted numerous times in Federalist newspapers in Massachusetts, New England, and nationwide during the remainder of 1812. This suggests some organized activity of the Federalists to disparage Governor Gerry in particular, and the growing Democratic - Republican party in general. Gerrymandering soon began to be used to describe not only the original Massachusetts example, but also other cases of district shape manipulation for partisan gain in other states. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word 's acceptance was marked by its publication in a dictionary (1848) and in an encyclopedia (1868). Since the letter g of the eponymous Gerry is pronounced with a hard g / ɡ / as in get, the word gerrymander was originally pronounced / ˈɡɛrimændər /. However, pronunciation as / ˈdʒɛrimændər /, with a soft g / dʒ / as in gentle, has become the accepted pronunciation.
From time to time, other names are given the "- mander '' suffix to tie a particular effort to a particular politician or group. These include the 1852 "Henry - mandering '', "Jerrymander '' (referring to California Governor Jerry Brown), "Perrymander '' (a reference to Texas Governor Rick Perry), and "Tullymander '' (after the Irish politician James Tully).
Gerrymandering is used most often in favor of ruling incumbents or a specific political party -- the one drawing the map. Societies whose legislatures use a single - winner electoral system are the most likely to have political parties that gerrymander for advantage. Most notably, gerrymandering is particularly effective in non-proportional systems that tend towards fewer parties, such as first past the post.
In proportional - election systems, where political parties are represented in proportion to the total numbers of votes they receive, gerrymandering has little or less significance.
Some countries, such as Australia, Canada, and the UK, authorize non-partisan organizations to set constituency boundaries in an attempt to prevent gerrymandering. Gerrymandering is most common in countries where elected politicians are responsible for defining constituency boundaries. They have an obvious and immediate interest in the outcome of the process.
The primary goals of gerrymandering are to maximize the effect of supporters ' votes and to minimize the effect of opponents ' votes. A partisan gerry mander 's main purpose is to influence not only the districting statute but the entire corpus of legislative decisions enacted in its path.
These can be accomplished through a number of ways:
These tactics are typically combined in some form, creating a few "forfeit '' seats for packed voters of one type in order to secure more seats and greater representation for voters of another type. This results in candidates of one party (the one responsible for the gerrymandering) winning by small majorities in most of the districts, and another party winning by a large majority in only a few of the districts.
Gerrymandering is effective because of the wasted vote effect. Wasted votes are votes that did not contribute to electing a candidate, either because they were in excess of the bare minimum needed for victory or because the candidate lost. By moving geographic boundaries, the incumbent party packs opposition voters into a few districts they will already win, wasting the extra votes. Other districts are more tightly constructed with the opposition party allowed a bare minority count, thereby wasting all the minority votes for the losing candidate. These districts constitute the majority of districts and are drawn to produce a result favoring the incumbent party.
A quantitative measure of the effect of gerrymandering is the efficiency gap, computed from the difference in the wasted votes for two different political parties summed over all the districts. When the parties win district elections in rough proportion to their electoral popularity, the efficiency gap is near zero. Citing in part an efficiency gap of 11.69 % to 13 %, a U.S. District Court in 2016 ruled against the 2011 drawing of Wisconsin legislative districts. In the 2012 election for the state legislature, that gap in wasted votes meant that one party had 48.6 % of the two - party votes but won 61 % of the 99 districts.
While the wasted vote effect is strongest when a party wins by narrow margins across multiple districts, gerrymandering narrow margins can be risky when voters are less predictable. To minimize the risk of demographic or political shifts swinging a district to the opposition, politicians can create more packed districts, leading to more comfortable margins in unpacked ones.
Some political science research suggests that, contrary to common belief, gerrymandering does not decrease electoral competition, and can even increase it. Some say that, rather than packing the voters of their party into uncompetitive districts, party leaders tend to prefer to spread their party 's voters into multiple districts, so that their party can win a larger number of races. (See scenario (c) in the box.) This may lead to increased competition. Instead of gerrymandering, some researchers find that other factors, such as partisan polarization and the incumbency advantage, have driven the recent decreases in electoral competition. Similarly, a 2009 study found that "congressional polarization is primarily a function of the differences in how Democrats and Republicans represent the same districts rather than a function of which districts each party represents or the distribution of constituency preferences. ''
These findings are, however, a matter of some dispute. While gerrymandering may not decrease electoral competition in all cases, there are certainly instances where gerrymandering does reduce such competition.
One state in which gerrymandering has arguably had an adverse effect on electoral competition is California. In 2000, a bipartisan redistricting effort redrew congressional district lines in ways that all but guaranteed incumbent victories; as a result, California saw only one congressional seat change hands between 2000 and 2010. In response to this obvious gerrymandering, a 2010 referendum in California gave the power to redraw congressional district lines to the California Citizens Redistricting Commission, which had been created to draw California State Senate and Assembly districts by another referendum in 2008. In stark contrast to the redistricting efforts that followed the 2000 census, the redistricting commission has created a number of the most competitive congressional districts in the country.
The effect of gerrymandering for incumbents is particularly advantageous, as incumbents are far more likely to be reelected under conditions of gerrymandering. For example, in 2002, according to political scientists Norman Ornstein and Thomas Mann, only four challengers were able to defeat incumbent members of the U.S. Congress, the lowest number in modern American history. Incumbents are likely to be of the majority party orchestrating a gerrymander, and incumbents are usually easily renominated in subsequent elections, including incumbents among the minority.
Mann, a Senior Fellow of Governance Studies at the Brookings Institution, has also noted that "Redistricting is a deeply political process, with incumbents actively seeking to minimize the risk to themselves (via bipartisan gerrymanders) or to gain additional seats for their party (via partisan gerrymanders) ''. The bipartisan gerrymandering that Mann mentions refers to the fact that legislators often also draw distorted legislative districts even when such redistricting does not provide an advantage to their party.
Gerrymandering of state legislative districts can effectively guarantee an incumbent 's victory by ' shoring up ' a district with higher levels of partisan support, without disproportionately benefiting a particular political party. This can be highly problematic from a governance perspective, because forming districts to ensure high levels of partisanship often leads to higher levels of partisanship in legislative bodies. If a substantial number of districts are designed to be polarized, then those districts ' representation will also likely act in a heavily partisan manner, which can create and perpetuate partisan gridlock.
This demonstrates that gerrymandering can have a deleterious effect on the principle of democratic accountability. With uncompetitive seats / districts reducing the fear that incumbent politicians may lose office, they have less incentive to represent the interests of their constituents, even when those interests conform to majority support for an issue across the electorate as a whole. Incumbent politicians may look out more for their party 's interests than for those of their constituents.
Gerrymandering can affect campaign costs for district elections. If districts become increasingly stretched out, candidates must pay increased costs for transportation and trying to develop and present campaign advertising across a district. The incumbent 's advantage in securing campaign funds is another benefit of his or her having a gerrymandered secure seat.
Gerrymandering also has significant effects on the representation received by voters in gerrymandered districts. Because gerrymandering can be designed to increase the number of wasted votes among the electorate, the relative representation of particular groups can be drastically altered from their actual share of the voting population. This effect can significantly prevent a gerrymandered system from achieving proportional and descriptive representation, as the winners of elections are increasingly determined by who is drawing the districts rather than the preferences of the voters.
Gerrymandering may be advocated to improve representation within the legislature among otherwise underrepresented minority groups by packing them into a single district. This can be controversial, as it may lead to those groups ' remaining marginalised in the government as they become confined to a single district. Candidates outside that district no longer need to represent them to win elections.
As an example, much of the redistricting conducted in the United States in the early 1990s involved the intentional creation of additional "majority - minority '' districts where racial minorities such as African Americans were packed into the majority. This "maximization policy '' drew support by both the Republican Party (who had limited support among African Americans and could concentrate their power elsewhere) and by minority representatives elected as Democrats from these constituencies, who then had safe seats.
The 2012 election provides a number of examples as to how partisan gerrymandering can adversely affect the descriptive function of states ' congressional delegations. In Pennsylvania, for example, Democratic candidates for the House of Representatives received 83,000 more votes than Republican candidates, yet the Republican - controlled redistricting process in 2010 resulted in Democrats losing to their Republican counterparts in 13 out of Pennsylvania 's 18 districts.
In the seven states where Republicans had complete control over the redistricting process, Republican House candidates received 16.7 million votes and Democratic House candidates received 16.4 million votes. The redistricting resulted in Republican victories in 73 out of the 107 affected seats; in those 7 states, Republicans received 50.4 % of the votes but won in over 68 % of the congressional districts. While it is but one example of how gerrymandering can have a significant effect on election outcomes, this kind of disproportional representation of the public will seems to be problematic for the legitimacy of democratic systems, regardless of one 's political affiliation.
In Michigan, redistricting was constructed by a Republican Legislature in 2011. Federal congressional districts were so designed that cities such as Battle Creek, Grand Rapids, Jackson, Kalamazoo, Lansing, and East Lansing were separated into districts with large conservative - leaning hinterlands that essentially diluted the Democratic votes in those cities in Congressional elections. Since 2010 not one of those cities is within a district in which a Democratic nominee for the House of Representatives has a reasonable chance of winning, short of Democratic landslide.
Gerrymandering can also be done to help incumbents as a whole, effectively turning every district into a packed one and greatly reducing the potential for competitive elections. This is particularly likely to occur when the minority party has significant obstruction power -- unable to enact a partisan gerrymander, the legislature instead agrees on ensuring their own mutual reelection.
In an unusual occurrence in 2000, for example, the two dominant parties in the state of California cooperatively redrew both state and Federal legislative districts to preserve the status quo, ensuring the electoral safety of the politicians from unpredictable voting by the electorate. This move proved completely effective, as no State or Federal legislative office changed party in the 2004 election, although 53 congressional, 20 state senate, and 80 state assembly seats were potentially at risk.
In 2006, the term "70 / 30 District '' came to signify the equitable split of two evenly split (i.e. 50 / 50) districts. The resulting districts gave each party a guaranteed seat and retained their respective power base.
Prison - based gerrymandering has occurred in places such as New York when prisoners were counted as residents of a particular district, increasing the district 's population with non-voters when assigning political apportionment. This phenomenon violates the principle of one person, one vote because, although many prisoners come from (and return to) urban communities, they are counted as "residents '' of the rural districts that contain large prisons, thereby artificially inflating the political representation in districts with prisons at the expense of voters in all other districts without prisons. Others contend that prisoners should not be counted as residents of their original districts when they do not reside there and are not legally eligible to vote. This is past - tense after August 11, 2010.
Due to the perceived issues associated with gerrymandering and its effect on competitive elections and democratic accountability, numerous countries have enacted reforms making the practice either more difficult or less effective. Countries such as the U.K., Australia, Canada and most of those in Europe have transferred responsibility for defining constituency boundaries to neutral or cross-party bodies.
In the United States, however, such reforms are controversial and frequently meet particularly strong opposition from groups that benefit from gerrymandering. In a more neutral system, they might lose considerable influence.
The most commonly advocated electoral reform proposal targeted at gerrymandering is to change the redistricting process. Under these proposals, an independent and presumably objective commission is created specifically for redistricting, rather than having the legislature do it.
This is the system used in the United Kingdom, where the independent boundary commissions determine the boundaries for constituencies in the House of Commons and the devolved legislatures, subject to ratification by the body in question (almost always granted without debate). A similar situation exists in Australia where the independent Australian Electoral Commission and its state - based counterparts determine electoral boundaries for federal, state and local jurisdictions.
To help ensure neutrality, members of a redistricting agency may be appointed from relatively apolitical sources such as retired judges or longstanding members of the civil service, possibly with requirements for adequate representation among competing political parties. Additionally, members of the board can be denied access to information that might aid in gerrymandering, such as the demographic makeup or voting patterns of the population.
As a further constraint, consensus requirements can be imposed to ensure that the resulting district map reflects a wider perception of fairness, such as a requirement for a supermajority approval of the commission for any district proposal. Consensus requirements, however, can lead to deadlock, such as occurred in Missouri following the 2000 census. There, the equally numbered partisan appointees were unable to reach consensus in a reasonable time, and consequently the courts had to determine district lines.
In the U.S. state of Iowa, the nonpartisan Legislative Services Bureau (LSB, akin to the U.S. Congressional Research Service) determines boundaries of electoral districts. Aside from satisfying federally mandated contiguity and population equality criteria, the LSB mandates unity of counties and cities. Consideration of political factors such as location of incumbents, previous boundary locations, and political party proportions is specifically forbidden. Since Iowa 's counties are chiefly regularly shaped polygons, the LSB process has led to districts that follow county lines.
In 2005, the U.S. state of Ohio had a ballot measure to create an independent commission whose first priority was competitive districts, a sort of "reverse gerrymander ''. A complex mathematical formula was to be used to determine the competitiveness of a district. The measure failed voter approval chiefly due to voter concerns that communities of interest would be broken up.
In 2017, the Open Our Democracy Act of 2017 was submitted to the US House of Representatives by Rep. Delaney as a means to implement non-partisan redistricting.
When a single political party controls both legislative houses of a state during redistricting, both Democrats and Republicans have displayed a marked propensity for couching the process in secrecy; in May 2010, for example, the Republican National Committee held a redistricting training session in Ohio where the theme was "Keep it Secret, Keep it Safe ''. The need for increased transparency in redistricting processes is clear; a 2012 investigation by The Center for Public Integrity reviewed every state 's redistricting processes for both transparency and potential for public input, and ultimately assigned 24 states grades of either D or F.
In response to these types of problems, redistricting transparency legislation has been introduced to US Congress a number of times in recent years, including the Redistricting Transparency Acts of 2010, 2011, and 2013. Such policy proposals aim to increase the transparency and responsiveness of the redistricting systems in the US. The merit of increasing transparency in redistricting processes is based largely on the premise that lawmakers would be less inclined to draw gerrymandered districts if they were forced to defend such districts in a public forum.
Because gerrymandering relies on the wasted - vote effect, the use of a different voting system with fewer wasted votes can help reduce gerrymandering. In particular, the use of multi-member districts alongside voting systems establishing proportional representation such as single transferable voting can reduce wasted votes and gerrymandering. Semi-proportional voting systems such as single non-transferable vote or cumulative voting are relatively simple and similar to first past the post and can also reduce the proportion of wasted votes and thus potential gerrymandering. Electoral reformers have advocated all three as replacement systems.
Electoral systems with various forms of proportional representation are now found in nearly all European countries, resulting in multi-party systems (with many parties represented in the parliaments) with higher voter attendance in the elections, fewer wasted votes, and a wider variety of political opinions represented.
Electoral systems with election of just one winner in each district (i.e., "winner - takes - all '' electoral systems) and no proportional distribution of extra mandates to smaller parties tend to create two - party systems (Duverger 's law). In these, just two parties effectively compete in the national elections and thus the national political discussions are forced into a narrow two - party frame, where loyalty and forced statements inside the two parties distort the political debate.
If a proportional or semi-proportional voting system is used then increasing the number of winners in any given district will reduce the number of wasted votes. This can be accomplished both by merging separate districts together and by increasing the total size of the body to be elected. Since gerrymandering relies on exploiting the wasted vote effect, increasing the number of winners per district can reduce the potential for gerrymandering in proportional systems. Unless all districts are merged, however, this method can not eliminate gerrymandering entirely.
In contrast to proportional methods, if a nonproportional voting system with multiple winners (such as block voting) is used, then increasing the size of the elected body while keeping the number of districts constant will not reduce the amount of wasted votes, leaving the potential for gerrymandering the same. While merging districts together under such a system can reduce the potential for gerrymandering, doing so also amplifies the tendency of block voting to produce landslide victories, creating a similar effect to gerrymandering by concentrating wasted votes among the opposition and denying them representation.
If a system of single - winner elections is used, then increasing the size of the elected body will implicitly increase the number of districts to be created. This change can actually make gerrymandering easier when raising the number of single - winner elections, as opposition groups can be more efficiently packed into smaller districts without accidentally including supporters, further increasing the number of wasted votes amongst the opposition.
Another way to avoid gerrymandering is simply to stop redistricting altogether and use existing political boundaries such as state, county, or provincial lines. While this prevents future gerrymandering, any existing advantage may become deeply ingrained. The United States Senate, for instance, has more competitive elections than the House of Representatives due to the use of existing state borders rather than gerrymandered districts -- Senators are elected by their entire state, while Representatives are elected in legislatively drawn districts.
The use of fixed districts creates an additional problem, however, in that fixed districts do not take into account changes in population. Individual voters can come to have very different degrees of influence on the legislative process. This malapportionment can greatly affect representation after long periods of time or large population movements. In the United Kingdom during the Industrial Revolution, several constituencies that had been fixed since they gained representation in the Parliament of England became so small that they could be won with only a handful of voters (rotten boroughs). Similarly, in the U.S. the state legislature of Alabama refused to redistrict for more than 60 years, despite major changes in population patterns. By 1960 less than a quarter of the state 's population controlled the majority of seats in the legislature. However, this practice of using fixed districts for state legislatures was effectively banned in the United States after the Reynolds v. Sims Supreme Court decision in 1964, establishing a rule of one man, one vote.
Another means to reduce gerrymandering is to create objective, precise criteria to which any district map must comply. Courts in the United States, for instance, have ruled that congressional districts must be contiguous in order to be constitutional. This, however, is not a particularly binding constraint, as very narrow strips of land with few or no voters in them may be used to connect separate regions for inclusion in one district, as is the case in Illinois 's 4th congressional district.
Depending on the distribution of voters for a particular party, metrics that maximize compactness can be opposed to metrics that minimize the efficiency gap. For example, in the United States, voters registered with the Democratic Party tend to be concentrated in cities, potentially resulting in a large number of "wasted '' votes if compact districts are drawn around city populations. Neither of these metrics take into consideration other possible goals, such as proportional representation based on other demographic characteristics (such as race, ethnicity, gender, or income), maximizing competitiveness of elections (the greatest number of districts where party affiliation is 50 / 50), avoiding splits of existing government units (like cities and counties), and ensuring representation of major interest groups (like farmers or voters in a specific transportation corridor), though any of these could be incorporated into a more complicated metric.
One method is to define a minimum district to convex polygon ratio. To use this method, every proposed district is circumscribed by the smallest possible convex polygon (similar to the concept of a convex hull; think of stretching a rubberband around the outline of the district). Then, the area of the district is divided by the area of the polygon; or, if at the edge of the state, by the portion of the area of the polygon within state boundaries.
The advantages of this method are that it allows a certain amount of human intervention to take place (thus solving the Colorado problem of splitline districting); it allows the borders of the district to follow existing jagged subdivisions, such as neighbourhoods or voting districts (something isoperimetric rules would discourage); and it allows concave coastline districts, such as the Florida gulf coast area. It would mostly eliminate bent districts, but still permit long, straight ones. However, since human intervention is still allowed, the gerrymandering issues of packing and cracking would still occur, just to a lesser extent.
The Center for Range Voting has proposed a way to draw districts by a simple algorithm. The algorithm uses only the shape of the state, the number N of districts wanted, and the population distribution as inputs. The algorithm (slightly simplified) is:
This district - drawing algorithm has the advantages of simplicity, ultra-low cost, a single possible result (thus no possibility of human interference), lack of intentional bias, and it produces simple boundaries that do not meander needlessly. It has the disadvantage of ignoring geographic features such as rivers, cliffs, and highways and cultural features such as tribal boundaries. This landscape oversight causes it to produce districts different from those an unbiased human would produce. Ignoring geographic features can induce very simple boundaries.
While most districts produced by the method will be fairly compact and either roughly rectangular or triangular, some of the resulting districts can still be long and narrow strips (or triangles) of land.
Like most automatic redistricting rules, the shortest splitline algorithm will fail to create majority - minority districts, for both ethnic and political minorities, if the minority populations are not very compact. This might reduce minority representation.
Another criticism of the system is that splitline districts sometimes divide and diffuse the voters in a large metropolitan area. This condition is most likely to occur when one of the first splitlines cuts through the metropolitan area. It is often considered a drawback of the system because residents of the same agglomeration are assumed to be a community of common interest. This is most evident in the splitline allocation of Colorado.
As of July 2007, shortest - splitline redistricting pictures, based on the results of the 2000 census, are available for all 50 states.
It is possible to define a specific minimum isoperimetric quotient, proportional to the ratio between the area and the square of the perimeter of any given congressional voting district. Although technologies presently exist to define districts in this manner, there are no rules in place mandating their use, and no national movement to implement such a policy. One problem with the simplest version of this rule is that it would prevent incorporation of jagged natural boundaries, such as rivers or mountains; when such boundaries are required, such as at the edge of a state, certain districts may not be able to meet the required minima. One way of avoiding this problem is to allow districts which share a border with a state border to replace that border with a polygon or semi-circle enclosing the state boundary as a kind of virtual boundary definition, but using the actual perimeter of the district whenever this occurs inside the state boundaries. Enforcing a minimum isoperimetric quotient would encourage districts with a high ratio between area and perimeter.
The efficiency gap is simply - calculable measure that can show the effects of gerrymandering. It measures wasted votes for each party: the sum of votes cast in losing districts (losses due to cracking) and excess votes cast in winning districts (losses due to packing). The difference in these wasted votes are divided by total votes cast, and the resulting percentage is the efficiency gap.
The introduction of modern computers alongside the development of elaborate voter databases and special districting software has made gerrymandering a far more precise science. Using such databases, political parties can obtain detailed information about every household including political party registration, previous campaign donations, and the number of times residents voted in previous elections and combine it with other predictors of voting behavior such as age, income, race, or education level. With this data, gerrymandering politicians can predict the voting behavior of each potential district with an astonishing degree of precision, leaving little chance for creating an accidentally competitive district.
On the other hand, the introduction of modern computers would let the United States Census Bureau to calculate more equal populations in every voting district that are based only on districts being the most compact and equal populations. This could be done easily using their Block Centers based on the Global Positioning System rather than street addresses. With this data, gerrymandering politicians will not be in charge, thus allowing competitive districts again.
Among western democracies, only the Netherlands employs an electoral system with only one (nationwide) voting district for election of national representatives. This virtually precludes gerrymandering.
Gerrymandering has not typically been a problem in the Australian electoral system largely because drawing of electoral boundaries has typically been done by non-partisan bodies such as the Australian Electoral Commission. There have been historical cases of malapportionment whereby the distribution of electors to electorates was not in proportion to the population in several states. For example, Sir Thomas Playford served as Premier of South Australia from 1938 to 1965, the result of a system of malapportionment which became known as the Playmander, despite it not strictly speaking involving a gerrymander. More recently the nominally independent South Australian Electoral Districts Boundaries Commission has been accused of favouring the Australian Labor Party, as the party has been able to form government in four of the last seven elections, despite receiving a lower two - party preferred vote.
In the state of Queensland, malapportionment combined with a gerrymander under Premier Sir Joh Bjelke - Petersen became nicknamed the Bjelkemander in the 1970s and 1980s. Under the system, electoral boundaries were drawn so that rural electorates had as few as half as many voters as metropolitan ones and regions with high levels of support for the opposition Labor Party were concentrated into fewer electorates, allowing Bjelke - Petersen 's Country Party (later National Party) led Coalition government to remain in power despite attracting substantially less than 50 % of the vote. For example, in the 1986 election, the National Party received 39.64 % of the first preference vote and won 49 seats (in the 89 seat legislature) whilst the Labor Opposition received 41.35 % but won only 30 seats. Despite this, the Liberals / Nationals still received a greater combined share of the vote than the Labor opposition.
Early in Canadian history, both the federal and provincial levels used gerrymandering to try to maximise partisan power. When Alberta and Saskatchewan were admitted to Confederation in 1905, their original district boundaries were set forth in the respective Alberta and Saskatchewan Acts. These boundaries had been devised by federal Liberal cabinet members to ensure the election of provincial Liberal governments.
Since responsibility for drawing federal and provincial electoral boundaries was handed over to independent agencies, this problem has largely been eliminated at these levels of government. Manitoba was the first province to authorise a non-partisan group to define constituency boundaries in the 1950s. In 1964, the federal government delegated the drawing of boundaries for national seats to the "arm 's length '' Elections Canada.
As a result, gerrymandering is not generally a major issue in Canada except at the civic level. Although city wards are recommended by independent agencies, city councils occasionally overrule them. This is much more likely where the city is not homogenous and different neighbourhoods have sharply different opinions about city policy direction.
In 2006, a controversy arose in Prince Edward Island over the provincial government 's decision to throw out an electoral map drawn by an independent commission. Instead they created two new maps. The government adopted the second of these, designed by the caucus of the governing party. Opposition parties and the media attacked Premier Pat Binns for what they saw as gerrymandering of districts. Among other things, the government adopted a map that ensured that every current Member of the Legislative Assembly from the premier 's party had a district to run in for re-election, whereas in the original map, several had been redistricted. Despite this, in the 2007 provincial election only seven of 20 incumbent Members of the Legislative Assembly were re-elected (seven did not run for re-election), and the government was defeated.
The military government which ruled Chile from 1973 to 1990 was ousted in a national plebiscite in October 1988. Opponents of General Augusto Pinochet voted NO to remove him from power and to trigger democratic elections, while supporters (mostly from the right - wing) voted YES to keep him in office for another eight years.
Five months prior to the plebiscite, the regime published a law regulating future elections and referendums, but the configuration of electoral districts and the manner in which Congress seats would be awarded were only added to the law seven months after the referendum.
For the Chamber of Deputies (lower house), 60 districts were drawn by grouping (mostly) neighboring communes (the smallest administrative subdivision in the country) within the same region (the largest). It was established that two deputies would be elected per district, with the most voted coalition needing to outpoll its closest rival by a margin of more than 2 - to - 1 to take both seats. The results of the 1988 plebiscite show that neither the "NO '' side nor the "YES '' side outpolled the other by said margin in any of the newly established districts. They also showed that the vote / seat ratio was lower in districts which supported the "YES '' side and higher in those where the "NO '' was strongest. In spite of this, at the 1989 parliamentary election, the center - left opposition was able to capture both seats (the so - called doblaje) in twelve out of 60 districts, winning control of 60 % of the Chamber.
Senate constituencies were created by grouping all lower - chamber districts in a region, or by dividing a region into two constituencies of contiguous lower - chamber districts. The 1980 Constitution allocated a number of seats to appointed senators, making it harder for one side to change the Constitution by itself. The opposition won 22 senate seats in the 1989 election, taking both seats in three out of 19 constituencies, controlling 58 % of the elected Senate, but only 47 % of the full Senate. The unelected senators were eliminated in the 2005 constitutional reforms, but the electoral map has remained largely untouched (two new regions were created in 2007, one of which altered the composition of two senatorial constituencies; the first election to be affected by this minor change took place in 2013).
France is one of the few countries to let legislatures redraw the map with no check. In practice, the legislature sets up an executive commission. Districts called arrondissements were used in the Third Republic and under the Fifth Republic they are called circonscriptions. During the Third Republic, some reforms of arrondissements, which were also used for administrative purposes, were largely suspected to have been arranged to favour the kingmaker in the Assembly, the Parti radical.
The dissolution of Seine and Seine - et - Oise départements was seen as a case of Gerrymandering to counter communist 's influence around Paris.
In the modern regime, there were three designs: in 1958 (regime change), 1987 (by Charles Pasqua) and 2010 (by Alain Marleix), three times by conservative governments. Pasqua 's drawing was known to have been particularly good at gerrymandering, resulting in 80 % of the seats with 58 % of the vote in 1993, and forcing Socialists in the 1997 snap election to enact multiple pacts with smaller parties in order to win again, this time as a coalition. In 2010, the Sarkozy government created 12 districts for expats.
The Constitutional council was called twice by the opposition to decide about gerrymandering, but it never considered partisan disproportions. However, it forced the Marleix committee to respect an 80 -- 120 % population ratio, ending a tradition dating back to the Revolution in which départements, however small in population, would send at least two MPs.
Gerrymandering in France is also done against regionalist parties. Départements are always used even if they split urban areas or larger identity territories, and smaller identity divisions are avoided.
When the electoral districts in Germany were redrawn in 2000, the ruling center - left Social Democratic Party (SPD) was accused of gerrymandering to marginalise the left - wing PDS party. The SPD combined traditional PDS strongholds in eastern Berlin with new districts made up of more populous areas of western Berlin, where the PDS had very limited following.
After having won four seats in Berlin in the 1998 national election, the PDS was able to retain only two seats altogether in the 2002 elections. Under German electoral law, a political party has to win either more than five percent of the votes, or at least three directly elected seats, to qualify for top - up seats under the Additional Member System. The PDS vote fell below five percent thus they failed to qualify for top - up seats and were confined to just two members of the Bundestag, the German federal parliament (elected representatives are always allowed to hold their seats as individuals). Had they won a third constituency, the PDS would have gained at least 25 additional seats, which would have been enough to hold the balance of power in the Bundestag.
In the election of 2005, The Left (successor of the PDS) gained 8.7 % of the votes and thus qualified for top - up seats.
The number of Bundestag seats of parties which traditionally get over 5 % of the votes can not be affected very much by gerrymandering, because seats are awarded to these parties on a proportional basis. However, when a party wins so many districts in any one of the 16 federal states that those seats alone count for more than its proportional share of the vote in that same state does the districting have some influence on larger parties -- those extra seats, called "Überhangmandate '', remain. In the Bundestag election of 2009, Angela Merkel 's CDU / CSU gained 24 such extra seats, while no other party gained any; this skewed the result so much that the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany issued two rulings declaring the existing election laws invalid and requiring the Bundestag to pass a new law limiting such extra seats to no more than 15. In 2013, Germany 's Supreme Court ruled on the constitutionality of Überhangmandate, which from then on have to be added in proportion to the second vote of each party thereby making it impossible that one party can have more seats than earned by the proportionate votes in the election.
Gerrymandering has been rather common in Greek history since organised parties with national ballots only appeared after the 1926 Constitution. The only case before that was the creation of the Piraeus electoral district in 1906, in order to give the Theotokis party a safe district.
The most infamous case of gerrymandering was in the 1956 election. While in previous elections the districts were based on the prefecture level (νομός), for 1956 the country was split in districts of varying sizes, some being the size of prefectures, some the size of sub-prefectures (επαρχία) and others somewhere in between. In small districts the winning party would take all seats, in intermediate size it would take most and there was proportional representation in the largest districts. The districts were created in such a way that small districts were those that traditionally voted for the right while large districts were those that voted against the right.
This system has become known as the three - phase (τριφασικό) system or the baklava system (because, as baklava is split into full pieces and corner pieces, the country was also split into disproportionate pieces). The opposition, being composed of the center and the left, formed a coalition with the sole intent of changing the electoral law and then calling new elections, despite the fact that only seven years earlier the center and the left had fought each other in the Greek Civil War. Even though the centrist and leftist opposition won the popular vote (1,620,007 votes against 1,594,992), the right wing ERE won the majority of seats (165 to 135) and was to lead the country for the next two years.
In Hong Kong, although constituencies of district councils have always been demarcated by the Boundary and Election Commission or its successor Electoral Affairs Commission, which is chaired by a judge, functional constituencies are demarcated by the government and defined in statutes, making them prone to gerrymandering. The functional constituency for the information technology sector was particular criticised for gerrymandering and voteplanting.
In 2011, Fidesz politician János Lázár has proposed a redesign to Hungarian voting districts; considering the territorial results of previous elections, this redesign would favor right - wing politics according to the opposition. Since then, the law has been passed by the Fidesz - majority Parliament. Formerly it took twice as many votes to gain a seat in some election districts as in some others.
Until the 1980s Dáil boundaries in Ireland were drawn not by an independent commission but by government ministers. Successive arrangements by governments of all political characters have been attacked as gerrymandering. Ireland uses the single transferable vote and as well as the actual boundaries drawn the main tool of gerrymandering has been the number of seats per constituency used, with three - seat constituencies normally benefiting the strongest parties in an area, whereas four - seat constituencies normally help smaller parties.
In 1947 the rapid rise of new party Clann na Poblachta threatened the position of the governing party Fianna Fáil. The government of Éamon de Valera introduced the Electoral (Amendment) Act 1947, which increased the size of the Dáil from 138 to 147 and increased the number of three - seat constituencies from fifteen to twenty - two. The result was described by the journalist and historian Tim Pat Coogan as "a blatant attempt at gerrymander which no Six County Unionist could have bettered. '' The following February the 1948 general election was held and Clann na Poblachta secured ten seats instead of the nineteen they would have received proportional to their vote.
In the mid-1970s, the Minister for Local Government, James Tully, attempted to arrange the constituencies to ensure that the governing Fine Gael -- Labour Party National Coalition would win a parliamentary majority. The Electoral (Amendment) Act 1974 was planned as a major reversal of previous gerrymandering by Fianna Fáil (then in opposition). Tully ensured that there were as many as possible three - seat constituencies where the governing parties were strong, in the expectation that the governing parties would each win a seat in many constituencies, relegating Fianna Fáil to one out of three.
In areas where the governing parties were weak, four - seat constituencies were used so that the governing parties had a strong chance of still winning two. The election results created substantial change, as there was a larger than expected collapse in the vote. Fianna Fáil won a landslide victory in the Irish general election, 1977, two out of three seats in many cases, relegating the National Coalition parties to fight for the last seat. Consequently, the term "Tullymandering '' was used to describe the phenomenon of a failed attempt at gerrymandering.
From the years 1981 until 2005, Kuwait was divided into 25 electoral districts in order to over-represent the government 's supporters (the ' tribes '). In July 2005, a new law for electoral reforms was approved which prevented electoral gerrymandering by cutting the number of electoral districts from 25 to 5.
The practice of gerrymandering has been around in the country since its independence in 1957. The ruling coalition at that time, Barisan Nasional (BN; English: "National Front ''), has been accused of controlling the election commission by revising the boundaries of constituencies. For example, during the 13th General Election in 2013, Barisan Nasional won 60 % of the seats in the Malaysian Parliament despite only receiving 47 % of the popular vote. Malapportionment has also been used at least since 1974, when it was observed that in one state alone (Perak), the parliamentary constituency with the most voters had more than ten times as many voters as the one with the fewest voters. These practices finally failed BN in the 14th General Election on May 9th, 2018, when the opposing Pakatan Harapan (PH; English: "Alliance of Hope '') won despite perceived efforts of gerrymandering and malapportionment from the incumbent.
The Labour Party that won in 1981, even though the Nationalist Party got the most votes, did so because of its gerrymandering. A 1987 constitutional amendment prevented that situation from reoccurring.
After the restoration of democracy in 1990, Nepali politics has well exercised the practice of gerrymandering with the view to take advantage in the election. It was often practised by Nepali Congress, which remained in power in most of the time. Learning from this, the reshaping of constituency was done for constituent assembly and the opposition now wins elections.
Congressional districts in the Philippines were originally based on an ordinance from the 1987 Constitution, which was created by the Constitutional Commission, which was ultimately based on legislative districts as they were drawn in 1907. The same constitution gave Congress of the Philippines the power to legislate new districts, either through a national redistricting bill or piecemeal redistricting per province or city. Congress has never passed a national redistricting bill since the approval of the 1987 constitution, while it has incrementally created 34 new districts, out of the 200 originally created in 1987.
This allows Congress to create new districts once a place reaches 250,000 inhabitants, the minimum required for its creation. With this, local dynasties, through congressmen, can exert influence in the district - making process by creating bills carving new districts from old ones. In time, as the population of the Philippines increases, these districts, or groups of it, will be the basis of carving new provinces out of existing ones.
An example was in Camarines Sur, where two districts were divided into three districts which allegedly favors the Andaya and the Arroyo families; it caused Rolando Andaya and Dato Arroyo, who would have otherwise run against each other, run in separate districts, with one district allegedly not even surpassing the 250,000 - population minimum. The Supreme Court later ruled that the 250,000 population minimum does not apply to an additional district in a province. The resulting splits would later be the cause of another gerrymander, where the province would be split into a new province called Nueva Camarines; the bill was defeated in the Senate in 2013.
In recent decades, critics have accused the ruling People 's Action Party (PAP) of unfair electoral practices to maintain significant majorities in the Parliament of Singapore. Among the complaints are that the government uses gerrymandering. The Elections Department was established as part of the executive branch under the Prime Minister of Singapore, rather than as an independent body. Critics have accused it of giving the ruling party the power to decide polling districts and polling sites through electoral engineering, based on poll results in previous elections.
Members of opposition parties claim that the Group Representation Constituency system is "synonymous to gerrymandering '', pointing out examples of Cheng San GRC and Eunos GRC which were dissolved by the Elections Department with voters redistributed to other constituencies after opposition parties gained ground in elections.
Sri Lanka 's new Local Government elections process has been the talking point of gerrymandering since its inception. Even though that talk was more about the ward - level, it is also seen in some local council areas too.
In the most recent election of 2010, there were numerous examples of gerrymandering throughout the entire country of Sudan. A report from the Rift Valley Institute uncovered violations of Sudan 's electoral law, where constituencies were created that were well below and above the required limit. According to Sudan 's National Elections Act of 2008, no constituency can have a population that is 15 % greater or less than the average constituency size. The Rift Valley Report uncovered a number of constituencies that are in violation of this rule. Examples include constituencies in Jonglei, Warrap, South Darfur, and several other states.
Turkey has used gerrymandering in İstanbul in 2009 municipal elections. Just before the election İstanbul is divided in new counties. Large low income boroughs are bundled with rich boroughs to win municipal elections.
Gerrymandering (Irish: Claonroinnt) is widely considered to have been introduced after the establishment of Home Rule in Northern Ireland in 1921, favouring Unionists who tended to be Protestant, to the detriment of Nationalists who were mostly Catholic. Some critics and supporters spoke at the time of "A Protestant Parliament for a Protestant People ''. This passed also into local government. Stephen Gwynn had noted as early as 1911 that since the introduction of the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898:
In Armagh there are 68,000 Protestants, 56,000 Catholics. The County Council has twenty - two Protestants and eight Catholics. In Tyrone, Catholics are a majority of the population, 82,000 against 68,000; but the electoral districts have been so arranged that Unionists return sixteen as against thirteen Nationalists (one a Protestant). This Council gives to the Unionists two to one majority on its Committees, and out of fifty - two officials employs only five Catholics. In Antrim, which has the largest Protestant majority (196,000 to 40,000), twenty - six Unionists and three Catholics are returned. Sixty officers out of sixty - five are good Unionists and Protestants.
In the 1920s and 1930s, the Ulster Unionist Party created new electoral boundaries for the Londonderry County Borough Council to ensure election of a Unionist council in a city where Nationalists had a large majority and had won previous elections. Initially local parties drew the boundaries, but in the 1930s the province - wide government redrew them to reinforce the gerrymander. However, in the 1967 election, Unionists won 35.5 % of the votes and received 60 % of the seats, while Nationalists got 27.4 % of the votes but received 40 % of the seats. This meant that both the Unionist and Nationalist parties were over-represented, while the Northern Ireland Labour Party and Independents (amounting to more than 35 % of the votes cast) were severely under - represented.
From the outset, Northern Ireland had installed the single transferable vote (STV) system in order to secure fair elections in terms of proportional representation in its Parliament. After two elections under that system, in 1929 Parliament changed the electoral system to be the same as the rest of the United Kingdom: a single - member first past the post system. The only exception was for the election of four Stormont MPs to represent the Queen 's University of Belfast. Some scholars believe that the boundaries were gerrymandered to under - represent Nationalists. Other geographers and historians, for instance Professor John H. Whyte, disagree. They have argued that the electoral boundaries for the Parliament of Northern Ireland were not gerrymandered to a greater level than that produced by any single - winner election system, and that the actual number of Nationalist MPs barely changed under the revised system (it went from 12 to 11 and later went back up to 12). Most observers have acknowledged that the change to a single - winner system was a key factor, however, in stifling the growth of smaller political parties, such as the Northern Ireland Labour Party and Independent Unionists.
After Westminster reintroduced direct rule in 1973, it restored the single transferable vote (STV) for elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly in the following year, using the same definitions of constituencies as for the Westminster Parliament. Currently in Northern Ireland, all elections use STV except those for positions in the Westminster Parliament, which follow the pattern in the rest of the United Kingdom by using "first past the post. ''
The number of electors in a United Kingdom constituency can vary considerably, with the smallest constituency currently (2017 electoral register) having fewer than a fifth of the electors of the largest (Scotland 's Na h - Eileanan an Iar (21,769 constituents) and Orkney and Shetland (34,552), compared to England 's North West Cambridgeshire (93,223) and Isle of Wight (110,697)). This variation has resulted from:
Under the Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies, the Coalition government planned to review and redraw the parliamentary constituency boundaries for the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The review and redistricting was to be carried out by the four UK boundary commissions to produce a reduction from 650 to 600 seats, and more uniform sizes, such that a constituency was to have no fewer than 70,583 and no more than 80,473 electors. The process was intended to address historic malapportionment, and be complete by 2015. Preliminary reports suggesting the areas set to lose the fewest seats historically tended to vote Conservative, while other less populous and deindustrialized regions, such as Wales, which would lose a larger proportion of its seats, tending to have more Labour and Liberal Democrat voters, partially correcting the existing malapportionment. An opposition (Labour) motion to suspend the review until after the next general election was tabled in the House of Lords and a vote called in the United Kingdom House of Commons, in January 2013. The motion was passed with the help of the Liberal Democrats, going back on an election pledge. As of October 2016, a new review is in progress and a draft of the new boundaries has been published.
The United States, among the first with an elected representative government, eventually named the practice. Incidents precede the 1789 election of the First U.S. Congress. In 1788, Patrick Henry and his Anti-Federalist allies were in control of the Virginia House of Delegates. They drew the boundaries of Virginia 's 5th congressional district in an unsuccessful attempt to keep James Madison out of the U.S. House of Representatives.
The practice of gerrymandering the borders of new states continued past the Civil War and into the late 19th century. The Republican Party used its control of Congress to secure the admission of more states in territories friendly to their party -- the admission of Dakota Territory as two states instead of one being a notable example. By the rules for representation in the Electoral College, each new state carried at least three electoral votes regardless of its population.
All redistricting in the United States has been contentious because it has been controlled by political parties vying for power. As a consequence of the decennial census required by the United States Constitution, districts for members of the House of Representatives typically need to be redrawn. In many states, state legislatures have redrawn boundaries for state legislative districts at the same time.
State legislatures have used gerrymandering along racial lines both to decrease and increase minority representation in state governments and congressional delegations. In the state of Ohio, a conversation between Republican officials was recorded that demonstrated that redistricting was being done to aid their political candidates. Furthermore, the discussions assessed race of voters as a factor in redistricting, because African - Americans had backed Democratic candidates. Republicans apparently removed approximately 13,000 African American voters from the district of Jim Raussen, a Republican candidate for the House of Representatives, in an attempt to tip the scales in what was once a competitive district for Democratic candidates.
With the Civil Rights Movement and passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, federal enforcement and protections of suffrage for all citizens were enacted. Gerrymandering for the purpose of reducing the political influence of a racial or ethnic minority group was prohibited. After the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed, some states created "majority - minority '' districts to enhance minority voting strength. This practice, also called "affirmative gerrymandering '', was supposed to redress historic discrimination and ensure that ethnic minorities would gain some seats and representation in government. In some states, bipartisan gerrymandering is the norm. State legislators from both parties sometimes agree to draw congressional district boundaries in a way that ensures the re-election of most or all incumbent representatives from both parties.
Rather than allowing more political influence, some states have shifted redistricting authority from politicians and given it to non-partisan redistricting commissions. The states of Washington, Arizona, and California have created standing committees for redistricting following the 2010 census. It has been argued however that in California 's case, gerrymandering still continued despite this change. Rhode Island and New Jersey have developed ad hoc committees, but developed the past two decennial reapportionments tied to new census data. Florida 's amendments 5 and 6, meanwhile, established rules for the creation of districts but did not mandate an independent commission.
International election observers from the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, who were invited to observe and report on the 2004 national elections, expressed criticism of the U.S. congressional redistricting process and made a recommendation that the procedures be reviewed to ensure genuine competitiveness of Congressional election contests.
In 2015, an analyst reported that the two major parties differ in the way they redraw districts. The Democrats construct coalition districts of liberals and minorities together with conservatives which results in Democratic - leaning districts. The Republicans tend to place liberals all together in a district, conservatives in others, creating clear partisan districts.
Prior to the 26 September 2010 legislative elections, gerrymandering took place via an addendum to the electoral law by the National Assembly of Venezuela. In the subsequent election, Hugo Chávez 's political party, the United Socialist Party of Venezuela drew 48 % of the votes overall, while the opposition parties (the Democratic Unity Roundtable and the Fatherland for All parties) drew 52 % of the votes. However, due to the re-allocation of electoral legislative districts prior to the election, Chávez 's United Socialist Party of Venezuela was awarded over 60 % of the spots in the National Assembly (98 deputies), while 67 deputies were elected for the two opposition parties combined.
In a play on words, the use of race - conscious procedures in jury selection has been termed "jurymandering ''.
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who played dolly in coat of many colors | Dolly Parton 's Coat of Many Colors - wikipedia
Dolly Parton 's Coat of Many Colors is a 2015 American made - for - television drama film based on a true story by Dolly Parton, written by Pamela K. Long and directed by Stephen Herek. The film premiered on NBC on December 10, 2015. The film received generally positive reviews from critics.
Coat of Many Colors details Dolly Parton 's upbringing in 1955 as her family struggles to live in Tennessee 's Great Smoky Mountains, putting a strain on love and faith. Dolly (Alyvia Alyn Lind) aspires to be something greater but must cope with family troubles, including the premature birth and death of a baby brother. Dolly 's mother, Avie Lee Parton (Jennifer Nettles) uses the baby 's blanket to make Dolly her patchwork coat of many colors. Although Dolly is at first proud of it, she changes her mind after school bullies make fun of her. Meanwhile, Dolly 's father, Lee Parton (Ricky Schroder) suffers a personal crisis brought about by the baby 's death combined with the depression of his wife and a drought which threatened his tobacco crop. Eventually, faith brings the family together again.
Coat of Many Colors was filmed in Covington and Conyers, Georgia, and Sevier County, Tennessee, the latter at Dollywood for introductory and closing scenes from Dolly Parton.
Parton, whose childhood is told in the film 's story written by her, is also executive producer. She spoke about the casting process, beginning with singer Jennifer Nettles, who plays her mother: "When she started reading I thought, Oh my lord, that 's momma. And, she is incredible... I did n't even know she acted. '' For her father, Parton already had someone in mind, Ricky Schroder, because "he reminds me so much of my daddy. '' In casting the younger Dolly, several hundred children auditioned. Parton stated "God 's going to send her. '' Alyvia Alyn Lind auditioned and could "sing... act '' and "cry on cue '', said Parton, adding, "When she came in, it just kind of blew it all out of the water and she got the part. '' In addition, Dolly 's younger sister Stella Parton appears in the film, playing town gossip Corla Bass.
Coat of Many Colors received favorable reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has received a 78 % rating from nine critics. Among eight reviews at Metacritic, it holds a "generally favorable '' score of 65 out of 100.
Ken Tucker of Yahoo TV gave the film its highest praise, stating "The pastoral nostalgia that this TV - movie taps into is powerful, if maudlin, stuff. This is the time of year when sentimentality can be a warming thing, and Parton 's Coat will keep an awful lot of people warm this winter. ''
The Guardian 's Brian Moylan commented on the film 's faith storyline: "For those who do n't regularly visit the house of the Lord, it will make your eyes roll like loose marbles in the back of a station wagon. ''
David Wiegand of the San Francisco Chronicle was the most critical but commented "Although it 's a struggle at times, you do suspend disbelief and go with it because Lind is so adorable, and you want to accept that the saccharine story line could have played out in real life just the way it 's depicted in the film. ''
In its initial December 10, 2015 broadcast, Coat of Many Colors was seen by 13.03 million viewers and received a 1.8 / 6 rating / share in the 18 - 49 age demographic. This marks the highest viewership for any television film (made for TV or theatrical) or miniseries on the broadcast networks since 2012.
On April 3, 2016, Coat of Many Colors was honored during the Academy of Country Music Awards ceremony with the Tex Ritter Award, which is presented to a film released in the previous year that features country music. Dolly Parton accepted the award.
In May 2016, it was announced that a sequel to the film is in the works. In Dolly Parton 's Christmas of Many Colors: Circle of Love, Jennifer Nettles, Ricky Schroder, Gerald McRaney and Alyvia Alyn Lind reprised their roles. Stephen Herek returned to direct the sequel written by Pamela K. Long. Dolly Parton herself also had a cameo. The film aired on NBC on November 30, 2016.
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12. how is the political system in cuba different from that of the united states | Politics of Cuba - wikipedia
Cuba has had a communist political system since 1959 based on the "one state -- one party '' principle. Cuba is constitutionally defined as a Marxist -- Leninist socialist state guided by the political ideas of Marx, one of the fathers of historical materialism, Engels and Lenin. The present Constitution also ascribes the role of the Communist Party of Cuba to be the "leading force of society and of the state '' and as such has the capability of setting national policy.
Executive power is exercised by the Government, which is represented by the Council of State and the Council of Ministers. Legislative power is exercised through the unicameral National Assembly of People 's Power, which is constituted as the maximum authority of the state. Currently Raúl Castro -- brother of former President Fidel Castro -- is President of the Council of State, President of the Council of Ministers (sometimes referred to as the Prime Minister), First Secretary of the Communist Party, and Commander - in - Chief of the Revolutionary Armed Forces. Fidel Castro ruled from 1959 to 2008 before his brother took power. Esteban Lazo Hernández is President of the National Assembly.
Executive power is exercised by the government. Until February 2008, Cuba was led by President Fidel Castro, who was Chief of State, Head of Government, Prime Minister, First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, and Commander in Chief of the Cuban armed forces. The Ministry of Interior is the principal organ of state security and control.
According to the Cuban Constitution Article 94, the First Vice President of the Council of State assumes presidential duties upon the illness or death of the President. On July 31, 2006, during the 2006 Cuban transfer of duties, Fidel Castro delegated his duties as President of the Council of state, first secretary of the Cuban Communist Party and the post of commander in chief of the armed forces to first Vice President Raúl Castro.
Cuba has an elected national legislature, the National Assembly of People 's Power (Asamblea Nacional del Poder Popular), which has 612 members, elected every 5 years and holds brief sessions to ratify decisions by the executive branch. The National Assembly convenes twice a year in ordinary periods of sessions. However, it has permanent commissions to look after issues of legislative interest. Among its permanent or temporary commissions are those in charge of issues concerning the economy, sugar industry, industries, transportation and communications, constructions, foreign affairs, public health, defense and interior order. The National Assembly also has permanent departments that oversee the work of the Commissions, Local Assemblies of the People 's Power, International Relations, Judicial Affairs and the Administration.
Article 88 (h) of the Constitution of Cuba, adopted in 1976, provides for citizen proposals of law, prerequisite that the proposal be made by at least 10,000 citizens who are eligible to vote. In 2002 supporters of a movement known as the Varela Project submitted a citizen proposal of law with 11,000 signatures calling for a national referendum on political and economic reforms. The Government response was to collect 8.1 million signatures to request that Cuba 's National Assembly enact a constitutional amendment making socialism an unalterable feature of Cuban government.
The Committees for the Defense of the Revolution is a network of neighborhood organizations across Cuba and most Cubans are members. The organizations are designed to put medical, educational or other campaigns into national effect, and to report "counter-revolutionary '' activity. It is the duty of the CDR officials to know the activities of each person in their respective blocks.
Suffrage is non-compulsory and is afforded to Cuban citizens who have resided for two years on the island. Such citizens must be aged over sixteen years, must not have been found guilty of a criminal offense, and can not be mentally handicapped. Cubans living abroad are denied the right to vote. The national elections for the 612 members of the National Assembly of People 's Power are held according to this system and the precepts of the 1976 Constitution. From 1959 to 1976, a legislative branch did not exist. In 1992 the Constitution was reformed to allow direct voting to elect members to the National Assembly. Only one candidate stood for each seat in the January 19, 2003 election.
Under the system, neighbors meet to propose the candidates to the Municipal Assemblies. The candidates do not present a political platform, but only their resumes. The municipal candidates elected in each neighborhood then elect the Municipal Assembly members. In turn, the Municipal Assembly members elect the Provincial Assembly members, who in turn elect the national Assembly members. A direct vote is then cast to decide whether the decanted members that appear in the final step need to be ratified.
From 1959 to 1992, when the New Electoral Law of the new Constitutional amendments was enacted, the Cuban people were not afforded the right to vote for the members of the legislative power -- the executive power is elected by the National Assembly and there is no popular vote for the President or the Prime Minister. Aside from the Communist Party of Cuba, political parties have legally existed within the country since 1992. Nevertheless, the Constitutional reform of 1992 that granted their right to exist simultaneously denied their right to gather or publicize their existence, a restriction the Communist Party also faces. The most important of these political parties are the Christian Democratic Party of Cuba, the Cuban Socialist Democratic Current, the Democratic Social - Revolutionary Party of Cuba, the Democratic Solidarity Party, the Liberal Party of Cuba and the Social Democratic Co-ordination of Cuba.
Cuba 's foreign policy has been scaled back and redirected as a result of economic hardship after the collapse of the Soviet bloc. Without massive Soviet subsidies and its primary trading partner Cuba was comparatively isolated in the 1990s, but has since entered bilateral co-operation with several South American countries, most notably Venezuela and Bolivia. Cuba has normal diplomatic and economic relations with every country in the Western hemisphere except El Salvador and the United States. El Salvador, under the new government of Mauricio Funes, is expected to institute both in June, 2009. The United States continues an embargo "so long as (Cuba) continues to refuse to move toward democratization and greater respect for human rights. '' The European Union accuses Cuba of "continuing flagrant violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms '', but also "Reiterates its condemnation of the US embargo on Cuba, and calls for it to be lifted forthwith, as the UN General Assembly has repeatedly demanded. ''
Cuba has developed a growing relationship with the People 's Republic of China and Russia. In all, Cuba continues to have formal relations with 160 nations, and provided civilian assistance workers -- principally medical -- in more than 20 nations. More than two million exiles have escaped to foreign countries. Cuba 's present foreign minister is Bruno Rodríguez Parrilla.
Officially, Cuba is a people 's democracy, as opposed to the "liberal democracy '' of Western states. Cuba thus rejects criticism of its political system as a lack of apprehension for different forms of democracy other than those in capitalist states. It alludes to the grass roots elements in the nomination of candidates at neighborhood level (in the so - called circunscripciones).
Opposition groups inside and outside the country as well as international NGOs and foreign governments have described the Cuban political system as undemocratic. The United States Government has initiated various policy measures; these have been ostensibly designed to urge Cuba to undertake political change towards a multi-party electoral system. These plans have been condemned by the Cuban Government, who accuses the United States of meddling in Cuba 's affairs. The Cuban political system is normally described as undemocratic by human rights groups and academics and is usually classified as a dictatorship, one - party state or an authoritarian or totalitarian state. Those who see Cuba as a democracy have described it a grassroots democracy, a centralized democracy or a revolutionary democracy.
Cuba is the only authoritarian regime in the Americas, according to the 2010 Democracy Index. Cuba 's extensive censorship system was close to North Korea on the 2008 Press Freedom Index. The media is operated under the Communist Party 's Department of Revolutionary Orientation, which "develops and coordinates propaganda strategies ''. According to Maria Werlau, the extreme concentration of power to the Castro family seems comparable in modern times only to that of North Korea under the regimes of Kim Jong - il and Kim Il - sung.
According to Human Rights Watch, Castro constructed a "repressive machinery '' that continues to deprive Cubans of their basic rights. The Cuban government has been accused of numerous human rights abuses, including torture, arbitrary imprisonment, unfair trials, and extrajudicial executions (a.k.a. "El Paredón ''). Human Rights Watch reports that the government represses nearly all forms of political dissent. There are many restrictions on leaving the country.
The country 's first ever transgender municipal delegate was elected in the province of Villa Clara in early 2013. Adela Hernández, born José Agustín Hernández, is a resident of the town of Caibarién and works as a nurse electrocardiogram specialist. In Cuba, delegates are not professional politicians and, therefore, do not receive a government salary.
The 2012 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index ranked the Cuba 58th out of 176 countries, tied with Jordan and Namibia. and therefore has lower levels than most of the other countries in the Caribbean and Central America. Also ranked in 112th place in 2006, tied with India.
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what does a bachelor degree with honours mean | Honours degree - wikipedia
The term "honours degree '' (or "honors degree '') has various meanings in the context of different degrees and education systems. Most commonly it refers to a variant of the undergraduate bachelor 's degree containing a larger volume of material or a higher standard of study, or both, rather than an "ordinary '', "general '' or "pass '' bachelor 's degree. Honours degrees are sometimes indicated by "Hons '' after the degree abbreviation, with various punctuation according to local custom, e.g. "BA (Hons) '', "B.A., Hons '', etc.
Examples of honours degree include the honors bachelor 's degree in the United States, the bachelor 's degree with honours in the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, Sri Lanka and India, the honours bachelor 's degree in Ireland, the honours bachelor 's degree in Canada, and the bachelor honours degree in Australia. In South Africa the bachelor honours degree is a postgraduate degree that follows on from the completion of a bachelor 's degree. The undergraduate master of arts degree awarded by the ancient universities of Scotland in place of the bachelor of arts may be awarded as an honours or non-honours degree; these are at the same level as equivalent bachelor 's degrees. At master 's level, the integrated master 's degrees in British universities, which students enter at the same level as bachelor 's degrees, are also honours degrees. Honours degrees should not be confused with the Latin honors attached to degrees in the US and some other countries.
Many universities and colleges offer both honours and non-honours bachelor 's degrees. In most countries where honours degrees are granted, they imply a higher level of achievement than a non-honours degree. In some countries (e.g. Canada or Australia), an honours degree may also involve a longer period of study than a non-honours degree. Students who complete all the requirements for a non-honours bachelor 's degree but do not receive sufficient merit to be awarded the honours degree would normally be awarded the non-honours degree (also known as a "pass '', "general '' or "ordinary '' degree). In England, Northern Ireland and Wales, almost all bachelor 's degrees are awarded as honours degrees; in contrast, honours degrees are rarely awarded in the United States.
The current British undergraduate degree classification system, with its division into first, upper and lower second, and third class honours, was developed in 1918 to distinguish between students on the basis of their academic achievement. The concept of an "honours '' degree goes back a lot further than this, however, with there being examinations for honours in the original regulations of the University of London in 1839, and Nevil Maskelyne being recorded as taking a bachelor 's degree with honours at Cambridge in 1754. Other countries influenced by this system include Australia, Brunei, Canada, New Zealand, Malta, Singapore, South Africa and Hong Kong.
The consecutive Australian with Honours degree is usually a one - to two - year research program, after the completion of a Bachelor 's degree in the same field. It can also be started as a concurrent program in the fourth year of a four - year bachelor 's degree. It is generally considered a postgraduate year because a bachelor 's degree can be completed without it. Entry to an Honours degree generally requires proven abilities and a distinction (75 % or greater) average in the relevant area or the final year units, and even then is quite competitive.
In the regular (standalone) Honours, the student will complete selected courses within a supervised program of research (field, laboratory, or secondary), and produce a long, high - quality research thesis. This is usually accompanied by a seminar or presentation of the findings to an academic board for marking. In the case of a quality thesis being produced, it may be published in a peer - reviewed journal or similar publication. Students receiving high marks in their Honours program have the option of continuing to candidature of a Doctoral program, such as Doctor of Philosophy, without having to complete a master 's degree.
At master 's level, Monash University has a Master of Business with Honours program in which students can be awarded an Honours classification upon completion.
In Canada, honours bachelor 's degrees take at least four years to complete, often therefore requiring an extra year of study beyond the general bachelor 's degree. Honours degrees are normally required for admission to master 's programs, and may sometimes allow direct access to doctoral programs. Honours degrees are allocated a GPA grade, and are considered equivalent to UK honours degrees.
In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, Bachelor 's degrees are normally awarded "with Honours '' after three years of study. The bachelor 's degree with Honours meets the requirements for a higher education qualification at level 6 of the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications in full, and is a first cycle, end - of - cycle award on the Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area established by the Bologna process. Students can be awarded an "Ordinary '' degree if they achieve the required learning outcomes over a smaller volume of studies than is required for an honours degree, e.g. only passing 300 credits rather than the 360 usually required for an honours degree. In addition to bachelor 's degrees, four year integrated master 's degrees, which combine study at bachelor 's and master 's level, are also awarded with honours.
The University of Oxford does not award honours with its standard BA degree, but considers students who gain a third class degree or better to have "achieved honours status ''.
A number of Honours degrees are offered by the University of Malta, usually indicating an extra year of study with an undergraduate dissertation or a specialisation within a 3 - year programme.
The Bachelor honours degree is a separate level on the New Zealand Qualifications Framework from the bachelor 's degree without honours, as in Australia and Scotland. It may either be a 4 - year (480 credit) course or a single year (120 credit) course following on from a bachelor 's degree, and prepares students for postgraduate study.
In Scotland, all undergraduate degrees with Honours must be of four - year duration. Students can choose to do the Honours degree or the general (or pass / ordinary) degree. The first two years of both types of degrees are the same; however, after that, students who pursue the Honours route will complete more advanced subjects and a dissertation in their last year, while students who choose to do the general degree will complete their third year at a lower level of specialisation.
Entry into the Honours year in Scotland is generally not restricted and students are encouraged to take the Honours year as the general / ordinary / pass degree does not provide the same level of depth and specialisation.
Students enrolling in the Honours program but failing to achieve the required academic merit for Honours are awarded a pass / ordinary / general degree.
In Ireland, undergraduate degrees fall under two levels in the National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ) of the Quality and Qualifications Ireland (QQI). Courses of study at level 7 take three years and are awarded an Ordinary Bachelor Degree (180 ECTS credits) whereas a course of study at level 8 typically takes four years for an award of a Honours Bachelor Degree (180 - 240 ECTS credits). There is also an equivalent award at level 8 of a Higher Diploma which follows a course of study of one year duration (60 ECTS credits), such Higher Diplomas are designed for holders of either Honours Bachelor Degree or Ordinary Bachelor Degree who wish to study in a different field of learning than their initial award.
In South Africa, non-professional bachelor 's degrees (BA, BSc, BCom) are three year degrees (professional degrees such as engineering degrees or medicine are longer). The honours degree is an optional fourth - year and is an additional one - year qualification. Usually the honours degree specialises in one subject matter (e.g., mathematics, English). Intake into the honours degree is often highly selective. The bachelor 's degree is at level 7 and the honours degree at level 8 on the National Qualifications Framework of the South African Qualifications Authority. Research components must comprise at least 25 % of the honours degree.
In the United States, an honours degree (or honors degree in US spelling) requires a thesis or project work beyond that needed for the normal bachelor 's program. Honours programs in the US are taken alongside the rest of the degree and often have a minimum GPA requirement for entry, which can vary between institutions. Some institutions do not have a separate honours program, but instead refer to bachelor 's degrees awarded with Latin honours, which may be based either on GPA or class position, as honours degrees.
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doctrine of lapse was one of the cause for which rebelion | Doctrine of lapse - Wikipedia
The doctrine of lapse was an annexation policy applied by the British East India Company in India before 1858. According to the doctrine, any princely state or territory under the direct influence (paramountacy) of the British East India Company (the dominant imperial power in the subcontinent), as a vassal state under the British subsidiary system, would automatically be annexed if the ruler was either "manifestly incompetent or died without a male heir ''. The latter supplanted the long - established right of an Indian sovereign without an heir to choose a successor. In addition, the British decided whether potential rulers were competent enough. The doctrine and its application were widely regarded by many Indians as illegitimate.
The policy is most commonly associated with Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General for the East India Company in India between 1848 and 1856. However, it was articulated by the Court of Directors of the East India Company as early as 1834 and several smaller states were already annexed under this doctrine before Dalhousie took over the post of Governor - General. Dalhousie used the policy most vigorously and extensively, though, so it is generally associated with him.
At the time of its adoption, the British East India Company had imperial administrative jurisdiction over wide regions of the subcontinent. The company took over the princely states of Satara (1848), Jaitpur and Sambalpur (1849), Nagpur and Jhansi (1854), Tanjore and Arcot (1855) and Udaipur (Chhattisgarh) under the terms of the doctrine of lapse. Oudh (1856) is widely believed to have been annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse. However it was annexed by Lord Dalhousie under the pretext of mis - governance. Mostly claiming that the ruler was not ruling properly, the Company added about four million pounds sterling to its annual revenue by virtue of this doctrine. Udaipur State, however, would have local rule reinstated by the British in 1860.
With the increasing power of the East India Company, discontent simmered among many sections of Indian society and the largely indigenous armed forces; these rallied behind the deposed dynasties during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny. Following the rebellion, in 1858, the new British Viceroy of India, whose rule replaced that of the British East India Company, renounced the doctrine.
The princely state of Kittur was taken over by the East India Company in 1824 by imposing a ' doctrine of lapse '. So it is debatable whether it was devised by Lord Dalhousie in 1848, though he arguably made it official by documenting it. Dalhousie 's annexations and the doctrine of lapse had caused suspicion and uneasiness among most ruling princes in India.
Dalhousie applied the doctrine of lapse vigorously for annexing Indian princely states, but the policy was not solely of his invention. The Court of Directors of the East India Company had articulated this early in 1834. As per this policy, the Company annexed Mandvi in 1839, Kolaba and Jalaun in 1840 and Surat in 1842.
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where did the term penny for your thoughts come from | My two cents - wikipedia
"My two cents '' ("my 2 ¢ '') and its longer version "put my two cents in '' is an American idiomatic expression, taken from the original English idiom "to put in my two penny worth '' or "my two - cents. '' It is used to preface the tentative statement of one 's opinion. By deprecating the opinion to follow -- suggesting its value is only two cents, a very small amount -- the user of the phrase, showing politeness and humility, hopes to lessen the impact of a possibly contentious statement. However, it is also sometimes used ironically when expressing a strongly held opinion. The phrase is also sometimes used out of habit to preface uncontentious opinions. For example: "If I may put my two cents in, that hat does n't do you any favors. '' (A polite way of saying, for example: That hat is ugly). Another example would be: "My two cents is that you should sell your stock now. ''
The earliest reference to an analog of "two cents '' appears in the lesson of the widow 's mite in both the Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of Luke. In the biblical episode, several wealthy temple patrons donate large sums of money, but an extremely poor widow places just two small coins, i.e. her two cents, into the offering. She finds greater favor with Jesus than do the wealthy patrons, seeing that the widow gave all of her money to the Temple in Jerusalem while the wealthy patrons made little investment, leaving much money for themselves.
Some believe that the phrase originates in betting card games, such as poker. In these games, one must make a small bet, or ante, before beginning play. Thus, the phrase makes an analogy between entering the game and entering a conversation. However, there is no documentary evidence of this being the origin of the idiom, so it is merely speculation. Other likely origins are that "my two pennies worth '' is derived from the much older 16th Century English expression, "a penny for your thoughts '', possibly a sarcastic response to receiving more opinion than was wanted "I said a penny for your thoughts, but I got two pennies ' worth ''. There is also some belief that the idiom may have its origins in the early cost of postage in England, the "twopenny post '', where two pennies was the normal charge of sending a letter containing one 's words and thoughts or feelings to someone.
There is also hard evidence that the US - variant phrase in print, is from the Olean Evening Times, March 1926. That includes an item by Allene Sumner, headed My "Two cents ' worth ''.
"Two cents '' and its variations may also be used in place of the noun "opinion '' or the verb phrase "state (subject 's) opinion '', e.g. "You had to put your two cents in, did n't you? '' or "But that 's just my two cents. ''
This expression is also often used at the end of a statement, e.g. "Just my two cents. ''
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list of all art galleries in new york | List of museums and cultural institutions in New York City - wikipedia
New York City is home to hundreds of cultural institutions and historic sites, many of which are internationally known. This list contains the most famous or well - regarded organizations, based on their mission.
Also included are non-profit art galleries, arts centers and cultural centers with galleries.
Most of the following are Registered Historic Places covered in the county lists.
Despite its name, National Parks of New York Harbor does not oversee any national parks proper.
The following are already - listed Registered Historic Places.
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who does the voiceover on call the midwife | Call the Midwife - wikipedia
60 minutes
BBC One (2012 - present)
Call the Midwife is a BBC period drama series about a group of nurse midwives working in the East End of London in the late 1950s and early 1960s. It stars Jessica Raine, Miranda Hart, Helen George, Bryony Hannah, Laura Main, Jenny Agutter, Pam Ferris, Judy Parfitt, Cliff Parisi, Stephen McGann, Ben Caplan, Emerald Fennell, Victoria Yeates, Linda Bassett and Charlotte Ritchie. The series is produced by Neal Street Productions, a production company founded and owned by the film director and producer Sam Mendes, Call the Midwife executive producer Pippa Harris, and Caro Newling. The first series, set in 1957, premiered in the UK on 15 January 2012.
The series was created by Heidi Thomas, originally based on the memoirs of Jennifer Worth who worked with the Community of St. John the Divine, an Anglican religious order, at their convent in the East End in London. The order was founded as a nursing order in 1849. The memoirs have since been expanded to include new, historically sourced material. For the most part it depicts the day - to - day lives of the midwives and those in their local neighbourhood of Poplar, with certain historical events of the era having a direct or indirect effect on the characters and storylines.
Such events include: the knock - on effects of the post-World War II baby boom, post-war immigration and the 1948 founding of the NHS in the first series and beyond; the introduction of gas and air as a form of pain relief and unexploded ordnance in the second series; the Child Migrants Programme and the threat of nuclear warfare (including emergency response guidelines issued by local Civil Defence Corps) in the fourth series; and the thalidomide scandal and the introduction of the contraceptive pill in the fifth series.
Call the Midwife achieved very high ratings in its first series, making it the most successful new drama series on BBC One since 2001. Since then five more series of eight episodes each have aired year - on - year, along with an annual Christmas special broadcast every Christmas Day since 2012. It is also broadcast in the United States on the PBS network, with the first series starting on September 30, 2012.
In December 2015, the Director - General of the BBC Tony Hall announced the show had been commissioned for a 2016 Christmas special and a sixth series of another eight episodes to be broadcast in early 2017, taking the characters and plot into 1962. In November 2016, Charlotte Moore, Director of BBC Content, announced that the drama had been commissioned for a further three series of eight episodes and three more Christmas specials -- taking the total number of series up to nine and the story into 1965.
Critical reception for the show (in both the UK and the US) has been mostly positive, and the series has won numerous awards and nominations since its original broadcast. The show has also been praised for tackling a variety of topical subjects and contemporary social, cultural and economic issues, including local community, miscarriage and stillbirths, abortion and unwanted pregnancies, birth defects, poverty, illness and disease epidemics, prostitution, incest, religion and faith, racism and prejudice, alcoholism, disability, (then - illegal) homosexuality between men, lesbianism, female genital mutilation, and maternal, paternal and romantic love.
The plot follows newly qualified midwife Jenny Lee, and the work of midwives and the nuns of Nonnatus House, a nursing convent, and part of an Anglican religious order, coping with the medical problems in the deprived Poplar district of London 's desperately poor East End, in the 1950s. The Sisters and midwives carry out many nursing duties across the community. However, with between 80 and 100 babies being born each month in Poplar alone, the primary work is to help bring safe childbirth to women in the area and to look after their countless newborns.
Call the Midwife is based on the memoirs of Jennifer Worth, featuring narration -- and an appearance in the 2014 Christmas Special -- by Vanessa Redgrave as an older Jenny.
The ship in the opening titles is the Shaw, Savill & Albion Line liner QSMV Dominion Monarch in dry dock at the King George V Dock and the road is Saville Road, Silvertown, east London. Many of the exterior scenes are shot at the Chatham Historic Dockyard.
On 11 February 2013, Ben Stephenson, BBC Controller for Drama, announced that he had commissioned a 2013 Christmas special, and a third series of eight episodes to air in 2014. The fourth series aired in the US in 2015, finishing its eight - episode run on 17 May. A Christmas special aired in 2015 as well.
A fifth series was commissioned for 2016, shortly after series four was done filming. A sixth series was commissioned, which included a 2016 Christmas episode that took place in South Africa. On 23 November 2016, the BBC announced a three - year deal with Neal Street Productions, commissioning a seventh, eighth and ninth series, all with Christmas specials. The new commission will keep the series on air until at least 2020.
In May 2012, BBC Worldwide and the American Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) announced that the first series of Call the Midwife would premiere in the United States on 30 September 2012. BBC Worldwide has also sold the programme to SVT (Sweden); NRK (Norway); RÚV (Iceland); Yle (Finland); AXN White (Spain; Portugal); ERT (Greece); ABC in Australia and TVNZ in New Zealand, where its debut recorded a 35 % share of the audience -- 20 % above average. In July 2012 BBC Worldwide announced it has sold the global Video on Demand rights of the programme to Netflix. According to BBC Worldwide America executive vice-president of sales and co-productions Matt Forde, BBC expects to sign another 13 to 15 deals for Call the Midwife with other international download - to - own and VoD services by the end of 2012.
The second series of Call the Midwife has been sold to PBS for transmission from 31 March 2013 and to SVT (Sweden) for transmission from 19 May 2013. In February 2013, BBC Worldwide reported that Call the Midwife had been sold in over one hundred global territories, with global sales contributing to the UK 's position as the second largest TV exporter behind the United States. In February 2017, it was reported that the BBC had exported Call the Midwife to 237 global territories.
A second series of eight episodes aired in the UK in early 2013. The series achieved a consolidated series average of 10.47 million viewers. A third eight - part series aired in the UK from January 2014, with a consolidated average of 10.53 million.
On 28 February 2014, BBC confirmed that Call the Midwife had been commissioned for a 2014 Christmas special and fourth series, to air in 2015. On 3 November 2014, BBC announced that an eight - episode fifth series had been commissioned; it began airing on 17 January 2016; the fifth series takes the story into 1961. The sixth series began airing in the UK on 22 January 2017, taking the drama into 1962. Season seven, again consisting of eight episodes, began airing on Sunday, 21 January, 2018, with episode one viewed by 9.09 million viewers, the lowest rating for the series in its entire history to date. Episode 2 dropped to 8.81 m viewers, but was still the No. 1 rated show for all UK TV for the week ending January 28, 2018.
The first series was released in a Region 2, two - disc set on 12 March 2012. Series 2 was scheduled for release on 1 April 2013 in the UK (region 2) with a collector 's edition, Call the Midwife Collection, containing series 1, 2 and the 2012 Christmas Special, released on the same date.
In the United States, the first series was released on DVD and Blu - ray on 6 November 2012. Series 2 was scheduled for release on DVD and Blu - ray on 18 June 2013. Series 3 was released on Blu - ray on 20 May 2014. Series 4 was released on Blu - ray on 19 May 2015.
A second series of Call the Midwife was immediately commissioned after the drama 's opening episode attracted an audience of nearly 10 million viewers. The second episode increased its audience to 10.47 million, while the third continued the climb to 10.66. Episode 4 's rating of 10.89 million overtook 2010 ITV hit Downton Abbey as the largest first series audience for original drama on British television in recent years.
In the United States, the series 1 transmission on PBS drew an average household audience rating of 2.1, translating into 3.0 million viewers -- 50 percent above PBS ' primetime average for the 2011 -- 12 series.
The autumn 2012 PBS broadcast of the first series of Call the Midwife in the United States received widespread critical acclaim, earning a Metacritic score of 8.0. The Wall Street Journal declared that "this immensely absorbing drama is worth any trouble it takes to catch up with its singular pleasures '', while The Washington Post stated that "the cast is marvelous, the gritty, post-war set pieces are meticulously recreated ''. TV Guide called the series "a delight to watch '', while the San Francisco Chronicle described it as "sentimental, poignant and often heartbreaking ''.
The second series opened with a record overnight audience of 9.3 million UK viewers, going on to achieve a consolidated series average of 10.47 million viewers. This was almost two million above the slot average, and by some distance the most popular UK drama in every week of transmission. When viewing figures from BBC 's iPlayer video streaming service and a narrative repeat were included as part of the BBC Live Plus 7 metric, the total number of viewers per week was found to be almost 12 million.
The critical reception for series two has praised the programme 's sharp blend of prime - time period charm and hard - hitting social commentary. Caitlin Moran in The Times called this "an iron hand in a velvet glove '', while Allison Pearson in The Daily Telegraph lauded its ability to "tickle the middle of the brow while touching the most anguished parts of the human condition ''. In particular, commentators have noted the attention given to female social issues in the drama 's post-war, pre-pill setting. Alison Graham in the Radio Times dubbed Call the Midwife "a magnificently subversive drama '' and "the torchbearer of feminism on television, '' while Caitlin Moran claimed the series encapsulated "how unbelievably terrifying, dreary and vile it was to be a working - class woman 60 years ago. ''
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what can i do with a merchant mariner credential | Merchant mariner Credential - wikipedia
The Merchant Mariner Credential (MMC) is a credential issued by the United States Coast Guard in accordance with guidelines of the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) to United States seafarers in order to show evidence of a mariner 's qualifications. It will become the standard documentation required for all crew members of U.S. ships with a Gross Register Tonnage of over 100 and for all vessels required to operate with a licensed Master, regardless of size. As previously issued but still valid credentials expire, the MMC will replace the Merchant Mariner 's Document, merchant mariner license, Certificate of Registry, and STCW Certificate.
The MMC contains professional qualification information previously listed on a merchant mariner license or Certificate of Registry as an officer endorsement, while information previously listed on a Merchant Mariner 's Document would be included as a rating endorsement. STCW endorsements would still be listed as STCW endorsements.
The combining of the mariner credentials was due to the recent requirement for U.S. mariners to obtain the Transportation Worker Identification Credential (or TWIC), a biometric security card issued by the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) that all workers in the transportation industry are required to obtain if their work involves access to a security - sensitive area. This reduces the number of documents needed to satisfy manning requirements from five to two: The TWIC and MMC.
Newly accredited US mariners receive the MMC credential; those already accredited receive the new credential when their current document or license expires. The credential is obtained by applying by mail or in person to any of the 17 United States Coast Guard Regional Examination Centers (REC) in the United States.
Previous to April 15, 2009, applications for credentials still had to be made in person at an REC to provide fingerprints and proof of identity. Now, TSA collects the fingerprints and proof of identity and forwards the information to the Coast Guard 's National Maritime Center (NMC). Mariners have to visit a Regional Exam Center if they are required to take an exam.
The first Merchant Mariner Credential was issued on May 7, 2009, at a meeting of the Towing Safety Advisory Committee.
The new credential has been criticized by several groups. One organization says that the consolidation reduces the merchant marine officer license, a certificate of professional achievement and status, into a work permit. Another group suggests that the consolidation, together with STCW requirements, the coming TWIC requirement, and new physical evaluation standards, have stressed the skilled labor pool, pose too much of an administrative burden, and threaten mariner recruitment, training and retention.
The MMC is in the format of a traditional passport book. Like a passport, the cover is imprinted with the Great Seal of the United States and the text United States of America. Unlike a passport, the cover is red - maroon in color (rather than the four colors used for US passports or travel documents: dark blue, black, brown, and blue - green) and the text Merchant Mariner Credential appears in place of Passport. Also, the cover does not hold a contactless smart card chip as do newer biometric passports (ePassport).
The MMC has twenty pages, exclusive of the front and back covers, sequentially numbered like the visa pages of a passport. Basic identity document data is page 3. The MMC is not a passport, but it is a Seafarer 's Identity Document and the format of the data page complies with the ICAO Machine Readable Travel Documents specifications for machine - readable passports. Rather than the document type of P used with US government issued passports, a document type of PG is used for MMCs.
License information in the form of domestic and international endorsements begin on page 4 of the MMC and continue as many pages required to list competencies held by the mariner. Domestic (46 CFR 10) and International (STCW Convention) license information are printed on separate pages. When the mariner gain a new competency while holding an already valid MMC, the new competency is printed on a sticker which is placed on the next available blank page in the MMC, much like a visa in a passport. Thus new MMCs are only produced for original and renewals; raises in grade, removal or limitations, or addition of endorsements do not require a new credential.
The mariner 's reference number and the MMC 's serial number are printed on the bottom of every page containing endorsement information and on all stickers issued to be added. The endorsement pages are overprinted with a transparent plastic ' watermark ' with the words ' Merchant Mariner Credential ' and the seal of the United States.
MMC serial numbers are nine digits long, as required for a passport book, and padded with leading zeros. As of December 2011, about 134,000 serial numbers had been used (presuming sequential assignment).
The MMC has a clear plastic holder for the mariner 's TWIC card on the inside of the back cover.
The MMC is considered a form of REAL ID and is therefore accepted as proof of identity by the TSA.
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when was the great fire of london and where did it start | Great fire of London - wikipedia
The Great Fire of London was a major conflagration that swept through the central parts of the English city of London from Sunday, 2 September to Wednesday, 5 September 1666. The fire gutted the medieval City of London inside the old Roman city wall. It threatened but did not reach the aristocratic district of Westminster, Charles II 's Palace of Whitehall, and most of the suburban slums. It consumed 13,200 houses, 87 parish churches, St Paul 's Cathedral, and most of the buildings of the City authorities. It is estimated to have destroyed the homes of 70,000 of the City 's 80,000 inhabitants.
The death toll is unknown but traditionally thought to have been small, as only six verified deaths were recorded. This reasoning has recently been challenged on the grounds that the deaths of poor and middle - class people were not recorded, while the heat of the fire may have cremated many victims, leaving no recognisable remains. A melted piece of pottery on display at the Museum of London found by archaeologists in Pudding Lane, where the fire started, shows that the temperature reached 1250 ° C.
The Great Fire started at the bakery (or baker 's house) of Thomas Farriner (or Farynor) on Pudding Lane shortly after midnight on Sunday, 2 September and spread rapidly west across the City of London. The major firefighting technique of the time was to create firebreaks by means of demolition; this, however, was critically delayed owing to the indecisiveness of Lord Mayor of London Sir Thomas Bloodworth. By the time that large - scale demolitions were ordered on Sunday night, the wind had already fanned the bakery fire into a firestorm that defeated such measures. The fire pushed north on Monday into the heart of the City.
Order in the streets broke down as rumours arose of suspicious foreigners setting fires. The fears of the homeless focused on the French and Dutch, England 's enemies in the ongoing Second Anglo - Dutch War; these substantial immigrant groups became victims of lynchings and street violence. On Tuesday, the fire spread over most of the City, destroying St Paul 's Cathedral and leaping the River Fleet to threaten Charles II 's court at Whitehall, while coordinated firefighting efforts were simultaneously mobilising. The battle to quench the fire is considered to have been won by two factors: the strong east winds died down, and the Tower of London garrison used gunpowder to create effective firebreaks to halt further spread eastward.
The social and economic problems created by the disaster were overwhelming. Evacuation from London and resettlement elsewhere were strongly encouraged by Charles II, who feared a London rebellion amongst the dispossessed refugees. Despite numerous radical proposals, London was reconstructed on essentially the same street plan used before the fire.
By the 1660s, London was by far the largest city in Britain, estimated at half a million inhabitants. John Evelyn, comparing London to the Baroque magnificence of Paris, called it a "wooden, northern, and inartificial congestion of Houses '', and expressed alarm about the fire hazards posed by the wood and the congestion. By "inartificial '', Evelyn meant unplanned and makeshift, the result of organic growth and unregulated urban sprawl.
London had been a Roman settlement for four centuries and had become progressively more crowded inside its defensive city wall. It had also pushed outwards beyond the wall into squalid extramural slums such as Shoreditch, Holborn, and Southwark, and had reached far enough to include the independent City of Westminster.
By the late 17th century, the City proper -- the area bounded by the City wall and the River Thames -- was only a part of London, covering some 700 acres (2.8 km; 1.1 sq mi), and home to about 80,000 people, or one sixth of London 's inhabitants. The City was surrounded by a ring of inner suburbs where most Londoners lived. The City was then, as now, the commercial heart of the capital, and was the largest market and busiest port in England, dominated by the trading and manufacturing classes.
The aristocracy shunned the City and lived either in the countryside beyond the slum suburbs, or in the exclusive Westminster district (the modern West End), the site of Charles II 's court at Whitehall. Wealthy people preferred to live at a convenient distance from the traffic - clogged, polluted, unhealthy City, especially after it was hit by a devastating outbreak of bubonic plague in the Plague Year of 1665.
The relationship was often tense between the City and the Crown. The City of London had been a stronghold of republicanism during the Civil War (1642 -- 1651), and the wealthy and economically dynamic capital still had the potential to be a threat to Charles II, as had been demonstrated by several republican uprisings in London in the early 1660s. The City magistrates were of the generation that had fought in the Civil War, and could remember how Charles I 's grab for absolute power had led to that national trauma.
They were determined to thwart any similar tendencies in his son, and when the Great Fire threatened the City, they refused the offers that Charles made of soldiers and other resources. Even in such an emergency, the idea of having the unpopular Royal troops ordered into the City was political dynamite. By the time that Charles took over command from the ineffectual Lord Mayor, the fire was already out of control.
The City was essentially medieval in its street plan, an overcrowded warren of narrow, winding, cobbled alleys. It had experienced several major fires before 1666, the most recent in 1632. Building with wood and roofing with thatch had been prohibited for centuries, but these cheap materials continued to be used. The only major stone - built area was the wealthy centre of the City, where the mansions of the merchants and brokers stood on spacious lots, surrounded by an inner ring of overcrowded poorer parishes whose every inch of building space was used to accommodate the rapidly growing population. These parishes contained workplaces, many of which were fire hazards -- foundries, smithies, glaziers -- which were theoretically illegal in the City but tolerated in practice.
The human habitations were crowded to bursting point, intermingled with these sources of heat, sparks, and pollution, and their construction increased the fire risk. The typical six - or seven - storey timbered London tenement houses had "jetties '' (projecting upper floors). They had a narrow footprint at ground level, but maximised their use of land by "encroaching '' on the street, as a contemporary observer put it, with the gradually increasing size of their upper storeys. The fire hazard was well perceived when the top jetties all but met across the narrow alleys; "as it does facilitate a conflagration, so does it also hinder the remedy '', wrote one observer -- but "the covetousness of the citizens and connivancy (corruption) of Magistrates '' worked in favour of jetties. In 1661, Charles II issued a proclamation forbidding overhanging windows and jetties, but this was largely ignored by the local government. Charles 's next, sharper message in 1665 warned of the risk of fire from the narrowness of the streets and authorised both imprisonment of recalcitrant builders and demolition of dangerous buildings. It, too, had little impact.
The river front was important in the development of the Great Fire. The Thames offered water for firefighting and the chance of escape by boat, but the poorer districts along the riverfront had stores and cellars of combustibles which increased the fire risk. All along the wharves, the rickety wooden tenements and tar paper shacks of the poor were shoehorned amongst "old paper buildings and the most combustible matter of tarr, pitch, hemp, rosen, and flax which was all layd up thereabouts. ''
London was also full of black powder, especially along the river front. Much of it was left in the homes of private citizens from the days of the English Civil War, as the former members of Oliver Cromwell 's New Model Army still retained their muskets and the powder with which to load them. Five to six hundred tons of powder was stored in the Tower of London. The ship chandlers along the wharves also held large stocks, stored in wooden barrels.
Fires were common in the crowded wood - built city with its open fireplaces, candles, ovens, and stores of combustibles. There was no police or fire brigade to call, but London 's local militia, known as the Trained Bands, was available for general emergencies, at least in principle, and watching for fire was one of the jobs of the watch, a thousand watchmen or "bellmen '' who patrolled the streets at night. Self - reliant community procedures were in place for dealing with fires, and they were usually effective. Public - spirited citizens would be alerted to a dangerous house fire by muffled peals on the church bells, and would congregate hastily to fight the fire.
The methods available for this relied on demolition and water. By law, the tower of every parish church had to hold equipment for these efforts: long ladders, leather buckets, axes, and "firehooks '' for pulling down buildings (see illustration right, see also pike pole). Sometimes taller buildings were levelled to the ground quickly and effectively by means of controlled gunpowder explosions. This drastic method of creating firebreaks was increasingly used towards the end of the Great Fire, and modern historians believe that it was what finally won the struggle.
London Bridge was the only physical connection between the City and the south side of the river Thames and was itself covered with houses. It had been noted as a deathtrap in the fire of 1632 and, by dawn on Sunday, these houses were burning. Samuel Pepys observed the conflagration from the Tower of London and recorded great concern for friends living on the bridge. There were fears that the flames would cross London Bridge to threaten the borough of Southwark on the south bank, but this danger was averted by an open space between buildings on the bridge which acted as a firebreak.
The 18 - foot (5.5 m) high Roman wall enclosing the City put the fleeing homeless at risk of being shut into the inferno. Once the riverfront was on fire and the escape route cut off by boat, the only exits were the eight gates in the wall. During the first couple of days, few people had any notion of fleeing the burning City altogether. They would remove what they could carry of their belongings to the nearest "safe house '', in many cases the parish church or the precincts of St Paul 's Cathedral, only to have to move again hours later. Some moved their belongings and themselves "four and five times '' in a single day. The perception of a need to get beyond the walls only took root late on the Monday, and then there were near - panic scenes at the narrow gates as distraught refugees tried to get out with their bundles, carts, horses, and wagons.
The crucial factor which frustrated firefighting efforts was the narrowness of the streets. Even under normal circumstances, the mix of carts, wagons, and pedestrians in the undersized alleys was subject to frequent traffic jams and gridlock. During the fire, the passages were additionally blocked by refugees camping in them amongst their rescued belongings, or escaping outwards, away from the centre of destruction, as demolition teams and fire engine crews struggled in vain to move in towards it.
Demolishing the houses downwind of a dangerous fire was often an effective way of containing the destruction by means of firehooks or explosives. This time, however, demolition was fatally delayed for hours by the Lord Mayor 's lack of leadership and failure to give the necessary orders. By the time that orders came directly from the King to "spare no houses '', the fire had devoured many more houses, and the demolition workers could no longer get through the crowded streets.
The use of water to extinguish the fire was also frustrated. In principle, water was available from a system of elm pipes which supplied 30,000 houses via a high water tower at Cornhill, filled from the river at high tide, and also via a reservoir of Hertfordshire spring water in Islington. It was often possible to open a pipe near a burning building and connect it to a hose to play on a fire or fill buckets. Further, Pudding Lane was close to the river. Theoretically, all the lanes from the river up to the bakery and adjoining buildings should have been manned with double rows of firefighters passing full buckets up to the fire and empty buckets back down to the river.
This did not happen, or at least was no longer happening by the time that Pepys viewed the fire from the river at mid-morning on the Sunday. Pepys comments in his diary that nobody was trying to put it out, but instead they fled from it in fear, hurrying "to remove their goods, and leave all to the fire. '' The flames crept towards the river front with little interference from the overwhelmed community and soon torched the flammable warehouses along the wharves. The resulting conflagration cut off the firefighters from the immediate water supply from the river and set alight the water wheels under London Bridge which pumped water to the Cornhill water tower; the direct access to the river and the supply of piped water failed together.
London possessed advanced fire - fighting technology in the form of fire engines, which had been used in earlier large - scale fires. However, unlike the useful firehooks, these large pumps had rarely proved flexible or functional enough to make much difference. Only some of them had wheels; others were mounted on wheelless sleds. They had to be brought a long way, tended to arrive too late, and had limited reach, with spouts but no delivery hoses.
On this occasion, an unknown number of fire engines were either wheeled or dragged through the streets, some from across the City. The piped water had already failed which they were designed to use, but parts of the river bank could still be reached. Gangs of men tried desperately to manoeuvre the engines right up to the river to fill their reservoirs, and several of the engines toppled into the Thames. The heat from the flames by then was too great for the remaining engines to get within a useful distance; they could not even get into Pudding Lane.
The personal experiences of many Londoners during the fire are glimpsed in letters and memoirs. The two best - known diarists of the Restoration are Samuel Pepys (1633 -- 1703) and John Evelyn (1620 -- 1706), and both recorded the events and their own reactions day by day, and made great efforts to keep themselves informed of what was happening all over the City and beyond. For example, they both travelled out to the Moorfields park area north of the City on the Wednesday -- the fourth day -- to view the mighty encampment of distressed refugees there, which shocked them. Their diaries are the most important sources for all modern retellings of the disaster. Books on the fire by Tinniswood (2003) and Hanson (2001) also rely on the brief memoirs of William Taswell (1651 -- 82), who was a fourteen year - old schoolboy at Westminster School in 1666.
After two rainy summers in 1664 and 1665, London had lain under an exceptional drought since November 1665, and the wooden buildings were tinder - dry after the long hot summer of 1666. A fire broke out at Thomas Farriner 's bakery in Pudding Lane a little after midnight on Sunday 2 September. The family was trapped upstairs but managed to climb from an upstairs window to the house next door, except for a maidservant who was too frightened to try, who became the first victim. The neighbours tried to help douse the fire; after an hour, the parish constables arrived and judged that the adjoining houses had better be demolished to prevent further spread. The householders protested, and Lord Mayor Sir Thomas Bloodworth was summoned, who alone had the authority to override their wishes.
When Bloodworth arrived, the flames were consuming the adjoining houses and creeping towards the paper warehouses and flammable stores on the river front. The more experienced firemen were clamouring for demolition, but Bloodworth refused on the grounds that most premises were rented and the owners could not be found. Bloodworth is generally thought to have been appointed to the office of Lord Mayor as a yes man, rather than by possessing requisite capabilities for the job. He panicked when faced with a sudden emergency and, when pressed, made the oft - quoted remark, "Pish! A woman could piss it out '', and left. After the City had been destroyed, Samuel Pepys looked back on the events and wrote in his diary on 7 September 1666: "People do all the world over cry out of the simplicity (the stupidity) of my Lord Mayor in general; and more particularly in this business of the fire, laying it all upon him. ''
Pepys was a senior official in the Navy Office by then, and he ascended the Tower of London on Sunday morning to view the fire from a turret. He recorded in his diary that the eastern gale had turned it into a conflagration. It had burned down several churches and, he estimated, 300 houses and reached the river front. The houses on London Bridge were burning.
He took a boat to inspect the destruction around Pudding Lane at close range and describes a "lamentable '' fire, "everybody endeavouring to remove their goods, and flinging into the river or bringing them into lighters that lay off; poor people staying in their houses as long as till the very fire touched them, and then running into boats, or clambering from one pair of stairs by the water - side to another. '' Pepys continued westward on the river to the court at Whitehall, "where people come about me, and did give them an account dismayed them all, and word was carried in to the King. So I was called for, and did tell the King and Duke of Yorke what I saw, and that unless His Majesty did command houses to be pulled down nothing could stop the fire. They seemed much troubled, and the King commanded me to go to my Lord Mayor from him, and command him to spare no houses, but to pull down before the fire every way. '' Charles ' brother James, Duke of York offered the use of the Royal Life Guards to help fight the fire.
Young schoolboy William Taswell had bolted from the early morning service in Westminster Abbey. He saw some refugees arrive in hired lighter boats near Westminster Stairs, a mile west of Pudding Lane, unclothed and covered only with blankets. The services of the lightermen had suddenly become extremely expensive, and only the luckiest refugees secured a place in a boat.
The fire spread quickly in the high wind and, by mid-morning on Sunday, people abandoned attempts at extinguishing it and fled. The moving human mass and their bundles and carts made the lanes impassable for firemen and carriages. Pepys took a coach back into the city from Whitehall, but only reached St Paul 's Cathedral before he had to get out and walk. Pedestrians with handcarts and goods were still on the move away from the fire, heavily weighed down. The parish churches not directly threatened were filling up with furniture and valuables, which soon had to be moved further afield.
Pepys found Bloodworth trying to co-ordinate the fire - fighting efforts and near to collapse, "like a fainting woman '', crying out plaintively in response to the King 's message that he was pulling down houses. "But the fire overtakes us faster then (sic) we can do it. '' Holding on to his civic dignity, he refused James 's offer of soldiers and then went home to bed. King Charles II sailed down from Whitehall in the Royal barge to inspect the scene. He found that houses were still not being pulled down, in spite of Bloodworth 's assurances to Pepys, and daringly overrode the authority of Bloodworth to order wholesale demolitions west of the fire zone. The delay rendered these measures largely futile, as the fire was already out of control.
By Sunday afternoon, 18 hours after the alarm was raised in Pudding Lane, the fire had become a raging firestorm that created its own weather. A tremendous uprush of hot air above the flames was driven by the chimney effect wherever constrictions narrowed the air current, such as the constricted space between jettied buildings, and this left a vacuum at ground level. The resulting strong inward winds did not tend to put the fire out, as might be thought; instead, they supplied fresh oxygen to the flames, and the turbulence created by the uprush made the wind veer erratically both north and south of the main easterly direction of the gale which was still blowing.
Pepys went again on the river in the early evening with his wife and some friends, "and to the fire up and down, it still encreasing ''. They ordered the boatman to go "so near the fire as we could for smoke; and all over the Thames, with one 's face in the wind, you were almost burned with a shower of firedrops ''. When the "firedrops '' became unbearable, the party went on to an alehouse on the South Bank and stayed there till darkness came and they could see the fire on London Bridge and across the river, "as only one entire arch of fire from this to the other side of the bridge, and in a bow up the hill for an arch of above a mile long: it made me weep to see it ''. Pepys described this arch of fire as "a bow with God 's arrow in it with a shining point ''.
The fire was principally expanding north and west by dawn on Monday, 3 September, the turbulence of the fire storm pushing the flames both farther south and farther north than the day before. The spread to the south was mostly halted by the river, but it had torched the houses on London Bridge and was threatening to cross the bridge and endanger the borough of Southwark on the south bank of the river. Southwark was preserved by a pre-existent firebreak on the bridge, a long gap between the buildings which had saved the south side of the Thames in the fire of 1632 and now did so again. Flying embers started a fire in Southwark but it was quickly stopped.
The fire 's spread to the north reached the financial heart of the City. The houses of the bankers in Lombard Street began to burn on Monday afternoon, prompting a rush to get their stacks of gold coins to safety before they melted away, so crucial to the wealth of the city and the nation. Several observers emphasise the despair and helplessness which seemed to seize Londoners on this second day, and the lack of efforts to save the wealthy, fashionable districts which were now menaced by the flames, such as the Royal Exchange -- combined bourse and shopping centre -- and the opulent consumer goods shops in Cheapside. The Royal Exchange caught fire in the late afternoon, and was a smoking shell within a few hours. John Evelyn, courtier and diarist, wrote:
Evelyn lived in Deptford, four miles (6 km) outside the City, and so he did not see the early stages of the disaster. He went by coach to Southwark on Monday, joining many other upper - class people, to see the view which Pepys had seen the day before of the burning City across the river. The conflagration was much larger now: "the whole City in dreadful flames near the water - side; all the houses from the Bridge, all Thames - street, and upwards towards Cheapside, down to the Three Cranes, were now consumed ''.
In the evening, Evelyn reported that the river was covered with barges and boats making their escape piled with goods. He observed a great exodus of carts and pedestrians through the bottleneck City gates, making for the open fields to the north and east, "which for many miles were strewed with moveables of all sorts, and tents erecting to shelter both people and what goods they could get away. Oh, the miserable and calamitous spectacle! ''
Suspicion soon arose in the threatened city that the fire was no accident. The swirling winds carried sparks and burning flakes long distances to lodge on thatched roofs and in wooden gutters, causing seemingly unrelated house fires to break out far from their source and giving rise to rumours that fresh fires were being set on purpose. Foreigners were immediately suspects because of the current Second Anglo - Dutch War. Fear and suspicion hardened into certainty on Monday, as reports circulated of imminent invasion and of foreign undercover agents seen casting "fireballs '' into houses, or caught with hand grenades or matches. There was a wave of street violence. William Taswell saw a mob loot the shop of a French painter and level it to the ground, and watched in horror as a blacksmith walked up to a Frenchman in the street and hit him over the head with an iron bar.
The fears of terrorism received an extra boost from the disruption of communications and news as facilities were devoured by the fire. The General Letter Office in Threadneedle Street burned down early on Monday morning, through which post passed for the entire country. The London Gazette just managed to put out its Monday issue before the printer 's premises went up in flames. The whole nation depended on these communications, and the void which they left filled up with rumours.
There were also religious alarms of renewed Gunpowder Plots. Suspicions rose to panic and collective paranoia on Monday, and both the Trained Bands and the Coldstream Guards focused less on fire fighting and more on rounding up foreigners, Catholics, and any odd - looking people, arresting them or rescuing them from mobs, or both together.
The inhabitants were growing desperate to remove their belongings from the City, especially the upper class. This provided a source of income for the able - bodied poor, who hired out as porters (sometimes simply making off with the goods), and it was especially profitable for the owners of carts and boats. Hiring a cart had cost a couple of shillings on the Saturday before the fire; on Monday, it rose to as much as £ 40, a fortune equivalent to more than £ 4,000 in 2005.
Seemingly every cart and boat owner within reach of London made their way towards the City to share in these opportunities, the carts jostling at the narrow gates with the panicked inhabitants trying to get out. The chaos at the gates was such that the magistrates ordered the gates shut on Monday afternoon, in the hope of turning the inhabitants ' attention from safeguarding their own possessions to fighting the fire: "that, no hopes of saving any things left, they might have more desperately endeavoured the quenching of the fire. '' This headlong and unsuccessful measure was rescinded the next day.
Monday marked the beginning of organised action, even as order broke down in the streets, especially at the gates, and the fire raged unchecked. Bloodworth was responsible as Lord Mayor for co-ordinating the fire - fighting, but he had apparently left the City; his name is not mentioned in any contemporaneous accounts of the Monday 's events. In this state of emergency, Charles again overrode the City authorities and put his brother James, Duke of York in charge of operations.
James set up command posts round the perimeter of the fire, press - ganging into teams of well - paid and well - fed firemen any men of the lower classes found in the streets. Three courtiers were put in charge of each post, with authority from Charles himself to order demolitions. This visible gesture of solidarity from the Crown was intended to cut through the citizens ' misgivings about being held financially responsible for pulling down houses. James and his life guards rode up and down the streets all Monday, rescuing foreigners from the mob and attempting to keep order. "The Duke of York hath won the hearts of the people with his continual and indefatigable pains day and night in helping to quench the Fire, '' wrote a witness in a letter on 8 September.
On Monday evening, hopes were dashed that the massive stone walls of Baynard 's Castle, Blackfriars would stay the course of the flames, the western counterpart of the Tower of London. This historic royal palace was completely consumed, burning all night.
A contemporary account said that King Charles in person worked manually, that day or later, to help throw water on flames and to help demolish buildings to make a firebreak.
Tuesday, 4 September was the day of greatest destruction. The Duke of York 's command post at Temple Bar, where Strand meets Fleet Street, was supposed to stop the fire 's westward advance towards the Palace of Whitehall. He hoped that the River Fleet would form a natural firebreak, making a stand with his firemen from the Fleet Bridge and down to the Thames. However, early on Tuesday morning, the flames jumped over the Fleet and outflanked them, driven by the unabated easterly gale, forcing them to run for it. There was consternation at the palace as the fire continued implacably westward; "Oh, the confusion there was then at that court! '' wrote Evelyn.
Working to a plan at last, James 's firefighters had also created a large firebreak to the north of the conflagration. It contained the fire until late afternoon, when the flames leapt across and began to destroy the wide, affluent luxury shopping street of Cheapside.
Everybody had thought St. Paul 's Cathedral a safe refuge, with its thick stone walls and natural firebreak in the form of a wide, empty surrounding plaza. It had been crammed full of rescued goods and its crypt filled with the tightly packed stocks of the printers and booksellers in adjoining Paternoster Row. However, an enormous stroke of bad luck meant that the building was covered in wooden scaffolding, undergoing piecemeal restoration by a relatively unknown Christopher Wren. The scaffolding caught fire on Tuesday night.
Leaving school, young William Taswell stood on Westminster Stairs a mile away and watched as the flames crept round the cathedral and the burning scaffolding ignited the timbered roof beams. Within half an hour, the lead roof was melting, and the books and papers in the crypt caught with a roar. "The stones of Paul 's flew like grenados, '' reported Evelyn in his diary, "the melting lead running down the streets in a stream, and the very pavements glowing with fiery redness, so as no horse, nor man, was able to tread on them. '' The cathedral was quickly a ruin.
During the day, the flames began to move eastward from the neighbourhood of Pudding Lane, straight against the prevailing east wind and towards Pepys 's home on Seething Lane and the Tower of London with its gunpowder stores. The garrison at the Tower took matters into their own hands after waiting all day for requested help from James 's official firemen who were busy in the west. They created firebreaks by blowing up houses on a large scale in the vicinity, halting the advance of the fire. In a letter to William Coventry, Pepys wrote that he "saw how horribly the sky looks, all on a fire in the night, was (sic) enough to put us out of our wits; and, indeed, it was extremely dreadful, for it looks just as if it was at us, and the whole heaven on fire. ''
The wind dropped on Tuesday evening, and the firebreaks created by the garrison finally began to take effect on Wednesday 5 September. Stopping the fire caused much fire and demolition damage in the lawyers ' area called the Temple. Pepys walked all over the smouldering city, getting his feet hot, and climbed the steeple of Barking Church, from which he viewed the destroyed City, "the saddest sight of desolation that I ever saw. '' There were many separate fires still burning themselves out, but the Great Fire was over.
Pepys visited Moorfields, a large public park immediately north of the City, and saw a great encampment of homeless refugees, "poor wretches carrying their good there, and every body keeping his goods together by themselves ''. He noted that the price of bread had doubled in the environs of the park. Evelyn also went out to Moorfields, which was turning into the main point of assembly for the homeless, and was horrified at the numbers of distressed people filling it, some under tents, others in makeshift shacks: "Many (were) without a rag or any necessary utensils, bed or board... reduced to extremest misery and poverty. '' Evelyn was impressed by the pride of these distressed Londoners, "tho ' ready to perish for hunger and destitution, yet not asking one pennie for relief. ''
Fears were as high as ever among the traumatised fire victims, fear of foreign arsonists and of a French and Dutch invasion. There was an outbreak of general panic on Wednesday night in the encampments at Parliament Hill, Moorfields, and Islington. A light in the sky over Fleet Street started a story that 50,000 French and Dutch immigrants had risen, widely rumoured to have started the fire, and were marching towards Moorfields to finish what the fire had begun: to cut the men 's throats, rape the women, and steal their few possessions. Surging into the streets, the frightened mob fell on any foreigners whom they happened to encounter, and were only appeased, according to Evelyn, "with infinite pains and great difficulty '' and pushed back into the fields by the Trained Bands, troops of Life Guards, and members of the court.
The mood was now so volatile that Charles feared a full - scale London rebellion against the monarchy. Food production and distribution had been disrupted to the point of non-existence; Charles announced that supplies of bread would be brought into the City every day, and safe markets set up round the perimeter. These markets were for buying and selling; there was no question of distributing emergency aid.
Only a few deaths from the fire are officially recorded, and deaths are traditionally believed to have been few. Porter gives the figure as eight and Tinniswood as "in single figures '', although he adds that some deaths must have gone unrecorded and that, besides direct deaths from burning and smoke inhalation, refugees also perished in the impromptu camps.
Hanson takes issue with the idea that there were only a few deaths, enumerating known deaths from hunger and exposure among survivors of the fire, "huddled in shacks or living among the ruins that had once been their homes '' in the cold winter that followed, including, for instance, dramatist James Shirley and his wife. Hanson also maintains that "it stretches credulity to believe that the only papists or foreigners being beaten to death or lynched were the ones rescued by the Duke of York '', that official figures say very little about the fate of the undocumented poor, and that the heat at the heart of the firestorms was far greater than an ordinary house fire, and was enough to consume bodies fully or leave only a few skeletal fragments.
The fire was fed not merely by wood, fabrics, and thatch, Hanson points out, but also by the oil, pitch, coal, tallow, fats, sugar, alcohol, turpentine, and gunpowder stored in the riverside district. It melted the imported steel lying along the wharves (melting point between 1,250 and 1,480 ° C (2,300 and 2,700 ° F)) and the great iron chains and locks on the City gates (melting point between 1,100 and 1,650 ° C (2,000 and 3000 ° F)). Nor would anonymous bone fragments have been of much interest to the hungry people sifting through the tens of thousands of tons of rubble and debris after the fire, looking for valuables, or to the workmen clearing away the rubble later during the rebuilding.
Hanson appeals to common sense and "the experience of every other major urban fire down the centuries '', emphasising that the fire attacked the rotting tenements of the poor with furious speed, surely trapping at the very least "the old, the very young, the halt and the lame '' and burying the dust and ashes of their bones under the rubble of cellars, producing a death toll not of four or eight, but of "several hundred and quite possibly several thousand. ''
The material destruction has been computed at 13,500 houses, 87 parish churches, 44 Company Halls, the Royal Exchange, the Custom House, St Paul 's Cathedral, the Bridewell Palace and other City prisons, the General Letter Office, and the three western city gates -- Ludgate, Newgate, and Aldersgate. The monetary value of the loss, first estimated at £ 100,000,000 in the currency of the time, was later reduced to an uncertain £ 10,000,000 (over £ 1 billion in 2005 pounds). Evelyn believed that he saw as many as "200,000 people of all ranks and stations dispersed, and lying along their heaps of what they could save '' in the fields towards Islington and Highgate.
An example of the urge to identify scapegoats for the fire is the acceptance of the confession of a simple - minded French watchmaker named Robert Hubert, who claimed that he was an agent of the Pope and had started the Great Fire in Westminster. He later changed his story to say that he had started the fire at the bakery in Pudding Lane. Hubert was convicted, despite some misgivings about his fitness to plead, and hanged at Tyburn on 28 September 1666. After his death, it became apparent that he had been on board a ship in the North Sea, and had not arrived in London until two days after the fire started. These allegations that Catholics had started the fire were exploited as powerful political propaganda by opponents of pro-Catholic Charles II 's court, mostly during the Popish Plot and the exclusion crisis later in his reign.
Abroad in the Netherlands, the Great Fire of London was seen as a divine retribution for Holmes 's Bonfire, the burning by the English of a Dutch town during the Second Anglo - Dutch War.
On 5 October, Marc Antonio Giustinian, Venetian Ambassador in France, reported to the Doge of Venice and the Senate, that Louis XIV announced that he would not "have any rejoicings about it, being such a deplorable accident involving injury to so many unhappy people ''. Louis had made an offer to his aunt, the British Queen Henrietta Maria, to send food and whatever goods might be of aid in alleviating the plight of Londoners, yet he made no secret that he regarded "the fire of London as a stroke of good fortune for him '' as it reduced the risk of French ships crossing the Channel and the North Sea being taken or sunk by the English fleet. Louis tried to take advantage but an attempt by a Franco - Dutch fleet to combine with a larger Dutch fleet ended in failure on 17 September when they encountered a larger English fleet led by Thomas Allin off Dungeness.
In the chaos and unrest after the fire, Charles II feared another London rebellion. He encouraged the homeless to move away from London and settle elsewhere, immediately issuing a proclamation that "all Cities and Towns whatsoever shall without any contradiction receive the said distressed persons and permit them the free exercise of their manual trades. '' A special Fire Court was set up to deal with disputes between tenants and landlords and decide who should rebuild, based on ability to pay. The Court was in session from February 1667 to September 1672. Cases were heard and a verdict usually given within a day; without the Fire Court, lengthy legal wrangles would have seriously delayed the rebuilding which was so necessary if London was to recover.
Radical rebuilding schemes poured in for the gutted City and were encouraged by Charles. If it had been rebuilt under some of these plans, London would have rivalled Paris in Baroque magnificence (see Evelyn 's plan on the right). The Crown and the City authorities attempted to establish "to whom all the houses and ground did in truth belong '' to negotiate with their owners about compensation for the large - scale remodelling that these plans entailed, but that unrealistic idea had to be abandoned. Exhortations to bring workmen and measure the plots on which the houses had stood were mostly ignored by people worried about day - to - day survival, as well as by those who had left the capital; for one thing, with the shortage of labour following the fire, it was impossible to secure workmen for the purpose. Apart from Wren and Evelyn, it is known that Robert Hooke, Valentine Knight, and Richard Newcourt proposed rebuilding plans.
With the complexities of ownership unresolved, none of the grand Baroque schemes could be realised for a City of piazzas and avenues; there was nobody to negotiate with, and no means of calculating how much compensation should be paid. Instead, much of the old street plan was recreated in the new City, with improvements in hygiene and fire safety: wider streets, open and accessible wharves along the length of the Thames, with no houses obstructing access to the river, and, most importantly, buildings constructed of brick and stone, not wood. New public buildings were created on their predecessors ' sites; perhaps the most famous is St Paul 's Cathedral and its smaller cousins, Christopher Wren 's 50 new churches.
On Charles ' initiative, a Monument to the Great Fire of London was erected near Pudding Lane, designed by Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke, standing 61 metres (200 ft) tall and known simply as "The Monument ''. It is a familiar London landmark which has since given its name to a tube station. In 1668, accusations against the Catholics were added to the inscription on the Monument which read, in part:
The inscription remained in place until 1830 after the passage of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, aside from the four years of James II 's rule from 1685 to 1689.
Another monument marks the spot where the fire stopped: the Golden Boy of Pye Corner in Smithfield. According to the inscription, it was evidence of God 's wrath on the City of London for the sin of gluttony that the fire started at Pudding Lane and stopped at Pye Corner.
The Great Plague epidemic of 1665 is believed to have killed a sixth of London 's inhabitants, or 80,000 people, and it is sometimes suggested that the fire saved lives in the long run by burning down so much unsanitary housing with their rats and their fleas which transmitted the plague, as plague epidemics did not recur in London after the fire. Historians disagree as to whether the fire played a part in preventing subsequent major outbreaks. The Museum of London website claims that there was a connection, while historian Roy Porter points out that the fire left the most insalubrious parts of London, the slum suburbs, untouched.
Following the Fire, the thoroughfares of Queen Street and King Street were newly laid out, cutting across more ancient thoroughfares in the City, creating a new route up from the Thames to the Guildhall; they were the only notable new streets following the fire 's destruction of much of the City.
William Harrison Ainsworth 's novel Old St Paul 's is set during the events of the fire.
The Great Fire was released on ITV television in 2014. It was shown in four episodes. It constructs a fictional scenario involving the Pudding Lane baker 's family in an alleged popish plot.
The round "London 's Burning '' is said to be about the Great Fire. However, the first notation of a song in this theme dates from 1580 as "Scotland 's Burning ''.
See Category: Former buildings and structures in the City of London.
Coordinates: 51 ° 30 ′ 57 '' N 0 ° 05 ′ 32 '' W / 51.5157 ° N 0.0921 ° W / 51.5157; - 0.0921
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how to calculate net run rate in points table | Net run rate - wikipedia
Net Run Rate (NRR) is a statistical method used in analysing teamwork and / or performance in cricket. It is the most commonly used method of ranking teams with equal points in limited overs league competitions, analogous to goal difference in association football.
The NRR in a single game is the average runs per over that team scores, minus the average runs per over that is scored against them. The NRR in a tournament is the average runs per over that a team scores across the whole tournament, minus the average runs per over that is scored against them across the whole tournament. This is the same as the weighted average of the run rates scored in each match (weighted by the lengths of the innings batted compared to the other innings batted), minus the weighted average of the run rates conceded in each match (weighted by the lengths of the innings bowled compared to the other innings bowled). This is not usually the same as the total or average of the NRRs from the individual matches in the tournament.
A positive NRR means a team is scoring faster than its opposition overall, while a negative NRR means a team is scoring slower than the teams it has come up against. It is therefore desirable for the NRR to be as high as possible.
NRR has been criticised as hard to understand, and ' often misunderstood '. It also does not accurately reflect true margins of victory, as it measures how quickly teams score and concede runs, but takes no account of wickets taken or lost, so a team with a narrow victory can have a higher NRR than a team with a comfortable victory. This means a team which progresses in a tournament at the expense of another team, due to a higher NRR, may not have actually had better victories.
A team 's run rate (RR), or runs per over (RPO), is the average number of runs scored per over by the whole team in the whole innings (or the whole innings so far), i.e. run rate = total runs scored total overs faced (\ displaystyle (\ text (run rate)) = (\ frac (\ text (total runs scored)) (\ text (total overs faced)))).
So if a team scores 250 runs off 50 overs then their RR is 250 50 = 5 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (250) (50)) = 5). Note that as an over is made up of six balls, each ball is 1 / 6 of an over, despite being normally written in cricket 's notation as. 1 of an over. So if they got that same score off 47.5 overs, their RR would be 250 47 5 6 = 5.23 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (250) (47 (\ frac (5) (6)))) = 5.23).
The concept of net run rate involves subtracting the opponents ' run rate from the team 's run rate, i.e. match net run rate = total runs scored total overs faced − total runs conceded total overs bowled (\ displaystyle (\ text (match net run rate)) = (\ frac (\ text (total runs scored)) (\ text (total overs faced))) - (\ frac (\ text (total runs conceded)) (\ text (total overs bowled)))).
For two teams which have just played, the winning side will have a positive Match NRR, and the losing side will have the negative of this (i.e. the Match NRRs will be additive inverses, summing to zero). A single match 's NRR is used very rarely, perhaps only after a team has played one match in a tournament, so their tournament NRR is the same as the match NRR.
Usually, runs and overs are summed together throughout a season to compare teams in a league table. A team 's overall NRR for a tournament is not defined as the sum or average of the NRR 's from the individual matches, but as:
tournament net run rate = total runs scored in all matches total overs faced in all matches − total runs conceded in all matches total overs bowled in all matches (\ displaystyle (\ text (tournament net run rate)) = (\ frac (\ text (total runs scored in all matches)) (\ text (total overs faced in all matches))) - (\ frac (\ text (total runs conceded in all matches)) (\ text (total overs bowled in all matches))))
The exceptions to this are:
All scenarios assume One Day International rules with 50 overs per side.
Most of the time, in limited overs cricket tournaments, there are round - robin groups among several teams, where each team plays all of the others. Just as explained in the scenarios above, the NRR is not the average of the NRRs of all the matches played, it is calculated considering the overall rate at which runs are scored for and against, within the whole group.
Let 's take as an example South Africa 's net run rate in the 1999 World Cup.
FOR
South Africa scored:
In the case of Zimbabwe, because South Africa were all out before their allotted 50 overs expired, the run rate is calculated as if they had scored their runs over the full 50 overs. Therefore, across the five games, South Africa scored 1016 runs in a total of 238 overs and 2 balls (i.e. 238.333 overs), an average run rate of 1016 / 238.333 = 4.263.
AGAINST
Teams opposing South Africa scored:
Again, with Sri Lanka, England and Kenya counting as the full 50 overs as they were all out, the run rate scored against South Africa across the five games is calculated on the basis of 851 runs in a total of 250 overs, an average run rate of 851 / 250 = 3.404.
NET RUN RATE
South Africa 's final tournament NRR is therefore 4.263 − 3.404 = + 0.859.
After match one
In the above example of South Africa at the 1999 World Cup, after their first match their tournament NRR was 254 47.33 − 253 50. (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ mbox (254)) (\ mbox (47.33))) - (\ frac (\ mbox (253)) (\ mbox (50))).)
As Run Rate = Runs scored / Overs faced, the runs scored by and against South Africa in each innings can be replaced in this formula by Run Rate x Overs faced. They scored 254 runs from 47.33 overs, a rate of 5.37 runs per over. Therefore, the total of 254 runs can be replaced by 5.37 runs per over x 47.33 overs. Similarly, the total of 253 runs conceded can be replaced by 5.06 runs per over x 50 overs:
(5.37 × 47.33 47.33) − (5.06 × 50 50) = (5.37 × 100 %) − (5.06 × 100 %). (\ displaystyle \ left (5.37 \ times (\ frac (\ mbox (47.33)) (\ mbox (47.33))) \ right) - \ left (5.06 \ times (\ frac (\ mbox (50)) (\ mbox (50))) \ right) = \ left (5.37 \ times 100 \ % \ right) - \ left (5.06 \ times 100 \ % \ right).)
After match two
After their second match, tournament NRR was 254 + 199 47.33 + 50 − 253 + 110 50 + 50, (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ mbox (254 + 199)) (\ mbox (47.33 + 50))) - (\ frac (\ mbox (253 + 110)) (\ mbox (50 + 50))),) which is the same as 254 97.33 + 199 97.33 − 253 100 − 110 100. (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ mbox (254)) (\ mbox (97.33))) + (\ frac (\ mbox (199)) (\ mbox (97.33))) - (\ frac (\ mbox (253)) (\ mbox (100))) - (\ frac (\ mbox (110)) (\ mbox (100))).)
Making the same replacements for 254 and 253 as before, and replacing 199 runs scored in match two with 3.98 runs per over x 50 overs, and 110 runs conceded in match two with 2.20 runs per over x 50 overs, this becomes:
(5.37 × 47.33 97.33) + (3.98 × 50 97.33) − (5.06 × 50 100) − (2.20 × 50 100) (\ displaystyle \ left (5.37 \ times (\ frac (\ mbox (47.33)) (\ mbox (97.33))) \ right) + \ left (3.98 \ times (\ frac (\ mbox (50)) (\ mbox (97.33))) \ right) - \ left (5.06 \ times (\ frac (\ mbox (50)) (\ mbox (100))) \ right) - \ left (2.20 \ times (\ frac (\ mbox (50)) (\ mbox (100))) \ right))
= (5.37 × 48.6 %) + (3.98 × 51.4 %) − (5.06 × 50 %) − (2.20 × 50 %). (\ displaystyle = \ left (5.37 \ times 48.6 \ % \ right) + \ left (3.98 \ times 51.4 \ % \ right) - \ left (5.06 \ times 50 \ % \ right) - \ left (2.20 \ times 50 \ % \ right).)
After match three
After their third match, tournament NRR was 254 + 199 + 225 47.33 + 50 + 50 − 253 + 110 + 103 50 + 50 + 50, (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ mbox (254 + 199 + 225)) (\ mbox (47.33 + 50 + 50))) - (\ frac (\ mbox (253 + 110 + 103)) (\ mbox (50 + 50 + 50))),) i.e. 254 147.33 + 199 147.33 + 225 147.33 − 253 150 − 110 150 − 103 150. (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ mbox (254)) (\ mbox (147.33))) + (\ frac (\ mbox (199)) (\ mbox (147.33))) + (\ frac (\ mbox (225)) (\ mbox (147.33))) - (\ frac (\ mbox (253)) (\ mbox (150))) - (\ frac (\ mbox (110)) (\ mbox (150))) - (\ frac (\ mbox (103)) (\ mbox (150))).)
Making the same replacements for 254, 253, 199 and 110 as before, and replacing 225 runs scored in match three with 4.50 runs per over x 50 overs, and 103 runs conceded in match three with 2.06 runs per over x 50 overs, this becomes:
(5.37 × 47.33 147.33) + (3.98 × 50 147.33) + (4.50 × 50 147.33) − (5.06 × 50 150) − (2.20 × 50 150) − (2.06 × 50 150) (\ displaystyle \ left (5.37 \ times (\ frac (\ mbox (47.33)) (\ mbox (147.33))) \ right) + \ left (3.98 \ times (\ frac (\ mbox (50)) (\ mbox (147.33))) \ right) + \ left (4.50 \ times (\ frac (\ mbox (50)) (\ mbox (147.33))) \ right) - \ left (5.06 \ times (\ frac (\ mbox (50)) (\ mbox (150))) \ right) - \ left (2.20 \ times (\ frac (\ mbox (50)) (\ mbox (150))) \ right) - \ left (2.06 \ times (\ frac (\ mbox (50)) (\ mbox (150))) \ right))
= (5.37 × 32.1 %) + (3.98 × 33.9 %) + (4.50 × 33.9 %) − (5.06 × 33.3 %) − (2.20 × 33.3 %) − (2.06 × 33.3 %). (\ displaystyle = \ left (5.37 \ times 32.1 \ % \ right) + \ left (3.98 \ times 33.9 \ % \ right) + \ left (4.50 \ times 33.9 \ % \ right) - \ left (5.06 \ times 33.3 \ % \ right) - \ left (2.20 \ times 33.3 \ % \ right) - \ left (2.06 \ times 33.3 \ % \ right).)
Tournament NRR as a weighted average
Therefore, tournament NRR can alternatively be thought of as the weighted average of the run rates scored in each match (weighted by the lengths of the innings batted compared to the other innings batted), minus the weighted average of the run rates conceded in each match (weighted by the lengths of the innings bowled compared to the other innings bowled). Each time another match is played, the weights of the previous innings reduce, and so the contributions of the previous innings to overall NRR reduce.
For example, the 5.37 run rate achieved in match one had 100 % weighting after match one, 48.6 % weighting after match two, and 32.1 % weighting after match three.
In the language of Duckworth - Lewis, teams have two resources with which to score runs − overs and wickets. However, NRR takes into account only one of these − overs faced; it takes no account of wickets lost. Therefore, a team regarded as having a narrow victory can have a higher NRR than a team regarded as having a comfortable victory. For example, a team which just manages to win a close game with many overs to spare but with only one wicket in hand is likely to have a higher NRR than a team which paces itself to win comfortably with only a few overs in hand but many wickets.
For example, in the 2013 Champions Trophy Group A:
This fact can encourage a team to play in an overly aggressive manner, to maximise NRR by batting with next to no regard for preserving wickets, when the required run rate alone seems low, which can then put the team in danger of losing.
A team 's batted and bowled overs in a match count differently to tournament NRR
All overs batted in a tournament are given equal weighting when finding tournament NRR, and all overs bowled in a tournament are also given equal weighting. However, when the total number of overs batted is different from the total number of overs bowled, the weight for each over batted is different from the weight for each over bowled. This means that batted overs and bowled overs in the same match count differently towards tournament NRR.
For example, in the 2009 World Twenty20 Group D, as New Zealand had batted 6 overs and bowled 7 overs against Scotland, the runs they scored in each of the 20 overs batted against South Africa contributed 1 / 26th to their tournament NRR, while the runs conceded in each of the 20 overs bowled against South Africa contributed only 1 / 27th. In fact, the effect of the higher weight for the batting overs was so strong that despite scoring fewer runs than South Africa from the same number of overs, and hence having a negative match NRR and losing the match, the net contribution of this match to New Zealand 's tournament NRR was actually positive (127 / 26 − 128 / 27 is positive).
Each over in a match counts differently for the two teams
Moreover, if two teams in a tournament have different total numbers of overs batted or bowled, then each innings in the match (es) between them will contribute differently towards their tournament NRRs. For example, in the 2009 World Twenty20 Group D, South Africa batted for 40 overs in total in their two matches, so their score of 128 from 20 overs against New Zealand contributed 128 / 40 = 3.20 to their tournament NRR, whereas New Zealand bowled for 27 overs in total in their two matches, so South Africa 's score of 128 from 20 overs against them contributed − 128 / 27 = − 4.74 to New Zealand 's tournament NRR.
As a team 's NRR measures how many more runs it scores per over than it concedes, the NRRs of all the teams in a league table should sum to zero. However, because of this fact of each innings usually counting differently to the two teams ' tournament NRRs, this rarely happens. If the sum is positive, this implies that overall more runs were scored per over than were conceded, which is obviously impossible. (And if the sum is negative that less were scored than conceded). The teams ' tournament NRRs will all sum to zero if all the teams have played one or zero matches, or if every innings had exactly the same number of overs. This happens sometimes with small league tables. For example, Group B in the 2009 World Twenty20 featured three matches. Five of the six innings had the full complement of 20 overs, and in the sixth innings the team was bowled out, which counts as the full complement of 20 overs.
The same score by two teams counts differently to tournament NRR
If two teams make the same score from the same number of overs (either in the same match or different matches), this will count differently to their respective tournament NRR 's if they have different total numbers of overs batted across the whole tournament. For example, in the 2007 World Twenty20 Group B, Australia and Zimbabwe each scored 138 from 20 overs in one of their matches. However, as Australia batted for 14.5 overs in their other match, this contributed 138 / 34.833 = 3.96 to their tournament NRR, whereas as Zimbabwe batted for 19.5 overs in their other match, this contributed 138 / 39.833 = 3.46 to their tournament NRR.
This is also the case if two teams concede the same score in the same match or different matches, but have different total numbers of overs bowled in the tournament.
Tournament NRR can penalise teams which win batting second rather than first
If one team, batting first, scores 250 from their 50 overs, and another team, batting second, is set a target of 100 which it easily reaches in 20 overs, then both sides have a batting run rate of 5. Therefore, both sides will have the same match NRR, all else being equal, and should have the same contribution to tournament NRR. However, when it comes to calculating tournament NRR, the first team 's innings will count more heavily than the second team 's as it was longer, even though the second team achieved the same run rate and could potentially have reached the same total if it could have completed its 50 overs.
A team may choose to artificially reduce their margin of victory, as measured by NRR, to gain an additional advantage by not disadvantaging their opponent too much. For example, in the final round of matches in the 1999 World Cup Group B, Australia needed to beat West Indies to progress to the Super Six stage, but wanted to carry West Indies through with them to the Super Six, rather than New Zealand. This is because Australia would then have the additional points in the Super Six stage from beating West Indies in the group stage, whereas they had lost to New Zealand in the group stage. It was therefore to Australia 's advantage to reduce their scoring rate and reduce their margin of victory, as measured by NRR, to minimise the negative impact of the match on West Indies ' NRR, and therefore maximise West Indies ' chance of going through with them.
However, this is also likely to be a possibility with alternatives to NRR.
This is similar to the way a narrow victory for one side in a game of football may enable both sides to progress to the next stage, e.g. West Germany v Austria in the 1982 World Cup.
NRR can be hard to understand, and is ' often misunderstood '. For example, Tournament NRR has been incorrectly explained as the sum of the NRRs from each match.
A number of alternatives or modifications to NRR have been suggested.
Use Tournament NRR as present, but when a side batting second successfully completes the run chase, use the Duckworth − Lewis method to predict how many runs they would have scored with a full innings. This means the calculation would be done on the basis of all innings being complete, and so would remove the criticisms of NRR penalising teams which bat second, and NRR not taking into account wickets lost. However, this does nothing to alter the fact that when matches are rain - affected, different matches and even two complete innings in one match, can be different lengths long (in terms of overs), and so does nothing about some of the other criticisms above.
Therefore, alternatively, use Duckworth − Lewis to predict the 50 - over total for every innings less than this, even, for example, if a match is reduced to 40 overs each, and a side completes their 40 overs. This would make every innings in the tournament the same length, so would remove all the criticisms above. However, a side will bat differently (less conservatively) in a 40 - over innings compared to a 50 - over innings, and so it is quite unfair to use their 40 - over total to predict how many runs they could have scored in 50 overs.
Either way, using Duckworth − Lewis would mean relying on subjective modelling predictions, which are opinions, rather than actual performances, which are facts.
Calculate tournament NRR as the total or average of the individual match NRRs. This would mean all matches have equal weighting, no matter how long they were, (rather than all batted overs across the tournament having equal weighting, and all bowled overs across the tournament having equal weighting). This would remove the criticisms under the ' Tournament NRR calculation ' subheading above. For example, the different teams ' tournament NRRs would always sum to zero if the total of the individual match NRRs were used, or if the average of the individual match NRRs were used and all teams had played the same number of games.
An example of when using this would have made a difference was the 1999 Cricket World Cup Group B. New Zealand and West Indies finished level on points. Having scored a total of 723 runs from 201 overs, and conceded 746 runs from 240.4 overs, West Indies ' tournament NRR was (723 / 201) − (746 / 240.6667) = 0.50. However, New Zealand had scored 817 runs from 196.1 overs, and conceded 877 runs from 244.2 overs, so their tournament NRR was (817 / 196.167) − (877 / 244.333) = 0.58. Therefore, New Zealand progressed to the Super Six stage and West Indies were eliminated. However, with individual match NRRs of − 0.540, 0.295, 0.444, 5.525 and − 0.530, the West Indies ' average match NRR was 1.04, and with individual match NRRs of 1.225, 0.461, − 0.444, − 1.240 and 4.477, New Zealand 's average match NRR was 0.90. Therefore, West Indies ' average NRR was better than New Zealand 's.
Ball difference (BD) is the number of balls remaining at the point of victory. For a team winning batting second, BD would be the number of balls remaining. For a team winning having batted first, BD would be the number of balls between the precise delivery when the beaten team was outscored and the end of their innings (either the end of the overs or until the team were all out). For the losing team, BD is the negative of the winning team 's BD.
However, like the current NRR calculation, BD takes no account of wickets lost, so can produce similarly unjust results. In the example above from the 2013 Champions Trophy Group A, New Zealand 's narrow victory over Sri Lanka would have a BD of + 81, whereas Sri Lanka 's comfortable victory over England would have a BD of only + 17.
Also, if a match is affected by the weather, a side batting first can win having scored fewer runs, if Duckworth - Lewis increases the target for the team batting second, and they overtake the first team 's score, but fail to reach the target. It 's not clear what BD would be in this scenario.
Split teams level on points using the results from the matches between them. However, this unfairly increases the importance of that one match and reduces the importance of other matches in the league, when all matches in a league should be of equal value − the team with the better head - to - head record will have a worse record against other teams. Also, the head - to - head record will not decide it if the game between them was a No result, or if they played each other twice, and won one game each.
Alternatively, stage a play - off match between the teams level on points. However, organising this at very short notice may be difficult, or the teams may be in the middle of a league table with no promotion or relegation or progression at stake, so there may be no appetite for a play - off match.
These two methods both also run into difficulties when three or more teams are level on points.
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formula to find the area of isosceles trapezium | Isosceles trapezoid - Wikipedia
In Euclidean geometry, an isosceles trapezoid (isosceles trapezium in British English) is a convex quadrilateral with a line of symmetry bisecting one pair of opposite sides. It is a special case of a trapezoid. In any isosceles trapezoid two opposite sides (the bases) are parallel, and the two other sides (the legs) are of equal length (properties shared with the parallelogram). The diagonals are also of equal length. The base angles of an isosceles trapezoid are equal in measure (there are in fact two pairs of equal base angles, where one base angle is the supplementary angle of a base angle at the other base).
Rectangles and squares are usually considered to be special cases of isosceles trapezoids though some sources would exclude them.
Another special case is a 3 - equal side trapezoid, sometimes known as a trilateral trapezoid or a trisosceles trapezoid. They can also be seen dissected from regular polygons of 5 sides or more as a truncation of 4 sequential vertices.
Any non-self - crossing quadrilateral with exactly one axis of symmetry must be either an isosceles trapezoid or a kite. However, if crossings are allowed, the set of symmetric quadrilaterals must be expanded to include also the crossed isosceles trapezoids, crossed quadrilaterals in which the crossed sides are of equal length and the other sides are parallel, and the antiparallelograms, crossed quadrilaterals in which opposite sides have equal length.
Every antiparallelogram has an isosceles trapezoid as its convex hull, and may be formed from the diagonals and non-parallel sides of an isosceles trapezoid.
If a quadrilateral is known to be a trapezoid, it is not necessary to check that the legs have the same length in order to know that it is an isosceles trapezoid (nor, under the definitions given in Wikipedia, is it sufficient, since a rhombus is a special case of a trapezoid with legs of equal length, but is not an isosceles trapezoid as it lacks a line of symmetry through the midpoints of opposite sides); any of the following properties also distinguishes an isosceles trapezoid from other trapezoids:
If rectangles are included in the class of trapezoids then one may concisely define an isosceles trapezoid as "a cyclic quadrilateral with equal diagonals '' or as "a cyclic quadrilateral with a pair of parallel sides '' or as "a convex quadrilateral with a line of symmetry through the mid-points of opposite sides ''.
In an isosceles trapezoid the base angles have the same measure pairwise. In the picture below, angles ∠ ABC and ∠ DCB are obtuse angles of the same measure, while angles ∠ BAD and ∠ CDA are acute angles, also of the same measure.
Since the lines AD and BC are parallel, angles adjacent to opposite bases are supplementary, that is, angles ∠ ABC + ∠ BAD = 180 °.
The diagonals of an isosceles trapezoid have the same length; that is, every isosceles trapezoid is an equidiagonal quadrilateral. Moreover, the diagonals divide each other in the same proportions. As pictured, the diagonals AC and BD have the same length (AC = BD) and divide each other into segments of the same length (AE = DE and BE = CE).
The ratio in which each diagonal is divided is equal to the ratio of the lengths of the parallel sides that they intersect, that is,
The length of each diagonal is, according to Ptolemy 's theorem, given by
where a and b are the lengths of the parallel sides AD and BC, and c is the length of each leg AB and CD.
The height is, according to the Pythagorean theorem, given by
The distance from point E to base AD is given by
where a and b are the lengths of the parallel sides AD and BC, and h is the height of the trapezoid.
The area of an isosceles (or any) trapezoid is equal to the average of the lengths of the base and top (the parallel sides) times the height. In the adjacent diagram, if we write AD = a, and BC = b, and the height h is the length of a line segment between AD and BC that is perpendicular to them, then the area K is given as follows:
If instead of the height of the trapezoid, the common length of the legs AB = CD = c is known, then the area can be computed using Brahmagupta 's formula for the area of a cyclic quadrilateral, which with two sides equal simplifies to
- where s = 1 2 (a + b + 2 c) (\ displaystyle s = (\ tfrac (1) (2)) (a + b + 2c)) is the semi-perimeter of the trapezoid. This formula is analogous to Heron 's formula to compute the area of a triangle. The previous formula for area can also be written as
The radius in the circumscribed circle is given by
In a rectangle where a = b this is simplified to R = 1 2 a 2 + c 2 (\ displaystyle R = (\ tfrac (1) (2)) (\ sqrt (a ^ (2) + c ^ (2)))).
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who is the guy that narrates disney channel | Cam Brainard - Wikipedia
Cam "Buzz '' Brainard (born Cameron Duane Brainard; May 21, 1962) is an American voice actor, narrator, and radio personality, originally from Clio, Michigan.
As a voice talent, Brainard is known as the main announcer for the Disney Channel from July 2001 until 2016. He first gained notoriety as the "smart aleck '' narrator with a cult - following on the syndicated television show Maximum Exposure, also known as "Max X '' which ran for two seasons from 2000 to 2002. As a sports announcer, Brainard hosted "This Week In Baseball '' on FOX (taking over for the late Mel Allen) from 2000 until the show ended its run after more than 30 years in 2011. He also narrated "Breed All About It '' for Animal Planet and was the promo voice for the TV series Friends in syndication. He took over the voice of Rotor the Walrus on the ABC Television show Sonic the Hedgehog in its second season.
Currently, Brainard is the voice of television 's "World Access '' on the Travel Channel, as well as many television and radio commercials. Audiences also hear his voice on more than 500 radio stations in the U.S. and Canada, and growing. His formats range from AC to Hot AC, Christian Radio to Country, and from Rock to Adult Hits.
He is also currently the announcer for Laff.
Brainard has one of the largest daily audiences of any country music radio personality in North America, as the weekday afternoon host on "The Highway, '' SiriusXM radio 's new country channel 56 based in Nashville. As of Winter 2014, Sirius XM had 27 million subscribers.
With a live audience of hundreds weekly, Cam "Buzz Brainard '' hosts the "Music Row Happy Hour '' on SiriusXM The Highway most Friday afternoons from Jimmy Buffett 's Margaritaville Cafe in downtown Nashville. He is credited with discovering a number of country music hitmakers. As host of the weekly SiriusXM music discovery program "On The Horizon, '' Brainard showcases unsigned and up - and - coming country artists.
Los Angeles radio audiences were the first to hear "Buzz Brainard '' as co-host of the Morning show on KZLA - FM. Later, he hosted the syndicated "Music City Saturday Night '' show and "GAC Nights Radio '' live from Nashville.
Acting credits include Clear and Present Danger, Face / Off, Parting Glances and The Net.
Brainard was born in Flint, Michigan and raised in Clio, Michigan, graduating from Clio High School in 1980. He married with Sandy Brainard and together they have a son, Hank. He was educated at Central Michigan University. He used to resides in Los Angeles, California and Nashville, Tennessee.
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the introduction to stravinsky’s the rite of spring begins with a melody played on the | The Rite of Spring - wikipedia
The Rite of Spring (French: Le Sacre du printemps; Russian: Весна священная, translit. Vesna svyashchennaya, lit. ' sacred spring ') is a ballet and orchestral concert work by Russian composer Igor Stravinsky. It was written for the 1913 Paris season of Sergei Diaghilev 's Ballets Russes company; the original choreography was by Vaslav Nijinsky with stage designs and costumes by Nicholas Roerich. When first performed at the Théâtre des Champs - Élysées on 29 May 1913, the avant - garde nature of the music and choreography caused a sensation and a near - riot in the audience. Although designed as a work for the stage, with specific passages accompanying characters and action, the music achieved equal if not greater recognition as a concert piece and is widely considered to be one of the most influential musical works of the 20th century.
Stravinsky was a young, virtually unknown composer when Diaghilev recruited him to create works for the Ballets Russes. The Rite was the third such project, after the acclaimed Firebird (1910) and Petrushka (1911). The concept behind The Rite of Spring, developed by Roerich from Stravinsky 's outline idea, is suggested by its subtitle, "Pictures of Pagan Russia in Two Parts ''; the scenario depicts various primitive rituals celebrating the advent of spring, after which a young girl is chosen as a sacrificial victim and dances herself to death. After a mixed critical reception for its original run and a short London tour, the ballet was not performed again until the 1920s, when a version choreographed by Léonide Massine replaced Nijinsky 's original. Massine 's was the forerunner of many innovative productions directed by the world 's leading ballet - masters, gaining the work worldwide acceptance. In the 1980s, Nijinsky 's original choreography, long believed lost, was reconstructed by the Joffrey Ballet in Los Angeles.
Stravinsky 's score contains many novel features for its time, including experiments in tonality, metre, rhythm, stress and dissonance. Analysts have noted in the score a significant grounding in Russian folk music, a relationship Stravinsky tended to deny. The music influenced many of the 20th - century 's leading composers and is one of the most recorded works in the classical repertoire.
Igor Stravinsky was the son of Fyodor Stravinsky, the principal bass singer at the Imperial Opera, St Petersburg, and Anna, née Kholodovskaya, a competent amateur singer and pianist from an old - established Russian family. Fyodor 's association with many of the leading figures in Russian music, including Rimsky - Korsakov, Borodin and Mussorgsky, meant that Igor grew up in an intensely musical home. In 1901 Stravinsky began to study law at Saint Petersburg University while taking private lessons in harmony and counterpoint. Stravinsky worked under the guidance of Rimsky - Korsakov, having impressed him with some of his early compositional efforts. By the time of his mentor 's death in 1908 Stravinsky had produced several works, among them a Piano Sonata in F ♯ minor (1903 -- 04), a Symphony in E ♭ major (1907), which he catalogued as "Opus 1 '', and a short orchestral piece, Feu d'artifice ("Fireworks '', composed in 1908).
In 1909 Feu d'artifice was performed at a concert in St. Petersburg. Among those in the audience was the impresario Sergei Diaghilev, who at that time was planning to introduce Russian music and art to western audiences. Like Stravinsky, Diaghilev had initially studied law, but had gravitated via journalism into the theatrical world. In 1907 he began his theatrical career by presenting five concerts in Paris; in the following year he introduced Mussorgsky 's opera Boris Godunov. In 1909, still in Paris, he launched the Ballets Russes, initially with Borodin 's Polovtsian Dances from Prince Igor and Rimsky - Korsakov 's Scheherazade. To present these works Diaghilev recruited the choreographer Michel Fokine, the designer Léon Bakst and the dancer Vaslav Nijinsky. Diaghilev 's intention, however, was to produce new works in a distinctively 20th - century style, and he was looking for fresh compositional talent. Having heard Feu d'artifice he approached Stravinsky, initially with a request for help in orchestrating music by Chopin to create the ballet Les Sylphides. Stravinsky worked on the opening "Nocturne '' and the closing "Valse Brillante ''; his reward was a much bigger commission, to write the music for a new ballet, The Firebird (L'oiseau de feu) for the 1910 season.
Stravinsky worked through the winter of 1909 -- 10, in close association with Fokine who was choreographing The Firebird. During this period Stravinsky made the acquaintance of Nijinsky who, although not dancing in the ballet, was a keen observer of its development. Stravinsky was uncomplimentary when recording his first impressions of the dancer, observing that he seemed immature and gauche for his age (he was 21). On the other hand, Stravinsky found Diaghilev an inspiration, "the very essence of a great personality ''. The Firebird was premiered on 25 June 1910, with Tamara Karsavina in the main role, and was a great public success. This ensured that the Diaghilev -- Stravinsky collaboration would continue, in the first instance with Petrushka (1911) and then The Rite of Spring.
In a note to the conductor Serge Koussevitzky in February 1914, Stravinsky described The Rite of Spring as "a musical - choreographic work, (representing) pagan Russia... unified by a single idea: the mystery and great surge of the creative power of Spring ''. In his analysis of The Rite, Pieter van den Toorn writes that the work lacks a specific plot or narrative, and should be considered as a succession of choreographed episodes.
The French titles are given in the form given in the four - part piano score published in 1913. There have been numerous variants of the English translations; those shown are from the 1967 edition of the score.
Lawrence Morton, in a study of the origins of The Rite, records that in 1907 -- 08 Stravinsky set to music two poems from Sergey Gorodetsky 's collection Yar. Another poem in the anthology, which Stravinsky did not set but is likely to have read, is "Yarila '' which, Morton observes, contains many of the basic elements from which The Rite of Spring developed, including pagan rites, sage elders, and the propitiatory sacrifice of a young maiden: "The likeness is too close to be coincidental ''. Stravinsky himself gave contradictory accounts of the genesis of The Rite. In a 1920 article he stressed that the musical ideas had come first, that the pagan setting had been suggested by the music rather than the other way round. However, in his 1936 autobiography he described the origin of the work thus: "One day (in 1910), when I was finishing the last pages of L'Oiseau de Feu in St Petersburg, I had a fleeting vision... I saw in my imagination a solemn pagan rite: sage elders, seated in a circle, watching a young girl dance herself to death. They were sacrificing her to propitiate the god of Spring. Such was the theme of the Sacre du Printemps ''.
By May 1910 Stravinsky was discussing his idea with Nicholas Roerich, the foremost Russian expert on folk art and ancient rituals. Roerich had a reputation as an artist and mystic, and had provided the stage designs for Diaghilev 's 1909 production of the Polovtsian Dances. The pair quickly agreed on a working title, "The Great Sacrifice '' (Russian: Velikaia zhertva); Diaghilev gave his blessing to the work, although the collaboration was put on hold for a year while Stravinsky was occupied with his second major commission for Diaghilev, the ballet Petrushka.
In July 1911 Stravinsky visited Talashkino, near Smolensk, where Roerich was staying with the Princess Maria Tenisheva, a noted patron of the arts and a sponsor of Diaghilev 's magazine World of Art. Here, over several days, Stravinsky and Roerich finalised the structure of the ballet. Thomas F. Kelly, in his history of the Rite premiere, suggests that the two - part pagan scenario that emerged was primarily devised by Roerich. Stravinsky later explained to Nikolai Findeyzen, the editor of the Russian Musical Gazette, that the first part of the work would be called "The Kiss of the Earth '', and would consist of games and ritual dances interrupted by a procession of sages, culminating in a frenzied dance as the people embraced the spring. Part Two, "The Sacrifice '', would have a darker aspect; secret night games of maidens, leading to the choice of one for sacrifice and her eventual dance to the death before the sages. The original working title was changed to "Holy Spring '' (Russian: Vesna sviashchennaia), but the work became generally known by the French translation Le Sacre du printemps, or its English equivalent The Rite of Spring, with the subtitle "Pictures of Pagan Russia ''.
Stravinsky 's sketchbooks show that after returning to his home at Ustilug in Ukraine in September 1911, he worked on two movements, the "Augurs of Spring '' and the "Spring Rounds ''. In October he left Ustilug for Clarens in Switzerland, where in a tiny and sparsely - furnished room -- an 8 - by - 8 - foot (2.4 by 2.4 m) closet, with only a muted upright piano, a table and two chairs -- he worked throughout the 1911 -- 12 winter on the score. By March 1912, according to the sketchbook chronology, Stravinsky had completed Part I and had drafted much of Part II. He also prepared a two - hand piano version, subsequently lost, which he may have used to demonstrate the work to Diaghilev and the Ballet Russes conductor Pierre Monteux in April 1912. He also made a four - hand piano arrangement which became the first published version of The Rite; he and the composer Claude Debussy played the first half of this together, in June 1912.
Following Diaghilev 's decision to delay the premiere until 1913, Stravinsky put The Rite aside during the summer of 1912. He enjoyed the Paris season, and accompanied Diaghilev to the Bayreuth Festival to attend a performance of Parsifal. Stravinsky resumed work on The Rite in the autumn; the sketchbooks indicate that he had finished the outline of the final sacrificial dance on 17 November 1912. During the remaining months of winter he worked on the full orchestral score, which he signed and dated as "completed in Clarens, March 8, 1913 ''. He showed the manuscript to Maurice Ravel, who was enthusiastic and predicted, in a letter to a friend, that the first performance of the Le Sacre would be as important as the 1902 premiere of Debussy 's Pelléas et Mélisande. After the orchestral rehearsals began in late March, Monteux drew the composer 's attention to several passages which were causing problems: inaudible horns, a flute solo drowned out by brass and strings, and multiple problems with the balance among instruments in the brass section during fortissimo episodes. Stravinsky amended these passages, and as late as April was still revising and rewriting the final bars of the "Sacrificial Dance ''. Revision of the score did not end with the version prepared for the 1913 premiere; rather, Stravinsky continued to make changes for the next 30 years or more. According to Van den Toorn, "(n) o other work of Stravinsky 's underwent such a series of post-premiere revisions ''.
Stravinsky acknowledged that the work 's opening bassoon melody was derived from an anthology of Lithuanian folk songs, but maintained that this was his only borrowing from such sources; if other elements sounded like aboriginal folk music, he said, it was due to "some unconscious ' folk ' memory ''. However, Morton has identified several more melodies in Part I as having their origins in the Lithuanian collection. More recently Richard Taruskin has discovered in the score an adapted tune from one of Rimsky - Korsakov 's "One Hundred Russian National Songs ''. Taruskin notes the paradox whereby The Rite, generally acknowledged as the most revolutionary of the composer 's early works, is in fact rooted in the traditions of Russian music.
Taruskin has listed a number of sources that Roerich consulted when creating his designs. Among these are the Primary Chronicle, a 12th - century compendium of early pagan customs, and Alexander Afanasyev 's study of peasant folklore and pagan prehistory. The Princess Tenisheva 's collection of costumes was an early source of inspiration. When the designs were complete, Stravinsky expressed delight and declared them "a real miracle ''.
Stravinsky 's relationship with his other main collaborator, Nijinsky, was more complicated. Diaghilev had decided that Nijinsky 's genius as a dancer would translate into the role of ballet - master; he was not dissuaded when Nijinsky 's first attempt at choreography, Debussy 's L'après - midi d'un faune, caused controversy and near - scandal because of the dancer 's novel stylised movements and his overtly sexual gesture at the work 's end. It is apparent from contemporary correspondence that, at least initially, Stravinsky viewed Nijinsky 's talents as a choreographer with approval; a letter he sent to Findeyzen praises the dancer 's "passionate zeal and complete self - effacement ''. However, in his 1936 memoirs Stravinsky writes that the decision to employ Nijinsky in this role filled him with apprehension; although he admired Nijinsky as a dancer he had no confidence in him as a choreographer: "... the poor boy knew nothing of music. He could neither read it nor play any instrument ''. Later still, Stravinsky would ridicule Nijinsky 's dancing maidens as "knock - kneed and long - braided Lolitas ''.
Stravinsky 's autobiographical account refers to many "painful incidents '' between the ballet - master and the dancers during the rehearsal period. By the beginning of 1913, when Nijinsky was badly behind schedule, Stravinsky was warned by Diaghilev that "unless you come here immediately... the Sacre will not take place ''. The problems were slowly overcome, and when the final rehearsals were held in May 1913, the dancers appeared to have mastered the work 's difficulties. Even the Ballets Russes 's sceptical stage director, Serge Grigoriev, was full of praise for the originality and dynamism of Nijinsky 's choreography.
The conductor Pierre Monteux had worked with Diaghilev since 1911 and had been in charge of the orchestra at the premiere of Petrushka. Monteux 's first reaction to The Rite, after hearing Stravinsky play a piano version, was to leave the room and find a quiet corner. He drew Diaghilev aside and said he would never conduct music like that; Diaghilev managed to change his mind. Although he would perform his duties with conscientious professionalism, he never came to enjoy the work; nearly fifty years after the premiere he told enquirers that he detested it. In old age he said to Sir Thomas Beecham 's biographer Charles Reid: "I did not like Le Sacre then. I have conducted it fifty times since. I do not like it now ''. On 30 March Monteux informed Stravinsky of modifications he thought were necessary to the score, all of which the composer implemented. The orchestra, drawn mainly from the Concerts Colonne in Paris, comprised 99 players, much larger than normally employed at the theatre, and had difficulty fitting into the orchestra pit.
After the first part of the ballet received two full orchestral rehearsals in March, Monteux and the company departed to perform in Monte Carlo. Rehearsals resumed when they returned; the unusually large number of rehearsals -- seventeen solely orchestral and five with the dancers -- were fit into the fortnight before the opening, after Stravinsky 's arrival in Paris on 13 May. The music contained so many unusual note combinations that Monteux had to ask the musicians to stop interrupting when they thought they had found mistakes in the score, saying he would tell them if something was played incorrectly. According to Doris Monteux, "The musicians thought it absolutely crazy ''. At one point -- a climactic brass fortissimo -- the orchestra broke into nervous laughter at the sound, causing Stravinsky to intervene angrily.
The role of the sacrificial victim was to have been danced by Nijinsky 's sister, Bronislava Nijinska; when she became pregnant during rehearsals, she was replaced by the then relatively unknown Maria Piltz.
Paris 's Théâtre des Champs - Élysées was a new structure, which had opened on 2 April 1913 with a programme celebrating the works of many of the leading composers of the day. The theatre 's manager, Gabriel Astruc, was determined to house the 1913 Ballets Russes season, and paid Diaghilev the large sum of 25,000 francs per performance, double what he had paid the previous year. The programme for 29 May 1913, as well as the Stravinsky premiere, included Les Sylphides, Weber 's Le Spectre de la Rose and Borodin 's Polovtsian Dances. Ticket sales for the evening, ticket prices being doubled for a premiere, amounted to 35,000 francs. A dress rehearsal was held in the presence of members of the press and assorted invited guests. According to Stravinsky all went peacefully. However, the critic of L'Écho de Paris, Adolphe Boschot, foresaw possible trouble; he wondered how the public would receive the work, and suggested that they might react badly if they thought they were being mocked.
On the evening of 29 May the theatre was packed. Gustav Linor reported, "Never... has the hall been so full, or so resplendent; the stairways and the corridors were crowded with spectators eager to see and to hear ''. The evening began with Les Sylphides, in which Nijinsky and Karsavina danced the main roles. The Rite followed. Some eyewitnesses and commentators said that the disturbances in the audience began during the Introduction, and grew in a crescendo when the curtain rose on the stamping dancers in "Augurs of Spring ''. But music historian Richard Taruskin asserts, "it was not Stravinsky 's music that did the shocking. It was the ugly earthbound lurching and stomping devised by Vaslav Nijinsky. '' Marie Rambert, who was working as an assistant to Nijinsky, recalled later that it was soon impossible to hear the music on the stage. In his autobiography, Stravinsky writes that the derisive laughter that greeted the first bars of the Introduction disgusted him, and that he left the auditorium to watch the rest of the performance from the stage wings. The demonstrations, he says, grew into "a terrific uproar '' which, along with the on - stage noises, drowned out the voice of Nijinsky who was shouting the step numbers to the dancers. The journalist and photographer Carl Van Vechten recorded that the person behind him got carried away with excitement, and "began to beat rhythmically on top of my head '', though Van Vechten failed to notice this at first, his own emotion being so great.
At that time, a Parisian ballet audience typically consisted of two diverse groups: the wealthy and fashionable set, who would be expecting to see a traditional performance with beautiful music, and a "Bohemian '' group who, the poet - philosopher Jean Cocteau asserted, would "acclaim, right or wrong, anything that is new because of their hatred of the boxes ''. Monteux believed that the trouble began when the two factions began attacking each other, but their mutual anger was soon diverted towards the orchestra: "Everything available was tossed in our direction, but we continued to play on ''. Around forty of the worst offenders were ejected -- possibly with the intervention of the police, although this is uncorroborated. Through all the disturbances the performance continued without interruption. Things grew noticeably quieter during Part II, and by some accounts Maria Piltz 's rendering of the final "Sacrificial Dance '' was watched in reasonable silence. At the end there were several curtain calls for the dancers, for Monteux and the orchestra, and for Stravinsky and Nijinsky before the evening 's programme continued.
Among the more hostile press reviews was that of Le Figaro 's critic, Henri Quittard, who called the work "a laborious and puerile barbarity '' and added "We are sorry to see an artist such as M. Stravinsky involve himself in this disconcerting adventure ''. On the other hand, Gustav Linor, writing in the leading theatrical magazine Comoedia, thought the performance was superb, especially that of Maria Piltz; the disturbances, while deplorable, were merely "a rowdy debate '' between two ill - mannered factions. Emile Raudin, of Les Marges, who had barely heard the music, wrote: "Could n't we ask M. Astruc... to set aside one performance for well - intentioned spectators?... We could at least propose to evict the female element ''. The composer Alfredo Casella thought that the demonstrations were aimed at Nijinsky 's choreography rather than at the music, a view shared by the critic Michel - Dimitri Calvocoressi, who wrote: "The idea was excellent, but was not successfully carried out ''. Calvocoressi failed to observe any direct hostility to the composer -- unlike, he said, the premiere of Debussy 's Pelléas et Mélisande in 1902. Of later reports that the veteran composer Camille Saint - Saëns had stormed out of the premiere, Stravinsky observed that this was impossible; Saint - Saëns did not attend. Stravinsky also rejected Cocteau 's story that, after the performance, Stravinsky, Nijinsky, Diaghilev and Cocteau himself took a cab to the Bois de Boulogne where a tearful Diaghilev recited poems by Pushkin. Stravinsky merely recalled a celebratory dinner with Diaghilev and Nijinsky, at which the impresario expressed his entire satisfaction with the outcome. To Maximilien Steinberg, a former fellow - pupil under Rimsky - Korsakov, Stravinsky wrote that Nijinsky 's choreography had been "incomparable: with the exception of a few places, everything was as I wanted it ''.
The premiere was followed by five further performances of The Rite at the Théâtre des Champs - Élysées, the last on 13 June. Although these occasions were relatively peaceful, something of the mood of the first night remained; the composer Puccini, who attended the second performance on 2 June, described the choreography as ridiculous and the music cacophonous -- "the work of a madman. The public hissed, laughed -- and applauded ''. Stravinsky, confined to his bed by typhoid fever, did not join the company when it went to London for four performances at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. Reviewing the London production, The Times critic was impressed how different elements of the work came together to form a coherent whole, but was less enthusiastic about the music itself, opining that Stravinsky had entirely sacrificed melody and harmony for rhythm: "If M. Stravinsky had wished to be really primitive, he would have been wise to... score his ballet for nothing but drums ''. The ballet historian Cyril Beaumont commented on the "slow, uncouth movements '' of the dancers, finding these "in complete opposition to the traditions of classical ballet ''.
After the opening Paris run and the London performances, events conspired to prevent further stagings of the ballet. Nijinsky 's choreography, which Kelly describes as "so striking, so outrageous, so frail as to its preservation '', did not appear again until attempts were made to reconstruct it in the 1980s. On 19 September 1913 Nijinsky married Romola de Pulszky while the Ballets Russes was on tour without Diaghilev in South America. When Diaghilev found out he was distraught and furious that his lover had married, and dismissed Nijinsky. Diaghilev was then obliged to re-hire Fokine, who had resigned in 1912 because Nijinsky had been asked to choreograph Faune. Fokine made it a condition of his re-employment that none of Nijinsky 's choreography would be performed. In a letter to the art critic and historian Alexandre Benois, Stravinsky wrote, "(T) he possibility has gone for some time of seeing anything valuable in the field of dance and, still more important, of again seeing this offspring of mine ''.
With the disruption following the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 and the dispersal of many artistes, Diaghilev was ready to re-engage Nijinsky as both dancer and choreographer, but Nijinsky had been placed under house arrest in Hungary as an enemy Russian citizen. Diaghilev negotiated his release in 1916 for a tour in the United States, but the dancer 's mental health steadily declined and he took no further part in professional ballet after 1917. In 1920, when Diaghilev decided to revive The Rite, he found that no one now remembered the choreography. After spending most of the war years in Switzerland, and becoming a permanent exile from his homeland after the 1917 Russian Revolution, Stravinsky resumed his partnership with Diaghilev when the war ended. In December 1920 Ernest Ansermet conducted a new production in Paris, choreographed by Léonide Massine, with the Nicholas Roerich designs retained; the lead dancer was Lydia Sokolova. In his memoirs, Stravinsky is equivocal about the Massine production; the young ballet - master, he writes, showed "unquestionable talent '', but there was something "forced and artificial '' in his choreography, which lacked the necessary organic relationship with the music. Sokolova, in her later account, recalled some of the tensions surrounding the production, with Stravinsky, "wearing an expression that would have frightened a hundred Chosen Virgins, pranc (ing) up and down the centre aisle '' while Ansermet rehearsed the orchestra.
The ballet was first shown in the United States on 11 April 1930, when Massine 's 1920 version was performed by the Philadelphia Orchestra in Philadelphia under Leopold Stokowski, with Martha Graham dancing the role of the Chosen One. The production moved to New York, where Massine was relieved to find the audiences receptive, a sign, he thought, that New Yorkers were finally beginning to take ballet seriously. The first American - designed production, in 1937, was that of the Modern Dance exponent Lester Horton, whose version replaced the original pagan Russian setting with a Wild West background and the use of Native American dances.
In 1944 Massine began a new collaboration with Roerich, who before his death in 1947 completed a number of sketches for a new production which Massine brought to fruition at La Scala, Milan in 1948. This heralded a number of significant postwar European productions. Mary Wigman in Berlin (1957) followed Horton in highlighting the erotic aspects of virgin sacrifice, as did Maurice Béjart in Brussels (1959). Béjart ' s representation replaced the culminating sacrifice with a depiction of what the critic Robert Johnson describes as "ceremonial coitus ''. The Royal Ballet 's 1962 production, choreographed by Kenneth MacMillan and designed by Sidney Nolan, was first performed on 3 May and was a critical triumph. It has remained in the company 's repertoire for more than 50 years; after its revival in May 2011 The Daily Telegraph 's critic Mark Monahan called it one of the Royal Ballet 's greatest achievements. Moscow first saw The Rite in 1965, in a version choreographed for the Bolshoi Ballet by Natalia Kasatkina and Vladimir Vasiliev. This production was shown in Leningrad four years later, at the Maly Opera Theatre, and introduced a storyline that provided the Chosen One with a lover who wreaks vengeance on the elders after the sacrifice. Johnson describes the production as "a product of state atheism... Soviet propaganda at its best ''.
In 1975 Pina Bausch, who had taken over the Wuppertal ballet company, caused a stir in the ballet world with her stark depiction, played out on an earth - covered stage, in which the Chosen One is sacrificed to gratify the misogyny of the surrounding men. At the end, according to The Guardian 's Luke Jennings, "the cast is sweat - streaked, filthy and audibly panting ''. Part of this dance appears in the movie Pina. In America, in 1980, Paul Taylor used Stravinsky 's four - hand piano version of the score as the background for a scenario based on child murder and gangster film images. In February 1984 Martha Graham, in her 90th year, resumed her association with The Rite by choreographing a new production at New York 's State Theater. The New York Times critic declared the performance "a triumph... totally elemental, as primal in expression of basic emotion as any tribal ceremony, as hauntingly staged in its deliberate bleakness as it is rich in implication ''.
On 30 September 1987, the Joffrey Ballet in Los Angeles performed The Rite based on a reconstruction of Nijinsky 's 1913 choreography, until then thought lost beyond recall. The performance resulted from years of research, primarily by Millicent Hodson, who pieced the choreography together from the original prompt books, contemporary sketches and photographs, and the recollections of Marie Rambert and other survivors. Hodson 's version has since been performed by the Kirov Ballet, at the Mariinsky Theatre in 2003 and later that year at Covent Garden. In its 2012 -- 13 season the Joffrey Ballet gave centennial performances at numerous venues, including the University of Texas on 5 -- 6 March 2013, the University of Massachusetts on 14 March 2013, and with The Cleveland Orchestra on 17 -- 18 August 2013.
The music publishers Boosey & Hawkes have estimated that since its premiere, the ballet has been the subject of at least 150 productions, many of which have become classics and have been performed worldwide. Among the more radical interpretations is Glen Tetley 's 1974 version, in which the Chosen One is a young male. More recently there have been solo dance versions devised by Molissa Fenley and Javier de Frutos, a punk rock interpretation from Michael Clark, and Rites (2008), by The Australian Ballet in conjunction with Bangarra Dance Theatre, which represents Aboriginal perceptions of the elements of earth, air, fire and water.
On 18 February 1914 The Rite received its first concert performance (the music without the ballet), in St Petersburg under Serge Koussevitzky. On 5 April that year, Stravinsky experienced for himself the popular success of The Rite as a concert work, at the Casino de Paris. After the performance, again under Monteux, the composer was carried in triumph from the hall on the shoulders of his admirers. The Rite had its first British concert performance on 7 June 1921, at the Queen 's Hall in London under Eugene Goossens. Its American premiere occurred on 3 March 1922, when Stokowski included it in a Philadelphia Orchestra programme. Goossens was also responsible for introducing The Rite to Australia on 23 August 1946 at the Sydney Town Hall, as guest conductor of the Sydney Symphony Orchestra.
Stravinsky first conducted the work in 1926, in a concert given by the Concertgebouw Orchestra in Amsterdam; two years later he brought it to the Salle Pleyel in Paris for two performances under his baton. Of these occasions he later wrote that "thanks to the experience I had gained with all kinds of orchestras... I had reached a point where I could obtain exactly what I wanted, as I wanted it ''. Commentators have broadly agreed that the work has had a greater impact in the concert hall than it has on the stage; many of Stravinsky 's revisions to the music were made with the concert hall rather than the theatre in mind. The work has become a staple in the repertoires of all the leading orchestras, and has been cited by Leonard Bernstein as "the most important piece of music of the 20th century ''.
In 1963, 50 years after the premiere, Monteux (then aged 88) agreed to conduct a commemorative performance at London 's Royal Albert Hall. According to Isaiah Berlin, a close friend of the composer, Stravinsky informed him that he had no intention of hearing his music being "murdered by that frightful butcher ''. Instead he arranged tickets for that particular evening 's performance of Mozart 's opera The Marriage of Figaro, at Covent Garden. Under pressure from his friends, Stravinsky was persuaded to leave the opera after the first act. He arrived at the Albert Hall just as the performance of The Rite was ending; composer and conductor shared a warm embrace in front of the unaware, wildly cheering audience. Monteux 's biographer John Canarina provides a different slant on this occasion, recording that by the end of the evening Stravinsky had asserted that "Monteux, almost alone among conductors, never cheapened Rite or looked for his own glory in it, and he continued to play it all his life with the greatest fidelity ''.
Commentators have often described The Rite 's music in vivid terms; Paul Rosenfeld, in 1920, wrote of it "pound (ing) with the rhythm of engines, whirls and spirals like screws and fly - wheels, grinds and shrieks like laboring metal ''. In a more recent analysis, The New York Times critic Donal Henahan refers to "great crunching, snarling chords from the brass and thundering thumps from the timpani ''. The composer Julius Harrison acknowledged the uniqueness of the work negatively: it demonstrated Stravinsky 's "abhorrence of everything for which music has stood these many centuries... all human endeavour and progress are being swept aside to make room for hideous sounds... ''
In The Firebird, Stravinsky had begun to experiment with bitonality (the use of two different keys simultaneously). He took this technique further in Petrushka, but reserved its full effect for The Rite where, as the analyst E.W. White explains, he "pushed (it) to its logical conclusion ''. White also observes the music 's complex metrical character, with combinations of duple and triple time in which a strong irregular beat is emphasised by powerful percussion. The music critic Alex Ross has described the irregular process whereby Stravinsky adapted and absorbed traditional Russian folk material into the score. He "proceeded to pulverize them into motivic bits, pile them up in layers, and reassemble them in cubistic collages and montages ''.
The duration of the work is about 35 minutes.
The score calls for a large orchestra consisting of the following instruments.
Woodwinds
Brass
Percussion
Strings
Despite the large orchestra, much of the score is written chamber - fashion, with individual instruments and small groups having distinct roles.:
The opening melody is played by a solo bassoon in a very high register, which renders the instrument almost unidentifiable; gradually other woodwind instruments are sounded and are eventually joined by strings. The sound builds up before stopping suddenly, Hill says, "just as it is bursting ecstatically into bloom ''. There is then a reiteration of the opening bassoon solo, now played a semitone lower.
The first dance, "Augurs of Spring '', is characterised by a repetitive stamping chord in the horns and strings, based on E ♭ superimposed on a triad of E, G ♯ and B. White suggests that this bitonal combination, which Stravinsky considered the focal point of the entire work, was devised on the piano, since the constituent chords are comfortable fits for the hands on a keyboard. The rhythm of the stamping is disturbed by Stravinsky 's constant shifting of the accent, on and off the beat, before the dance ends in a collapse, as if from exhaustion. Alex Ross has summed up the pattern as follows:
one two three four five six seven eight
one two three four five six seven eight
According to Roger Nichols (1978, p7) "At first sight there seems no pattern in the distribution of accents to the stamping chords. Taking the initial quaver of bar 1 as a natural accent we have for the first outburst the following groups of quavers: 9, 2, 6, 3, 4, 5, 3. However, these apparently random numbers make sense when split into two groups:
Clearly the top line is decreasing, the bottom line increasing, and by respectively decreasing and increasing amounts... Whether Stravinsky worked them out like this we shall probably never know. But the way two different rhythmic ' orders ' interfere with each other to produced apparent chaos is... a typically Stravinskyan notion. ''
The "Ritual of Abduction '' which follows is described by Hill as "the most terrifying of musical hunts ''. It concludes in a series of flute trills that usher in the "Spring Rounds '', in which a slow and laborious theme gradually rises to a dissonant fortissimo, a "ghastly caricature '' of the episode 's main tune.
Brass and percussion predominate as the "Ritual of the Rival Tribes '' begins. A tune emerges on tenor and bass tubas, leading after much repetition to the entry of the Sage 's procession. The music then comes to a virtual halt, "bleached free of colour '' (Hill), as the Sage blesses the earth. The "Dance of the Earth '' then begins, bringing Part I to a close in a series of phrases of the utmost vigour which are abruptly terminated in what Hill describes as a "blunt, brutal amputation ''.
Part II has a greater cohesion than its predecessor. Hill describes the music as following an arc stretching from the beginning of the Introduction to the conclusion of the final dance. Woodwind and muted trumpets are prominent throughout the Introduction, which ends with a number of rising cadences on strings and flutes. The transition into the "Mystic Circles '' is almost imperceptible; the main theme of the section has been prefigured in the Introduction. A loud repeated chord, which Berger likens to a call to order, announces the moment for choosing the sacrificial victim. The "Glorification of the Chosen One '' is brief and violent; in the "Evocation of the Ancestors '' that follows, short phrases are interspersed with drum rolls. The "Ritual Action of the Ancestors '' begins quietly, but slowly builds to a series of climaxes before subsiding suddenly into the quiet phrases that began the episode.
The final transition introduces the "Sacrificial Dance ''. This is written as a more disciplined ritual than the extravagant dance that ended Part I, though it contains some wild moments, with the large percussion section of the orchestra given full voice. Stravinsky had difficulties with this section, especially with the final bars that conclude the work. The abrupt ending displeased several critics, one of whom wrote that the music "suddenly falls over on its side ''. Stravinsky himself referred to the final chord disparagingly as "a noise '', but in his various attempts to amend or rewrite the section, was unable to produce a more acceptable solution.
The music historian Donald Jay Grout has written: "The Sacre is undoubtedly the most famous composition of the early 20th century... it had the effect of an explosion that so scattered the elements of musical language that they could never again be put together as before ''. The academic and critic Jan Smaczny, echoing Bernstein, calls it one of the 20th century 's most influential compositions, providing "endless stimulation for performers and listeners ''. According to Kelly the 1913 premiere might be considered "the most important single moment in the history of 20th century music '', and its repercussions continue to reverberate in the 21st century. Ross has described The Rite as a prophetic work, presaging the "second avant - garde '' era in classical composition -- music of the body rather than of the mind, in which "(m) elodies would follow the patterns of speech; rhythms would match the energy of dance... sonorities would have the hardness of life as it is really lived ''.
Among 20th - century composers most influenced by The Rite is Stravinsky 's near contemporary, Edgard Varèse, who had attended the 1913 premiere. Varèse, according to Ross, was particularly drawn to the "cruel harmonies and stimulating rhythms '' of The Rite, which he employed to full effect in his concert work Amériques (1921), scored for a massive orchestra with added sound effects including a lion 's roar and a wailing siren. Aaron Copland, to whom Stravinsky was a particular inspiration in the former 's student days, considered The Rite a masterpiece that had created "the decade of the displaced accent and the polytonal chord ''. Copland adopted Stravinsky 's technique of composing in small sections which he then shuffled and rearranged, rather than working through from beginning to end. Ross cites the music of Copland 's ballet Billy the Kid as coming directly from the "Spring Rounds '' section of The Rite. For Olivier Messiaen The Rite was of special significance; he constantly analysed and expounded on the work, which gave him an enduring model for rhythmic drive and assembly of material.
After the premiere the writer Léon Vallas opined that Stravinsky had written music 30 years ahead of its time, suitable to be heard in 1940. Coincidentally, it was in that year that Walt Disney released Fantasia, an animated feature film using music from The Rite and other classical compositions, conducted by Stokowski. The Rite segment of the film depicted the Earth 's prehistory, with the creation of life, leading to the extinction of the dinosaurs as the finale. Among those impressed by the film was Gunther Schuller, later a composer, conductor and jazz scholar. The Rite of Spring sequence, he says, overwhelmed him and determined his future career in music: "I hope (Stravinsky) appreciated that hundreds -- perhaps thousands -- of musicians were turned onto The Rite of Spring... through Fantasia, musicians who might otherwise never have heard the work, or at least not until many years later ''. In later life Stravinsky claimed distaste for the adaptation, though as Ross remarks, he said nothing critical at the time; according to Ross, the composer Paul Hindemith observed that "Igor appears to love it ''.
Before the first gramophone disc recordings of The Rite were issued in 1929, Stravinsky had helped to produce a pianola version of the work for the London branch of the Aeolian Company. He also created a much more comprehensive arrangement for the Pleyela, manufactured by the French piano company Pleyel, with whom he signed two contracts in April and May 1921, under which many of his early works were reproduced on this medium. The Pleyela version of The Rite of Spring was issued in 1921; the British pianolist Rex Lawson first recorded the work in this form in 1990.
In 1929 Stravinsky and Monteux vied with each other to conduct the first orchestral gramophone recording of The Rite. While Stravinsky led L'Orchestre des Concerts Straram in a recording for the Columbia label, at the same time Monteux was recording it for the HMV label. Stokowski 's version followed in 1930. Stravinsky made two more recordings, in 1940 and 1960. According to the critic Edward Greenfield, Stravinsky was not technically a great conductor but, Greenfield says, in the 1960 recording with the Columbia Symphony Orchestra the composer inspired a performance with "extraordinary thrust and resilience ''. In conversations with Robert Craft, Stravinsky reviewed several recordings of The Rite made in the 1960s. He thought Herbert von Karajan 's 1963 recording with the Berlin Philharmonic, was good, but "the performance is... too polished, a pet savage rather than a real one ''. Stravinsky thought that Pierre Boulez, with the Orchestre National de France (1963), was "less good than I had hoped... very bad tempi and some tasteless alterations ''. He praised a 1962 recording by The Moscow State Symphony Orchestra for making the music sound Russian, "which is just right '', but Stravinsky 's concluding judgement was that none of these three performances was worth preserving.
As of 2013 there were well over 100 different recordings of The Rite commercially available, and many more held in library sound archives. It has become one of the most recorded of all 20th century musical works.
The first published score was the four - hand piano arrangement (Edition Russe de Musique, RV196), dated 1913. Publication of the full orchestral score was prevented by the outbreak of war in August 1914. After the revival of the work in 1920 Stravinsky, who had not heard the music for seven years, made numerous revisions to the score, which was finally published in 1921 (Edition Russe de Musique, RV 197 / 197b. large and pocket scores).
In 1922 Ansermet, who was preparing to perform the work in Berlin, sent to Stravinsky a list of errors he had found in the published score. In 1926, as part of his preparation for that year 's performance with the Concertgebouw Orchestra, Stravinsky rewrote the "Evocation of the Ancestors '' section and made substantial changes to the "Sacrificial Dance ''. The extent of these revisions, together with Ansermet 's recommendations, convinced Stravinsky that a new edition was necessary, and this appeared in large and pocket form in 1929. It did not, however, incorporate all of Ansermet 's amendments and, confusingly, bore the date and RV code of the 1921 edition, making the new edition hard to identify.
Stravinsky continued to revise the work, and in 1943 rewrote the "Sacrificial Dance ''. In 1948 Boosey & Hawkes issued a corrected version of the 1929 score (B&H 16333), although Stravinsky 's substantial 1943 amendment of the "Sacrificial Dance '' was not incorporated into the new version and remained unperformed, to the composer 's disappointment. He considered it "much easier to play... and superior in balance and sonority '' to the earlier versions. A less musical motive for the revisions and corrected editions was copyright law. The composer had left Galaxy Music Corporation (agents for Editions Russe de la Musique, the original publisher) for Associated Music Publishers at the time, and orchestras would be reluctant to pay a second rental charge from two publishers to match the full work and the revised Sacrificial Dance; moreover, the revised dance could only be published in America. The 1948 score provided copyright protection to the work in America, where it had lapsed, but Boosey (who acquired the Editions Russe catalogue) did not have the rights to the revised finale.
The 1929 score as revised in 1948 forms the basis of most modern performances of The Rite. Boosey & Hawkes reissued their 1948 edition in 1965, and produced a newly engraved edition (B&H 19441) in 1967. The firm also issued an unmodified reprint of the 1913 piano reduction in 1952 (B&H 17271) and a revised piano version, incorporating the 1929 revisions, in 1967.
The Paul Sacher Foundation, in association with Boosey & Hawkes, announced in May 2013, as part of The Rite 's centenary celebrations, their intention to publish the 1913 autograph score, as used in early performances. After being kept in Russia for decades, the autograph score was acquired by Boosey & Hawkes in 1947. The firm presented the score to Stravinsky in 1962, on his 80th birthday. After the composer 's death in 1971 the manuscript was acquired by the Paul Sacher Foundation. As well as the autograph score, they have published the manuscript piano four - hands score.
In 2000, Kalmus Music Publishers brought out an edition where former Philadelphia Orchestra librarian Clint Nieweg made over 21,000 corrections to the score and parts. Since then a published errata list has added some 310 more corrections, and this is considered to be the most accurate version of the work as of 2013.
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the voice of lotso in toy story 3 | Ned Beatty - wikipedia
Ned Thomas Beatty (born July 6, 1937) is an American actor. He has appeared in more than 160 films and has been nominated for an Academy Award, two Emmy Awards, an MTV Movie Award for Best Villain and a Golden Globe Award; he also won a Drama Desk Award.
These nominations stemmed from his performances in films and television series, such as Network (1976), Friendly Fire (1979), Hear My Song (1991), and Toy Story 3 (2010). He had great commercial success in roles such as the executive Bobby Trippe in Deliverance (1972), Tennessee lawyer Delbert Reese in Nashville (1975), investigator Martin Dardis in All the President 's Men (1976), undercover federal agent Bob Sweet in Silver Streak (1976), the priest, Father Edwards in Exorcist II: The Heretic (1977), Lex Luthor 's bumbling henchman Otis in Superman (1978) and Superman II (1980), as a millionaire 's right - hand man in The Toy (1982), Pavel Borisov in The Fourth Protocol (1987), TV presenter Ernest Weller in Repossessed (1990), Rudy Ruettiger 's father in Rudy (1993), attorney McNair in Just Cause (1995), Dexter Wilkins in Life (1999), the simple sheriff in Where the Red Fern Grows (2003), the corrupt Senator Charles F. Meachum in Shooter (2007), United States Congressman Doc Long in Charlie Wilson 's War (2007) and in animated films as the voice of Lots - O ' - Huggin ' Bear in Toy Story 3 (2010) and Tortoise John in Rango (2011).
Beatty was born in Louisville, Kentucky to Margaret (née Fortney; April 26, 1907 -- January 29, 1991) and Charles William Beatty (August 8, 1907 -- October 27, 1952). He has a sister, Mary Margaret. In 1947, young Ned began singing in gospel and barbershop quartets in St. Matthews, Kentucky, and at his local church. He received a scholarship to sing in the a cappella choir at Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky; he attended but did not graduate.
In 1956, he made his stage debut at age 19, appearing in Wilderness Road, an outdoor - historical pageant located in Berea, Kentucky. During his first ten years of theater, he worked at the Barter Theater in Abingdon, Virginia, the State Theatre of Virginia. Returning to Kentucky, he worked in the Louisville area through the mid-1960s, at the Clarksville Little Theater (Indiana) and the newly founded Actors Theater of Louisville. His time at the latter included a run as Willy Loman in Death of a Salesman in 1966.
In 1972, Beatty made his film debut as Bobby Trippe in Deliverance (1972), starring Jon Voight and Burt Reynolds, and set in northern Georgia. Beatty 's character is forced to strip at gunpoint in front of two mountain men, who humiliate and rape him, a scene so unprecedented, horrifying and shocking that it is still referenced as a screen milestone. In 1972, he also appeared in The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean, a western with Paul Newman.
In 1973, Beatty made The Thief Who Came to Dinner, The Last American Hero and White Lightning. The latter film reunited Beatty with his Deliverance co-star, Burt Reynolds. He also appeared in an episode of the TV series The Waltons that year, as well as the TV - movie The Marcus - Nelson Murders, the pilot for the series Kojak. The next year, in 1974, he appeared in the television miniseries The Execution of Private Slovik (1974). In 1975, he made W.W. and the Dixie Dancekings and Nashville, as well as appearing as Colonel Hollister in the 1975 M * A * S * H episode, "Dear Peggy ''. He appeared in the NBC - TV movie Attack on Terror: The FBI vs. the Ku Klux Klan as Deputy Sheriff Ollie Thompson (1975). Ned also made an appearance on Gunsmoke in "The Hiders '' episode in 1975.
Beatty received his first Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor category for the acclaimed film Network (1976), portraying a television network 's bombastic chairman of the board. Neither he nor William Holden, who shared the lead role with Peter Finch, won an Oscar. The other three acting awards besides best supporting actor were swept by Network performers: Best Actor for Peter Finch, Best Actress for Faye Dunaway, and Best Supporting Actress for Beatrice Straight.
In 1976, he appeared in All the President 's Men, The Big Bus, Silver Streak and Mikey and Nicky. In 1977, he returned to work with John Boorman in Exorcist II: The Heretic (1977), starring Linda Blair, and appeared in "The Final Chapter '', the first episode of the television series Quinn Martin 's Tales of the Unexpected. During 1977 - 78, he starred in the sitcom Szysznyk on CBS.
In 1978, Beatty appeared in Gray Lady Down (1978), a drama aboard a submarine starring Charlton Heston. The film is significant chiefly for being the screen debut of Christopher Reeve, Beatty 's future costar. Later that year, Beatty was cast by Richard Donner to portray Lex Luthor 's inept henchman Otis in Superman: The Movie (1978), as he would in the 1980 sequel, where we see his character being left behind in prison. He received a second nomination for Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Special for the television series Friendly Fire (1979). In 1979, he was seen in Wise Blood, directed by John Huston, and 1941, directed by Steven Spielberg.
In 1980, Beatty appeared in Ronald Neame 's 1980 American film Hopscotch (1980) with Walter Matthau. In 1981, Beatty appeared in the comedy / science fiction film The Incredible Shrinking Woman, directed by Joel Schumacher and starring Lily Tomlin. In 1982, Beatty returned to work with Richard Donner and Richard Pryor in the comedy The Toy. Beatty worked with Burt Reynolds again in the auto - racing farce Stroker Ace (1983).
In the middle of the 1980s, Beatty appeared in the comedy film Restless Natives (1985), directed by Michael Hoffman. By the end of the 1980s, Beatty appeared in another comedy film, as the academic "dean Martin '' in Back to School (1986), starring Rodney Dangerfield. He played a corrupt cop in the 1987 American neo-noir crime film The Big Easy, directed by Jim McBride and starring Dennis Quaid, and continued with a spy drama, The Fourth Protocol (1987), opposite Michael Caine and Pierce Brosnan.
In 1988, Beatty appeared with the main character Thelonious Pitt in Shadows in the Storm, reunited with Burt Reynolds and Christopher Reeve for the 1988 comedy film Switching Channels, his fifth time in a movie with Reynolds. He appeared in Purple People Eater (1988), portraying a simple grandfather. In 1989, Beatty made Chattahoochee, portraying Dr. Harwood. He had a recurring role as the father of John Goodman 's character Dan Conner on the TV comedy series Roseanne (1989 -- 94).
Entering the 1990s, Beatty got his third nomination for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Special category for Last Train Home (1990). A year later, he appeared in the British film Hear My Song (1991), in which he portrayed tenor Josef Locke, for which he was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture.
In 1990, Beatty worked again with Linda Blair in Repossessed (1990), a spoof of The Exorcist. He appeared in the Marvel Comics superhero adventure Captain America (1990). He portrayed the father of the bride in Prelude to a Kiss (1992), opposite Meg Ryan and Alec Baldwin. In 1993, he appeared in the true story Rudy, playing a Notre Dame Fighting Irish football fan whose son, against all odds, makes the school 's football team. Beatty starred in the television series Homicide: Life on the Street as Detective Stanley Bolander for its first three seasons (1993 -- 1995).
Beatty made the 1994 science - fiction film Replikator (1994) and mystery - comedy Radioland Murders. In 1995, he worked with Sean Connery and Laurence Fishburne in the thriller Just Cause. He appeared as Judge Roy Bean in the TV miniseries adaptation of Larry McMurtry 's western novel, Streets of Laredo (1995). He appeared in a 1998 sports - drama film written and directed by Spike Lee and starring Denzel Washington, He Got Game. In 1999, Beatty returned to work with Cookie 's Fortune, Life, and Spring Forward.
In the beginning of the 2000s, he was a member of the original cast of the television police drama reunion film Homicide: The Movie (2000), reprising his role of Detective Stanley Bolander. In 2002, he appeared in Peter Hewitt 's film Thunderpants. In 2003, he portrayed a simple sheriff in Where the Red Fern Grows.
Beatty has also had a career as a stage actor, including a run in the London production of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof with Brendan Fraser and Frances O'Connor, which won a Drama Desk Award.
In the middle of the 2000s, Beatty appeared in the television film The Wool Cap (2004), with William H. Macy, and in 2005, an American independent film directed and written by Ali Selim, Sweet Land. In March 2006, Beatty received the RiverRun International Film Festival 's "Master of Cinema '' Award (the highest honor of the festival), in Winston - Salem, North Carolina.
By the end of the 2000s, Beatty portrayed a corrupt U.S. Senator in the film version of Stephen Hunter 's novel Point of Impact retitled Shooter (2007), directed by Antoine Fuqua and starring Mark Wahlberg, Michael Peña and Danny Glover; in a drama film written and directed by Paul Schrader, The Walker (2007), and as the honorable U.S. Congressman Doc Long in the true story Charlie Wilson 's War (2007), with Tom Hanks and Julia Roberts, directed by Mike Nichols. He also worked with Tommy Lee Jones in the thriller In the Electric Mist (2009).
In 2010, Beatty starred in the thriller The Killer Inside Me (2010), which was part of the Sundance Film Festival, and voiced the main antagonist Lots - O ' - Huggin ' Bear in Toy Story 3 (2010). In 2011, Beatty worked with actor Johnny Depp and director Gore Verbinski in the computer - animated film Rango (2011), again, playing the role of the antagonist. He appeared briefly in the film Funny Guy and in the film Rampart (2011), opposite Woody Harrelson, which is set in 1999 Los Angeles. Beatty also appeared at the sitcom television series Go On (2013), opposite Matthew Perry, portraying Coach Spence in episode 16.
Beatty 's next film was The Big Ask (2013), a dark comedy about three couples who head to the desert to help their friend heal after the death of his mother. The film featured Gillian Jacobs, Zachary Knighton, David Krumholtz, Melanie Lynskey, Ahna O'Reilly and Jason Ritter, and was directed by his son Thomas Beatty and Rebecca Fishman. His other next movie was Baggage Claim (2013), an American comedy film directed by David E. Talbert and written by Talbert based on his book of the same name, opposite Paula Patton, Adam Brody, Djimon Hounsou, Taye Diggs, Christina Milian and Derek Luke. He has now retired since 2014 for reasons unknown.
Beatty has been married four times. His first wife was Walta Chandler; they were married from 1959 until 1968 (before Beatty became an actor) and had four children: Douglas Beatty (born 1960), twins Charles and Lennis Beatty (born 1963), and Walter Beatty (born 1966). His second wife was the actress Belinda Rowley; they were married from 1971 to 1979 and had two children: John Beatty and Blossom Beatty. His third wife was Dorothy Adams "Tinker '' Lindsay; they were married from June 28, 1979 to March 1998 and had two children: Thomas Beatty in 1980 and Dorothy Beatty in 1983. His fourth wife is Sandra Johnson; they married November 20, 1999, and reside in California. They also maintain a residence in Karlstad, Minnesota.
On June 29, 2012, Beatty attended a 40th anniversary screening of Deliverance at Warner Bros., with Burt Reynolds, Ronny Cox and Jon Voight.
Beatty is not related to fellow actor Warren Beatty, who is three months older.
During his career, Beatty got his first nomination for an Academy Award in Best Supporting Actor category for Network (1976), portraying Arthur Jensen. His second nomination, an Emmy Award, came for Friendly Fire (1979) in ' Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Special ' category and the third nomination is another Emmy Award for ' Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Special ' category for Last Train Home (1990). He got the fourth major award nomination for a Golden Globe Award in category Best Supporting Actor -- Motion Picture for Hear My Song (1990), portraying the Irish tenor Josef Locke and his fifth nomination for a MTV Movie Award in Best Villain category in the voice of antagonist Lots - O ' - Huggin ' Bear in Toy Story 3 (2010).
He won a Drama Desk Award for Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (2004) in Outstanding Featured Actor in a Play category, along with Brendan Fraser and Frances O'Connor.
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batman animated series the cat and the claw | The Cat and the Claw - wikipedia
The Cat and the Claw is a two - part episode of Batman: The Animated Series, directed by Kevin Altieri and Dick Sebast, which aired on 5 September 1992 and 12 September 1992, respectively. Although the episodes were produced consecutively as 15th and 16th episodes of the first season, the first part aired as the series premiere and was separated from the second part, which was the eighth episode aired.
The plot introduces Catwoman, who tries to purchase land for a mountain lion reserve but a group of terrorists led by Red Claw thwart her so, she and Batman have to put aside their differences in order to stop Red Claw.
During the night, Catwoman steals a diamond necklace but Batman spots her. He chases her but she escapes him however, her cat, Isis, is nearly run over by a truck if not for Batman 's timely intervention. Catwoman calls Isis to her using a whistle and blows a kiss to Batman who in turn, whistles softly.
Later, at an Animal Rights Celebrity Auction, Catwoman 's alter ego, Selina Kyle, outbids other women for a date with Bruce Wayne, Batman 's alter ego. Suddenly, gunfire is heard and Bruce goes away to become Batman. He stops the terrorists who are attacking the police. Commissioner Gordon tells Batman that Red Claw, the most ruthless terrorist leader in the world is in Gotham City.
The next day, Bruce meets Selina at her apartment. Suddenly, Selina 's lawyer, Martin, calls to inform her that Multigon International, an international company, has taken the land which she purchased for a mountain lion reserve. Bruce arranges a meeting with Multigon 's chairman, Stern. Stern tells them that Multigon is planning to build a major resort and there is nothing he can do about it. When Bruce and Selina leave, Red Claw appears, telling Stern to have someone keep an eye on Selina.
The same night, Batman grills a mob boss for information on Red Claw while Catwoman breaks into Multigon. She takes pictures of their real plans for the major resort but a security camera gives away her presence to Red Claw. The terrorists break the door down but Catwoman escapes into the ventilation system. A terrorist corners her but she escapes into another airway. He follows her but her caltrops prick his limbs. The rest of the terrorists catch up to her but she climbs up a rope to the rooftop. She blocks the door using a wooden plank but the terrorists shoot it down. Catwoman makes a daring dash past Red Claw, flips over and leaps towards the next rooftop. Her hands grasp the ledge and Isis jumps over to safety. Red Claw fires a missile at Catwoman, the force of the blast knocks her over.
Fortunately, Batman swings by and saves her. Catwoman kisses him to show her gratitude. When they land on another rooftop, Batman tries to unmask her but she tells him to "keep the mystery ''. He replies that either he unmasks her or the police to which she tells him not to deny their connection. Batman tells her the law separates them, hurting her feelings. He tries to comfort her but she throws him over though he grabs a protruding ledge in time. She tells him never to trifle with a woman 's affections until next time and he replies that there will be a next time.
Catwoman returns home, unmasks herself and tells Maven, her secretary that she might save the mountain lions yet. They are unaware that one of Red Claw 's terrorists is watching and listening to them. He says, "But, who is going to save you? ''
The mob boss tells Batman there is a train heist that night. Batman asks Gordon, who deduces it might be a government train. Batman finds the train but Red Claw and her terrorists are already there. Red Claw steals a can of viral plague, threatening to release it knowing Batman wo n't allow it, allowing Red Claw to escape.
The next day, Bruce drives Selina to lunch when two of Red Claw 's terrorists repeatedly bump into Bruce 's car. Bruce turns around, driving towards them. The terrorists swerve away, driving off the bridge. Bruce and Selina return home and change into Batman and Catwoman, respectively. Bruce finds Isis 's body hair on his jacket, deducing Catwoman 's identity. Catwoman goes to the resort, taking pictures of the terrorists when two of them find her. Batman knocks them out, takes Catwoman with him and run away. However, Red Claw captures them, ties them in a shelter, releasing the plague on them. They break free and Batman pours petrol all over before throwing a grenade on it. The heat from the flames destroy the plague while the flames burn the resort. Commissioner Gordon and his policemen arrest the terrorists while Red Claw attacks Catwoman. Fortunately, a mountain lion pounces on Red Claw, saving Catwoman.
Catwoman returns home and finds Maven gone. Batman emerges from the shadows, telling her Maven left because the terrorists were after both of them. Catwoman asks him why he did n't tell the police that he found her. He says that he did n't want her to be arrested like a common criminal. She asks him whether he cares or not, leaning forward to kiss him but he handcuffs her saying, "More than you 'll ever know. ''
The episodes have been called "a great start to the series '' with people praising the Catwoman and Batman / Selina Kyle and Bruce Wayne dynamic, however, the animal reserve / terrorist aspect of the episodes were not well - liked, with IGN thinking it "played heavily on the environmental card ''. Bruce Timm himself claimed that he was ' never crazy ' about the series depiction of Catwoman, singling out the environmentalist / animal rights activist aspect of the character
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what is the wind speed of a thunderstorm | Thunderstorm - wikipedia
A thunderstorm, also known as an electrical storm, lightning storm, or thundershower, is a storm characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic effect on the Earth 's atmosphere, known as thunder. Thunderstorms occur in a type of cloud known as a cumulonimbus. They are usually accompanied by strong winds, heavy rain, and sometimes snow, sleet, hail, or, in contrast, no precipitation at all. Thunderstorms may line up in a series or become a rainband, known as a squall line. Strong or severe thunderstorms include some of the most dangerous weather phenomena, including large hail, strong winds, and tornadoes. Some of the most persistent severe thunderstorms, known as supercells, rotate as do cyclones. While most thunderstorms move with the mean wind flow through the layer of the troposphere that they occupy, vertical wind shear sometimes causes a deviation in their course at a right angle to the wind shear direction.
Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm, moist air, sometimes along a front. As the warm, moist air moves upward, it cools, condenses, and forms a cumulonimbus cloud that can reach heights of over 20 kilometres (12 mi). As the rising air reaches its dew point temperature, water vapor condenses into water droplets or ice, reducing pressure locally within the thunderstorm cell. Any precipitation falls the long distance through the clouds towards the Earth 's surface. As the droplets fall, they collide with other droplets and become larger. The falling droplets create a downdraft as it pulls cold air with it, and this cold air spreads out at the Earth 's surface, occasionally causing strong winds that are commonly associated with thunderstorms.
Thunderstorms can form and develop in any geographic location but most frequently within the mid-latitude, where warm, moist air from tropical latitudes collides with cooler air from polar latitudes. Thunderstorms are responsible for the development and formation of many severe weather phenomena. Thunderstorms, and the phenomena that occur along with them, pose great hazards. Damage that results from thunderstorms is mainly inflicted by downburst winds, large hailstones, and flash flooding caused by heavy precipitation. Stronger thunderstorm cells are capable of producing tornadoes and waterspouts.
There are four types of thunderstorms: single - cell, multi-cell cluster, multi-cell lines, and supercells. Supercell thunderstorms are the strongest and most severe. Mesoscale convective systems formed by favorable vertical wind shear within the tropics and subtropics can be responsible for the development of hurricanes. Dry thunderstorms, with no precipitation, can cause the outbreak of wildfires from the heat generated from the cloud - to - ground lightning that accompanies them. Several means are used to study thunderstorms: weather radar, weather stations, and video photography. Past civilizations held various myths concerning thunderstorms and their development as late as the 18th century. Beyond the Earth 's atmosphere, thunderstorms have also been observed on the planets of Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and, probably, Venus.
Warm air has a lower density than cool air, so warmer air rises upwards and cooler air will settle at the bottom (this effect can be seen with a hot air balloon). Clouds form as relatively warmer air, carrying moisture, rises within cooler air. The moist air rises, and, as it does so, it cools and some of the water vapor in that rising air condenses. When the moisture condenses, it releases energy known as latent heat of vaporization, which allows the rising packet of air to cool less than the cooler surrounding air continuing the cloud 's ascension. If enough instability is present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long enough for cumulonimbus clouds to form and produce lightning and thunder. Meteorological indices such as convective available potential energy (CAPE) and the lifted index can be used to assist in determining potential upward vertical development of clouds. Generally, thunderstorms require three conditions to form:
All thunderstorms, regardless of type, go through three stages: the developing stage, the mature stage, and the dissipation stage. The average thunderstorm has a 24 km (15 mi) diameter. Depending on the conditions present in the atmosphere, each of these three stages take an average of 30 minutes.
The first stage of a thunderstorm is the cumulus stage or developing stage. During this stage, masses of moisture are lifted upwards into the atmosphere. The trigger for this lift can be solar illumination, where the heating of the ground produces thermals, or where two winds converge forcing air upwards, or where winds blow over terrain of increasing elevation. The moisture carried upward cools into liquid drops of water due to lower temperatures at high altitude, which appear as cumulus clouds. As the water vapor condenses into liquid, latent heat is released, which warms the air, causing it to become less dense than the surrounding, drier air. The air tends to rise in an updraft through the process of convection (hence the term convective precipitation). This process creates a low - pressure zone within and beneath the forming thunderstorm. In a typical thunderstorm, approximately 500 million kilograms of water vapor are lifted into the Earth 's atmosphere.
In the mature stage of a thunderstorm, the warmed air continues to rise until it reaches an area of warmer air and can rise no farther. Often this ' cap ' is the tropopause. The air is instead forced to spread out, giving the storm a characteristic anvil shape. The resulting cloud is called cumulonimbus incus. The water droplets coalesce into larger and heavier droplets and freeze to become ice particles. As these fall, they melt to become rain. If the updraft is strong enough, the droplets are held aloft long enough to become so large that they do not melt completely but fall as hail. While updrafts are still present, the falling rain drags the surrounding air with it, creating downdrafts as well. The simultaneous presence of both an updraft and a downdraft marks the mature stage of the storm and produces cumulonimbus clouds. During this stage, considerable internal turbulence can occur within, which manifests as strong winds, severe lightning, and even tornadoes.
Typically, if there is little wind shear, the storm will rapidly enter the dissipating stage and ' rain itself out ', but, if there is sufficient change in wind speed or direction, the downdraft will be separated from the updraft, and the storm may become a supercell, where the mature stage can sustain itself for several hours.
In the dissipation stage, the thunderstorm is dominated by the downdraft. If atmospheric conditions do not support super cellular development, this stage occurs rather quickly, approximately 20 -- 30 minutes into the life of the thunderstorm. The downdraft will push down out of the thunderstorm, hit the ground and spread out. This phenomenon is known as a downburst. The cool air carried to the ground by the downdraft cuts off the inflow of the thunderstorm, the updraft disappears and the thunderstorm will dissipate. Thunderstorms in an atmosphere with virtually no vertical wind shear weaken as soon as they send out an outflow boundary in all directions, which then quickly cuts off its inflow of relatively warm, moist air, and kills the thunderstorm 's further growth. The downdraft hitting the ground creates an outflow boundary. This can cause downbursts, a potential hazardous condition for aircraft to fly through, as a substantial change in wind speed and direction occurs, resulting in a decrease of airspeed and the subsequent reduction in lift for the aircraft. The stronger the outflow boundary is, the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear becomes.
There are four main types of thunderstorms: single - cell, multi-cell, squall line (also called multi-cell line) and supercell. Which type forms depends on the instability and relative wind conditions at different layers of the atmosphere ("wind shear ''). Single - cell thunderstorms form in environments of low vertical wind shear and last only 20 -- 30 minutes.
Organized thunderstorms and thunderstorm clusters / lines can have longer life cycles as they form in environments of significant vertical wind shear, normally greater than 25 knots (13 m / s) in the lowest 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) of the troposphere, which aids the development of stronger updrafts as well as various forms of severe weather. The supercell is the strongest of the thunderstorms, most commonly associated with large hail, high winds, and tornado formation. Precipitable water values of greater than 31.8 millimetres (1.25 in) favor the development of organized thunderstorm complexes. Those with heavy rainfall normally have precipitable water values greater than 36.9 millimetres (1.45 in). Upstream values of CAPE of greater than 800 J / kg are usually required for the development of organized convection.
This term technically applies to a single thunderstorm with one main updraft. Also known as air - mass thunderstorms, these are the typical summer thunderstorms in many temperate locales. They also occur in the cool unstable air that often follows the passage of a cold front from the sea during winter. Within a cluster of thunderstorms, the term "cell '' refers to each separate principal updraft. Thunderstorm cells occasionally form in isolation, as the occurrence of one thunderstorm can develop an outflow boundary that sets up new thunderstorm development. Such storms are rarely severe and are a result of local atmospheric instability; hence the term "air mass thunderstorm ''. When such storms have a brief period of severe weather associated with them, it is known as a pulse severe storm. Pulse severe storms are poorly organized and occur randomly in time and space, making them difficult to forecast. Single - cell thunderstorms normally last 20 -- 30 minutes.
This is the most common type of thunderstorm development. Mature thunderstorms are found near the center of the cluster, while dissipating thunderstorms exist on their downwind side. Multicell storms form as clusters of storms but may then evolve into one or more squall lines. While each cell of the cluster may only last 20 minutes, the cluster itself may persist for hours at a time. They often arise from convective updrafts in or near mountain ranges and linear weather boundaries, such as strong cold fronts or troughs of low pressure. These type of storms are stronger than the single - cell storm, yet much weaker than the supercell storm. Hazards with the multicell cluster include moderate - sized hail, flash flooding, and weak tornadoes.
A squall line is an elongated line of severe thunderstorms that can form along or ahead of a cold front. In the early 20th century, the term was used as a synonym for cold front. The squall line contains heavy precipitation, hail, frequent lightning, strong straight line winds, and possibly tornadoes and waterspouts. Severe weather in the form of strong straight - line winds can be expected in areas where the squall line itself is in the shape of a bow echo, within the portion of the line that bows out the most. Tornadoes can be found along waves within a line echo wave pattern, or LEWP, where mesoscale low pressure areas are present. Some bow echoes in the summer are called derechos, and move quite fast through large sections of territory. On the back edge of the rain shield associated with mature squall lines, a wake low can form, which is a mesoscale low pressure area that forms behind the mesoscale high pressure system normally present under the rain canopy, which are sometimes associated with a heat burst. This kind of storm is also known as "Wind of the Stony Lake '' (Traditional Chinese: 石 湖 風 -- shi2 hu2 feng1, Simplified Chinese: 石 湖 风) in southern China.
Supercell storms are large, usually severe, quasi-steady - state storms that form in an environment where wind speed or wind direction varies with height ("wind shear ''), and they have separate downdrafts and updrafts (i.e., where its associated precipitation is not falling through the updraft) with a strong, rotating updraft (a "mesocyclone ''). These storms normally have such powerful updrafts that the top of the supercell storm cloud (or anvil) can break through the troposphere and reach into the lower levels of the stratosphere, and supercell storms can be 24 kilometres (15 mi) wide. Research has shown that at least 90 percent of supercells cause severe weather. These storms can produce destructive tornadoes, sometimes F3 or higher, extremely large hailstones (10 centimetres or 4 inches diameter), straight - line winds in excess of 130 km / h (81 mph), and flash floods. In fact, research has also shown that most tornadoes occur from this type of thunderstorm. Supercells are generally the strongest type of thunderstorm.
A thunderstorm is classed as severe if winds reach at least 93 kilometres per hour (58 mph), hail is 25 millimetres (1 in) in diameter or larger, or if funnel clouds or tornadoes are reported. Although a funnel cloud or tornado indicates a severe thunderstorm, a tornado warning is issued in place of a severe thunderstorm warning. A severe thunderstorm warning is issued if a thunderstorm becomes severe, or will soon turn severe. In Canada, a rainfall rate greater than 50 millimetres (2 in) in one hour, or 75 millimetres (3 in) in three hours, is also used to indicate severe thunderstorms. Severe thunderstorms can occur from any type of storm cell. However, multicell, supercell, and squall lines represent the most common forms of thunderstorms that produce severe weather.
A mesoscale convective system (MCS) is a complex of thunderstorms that becomes organized on a scale larger than the individual thunderstorms but smaller than extratropical cyclones, and normally persists for several hours or more. A mesoscale convective system 's overall cloud and precipitation pattern may be round or linear in shape, and include weather systems such as tropical cyclones, squall lines, lake - effect snow events, polar lows, and Mesoscale Convective Complexes (MCCs), and they generally form near weather fronts. Most mesoscale convective systems develop overnight and continue their lifespan through the next day. The type that forms during the warm season over land has been noted across North America, Europe, and Asia, with a maximum in activity noted during the late afternoon and evening hours.
Forms of MCS that develop in the tropics are found in use either the Intertropical Convergence Zone or monsoon troughs, generally within the warm season between spring and fall. More intense systems form over land than over water. One exception is that of lake - effect snow bands, which form due to cold air moving across relatively warm bodies of water, and occurs from fall through spring. Polar lows are a second special class of MCS. They form at high latitudes during the cold season. Once the parent MCS dies, later thunderstorm development can occur in connection with its remnant mesoscale convective vortex (MCV). Mesoscale convective systems are important to the United States rainfall climatology over the Great Plains since they bring the region about half of their annual warm season rainfall.
The two major ways thunderstorms move are via advection of the wind and propagation along outflow boundaries towards sources of greater heat and moisture. Many thunderstorms move with the mean wind speed through the Earth 's troposphere, the lowest 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) of the Earth 's atmosphere. Weaker thunderstorms are steered by winds closer to the Earth 's surface than stronger thunderstorms, as the weaker thunderstorms are not as tall. Organized, long - lived thunderstorm cells and complexes move at a right angle to the direction of the vertical wind shear vector. If the gust front, or leading edge of the outflow boundary, races ahead of the thunderstorm, its motion will accelerate in tandem. This is more of a factor with thunderstorms with heavy precipitation (HP) than with thunderstorms with low precipitation (LP). When thunderstorms merge, which is most likely when numerous thunderstorms exist in proximity to each other, the motion of the stronger thunderstorm normally dictates the future motion of the merged cell. The stronger the mean wind, the less likely other processes will be involved in storm motion. On weather radar, storms are tracked by using a prominent feature and tracking it from scan to scan.
A back - building thunderstorm, commonly referred to as a training thunderstorm, is a thunderstorm in which new development takes place on the upwind side (usually the west or southwest side in the Northern Hemisphere), such that the storm seems to remain stationary or propagate in a backward direction. Though the storm often appears stationary on radar, or even moving upwind, this is an illusion. The storm is really a multi-cell storm with new, more vigorous cells that form on the upwind side, replacing older cells that continue to drift downwind. When this happens, catastrophic flooding is possible. In Rapid City, South Dakota, in 1972, an unusual alignment of winds at various levels of the atmosphere combined to produce a continuously training set of cells that dropped an enormous quantity of rain upon the same area, resulting in devastating flash flooding. A similar event occurred in Boscastle, England, on 16 August 2004, and over Chennai on 1 December 2015
Each year, many people are killed or seriously injured by severe thunderstorms despite the advance warning. While severe thunderstorms are most common in the spring and summer, they can occur at just about any time of the year.
Cloud - to - ground lightning frequently occurs within the phenomena of thunderstorms and have numerous hazards towards landscapes and populations. One of the more significant hazards lightning can pose is the wildfires they are capable of igniting. Under a regime of low precipitation (LP) thunderstorms, where little precipitation is present, rainfall can not prevent fires from starting when vegetation is dry as lightning produces a concentrated amount of extreme heat. Direct damage caused by lightning strikes occurs on occasion. In areas with a high frequency for cloud - to - ground lightning, like Florida, lightning causes several fatalities per year, most commonly to people working outside.
Acid rain is also a frequent risk produced by lightning. Distilled water has a neutral pH of 7. "Clean '' or unpolluted rain has a slightly acidic pH of about 5.2, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a weak acid (pH 5.6 in distilled water), but unpolluted rain also contains other chemicals. Nitric oxide present during thunderstorm phenomena, caused by the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen, can result in the production of acid rain, if nitric oxide forms compounds with the water molecules in precipitation, thus creating acid rain. Acid rain can damage infrastructures containing calcite or certain other solid chemical compounds. In ecosystems, acid rain can dissolve plant tissues of vegetations and increase acidification process in bodies of water and in soil, resulting in deaths of marine and terrestrial organisms.
Any thunderstorm that produces hail that reaches the ground is known as a hailstorm. Thunderclouds that are capable of producing hailstones are often seen obtaining green coloration. Hail is more common along mountain ranges because mountains force horizontal winds upwards (known as orographic lifting), thereby intensifying the updrafts within thunderstorms and making hail more likely. One of the more common regions for large hail is across mountainous northern India, which reported one of the highest hail - related death tolls on record in 1888. China also experiences significant hailstorms. Across Europe, Croatia experiences frequent occurrences of hail.
In North America, hail is most common in the area where Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming meet, known as "Hail Alley. '' Hail in this region occurs between the months of March and October during the afternoon and evening hours, with the bulk of the occurrences from May through September. Cheyenne, Wyoming is North America 's most hail - prone city with an average of nine to ten hailstorms per season. In South America, areas prone to hail are cities like Bogotá, Colombia.
Hail can cause serious damage, notably to automobiles, aircraft, skylights, glass - roofed structures, livestock, and most commonly, farmers ' crops. Hail is one of the most significant thunderstorm hazards to aircraft. When hail stones exceed 13 millimetres (0.5 in) in diameter, planes can be seriously damaged within seconds. The hailstones accumulating on the ground can also be hazardous to landing aircraft. Wheat, corn, soybeans, and tobacco are the most sensitive crops to hail damage. Hail is one of Canada 's most costly hazards. Hailstorms have been the cause of costly and deadly events throughout history. One of the earliest recorded incidents occurred around the 9th century in Roopkund, Uttarakhand, India. The largest hailstone in terms of maximum circumference and length ever recorded in the United States fell in 2003 in Aurora, Nebraska, United States.
A tornado is a violent, rotating column of air in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud (otherwise known as a thundercloud) or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Tornadoes come in many sizes but are typically in the form of a visible condensation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debris and dust. Most tornadoes have wind speeds between 40 and 110 mph (64 and 177 km / h), are approximately 75 metres (246 ft) across, and travel several kilometers (a few miles) before dissipating. Some attain wind speeds of more than 300 mph (480 km / h), stretch more than 1,600 metres (1 mi) across, and stay on the ground for more than 100 kilometres (dozens of miles).
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. An EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees but not substantial structures. An EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.
Waterspouts have similar characteristics as tornadoes, characterized by a spiraling funnel - shaped wind current that form over bodies of water, connecting to large cumulonimbus clouds. Waterspouts are generally classified as forms of tornadoes, or more specifically, non-supercelled tornadoes that develop over large bodies of water. These spiralling columns of air frequently develop within tropical areas close to the equator, but are less common within areas of high latitude.
Flash flooding is the process where a landscape, most notably an urban environment, is subjected to rapid floods. These rapid floods occur more quickly and are more localized than seasonal river flooding or areal flooding and are frequently (though not always) associated with intense rainfall. Flash flooding can frequently occur in slow - moving thunderstorms and is usually caused by the heavy liquid precipitation that accompanies it. Flash floods are most common in densely populated urban environments, where few plants and bodies of water are present to absorb and contain the extra water. Flash flooding can be hazardous to small infrastructure, such as bridges, and weakly constructed buildings. Plants and crops in agricultural areas can be destroyed and devastated by the force of raging water. Automobiles parked within affected areas can also be displaced. Soil erosion can occur as well, exposing risks of landslide phenomena.
Downburst winds can produce numerous hazards to landscapes experiencing thunderstorms. Downburst winds are generally very powerful, and are often mistaken for wind speeds produced by tornadoes, due to the concentrated amount of force exerted by their straight - horizontal characteristic. Downburst winds can be hazardous to unstable, incomplete, or weakly constructed infrastructures and buildings. Agricultural crops, and other plants in nearby environments can be uprooted and damaged. Aircraft engaged in takeoff or landing can crash. Automobiles can be displaced by the force exerted by downburst winds. Downburst winds are usually formed in areas when high pressure air systems of downdrafts begin to sink and displace the air masses below it, due to their higher density. When these downdrafts reach the surface, they spread out and turn into the destructive straight - horizontal winds.
Thunderstorm asthma is the triggering of an asthma attack by environmental conditions directly caused by a local thunderstorm. During a thunderstorm, pollen grains can absorb moisture and then burst into much smaller fragments with these fragments being easily dispersed by wind. While larger pollen grains are usually filtered by hairs in the nose, the smaller pollen fragments are able to pass through and enter the lungs, triggering the asthma attack.
Most thunderstorms come and go fairly uneventfully; however, any thunderstorm can become severe, and all thunderstorms, by definition, present the danger of lightning. Thunderstorm preparedness and safety refers to taking steps before, during, and after a thunderstorm to minimize injury and damage.
Preparedness refers to precautions that should be taken before a thunderstorm. Some preparedness takes the form of general readiness (as a thunderstorm can occur at any time of the day or year). Preparing a family emergency plan, for example, can save valuable time if a storm arises quickly and unexpectedly. Preparing the home by removing dead or rotting limbs and trees, which can be blown over in high winds, can also significantly reduce the risk of property damage and personal injury.
The National Weather Service (NWS) in the United States recommends several precautions that people should take if thunderstorms are likely to occur:
While safety and preparedness often overlap, "thunderstorm safety '' generally refers to what people should do during and after a storm. The American Red Cross recommends that people follow these precautions if a storm is imminent or in progress:
The NWS stopped recommending the "lightning crouch '' in 2008 as it does n't provide a significant level of protection and will not significantly lower the risk of being killed or injured from a nearby lightning strike.
Thunderstorms occur throughout the world, even in the polar regions, with the greatest frequency in tropical rainforest areas, where they may occur nearly daily. At any given time approximately 2,000 thunderstorms are occurring on Earth. Kampala and Tororo in Uganda have each been mentioned as the most thunderous places on Earth, a claim also made for Singapore and Bogor on the Indonesian island of Java. Other cities known for frequent storm activity include Darwin, Caracas, Manila and Mumbai. Thunderstorms are associated with the various monsoon seasons around the globe, and they populate the rainbands of tropical cyclones. In temperate regions, they are most frequent in spring and summer, although they can occur along or ahead of cold fronts at any time of year. They may also occur within a cooler air mass following the passage of a cold front over a relatively warmer body of water. Thunderstorms are rare in polar regions because of cold surface temperatures.
Some of the most powerful thunderstorms over the United States occur in the Midwest and the Southern states. These storms can produce large hail and powerful tornadoes. Thunderstorms are relatively uncommon along much of the West Coast of the United States, but they occur with greater frequency in the inland areas, particularly the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys of California. In spring and summer, they occur nearly daily in certain areas of the Rocky Mountains as part of the North American Monsoon regime. In the Northeast, storms take on similar characteristics and patterns as the Midwest, but with less frequency and severity. During the summer, air - mass thunderstorms are an almost daily occurrence over central and southern parts of Florida.
If the quantity of water that is condensed in and subsequently precipitated from a cloud is known, then the total energy of a thunderstorm can be calculated. In a typical thunderstorm, approximately 5 × 10 kg of water vapor are lifted, and the amount of energy released when this condenses is 10 joules. This is on the same order of magnitude of energy released within a tropical cyclone, and more energy than that released during the atomic bomb blast at Hiroshima, Japan in 1945.
The Fermi Gamma - ray Burst Monitor results show that gamma rays and antimatter particles (positrons) can be generated in powerful thunderstorms. It is suggested that the antimatter positrons are formed in terrestrial gamma - ray flashes (TGF). TGFs are brief bursts occurring inside thunderstorms and associated with lightning. The streams of positrons and electrons collide higher in the atmosphere to generate more gamma rays. About 500 TGFs may occur every day worldwide, but mostly go undetected.
In more contemporary times, thunderstorms have taken on the role of a scientific curiosity. Every spring, storm chasers head to the Great Plains of the United States and the Canadian Prairies to explore the scientific aspects of storms and tornadoes through use of videotaping. Radio pulses produced by cosmic rays are being used to study how electric charges develop within thunderstorms. More organized meteorological projects such as VORTEX2 use an array of sensors, such as the Doppler on Wheels, vehicles with mounted automated weather stations, weather balloons, and unmanned aircraft to investigate thunderstorms expected to produce severe weather. Lightning is detected remotely using sensors that detect cloud - to - ground lightning strokes with 95 percent accuracy in detection and within 250 metres (820 ft) of their point of origin.
Thunderstorms strongly influenced many early civilizations. Greeks believed that they were battles waged by Zeus, who hurled lightning bolts forged by Hephaestus. Some American Indian tribes associated thunderstorms with the Thunderbird, who they believed was a servant of the Great Spirit. The Norse considered thunderstorms to occur when Thor went to fight Jötnar, with the thunder and lightning being the effect of his strikes with the hammer Mjölnir. Hinduism recognizes Indra as the god of rain and thunderstorms. Christian doctrine accepted the ideas of Aristotle 's original work, called Meteorologica, that winds were caused by exhalations from the Earth and that fierce storms were the work of God. These ideas were still within the mainstream as late as the 18th century.
Martin Luther was out walking when a thunderstorm began, causing him to pray to God for being saved and promising to become a monk.
Thunderstorms, evidenced by flashes of lightning, on Jupiter have been detected and are associated with clouds where water may exist as both a liquid and ice, suggesting a mechanism similar to that on Earth. (Water is a polar molecule that can carry a charge, so it is capable of creating the charge separation needed to produce lightning.) These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times more powerful than lightning on the Earth. The water clouds can form thunderstorms driven by the heat rising from the interior. The clouds of Venus may also be capable of producing lightning; some observations suggest that the lightning rate is at least half of that on Earth.
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what are the 3 steps for making a recombinant dna molecule | Recombinant DNA - wikipedia
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning) to bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the genome. Recombinant DNA in a living organism was first achieved in 1973 by Herbert Boyer, of the University of California at San Francisco, and Stanley Cohen, at Stanford University, who used E. coli restriction enzymes to insert foreign DNA into plasmids.
Recombinant DNA is the general name for a piece of DNA that has been created by the combination of at least two strands. Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the same chemical structure, and differ only in the nucleotide sequence within that identical overall structure. Recombinant DNA molecules are sometimes called chimeric DNA, because they can be made of material from two different species, like the mythical chimera. R - DNA technology uses palindromic sequences and leads to the production of sticky and blunt ends.
The DNA sequences used in the construction of recombinant DNA molecules can originate from any species. For example, plant DNA may be joined to bacterial DNA, or human DNA may be joined with fungal DNA. In addition, DNA sequences that do not occur anywhere in nature may be created by the chemical synthesis of DNA, and incorporated into recombinant molecules. Using recombinant DNA technology and synthetic DNA, literally any DNA sequence may be created and introduced into any of a very wide range of living organisms.
Proteins that can result from the expression of recombinant DNA within living cells are termed recombinant proteins. When recombinant DNA encoding a protein is introduced into a host organism, the recombinant protein is not necessarily produced. Expression of foreign proteins requires the use of specialized expression vectors and often necessitates significant restructuring by foreign coding sequences.
Recombinant DNA differs from genetic recombination in that the former results from artificial methods in the test tube, while the latter is a normal biological process that results in the remixing of existing DNA sequences in essentially all organisms.
Molecular cloning is the laboratory process used to create recombinant DNA. It is one of two most widely used methods, along with polymerase chain reaction (PCR), used to direct the replication of any specific DNA sequence chosen by the experimentalist. There are two fundamental differences between the methods. One is that molecular cloning involves replication of the DNA within a living cell, while PCR replicates DNA in the test tube, free of living cells. The other difference is that cloning involves cutting and pasting DNA sequences, while PCR amplifies by copying an existing sequence.
Formation of recombinant DNA requires a cloning vector, a DNA molecule that replicates within a living cell. Vectors are generally derived from plasmids or viruses, and represent relatively small segments of DNA that contain necessary genetic signals for replication, as well as additional elements for convenience in inserting foreign DNA, identifying cells that contain recombinant DNA, and, where appropriate, expressing the foreign DNA. The choice of vector for molecular cloning depends on the choice of host organism, the size of the DNA to be cloned, and whether and how the foreign DNA is to be expressed. The DNA segments can be combined by using a variety of methods, such as restriction enzyme / ligase cloning or Gibson assembly.
In standard cloning protocols, the cloning of any DNA fragment essentially involves seven steps: (1) Choice of host organism and cloning vector, (2) Preparation of vector DNA, (3) Preparation of DNA to be cloned, (4) Creation of recombinant DNA, (5) Introduction of recombinant DNA into the host organism, (6) Selection of organisms containing recombinant DNA, and (7) Screening for clones with desired DNA inserts and biological properties. These steps are described in some detail in a related article (molecular cloning).
Following transplantation into the host organism, the foreign DNA contained within the recombinant DNA construct may or may not be expressed. That is, the DNA may simply be replicated without expression, or it may be transcribed and translated and a recombinant protein is produced. Generally speaking, expression of a foreign gene requires restructuring the gene to include sequences that are required for producing an mRNA molecule that can be used by the host 's translational apparatus (e.g. promoter, translational initiation signal, and transcriptional terminator). Specific changes to the host organism may be made to improve expression of the ectopic gene. In addition, changes may be needed to the coding sequences as well, to optimize translation, make the protein soluble, direct the recombinant protein to the proper cellular or extracellular location, and stabilize the protein from degradation.
In most cases, organisms containing recombinant DNA have apparently normal phenotypes. That is, their appearance, behavior and metabolism are usually unchanged, and the only way to demonstrate the presence of recombinant sequences is to examine the DNA itself, typically using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test. Significant exceptions exist, and are discussed below.
If the rDNA sequences encode a gene that is expressed, then the presence of RNA and / or protein products of the recombinant gene can be detected, typically using RT - PCR or western hybridization methods. Gross phenotypic changes are not the norm, unless the recombinant gene has been chosen and modified so as to generate biological activity in the host organism. Additional phenotypes that are encountered include toxicity to the host organism induced by the recombinant gene product, especially if it is over-expressed or expressed within inappropriate cells or tissues.
In some cases, recombinant DNA can have deleterious effects even if it is not expressed. One mechanism by which this happens is insertional inactivation, in which the rDNA becomes inserted into a host cell 's gene. In some cases, researchers use this phenomenon to "knock out '' genes to determine their biological function and importance. Another mechanism by which rDNA insertion into chromosomal DNA can affect gene expression is by inappropriate activation of previously unexpressed host cell genes. This can happen, for example, when a recombinant DNA fragment containing an active promoter becomes located next to a previously silent host cell gene, or when a host cell gene that functions to restrain gene expression undergoes insertional inactivation by recombinant DNA.
Recombinant DNA is widely used in biotechnology, medicine and research. Today, recombinant proteins and other products that result from the use of DNA technology are found in essentially every western pharmacy, doctor 's or veterinarian 's office, medical testing laboratory, and biological research laboratory. In addition, organisms that have been manipulated using recombinant DNA technology, as well as products derived from those organisms, have found their way into many farms, supermarkets, home medicine cabinets, and even pet shops, such as those that sell GloFish and other genetically modified animals.
The most common application of recombinant DNA is in basic research, in which the technology is important to most current work in the biological and biomedical sciences. Recombinant DNA is used to identify, map and sequence genes, and to determine their function. rDNA probes are employed in analyzing gene expression within individual cells, and throughout the tissues of whole organisms. Recombinant proteins are widely used as reagents in laboratory experiments and to generate antibody probes for examining protein synthesis within cells and organisms.
Many additional practical applications of recombinant DNA are found in industry, food production, human and veterinary medicine, agriculture, and bioengineering. Some specific examples are identified below.
The idea of recombinant DNA was first proposed by Peter Lobban, a graduate student of Prof. Dale Kaiser in the Biochemistry Department at Stanford University Medical School. The first publications describing the successful production and intracellular replication of recombinant DNA appeared in 1972 and 1973, at UCSF and Stanford University. Stanford University applied for a US patent on recombinant DNA in 1974, listing the inventors as Herbert W. Boyer (professor at the University of California, San Francisco and Stanley N. Cohen (professor at Stanford University); this patent was awarded in 1980. The first licensed drug generated using recombinant DNA technology was human insulin, developed by Genentech and Licensed by Eli Lilly and Company.
Scientists associated with the initial development of recombinant DNA methods recognized that the potential existed for organisms containing recombinant DNA to have undesirable or dangerous properties. At the 1975 Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA, these concerns were discussed and a voluntary moratorium on recombinant DNA research was initiated for experiments that were considered particularly risky. This moratorium was widely observed until the National Institutes of Health (USA) developed and issued formal guidelines for rDNA work. Today, recombinant DNA molecules and recombinant proteins are usually not regarded as dangerous. However, concerns remain about some organisms that express recombinant DNA, particularly when they leave the laboratory and are introduced into the environment or food chain. These concerns are discussed in the articles on genetically modified organisms and genetically modified food controversies.
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what is bob the builder's cat called | List of Bob the Builder characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters from the Bob the Builder television series.
and Mother Fox
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who is the governor of the state of missouri | List of governors of Missouri - wikipedia
Following is a list of Governors of Missouri since its territory became part of the United States.
Missouri was part of the Louisiana Purchase, which the United States purchased from France in 1803. In its first year it was part of Louisiana. In 1804 all of the territory above what is modern - day Louisiana was broken off and administered by a governor based in St. Louis, Missouri until statehood.
Prior to the purchase both France and Spain administered the territory in a similar manner. France initially had a commandant in charge of Upper Louisiana. Spain around 1770 began having a lieutenant governor in St. Louis and governor in New Orleans, Louisiana ruling the whole territory. For a list of governors under Spanish and French rule see Louisiana Governor. For a list of lieutenant governors ruling Upper Louisiana under French and Spanish control see List of commandants of the Illinois Country.
Since the state capitol moved to Jefferson City in 1826 the governor has lived on the same block in the Missouri Governor 's Mansion a block east of the Missouri State Capitol (although the current mansion is the third one).
The current governor of Missouri is Republican Eric Greitens.
On March 26, 1804, an act of congress divided Louisiana into two territories or districts: land south of the 33rd parallel became the Territory of Orleans; land north of the 33rd parallel, the District of Louisiana. The act took effect October 1, 1804, upon which the District of Louisiana was placed under the governance of Indiana Territory, then governed by William Henry Harrison.
The citizens of the District of Louisiana, unhappy with the governance specified by the act of 1804, set about immediately to petition congress for a return to a military - style government to which they were accustomed under Spanish rule. Congress responded by passing an act on March 3, 1805 which changed the name of the District of Louisiana to the Territory of Louisiana. Power was vested in a governor who was appointed by the President to a term of 3 years. During times of vacancy, the secretary would act as governor.
On June 4, 1812, the Territory of Louisiana was renamed to the Territory of Missouri to avoid confusion with the newly admitted state of Louisiana. Later, Arkansas Territory was separated from the Territory of Missouri on July 4, 1819.
Democratic - Republican (3) Democratic (38) Republican (13) Liberal Republican (1)
Missouri, a slave state, was a border state during the Civil War under Union control. However, it was officially recognized as a Confederate state by the Confederate government and was represented in the Confederate Congress and by a star on the Confederate flag. There were two competing governments for the course of the war. The Emancipation Proclamation did not consider Missouri a seceding state, therefore it was not part of Reconstruction. The Missouri Provisional Government is considered the official one on this list.
This is a table of congressional, other governorships, and other federal offices held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Missouri except where noted. * denotes those offices which the governor resigned to take.
As of January 2017, there are six former U.S. governors of Missouri who are currently living, the oldest U.S. governor of Missouri being Kit Bond (served 1973 -- 1977 and 1981 -- 1985, born 1939). The most recent U.S. governor of Missouri to die was Joseph P. Teasdale (served 1977 -- 1981, born 1936) on May 8, 2014. The most recently serving U.S. governor of Missouri to die was Mel Carnahan, who served from January 11, 1993 until his death in a plane crash at the age of sixty - six on October 16, 2000.
General
Constitutions
Specific
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where is good witch supposed to be located | The Good Witch - wikipedia
The Good Witch is a television film that aired on the Hallmark Channel on January 19, 2008. It stars Catherine Bell as Cassandra Nightingale and Chris Potter as Chief of Police Jake Russell. The film has spawned six sequels and a television series.
A mysterious, darkly beautiful woman who claims to be named, "Cassandra Nightingale '', moves into an old, abandoned house which is reputed to be haunted by its original owner, "The Grey Lady. '' The small community is divided in their opinion of her: some want her to stay, especially widowed police chief Jake Russell and his two children, while others want her to leave, especially Martha Tinsdale. Through the course of the story, seemingly magical things happen, and the community attributes these occurrences to her. Everyone begins to wonder if she is really a witch.
On January 15, 2008, Hallmark Channel and Limbo, the mobile entertainment community, teamed up to create and launch the cable network 's first - ever mobile interactive initiative. The campaign "enhanced viewers ' experience of the premiere of the network 's original movie... through ' Limbo Unique ' -- a game played via cell phone or online ''. The grand prize was $2,000 and a portrait of the "Grey Lady '' that was featured in the movie.
Although set in "Middleton, USA '', it was filmed in Hamilton and Niagara on the Lake, Ontario. In the sequel, The Good Witch 's Charm, the map on the wall in the police station shows Middleton north and west of Chicago, in the vicinity of DuPage County. The names of the suburbs and interstates that are west of Chicago can be clearly seen.
The movie had great success on Hallmark Channel on the night of its premiere, making it the second - highest - rated original movie to that date. It premiered with a 3.8 HH (household) rating and was in nearly 3.2 million homes. It also was # 1 in its time period, propelling the channel to the # 4 spot in weekly ranking.
The Good Witch (Region 1) DVD was released on January 5, 2010.
The Good Witch Collection (Region 1) DVD was released October 14, 2014.
On February 7, 2009, the Hallmark Channel aired a sequel, The Good Witch 's Garden. The third installment, The Good Witch 's Gift, aired on November 13, 2010, on Hallmark. The fourth installment, The Good Witch 's Family, aired on October 29, 2011. The fifth installment The Good Witch 's Charm premiered on October 27, 2012. The Good Witch 's Destiny sixth installment premiered on October 26, 2013. A seventh installment, The Good Witch 's Wonder, aired October 25, 2014.
In February 2014, the Hallmark Channel announced that Good Witch had been green - lighted for a ten - episode series, starring Catherine Bell, to premiere on February 28, 2015. Production for the first season began on October 29, 2014, in Toronto, with Sue Tenney as showrunner. Bailee Madison and James Denton also star.
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when did barcelona last win the champions league | FC Barcelona in European football - wikipedia
FC Barcelona, also known simply as Barcelona and familiarly as Barça, is a Spanish professional football club based in Barcelona. The club first participated in a European competition in 1910, and from 1955 onwards spent every season in one or more European competitions. The first international cup they took part in was the Pyrenees Cup. The competition lasted from 1910 to 1914 and Barcelona won four out of five editions. From 1914 to the beginning of the Latin Cup in 1949, Barcelona did not participate in any international competitions. From the 1955 -- 56 season, with the exception of the 1956 -- 57 (during the first Fairs Cup, because a Vienna XI withdrew from the competition), they are the only team to have played in the European cups every year until today.
Barcelona has won the now defunct UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup four times and the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup three times, which is more than any other club for both trophies. They also took part in the Latin Cup twice as champions of Spain, winning on both occasions, a record shared with Real Madrid and Milan. Though they did not manage to win the European Cup, now the UEFA Champions League, during the early years of the competition, they have since won the trophy five times, with their first win in 1992.
Barcelona have moved to the second place of the ranking of Europe 's most successful clubs in terms of international trophies won, just behind Real Madrid. In the second part of 2015, with the UEFA Super Cup victory in Tbilisi against Sevilla and the FIFA Club World Cup victory in Yokohama against River Plate meant the Catalans have won 20 different titles, behind Real Madrid 's 25. In the tables, "(H) '' denotes home ground, "(A) '' denotes away ground and "(N) '' symbolises neutral ground. The first score is always Barcelona 's.
Barcelona began to play friendly games against teams from the neighbouring regions in France in 1904. Club president Arthur Witty organised the club 's first trip abroad, which resulted in their first game against a non-Spanish team. On 1 May 1904, Barcelona defeated the French team Stade Olympien des Étudiants Toulousains.
By 1910, the international friendlies evolved into the Pyrenees Cup, a competition featuring teams from Languedoc, Le Midi, Aquitaine, Catalonia, and the Basque Country. At that time it was considered the finest competition open for participation. Five editions were played in total, with FC Barcelona winning four consecutive trophies from 1910 to 1913.
In 1949, the football federations of Spain, Italy, France, and Portugal, came together and launched their own club competition, the Latin Cup, which was staged at the end of every season in a single host country. The competition featured two semi-finals, a third place play - off and a final. As La Liga champions in 1949, Barça represented Spain in the inaugural competition. They beat Reims 5 -- 0 in their semi-final at Les Corts, before beating Sporting Lisbon 2 -- 1 in the final at the Estadio Chamartín. Barça also played in and won the 1952 competition in Paris, beating Juventus 4 -- 2 in the semi-final and then Nice 1 -- 0 in the final. After the introduction of the European Cup, the Latin Cup was discontinued and nowadays it is not recognised by UEFA but yes for FIFA.
The European Cup was inaugurated in 1955, with Barcelona 's arch - rivals Real Madrid winning the first five editions. In 1959, Barcelona entered this competition for the first time, after winning the 1958 -- 59 La Liga season. Until the 1990s, the club had little success, apart from their runner - up places in 1961 and 1986. In 1992, Johan Cruyff 's Dream Team won their first European Cup with a 1 -- 0 win against Sampdoria. Since then, Barcelona has won the competition four additional times, in 2006, 2009, 2011 and 2015. Barcelona has established itself as one of the strongest sides in European competitions, when measured in UEFA coefficients.
The Cup Winners ' Cup started in 1960, but it took three years until Barcelona participated for the first time. In their first edition, they were eliminated in the first round by Hamburg SV. In 1969, their second participation, they advanced to the final, but were beaten by Czechoslovakian side Slovan Bratislava. The first success came in 1979 when they defeated Fortuna Düsseldorf in the final, by 4 -- 3 after extra time. This maiden success was emulated in 1982, 1989, and in their last participation in 1997, before the cup was reorganised into the UEFA Cup in 1999 -- 2000. Barcelona 's four victories are the most of any club.
The Inter-Cities Fairs Cup was established on 18 April 1955, two weeks after the European Cup, to promote trade fairs by playing various cities against each other. However, the city of Barcelona participated with a squad composed entirely of Barcelona players. From 1958 onwards, the organisers reverted to club participation, but the teams still had to come from cities staging trade fairs. Barcelona would go on to win the Fairs Cup a record three times before it was subsumed into the UEFA Cup in 1971.
The Inter-Cities Fairs Cup is considered to be the forerunner of the UEFA Europa League, but it is not recognized as a UEFA competition. Consequently, Inter-Cities Fairs Cup wins do not count toward the tally of Europa League wins. This list tallies the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup together with the Europa League tournament. In the UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League, Barcelona has lost four semi-finals, in 1975 -- 76, in 1977 -- 78, in 1995 -- 96, in 2000 -- 01. Twice they lost to Liverpool (in 1976 and in 2001), once against PSV (in 1978) and once against Bayern Munich (in 1996). In all four cases, the team that had eliminated Barcelona ultimately won the competition.
The UEFA Super Cup was inaugurated in 1973 as a way of determining the best team in Europe, by pitting the holders of the European Champion Clubs ' Cup against the winners of the Cup Winners ' Cup. Barcelona first participated in the 1979 edition, after they won the 1978 -- 79 Cup Winners ' Cup. They lost 1 -- 2 on aggregate to Nottingham Forest, having drawn 1 -- 1 in Camp Nou after losing 0 -- 1 in City Ground, Nottingham. The first victory was in the 1992 edition, when they beaten Werder Bremen 3 -- 2 on aggregate. Since then, Barcelona has won the competition four additional times (in 1997, 2009, 2011 and 2015) and now shares the record of victories (five) with Milan.
In 1960, UEFA and their South - American equivalent, the South American Football Confederation (CONMEBOL), created the Intercontinental Cup as a way of determining the best team in the world, by pitting the winners of the European Champions ' Cup and the South American Copa Libertadores against each other. In 2000, FIFA launched their international club competition called the FIFA Club World Cup, featuring teams from all of its member associations. In the second edition of the Club World Cup, in 2005, FIFA took over the Intercontinental Cup, subsuming it into its own competition. Barcelona has won the FIFA Club World Cup three times (in 2009, 2011 and 2015) a record for this competition, shared with Real Madrid.
In the UEFA references, access to the specific rounds is achievable by the adjacent table.
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