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what movies are send me on my way in | Send Me on My Way - wikipedia
"Send Me on My Way '' is a 1995 single by Rusted Root. It peaked at number 72 on the Billboard Hot 100.
Originally released as a rough version on 1992 's Cruel Sun, it was rerecorded in 1994 for their second album, When I Woke. Root 's frontman, Michael Glabicki, wrote the lyrics, and its other members -- Liz Berlin, John Buynak, Jim Dispirito, Jim Donovan, Patrick Norman and Jennifer Wertz -- contributed to the track.
In February 2013, in an interview with Songfacts, Glabicki recalled entering the band 's studio -- a warehouse with big windows -- on a sunny day, picking up a guitar and just writing the song amidst "a very, very happy feeling '' in which "there was a lot of happiness in the room '' In the same interview, he said that Toni Childs was an influence on the song.
The song makes use of nonsense phrases such as "oombayseeyou '' and "seemoobadeeyah ''. These were added on the grounds that they sounded good and felt right and use of a dictionary word would not have been an improvement. In addition, the song contains a penny whistle solo played by Rusted Root member John Buynak.
Critical reception has been mixed. In January 2014, in a review for Cruel Sun, Kurt Keefner said that "the African vocal riff from "Send Me on My Way '' is bad Ladysmith Black Mambazo ", whereas Chris Baker of Syracuse.com said "The song 's pep and lightheartedness is undoubtedly responsible for its success. Unlike the fervor found in songs like "Ecstasy '' or "Lost in a Crowd, '' "Send Me on My Way '' is unbridled optimism -- perfect for a children 's movie. ''
It has since maintained wide recognition through its frequent use in motion picture soundtracks, most notably in the movie adaptation of Roald Dahl 's Matilda, as well as Ice Age from Blue Sky Studios. This also includes other media, such as:
In addition, NASA engineers chose "Send Me on My Way '' as "wake up '' music for the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity, for Sol 21.
Because of its use in popular culture, frontman Glabicki has said that the song has "become a different thing for us. It 's this thing that lives next to us. Everyone has a great memory or connection with the song. The song grew up and now has a life of its own; it 's bigger; we get to sit back and watch it. ''
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who married ted mosby in how i met your mother | The Mother (How I Met Your Mother) - wikipedia
Tracy McConnell (colloquial: "The Mother '') is the title character from the CBS television sitcom How I Met Your Mother. The show, narrated by Future Ted, tells the story of how Ted Mosby met The Mother. Tracy McConnell appears in 8 episodes from "Lucky Penny '' to "The Time Travelers '' as an unseen character; she was first seen fully in "Something New '' and was promoted to a main character in season 9. The Mother is played by Cristin Milioti.
The story of how Ted met The Mother is the framing device behind the series; many facts about her are revealed throughout the series, including the fact that Ted once unwittingly owned her umbrella before accidentally leaving it behind in her apartment. Ted and The Mother meet at the Farhampton train station following Barney Stinson and Robin Scherbatsky 's wedding; this scene is shown in "Last Forever '', the series finale. The Mother 's death from an unspecified terminal illness in 2024, also revealed in the series finale, received a mixed reaction from fans.
An alternate ending was released in the ninth season DVD. In the alternate ending, Tracy Mosby is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. In the video, future Ted is heard saying, "... When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mum every morning, I ca n't help but be amazed how easy it all really was... '', indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin as he lived a successful married life with Tracy Mosby.
During its first eight seasons, the successful sitcom How I Met Your Mother often hinted at the unseen character of The Mother. Well - known actresses often made guest appearances on the show. Many fans expected that another would play one of the most - wanted roles in Hollywood, but creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas wanted an unknown. Using Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams as examples, Thomas said that "We did n't want it to be a big famous star because we did n't want the wider audience to have associations with whatever actress this would be... The whole idea is that Ted 's never seen this woman before, so it better feel that way to the audience '', similar to how Cobie Smulders being cast as Robin Scherbatsky had "kept the show alive '' when it began. Bays and Thomas also did not want a large casting call.
They chose Cristin Milioti after seeing her on 30 Rock and Once; her musical ability was also helpful, as The Mother had been described as a band member. After competing for the role against at least two others, Milioti filmed her first scene -- for the last episode of season 8 -- having never watched How I Met Your Mother; she recalled, "I had ignorance on my side. So I did n't know what it meant. '' Milioti learned of the character 's importance only after binge watching the show during the summer.
The Mother was born on September 19, 1984.
The Mother, joined by her roommate Kelly, awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max only to receive a call informing her of his death. After the funeral service, she returns to the apartment to open Max 's last gift to her -- a ukulele. The Mother spends the next few years grieving the passing of the man she believes was her one true love.
In "Wait for It '', it is revealed that the short story of how they met involved her yellow umbrella. In "No Tomorrow '', Ted finds the umbrella at a club and takes it home after attending a St. Patrick 's Day party which she also attended, as it had been two and a half years since the death of Max, her late boyfriend. She is still grieving, but her roommate Kelly encourages her to go out and date again, bringing her to the same bar where Ted and Barney are celebrating. The two women run into Mitch, her old orchestra instructor; The Mother offers to give Mitch her cello for his work at a school and they head to her apartment. After they start talking, Mitch encourages her to pursue her dreams. The Mother expresses her desire to end poverty by taking up economics in college.
On his first day of teaching as Professor Mosby, as seen in the season 4 finale "The Leap '', he is seen in front of the classroom of students, one of which Future Ted says is the titular mother. But in the first episode of season 5, "Definitions '', it is revealed that he was actually in the wrong classroom -- Economics instead of Architecture. At the same time in "How Your Mother Met Me '', the Mother sits her first session in Economics 305 and meets another graduate student named Cindy (Rachel Bilson), whom she offers to move in with her as her roommate. They see Ted enter the room, but when he announces the subject, The Mother thinks she is in the wrong room and runs off. She heads back to the room after seeing Ted scramble to his actual classroom.
Later, in "Girls Versus Suits '', Ted dates Cindy, not knowing that her roommate is his future wife. Throughout the episode, Ted notes that Cindy had spent most of their first date talking jealously about her roommate. When in Cindy and the mother 's apartment he picks up many of The Mother 's belongings, attempting to show how compatible he and Cindy are (thinking the items are Cindy 's) and glimpses the mother 's foot as she disappears into her room after taking a shower. Ted finds out at this time that she plays bass guitar in a band. Ted forgets to take the yellow umbrella with him when he goes out and Future Ted mentions, "this is how your mother got her yellow umbrella back. '' In "How Your Mother Met Me '', it is revealed that, after Ted left the apartment, the Mother had discovered the umbrella and, upon going to question Cindy, finds her in a state. As she tried to console her, Cindy said that she was a much better match for Ted, and began to lovingly list all of the reasons that Ted would find the mother attractive, before spontaneously kissing her, revealing that her jealousy towards her roommate was actually a crush. While this incident made Cindy realise that she is a lesbian, it also made the Mother decide to go back into dating, as the kiss was her first in a long time.
Some time after this, a man named Darren approaches The Mother and is welcomed into her band named Superfreakonomics. Darren gradually takes over the band.
In the season 6 opener "Big Days '' it is revealed Ted meets his future wife "the day of '' the wedding at which he is the best man. In the episode "False Positive '' Robin asks Ted to be her future best man, should she ever get married. In the episode "Challenge Accepted '', it is revealed that Ted meets the mother of his children the day of Barney 's wedding. In the last episode of season 7, "The Magician 's Code '' it is shown that Barney will marry Robin, and Ted will meet the mother "the day of '' their wedding. On the premiere of season 8, Ted 's wife appears after Barney and Robin 's wedding, outside at the "Farhampton '' station while holding a yellow umbrella and her bass guitar.
In the season 8 episode "Band or DJ?, '' Ted runs into Cindy on the subway and tells her that the band Barney and Robin hired to play at their wedding cancelled at the last minute. The end result of the encounter is that Cindy 's (now ex -) roommate 's band plays at Barney and Robin 's wedding.
The Mother is first shown meeting Louis in "How Your Mother Met Me '' as she is left to carry the band equipment while the now - lead band member Darren talks to his fans. Later at MacLaren 's Pub, she tells him she 's not yet ready to date. Louis asks her to give him a call if she changes her mind and they begin dating not long after.
The Mother meets all of Ted 's best friends (Barney, Lily, Marshall and Robin) before she meets him. The Mother is responsible for convincing Barney to pursue Robin, as revealed through a flashback in "Platonish ''. In "The Locket '', Tracy meets Lily on a train journey.
In "Bass Player Wanted '', the Mother picks up a hitchhiking Marshall, carrying his son Marvin, on her way to Farhampton Inn. On their way, it is revealed that the Mother is a bass player in the band, that is scheduled to play at the wedding reception. But the band 's leader, Darren, forced her to quit. The Mother ultimately decides to confront Darren and retake the band. She ends up alone at the bar, and while practicing a speech to give Darren, Darren walks up to her furious the groom 's best man punched him for "no reason. '' Amused by this, the Mother laughs, and Darren quits the band in anger.
In "How Your Mother Met Me '', it is shown that after this incident, the Mother returns to Louis ' summer cottage not far from the Farhampton Inn where she has been staying for the duration of the wedding weekend. As she walks in the door, Louis proposes to her, but she goes outside to think about it for a few minutes. She declines Louis ' proposal and leaves his cottage, going to check in at Farhampton Inn. On her room 's balcony, she plays the ukulele and sings "La Vie en Rose ''. Ted hears her singing from his room next door.
In "Gary Blauman '', Ted and the Mother are on their first date. Ted picks her up at her New York City apartment and they proceed to walk to a Scottish - Mexican fusion restaurant for dinner. On the way there, Ted is telling her a story when they nearly have a run - in with Louis. She says that she is in the "weirdest place on earth '' right now and that it is too soon for her to be dating. Ted walks her back to her apartment. They say goodnight and Ted begins to walk away. The Mother then stops him and asks him to finish the story he was telling her. When the story is over, they say goodnight again. The Mother takes a step towards Ted and they kiss for the first time, before deciding to carry on their date.
In a flashforward in "The Lighthouse '', Ted proposes to the Mother at the top of the lighthouse near Farhampton Inn. She immediately accepts. In another flashfoward in "Unpause '', the Mother is revealed to be pregnant with their second child, Luke, in the year 2017. She goes into labor while she and Ted are staying at Farhampton.
The Mother 's real name is not revealed until the series finale, "Last Forever ''. When Ted meets her at the Farhampton train station, she reveals that her name is Tracy McConnell. In the season 1 episode "Belly Full of Turkey '', Ted meets a stripper named Tracy and says "... that, kids, is the true story of how I met your mother ''. The children react encouraged and appear to believe Ted before he admits he is joking, which led some fans to correctly guess that The Mother 's name is Tracy.
In the series finale, it is revealed that six years prior to Ted telling the story to his children, Tracy died in 2024 from an undisclosed illness. In the finale the characters do not directly state that the mother is dead. Ted says that she "became sick '' and his children said that she has been "gone '' for six years. Many fans expressed considerable disappointment to The Mother 's death. Milioti cried when she learned her character was supposed to die, but came to accept the ending was what the writers had planned from the beginning. Bill Kuchman from Popculturology said that The Mother was "an amazing character '' and that "over the course of this final season HIMYM made us care about Tracy. Kuchman said that "asking fans to drop all of that with a simple line about The Mother getting sick and passing away was a very difficult request '', that the finale "advanced too quickly '' and that "HIMYM was a victim of its own success on this issue ''.
A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition has over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage. On April 5, 2014, Carter Bays announced on Twitter that an alternate ending would be included on the Season 9 DVD. No new material was shot for this scene. In the alternate ending, The Mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030.
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which event led to changes in the political boundaries of the united states in 1898 | Territorial Evolution of North America since 1763 - wikipedia
The 1763 Treaty of Paris ended the major war known by Americans as the French and Indian War and by Canadians as the Seven Years ' War / Guerre de Sept Ans, or by French - Canadians, La Guerre de la Conquête. It was signed by Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement. Preferring to keep Guadeloupe, France gave up Canada and all of its claims to territory east of the Mississippi River to Britain. With France out of North America this dramatically changed the European political scene on the continent.
At first only the imperial powers of Europe had the resources to support and expand settlements in North America. As time went on the colonies became more powerful and sought independence from the Old World. These demands for more autonomy sparked several wars, including the American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 1783) and the Mexican War of Independence (1810 -- 1821). The last major colonial power on the continent, the United Kingdom, granted dominion status to Canada in 1867 and slowly turned over its remaining land to that country over the next 100 years, with the last land transfer being the Dominion of Newfoundland in 1949. Throughout this period, France maintained the small North American territory of Saint Pierre and Miquelon off the coast of the island of Newfoundland.
From independence, the United States expanded rapidly to the west, acquiring the massive Louisiana territory in 1803 and fighting a war with Mexico to push west to the Pacific. At the same time, British settlement in Canada increased. US expansion was complicated by the division between "free '' and "slave '' states, which led to the Missouri Compromise of 1820. Likewise, Canada faced tensions between settlers, including French and English communities, and the colonial administration that led to the outbreak of civil strife in 1837. Mexico faced constant political tensions between liberals and conservatives, as well as the rebellion of the English - speaking region of Texas, which declared itself the Republic of Texas in 1836. In 1845 Texas joined the United States and in 1867 the United States acquired Alaska from Russia. The last major territorial change occurred when Newfoundland joined Canada in 1949, but there have been a number of small adjustments like the Boundary Treaty of 1970 where the city of Rio Rico, Texas, was ceded to Mexico.
By the Royal Proclamation of 1763, King George III of Great Britain created the Province of Quebec in the St. Lawrence valley, the part of the former French province of Canada that was settled by people of French descent. The Great Lakes basin was barred to European settlement, reserved as exclusive "hunting grounds '' for the "several nations or tribes of Indians '' under the king 's "protection. ''
By the Quebec Act, the territory of the Province of Quebec was expanded to take over part of the Indian Reserve, including much of what is now southern Ontario, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin, and parts of Minnesota.
To ensure their claim on the Pacific coast the Spanish sent Bruno de Hezeta and Francisco Mourelle in the Santiago and Sonora sailed to what is now Vancouver Island and then south along the coast before continuing north as far as modern day Alaska.
In 1778 Saint Pierre and Miquelon were attacked by a force led by Newfoundland 's Governor John Montagu and then population deported by the British as retaliation for French support of the American Revolutionary War. The residents were sent to France and their homes were destroyed.
In another attempt to assert Spanish authority over the Pacific coast the Spanish sent Ignatio de Arteaga in La Princesa to what is now Prince of Wales Island and as far north and west as Unalaska.
Great Britain surrendered East Florida and West Florida to Spain; British inhabitants had 18 months from the date of ratification to leave.
The 1783 Treaty of Paris formally ended the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain and the United States of America, which had rebelled against British rule. The other combatant nations, France, Spain and the Dutch Republic, had separate agreements, known as the Peace of Paris (1783). The Kingdom of Great Britain recognized the territory south of what is now Canada, east of the Mississippi and north of Florida as American property. Vermont remained independent until 1791. France regained Saint Pierre and Miquelon in 1783 after the Peace of Paris and some residents returned to the islands.
In 1784, Grigory Ivanovich Shelikhov, who later set up the Russian - Alaska Company that colonized early Alaska, arrived in Three Saints Bay on Kodiak Island with two ships, the Three Saints and the St. Simon. The indigenous Koniag harassed the Russian party and Shelikhov responded by killing hundreds and taking hostages to enforce the obedience of the rest. Having established his authority on Kodiak Island, Shelikhov founded the second permanent Russian settlement in Alaska (after Unalaska) on the island 's Three Saints Bay.
Delegates from the North Carolina counties of Washington, Sullivan, Spencer (now Hawkins) and Greene -- all in present - day Tennessee -- convened in the town of Jonesborough and declared the lands the State of Frankland, independent of North Carolina. A constitution modeled on that of North Carolina was adopted with few changes, and the state name was changed to "Franklin ''. By 1790, the state government had collapsed entirely and the territory was again firmly under the control of North Carolina.
In 1789 in attempt to assert its sovereignty over the Pacific coast the Spanish seized British ships in Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island. This action sparked an international incident that resulted in the Nootka Convention which was signed on October 28, 1790. The conventions stated that the English had the right to found settlements anywhere on the Pacific claimed by Spain but never settled by Spain. As a result claims of sovereignty on the Pacific were determined by settlement or feet on the ground as opposed to claims based on prior discovery.
The Vermont Republic, which included land claimed by New York and New Hampshire and, while unrecognized by the United States, was a de facto independent country, was admitted to the US as the 14th state, Vermont.
The Province of Quebec was divided into two parts, Lower Canada and Upper Canada. The Province of Upper Canada (French: province du Haut - Canada) was a British colony located in what is now the southern portion of the Province of Ontario in Canada. Upper Canada officially existed from 26 December 1791 to 10 February 1841. Its name reflected its position higher up the river or closer to the headwaters of the St. Lawrence River than that of Lower Canada, present - day southern Quebec. The division was effected so that Loyalist American settlers and British immigrants in Upper Canada could have English laws and institutions, and the French - speaking population of Lower Canada could maintain French civil law and the Catholic religion.
The US federal government sold the Erie Triangle to Pennsylvania.
The western counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains were split off and admitted to the US as the 15th state, Kentucky.
Saint Pierre and Miquelon saw action during the French Revolution when France had declared war on the United Kingdom as part of the War of the First Coalition. This led to a British attack on the islands under Captain William Affleck of Halifax who captured the islands in May 1793.
The Southwest Territory was admitted to the US as the 16th state, Tennessee.
Pinckney 's Treaty, also known as the Treaty of San Lorenzo, settled the northern border of West Florida as the 31st parallel.
Sitka was originally settled by the native Tlingit people. Old Sitka was founded in 1799 by Alexandr Baranov, the governor of Russian America. Baranov arrived under the auspices of the Russian - American Company, a "semi-official '' colonial trading company chartered by Tsar Paul I.
Indiana Territory was formed from the western portion of Northwest Territory. It corresponded to present - day Illinois, Indiana, northeastern Minnesota, and Wisconsin, as well as the western half of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan and all but the eastern tip of the Upper Peninsula. Northwest Territory was left with only most of Ohio and the rest of Michigan.
In the secretly negotiated Third Treaty of San Ildefonso (formally titled the Preliminary and Secret Treaty between the French Republic and His Catholic Majesty the King of Spain, Concerning the Aggrandizement of His Royal Highness the Infant Duke of Parma in Italy and the Retrocession of Louisiana), Spain returned the colonial territory of Louisiana to France.
The Kingdom of Great Britain or Great Britain changed its name to United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland or United Kingdom on January 1, 1801 due to the Act of Union 1800.
Amiens Treaty of 1802 specified that Saint Pierre and Miquelon would again be returned to France. Although it took until 1816 for the British to honor the Treaty and allow the French to return.
The southeastern portion of Northwest Territory was admitted to the US as the 17th state, Ohio. The remainder of Northwest Territory was transferred to Indiana Territory.
The Louisiana Purchase was made, expanding the United States west of the Mississippi River. There was a dispute with West Florida over how much land east of the Mississippi River it included. The purchase extended slightly north of the modern borders, as it was defined only as the watershed of the Mississippi River. The purchase consisted of the whole of present - day Arkansas, Kansas, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, and Oklahoma, and portions of Colorado, Louisiana, Minnesota, Montana, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Texas and Wyoming. It also included the southernmost portions of the present - day Canadian provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan. The cost was 60 million francs ($11,250,000) plus cancellation of debts worth 18 million francs ($3,750,000). Including interest, the U.S. finally paid $23,213,568 (US $371,262,331 in 2017) for the Louisiana territory.
The North West Company organized an overland expedition from Montreal to James Bay and a second expedition by sea. In September 1803, the overland party met the company 's ship at Charlton Island in what is now Nunavut. There, they lay claim to the territory that drained into the Arctic in the name of the North West Company.
Michigan Territory was split from Indiana Territory, including the whole of the lower peninsula of present - day Michigan but only that eastern tip of the upper peninsula which was held by the Northwest Territory after Indiana Territory had been split from it.
The District of Louisiana was organized as Louisiana Territory.
Illinois Territory was split from Indiana Territory. Illinois Territory included present - day Illinois, northeastern Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Indiana Territory included the present - day borders of Indiana, with its western and eastern borders continuing northward; thus, it also included the central portion of the upper peninsula of Michigan, as well as Door Peninsula of present - day Wisconsin.
The short - lived Republic of West Florida declared its independence from Spain.
US President James Madison proclaimed the annexation of the Baton Rouge and Mobile Districts of West Florida, declaring them part of the Louisiana Purchase. The US Army occupied the capital, St. Francisville, on December 6 and Baton Rouge on December 10, bringing an end to the Republic of West Florida after 90 days.
The southern portion of Indiana Territory was admitted as the 19th state, Indiana. The remainder became unorganized.
Alabama Territory was split from Mississippi Territory; both correspond to their present - day counterparts.
Mississippi Territory was admitted to the US as the 20th state, Mississippi.
The Treaty of 1818 established the 49th parallel north west of the Lake of the Woods as the border with British - held lands, and Oregon Country was established as a shared land between the United States and United Kingdom. Oregon Country consisted of most of present - day Idaho and Oregon, all of Washington, and a portion of Montana, as well as the southern part of the unorganized British territory which became British Columbia. The treaty transferred the Red River Basin to the United States, consisting of northwestern Minnesota, northeastern North Dakota, and the northeastern tip of South Dakota.
The southern portion of Illinois Territory was admitted as the 21st state, Illinois. The remainder was reassigned to Michigan Territory. The unorganized lands which had been a part of Indiana Territory prior to the admission of Indiana as a state were also assigned to Michigan Territory.
The Adams - Onís Treaty or Transcontinental Treaty was signed in Washington, establishing a defined border between the United States and New Spain. The treaty ceded Spain 's claims to Oregon Country to the United States and American claims to Texas to Spain; moved portions of present - day Colorado, Oklahoma, and Wyoming, and all of New Mexico and Texas, to New Spain; and all of Spanish Florida as well as a small portion of modern day Colorado to the United States. The new borders intruded on Arkansaw Territory 's Miller County, created on April 1, 1820, which dipped below the Red River and into land ceded to Spain. However, the remoteness of the region caused no serious conflict with Spain.
The southern part of Missouri Territory was organized as Arkansaw Territory, consisting of present - day Arkansas as well as part of Oklahoma. It was not officially spelled Arkansas until later.
Alabama Territory was admitted to the US as the 22nd state, Alabama.
The Maine District of Massachusetts was split off and admitted to the US as the 23rd state, Maine, as part of the Missouri Compromise.
In 1821, the North West Company of Montreal and the Hudson 's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was further extended by a license to the watershed of the Arctic Ocean on the north and the Pacific Ocean on the west.
The southeastern corner of Missouri Territory was admitted to the US as the 24th state, Missouri. The remainder became unorganized. Missouri did not include its northwestern triangle at this point, that being added later in the Platte Purchase.
The 1824 Constitution of Mexico was enacted, creating the United Mexican States and replacing the Mexican Empire, which had collapsed on March 19, 1823. The constitution organized the country into 19 states and four territories. In the aftermath of the end of the empire, Central American regions mostly voted not to stay a part of Mexico, with Chiapas, formerly part of Guatemala, being the only area that favored remaining in Mexico. However, rebels in one part of Chiapas, Soconusco, proclaimed its separation from Mexico on July 24, 1824, and it was formally annexed by the Federal Republic of Central America on August 18, 1824.
Arkansas Territory was shrunk, the western portion becoming unorganized.
The Treaty of Saint Petersburg of 1825, also known as the Anglo - Russian Convention of 1825, defined the boundaries between Russian America and British claims and possessions in the Pacific Northwest of North America at 54 degrees 40 minutes north latitude.
Arkansas Territory was shrunk further, attaining the present - day borders of Arkansas, with the remainder again becoming unorganized, excepting the land it still claimed as Miller County.
The state of Sonora y Sinaloa was split into two states, Sinaloa and Sonora.
The territory of Aguascalientes was split from the state of Zacatecas.
A large portion of unorganized land was added to Michigan Territory, corresponding to present - day Iowa, western Minnesota, and eastern North Dakota and South Dakota.
Arkansas Territory was admitted to the US as the 25th state, Arkansas. It continued to claim Miller County, with increasing irrelevance.
Due to disapproval of the government of Antonio López de Santa Anna, the Tejas region of the state of Coahuila y Tejas declared independence. The remainder was renamed simply Coahuila. The Treaties of Velasco signified the end of the Texas Revolution on May 14, 1836, creating the Republic of Texas.
Wisconsin Territory was split off from Michigan Territory, consisting of present - day Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and eastern North and South Dakota. As an inducement to give up its claim over the Toledo Strip to Ohio, the whole of the present - day upper peninsula was assigned to Michigan Territory, giving it the present - day borders of Michigan.
Michigan Territory was admitted to the US as the 26th state, Michigan.
The Platte Purchase added a small area of land to Missouri, giving it its present - day boundaries.
Iowa Territory was split off from Wisconsin Territory, consisting of present - day Iowa, western Minnesota, and eastern North Dakota and South Dakota, leaving Wisconsin Territory with northeastern Minnesota and Wisconsin.
Voicing the same concerns as Texas, the states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas declared independence from Mexico as the Republic of the Rio Grande; since the border of Texas was never conclusively decided, they claim a northern border of the Nueces River, while Texas claims a southern border of the Rio Grande. The rebellion lasted until November 6, 1840. The nation was never fully established, and only existed in the minds of a few.
The Province of Canada or the United Province of Canada was created by combining Lower Canada and Upper Canada. It was a British colony in North America from 1841 to 1867. Its formation reflected recommendations made by John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham in the Report on the Affairs of British North America following the Rebellions of 1837. The Province of Canada ceased to exist at Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, when it was redivided into the modern Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec.
The Russians were forced to sell Fort Ross due to its economic failure. A private investor, John Sutter, agreed to pay $30,000 (US $696,484 in 2017) over a three - year period.
The district of Soconusco rejoined Mexico as part of the state of Chiapas.
The Webster - Ashburton Treaty settled the border between the United States and lands held by the United Kingdom east of the Rocky Mountains, ending the disputes over the northern border of the state of Maine and northeastern border of Wisconsin Territory, which today resides in present day Minnesota.
Florida Territory was admitted to the US as the 27th state, Florida.
The Republic of Texas was admitted to the US as the 28th state, Texas. The United States Congress passed the joint resolution of annexation on March 1, 1845, but Texas did not agree to join the union for some time after. Although the annexation resolution avoided specifying Texas 's boundaries, the U.S. inherited Texas 's unenforced claims to South Texas, West Texas, over half of New Mexico, a third of Colorado, and small parts of Oklahoma, Kansas and Wyoming. With Texas joining the union, Arkansas finally gave up its claim on Miller County.
The state of Yucatán declares independence, for the same reasons as the Republic of Texas and Republic of the Rio Grande, forming the Republic of Yucatán.
The California Republic, also called the Bear Flag Republic, was proclaimed by settlers in Sonoma in the then - Mexican province of California. Declared during the Mexican - American War, the republic lasted less than a month.
The Oregon Treaty established the 49th parallel west of the Lake of the Woods as the continental border (so it did not include Vancouver Island) with the lands held by the United Kingdom. The sharing of Oregon Country ended, and the American portion becomes unorganized territory.
The southeast portion of Iowa Territory was admitted to the US as the 29th state, Iowa. The remainder became unorganized.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican - American War. Mexico ceded the Texas - claimed areas as well as a large area of land consisting of all of present - day California, Nevada, and Utah, most of Arizona, and portions of Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyoming.
The Republic of Yucatán rejoined Mexico after the Caste War of Yucatán forced them to seek outside help.
The southeastern portion of Wisconsin Territory was admitted to the US as the 30th state, Wisconsin. The remainder became unorganized.
Oregon Territory was organized, including present - day Idaho, northwestern Montana, Oregon, Washington, and western Wyoming.
Colony of Vancouver Island is formed as a British crown colony.
Minnesota Territory was organized, consisting of present - day Minnesota, and eastern portions of North Dakota and South Dakota.
The Compromise of 1850 divided the Mexican Cession and land claimed by Texas but ceded to the federal government in exchange for taking on its debts. The western portion was admitted to the US as the 31st state, California, most of the rest was organized as Utah Territory and New Mexico Territory, and a small portion became unorganized land. New Mexico Territory consisted of most of present - day Arizona and New Mexico, as well as a southern portion of Colorado and the southern tip of Nevada. Utah Territory consisted of present - day Utah, most of Nevada, and portions of Colorado and Wyoming.
Washington Territory was split from Oregon Territory, consisting of present - day Washington, northern Idaho, and the western tip of Montana, leaving Oregon Territory with all of Oregon, southern Idaho and a portion of Wyoming.
The Gadsden Purchase added some land to New Mexico Territory, corresponding to the southernmost areas of present - day Arizona and New Mexico.
Kansas Territory and Nebraska Territory were organized; the remaining unorganized land colloquially became known as Indian Territory. Kansas Territory consisted of present - day Kansas and eastern Colorado. Nebraska Territory consisted of present - day Nebraska, and parts of Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming. Indian Territory corresponds to eastern Oklahoma.
A peculiarity appeared at this time, when a small strip of land north of Texas was not officially assigned by any state or territory; this came to be called the Neutral Strip or "No Man 's Land '', which corresponds to the present - day panhandle of Oklahoma.
The 1857 Constitution of Mexico was adopted, reorganizing some states. Nuevo León is merged into Coahuila; Aguascalientes, Colima, and Tlaxcala all had their status changed from territory to state; and the state of Guerrero was created from portions of México and Puebla.
The Colony of British Columbia was a crown colony in British North America from 1858 until 1871.
The eastern portion of Minnesota Territory was admitted to the US as the 32nd state, Minnesota. The remainder became unorganized.
The western portion of Oregon Territory was admitted to the US as the 33rd state, Oregon. The remainder was assigned to Washington Territory.
A boundary commission was set up to delineate the border between Vancouver Island and the Washington State coast. The commission could not come to agreement on where the middle of the Strait was so in 1859 things came to a head during the bloodless Pig War.
The eastern portion of Kansas Territory was admitted as the 34th state, Kansas. The western portion was added to Colorado Territory on February 28, 1861, but for the month between statehood for Kansas and the formation of Colorado Territory, it appears to have had no official status.
The Confederate States of America (CSA) was formed. The Southern states seceded at different dates and joined the CSA at different dates; to simplify the map, only the final form of the CSA is shown here. There were rebel governments as well as Union governments in Kentucky and Missouri, and the CSA had full control over Indian Territory. To view a detailed animated map depicting the various state secessions see CSA states evolution.
Colorado Territory was organized, with land from Utah, New Mexico, and Nebraska Territories, as well as the land left over from Kansas Territory; it corresponded already to present - day Colorado. Also, the eastern tip of Washington Territory was transferred to Nebraska Territory.
Due to its nature as a mining and grazing area, land started to be added to Nevada Territory to accommodate these activities. Its eastern border was moved eastward from the 39th meridian west from Washington, to the 38th meridian west from Washington, transferring the land from Utah Territory.
The Mexican state of Campeche was split from Yucatán.
The Union created its own Arizona Territory, splitting it off from New Mexico Territory, making both territories correspond to their present - day states, except for Arizona Territory including the southern tip of present - day Nevada.
Idaho Territory was created from portions of Washington, Dakota, and Nebraska Territories, consisting of present - day Idaho, Montana, and most of Wyoming. Nebraska and Washington Territories were left corresponding to their present - day counterparts.
Several counties of northwestern Virginia who did not want to be part of the Confederacy split off and were admitted to the US as the 35th state, West Virginia.
The Mexican state of Nuevo León was re-split from Coahuila.
Montana Territory was split from Idaho Territory, which also had some land transferred to Dakota Territory. Montana Territory corresponded to present - day Montana, Idaho Territory consisted of Idaho and western Wyoming, and Dakota Territory included both North and South Dakota, and most of Wyoming.
Nevada Territory was admitted to the US as the 36th state, Nevada; it was a bit smaller than it is today, lacking area in both the east and south.
The Confederate States of America surrendered. The process of Reconstruction and readmission to the union would take several years; to simplify the map, they are shown as already readmitted. To view a detailed animated map depicting the various state readmission during Reconstruction see CSA states evolution.
Colony of Vancouver Island and Colony of British Columbia merge to form United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia
Nevada 's eastern border was moved from the 38th meridian west from Washington, to the 37th meridian west from Washington, transferring land to it from Utah Territory. Also, the northwestern corner of Arizona Territory was transferred to the state of Nevada, giving it its present - day borders.
Nebraska Territory was admitted to the US as the 37th state, Nebraska.
Canada was formed from three provinces of British North America: the Province of Canada, which was split into the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, and the colonies of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
At this time, though, Canada did not become independent according to the modern meaning of the word. The Statute of Westminster 1931 made Canada much closer to being independent, but not completely.
The United States purchased Alaska from Russia; it was designated the Department of Alaska, and corresponds, except for a boundary dispute, to present - day Alaska. The United States Senate approved the purchase of Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000 (US $123,377,142.86 in 2017) on April 9, 1867.
Wyoming Territory was formed from portions of Dakota, Idaho, and Utah Territories, corresponding to the present - day borders of Wyoming. Idaho Territory then corresponds to present day Idaho, and Utah Territory to present - day Utah.
The Mexican state of Hidalgo was split from the state of México.
The Mexican state of Morelos was split from the state of México.
The United Kingdom ceded most of its remaining land in North America to Canada, with Rupert 's Land and the North - Western Territory becoming the North - West Territories. The Rupert 's Land Act 1868 transferred the region to Canada as of 1869, but it was only consummated in 1870 when £ 300,000 were paid to the Hudson 's Bay Company. At this time, the Manitoba Act took effect, and a small square of the newly acquired region surrounding the city of Winnipeg was made the province of Manitoba.
Unlike what this map shows, the actual border between Newfoundland & Quebec is still unknown. Mapmakers have mostly made their own guesses until 1927, pretending that the border was more known than it really was. The problem did n't stop in 1927 (see 1927).
The British colony of British Columbia joined Canada as the sixth province. British Columbia joined the Canadian confederation following The Great Confederation Debates in the spring of 1870 and the Confederation Negotiations of the following summer and winter.
The San Juan Islands were awarded to the US, formally ending the Pig War with Britain.
The British colony of Prince Edward Island joined Canada as the seventh province by an Act of Parliament (and, as part of the terms of union, was guaranteed a ferry link, a term which was deleted upon completion of the Confederation Bridge in 1997).
The borders of Ontario were provisionally expanded north and west. When the Province of Canada was formed, its borders were not entirely clear, and Ontario claimed to eventually reach all the way to the Rocky Mountains and Arctic Ocean. With Canada 's acquisition of Rupert 's Land, Ontario was interested in clearly defining its borders, especially since some of the new areas it was interested in were rapidly growing. After the federal government asked Ontario to pay for construction in the new disputed area, the province asked for an elaboration on its limits, and its boundary was moved north to the 51st parallel north.
The District of Keewatin was created by the passage of the Keewatin Act on April 12, 1876 in a central separate strip from the North - West Territories, in order to provide government for the growing area north of Manitoba and west of Ontario.
Colorado Territory was admitted to the US as the 38th state, Colorado.
Arenas Key is claimed for the United States under the Guano Islands Act
The United Kingdom ceded its Arctic Islands to Canada, and they were made part of the North - West Territories.
The Western Triangle Islands are claimed for the United States under the Guano Islands Act.
Manitoba 's borders were expanded to a larger postage stamp province taking land easterly from the District of Keewatin to the western boundary of Ontario. Since the province 's eastern border was defined as the "western boundary of Ontario '', the exact definition of which was still unclear, Ontario disputed a portion of the new region.
The part of Dakota Territory south of 43 ° north and north of the Keya Paha and Niobrara Rivers was transferred to Nebraska.
The Islands of Perez Chica and Pajora of the Alacrene Islands in the bay of Campeche are claimed for the United States under the Guano Islands Act.
The Mexican territory of Tepic was split from the state of Jalisco.
The southwestern border of the District of Keewatin was adjusted to conform to the boundaries of the new provisional districts of the North - West Territories created in 1882, returning some land to the North - West Territories. The provisional districts were the District of Alberta, the District of Athabasca, District of Assiniboia and the District of Saskatchewan, which all remained administrative areas of the North - West Territories, unlike the District of Keewatin.
Dakota Territory was split in two, and it was admitted to the US as the 39th state, North Dakota, and 40th state, South Dakota.
Montana Territory was admitted to the US as the 41st state, Montana.
Washington Territory was admitted to the US as the 42nd state, Washington.
The dispute between Manitoba and Ontario ended as Ontario 's borders were finalized in accordance with the Canada (Ontario Boundary) Act, 1889, which extended the province west to the Lake of the Woods and north to the Albany River.
Oklahoma Territory was organized from the western portion of Indian Territory, and included the Neutral Strip, corresponding to the western half of present - day Oklahoma.
Idaho Territory was admitted to the US as the 43rd state, Idaho.
Wyoming Territory was admitted to the US as the 44th state, Wyoming.
The American claims over the Western Triangle, Areaas, Perez, Chica, Pajoras, and Arenas Keys are all waived by the American government in favor of Mexico.
Keewatin covered the portion of the North - West Territories north of Manitoba on the mainland, and all islands within Hudson, James, and Ungava Bays. The portion between the District of Keewatin, Ontario, and Hudson Bay was not in a district, and was assigned to the District of Keewatin by an Order of Council. Four additional provisional districts of the North - West Territories were formed, the District of Yukon, the District of Ungava, the District of Mackenzie, and the District of Franklin.
Utah Territory was admitted to the US as the 45th state, Utah.
A Supreme Court ruling officially assigns Greer County to Oklahoma Territory.
The borders of the District of Keewatin were adjusted. Southampton Island, Coats Island, Mansel Island, Akimiski Island, and other islands were transferred to Keewatin.
Yukon Territory was created from the District of Yukon in the northwestern part of the North - West Territories, and the Quebec Boundary Extension Act, 1898 expanded the borders of Quebec north to the Eastmain River.
The eastern border of Yukon Territory was adjusted to the eastern edge of the Peel River watershed, and also to include some more islands.
The Mexican territory of Quintana Roo was split from the state of Yucatán.
The Alaska Boundary Dispute was a territorial dispute between the United States and Canada (then a British Dominion with its foreign affairs controlled from London), and at a subnational level between Alaska on the US side and British Columbia and the Yukon on the Canadian side. It was resolved by arbitration in 1903, generally favoring the American claim.
The provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were created from the North - West Territories. Saskatchewan 's western border and Alberta 's eastern border run concurrent with the 4th meridian or the 110 ° W longitude. Saskatchewan 's eastern border is not a meridian, but instead follows a staircase - shaped Dominion Land Survey range line. Alberta 's southern and northern borders are the same as Saskatchewan 's: the southern border is the Canada -- United States border or the 49th parallel and the northern border is the 60th parallel. Alberta 's western border runs along peaks of the Rocky Mountain ridge and then extends north to the 60th parallel. The District of Keewatin became an administrative unit of the Northwest Territories.
In 1906, the American Rio Grande Land and Irrigation Company performed an unauthorized diversion of the Rio Grande, which moved a 413 - acre (167 ha) tract of land, including the American village of Rio Rico, south of the river. Since the 1845 Border Treaty all land south of the Rio Grande was Mexican. Mexican authorities unknowingly assumed control of the area, which became known as the Horcón Tract.
The Dominion of Newfoundland was a British dominion from 1907 (before which the territory had the status of a British colony, self - governing from 1855) to 1949. The Dominion of Newfoundland was situated in northeastern North America along the Atlantic coast and comprised the island of Newfoundland and Labrador on the mainland.
Newfoundland never became independent according to the modern meaning of the word. The Statute of Westminster 1931 would have made Newfoundland much closer to being independent, but not completely. However, the government of Newfoundland did not ratify it, and furthermore, abolished itself in 1934 because of bankruptcy.
Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory were combined and admitted to the US as the 46th state, Oklahoma.
New Mexico Territory was admitted to the US as the 47th state, New Mexico.
Arizona Territory was admitted to the US as the 48th state, Arizona.
Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec were all expanded into their present - day boundaries. The Northwest Territories is now only situated north of the 60th parallel (except Hudson Bay and James Bay islands) with three districts, Keewatin, Mackenzie and Franklin.
With the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution of Mexico, the territory of Tepic had its name and status changed to the state of Nayarit.
The dispute over a square mile between Delaware and Pennsylvania, The Wedge, is finally resolved in favor of Delaware.
A decision of the Judicial Committee of the British Privy Council of 1927 decided the issue of the border between the Dominion of Newfoundland and Canada in favour of Newfoundland. The issue had been the precise boundary between the Canadian province of Quebec and Labrador, part of Newfoundland. The boundary ruling clarified that a large area of the disputed land belonged to Newfoundland, not to Canada.
Maps prior to 1927 wildly disagreed on the actual position of the border, instead of agreeing upon marking the area as being disputed. Maps after 1927 tended to agree with the decision, but due to protests, some mapmakers in Quebec still disagreed. In the 60 's, logos of the two biggest political parties of Quebec (PLQ & UN) both included the shape of the province as including all of Labrador. Disagreements persist even today (to a lesser extent), as Quebec insists on including the rest of the gulf 's basin in its maps, separated with a dotted line saying 1927 border, non-final. Newfoundland complains in 2014, even though older electoral maps showed the same.
Norway asserted its claim of sovereignty over the Sverdrup Islands. The islands are named after Norwegian explorer Otto Sverdrup, who explored and mapped them from 1898 to 1902 with the vessel Fram, although some were previously inhabited by Inuit people. Sverdrup claimed the islands for Norway, but the Norwegian government showed no interest in pursuing the claim until 1928. At that point, the Norwegian government raised the claim, primarily to use the islands as bargaining chips in negotiations with the United Kingdom over the status of the Arctic island Jan Mayen and the Antarctic Bouvet Island.
Sverdrup Islands are ceded to Canada by Norway, in exchange for British recognition of Norway 's sovereignty over Jan Mayen.
The Mexican Baja California Territory was split into North Territory of Baja California and South Territory of Baja California.
Statute of Westminster 1931 allows dominions to become independent. Dominion of Canada decides to become almost independent, whereas Newfoundland does not sign (see 1934).
The Dominion of Newfoundland, because of financial difficulties, was obliged to give up its self - governing status and the Commission of Government took its place.
Air Force Island, Prince Charles Island, and Foley Island are discovered and added to Northwest Territories.
The Dominion of Newfoundland and its dependency of Labrador joined Canada as the tenth province, named Newfoundland as proclaimed by the British North America Act 1949.
The North Territory of Baja California changed its status and became the state of Baja California.
Alaska Territory was admitted to the US as the 49th state, Alaska.
The city of Rio Rico, Texas, was ceded to Mexico in the Boundary Treaty of 1970. The handover officially took place in 1977 and the city was added to the Mexican state of Tamaulipas.
The territory of Quintana Roo changed into a state status. The South Territory of Baja California changed its status and became the state of Baja California Sur, giving Mexico its present - day configuration.
The Canadian territory of Nunavut was created from the Northwest Territories. The provisional districts are no longer administrative areas of the Northwest Territories.
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where are all of the disney parks located | Walt Disney Parks and Resorts - Wikipedia
Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, officially Walt Disney Parks and Resorts Worldwide, Inc. and informally known as Disney Parks, was one of The Walt Disney Company 's four major business segments and a subsidiary. The company was responsible for the conception, building, and managing of Disney theme parks and vacation resorts, as well as a variety of family - oriented leisure enterprises. It was founded in 1971, following the opening of Magic Kingdom at Walt Disney World in Florida.
Originally, the company was known as Walt Disney Outdoor Recreation Division and later as Walt Disney Attractions. The chairman of Walt Disney Parks and Resorts was Bob Chapek, formerly president of Disney Consumer Products. Chapek reports to Disney CEO Bob Iger. In 2016, the company 's theme parks hosted over 140.4 million guests, making Disney Parks the world 's most visited theme park company worldwide, with United Kingdom based Merlin Entertainments coming in second. It is by far Disney 's largest business segment according to employee headcount, with approximately 130,000 of the company 's 180,000 employees as of 2015. In March 2018, Parks and Resorts was merged with Disney Consumer Products and Interactive Media to form Walt Disney Parks, Experiences and Consumer Products.
In 1949, Ice Capades added a Disney segment to its performances. Costumes from those shows were used at the opening of Disneyland in 1955 with some performers hired away for Disney.
Originally, entry into the theme park and travel business was a side project of Walt Disney himself. As the Disneylandia project started to become a reality, Walt Disney Productions at Walt 's request set up Disneyland, Inc. (DLI) in 1951 and agreed to a design deal in March 1953 with WED Enterprises (WED), Walt 's personal corporation, which then included what would now be called Disney Imagineering. With the WED concept designs and prospectus for Disneylandia, Roy Disney in September 1953 met with TV networks in a deal for Disney - produced TV show and Disneyland investment. American Broadcasting - Paramount Theatres (AB - PT) agreed to the Disneyland, Inc. investment. Joining AB - PT as Disneyland investors were Walt Disney Productions (WDP), Western Publishing and Walt Disney. Walt Disney Productions had the option to repurchase the Walt Disney, WED and Western Publishing shares (31 %) by May 1, 1959, for $562,500.
With a need for the Disneyland Hotel nearby and no funding available for Disney to build it, Walt Disney approached Jack Wrather to build the hotel who agreed.
Disneyland, changed from Disneylandia, was announced in April 1954 by Walt to be opened in July 1955. On July 17, 1955, the Disneyland park with five themed "lands '' containing eighteen attractions with double the expected guests. WED owned Santa Fe & Disneyland Railroad opened, too.
On June 29, 1957, Disney Production exercised its options to purchase all but AB - PT 's common stock outstanding. This allowed WDP to consolidate DLI into its 1957 annual accounting statements adding four months worth of net profits, $511 K. In June 1960, Walt Disney Productions completed the purchase of AB - PT 's share of the company for nearly $7.5 million and its TV contract, and the theme park became a fully owned subsidiary of Walt Disney Productions. The first Audio - Animatronic attraction, Walt Disney 's Enchanted Tiki Room, opened at Disneyland in 1963.
Beginning in 1958 with the contracting of Economics Research Associates (ERA) to find a location for another Disney resort, Disney Productions moved beyond a single park. ERA recommended Florida; another study in 1961 named Ocala or Orlando in Florida as possible locations. In November 1963, Walt Disney made a trip to Florida for final site selection. In 1962, Disney Productions purchased Celebrity Sports Center (opened on September 17, 1960, in Denver, Colorado) from its owners, including Walt Disney, Art Linkletter, and John Payne, to use as a staff training center for its second resort. In 1963, Roy made plans to buy from 5,000 to 10,000 acres (2,000 to 4,000 ha), which was carried out in 1964, amassing 27,443 acres (11,106 ha) by October 1965. Plans for the Florida project that would eventually become Walt Disney World were announced to the public in November 1965. Legislation forming the Reedy Creek Improvement District was signed into law by Florida Governor Claude R. Kirk, Jr. on May 12, 1967, allowing Disney to build the infrastructure for the second park. Ground breaking followed for the future Reedy Creek park on May 30. In Roy O. Disney 's last act as CEO in 1968, he officially named the second park Walt Disney World.
Disneyland International was incorporated on November 20, 1961. The next year, The Oriental Land Company contacted Disney about building a theme park.
In 1959, the WED - owned Disneyland - Alweg Monorail System was installed at Disneyland. Disneyland 's first new themed land, New Orleans Square, opened in 1966. Tomorrowland was revamped in 1967 with seven new attractions. The design and architectural group and the WED Enterprise name was purchased from Walt 's corporation, renamed as Retlaw Enterprise.
Disney expanded into attractions at the 1964 New York World 's Fair with It 's a Small World and costumed character appearances. When the characters proved a hit at the 1964 World 's Fair, Walt wanted another outlet for "live '' characters; thus, Disneyland put on Disney on Parade, a self - produced live arena show starting in 1969. Small World and its famous song lasted two years at the fair; it was then moved to Disneyland as an expanded major attraction in 1966 and later duplicated in the other Disney theme parks.
In 1965, Walt Disney won a bid with the US Forest Service to develop Mineral King as a ski resort. The Sierra Club sued in June 1969 to stop the development, which was granted by the federal district judge. The Forest Service appealed and won at the appeal and the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court ruling left open to the Club the possibility of refiling. In the next round of lawsuits, the same district judge blocked the redevelopment. The injunction and the passage of the National Environmental Policy Act led to Disney backing out.
$40 million worth of Walt Disney Productions Convertible Debentures were sold in January 1968 to fund Disney World (WDW). The next year in February, an agreement was made with multiple labor unions, in which the unions exchanged the right to strike for regular pay increases during the first building phase. By 1971, chairman of the Park Operations Committee and vice president of park operations Dick Nunis was appointed executive vice president of Disneyland and Walt Disney World.
Walt Disney World began operation on October 1, 1971, with the Magic Kingdom park at a cost of $400 million. The Magic Kingdom had six themed lands: Main Street, Adventureland, Fantasyland, Frontierland, Liberty Square, and Tomorrowland. Additionally, Disney 's Fort Wilderness Resort campground and two hotels, Disney 's Contemporary Resort and Disney 's Polynesian Village Resort, also opened.
Disneyland expanded in 1972 with a seventh themed land, Bear Country, replacing the Indian Village of Frontierland, and later renamed Critter Country. In 1979, the Disneyland crafts and maintenance union workers went on strike for 15 days, at first rejecting and then accepting the park 's contract. Space Mountain opens at Disneyland in 1977.
Two more hotels opened in 1973 at Walt Disney World: the Golf Resort and the Gold Resort; Disney 's Village Resort hotel opened in 1974. Disney opened the Buena Vista Club golf club in Lake Buena Vista on November 22, 1974. Lake Buena Vista Village, the shopping area, opened on March 22, 1975 and was renamed Walt Disney World Village in 1977. Celebrity Sports Center, Disney World 's training center, was sold on March 29, 1979.
At Walt Disney World, the Treasure Island nature preserve pens opened on April 8, 1974, renamed Discovery Island in 1977. On July 1, 1975, the WEDway PeopleMover opened in the Magic Kingdom 's Tomorrowland. The first water park, River Country, opened on June 20, 1976 at Disney World. EPCOT Center 's groundbreaking occurred at Walt Disney World in May 1979.
In 1979, Oriental Land and Disney agreed to build a Japanese theme park. Tokyo Disneyland opened on April 15, 1983 on 200 acres (80 ha) in Urayasu, Chiba, Japan.
With the June 3, 1980, retirement of Donn Tatum as Walt Disney Productions ' Chairman and CEO, three divisions were formed, including the Walt Disney Outdoor Recreation Division, of which Nunis was named division president. Disneyland started using Disney Dollars on May 5, 1987, while Walt Disney World parks started with Epcot on October 2. A renegotiated Disneyland Japan royalty agreement in April 1988 by Chief Financial Officer Gary L. Wilson netted Disney US $723 million in cash in exchange for lower royalty payments.
The steam railroad and monorail at Disneyland were purchased from Retlaw Enterprises, formerly WED Enterprises, in 1982. Bear Country was renamed Critter Country on November 23, 1988.
Tishman Company 's plans for two Walt Disney World hotels were rejected by new CEO Michael Eisner on September 30, 1984, marking a change in Disney architecture. New plans for the Dolphin and Swan hotels were submitted by Michael Graves in July 1986; ground breaking took place on January 28, 1988. The first non-Disney owned hotel, Pickett Suite Resort, opened in Disney World Village on March 15, 1987.
On June 1, 1982, the Walt Disney World monorail line was extended to EPCOT Center from the Ticket and Transportation Center. The EPCOT Center theme park opened on October 1, 1982, at a building cost of US $1.2 billion, with two areas, Future World and World Showcase.
Plans for a Hollywood - style theme park were announced in April 1985 for the Walt Disney World resort at a project cost of US $300 million. In April 1985, Disney signed a licensing agreement with MGM, giving Disney the right to use the MGM name, logo and movie library for this third park. Construction of the Disney - MGM Studios theme park began in 1986. Disney - MGM Studios opened on May 1, 1989, along with a Pleasure Island entertainment area; its second water park, Disney 's Typhoon Lagoon, opened on June 1. In 1983, Walt Disney World Village 's name was changed to the Disney Village Marketplace. A new themed area, Mickey 's Birthdayland, opened in the Magic Kingdom near Fantasyland on June 18, 1988.
In 1987, Disney and Ron Brierley 's Industrial Equity (Pacific) Ltd., already a 28 % owner of the Wrather Corporation, agreed to purchase the remaining Wrather Corporation stock with a 50 % share each. Wrather Corporation owned the Disneyland Hotel and operated the Queen Mary and Spruce Goose tourist attractions. In March 1988, Disney purchased Industrial Equity 's half of Wrather Corporation.
In 1985, Premier Cruise Line became the licensed partner cruise line with Disney. This allowed Disney characters on their ships and combined cruise, hotel, and theme park packages.
The Walt Disney Outdoor Recreation Division was incorporated as Walt Disney Attractions, Inc. on August 10, 1989. In January 1990, Disney CEO Eisner announced plans to expand both Disneyland (by 20 % in 10 years) and Disney World (WDW). The plan would have WDW add another theme park and 16 new attractions in Disney - MGM Studios. Disney and The Coca - Cola Company agreed to a 15 - year marketing contract on January 25: Coca - Cola products would be exclusive in Disney theme parks, and Coca - Cola would use some Disney characters in their ads. On March 16, 1990, Attractions president Nunis announced a 25 - year plan for a 4,400 - acre (1,800 ha) development in Osceola, Florida, with homes, shopping malls and industrial buildings.
In 1990, the possibility of a West Coast version of Epcot Center was placed in development. This was announced as WestCOT in 1991, to be placed at the Disneyland Resort. On July 31, 1990, a new 350 - acre (140 ha) ocean - themed park and resort, Port Disney, was announced for Long Beach. Port was to have a cruise - ship terminal, five hotels, restaurants, and shopping area, costing $2 billion to build. On December 12, 1991, Disney selected only one California project to go forward with, Disneyland Resort, which was to include the WestCOT Center, hotels, a shopping mall and a lake. Port Disney was abandoned in March 1992, and Disney canceled its leases on the Queen Mary and Spruce Goose attractions picked up from the Wrather Corporation. Mickey 's Toontown, a new themed land at Disneyland, opened on January 24, 1993. Disney canceled its plans for WestCOT in mid-1995 due to financial issues at Disneyland Paris and the park 's projected high cost. That park was then replaced by plans for the California Adventure park, hotels and a retail district.
At Walt Disney World, Mickey 's Birthdayland closed on April 22, 1991, then reopened on May 26 as Mickey 's Starland. In order to expand Disney World on wetland, on April 23, 1993, the company agreed to form a 8,500 - acre (3,400 ha) wilderness preserve in Florida. The Disney Inn hotel was leased starting February 1, 1994, by the US Army, then purchased on January 12, 1996, and later renamed Shades of Green. Planet Hollywood opened a location in Pleasure Island on December 17, 1994. The third water park at Walt Disney World, Disney 's Blizzard Beach, opened on April 1, 1995. The Magic Kingdom 's Tomorrowland was completely refurbished and reopened in June, 1995. Taking up a corner of the Magic Kingdom parking lot, the Walt Disney World Speedway opened on November 28, 1995. In 1996, the Disney Institute opened on February 9, and Disney 's BoardWalk opened on July 1. The first of the World of Disney stores opened in the Disney Village Marketplace on October 3. The Downtown Disney district opened in November 1997, combining Disney Village Marketplace and Pleasure Island. A fourth theme park, Disney 's Animal Kingdom, opened at Disney World the week of April 20, 1998.
The first Disney Vacation Club Resorts, Vacation Club Resort, opened on October 1, 1991, and was renamed Disney 's Old Key West Resort in January 1996. These vacation club hotels were operated by Disney Vacation Developments, Inc. as vacation timeshares. The first off - resort vacation club hotel was Vacation Club Resort, which opened on October 1, 1995, in Vero Beach, Florida.
In 1993, Premier Cruises discontinued its partnership with Disney for one with Warner Bros. After failing to reach agreements with Carnival or Royal Caribbean, Disney announced in 1994 the formation of its own cruise line. The Disney Cruise Line launched with the Disney Magic ship in 1998 along with its exclusive resort island port of Castaway Cay.
Disney reportedly had plans to build a park named Disney 's America. The park was to have been located in Haymarket, Virginia; 2,300 acres (930 ha) of property were purchased from Exxon in 1993. The history - themed park was announced on November 11, 1993. The plans for the 3,000 acres (1,200 ha) called for a 150 - acre (61 ha) amusement park, a campground, a golf course, 2 million square feet (190,000 m) of office / commercial space, and 2500 homes. With projections indicating that the park would operate at a loss and with opposition in the press, Disney canceled the project on September 15, 1994.
Walt Disney Imagineering created Disney Fair, a U.S. traveling attraction, which premiered in September 1996. The fair was poorly attended and was pulled after a few stops. Disney Entertainment Projects (Asia Pacific) Inc., a new Disney Asian Pacific subsidiary, selected a renamed fair called DisneyFest as its first project, taking it to Singapore to open there on October 30, 1997.
In November 1995, Disney announced the building of Tokyo DisneySea, to be owned by Oriental along with Tokyo Disneyland. Oriental and Disney signed the DisneySea licensing agreement in November 1997; the theme park was scheduled to open in 2001 at a cost of $2.6 billion.
In December 1998, Walt Disney Attractions added Disneyland Paris, Disney Regional Entertainment and Walt Disney Imagineering to its portfolio, which already held Disney World, Disney Cruise Line, Disneyland, and Tokyo Disneyland. Chairman Dick Nunis retired at the same time. On October 31, 1999, Walt Disney Attractions, Inc. was merged into Walt Disney Attractions, LLC.
On June 19, 1998, Disney Regional Entertainment opened its first DisneyQuest, a location - based entertainment venue, at Downtown Disney West Side in Walt Disney World. The first DisneyQuest outside of a resort was opened in Chicago on June 16, 1999, with plans for more locations worldwide.
In 1999, plans were announced for a new resort in Hong Kong, Hong Kong Disneyland, as a joint venture, Hong Kong International Theme Parks Ltd., between the Hong Kong Government and Disney Resorts. The Disney Wonder cruise ship began operation on August 15.
Disney World 's Discovery Island was closed on April 8, 1999.
Walt Disney Attractions, LLC changed its name to Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, LLC on April 14, 2000, then to Disney Destinations, LLC on April 25, 2006. Tokyo DisneySea at Tokyo Disney Resort opened on September 4, 2001. The Walt Disney Company in selling its Japanese and US chains decided to keep the Disney Stores in Europe, along with the store in Manhattan, which was converted into a World of Disney store run by Walt Disney Parks and Resorts in 2004.
Downtown Disney opened at the Disneyland Resort on January 12, 2001, between Disneyland and the future California Adventure. Disney California Adventure Park opened at the Disneyland Resort on February 8, 2001, with three major areas: Paradise Pier, Hollywood Pictures Backlot, and the Golden State. In California Adventure on October 6, 2002, A Bug 's Land area opened. Parks and Resorts chairman Jay Rasulo announced at Disney 's D23 Expo in Anaheim, California on September 12, 2009, that Walt Disney World 's Fantasyland would be overhauled and increased in size by 2013. A $1 billion expansion / renovation of Disney California Adventure Park was announced in 2007 to be completed by 2012.
River Country water park closed on September 1, 2001. Disney - MGM Studios is renamed Disney 's Hollywood Studios in January 2008. Pleasure Island 's core remaining six nightclubs were closed down in late 2008 to change the area to match the family friendly make - up of the other two sections of Downtown Disney at Disney World.
Walt Disney Studios Park opened March 16, 2002, as the second theme park at the renamed Disneyland Resort Paris. The first park was renamed Disneyland Park (DLP. DLP Paris opened in August 2000 Toy Story Playland with three attractions.
Construction on Hong Kong Disneyland began on January 12, 2003, then opened September 12, 2005. Groundbreaking occurred at Hong Kong Disneyland in December 2009 for a three land expansion: Mystic Point, Grizzly Gulch, and Toy Story Land.
In June 2005, Disney Magic made the first cruise outside of the Caribbean, by moving its port for the summer to Los Angeles with a Mexican Riviera schedule. Disney Cruise Line ordered a new 2 ships class from Meyer Werft shipyard in Germany by February 22, 2007. The Magic in May 2007 transferred its home port to Barcelona, Spain, for the lines ' first summer Mediterranean itinerary then returned to its permanent port in September.
The Chicago DisneyQuest location was closed in September 2001. Disney Parks started the Adventures by Disney tour vacation business in 2005. Disney entered a float, "The Most Magical Celebration on Earth '', into the 2006 Pasadena Tournament of Roses parade.
In October 2007, Disney announced plans to build a resort at Ko Olina Resort & Marina in Kapolei, Hawaii, featuring both a hotel and Disney Vacation Club timeshare units. The 800 - unit property, named Aulani, opened in 2011 and joined the other resorts not associated with a theme park, such as Disney 's Hilton Head Island Resort in South Carolina.
With the Walt Disney World Millennium Celebration starting on October 1, 2000, sanctioned Disney Pin Trading was started. In 2001, the Themed Entertainment Association gave Disney Parks and Resorts the Thea Award for Breakthrough Innovation for the park 's FastPass system.
Walt Disney Parks and Resorts Worldwide, Inc. was incorporated on September 29, 2008, buy out and took over the parks and resorts business segment. Disney Parks and Resorts reorganized in early 2009 which included layoffs in all units due to recession - induced falling attendance. 600 U.S. managers in January were buyout packages. Worldwide Operations was formed under President Al Weiss in 2009. Worldwide Operations would take over various back office functions previously performed by both Disney World and Disneyland including training, procurement, menu planning and merchandise development. While its Walt Disney Imagineering subsidiary combined its three development units.
In November 2009, Disney received approval from the Chinese government to build a Disneyland resort in Shanghai 's Pudong district. The resort opened on June 16, 2016.
California Adventure completed its overhaul in 2012 adding two new lands: Cars Land and Buena Vista Street. The overhaul also included a re-themed of several attractions plus a pair of classic dark rides. In 2017, it was announced that Paradise Pier land would be replaced by Pixar Pier, with four neighborhoods, and Paradise Park (remainder not in Pixar Pier). Pixar Pier would open in summer of 2018.
Star Wars Land 14 acres (5.7 ha) themed land for both Disneyland park and Disney 's Hollywood Studios announced at the D23 Expo on August 15, 2015. Construction began at both locations on April 14, 2016.
The New Fantasyland at Magic Kingdom opened on December 6, 2012. It is the biggest upgrade to the theme park since its opening in 1971. Announced along with its new Star Wars Land expansion at the D23 Expo on August 15, 2015, Hollywood Studios was slated to have a version of Toy Story Land.
Holz became president of New Vacation Operations of Parks & Resorts reporting to Al Weiss, president of worldwide operations for Walt Disney Parks and Resorts. by April 2008. In February 2009, Holz returned to the presidency of Disney Cruise Line in addition to his continuing as head of New Vacation Operations, which was primarily Adventures by Disney. As an extension of the "One Disney '' initiative and the resignation of Weiss, Disney Vacation Club was added to New Vacation Operations. While Holz and Meg Crofton joined Disney Parks and Resorts executive committee in July 2011. At that time, Crofton was transferred from Disney World president to president of operations in the U.S. and France, a new positions.
The Disney Dream began service in January 2011 and Disney Cruise Line (DCL) announced the maiden voyage of the Disney Fantasy to be March 31, 2012. The Dream deployment allowed Disney Wonder to be permanently stationed at Port of Los Angeles for Mexican Riviera cruises, but initial served in the short Alaska cruise season. Magic moved to New York for Canadian or Bahama cruises starting May 25, 2012. DCL 's Magic was refitted in late 2013.
The first of three expansion theme lands at Hong Kong Disneyland, Toy Story Land, opens on November 18, 2011. Grizzly Gulch opens at Hong Kong Disneyland on July 13, 2012. The final land of this expansion, Mystic Point, opened at Hong Kong Disneyland on May 17, 2013.
On February 5, 2015, it was announced that Tom Staggs had been promoted to Disney Company Chief operating officer but would continue as chairman of Parks and Resorts until his successor was named. On February 23, 2015, Robert Chapek was named chairman of Walt Disney Parks and Resorts effective that day.
On April 29, 2015, The Walt Disney Company, through the subsidiary, Carousel Holdings Eat LLC, has purchased Carousel Inn & Suites hotel in Anaheim, from Good Hope International for $32 million. The purchase was considered a strategic purchase; the hotel would not be considered a part of the Disneyland hotel portfolio and would operate independently. Disney indicted in August 2016, that the company would be closing the Carousel Inn in October 2016 in preparation for razing it as part of plans to construct a new parking structure, transit plaza, and pedestrian bridge over Harbor Boulevard.
On February 10, 2017, Disney revealed a deal to purchase Kingdom Holding Co. 's shares of Euro Disney S.C.A. as first step in purchasing the remaining shares held by others. Disney has offered about $2.12 a share, a 67 % premium over the Euronext Paris Stock Exchange value as of February 9. The company expects the buyout and delisting to be finished by June. Plans are for the company to invest another $1.4 billion into Disneyland Paris after the buyout to counteract the recent Paris terrorist attack, which hurt a previous 2014 park hotel investment. If this buyout is successful, it would make the resort the only resort 100 % owned and operated by Disney outside of the United States of America. On June 13, 2017, The Walt Disney Company reached the 95 % threshold required for a mandatory takeover according to French law, owning 97.08 % of Euro Disney S.C.A., paving the way for The Walt Disney Company to become the sole owner and operator of Disneyland Paris.
As part of The Walt Disney Company 's March 2018 strategic reorganization, Walt Disney Parks and Resorts merged with Disney Consumer Products and Interactive Media segments into Walt Disney Parks, Experiences and Consumer Products. Parks and Resorts chairman Bob Chapek was named chairman of this new segment, who also previously served as head of Disney Consumer Products.
Disneyland was founded as a single park by Walt Disney and opened on July 17, 1955, in Anaheim, California. Disneyland Hotel opened to the public on October 5, 1955. In 2001, the site expanded significantly and was renamed the Disneyland Resort with the opening of Disney California Adventure Park on February 8, 2001, Disney 's Grand Californian Hotel & Spa on January 2, 2001, Disney 's Paradise Pier Hotel on December 15, 2000, and Downtown Disney on January 12, 2001. Disneyland was rebranded Disneyland Park to distinguish it from the larger resort complex. The resort focuses on Mickey Mouse and other Disney characters and occupies 500 acres (2.0 km).
The Walt Disney World Resort opened October 1, 1971, in Lake Buena Vista, Florida, with the Magic Kingdom theme park and three resort hotels. It expanded with the opening of Epcot in 1982, Disney - MGM Studios (now Disney 's Hollywood Studios) and Disney 's Typhoon Lagoon in 1989, Disney 's Blizzard Beach in 1995, Disney 's Animal Kingdom in 1998, Disney Springs retail, dining, and entertainment complex, eight golf courses, and 18 new resort hotels. The resort is the largest (by area) and most - visited vacation resort in the world, with four theme parks, two water parks, a shopping, dining, and entertainment complex, 21 resort hotels, eight golf courses, and several additional recreational activities, and covers 27,258 acres of land. It is the flagship of the worldwide Disney parks and resorts.
Other venues:
Tokyo Disney Resort, located in Urayasu, Chiba, Japan, opened April 15, 1983, with Tokyo Disneyland. On September 4, 2001, the resort expanded with Tokyo DisneySea. There are several resort hotels on site, but only three are actually owned by the resort, which boasts the largest parking structure in the world. Tokyo Disney Resort is fully owned and operated by The Oriental Land Company and is licensed by The Walt Disney Company. The resort was built by Walt Disney Imagineering, and Disney maintains a degree of control; Nick Franklin leads the Walt Disney Attractions Japan team at The Walt Disney Company, which communicates with the Oriental Land Company over all aspects of the Resort, and assigns Imagineers to the Resort. Its properties, listed below, are divided into parks, shopping centers, and lodging.
Disneyland Paris, Disney 's second resort complex outside the United States, opened on April 12, 1992, as the Euro Disney Resort. Located in Marne - la - Vallée in the suburbs of Paris, France, it features two theme parks, a golf course, an entertainment complex, and seven Disney resort hotels. It is the only resort out of the United States fully owned and operated by The Walt Disney Company. Its properties sit on 4,940 acres (20.0 km), listed below, and are divided into parks and shopping centers.
Hong Kong Disneyland Resort, Disney 's fifth resort and its second in Asia, opened September 12, 2005. The resort is located in Penny 's Bay, Lantau Island, Hong Kong. The resort consists of Hong Kong Disneyland theme park, Inspiration Lake Recreation Centre, and three hotels, with land reserved for future expansion. It is owned and operated by Hong Kong International Theme Parks, an incorporated company jointly owned by The Walt Disney Company and the Government of Hong Kong. The first phase of Hong Kong Disneyland Resort occupies 320 acres (1.3 km).
In November 2009, Disney received approval from the central government of China to build a Disney theme park, Shanghai Disneyland Park, in Shanghai 's Pudong district. "China is one of the most dynamic, exciting and important countries in the world and this approval marks a very significant milestone for Walt Disney Co in mainland China, '' said Robert Iger, president and CEO of Disney. The resort opened on June 16, 2016. A groundbreaking ceremony took place on April 7, 2011.
Founded by Walt Disney in 1955, each new employee at a Disney theme park is trained at a Disney University. Before classes and on - the - job training specific to the job they will be performing in the park, each employee attends the "Disney Traditions '' course where they learn of the philosophies and history of Disney 's guest services.
Disney had plans to build Walt Disney 's Riverfront Square in St. Louis. In July 1965, Disney canceled the project.
In the 1960s, Disney initiated a plan for a ski resort at Mineral King in California. Opposition from environmental groups led by the Sierra Club led to a temporary court injunction in 1969 and legal battles through the 1970s. The project 's planning and scale changed multiple times, and in 1978, Mineral King was annexed into Sequoia National Park, ending any possibility of developing a ski resort.
Disney reportedly had plans to build a park named Disney 's America. The park was to have been located in Haymarket, Virginia, but local opposition to the idea persuaded Disney to abandon the idea in 1994. On September 28, 1994, Michael Eisner announced that Disney was canceling its plans to build Disney 's America after a bruising national media fight with Protect Historic America and aggressive local opposition in Virginia from Protect Prince William and other citizen groups.
Disney had plans to build a Disneyland in Sydney, Australia, between 2007 and 2008 with the proposed name "Disney Wharf at Sydney Harbour '', but the concept was abandoned due to mixed responses in the New South Wales Government.
In early January 2011, conflicting reports emerged regarding Disney 's involvement in a proposed entertainment complex in Haifa, Israel, whose plans include a small (30,000 square meter) amusement park scheduled to open in 2013. The project will be partially funded by Shamrock Holdings, a Disney - affiliated investment firm. In the wake of reports from Israeli business newspaper Globes and industry newswire Amusement Management that Disney itself would be involved in the project 's development, a spokesperson for Walt Disney Parks and Resorts clarified to Fast Company that Disney did not have any plans to involve itself in the building of the park.
It was reported in August 2014 that beginning in 2015, Disney planned to expand the presence of Star Wars throughout their theme parks (though it was initially unclear which parks) and could also create an entire theme park area dedicated to the film franchise. Disney Chairman and CEO Bob Iger indicated that plans were to match what Universal Orlando did when they expanded and added a Harry Potter themed section to two of their theme parks. In 2012, Disney acquired Lucasfilm, which includes the rights to the Star Wars franchise and Indiana Jones franchise (which is also expected to see an increase in presence at the theme parks), and in December 2015, Disney released Star Wars: The Force Awakens, the first of a new trilogy of films. Star Wars: Galaxy 's Edge was announced on August 15, 2015 as Star Wars Land, and is currently under construction at the Disneyland Resort in California and Disney 's Hollywood Studios in Florida. Both lands are set to open in 2019. At D23 Expo 2017, Disney Parks chairman Bob Chapek revealed Galaxy 's Edge as the area 's official name, announcing an attraction set inside the hangar bay of a First Order Star Destroyer. The Disneyland version of Galaxy 's Edge is currently slated to open first, with the Walt Disney World version following later in 2019. In addition, it was announced that a Star Wars - themed hotel and resort are planned for Walt Disney World; the company aims for guest experiences to be "100 % immersive '', with Chapek claiming that each guest 's stay will "culminate in a unique journey ''.
In September 2011, Walt Disney Parks and Resorts announced plans to partner with filmmaker James Cameron and his Lightstorm Entertainment production company, along with 20th Century Fox, to develop theme park attractions based on Cameron 's Avatar film franchise, with the first installation planned for Disney 's Animal Kingdom at Walt Disney World, in the form of a themed land. The expansion, named "Pandora -- The World of Avatar '', opened on May 27, 2017. Future Avatar - themed lands could be built for the other Disney Resorts, including the locations in Shanghai and Hong Kong.
Both Hong Kong Disneyland Resort and Disneyland Paris Resort have room for future expansion. Disney has made announcements regarding plans for another American theme park and CEO Robert Iger frequently has cited international expansion as one of the company 's three strategic priorities.
Due to its acquisitions of Marvel Entertainment in 2009 and Lucasfilm in 2012, some Disney - owned franchises are represented in its competitors ' parks. Marvel Super Hero Island, a themed land featuring characters and settings from Marvel Comics, has operated at Universal Orlando Resort 's Islands of Adventure park since 1999, as well as the Islands of Adventure cloned ride The Amazing Adventures of Spider - Man at Universal Studios Japan since 2004. Under Marvel 's 1994 agreement with Universal Parks & Resorts in regional terms, none of the Marvel characters and other persons related to such characters (e.g., side characters, team members, and the villains associated with the Avengers, Fantastic Four, X-Men, Spider - Man, etc.) connected with Islands of Adventure and Universal Studios Japan can be used at Walt Disney World and Tokyo Disney Resort. Disneyland Resort, Walt Disney World, and Tokyo Disney also can not use the Marvel name as part of an attraction or marketing and the Marvel - themed simulator ride. This clause has allowed Walt Disney World to have meet and greets with Marvel characters not associated with the ones at Islands of Adventure, such as Star - Lord and Gamora from Guardians of the Galaxy as well as Baymax and Hiro from Big Hero 6. Hong Kong Disneyland, Shanghai Disneyland, and Disneyland Paris either have or planned to incorporate meet and greets as well as attractions relating to the Marvel characters, as well as using the Marvel name and the Marvel simulator ride.
A Star Wars - themed section of Legoland California 's Miniland USA opened in 2011, with a similar version opening at Legoland Florida in November 2012, just weeks after Disney 's acquisition of Lucasfilm and the Star Wars franchise.
While Disney Parks generally adapt movies into rides, some Disney Park attractions and a theme land have been adapted into movies, books, comic books, and television pilots. Disney Productions, now the Walt Disney Company, entered the TV field with a network TV show named after Disneyland (which was then its only park, and was being built at the time), in order to fund the park. In this series, some episodes featured the park or a park attraction. The Walt Disney Company pioneered and is the only film company and theme park company to have converted theme park attractions to film productions. However, lackluster results were achieved for most of these films except for the Pirates Of The Caribbean series. Disney Pictures made two Pirates Of The Caribbean sequels in 2006 and 2011 that made over a billion - dollar at the box office.
At first, Disney had merely dabbled with this type of film. Disney Telefilms made the first movie - based - on - ride, Tower of Terror, for the Wonderful World of Disney anthology television series in 1997. In 2000, Touchstone Pictures made Mission to Mars based on the closed ride of the same name.
Walt Disney Pictures took the Country Bear Jamboree attraction and made it into The Country Bears in 2002. In 2003, Disney Pictures issued two ride - based films in Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and The Haunted Mansion. Pirates of the Caribbean launched a film series and a franchise. After four Pirates sequels, the franchise took in more than $5.4 billion worldwide.
Disney Publishing Worldwide started mining Disney Parks with its The Kingdom Keepers series. The first novel of the series, Disney after Dark, was released in 2005. A five - book series was laid out by Pearson, but was extended to seven with the first book 's success.
With the Pirates of the Caribbean franchise as Disney Pictures ' top franchise, the company had been looking for additional projects in this category for a decade. Disney Pictures took another push at additional adaptations in the 2010s. By November 2010, Jon Favreau had been tapped to develop the Magic Kingdom park into a "Night at the Museum '' like film, with Strike Entertainment signed on to produce it after a script by Ronald D. Moore was turned down. Another Haunted Mansion film was in the works with Guillermo del Toro as of August 2012. Mr. Toad 's Wild Ride ride film was in the works at Disney Pictures by January 2013. Tomorrowland, first to be loosely based on a theme park area, was announced in January 2013 for a December 2014 release. Also in 2013, American Broadcasting Company had ordered a pilot based on Big Thunder Mountain Railroad. It 's A Small World was added to the list of known projects in April 2014. Tower of Terror was given a theatrical treatment by John August under producer Jim Whitaker in October 2015, while the long - in - production Jungle Cruise gained an actor.
Marvel Publishing with Disney announced in October 2013 that in January 2014 it would release its first comic book title under their joint "Disney Kingdoms '' imprint "Seekers of the Weird '', a five - issue miniseries inspired by a never built Disneyland attraction Museum of the Weird. On March 31, 2015, the first novel in The Kingdom Keeper sequel trilogy series was released.
In May 2017, Freeform cable channel aired a special documentary, Disney 's Fairy Tale Weddings, based on the services provided by Disney Parks and Resorts unit, Disney 's Fairy Tale Weddings & Honeymoons. With success of the May special, the show was picked up as a series with seven episodes in October 2017. However, another special, Holiday Magic, was aired on December 11, 2017 with the now six episode regular series starting on June 11, 2018.
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when do you have to have a real id | Real ID Act - wikipedia
The REAL ID Act of 2005, Pub. L. 109 -- 13, 119 Stat. 302, enacted May 11, 2005, is an Act of Congress that modifies U.S. federal law pertaining to security, authentication, and issuance procedures standards for the state driver 's licenses and identity documents, as well as various immigration issues pertaining to terrorism.
The law sets forth requirements for state driver 's licenses and ID cards to be accepted by the federal government for "official purposes '', as defined by the Secretary of the United States Department of Homeland Security. The Secretary of Homeland Security has currently defined "official purposes '' as boarding commercially operated airline flights and entering federal buildings and nuclear power plants, although the law gives the Secretary the unlimited authority to require a "federal identification '' for any other purposes.
The REAL ID Act implements the following:
On December 20, 2013, the Department of Homeland Security announced that implementation of Phase 1 would begin on January 20, 2014, which followed a yearlong period of "deferred enforcement ''. There are four planned phases, three of which apply to areas that affect relatively few U.S. citizens -- e.g., DHS headquarters, nuclear power plants, and restricted and semi-restricted federal facilities. On January 8, 2016, DHS issued an implementation schedule for Phase 4, stating that starting January 22, 2018 "passengers with a driver 's license issued by a state that is still not compliant with the REAL ID Act (and has not been granted an extension) will need to show an alternative form of acceptable identification for domestic air travel to board their flight ''. Starting October 1, 2020 "every air traveler will need a REAL ID - compliant license, or another acceptable form of identification, for domestic air travel. '' As of October 2017, 28 states and territories have been certified as compliant, and 28 have been granted extensions or a grace period.
The Real ID Act started off as H.R. 418, which passed the House and went stagnant. Representative James Sensenbrenner (R) of Wisconsin, the author of the original Real ID Act, then attached it as a rider on a military spending bill, H.R. 1268, the Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act for Defense, the Global War on Terror, and Tsunami Relief, 2005. The House of Representatives passed that spending bill with the Real ID rider 368 -- 58, and the Senate passed the joint House - Senate conference report on that bill 100 -- 0. President Bush signed it into law on May 11, 2005.
On February 28, 2007, U.S. Senator Daniel Akaka (D - HI) introduced the Senate Bill S. 717, "Identification Security Enhancement Act of 2007 '', subtitled: "A bill to repeal title II of the REAL ID Act of 2005, to restore section 7212 of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, which provides States additional regulatory flexibility and funding authorization to more rapidly produce tamper - and counterfeit - resistant driver 's licenses, and to protect privacy and civil liberties by providing interested stakeholders on a negotiated rulemaking with guidance to achieve improved 21st century licenses to improve national security ''. The bill is co-sponsored by Senators Lamar Alexander (R - TN), Max Baucus (D - MT), Patrick Leahy (D - VT), John E. Sununu (R - NH), Jon Tester (D - MT). The bill was read twice and referred to the Senate Committee on the Judiciary on February 28, 2007.
A similar bill was introduced on February 16, 2007, in the U.S. House of Representatives by Rep. Thomas Allen (D - ME), with 32 co-sponsors (all Democrats). The House bill, H.R. 1117, "REAL ID Repeal and Identification Security Enhancement Act of 2007 '', is subtitled: "A bill to repeal title II of the REAL ID Act of 2005, to restore section 7212 of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, which provides States additional regulatory flexibility and funding authorization to more rapidly produce tamper - and counterfeit - resistant driver 's licenses, and to protect privacy and civil liberties by providing interested stakeholders on a negotiated rulemaking with guidance to achieve improved 21st century licenses to improve national security. '' On May 23, 2007, the House Oversight and Government Reform Committee referred H.R. 1117 to the Subcommittee on Government Management, Organization, and Procurement.
A more limited bill, S. 563, that would extend the deadlines for the states ' compliance with the Real ID Act, was introduced on February 13, 2007, in the U.S. Senate by Sen. Susan Collins (R - ME), together with Senators Lamar Alexander (R - TN), Thomas Carper (D - DE), Charles Hagel (R - NE), and Olympia Snowe (R - ME).
On March 2, 2007, it was announced that enforcement of the Act would be postponed until December 2009. On January 11, 2008, it was announced that the deadline has been extended again to 2011. On the same date the Department of Homeland Security released the final rule regarding the implementation of the driver 's licenses provisions of the Real ID Act.
As of April 2, 2008, all 50 states either applied for extensions of the original May 11, 2008 compliance deadline or received unsolicited extensions. As of October 2009, 25 states approved either resolutions or binding legislation not to participate in the program. When President Obama selected Janet Napolitano (a prominent critic of the program) to head the Department of Homeland Security, the future of the law was considered uncertain, and bills were introduced into Congress to amend or repeal it. In 2009, the most recent of these, dubbed PASS ID, would have eliminated many of the more burdensome technological requirements but still require states to meet federal standards in order to have their ID cards accepted by federal agencies.
There are four planned phases, and each of the first three phases will begin with a three - month "notification period '' during which noncompliant IDs will continue to be accepted:
In the United States, driver 's licenses are issued by the states, not by the federal government. Additionally, because the United States has no national identification card and because of the widespread use of cars, driver 's licenses have been used as a de facto standard form of identification within the country. For non-drivers, states also issue voluntary identification cards which do not grant driving privileges. Prior to the REAL ID Act, each state set its own rules and criteria regarding the issuance of a driver 's license or identification card, including the look of the card, what data is on the card, what documents must be provided to obtain one, and what information is stored in each state 's database of licensed drivers and identification card holders.
Driver 's license implications
The REAL ID Act Driver 's License Summary details the following provisions of the Act 's driver 's license title:
After 2011, "a Federal agency may not accept, for any official purpose, a driver 's license or identification card issued by a state to any person unless the state is meeting the requirements '' specified in the REAL ID Act. The DHS will continue to consider additional ways in which a REAL ID license can or should be used for official federal purposes without seeking the approval of Congress before doing so. States remain free to also issue non-complying licenses and IDs, so long as these have a unique design and a clear statement that they can not be accepted for any federal identification purpose. The federal Transportation Security Administration is responsible for security check - in at airports, so bearers of non-compliant documents would no longer be able to travel on common carrier aircraft without additional screening unless they had an alternative government - issued photo ID.
People born on or after December 1, 1964, will have to obtain a REAL ID by December 1, 2014. Those born before December 1, 1964, will have until December 1, 2017, to obtain their REAL ID.
The national license / ID standards cover:
These requirements are not new. They replace similar language in Section 7212 of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (Pub. L. 108 -- 458), which had not yet gone into effect before being repealed by the Real ID Act.
A Real ID - compliant form of identification requires the following pieces of data:
Said cards must also feature specific security features intended to prevent tampering, counterfeiting, or duplication of the document for fraudulent purposes. These cards must also present data in a common, machine - readable format (bar codes, smart card technology, etc.). Although the use of wireless RFID chips was offered for consideration in the proposed rulemaking process, it was not included in the latest rulemaking process. DHS could consider additional technological requirements to be incorporated into the licenses after consulting with the states. In addition, DHS has required the use of RFID chips in its Enhanced Driver 's License program, which the Department is proposing as an alternative to REAL ID.
Before a card can be issued, the applicant must provide the following documentation:
Digital images of each document will be stored in each state DMV database.
Section 202 (c) (3) of the Real ID Act requires the states to "verify, with the issuing agency, the issuance, validity, and completeness of each document '' that is required to be presented by a driver 's license applicant to prove their identity, birth date, legal status in the U.S., social security number and the address of their principal residence. The same section states that the only foreign document acceptable is a foreign passport.
The DHS final rule regarding implementation of the Real ID Act driver 's license provisions relaxes, and in some instances waives altogether, these verification requirements of the Real ID Act. Thus the DHS rule concedes that there is no practical mechanism to verify with the issuers the validity of documents proving the applicant 's primary address (such as a mortgage statement or a utility bill) and leaves the implementation of this verification requirement to discretion of the states (page 5297 of the DHS final rule in the Federal Register). However, the DHS rule, Section 37.11 (c), mandates that the Real ID license applicants be required to present at least two documents documenting the address of their primary residence.
The DHS rule declines to implement as impractical the provision of the Act requiring verification of the validity of foreign passports presented by foreign driver 's license applicants as proof of identity with the authorities that issued these foreign passports (page 5294 of the DHS final rule in the Federal Register).
Section 37.11 (c) of the DHS final rule allows the states to accept several types of documents as proof of social security number: a social security card, a W - 2 form, an SSA - 1099 form, a non-SSA - 1099 form, or a pay stub bearing the applicant 's name and SSN. However, the states are not required to verify the validity of these documents directly with their issuers (e.g. with the employer that issued a W - 2 form or a pay stub). Instead, the DHS rule requires the states to verify the validity, and its match with the name given, of the social security number itself, via electronically querying the Social Security On - Line Verification (SSOLV) database managed by the Social Security Administration.
The DHS rule, Section 37.13 (b) (3), specifies that the validity of birth certificates, presented to document the date of birth or to prove U.S. citizenship, should be verified electronically, by accessing the Electronic Verification of Vital Events (EVVE) system maintained by the National Association for Public Health Statistics and Information Systems (NAPHSIS), rather than directly with the issuers of the birth certificates (such as state vital records agencies).
Each state must agree to share its motor vehicle database with all other states. This database must include, at a minimum, all the data printed on the state drivers ' licenses and ID cards, plus drivers ' histories (including motor vehicle violations, suspensions, and points on licenses).
Original legislation contained one of the most controversial elements which did not make it into the final legislation that was signed into law. It would have required states to sign a new compact known as the Driver License Agreement (DLA) as written by the Joint Driver 's License Compact / Non-Resident Violators Compact Executive Board with staff support provided by the American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators AAMVA and as approved by state Driver Licensing Agency representatives. The DLA is a consolidation of the Driver 's License Compact and the Non-Resident Violators Compact, which currently have 46 and 45 member states, respectively. The following controversial elements of the DLA are already in the existing compacts: a convicting state must report out - of - state convictions to the licensing state, states must grant license reciprocity to drivers licensed in other states, and states must allow authorities in other states access to driving records, consistent with the Driver Privacy Protection Act.
The requirement in the law for interstate access to state license and ID data has not been included in the DHS criteria for certification of state compliance or progress toward compliance.
The only system currently available with the capability to satisfy the REAL - ID Act requirements for database access is the "State to State '' (S2S) system developed by the AAMVA and Clerus Solutions under contract with state motor vehicle licensing agencies ultimately funded by federal grants. A component of S2S is State Pointer Exchange Services (SPEXS), a central national database of "pointer '' information about all REAL - ID compliant licenses and state ID cards. As of February, 2016, four states were participating in S2S.
New controversial requirements of the DLA are: (1) provinces and territories in Canada and states in Mexico are allowed to join the DLA and (2) member states, provinces, and territories are subject to reviews by DLA authorities for compliance with the provisions of the DLA. The DLA originated in concept with the 1994 establishment of a North American Driver License Agreement (NADLA) task force, and has created controversy among state representatives opposed to citizen data being shared with other countries. According to a 2005 analysis of the DLA done by the National Conference of State Legislators, the DLA defines "jurisdiction '' to allow participation by a territory or province of Canada and by any state of Mexico or the Federal District of Mexico. The DLA can be amended by a vote of at least two - thirds of the member jurisdictions.
On January 11, 2008, DHS released the final rule regarding the implementation of the driver 's licenses provisions of the Real ID Act. Under the DHS final rule, those states that chose to comply with Driver 's License provisions of the Real ID Act are allowed to apply for up to two extensions of the May 11, 2008 deadline for implementing these provisions: an extension until no later than December 31, 2009 and an additional extension until no later than May 11, 2011. The DHS final rule mandates that, as of March 11, 2011, driver 's licenses issued by the states that are not deemed to be in full compliance with the Real ID Act, will not be accepted for federal purposes. The Secretary of Homeland Security is given discretion to determine the scope of such official purposes in the future. For the states that do not apply to DHS, by March 31, 2008, for an extension of the May 11, 2008, implementation deadline, that deadline will apply: after May 11, 2008, driver 's licenses issued by such states will not be accepted for federal purposes.
The Department of Homeland Security has announced at the end of 2013 that the TSA will accept state identification cards for commercial flights at least until 2016.
After the final implementation deadline, some non-Real - ID -- compliant licenses will continue to be accepted for federal purposes, provided DHS judges that the state which issued such a license is in full compliance with the Real ID Act by the final implementation deadline. However, in order for their licenses to be accepted for federal purposes, people born after December 1, 1964, were to have been required to have Real - ID -- compliant cards by December 1, 2014, and people born before December 1, 1964, by December 1, 2017. In December 2014, these deadlines were extended to October 1, 2020.
In March 2011 the U.S. Department of Homeland Security further postponed the effective date of the Real ID Act implementation deadline until January 15, 2013.
As of May 11, 2005, several portions of the Real ID Act have imposed higher burdens and stricter standards of proof for individuals applying for asylum and other related forms of relief. For the first time, immigration judges can require an applicant to produce corroborating evidence (8 U.S.C. § 1229a (c) (4) (B). Additionally, the government may also require that an applicant produce corroborating evidence, a requirement that may only be overcome if the judge is convinced that such evidence is unavailable (8 U.S.C. § 1252 (b) (4)).
Restricting illegal immigrants or legal immigrants who are unable to prove their legal status, or lack social security numbers, from obtaining driver 's licenses may keep them from obtaining liability insurance and from working, causing many immigrants and foreign nationals to lose their jobs or to travel internationally in order to renew their drivers license. Furthermore, for visitors on J - 1 and H1B visas, the fact that visas may expire before their legal stay is over (this happens due to the fact that J - 1 Visas are issued with a one - year expiration date but visitors are allowed to stay for their "duration of status '' as long as they have a valid contract) can make the process of renewing a driver 's license extremely complex and, as mentioned above, force legal foreign citizens to travel abroad only to renew a VISA which would not need to be renewed if it were n't for the need to renew one 's drivers license. Although the new law does allow states to offer "not for federal ID '' licenses in these cases, and that some states (e.g., Utah and Tennessee) have already started issuing such "driving privileges certificates / cards '' in lieu of regular drivers licenses, allowing such applicants to be tested and licensed to drive and obtain liability insurance, the majority of U.S. states do not plan to offer "not for federal ID '' licenses. In October 2007, then - governor of New York Eliot Spitzer announced that the state will adopt a similar "multi-tiered '' licensing scheme in which the state will issue three different kinds of driver licenses, two of which comply with the Real ID security requirements and one which will be marked as "not for federal ID '' purposes. However, following a political outcry, Spitzer withdrew his proposal to issue licenses to those unable to prove legal residence.
An earlier law (Section 102 of Pub. L. 104 -- 208, which is now part of 8 U.S.C. § 1103) provided for improvements to physical barriers at the borders of the United States.
Subsection (a) of the law read as follows: "The Attorney General, in consultation with the Commissioner of Immigration and Naturalization, shall take such actions as may be necessary to install additional physical barriers and roads (including the removal of obstacles to detection of illegal entrants) in the vicinity of the United States border to deter illegal crossings in areas of high illegal entry into the United States. ''
Subsection (b) orders the Attorney General to commence work on specified improvements to a 14 - mile section of the existing border fence near San Diego, and allocates funds for the project.
Subsection (c) provides for waivers of laws that interfere with the work described in subsections (a) and (b). Prior to the Real ID Act, this subsection allowed waivers of only two specific federal environmental laws.
The Real ID Act amends the language of subsection (c) to make the following changes:
The Real ID Act introduces strict laws governing applications for asylum and deportation of aliens for terrorist activity. However, at the same time, it makes two minor changes to U.S. immigration law:
The deportation of aliens for terrorist activities is governed by the following provisions:
Section 212 (a) (3) (B): Terrorist activities
The INA (Immigration & Nationality Act) defines "terrorist activity '' to mean any activity which is unlawful under the laws of the place where it is committed (or which, if committed in the United States, would be unlawful under the laws of the United States or any State) and which involves any of the following:
Other pertinent portions of Section 212 (a) (3) (B) are set forth below:
"Engage in terrorist activity '' defined
As used in this chapter (Chapter 8 of the INA), the term, "engage in terrorist activity '' means in an individual capacity or as a member of an organization:
This clause shall not apply to any material support the alien afforded to an organization or individual that has committed terrorist activity, if the Secretary of State, after consultation with the Attorney General, or the Attorney General, after consultation with the Secretary of State, concludes in his sole unreviewable discretion, that that this clause should not apply. ''
"Representative '' defined
As used in this paragraph, the term, "representative '' includes an officer, official, or spokesman of an organization, and any person who directs, counsels, commands, or induces an organization or its members to engage in terrorist activity.
"Terrorist organization '' defined
As used in Clause (i) (VI) and Clause (iv), the term ' foreign terrorist organization ' means an organization:
Section 140 (d) (2) of the "Foreign Relations Authorization Act '', Fiscal Years 1988 and 1989 defines "terrorism '' as "premeditated, politically motivated violence, perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents ''.
The Real ID Act introduces complex rules covering "delivery bonds ''. These resemble bail bonds, but are to be required for aliens that have been released pending hearings.
The remaining sections of the Real ID Act allocate funding for some reports and pilot projects related to border security, and change visa limits for temporary workers, nurses, and Australians.
Under the REAL ID Act, nationals of Australia are eligible to receive a special E-3 visa. This provision was the result of negotiations between the two countries that also led to the Australia - United States Free Trade Agreement which came into force on January 1, 2005.
Portions of the Real ID Act pertaining to states were scheduled to take effect on May 11, 2008, three years after the law passed, but the deadline had been extended to December 31, 2009. On January 11, 2008, it was announced the deadline has been extended again, until 2011, in hopes of gaining more support from states. On March 5, 2011, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security postponed the effective date of the Real ID Act until January 15, 2013, a move that avoided causing tremendous disruptions to air travel. State adoption and compliance has changed throughout the years as the final phase (Phase 4, Boarding federally regulated commercial aircraft) approaches and states are faced with potential air travel restrictions for their residents.
As of October 2017, the following states and territories have been certified by the DHS as being in compliance with DHS criteria, although most of them are not in compliance with other provisions of the law not included in the DHS criteria, such as participating in the interstate system for sharing of ID databases:
The following states have been granted extensions:
The following states and territories are in a grace period:
1. Participating in the interstate system for sharing of ID databases. 2. Offers enhanced driver 's licenses, which are compliant with the REAL ID Act.
On January 25, 2007, a Resolution passed overwhelmingly in the Maine Legislature that refuses implementation of the Real ID Act in that state, and calls on Congress to repeal the law. Many Maine lawmakers believe the law does more harm than good, that it would be a bureaucratic nightmare to enforce, is threatening to individual privacy, makes citizens increasingly vulnerable to ID theft, and would cost Maine taxpayers at least $185 million in five years because of the massive unfunded federal mandates on all the states. The Resolution vote in the Maine House was 137 -- 4 and in the Maine Senate unanimous, 34 -- 0.
On February 16, 2007, Utah unanimously passed a resolution that opposes the REAL ID Act. The resolution states that REAL ID is "in opposition to the Jeffersonian principles of individual liberty, free markets, and limited government ''. It further states that "the use of identification - based security can not be justified as part of a ' layered ' security system if the costs of the identification ' layer ' -- in dollars, lost privacy, and lost liberty -- are greater than the security identification provides '':
"the "common machine - readable technology '' required by the REAL ID Act would convert state - issued driver licenses and identification cards into tracking devices, allowing computers to note and record people 's whereabouts each time they are identified ''
"the requirement that states maintain databases of information about their citizens and residents and then share this personal information with all other states will expose every state to the information security weaknesses of every other state and threaten the privacy of every American ''
"the REAL ID Act wrongly coerces states into doing the federal government 's bidding by threatening to refuse noncomplying states ' citizens the privileges and immunities enjoyed by other states ' citizens ''
Arkansas, Arizona, Colorado, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and Washington have joined Maine and Utah in passing legislation opposing Real ID.
Similar resolutions are pending in Alaska, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Rhode Island, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Washington, D.C., West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.
Other states have moved aggressively to upgrade their IDs since 9 / 11, and still others have staked decidedly pro-Real ID positions, such as North Carolina. Some states whose legislatures passed non-binding resolutions opposing REAL ID are nonetheless working to comply with the law, such as Illinois. In announcing the new regulations, Secretary of Homeland Security Michael Chertoff cited California, Alabama, and North Dakota as examples of states that had made progress in complying with Real ID.
On July 7, 2008, Puerto Rico 's Governor Aníbal Acevedo Vilá announced that all 15 Puerto Rico Department of Transportation and Public Works Driver 's Services Center will implement a new system complying with the Real - ID Act.
As of January 29, 2008, the Department of Homeland Security has announced $79.8 million in grant monies to assist states with REAL ID implementation, and set an application deadline of March 7, 2008.
On April 16, 2009, the Missouri House of Representatives passed the anti REAL ID bill HB 361 to repeal section 302.171, RSMo, and to enact in lieu thereof two new sections relating to noncompliance with the federal REAL ID Act of 2005 sponsored by Representative Jim Guest by a vote of 83 Ayes 69 Noes and 3 Present. On May 13, 2009 the Missouri Senate unanimously passed HB 361, 43 Ayes 0 Noes. Missouri Governor Jay Nixon signed this bill into law on July 13, 2009.
For the 2012 Florida Legislative Session, the anti-REAL ID bill HB 109 and its Senate companion S 220 will be heard. Named the Florida Driver 's License Citizen Protection Act, it would require discontinuation of several of the federally mandated provisions of REAL ID and destruction of citizen 's documents that had been scanned into the government database. That bill died in Transportation and Highway Safety Subcommittee on March 9, 2012.
New Jersey planned to begin issuing REAL ID compliant drivers ' licenses and non-driver ID cards beginning May 7, 2012, but was forestalled by a temporary restraining order issued on May 4, 2012 on motion of the ACLU. On October 5, 2012, the state subsequently agreed to drop its REAL ID compliant license plan settling the lawsuit brought by the ACLU.
On July 1, 2012, Georgia began issuing REAL ID compliant drivers ' licenses and non-driver ID cards. The increase in items needed to show in order to receive a license caused wait times to reach up to five hours.
Although Hawaii had expressed opposition to some portions of the REAL ID Act, it began requiring proof of legal presence in March 2012. Hawaii 's updated drivers ' licenses and non-driver ID cards were deemed fully compliant by the Department of Homeland Security in September 2013.
On November 12, 2014, Nevada began offering REAL ID compliant drivers licenses to residents. Nevadans have a choice of a REAL ID compliant card or a standard card with the heading "Not for Federal Official Use ''.
On April 14, 2015, Arizona governor Doug Ducey signed a bill allowing the state to begin the process of making Arizona drivers licenses Real ID compliant. Work on creating the drivers licenses has already begun, however the Arizona Department of Transportation has requested an extension on the implementation so that residents can still use current ID past the January 2016 deadline to board a commercial flight and implement Real ID when the state is ready.
On March 8, 2016, incumbent governor of New Mexico, Susana Martinez, signed House Bill 99 into law, hence bringing New Mexico into Real ID compliance.
The New Mexico MVD will begin issuing REAL ID compliant driver 's licenses and identification cards beginning November 14, 2016. Link: http://www.mvd.newmexico.gov/nm-drivers-license-id.aspx
On March 1, 2017, Oklahoma Governor Mary Fallin signed HB 1845 as the first bill signed in Oklahoma 's 2017 legislative session, bringing the state into compliance with the REAL ID Act.
On May 18, 2017, Minnesota Governor Mark Dayton signed legislation to bring Minnesota into compliance with the federal REAL ID Act by October 2018.
Along with the Bush administration, the Real ID Act is strongly supported by the conservative Heritage Foundation and by many anti-illegal immigration advocates.
However, the Real ID Act has faced criticism from across the political spectrum and remains the subject of several ongoing controversies. Opponents of the Real ID Act include libertarian groups, like the Cato Institute; immigrant advocacy groups; human and civil rights organizations like the ACLU; Christian advocacy groups such as the American Center for Law & Justice (ACLJ); privacy advocacy groups like the 511 campaign, state - level opposition groups such as North Carolinians Against REAL ID; and Florida, government accountability groups; labor groups, like AFL - CIO; People for the American Way; consumer and patient protection groups; some gun rights groups, such as Gun Owners of America; many state lawmakers, state legislatures, and governors; The Constitution Party; the editorial page of the Wall Street Journal; and the Obama administration, among others.
Founded by evangelical Christian Pat Robertson, the American Center for Law and Justice (ACLJ) participated in a joint press conference with the ACLU in 2008, highlighting the broad diversity of the coalition opposing Title II of the REAL ID Act. The REAL ID Act causes concerns for transgender people, as well. The National Coalition Against Domestic Violence has also voiced concern about REAL ID.
Florida Libertarian Adrian Wyllie drove without a driver 's license since 2011 in protest of the REAL ID Act. After being ticketed for driving without a license, Wyllie argued in court that Florida 's identification laws violated his privacy rights; this claim was rejected by a judge.
Among the 2008 presidential candidates, according to a February 2008 CNet report at news.com, John McCain strongly supported the Real ID Act, Barack Obama and Ron Paul flatly opposed it, while Hillary Clinton called for the law to be reviewed. In a September 2007 interview Mike Huckabee expressed opposition to the Real ID Act, calling the Real ID Act "a huge mistake ''.
The original Real ID Act, H.R. 418, was approved by the House on February 10, 2005, by a vote of 261 -- 161. At the insistence of the Real ID Act sponsor and then House Judiciary Committee Chair F. James Sensenbrenner (Republican, Wisconsin), the Real ID Act was subsequently attached by the House Republican leadership as a rider to H.R. 1268, a bill dealing with emergency appropriations for the Iraq War and with the tsunami relief funding. H.R. 1268 was widely regarded as a "must - pass '' legislation. The original version of H.R. 1268 was passed by the Senate on April 21, 2005, and did not include the Real ID Act. However, the Real ID Act was inserted in the conference report on H.R. 1268 that was then passed by the House on May 5, 2005, by a 368 -- 58 vote and was unanimously passed by the Senate on May 10, 2005. The Senate never discussed or voted on the Real ID Act specifically and no Senate committee hearings were conducted on the Real ID Act prior to its passage. Critics charged that this procedure was undemocratic and that the bill 's proponents avoided a substantive debate on a far - reaching piece of legislation by attaching it to a "must - pass '' bill.
A May 3, 2005, statement by the American Immigration Lawyers Association said: "Because Congress held no hearings or meaningful debate on the legislation and amended it to a must - pass spending bill, the REAL ID Act did not receive the scrutiny necessary for most measures, and most certainly not the level required for a measure of this importance and impact. Consistent with the lack of debate and discussion, conference negotiations also were held behind closed doors, with Democrats prevented from participating. ''
There is disagreement about whether the Real ID Act institutes a "national identification card '' system. The new law only sets forth national standards, but leaves the issuance of cards and the maintenance of databases in state hands; therefore, the Department of Homeland Security claims it is not a "national ID '' system. Web sites such as no2realid.org, unrealid.com, and realnightmare.org argue that this is a trivial distinction, and that the new cards are in fact national ID cards, thanks to the uniform national standards created by the AAMVA and (especially) the linked databases, and by the fact that such identification is mandatory if people wish to travel out of the United States.
Many advocacy groups and individual opponents of the Real ID Act believe that having a Real ID - compliant license may become a requirement for various basic tasks. Thus a January 2008 statement by ACLU of Maryland says: "The law places no limits on potential required uses for Real IDs. In time, Real IDs could be required to vote, collect a Social Security check, access Medicaid, open a bank account, go to an Orioles game, or buy a gun. The private sector could begin mandating a Real ID to perform countless commercial and financial activities, such as renting a DVD or buying car insurance. Real ID cards would become a necessity, making them de facto national IDs ''. However, in order to perform many of those tasks, government - issued identification is already required (e.g., two forms of ID -- usually a driver 's license, passport, or Social Security card -- are required by the Patriot Act in order to open a bank account).
Some critics claim that the Real ID Act violates the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution as a federal legislation in an area that, under the terms of the Tenth Amendment, is the province of the states. Thus, Anthony Romero, the executive director of ACLU, stated: "Real ID is an unfunded mandate that violates the Constitution 's 10th Amendment on state powers, destroys states ' dual sovereignty and consolidates every American 's private information, leaving all of us far more vulnerable to identity thieves ''.
Former Republican U.S. Representative Bob Barr wrote in a February 2008 article: "A person not possessing a Real ID Act - compliant identification card could not enter any federal building, or an office of his or her congressman or senator or the U.S. Capitol. This effectively denies that person their fundamental rights to assembly and to petition the government as guaranteed in the First Amendment ''.
The DHS final rule regarding implementation of the Real ID Act discusses a number of constitutional concerns raised by the commenters on the proposed version of this rule. The DHS rule explicitly rejects the assertion that the implementation of the Real ID Act will lead to violations of the citizens ' individual constitutional rights (page 5284 of the DHS rule in the Federal register). In relation to the Tenth Amendment argument about violation of states ' constitutional rights, the DHS rule acknowledges that these concerns have been raised by a number of individual commenters and in the comments by some states. The DHS rule does not attempt to rebuff the Tenth Amendment argument directly, but says that the DHS is acting in accordance with the authority granted to it by the Real ID Act and that DHS has been and will be working closely with the states on the implementation of the Real ID Act (pages 5284 and 5317 of the DHS final rule in the Federal Register).
On November 1, 2007, attorneys for Defenders of Wildlife and the Sierra Club filed an amended complaint in U.S. District Court challenging the 2005 REAL ID Act. The amended complaint alleges that this unprecedented authority violates the fundamental separation of powers principles enshrined in the U.S. Constitution. The environmental groups argue that Congress unconstitutionally delegated the power to the Department of Homeland Security (an appointed Executive branch not accountable to the public) to pick and choose which laws will apply to border wall construction. On December 18, 2007, Judge Ellen Segal Huvelle rejected the challenge.
On March 17, 2008, attorneys for Defenders of Wildlife and the Sierra Club filed a Petition for a Writ of Certiorari with the U.S. Supreme Court to hear its "constitutional challenge to the Secretary 's decision waiving nineteen federal laws, and all state and local legal requirements related to them, in connection with the construction of a barrier along a portion of the border with Mexico ''. They question whether the preclusion of judicial review amounts to an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power and whether the "grant of waiver authority violates Article I 's requirement that a duly - enacted law may be repealed only by legislation approved by both Houses of Congress and presented to the President ''. On April 17, 2008, numerous amicus briefs "supporting the petition were filed on behalf 14 members of Congress, a diverse coalition of conservation, religious and Native American organizations, and 28 law professors and constitutional scholars ''.
Many immigrant and civil rights advocates feel that the changes related to evidentiary standards and the immigration officers ' discretion in asylum cases, contained in the Real ID Act, would prevent many legitimate asylum seekers from obtaining asylum. Thus a 2005 article in LCCR - sponsored Civil Rights Monitor stated, "The bill also contained changes to asylum standards, which according to LCCR, would prevent many legitimate asylum seekers from obtaining safe haven in the United States. These changes gave immigration officials broad discretion to demand certain evidence to support an asylum claim, with little regard to whether the evidence can realistically be obtained; as well as the discretion to deny claims based on such subjective factors as "demeanor ''. Critics said the reason for putting such asylum restrictions into what was being sold as an anti terrorism bill was unclear, given that suspected terrorists are already barred from obtaining asylum or any other immigration benefit ".
Similarly, some immigration and human rights advocacy groups maintain that the Real ID Act provides an overly broad definition of "terrorist activity '' that will prevent some deserving categories of applicants from gaining asylum or refugee status in the United States. A November 2007 report by Human Rights Watch raises this criticism specifically in relation to former child soldiers who have been forcibly and illegally recruited to participate in an armed group.
A previous version of the Real ID Act (H.R. 418) would have prohibited any judicial review of Homeland Security law waivers for barrier construction. Critics maintained that this would elevate the Secretary of Homeland Security above the law, and this language was changed in the final version (H.R. 1268).
Many privacy rights advocates charge that by creating a national system electronically storing vast amounts of detailed personal data about individuals, the Real ID Act increases the chance of such data being stolen and thus raises the risk of identity theft. The Bush administration, in the DHS final rule regarding the Real ID Act implementation, counters that the security precautions regarding handling sensitive personal data and hiring DMV workers, that are specified in the Real ID Act and in the rule, provide sufficient protections against unauthorized use and theft of such personal data (pages 5281 -- 5283 of the DHS final rule in the Federal Register).
Another privacy concern raised by privacy advocates such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation is that the implementation of the Real ID Act will make it substantially easier for the government to track numerous activities of Americans and conduct surveillance.
Supporters of the Real ID Act, such as a conservative think - tank the Heritage Foundation, dismiss this criticism under the grounds that states will be permitted (by law) to share data only when validating someone 's identity.
The Data Privacy and Integrity Advisory Committee, which was established to advise the Department of Homeland Security on privacy - related issues, released a statement regarding the Department of Homeland Security 's proposed rules for the standardization of state driver licenses on May 7, 2007. The committee stated that "Given that these issues have not received adequate consideration, the Committee feels it is important that the following comments do not constitute an endorsement of REAL ID or the regulations as workable or appropriate '', and "The issues pose serious risks to an individual 's privacy and, without amelioration, could undermine the stated goals of the REAL ID Act ''.
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naw baby i ain't gonna be able to do it | Double X Posse - Wikipedia
Double X Posse, also known as Double XX Posse, was an American 1990s hip hop group from Jersey City, New Jersey. Their debut album Put Ya Boots On (1992), spawned two successful singles. The first and most successful, titled "Not Gonna be Able to Do It, '' reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Rap Singles in 1992 and also reached No. 68 on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Singles & Tracks chart in 1993. The second single from the group, "Head Cracker, '' reached No. 15 on the Hot Rap Singles chart. The group released a second album, Ruff, Rugged & Raw, in 1995. Both albums were released on Atlantic Records, their first on Big Beat Records, a subsidiary of Atlantic.
"Not Gonna Be Able to Do It '' appeared in the sitcom The Fresh Prince of Bel - Air, in the season 3 episode titled "You Bet Your Life. ''
For the 1995 album, Ruff, Rugged & Raw, they released a single and video called "Money Talks '' which was produced by Lord Finesse.
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where is the victoria's secret headquarters located | Victoria 's Secret - Wikipedia
Victoria 's Secret is an American designer, manufacturer, and marketer of women 's premium lingerie, womenswear, and beauty products. With 2012 sales of $6.12 billion, it is the largest American retailer of women 's lingerie. Victoria 's Secret is wholly owned by L Brands, a publicly traded company.
Victoria 's Secret was founded by Roy Raymond, and his wife Gaye, in San Francisco, California, on June 12, 1977.
Eight years prior to founding Victoria 's Secret, Raymond was embarrassed when purchasing lingerie for his wife at a department store. Newsweek reported him looking back on the incident from the vantage of 1981: "When I tried to buy lingerie for my wife, '' he recalls, "I was faced with racks of terry - cloth robes and ugly floral - print nylon nightgowns, and I always had the feeling the department store saleswomen thought I was an unwelcome intruder. ''
During the 1970s and 1980s, most women in America purchased "dowdy '', "pragmatic '', "foundation garments '' by Fruit of the Loom, Hanes, and Jockey in packs of three from department stores and saved "fancier items '' for "special occasions '' like honeymoons. "Lacy thongs and padded push - up bras '' were niche products during this period found "alongside feathered boas and provocative pirate costumes at Frederick 's of Hollywood '' outside of the mainstream product offerings available at department stores.
Raymond studied the lingerie market for eight years before borrowing $40,000 from his parents and $40,000 from a bank to establish Victoria 's Secret: a store in which men could feel comfortable buying lingerie. The company 's first store was located in Stanford Shopping Center in Palo Alto, California.
Raymond picked the name "Victoria '' after Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom to associate with the refinement of the Victorian era. The "Secret '' was what was hidden underneath the clothes.
Victoria 's Secret grossed $500,000 in its first year of business, enough to finance the expansion from a headquarters and warehouse to four new store locations and a mail - order operation.
By 1980, Raymond had added two more San Francisco stores at 2246 Union Street and 115 Wisconsin Street.
By 1982, the fourth store (still in the San Francisco area) was added at 395 Sutter Street. Victoria 's Secret stayed at that location until 1990, when it moved to the larger Powell Street frontage of the Westin St. Francis.
In April 1982, Raymond sent out his 12th catalog; each catalog cost $3 (equivalent to $7.45 in 2016). Catalog sales now accounted for 55 % of the company 's $7 million annual sales.
The Victoria 's Secret stores at this time were "a niche player '' in the underwear market. The business was described as "more burlesque than Main Street. ''
Raymond 's philosophy of focusing on selling lingerie to male customers became increasingly unprofitable and Victoria 's Secret headed for bankruptcy.
In 1982, it had grown to five stores, a 40 - page catalog, and was grossing $6 million annually. Raymond sold Victoria 's Secret Inc. to Leslie Wexner, creator of Limited Stores Inc of Columbus, Ohio, for $1 million (though the figure was not disclosed until later).
In 1983, Leslie Wexner revamped Victoria 's Secret. He discarded the money - losing model of selling lingerie to male customers and replaced it with one that focused on female customers. Victoria 's Secret transformed from "more burlesque than Main Street '' to a mainstay that sold broadly accepted underwear. The "new colors, patterns and styles that promised sexiness packaged in a tasteful, glamorous way and with the snob appeal of European luxury '' were supposed to appeal to and appease female buyers. To further this image, the Victoria 's Secret catalog continued the practice that Raymond began: listing the company 's headquarters on catalogs at a fake London address, with the real headquarters in Columbus, Ohio. The stores were redesigned to evoke 19th century England.
From at least 1985 through to 1993, Victoria 's Secret sold men 's underwear.
In 1986, four years after the sale, The New York Times commented, "in an industry where mark - downs have been the norm, the new emphasis is on style and service ''.
In the five years after the purchase, The Limited had transformed a three store boutique into a 346 store retailer.
Howard Gross took over as president from his position as vice-president in 1985. In October of that year, the Los Angeles Times reported that Victoria 's Secret was stealing market share from department stores; in 1986, Victoria 's Secret was the only national chain of lingerie stores.
The New York Times reported on Victoria 's Secret 's rapid expansion from four stores in 1982 to 100 in 1986, and analysts ' expectations that it could expand to 400 by 1988.
In 1987, Victoria 's Secret was reportedly among the "best - selling catalogs ''. In 1990, analysts estimated that sales had quadrupled in four years, making it one of the fastest growing mail - order businesses.
The New York Times described it as a "highly visible leader '', saying it used "unabashedly sexy high - fashion photography to sell middle - priced underwear. ''
Victoria 's Secret also released their own line of fragrances in 1992.
By the early 1990s, Victoria 's Secret faced a gap in management that led to the "once hot lingerie chain '' to be "plagued by persistent quality problems ''. Howard Gross, who had grown the company into a "lingerie empire '' since Wexner 's 1982 purchase, was moved to poorly performing L Brands subsidiary Limited Stores. Business Week reported that "both divisions have suffered ''.
Grace Nichols, who was President and CEO at that time, worked to resolve the quality problems; their margins tightened, resulting in a slower growth of profits.
Victoria 's Secret introduced the Miracle Bra selling two million within the first year, but faced competition from Sara Lee 's WonderBra a year later. The company responded to their rival with a TV campaign.
By 1998, Victoria 's Secret 's market share of the intimate apparel market was 14 percent. That year Victoria 's Secret also entered the $3.5 billion cosmetic market.
In 1999, the company aimed to increase its coverage with the Body by Victoria brand.
In May 2000, Wexner installed Sharen Jester Turney, previously of Neiman Marcus Direct, as the new chief executive of Victoria 's Secret Direct to turn around catalog sales that were lagging behind other divisions. Forbes reported Turney articulating, as she flipped through a Victoria 's Secret catalog, "We need to quit focusing on all that cleavage. ''
In 2000, Turney began to redefine Victoria 's Secret catalog from "breasts -- spilling over the tops of black, purple and reptile - print underthings '' to one that would appeal to an "upscale customer who now feels more comfortable buying La Perla or Wolford lingerie. ''; "dimming the hooker looks '' such as "tight jeans and stilettos ''; and moving from "a substitute for Playboy in some dorm rooms, '' to something closer to a Vogue lifestyle layout, where lingerie, sleepwear, clothes and cosmetics appear throughout the catalog.
Beginning in 2000, Grace Nichols, CEO of Victoria 's Secret Direct, led a similar change at Victoria 's Secret 's stores -- moving away from an evocation of 1800s England (or a Victorian bordello).
By 2006, Victoria 's Secret 's 1,000 stores across the United States accounted for one third of all purchases in the intimate apparel industry.
In May 2006, Wexner promoted Sharen Jester Turney from the Victoria 's Secret catalog and online units to lead the whole company. In 2008, she acknowledged "product quality that does n't equal the brand 's hype ''.
In September 2006, Victoria 's Secret reportedly tried to make their catalog feel more like magazines by head - hunting writers from Women 's Wear Daily.
In February 2016, Turney stepped down as CEO of Victoria 's Secret after serving for a decade.
In 2002, swimwear was introduced and available via the web site and catalog; in the last three years, the swimwear has become more readily available in stores.
In April of 2016 Chairman and CEO Leslie H. Wexner released this statement reported by E! News:
"Coming off a record year, now is the best time to make improvements... going to from best to even better. We are making those changes to accelerate our growth and to strengthen the business for the long term by narrowing our focus and simplifying our operating model. ''
"I am certain that these changes are necessary for our industry - leading brands to reach their significant potential... nonetheless, decisions about people are the most difficult ones to make, and we are taking care to support associates who are being affected by these changes. ''
In 2010, Victoria 's Secret launched the Incredible bra.
In 2012, Victoria 's Secret launched the Victoria 's Secret Designer Collection described by Vogue as the company 's "first high end lingerie line. ''
In 2016, Victoria 's Secret stopped selling swimwear, shoes, accessories and apparel that were only sold in online Victoria 's Secret stores to stay more focused on the lingerie, fragrances and sleepwear that are still available in stores and online.
In 2017 Victoria 's Secret began to put more emphasis on bralettes (bras without underwire, often intended to be worn visibly) and sports bras (under the Victoria Sport label) to appeal to a younger customer base.
Victoria 's Secret sales
Victoria 's Secret products that are left over after the season are sold at reduced prices through their online store. Large sales occur on Black Friday and the twice yearly Semi-Annual Sale. In addition, the Victoria 's Secret online store runs a continual series of temporary special offers, most of which require the customer to enter a promotion code during checkout.
In 1998, Gap launched a direct competitor to Victoria 's Secret: GapBody.
In 2008, Women 's Wear Daily reported that while "Victoria 's Secret dominates '' in the lingerie market "the competition is intensifying ''.
American Eagle Outfitters also launched a direct competitor to Victoria 's Secret, the underwear line Aerie, which is currently their biggest competitor within the younger customers.
In 2015 Lane Bryant took a direct dig with their I 'm No Angel campaign geared towards plus size women and placing emphasizes on sizes not carried by Victoria 's Secret.
Victoria 's Secret is known for its catalogs and its annual fashion show, the Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show, and has been credited with single - handedly transforming "America 's conception of lingerie '' by pioneering "sexy underwear as fashion '' and "lingerie mainstream entertainment. '' The societal manifestation is "the increased cultural acceptance of shopping for undies '' in the United States.
Victoria 's Secret is credited with "transforming lingerie from a slightly embarrassing taboo into an accessible, even routine accessory. '' In 2006, The New York Times reported that traditional fashion was influenced by intimate apparel "in part because of the influence of Victoria 's Secret -- and ubiquitous, sexually charged come - hither marketing. ''
Victoria Secret 's operations are organized into three divisions: Victoria 's Secret Stores (stores), Victoria 's Secret Direct (online and catalog operations), and Victoria 's Secret Beauty (their bath and cosmetics line). The company does business in the following retail formats: general merchandise stores, apparel stores.
Throughout the 1980s, Victoria 's Secret took over the market using "faux - British veneer, romantic styling and soft classical music. '' In 2000, the Los Angeles Times reported that Victoria 's Secret continued the practice of putting "on a British air -- or what the Ohio - based chain thinks Americans believe is British. Boudoirish. Tony. Upscale. ''
During the 1990s, Victoria 's Secret saw a 30 % increase in store sales after the use of analyzing in their data warehouse in which specific store the styles, sizes and color of which bras were selling.
As of 2010, there are 1,000 Victoria 's Secret lingerie stores and 100 independent Victoria 's Secret Beauty Stores in the United States, mostly in shopping centers. They sell a range of bras, panties, hosiery, cosmetics, sleepwear, and other products. Victoria 's Secret mails more than 400 million of its catalogs per year.
During the 1990s, store sizes grew from the average 1,400 square feet to between 4,000 and 5,000 square feet. In 2002, the average Victoria 's Secret store was 6,000 square feet.
Up until the early 2000s, management at Victoria 's Secret actively decided to not expand outside the United States. The drive to continue growing coupled with facing a maturing of the American retail market led to a change in that decision and to expand Victoria 's Secret outside the United States. Victoria 's Secret announced the company 's plan to expand into Canada in 2010. The company opened 23 stores stores in Canada with locations in Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan.
In November 2005, the company opened its first boutique in the United Kingdom at Heathrow Airport, Terminal 5 with the help of World Duty Free. This was followed in 2009 with several Victoria 's Secret Travel and Tourism stores residing within airports outside the United States. These include locations in Schiphol International Airport, The Netherlands.
Victoria 's Secret opened their first store located at the Westfield Shopping Centre, Stratford, London on July 24, 2012. Their flagship 40,386 - square - foot - (3,752.0 m) store on New Bond Street, London opened on August 29, 2012, and there will be further nationwide expansion across the United Kingdom. Victoria 's Secret executive vice president and chief administrative officer Martyn R Redgrave told Women 's Wear Daily "That 's what we 're looking to do as we expand, in the UK in particular, and those will be company - owned and operated ''. Since 2013, stores opened across the United Kingdom in Leeds, Manchester, Sheffield, Birmingham, Bristol and London including Westfield London, Bluewater and Brent Cross. As of 2016, there are 15 stores in the United Kingdom.
In 2010, Victoria 's Secret expanded with franchises internationally.
The first franchise store in Latin America opened in Isla Margarita, Venezuela on June 25, 2010 followed by other stores in the country, and in Bogota, Colombia, in July 2012 selling beauty products and accessories. Angel 's Group, the Colombian company operating the franchise, is planning to open 10 stores in Colombia. Victoria 's Secret is also planning on opening a store in the exclusive Multiplaza Mall in San Salvador, El Salvador.
In 2010, M.H. Alshaya Co. opened the first Victoria 's Secret store in the Middle East region in Kuwait. M.H. Alshaya Co. operates the Victoria 's Secret franchise located in the Marina Mall selling products including "cosmetic and branded accessories, but it has left out the brand 's infamous lingerie line ''.
The brand 's first Caribbean store opened in November 2011 at Plaza Las Americas in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Two stores also opened in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic at the Agora, (mainly selling beauty products and accessories) and Sambil Santo Domingo malls in August 2012 and October 2012, respectively.
The first Polish store opened in July 2012 at the Złote Tarasy shopping mall in Warsaw and is operated by M.H. Alshaya Co. It was the first Victoria 's Secret franchise store in Europe, and it opened just a day before the first British store in London.
The first Serbian Victoria 's Secret store opened in January 2014 at the Nikola Tesla Airport in Belgrade. This was the first Victoria 's Secret store to open in the former Yugoslavia.
Prior to the emergence of e-commerce, the Victoria 's Secret 's catalogs provided both an informative and exciting experience in the comfort of the consumer 's home.
The catalog under Raymond 's leadership took the form of an upmarket version of Frederick 's of Hollywood lingerie catalog being more sensuous than the catalog published under the future leadership of The Limited. In 1982 the Victoria 's Secret catalog cost $3.
The New York Times reported that the financial success of Victoria 's Secret catalogs influenced other catalogs, which changed to present lingerie as "romantic and sensual but tasteful '' "in which models are photographed in ladylike poses against elegant backgrounds. ''
This led to Victoria 's Secret dominating the catalog field for "lingerie and sexy nightwear. '' The catalogs allowed for consumers to review the entire spectrum of product offerings, along the axes of style, color and fabric. Victoria 's Secret accepted catalog orders via telephone 24 hours a day.
Victoria 's Secret 's catalog offers a more diverse range of merchandise.
The Los Angeles Times described the catalog in 2000 as having achieved "an almost cult - like following. ''
In 1995 Victoria 's Secret began building its e-commerce website which the company launched after three years of development at 6 p.m. December 4, 1998, using the domain VictoriasSecret.com. Twenty minutes later the first order was placed on the website from a Littleton, Colorado, customer at 6: 20 p.m.
It was reported that the three year development was a result of the company 's concern of rolling out a half - baked website that could "discourage return visits ''.
Viewers who logged onto the Victoria 's Secret 's website to view the company 's first webcast of their fashion show on February 3, 1999, were unable to view the webcast due to the Internet infrastructure Victoria Secret 's selected was unable to meet user demand causing some users to be unable to view the webcast.
The Limited, Inc in 1998 created Intimate Beauty Corporation with a mandate to establish a group of beauty businesses with Victoria 's Secret Beauty being the first company in the firm 's portfolio.
In November 2012 Susie Coulter became president of Victoria 's Secret Beauty; the company 's beauty division located in New York City
Victoria 's Secret was originally owned by "The Limited ''. In 2002 Wexner reincorporated Victoria 's Secret into the Limited; previously Victoria 's Secret 's parent company was Intimate Brands, a separately traded entity whose President was Ed Razek.
By 2006, 72 % of Limited Brands ' revenue -- and almost all of their profits -- came from their Victoria 's Secret and Bath & Body Works units.
On July 10, 2007, the Victoria 's Secret parent company, Limited Brands, sold a 75 % interest in their apparel brands, Limited Stores and Express to Sun Capital Partners, to focus on expanding their Victoria 's Secret and Bath & Body Works units. The immediate impact of the sale resulted in Limited Brands taking a $42 million after - tax loss.
In 1985, Howard Gross was promoted to president from vice president. In 1991 Grace Nichols replaced Gross as president of Victoria 's Secret Stores. Nichols previously had been "executive vice president and general merchandise manager of Limited 's lingerie division. ''
In 1998, Cynthia A. Fields became the president & chief executive of the company (when it was a division of Intimate Brands Inc.).
In May 2000, Wexner installed Sharen Jester Turney, who had previously worked at Neiman Marcus Direct, as the new chief executive of Victoria 's Secret Direct.
In May 2006, Christine Beauchamp was named president and CEO of Victoria 's Secret Beauty. Beauchamp was succeeded by Shashi Batra in 2009, who became president of Victoria 's Secret Beauty. Robin Burns was CEO of Victoria 's Secret Beauty.
After two years of pressure from environmentalist groups, Victoria 's Secret 's parent firm and a conservation group reached an agreement to make the lingerie retailer 's catalog more environmentally friendly in 2006. The catalog would no longer be made of pulp supplied from any woodland caribou habitat range in Canada, unless it has been certified by the Forest Stewardship Council. The catalogs will also be made of 10 percent recycled paper.
The company has bought organic and fair trade - grown cotton to make some of its panties.
On March 4, 2003, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled against Victoria 's Secret in Moseley v. V Secret Catalogue, Inc. that there must be proof of actual harm to the trademark.
In 2006 it was reported that Victoria 's Secret paid workers $7 per day to make bras for them in Thai factories.
One - tenth of all Victoria 's Secret bras are sourced via Intimate Fashions, a manufacturer with factories in the South Indian city of Guduvanchery.
As a by - result of the Jordan -- United States Free Trade Agreement, which retreated from standards established in the 1990s, working conditions in Jordan have been compared to slave labour.
Prior to the 1982 sale, the company 's business name was Victoria 's Secret, Inc. then afterwards the name was changed to Victoria 's Secret Stores, Inc. In 2005, the company changed to Victoria 's Secret Stores, LLC.
In the early 1980s, Victoria 's Secret used FCB / Leber Katz Partners for the development of their brand, marketing, and advertising.
In 1989, FCB / Leber Katz Partners and Victoria 's Secret executed a national advertising campaign featuring for the first time in the company 's history a ten - page glossy insert that appeared in the November issue of Elle, Vogue, Vanity Fair, Victoria, House Beautiful, Bon Appetit, New Woman, and People magazines. Victoria 's Secret used the insert to announce their expansion into the toiletries and fragrance business. Up until the ten - page insert, the company 's growth had been driven by their catalog, sporadic ads in fashion publications, and word of mouth. Catalogs were discontinued in early 2016.
Over the course of the company 's evolution, Victoria 's Secret "has gone from being value - driven to creating a luxury - shopping experience and an aura of fashion associated with its product '' which has been driven marketing.
The Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show is an annual "elaborate marketing tool for Limited Brands ''. The show is a mix of "beautiful models scantily clad in lingerie '' and A-list entertainers "And every year, it becomes less about fashion and more about show ''.
The company gained notoriety in the early 1990s after it began to use supermodels in its advertising and fashion shows. Throughout the 2000s, Victoria 's Secret has turned down celebrity models and endorsements.
In 1999, Victoria 's Secret 's 30 second Super Bowl advertisement led to one million visits to the company 's website within an hour of airing.
In 2004, Victoria 's Secret featured Bob Dylan in an advertisement to test new marketing possibilities while Victoria 's Secret dropped their fashion show for 2004 as a result of the fallout from the Janet Jackson / Super Bowl incident that caused complaints from women 's groups.
The brand turned to social networking in 2009, opening an official Facebook page and later on official Twitter and Pinterest accounts. It also expanded its website to feature behind - the - scenes content about its catalog and commercial shoots, as well as its fashion show.
The company created a campaign to market its "Body '' bra line called "The Perfect Body. '' The campaign has elicited substantial controversy, with many sources saying it will lower women 's self - esteem because it does not embrace all body types.
In 1995, Victoria 's Secret began holding their annual Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show, which is broadcast on primetime American television. Starting with the 1995 fashion show, they are "a combination of self - assured strutting for women and voyeuristic pleasures for men -- and lingerie becomes mainstream entertainment. ''
Ken Weil, vice president at Victoria 's Secret, and Tim Plzak, responsible for IT at Victoria 's Secret 's parent company Intimate Brands, led Victoria 's Secret 's first - ever online streaming of their fashion show in 1999. The 18 minutes webcast streamed February 2, 1999, was at the time the Internet 's "biggest event '' since inception. The 1999 webcast was reported as a failure by a number of newspapers on account of some user 's inability to watch the show featuring Tyra Banks, Heidi Klum, and Stephanie Seymour as a result of Victoria 's Secret 's technology falling short being able to meet the online user demand resulting in network congestion and users who could see the webcast receiving jerky frames. In all, the company 's website saw over 1.5 million visits while the Broadcast. com 's computer 's were designed to handle between 250,000 and 500,000 simultaneous viewers. In total, 1.5 million viewers either attempted or viewed the webcast.
The 1999 webcast served to create a database for Victoria 's Secret of over 500,000 current and potential customers by requiring users to submit their contact details to view the webcast. The next spring Victoria 's Secret avoided technical issues by partnering with Broadcast.com, America Online, and Microsoft. The 2000 webcast attracted more than two million viewers.
By 2011, the budget for the fashion show was $12 million up from the first show 's budget of $120,000.
Victoria 's Secret started working with renowned models in the early 1990s, with the hiring of Stephanie Seymour, Karen Mulder, Yasmeen Ghauri, and Jill Goodacre. These models helped the brand gain notice and soon enough were featured in televised commercials. Veronica Webb is one of the original Victoria 's Secret model.
Angels is one of Victoria 's Secret 's lingerie lines, which was launched in 1997, with a commercial featuring Helena Christensen, Karen Mulder, Daniela Peštová, Stephanie Seymour, and Tyra Banks as well as pop star Tom Jones. The commercial was a major success and the Angels began to be featured in various commercials, alongside other contract models for the brand such as Yasmeen Ghauri, Inés Rivero, and Laetitia Casta. From then onwards, the term Angel started to become synonymous with being a contracted spokesmodel for the brand and in February 1998, the Angels made their runway debut at Victoria 's Secret 's 4th annual fashion show, with Chandra North filling in for Christensen.
Seymour, Mulder, Pestova, Banks, Casta, and Heidi Klum were all featured in both of Victoria 's Secret webcast and took part in the promotion as the brand 's contract models. Starting 2001, the show has been televised and usually features the year 's Angel line - up at the start of the show, starting with Pestova, Banks, Klum, and Gisele Bundchen In 2004, due to the Super Bowl controversy, instead of a televised show, Victoria 's Secret sent its five contract models (Banks, Klum, Bundchen, Adriana Lima, and Alessandra Ambrosio) on a tour called Angels Across America, as by then, the word had become synonymous with Victoria 's Secret spokesmodels. The last original Angel, Tyra Banks, departed the following year, as Karolina Kurkova, Selita Ebanks, and Izabel Goulart were hired.
Among other recognitions, the Victoria 's Secret Angels were chosen to be part of People magazine 's annual "100 Most Beautiful People in the World '' issue in 2007 and became the first trademark awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on November 13, 2007, with Klum, Lima, Ambrosio, Kurkova, Goulart, Ebanks, Marisa Miller, and Miranda Kerr at hand. Alongside new Angel Doutzen Kroes, they also took part in the grand reopening of the Fontainebleau in Miami in 2008. In 2009, it was widely reported that Candice Swanepoel, Rosie Huntington - Whiteley, Chanel Iman, Emanuela de Paula and Lindsay Ellingson had been hired by the brand. However, De Paula was absent from the fashion show and Erin Heatherton was credited in her place, alongside the Angels (Klum, Ambrosio, Kerr, Miller, Kroes, and Behati Prinsloo, with Lima being on maternity leave). The brand also held a nationwide competition to hire a new "runway Angel '' (as are dubbed all the models who walk in the show), Kylie Bisutti was crowned as the winner but soon parted ways with the brand. In the following year - and - a-half Swanepoel, Huntington - Whiteley, Iman, Heatherton, and Ellingson all were revealed as Angels.
Various tours have been held featuring the Angels, such as the Bombshell Tour in 2010 (featuring Laura Croggon, Sophia Timpano, Katie Bryan, and new recruit Lily Aldridge), a VSX tour in 2013 (featuring Swanepoel, Ambrosio, Ellingson, and Aldridge) and a Swim Tour in 2013 (featuring Swanepoel, Ellingson, and Heatherton). The Angels have been heavily featured on the brand 's social media, including on a short - lived Facebook application in 2013 - 2014 highlighting the Angels (then including Lima, Swanepoel, Ellingson, Aldridge, and Karlie Kloss) as well as Lais Ribeiro, Toni Garrn, and Barbara Palvin.
Ellingson, Kroes, and Kloss all departed soon after the 2014 fashion show, leaving the brand with only 5 Angels. In 2015, the Angels as well as models Elsa Hosk, Joan Smalls, Lais Ribeiro, Martha Hunt, Jasmine Tookes, Stella Maxwell, and Monika ' Jac ' Jagaciak were featured on the brand 's first ever Swim Special. Soon after, in the brand 's biggest group hiring ever, all but Smalls were revealed as Angels, along with longtime catalog regulars Lais Ribeiro and Sara Sampaio as well as Kate Grigorieva, Taylor Marie Hill, and Romee Strijd. The following year, Jagaciak and Griegorieva exited, while catalog regular Josephine Skriver was added to the roster.
Other notable spokesmodels for the brand have included: Claudia Schiffer, Eva Herzigová, Oluchi Onweagba, Jessica Stam, Ana Beatriz Barros, and Bregje Heinen as well as a handful of celebrities such as Taylor Momsen.
In the article "Victoria 's Dirty Secret: How Sociocultural Norms Influence Adolescent Girls and Women '' written by Strahan, Lafrance, Wilson, and Ethier from Wilfrid Laurier University along with Spencer and Zanna from the University of Waterloo have stated: "Women 's body dissatisfaction is influenced by sociocultural norms for ideal appearance that are pervasive in society and particularly directed at women. '' These norms tell women that they are valued for their bodies, physical appearance, and scale of attractiveness. Girls as young as 10 years old start dieting because they are struggling with their weight and body perception. This will continue throughout their life span. Victoria 's Secret sends a message to these adolescent girls and women that their models are the standard of beauty. The models are shown on TV commercials, ads, and magazines meaning it is seen on an everyday basis. Girls are comparing themselves with these high unrealistic standards that is captivated by the media. Women in these ads are highly objectified, idealized, and sexualized. If women feel they have to live up to this sociocultural norm standard, it is only telling men that it is okay to objectify and sexualize women. The article concludes by stating: "Exposure to societal messages that reflect the sociocultural norm for ideal appearance has a negative effect on women. ''
In 2009, Victoria 's Secret was sued several times. The lawsuits alleged that defective underwear contained formaldehyde that caused severe rashes on women who wore them. Six cases were filed in Ohio and two in Florida. At least 17 other suits were filed in six other states after January 2008. The plaintiff refused to submit to a simple patch test to determine the precise cause of her reaction and her case was later withdrawn. The Formaldehyde Council issued a statement that formaldehyde quickly dissipates in air, water and sunlight.
In 2012, a Victoria 's Secret supplier was investigated for use of child labor in harvesting cotton used to make its products.
Also in 2012, Victoria 's Secret was sued by Zephyrs, "accused of breaching a 2001 agreement and selling cheap ' knockoffs ' of the company 's stockings. ''
The company drew criticism for a newly released lingerie collection titled "Go East '' whose tagline pledged to women the capacity to "indulge in touches of eastern delight with lingerie inspired by the exquisite beauty of secret Japanese gardens. '' The collection included a mesh teddy "Sexy Little Geisha '' featuring "flirty cutouts and Eastern - inspired florals ''.
The Wall Street Journal reported that the collection was "accessorized with a miniature fan and a kimono-esque obi sash. ''
Victoria 's Secret removed the Asian - themed collection "that traded in sexualized, generic pan-Asian ethnic stereotypes. ''
In 2014, a petition against the newly released lingerie collection called "Body '' was created when the poster ads displayed the words ' THE PERFECT "BODY '' ' over well - known VS Angels. The petition, while becoming popular across social media, demanded that Victoria 's Secret "apologise and take responsibility for the unhealthy and damaging message that their ' Perfect Body ' campaign sends out about women 's bodies and how they should be judged. ''
The petition also demanded a change in the wording on Victoria 's Secret advertisements for their bra range Body, to something that does not promote unhealthy and unrealistic standards of beauty, '' asking the company to not use such harmful marketing in the future. Petitioners created the hashtag "# iamperfect '', which trended on Twitter for body shaming women. The petition had over 30,000 signatures.
Although there was never a formal apology released, Victoria 's Secret took note of the petition and changed the words on their ad campaign to ' A BODY FOR EVERY BODY. '
At the 2016 Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show, the brand was accused of "cultural appropriation '' during the segment "The Road Ahead '' that drew inspiration from Chinese culture. Kendall Jenner 's flame tail, Elsa Hosk 's dragon costume, and Adriana Lima 's embroidered thigh - high boots is what caused an uproar because many fans thought that it was inappropriate for women of other cultures to wear those items that meant so much to the Chinese culture. The reason behind Victoria 's Secret including this segment to the 2016 fashion show is because of their recent expansion into the Chinese market. They thought it would be a good way to appeal to the new Chinese customer. No apology or statement was released from the brand.
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voice of the mad hatter in alice in wonderland | Ed Wynn - wikipedia
Isaiah Edwin Leopold (November 9, 1886 -- June 19, 1966), better known as Ed Wynn, was an American actor and comedian noted for his Perfect Fool comedy character, his pioneering radio show of the 1930s, and his later career as a dramatic actor.
Ed Wynn was an American comedian who was born Isaiah Edwin Leopold in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His father, who manufactured and sold women 's hats, was born in Bohemia. His mother, of Romanian and Turkish ancestry, came from Istanbul. Wynn attended Central High School in Philadelphia until age 15. He ran away from home in his teens, worked as a hat salesman and as a utility boy, and eventually adapted his middle name "Edwin '' into his new stage name, "Ed Wynn '', to save his family the embarrassment of having a lowly comedian as a relative.
Wynn began his career in vaudeville in 1903 and was a star of the Ziegfeld Follies starting in 1914. During The Follies of 1915, W.C. Fields allegedly caught Wynn mugging for the audience under the table during his "Pool Room '' routine and knocked him unconscious with his cue. Wynn wrote, directed, and produced many Broadway shows in the subsequent decades, and was known for his silly costumes and props as well as for the giggly, wavering voice he developed for the 1921 musical review, The Perfect Fool.
Although many gag writers later provided material for Wynn 's performances in radio, television and movies, he was proud to boast that he had written every line he ever spoke during his early career as a stage performer.
In the early 1930s Wynn hosted the popular radio show The Fire Chief, heard in North America on Tuesday nights, sponsored by Texaco gasoline. Like many former vaudeville performers who turned to radio in the same decade, the stage - trained Wynn insisted on playing for a live studio audience, doing each program as an actual stage show, using visual bits to augment his written material, and in his case, wearing a colorful costume with a red fireman 's helmet. He usually bounced his gags off announcer / straight man Graham McNamee; Wynn 's customary opening, "Tonight, Graham, the show 's gon na be different, '' became one of the most familiar tag - lines of its time; a sample joke: "Graham, my uncle just bought a new second - handed car... he calls it Baby! I do n't know, it wo n't go anyplace without a rattle! ''
Wynn reprised his Fire Chief radio character in two movies, Follow the Leader (1930) and The Chief (1933). Near the height of his radio fame (1933) he founded his own short - lived radio network the Amalgamated Broadcasting System, which lasted only five weeks, nearly destroying the comedian. According to radio historian Elizabeth McLeod, the failed venture left Wynn deep in debt, divorced and finally, suffering a nervous breakdown.
Wynn was offered the title role in MGM 's 1939 screen adaptation of The Wizard of Oz, but turned it down, as did his Ziegfeld contemporary W.C. Fields. The part went to Frank Morgan.
Ed Wynn first appeared on television on July 7, 1936 in a brief, ad - libbed spot with Graham McNamee during an NBC experimental television broadcast. In the 1949 -- 50 season, Ed Wynn hosted one of the first network, comedy - variety television shows, on CBS, and won both a Peabody Award and an Emmy Award in 1949. Buster Keaton, Lucille Ball, and The Three Stooges all made guest appearances with Wynn. This was the first CBS variety television show to originate from Los Angeles, which was seen live on the west coast, but filmed via kinescope for distribution in the Midwest and East, as the national coaxial cable had yet to be completed. Wynn was also a rotating host of NBC 's Four Star Revue from 1950 through 1952.
After the end of Wynn 's third television series, The Ed Wynn Show (a short - lived situation comedy on NBC 's 1958 -- 59 schedule), his son, actor Keenan Wynn, encouraged him to make a career change rather than retire. The comedian reluctantly began a career as a dramatic actor in television and movies. Father and son appeared in three productions, the first of which was the 1956 Playhouse 90 broadcast of Rod Serling 's play Requiem for a Heavyweight. Ed was terrified of straight acting and kept goofing his lines in rehearsal. When the producers wanted to fire him, star Jack Palance said he would quit if they fired Ed. (However, unbeknownst to Wynn, supporting player Ned Glass was his secret understudy in case something did happen before air time.) On live broadcast night, Wynn surprised everyone with his pitch - perfect performance, and his quick ad libs to cover his mistakes. A dramatization of what happened during the production was later staged as an April 1960 Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse episode, "The Man in the Funny Suit '', starring both senior and junior Wynns, with key figures involved in the original production also portraying themselves. Ed and his son also worked together in the Jose Ferrer film The Great Man, with Ed again proving his unexpected skills in drama.
Requiem established Wynn as a serious dramatic actor who could easily hold his own with the best. His role in The Diary of Anne Frank (1959) won him an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor.
Also in 1959, Wynn appeared on Serling 's TV series The Twilight Zone in "One for the Angels ''. Serling, a longtime admirer, had written that episode especially for him, and Wynn later in 1963 starred in the episode "Ninety Years Without Slumbering ''. For the rest of his life, Wynn skillfully moved between comic and dramatic roles. He appeared in feature films and anthology television, endearing himself to new generations of fans.
Wynn was caricatured in the Merrie Melodies cartoon shorts Shuffle Off to Buffalo (1933) and I 've Got to Sing a Torch Song (1933), and as a pot of jam in the Betty Boop short Betty in Blunderland (1934).
He appeared as the Fairy Godfather in Jerry Lewis ' Cinderfella. His performance as Paul Beaseley in the 1958 film The Great Man earned him nominations for a Golden Globe Award for "Best Supporting Actor '' and a BAFTA Award for "Best Foreign Actor ''. The following year he received his first (and only) nomination for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role as Mr. Dussell in The Diary of Anne Frank (1959). Six years later he appeared in the Bible epic The Greatest Story Ever Told.
Wynn provided the voice of the Mad Hatter in Walt Disney 's film, Alice in Wonderland and played The Toymaker alongside Annette Funicello and Tommy Sands in Walt Disney 's Babes in Toyland released in 1961.
Possibly his best - remembered film appearance was in Walt Disney 's Mary Poppins (1964), in which he played eccentric man Uncle Albert floating around just beneath the ceiling in uncontrollable mirth, singing "I Love to Laugh ''.
Re-teaming with the Disney team the following year, in That Darn Cat! (1965) featuring Dean Jones and Hayley Mills, Wynn filled out the character of Mr. Hofstedder, the watch jeweler with his bumbling charm. He also had brief roles in The Absent Minded Professor (as the fire chief, in a scene alongside his son Keenan Wynn, who played the film 's antagonist) and Son of Flubber (as county agricultural agent A.J. Allen). His final performance, as Rufus in Walt Disney 's The Gnome - Mobile, was released a few months after his death.
In addition to Disney films, Wynn was also an actor in the Disneyland production The Golden Horseshoe Revue.
Wynn died June 19, 1966 in Beverly Hills, California of throat cancer, aged 79. He is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, in The Great Mausoleum, Daffodil Corridor, Columbarium of the Dawn, alongside his son Keenan Wynn, his granddaughter Emily Wynn (February 13, 1960 -- November 27, 1980), who died from lupus and his older sister Blanche Leopold (May 18, 1880 -- December 26, 1973). His bronze grave marker reads "Dear God, Thanks... Ed Wynn ''. According to his granddaughter Hilda Levine, Walt Disney, who would die just a few months later, served as one of his casket bearers. Red Skelton, who was discovered by Wynn, stated: "His death is the first time he ever made anyone sad. ''
Wynn 's distinct voice was deliberately emulated by Alan Tudyk for the character King Candy in Disney 's animated film Wreck - It Ralph.
Wynn was posthumously named a Disney Legend on August 10, 2013.
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who won the womens curling winter olympics 2018 | Curling at the 2018 Winter Olympics -- women 's tournament - wikipedia
The women 's curling tournament of the 2018 Winter Olympics was held between 14 and 25 February 2018 at the Gangneung Curling Centre. Ten nations competed in a round robin preliminary round, and the top four nations at the conclusion of the round robin qualified for the medal round.
The teams are listed as follows:
Skip: Rachel Homan Third: Emma Miskew Second: Joanne Courtney Lead: Lisa Weagle Alternate: Cheryl Bernard
Skip: Wang Bingyu Third: Zhou Yan Second: Liu Jinli Lead: Ma Jingyi Alternate: Jiang Xindi
Skip: Madeleine Dupont Third: Denise Dupont Second: Julie Høgh Lead: Mathilde Halse Alternate: Lina Knudsen
Skip: Eve Muirhead Third: Anna Sloan Second: Vicki Adams Lead: Lauren Gray Alternate: Kelly Schafer
Skip: Satsuki Fujisawa Third: Chinami Yoshida Second: Yumi Suzuki Lead: Yurika Yoshida Alternate: Mari Motohashi
Skip: Victoria Moiseeva Third: Uliana Vasilyeva Second: Galina Arsenkina Lead: Julia Guzieva Alternate: Yulia Portunova
Skip: Kim Eun - jung Third: Kim Kyeong - ae Second: Kim Seon - yeong Lead: Kim Yeong - mi Alternate: Kim Cho - hi
Skip: Anna Hasselborg Third: Sara McManus Second: Agnes Knochenhauer Lead: Sofia Mabergs Alternate: Jennie Wåhlin
Skip: Silvana Tirinzoni Third: Esther Neuenschwander Second: Manuela Siegrist Lead: Marlene Albrecht Alternate: Jenny Perret
Skip: Nina Roth Third: Tabitha Peterson Second: Aileen Geving Lead: Rebecca Hamilton Alternate: Cory Christensen
Final round robin standings
All draw times are listed in Seoul Time (UTC + 9).
Wednesday, 14 February, 14: 05
Thursday, 15 February, 09: 05
Thursday, 15 February, 20: 05
Friday, 16 February, 14: 05
Saturday, 17 February, 09: 05
Saturday, 17 February, 20: 05
Sunday, 18 February, 14: 05
Monday, 19 February, 09: 05
Monday, 19 February, 20: 05
Tuesday, 20 February, 14: 05
Wednesday, 21 February, 09: 05
Wednesday, 21 February, 20: 05
Friday, 23 February, 20: 05
Saturday, 24 February, 20: 05
Sunday, 25 February, 9: 05
The final standings are:
Player percentages during round robin play are as follows:
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ye un dino ki baat hai telecast time | Yeh Un Dinon Ki Baat Hai - wikipedia
Yeh Un Dinon Ki Baat Hai (English: It 's About Those Days) is a Hindi drama series on SET India and produced by Shashi Sumeet Productions, which started airing from 5 September 2017 replacing the serial Pehredaar Piya Ki from the same production house. Newbie Ashi Singh and TV actor Randeep Rai play the lead roles of Naina and Sameer respectively. The show is based on the youngsters ' love story and is set in the 1990s.
The show gained popularity quickly for its fresh outlook and plot that made viewers nostalgic and topped the sony tv by gaining trp 1.1 at the launch of first week.. It has been dubbed in Tamil as Ninaithale Inikum and airs on Polimer TV. The show is doing quite well in terms of TRP by obtaining an average TRP of 0.6 at the 10: 30PM time slot. This show has earned compliments from various television as well as film actors.
The story chronicles the adolescent romance between Naina and Sameer and explores the magic of first love set in the city of Ahmedabad in the year 1990. Naina, a quintessential good girl meets the flamboyant Sameer in her school in Ahmedabad. She starts liking him the moment she meets him. But when she watches Sameer beat up another boy, she has no option but to tell the truth to the school principal. This results in Sameer 's suspension and his dislike towards Naina followed by a series of misunderstandings.
Eventually, Sameer plans to take revenge by making Naina fall in love with him. Though he is disinterested in her at first he eventually falls in love with her due to her kind and caring nature. After Naina finds out the truth, she is heartbroken. This leads to Sameer 's transformation and his determination to win Naina back, but this time, out of real love.
It is a showcase of everyday moments that these two share blended in the magically nostalgic times that the 1990 's were in a small town in India.
The opening theme of the show Yeh Un Dinon Ki Baat Hai is composed by Anu Malik. The lyrics are written by Sanjay Chhel and it comprises the voices of legendary singers Kumar Sanu and Sadhana Sargam.
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veruca salt actress charlie and the chocolate factory | Julie Dawn Cole - wikipedia
Julie Dawn Cole (born 26 October 1957) is an English actress who has been active for some 40 years. She began as a child performer in what remains her best - remembered film, 1971 's Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, playing the spoiled Veruca Salt. She has two children.
A native of Guildford, Surrey, Cole was twelve when she was cast in the supporting role during the project 's pre-production phase in the first half of 1970 (she celebrated her 13th birthday eight weeks into the film 's 111⁄2 - week filming schedule in Southern Germany 's sprawling production complex, Bavaria Film Studios, on the day she performed her song "I Want It Now ''). The film debuted in New York on 30 June 1971 and in London the following week, with Julie chosen to present a bouquet of flowers to Princess Margaret at the Royal Premiere. She and Willy Wonka 's other pre-adolescent "leading lady, '' American Denise Nickerson (Violet Beauregarde), both had crushes on Peter Ostrum (Charlie Bucket), also an American, and alternated days spending time with him while there were breaks in filming.
Cole played trainee nurse Jo Longhurst in the first season of the British drama Angels, in the mid-1970s. (She was also first runner - up for the title role in the movie Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland, which went to her Angels co-star Fiona Fullerton).
In the mid 1970s Cole appeared on episodes of the Dutch - produced detective show Van Der Valk starring Barry Foster. In the second season of Poldark, in 1977, she played 15 - year - old Rowella Chynoweth, seducing her sister 's portly husband. Other credits include the Children 's Film Foundation movie Paganini Strikes Again (1973), the comedy film That Lucky Touch (1975) starring Roger Moore, a 1982 episode of Tales of the Unexpected ("The Skeleton Key ''), and the 1984 TV film of Camille, starring Greta Scacchi and Colin Firth. She featured as ' Robot 35 ' in the CBBC comedy Galloping Galaxies!.
In her long career, she 's accumulated a number of theatrical credits as well as pantomime and voice - over work. Cole has appeared on radio in BBC Radio 2 broadcasts of British panto, including the 26 December 1979 broadcast of Puss in Boots as "Princess Rosepetal '',, as "Jill '' in the 25 December 1981 broadcast of Mother Goose, and as "Alice '' in the 27 December 1982 broadcast of Dick Whittington.
In 2002 she developed Centrestage, a children 's acting drama school.
After qualifying in 1998 as a fitness instructor, she worked in the 2000s on various projects, including the 2005 ITV series Fat Families as fitness advisor to one of the title families. In 2006, she was seen on the popular soap Emmerdale. Currently, she works as a psychotherapist.
In August 2010 Cole co-starred in an Edinburgh Fringe show entitled "Willy Wonka Revisited: The Veruca Salt Sessions '', where she plays a semi-fictional version of herself discussing Veruca, life, and obsessive fans with her unseen therapist, while her co-star plays an Australian fan describing his obsession with Veruca to his unseen therapist.
Cole loves being asked about her two children. "Whenever Holly (her daughter) said or did anything brattish, I 'd just go, ' Is there a problem, Veruca? Can I help you? ' That always snapped her out of it. But I did n't call Barnaby (her son) anything because there was no need; he never gave me any such trouble. ''
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what does prada mean in the devil wears prada | The Devil Wears Prada (film) - wikipedia
The Devil Wears Prada is a 2006 American comedy - drama film based on Lauren Weisberger 's 2003 novel of the same name. This screen adaptation stars Meryl Streep as Miranda Priestly, a powerful fashion magazine editor, and Anne Hathaway as Andrea (Andy) Sachs, a college graduate who goes to New York City and lands a job as Priestly 's co-assistant. Emily Blunt and Stanley Tucci co-star as co-assistant Emily Charlton and art director Nigel, respectively.
Adrian Grenier, Simon Baker, and Tracie Thoms play key supporting roles. Wendy Finerman produced and David Frankel directed the film, which was distributed by 20th Century Fox. Streep 's performance drew critical acclaim and earned her many award nominations, including her record - setting 14th Oscar bid, as well as the Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Comedy or Musical. Blunt also drew favorable reviews and nominations for her performance, as did many of those involved in the film 's production.
The film was well received by both film critics and the public and became a surprise summer box - office hit following its June 30 North American release. The commercial success and critical praise for Streep 's performance continued in foreign markets with the film leading the international box office for most of October. Likewise, the U.S. DVD release was the top rental during December. The film finished in 2006 's Top 20 both in the U.S. and overseas and grossed over $300 million, mostly from its international run.
Although the movie is set in the fashion world, most designers and other fashion notables avoided appearing as themselves for fear of displeasing U.S. Vogue editor Anna Wintour, who is widely believed to have been the inspiration for Priestly. Still, many allowed their clothes and accessories to be used in the film, making it one of the most expensively costumed films in history. Wintour later overcame her initial skepticism, saying she liked the film and Streep in particular.
Andy is an aspiring journalist fresh out of Northwestern University. Despite her ridicule for the shallowness of the fashion industry, she lands a job as junior personal assistant to Miranda Priestly, the editor - in - chief of Runway magazine. Andy plans to put up with Miranda 's excessive demands and humiliating treatment for one year in the hopes of getting a job as a reporter or writer somewhere else.
At first, Andy fumbles with her job and fits in poorly with her gossipy, fashion - conscious co-workers, especially Miranda 's senior assistant, Emily Charlton. However, she does find an ally in art director Nigel, and gradually learns her responsibilities and begins to dress more stylishly to show her effort and commitment to the position. She also meets an attractive young writer, Christian Thompson, who offers to help her with her career. As she spends increasing amounts of time at Miranda 's beck and call, problems arise in her relationships with her college friends and her live - in boyfriend, Nate, a chef working his way up the career ladder.
Miranda is impressed by Andy and allows her to be the one to bring the treasured "Book '', a mock - up of the upcoming edition, to her home, along with her dry cleaning. She is given instructions by Emily about where to leave the items and is told not to speak with anyone in the home. Andy arrives at Miranda 's home only to discover that the instructions she received are vague. As she tries to figure out what to do, Andy begins to panic. Miranda 's twins, Caroline and Cassidy, falsely tell her she can leave the book at the top of the stairs just as Emily has done on many occasions. At the top of the stairs, Andy interrupts Miranda and her husband having an argument. Mortified, Andy leaves the book and runs out of the home.
The next day, Miranda tells Andy that she wants the new unpublished Harry Potter book for her daughters and, if Andy can not find a copy, she will be fired. Andy desperately attempts to find the book and nearly gives up, but ultimately obtains it through Christian 's contacts. She surprises Miranda by not only finding the book but having copies sent to the girls at the train station, leaving no doubt that she accomplished Miranda 's "impossible '' task, thus saving her job. Andy gradually begins to outperform Emily at her job, and slowly but surely becomes more glamorous and begins aligning herself, unwittingly at first, to the Runway philosophy.
One day, Andy saves Miranda from being embarrassed at a charity benefit, and Miranda rewards her by offering to take her to the fall fashion shows in Paris instead of Emily. Andy hesitates to take this privilege away from Emily but is forced to accept the offer after being told by Miranda that she will lose her job if she declines. Andy tries to tell Emily on her way to work, but Emily gets hit by a car. Andy later breaks the news to a hospitalized Emily.
When Andy tells Nate she is going to Paris, he is angered by her refusal to admit that she 's become what she once ridiculed, and they break up. Once there, Miranda, without makeup, opens up to Andy about the effect Miranda 's impending divorce will have on her daughters. Later that night, Nigel tells Andy that he has accepted a job as Creative Director with rising fashion star James Holt at Miranda 's recommendation. Andy finally succumbs to Christian 's charms and, after spending the night with him, learns from him about a plan to replace Miranda with Jacqueline Follet as editor of Runway. Despite the suffering she has endured at her boss 's behest, she attempts to warn Miranda.
At a luncheon later that day, however, Miranda announces that it is Jacqueline instead of Nigel who will leave Runway for Holt. Nigel remarks to a stunned Andy that, though disappointed, he has to believe that his loyalty to Miranda will one day pay off. Later, when Miranda and Andy are being driven to a show, she explains to a still - stunned Andy that she was grateful for the warning but already knew of the plot to replace her and sacrificed Nigel to keep her own job. Pleased by this display of loyalty, she tells Andy that she sees a great deal of herself in her. Andy, repulsed, says she could never do that to anyone. Miranda replies that she already did, stepping over Emily when she agreed to go to Paris. When they stop, Andy gets out and throws her cell phone into the fountain of the Place de la Concorde, leaving Miranda, Runway, and fashion behind.
Some time later, Andy meets up with Nate, who is moving to Boston because he got a new job as the sous chef of a restaurant. They agree to start dating again and see what the future holds. The same day, Andy is interviewed and is accepted to work at a major New York publication company. The editor recounts how he called Runway for a reference on Andy, and got a response from Miranda herself. Miranda described Andy as "her biggest disappointment '' - and said that the editor would be "an idiot '' if he did n't hire her. Emily is offered her Paris wardrobe by Andy and the two leave on good terms. Andy passes the "Runway '' office building and sees Miranda get into a car. Andy gives a wave, but Miranda does not acknowledge her. Andy is used to this and instead walks further into the crowd. Once inside the car, however, Miranda smiles and then orders her chauffeur to drive.
Director David Frankel and producer Wendy Finerman had originally read The Devil Wears Prada in book proposal form. It would be Frankel 's second theatrical feature, and his first in over a decade. He, cinematographer Florian Ballhaus and costume designer Patricia Field, drew heavily on their experience in making Sex and the City.
Frankel recalls the whole experience as having high stakes for those involved, since for himself and the others behind the camera it was the biggest project they had yet attempted, with barely adequate resources. "We knew we were on very thin ice, '' he told Variety for a 2016 article on the film 's 10th anniversary. "It was possible this could be the end of the road for us. ''
Fox bought the rights to Weisberger 's novel before it was not only published in 2003, but even finished. Carla Hecken, then the studio 's executive vice president, had only seen the first hundred pages of manuscript and an outline for how the rest of the plot was to go. But for her that was enough. "I thought Miranda Priestly was one of the greatest villains ever, '' she recalled in 2016. "I remember we aggressively went in and scooped it up. ''
Work on a screenplay started promptly, before Weisberger had even finished her work. When it became a bestseller upon publication, elements of the plot were incorporated into the screenplay in progress. Most took their inspiration from the 2001 Ben Stiller film Zoolander and primarily satirized the fashion industry. But it was still not ready to film. Elizabeth Gabler, later head of production at Fox, noted that the finished novel did not have a strong narrative. "Since there was n't a strong third act in the book, '' she said later, "we needed to invent that. ''
In the meantime, the studio and producer Wendy Finerman sought a director. Out of many candidates with experience in comedy, David Frankel was hired despite his limited experience, having only made one feature, Miami Rhapsody, along with some episodes of Sex and the City and Entourage. He was unsure about the property, calling it "undirectable... a satire rather than a love story. '' Later, he cited Unzipped, the 1995 documentary about designer Isaac Mizrahi, as his model for the film 's attitude towards fashion: "(It) revels in some of the silliness of the fashion world, but is also very serious. ''
At a meeting with Finerman, Frankel told her that he thought the story unnecessarily punished Miranda. "My view was that we should be grateful for excellence. Why do the excellent people have to be nice? '' He prepared to move on and consider more scripts. Two days later his manager persuaded him to reconsider and look for something he liked that he could shape the film into. He took the job, giving Finerman extensive notes on the script and laying out a detailed vision for the film.
Four screenwriters worked on the property. Peter Hedges wrote the first draft, but did n't think he could do more; another writer passed. Paul Rudnick did some work on Miranda 's scenes, followed by a Don Roos rewrite. After that, Aline Brosh McKenna, who was able to relate her own youthful experiences attempting to launch a journalism career in New York to the story, produced a draft after a month 's work that struck the right balance for Finerman and Frankel, whose notes were incorporated into a final version, rearranging the plot significantly, following the book less closely and focusing the story on the conflict between Andrea and Miranda. She found the experience of writing a story with female protagonists that did not center around a relationship "very liberating... I felt I was allowed to do what the movie wanted to be, a Faust story, a Wall Street for ladies. ''
McKenna also initially toned down Miranda 's meanness at the request of Finerman and Frankel, only to restore it later for Streep. She later cited Don Rickles as her main influence for the insults in the dialogue; before even starting work on the screenplay she had come up with Miranda 's "Take a chance. Hire the smart fat girl '' line, which she felt summed up the disparity between Andy and the world she found herself in.
McKenna consulted with acquaintances who worked in fashion to make her screenplay more realistic. In a 2010 British Academy of Film and Television Arts lecture, she told of a scene that was changed after one of these reviews, where Nigel told Andy not to complain so much about her job. Originally, she had made his speech more of a supportive pep talk; however one of those acquaintances said that would not happen: "(N) o - one in that world is nice to each other... There 's no reason to be, and they do n't have time. '' she quoted him as saying.
The "cerulean speech '', where Miranda draws the connection between the designer fashion in Runway 's pages and Andy 's cerulean sweater, criticizing Andy 's snobbishness about fashion and explaining the trickle - down effect, had its origins in a scene cut from earlier drafts that Streep had asked to have restored. It slowly grew from a few lines where the editor disparaged her assistant 's fashion sense to a speech about "why she thought fashion was important... She is so aware that she is affecting billions of people, and what they pick off the floor and what they are putting on their bodies in the morning. '' Streep said in 2016 she was interested in "the responsibility lying on the shoulders of a woman who was the head of a global brand... That scene was n't about the fun of fashion, it was about marketing and business. ''
McKenna recalls that she kept expanding it to suit Streep and Frankel, but even a few days before it was scheduled to be filmed she was unsure if it would be used or even shot. She was revising it at a nearby Starbucks when she realized that Miranda would describe something not as just blue -- chosen as the color for Andy 's sweater since it would work best on screen -- but would instead use an exact shade. From a list of shades McKenna sent, Streep picked cerulean; the final speech takes up almost a page of the script, long for a mainstream film. "I was like, it 'd be cool if half of that ended up in the movie, '' the writer says. "Every word is in the movie. '' The references to past designer collections are entirely fictional, McKenna explains, since the speech was written around the sweater 's color (however, the Huffington Post later pointed out, designers often take their fashion inspiration from the streets).
The speech has become one of the film 's most memorable moments; "Miranda 's signature monologue '' to The Ringer. "' Cerulean ' (has never) sounded more sinister, '' the Huffington Post wrote in 2016, Liz Jones, former editor of British Marie Claire, said it was "a rare glimpse at the way in which even the most outlandish and extreme exponents of fashion... influence and enrich all our lives, even if we only ever shop at Marks & Spencer or Gap. ''
Once the script was finished, the filmmakers and Fox focused on getting Meryl Streep to play Miranda; Hacken recalled she was seen as so perfect for the part that no one had discussed any alternatives (although McKenna recalls writing provisional dialogue should the producers have had to settle for another actress). Weisberger, who initially could not imagine Streep playing the part, recalled that after seeing her on set it was "crystal clear '' that she was perfect for the role.
The news that Streep would meet with Frankel was celebrated at Fox. But while Streep, for her part, knew the movie could be very successful, she felt the pay she was being offered for playing Miranda was "slightly, if not insulting, not perhaps reflective of my actual value to the project. '' The producers doubled it to around $4 million, and she signed on, allowing Fox to greenlight the film. According to Frankel, Streep saw the film as a chance to "skewer the doyennes of the fashion world. '' She has three daughters, and as an ardent feminist, felt that fashion magazines "twisted the minds of young women around the world and their priorities. This was an interesting way to get back at them. '' Also, she said, the film passed the Bechdel test.
She insisted on the scenes where she explains to Andy the connection between the blue sweater she is wearing and the haute couture industry, and the scene where Miranda briefly opens up to Andy, without makeup, about her divorce. "I wanted '', she explained, "to see that face without its protective glaze, to glimpse the woman in the businesswoman. ''
Casting Andy was less clear - cut. Fox wanted an A-list younger actress, and felt Rachel McAdams, then coming off successes in The Notebook and Mean Girls, would help the film 's commercial prospects. However, she declined several offers to play Andy, telling the studio she was trying to avoid mainstream projects for a while.
Hathaway, by contrast, actively sought the part, tracing "Hire me '' in the sand of the zen garden on Hacken 's desk when she talked about the project with the executive. While Frankel liked her enough to not require her to audition, she knew she was not the studio 's first choice and had to be patient (other accounts say that she was the only actress considered for the lead). Fox production chief Elizabeth Gabler says the studio did not realize how strong her audience was after the Princess Diaries movies. She took the part to work with Streep, but also due to some personal aspects. She celebrated when she learned she had gotten the part.
Over a hundred actresses had been considered for Emily before one of the casting agents taped Emily Blunt reading some of the lines elsewhere on the Fox lot as she was leaving for her flight to London following her audition for Eragon. Although she read them in her native British accent despite the character being written as American as she is in the novel, Frankel was interested; Finerman liked her for her sense of humor. After the makers of Eragon cast Sienna Guillory, Frankel called her in the bathroom of "some dive club '' in London, where she was consoling herself with her sister. He told her that while he would have cast her just from the tape, the studio wanted to see another audition with her dressed more in character. She insisted on continuing to play the character as British; Both Hathaway and Emily Blunt lost weight for their roles, with Hathaway later recounting that "(she) and I would clutch at each other and cry because we were so hungry. '' Blunt later denied rumors she did this at the filmmakers ' request.
Colleen and Suzanne Dengel, the twins who played Miranda 's daughters, were cast two weeks after auditioning for Frankel and Finerman. The director and producer laughed, which the sisters believed help them get the part. They recalled in 2017 that they were excited both by being able to work together on camera for the first time, as well as the chance to act opposite Hathaway since they were big fans of the Princess Diaries movies as well.
Tucci was one of the last actors cast; he agreed to play Nigel only three days before shooting started. The filmmakers reportedly had auditioned Barney 's creative director Simon Doonan and E! 's Robert Verdi, both openly gay men highly visible as media fashion commentators, for the part; the BBC 's Graham Norton also auditioned. Verdi would later say there was no intention to actually hire him and the producers had just used him and Doonan to give whoever they ultimately did cast some filmed research to use in playing a gay character (he would end up with a walk - on part as a fashion journalist in Paris). Tucci says he was unaware of this: "All I know is that someone called me and I realized this was a great part. '' He based the character on various people he was acquainted with, insisting on the glasses he ultimately wore. Daniel Sunjata had originally read for Tucci 's part, rather unenthusiastically since he had just finished playing a similar character, but then read the Holt part and asked if he could audition for it. Simon Baker auditioned by sending a video of himself, wearing the same self - designed green jacket he has on when he and Andrea meet for the first time.
Weisberger is widely believed to have based Miranda on Anna Wintour, the powerful editor of Vogue. Wintour reportedly warned major fashion designers who had been invited to make cameo appearances as themselves in the film that they would be banished from the magazine 's pages if they did so. Vogue and other major women 's and fashion magazines have avoided reviewing or even mentioning the book in their pages. Wintour 's spokespeople deny the claim, but costume designer Patricia Field says many designers told her they did not want to risk Wintour 's wrath.
Only Valentino Garavani, who had designed the black evening gown Streep wears in the museum benefit scene, chose to make an appearance. Coincidentally, he was in New York during production and Finerman dared Field, an acquaintance, to ask him personally. Much to her surprise, he accepted. Other cameos of note include Heidi Klum as herself and Weisberger as the twins ' nanny. Streep 's daughter 's film debut as a barista at Starbucks was cut. Gisele Bündchen agreed to be in the movie only if she did not play a model.
Principal photography took place over 57 days in New York and Paris between October and December 2005. The film 's budget was $41 million. It was originally lower, which caused problems with some locations -- the crew could not get permission to shoot at the Museum of Modern Art or Bryant Park.
Ballhaus, at Finerman and Frankel 's suggestion, composed as many shots as possible, whether interiors or exteriors, to at least partially take in busy New York street scenes in the background, to convey the excitement of working in a glamorous industry in New York. He also used a handheld camera during some of the busier meeting scenes in Miranda 's office, to better convey the flow of action, and slow motion for Andrea 's entrance into the office following her makeover. A few process shots were necessary, mainly to put exterior views behind windows on sets and in the Mercedes where Miranda and Andrea are having their climactic conversation.
Fox originally refused permission to let Frankel shoot some scenes from the third act in Paris, where it is set, due to the low budget. But after six "nightmarish '' weeks of shooting, he had an editor cut a "sizzle reel '' of highlights. That convinced the studio to increase the budget to allow for limited shooting overseas (Streep did not go as Fox believed it would be too expensive).
Several weeks after all the major parts had been cast, the actors gathered in New York for a table read. Hathaway was nervous and goofy, she recalls, since she still had not developed her idea of the part; she described her performance at that point as "(nothing) particularly impressive. '' Blunt, by contrast, found Streep 's laugh relaxed her enough to keep her focused on playing a nervous, distracted Emily. The highlight of the session was Streep 's first line as Miranda. Instead of the "strident, bossy, barking voice '' everyone expected, Hathaway says, Streep silenced the room by speaking in a near whisper. "It was so unexpected and brilliant. '' At the reading Streep also changed Miranda 's last line to "everybody wants to be us '' from the original "me ''.
Streep made a conscious decision not to play the part as a direct impression of Wintour, right down to not using an accent and making the character American rather than English ("I felt it was too restricting ''). "I think she wanted people not to confuse the character of Miranda Priestly with Anna Wintour at all, '' said Frankel. "And that 's why early on in the process she decided on a very different look for her and a different approach to the character. '' The "that 's all, '' "please bore someone else... '' catchphrases; her coat - tossing on Andrea 's desk and discarded steak lunch are retained from the novel. Streep prepared by reading a book by Wintour protégé Liz Tilberis and the memoirs of Vogue editor Diana Vreeland. She lost so much weight during shooting that the clothes had to be taken in.
During the movie 's press tour she also said her performance as Miranda was inspired by different men she knew, but did not say which ones. In 2016 she disclosed to Variety that she took Miranda 's soft speaking style from Clint Eastwood: "He never, ever, ever raises his voice and everyone has to lean in to listen, and he is automatically the most powerful person in the room. '' However, she said, Eastwood does not make jokes, so instead she modeled that aspect of the character on theatrical and film director Mike Nichols, whose delivery of a cutting remark, she said, made everyone laugh, including the target. "The walk, I 'm afraid, is mine, '' Streep added.
For Miranda 's actual look, Streep looked to two women. The bouffant hairstyle was inspired by model and actress Carmen Dell'Orefice, which Streep said she wanted to blend with "the unassailable elegance and authority of (French politician) Christine Lagarde. '' The costumes Field designed for that look resulted in numerous blown takes during the montage where Miranda repeatedly throws her overcoat on Andrea 's desk when she arrives in the morning. When McKenna saw Streep as Miranda for the first time on set, she recalls being so terrified she threw her arm in front of Frankel "like we were in a car wreck. ''
Hathaway prepared for the part by volunteering for a week as an assistant at an auction house where she was "put through the wringer '' according to Weisberger, who adds that Hathaway supplemented that by asking her many questions about working for Wintour. Frankel recalls that she was nervous through most of the shooting, particularly when working late, since Raffaello Follieri, her boyfriend at that time, preferred strongly that she not do so; she was also having health issues due to a cyst. The director said she was "terrified '' before starting her first scene with Streep, who had begun her working relationship with Hathaway by saying first "I think you 're perfect for the role and I 'm so happy we 're going to be working on this together '' then warning her that was the last nice thing she would say. Streep applied this philosophy to everyone else on set as well, keeping her distance from the cast and crew members unless it was necessary to discuss something with them.
That scene, where Andi delivers the Book, the mockup of the magazine in progress, to Miranda 's apartment, was, according to the Dengels, who played Miranda 's twin daughters, totally improvised. "That was just something we did with Anne and it made the cut, '' Colleen Dengel told BuzzFeed in 2017. Nevertheless, it took three more days of filming to get the shot of the girls up in the stairwell the way Frankel wanted it, a look she believes was inspired by a similar scene with twin girls in The Shining.
Streep is the one who suggested the editorial meeting scene, which does not advance the plot but shows Miranda at work without Andrea present. It was also her idea that Miranda not wear makeup in the scene where she opens up to Andrea and worries about the effect on her daughters of her divorce becoming public knowledge. Blunt, for her part, contributed the line where she tells Andy "I 'm hearing this '', while opening and closing her hand, "and I want to hear this '' keeping it closed. In 2015 she told Howard Stern that she had overheard a mother saying that to a child in a supermarket during production.
Frankel, who had worked with Patricia Field on his feature - film debut Miami Rhapsody as well as Sex and the City, knew that what the cast wore would be of utmost importance in a movie set in the fashion industry. "My approach was to hire her and then leave the room, '' he joked later. While only Valentino Garavani appeared onscreen, many other designers were helpful to Field. Her $100,000 budget for the film 's costumes was supplemented by help from friends throughout the industry. Ultimately, she believes, at least $1 million worth of clothing was used in the film, making it one of the most expensively costumed movies in cinema history. The single priciest item was a $100,000 Fred Leighton necklace on Streep.
When Hathaway enters the office after Nigel gives her access to Runway 's closet, she is dressed entirely in Chanel. Field explained in 2016 that "I felt Annie Hathaway was a Chanel girl organically, as opposed to let 's say a Versace (or Roberto Cavalli) girl. '' When she called the company to ask for assistance, they were delighted because "they wanted to see Chanel on a young girl to give it another point of view, '' showing it as a brand for "not just middle - aged women in suits, but youthful and funky. '' Calvin Klein rounds out Andrea 's wardrobe.
Dolce & Gabbana and Calvin Klein helped Field as well, with some contributions from Lebanese designer Georges Chakra. Although Field avoids making Streep look like Wintour, she dresses her in generous helpings of Prada (By Field 's own estimate, 40 % of the shoes on Streep 's feet are Prada). "I know her character was originally based on Anna Wintour, '' Field said, "but I did n't want to copy someone 's style. '' But, like Wintour and her Vogue predecessor Diana Vreeland, the two realized that Miranda needed a signature look, which was provided primarily by the white wig and forelock she wore as well as the clothes the two spent much time poring over look - books for. "(I) n choosing her wardrobe my idea was that she 's a chief fashion editor, she has her own style, '' Fields told Women 's Wear Daily in 2016. "We 're creating an original character. ''
Field said she avoided prevailing fashion trends for Miranda during production in favor of a more timeless look based on Donna Karan archives and pieces by Michaele Vollbracht for Bill Blass. She did not want people to easily recognize what Miranda was wearing.
She contrasted Andrea and Emily by giving Andrea a sense of style, without much risk - taking, that would suggest clothing a fashion magazine would have on hand for shoots, clothing a recent college graduate with little sense of style would feel comfortable wearing in a fashion - conscious workplace. Blunt, on the other hand was "so on the edge she 's almost falling off. '' For her, Field chose pieces by Vivienne Westwood and Rick Owens to suggest a taste for funkier, more "underground '' clothing. After the film 's release, some of the looks Field chose became popular, to the filmmakers ' amusement.
Tucci praised Field 's skill in putting ensembles together that were not only stylish but helped him develop his character:
She just sort of sits there with her cigarette and her hair, and she would pull stuff -- these very disparate elements -- and put them together into this ensemble, and you 'd go, "Come on, Pat, you ca n't wear that with that. '' She 'd say, "Eh, just try it on. '' So you 'd put it on, and not only did it work, but it works on so many different levels -- and it allows you to figure out who the guy is. Those outfits achieve exactly what I was trying to achieve. There 's flamboyance, there 's real risk - taking, but when I walk into the room, it 's not flashy. It 's actually very subtle. You look at it and you go, "That shirt, that tie, that jacket, that vest? What? '' But it works.
He found one Dries van Noten tie he wore during the film to his liking and kept it.
After touring some offices of real fashion magazines, Jess Gonchor gave the Runway offices a clean, white look meant to suggest a makeup compact ("the chaste beiges and whites of impervious authority, '' Denby called it). Miranda 's office bears some strong similarities to the real office of Anna Wintour, down to an octagonal mirror on the wall, photographs and a floral arrangement on the desk Gonchor later told Women 's Wear Daily that he had based the set on a photo of Wintour 's office he found online; the similarity led Wintour to have her office redecorated after the movie 's release. The magazine itself is very similar to Vogue, and one of the covers on the wall of the office, showing three models, is a direct homage to the August 2004 cover of that magazine.
She even chose separate computer wallpaper to highlight different aspects of Blunt 's and Hathaway 's character: Paris 's Arc de Triomphe on Blunt 's suggests her aspirations to accompany Miranda to the shows there, while the floral image on Andy 's suggests the natural, unassuming qualities she displays at the outset of her tenure with the magazine. For the photo of Andrea with her parents, Hathaway posed with her own mother and David Marshall Grant. The Dengel twins recalled being asked every day for three years straight if the Harry Potter advance copies were real; to their great disappointment they were not and in fact were "all gibberish ''. They eventually auctioned them for $586 on eBay, along with various clothing used in the film, to benefit Dress for Success, a charity which provides business clothing to help women transition into the workforce.
Aside from the clothing and accessories, some other well - known brands are conspicuous in the film.
The crew were in Paris for only two days, and used only exteriors. Streep did not make the trip.
Mark Livolsi realized, as McKenna had on the other end, that the film worked best when it focused on the Andrea - Miranda storyline. Accordingly, he cut a number of primarily transitional scenes, such as Andrea 's job interview and the Runway staff 's trip to Holt 's studio. He also took out a scene early on where Miranda complimented Andrea. Upon reviewing them for the DVD, Frankel admitted he had n't even seen them before, since Livolsi did n't include them in any prints he sent to the director.
Frankel praised Livolsi for making the film 's four key montages -- the opening credits, Miranda 's coat - tossing, Andrea 's makeover and the Paris introduction -- work. The third was particularly challenging as it uses passing cars and other obstructions to cover Hathaway 's changes of outfit. Some scenes were also created in the editing room, such as the reception at the museum, where Livolsi wove B - roll footage in to keep the action flowing.
Composer Theodore Shapiro relied heavily on guitar and percussion, with the backing of a full orchestra, to capture a contemporary urban sound. He ultimately wrote 35 minutes of music for the film, which were performed and recorded by the Hollywood Studio Symphony, conducted by Pete Anthony. His work was balanced with songs by U2 ("City of Blinding Lights '', Miranda and Andrea in Paris), Madonna ("Vogue '' & "Jump '', Andrea 's fashion montage & her first day on the job, respectively), KT Tunstall ("Suddenly I See '', female montage during opening credits), Alanis Morissette ("Crazy '', Central Park photo shoot), Bitter: Sweet ("Our Remains, '' Andrea picks up James Holt 's sketches for Miranda; Bittersweet Faith, Lily 's art show), Azure Ray ("Sleep, '' following the breakdown of her relationship with Nate), Jamiroquai ("Seven Days in Sunny June, '' Andrea and Christian meet at James Holt 's party) among others. Frankel had wanted to use "City of Blinding Lights '' in the film after he had used it as a soundtrack to a video montage of Paris scenes he had put together after scouting locations there. Likewise, Field had advocated just as strongly for "Vogue. ''
The soundtrack album was released on July 11 by Warner Music. It includes all the songs mentioned above (except Madonna 's "Jump '') as well as a suite of Shapiro 's themes. Among the tracks not included is "Suddenly I See, '' which disappointed many fans. It became popular as a result of the film.
Originally intended just to convince Fox to fund some shooting in Paris, Frankel 's sizzle reel led the studio to put a stronger marketing push behind the movie. It moved the release date from February to summer, scheduling it as a lighter alternative audiences could consider to Superman Returns at the end of June 2006, and began to position it as an event movie in and of itself.
Two decisions by the studio 's marketing department that were meant to be preliminary wound up being integral to promoting the film. The first was the creation of the red stiletto heel ending in a pitchfork as the film 's teaser poster. It was so successful and effective, becoming almost "iconic '' (in Finerman 's words), that it was used for the actual release poster as well. It became a brand, and was eventually used on every medium related to the film -- the tie - in reprinting of the novel and the soundtrack and DVD covers as well.
The studio also put together a trailer of scenes and images strictly from the first three minutes of the film, in which Andrea meets Miranda for the first time, to be used at previews and film festivals until they could create a more standard trailer drawing from the whole film. But, again, this proved so effective with early audiences it was retained as the main trailer, since it created anticipation for the rest of the film without giving anything away.
Gabler credits the studio 's marketing team for being "really creative ''. Fox saw the film as "counterprogramming '' on the weekend Superman Returns was released. While they knew that the material and Hathaway would help draw a younger female audience that would not be as interested in seeing that film, "(w) e did n't want it to just seem like a chick flick coming out. ''
The Devil Wears Prada received positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 75 %, based on 185 reviews, with the site 's critical consensus reads, "A rare film that surpasses the quality of its source novel, this Devil is a witty expose of New York 's fashion scene, with Meryl Streep in top form and Anne Hathaway more than holding her own. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 62 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Initial reviews of the film focused primarily on Streep 's performance, praising her for making an extremely unsympathetic character far more complex than she had been in the novel. "With her silver hair and pale skin, her whispery diction as perfect as her posture, Ms. Streep 's Miranda inspires both terror and a measure of awe, '' wrote A.O. Scott in The New York Times. "No longer simply the incarnation of evil, she is now a vision of aristocratic, purposeful and surprisingly human grace. '' Kyle Smith agreed at the New York Post: "The snaky Streep wisely chooses not to imitate Vogue editrix Anna Wintour, the inspiration for the book, but creates her own surprisingly believable character. ''
David Edelstein, in New York magazine, criticized the film as "thin '', but praised Streep for her "fabulous minimalist performance. '' J. Hoberman, Edelstein 's onetime colleague at The Village Voice, called the movie an improvement on the book and said Streep was "the scariest, most nuanced, funniest movie villainess since Tilda Swinton 's nazified White Witch (in 2005 's The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe). ''
Blunt, too, earned some favorable notice. "(She) has many of the movie 's best lines and steals nearly every scene she 's in, '' wrote Clifford Pugh in the Houston Chronicle. Other reviewers and fans concurred. While all critics were in agreement about Streep and Blunt, they pointed to other weaknesses, particularly in the story. Reviewers familiar with Weisberger 's novel assented to her judgment that McKenna 's script greatly improved upon it. A rare exception was Angela Baldassare at The Microsoft Network Canada, who felt the film needed more of the nastiness others had told her was abundant in the novel.
David Denby summed up this response in his New Yorker review: "The Devil Wears Prada tells a familiar story, and it never goes much below the surface of what it has to tell. Still, what a surface! '' Reactions to Hathaway 's performance were not as unanimous as for many of her costars. Denby said "she suggests, with no more than a panicky sidelong glance, what Weisberger takes pages to describe. '' On the other hand, according to Baldassare, she "barely carrie (d) the load. ''
Some media outlets allowed their present or former fashion reporters to weigh in on how realistic the movie was. Their responses varied widely. Booth Moore at Los Angeles Times chided Field for creating a "fine fashion fantasy with little to do with reality, '' a world that reflects what outsiders think fashion is like rather than what the industry actually is. Unlike the movie, in her experience fashionistas were less likely to wear makeup and more likely to value edgier dressing styles (that would not include toe rings). "If they want a documentary, they can watch the History Channel '', retorted Field. Another newspaper fashion writer, Hadley Freeman of The Guardian, likewise complained the film was awash in the sexism and clichés that, to her, beset movies about fashion in general.
Charla Krupp, the executive editor of SHOP, Inc., says "It 's the first film I 've seen that got it right... (It) has the nuances of the politics and the tension better than any film -- and the backstabbing and sucking - up. '' Joanna Coles, the editor of the U.S. edition of Marie Claire, agreed:
The film brilliantly skewers a particular kind of young woman who lives, breathes, thinks fashion above all else... those young women who are prepared to die rather than go without the latest Muse bag from Yves Saint Laurent that costs three times their monthly salary. It 's also accurate in its understanding of the relationship between the editor - in - chief and the assistant.
Ginia Bellefante, former fashion reporter for The New York Times, called it "easily the truest portrayal of fashion culture since Unzipped '' and giving it credit for depicting the way fashion had changed in the early 21st century. Her colleague Ruth La Ferla found a different opinion from industry insiders after a special preview screening. Most found the fashion in the movie too safe and the beauty too overstated, more in tune with the 1980s than the 2000s. "My job is to present an entertainment, a world people can visit and take a little trip, '' responded Field.
Liz Jones, former editor of British Marie Claire, wrote in the Daily Mail that the movie was "a chilling reminder of the most surreal three years of my life. '' The only detail she found inaccurate was the absence of flowers in Miranda 's Paris hotel room -- during her tenure as editor, her rooms there or in Milan received so many flowers from designers that she thought she "had died prematurely. '' She personally vouched for Miranda 's personality: "It took only a few weeks in the job for me to mutate into that strangely exotic and spoilt creature: the magazine maven, whose every whim, like those of Miranda... must be pandered to. ''
On its June 30 opening weekend, right before the Independence Day holiday, the film was on 2,847 screens. Through that Sunday, July 2, it grossed $27 million, second only to the much bigger - budget Superman Returns, breaking The Patriot 's six - year - old record for the largest take by a movie released that holiday weekend that did not win the weekend; a record that stood until Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs broke it in 2009.
During its first week it added $13 million. This success led Fox to add 35 more screens the next weekend, the widest domestic distribution the film enjoyed. Although it was never any week 's top - grossing film, it remained in the top 10 through July. Its theatrical run continued through December 10, shortly before the DVD release.
"The core marketing was definitely to women, '' Gabler recalls, "but the men did n't resist going to the movie. '' She felt that male viewers responded favorably to the movie because they sought a glimpse inside fashion, and because Miranda "was enjoyable to watch. '' The release date helped generate word of mouth when people who had seen it discussed it at holiday gatherings. "They were talking about it, like a summer reading book, '' said Gabler.
It had a very successful run in theaters, making nearly $125 million in the United States and Canada and over $325 million worldwide, a career high for all three top - billed actresses at that time. Streep would surpass it two years later with Mamma Mia while Hathaway exceeded it with 2010 's Alice in Wonderland. Blunt would not be in a higher - grossing film until the 2014 movie adaptation of the Broadway musical Into the Woods (also starring Streep).
It was also Tucci 's highest - grossing film until Captain America: The First Avenger in 2011.
Anna Wintour attended the film 's New York premiere, wearing Prada. Her friend Barbara Amiel reported that she said shortly afterward that the movie would go straight to DVD. But in an interview with Barbara Walters that aired the day the DVD was released, she called the film "really entertaining '' and said she appreciated the "decisive '' nature of Streep 's portrayal. "Anything that makes fashion entertaining and glamorous and interesting is wonderful for our industry. So I was 100 percent behind it. '' Streep said Wintour was "probably more upset by the book than the film ''. Anna Wintour 's popularity skyrocketed after her portrayal in The Devil Wears Prada. She was happy with the portrayal she got from Meryl Streep that did not place her in a position of complete villainy in which she felt was an unfair representation of her. Meryl Streep said she did n't base her character in The Devil Wears Prada on Anna Wintour, instead saying she was inspired by men she had known previously: "Unfortunately you do n't have enough women in power, or at least I do n't know them, to copy. ''
Weisberger 's novel had been translated into 37 different languages, giving the movie a strong potential foreign audience. The international box office would ultimately deliver 60 % of the film 's gross. "We did our European premiere at the Venice Film Festival '', Gabler says, where the city 's gondoliers wore red T - shirts with the film 's logo. "So many people around the world were captivated by the glossy fashion world. It was sexy and international. ''
The Devil Wears Prada topped the charts on its first major European release weekend on October 9, after a strong September Oceania and Latin America opening. It would be the highest - grossing film that weekend in Britain, Spain and Russia, taking in $41.5 million overall. Continued strong weekends as it opened across the rest of Europe helped it remain atop the overseas charts for the rest of the month. By the end of the year only its Chinese opening remained; it was released there at the end of February 2007 and took in $2.4 million.
The greatest portion of the $201.8 million total international box office came from the United Kingdom, with $26.5 million. Germany was next with $23.1 million, followed by Italy at $19.3 million and France at $17.9 million. Outside Europe, Japanese box office was the highest at $14.6 million, followed by Australia at $12.6 million.
Most reviews from the international press echoed the domestic response, heaping praise on Streep and the other actors, but calling the whole film "predictable. '' The Guardian 's Peter Bradshaw, who found the film "moderately entertaining, '' took Blunt to task, calling her a "real disappointment... strained and awkward. '' In The Independent, Anthony Quinn said Streep "may just have given us a classic here '' and concluded that the film as a whole was "as snappy and juicy as fresh bubblegum. ''
In most markets the title remained unchanged; either the English was used or a translation into the local language. The only exceptions were Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico and Venezuela, where it was El diablo que viste Prada and El diablo se viste a la moda. In Poland, the title was Diabeł ubiera się u Prady which roughly means "The Devil dresses (itself) at Prada '' rather than "The Devil Wears Prada. '' In Italian the title was '' Il diavolo veste Prada '' which roughly means "The devil wears Prada ''. In Turkey, the title was "Şeytan Marka Giyer, '' roughly translated as "The Devil Wears Brand - Names. '' In Romania, the title was "Diavolul se îmbracă de la Prada, '' which roughly means "The Devil Dresses itself from Prada '', the same construction being found in the French title, "Le Diable s'habille en Prada ''. The Japanese version is titled "プラダ を 着 た 悪魔 '', which translates as "The devil wearing Prada ''.
Three months after the film 's North American release (October 2006), Frankel and Weisberger jointly accepted the first Quill Variety Blockbuster Book to Film Award. A committee of staffers at the magazine made the nominations and chose the award winner. Editor Peter Bart praised both works.
' The Devil Wears Prada ' is an energetically directed, perfect - fit of a film that has surprised some in the industry with its box - office legs. It has delighted the country, much as did Lauren Weisberger 's book, which is still going strong on several national bestseller lists.
The film was honored by the National Board of Review as one of the year 's ten best. The American Film Institute gave the film similar recognition.
The film received ample attention from the Hollywood Foreign Press Association when its Golden Globe Award nominations were announced in December. The film itself was in the running for Best Picture (Comedy / Musical) and Supporting Actress (for Blunt). Streep later won the Globe for Best Actress (Musical / Comedy).
In January 2007, Streep 's fellow members of the Screen Actors Guild nominated her for Best Actress as well. Four days later, at the National Society of Film Critics awards, Streep won Best Supporting Actress for her work both in Devil and A Prairie Home Companion. McKenna earned a nomination from the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Adapted Screenplay.
When the British Academy of Film and Television Arts announced its 2006 nominations, Blunt, Field, McKenna and Streep were all among the nominees. Makeup artist and hairstylists Nicki Ledermann and Angel de Angelis also were nominated.
At the end of January, Streep received her 14th Academy Award nomination for Best Actress, lengthening her record from 13 for most nominations by any actor male or female. Field received a Costume Design nomination as well. Neither won, but Blunt and Hathaway presented the last mentioned award, amusing the audience by slipping into their characters for a few lines, nervously asking which of them had gotten Streep her cappuccino. Streep played along with a stern expression before smiling.
The success of the film led to a proposed, but unrealized, American dramedy series that was in contention to air for the 2007 -- 08 television season on Fox. It was to be produced by Fox Television Studios, with the premise adjusted for the confines of a traditional half - hour or one - hour dramedy with a single camera set - up. However, it never reached the point of even producing a pilot episode.
With the video release came renewed interest in Weisberger 's novel. It ranked eighth on USA Today s list of 2006 best sellers and was the second most borrowed book in American libraries. The audiobook version was released in October 2006 and quickly made it to third on that medium 's fiction best seller list.
In 2015, it was reported that Broadway producer Kevin McCollum had signed a deal two years earlier with Fox to develop some of the films from its back catalog into musicals for the stage. Two he expressed particular interest in were Mrs. Doubtfire and The Devil Wears Prada. Early in 2017, McCollum announced that in partnership with Fox Stage Productions, he was developing a musical version of The Devil Wears Prada (based on both the film and the book). Sir Elton John will be composing the score for the project with playwright Paul Rudnick, who had written some early scenes for the screenplay, mostly with Miranda, writing the book and lyrics. McCollum did not say when he expected it to premiere but hoped it would eventually play on Broadway.
The DVD was released on December 12, 2006 and has, in addition to the film, the following extras:
Closed captions in French and Spanish are also available. The DVD is available in both full screen and widescreen versions. Pictures of the cast and the tagline "Hell on Heels '' were added to the red - heel image for the cover. It was released in the UK on February 5, 2007.
A Blu - ray Disc of the film was released simultaneously with the DVD. The Blu - ray maintains the same features as the DVD; however, the featurettes were dropped and replaced with a subtitle pop - up trivia track that can be watched by itself or along with the audio commentary.
Immediately upon its December 12 release, it became the top rental in the United States. It held that spot through the end of the year, adding another $26.5 million to the film 's grosses; it dropped out of the top 50 at the end of March, with its grosses almost doubling. The following week it made its debut on the DVD sales charts in third position. By the end of 2007 it had sold nearly 5.6 million units, for a total of $94.4 million in sales.
Among the deleted scenes are some that added more background information to the story, with commentary available by the editor and director. Most were deleted by Livolsi in favor of keeping the plot focused on the conflict between Miranda and Andrea, often without consulting Frankel.
Frankel generally approved of his editor 's choices, but differed on one scene, showing more of Andrea on her errand to the Calvin Klein showroom. He felt that scene showed Andrea 's job was about more than running personal errands for Miranda.
In 2016, around the 10th anniversary of the film 's release, Vanity Fair did a rundown of some Independence Day weekend movie box results from the previous 15 years, noting how some better - remembered films had been bested by films that have not stood the test of time. It called Superman Returns ' win over The Devil Wears Prada the "most ironic '' of these victories. "(T) he degree to which (it) has penetrated pop culture needs no explanation -- as does the degree to which Superman Returns did n't. ''
The cast 's opinions on why the movie has endured differ. Hathaway told Variety that she thinks many people relate to Andy 's predicament of working for someone who seems impossible to please. "Everybody has had an experience like this. '' Tucci did not believe specific explanations were necessary. "It 's a fucking brilliant movie... The brilliant movies become influential, no matter what they are about. ''
The cast members bonded tightly on the set, and remained close afterwards. Blunt invited them to her wedding to John Krasinski in 2010. There, Tucci met her sister Felicity, whom he later married. "Ten years after The Devil Wears Prada, Stanley is in my actual family, '' she told Variety. "How frightening is that? ''
In its anniversary story, Variety argued that it had benefited all three of its lead actresses. In addition to Streep 's record - setting Oscar nomination, the magazine observed, it had proven that she could be a box - office draw by herself, opening doors up for her to be cast as a lead in later summer movies such as Julie & Julia and Mamma Mia!. For Hathaway, it was her first leading role in a film intended for an adult audience. Subsequent producers were impressed that she had held her own playing opposite Streep, which led eventually to her being cast in more serious roles like Rachel Getting Married and Les Misérables, for which she won an Oscar. "I think what people saw was promising -- it made people want to see more. ''
Hathaway believes that Blunt 's career took off because of her role. "I 've never witnessed a star being born before, '' Hathaway says. "That 's the first time I watched it happen. '' Blunt agrees that it was "a night and day change '' for her -- the day after the film was released, she told Variety, the staff at the coffee shop she had been going to for breakfast every morning in Los Angeles suddenly recognized her. Even ten years later, people still quote her lines from the film back to her at least once a week, she says.
"(The film) definitely paved the way for the filmmakers and distributors of the world to know that there was a female audience that was really strong out there '', Gabler recalls, one that was not segmented by age. She pointed to later movies, such as Mamma Mia!, 27 Dresses (written by McKenna) and Me Before You, that appeared to her to be trying to replicate The Devil Wears Prada 's success with that demographic. However, Gabler feels they did not do so as well. "Prada reminds me of movies that we do n't have a lot of now -- it harkens back to classic movies that had so much more than just one kind of plot line... You just keep wanting to find something that can touch upon the same zeitgeist as this film. ''
For Streep, the most significant thing about the film was that "(t) his was the first time, on any movie I have ever made, where men came up to me and said, ' I know what you felt like, this is kind of like my life. ' That was for me the most ground - breaking thing about Devil Wears Prada -- it engaged men on a visceral level, '' she told Indiewire.
The film has made a lasting impact on popular culture. Although a TV series based on it was not picked up, in the years after its release The Simpsons titled an episode "The Devil Wears Nada '' and parodied some scenes. The American version of The Office began an episode with Steve Carell as Michael Scott imitating Miranda after watching the film on Netflix.
In 2008, The New York Times wrote that the movie had defined the image of a personal assistant in the public mind. Seven years later, Dissent 's Francesca Mari wrote about "the assistant economy '' by which many creative professionals rely on workers so titled to do menial personal and professional tasks for them; she pointed to The Devil Wears Prada as the best - known narrative of assistantship. The next year, writing about a proposed change in U.S. federal overtime regulations that was seen as threatening to that practice, the Times called it the ' Devil Wears Prada ' economy ", a term other news outlets also used.
On the film 's 10th anniversary, Alyssa Rosenberg wrote in The Washington Post that Miranda anticipated female antiheroines of popular television series of the later 2000s and 2010s such as Scandal 's Olivia Pope and Cersei Lannister in Game of Thrones. Like them, she observes, Miranda competently assumes a position of authority often held by male characters, despite her moral failings, that she must defend against attempts to use her personal life to remove her from it, to "prov (e), as a creature of sentiment, that she never belonged there in the first place. '' In doing so, however successfully to herself and others, "she has zipped herself into a life as regimented and limited as a skintight pencil skirt. ''
"Like many instant classics, Prada benefited from perfect timing '', Variety 's 2016 article observed, attempting to explain the film 's enduring appeal. "It marked the beginning of the democratization of the fashion industry -- when the masses started to pay attention to the business of what they wore. '' It credited the movie with helping stir interest in the American adaptation of the Colombian television series Ugly Betty, which debuted months after its release.
The film also has been credited with increasing interest in R.J. Cutler 's documentary The September Issue, which followed Wintour and other Vogue editors as they prepared the issue for that month of 2007. Writing in The Ringer on the tenth anniversary, Alison Herman observed that "The Devil Wears Prada transformed Wintour 's image from that of a mere public figure into that of a cultural icon. '' Once known primarily as a fashion editor, she was now "every overlord you 'd ever bitched about three drinks deep at happy hour, only to dutifully fetch her coffee the next day. '' Ultimately, the film had effected a positive change in Wintour 's image, Herman argued, "from a tyrant in chinchilla to an idol for the post-Sandberg age. ''
In 2013, Weisberger wrote a sequel, Revenge Wears Prada. However, it does not seem likely that a film version of it, or any sequel, will be made, as two of the film 's stars are not eager to do so. Streep, who has never made a sequel to any of her films, has reportedly said that she is not interested in making this one in particular. And while Hathaway admits she 'd be interested in working with the same people, it would have to be "something totally different. '' The Devil Wears Prada, she told Variety "might have just hit the right note. It 's good to leave it as it is. ''
The following year, The Last Airbender also exceeded The Devil Wears Prada 's July 4 opening weekend take without winning the weekend, as did The Purge: Election Year in 2016, but neither film broke Ice Age 's record.
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who was involved in the battle of 1812 | War of 1812 - Wikipedia
Treaty of Ghent
United States
British Empire
Bourbon Spain
2,200 - 3,721 killed in action
British Empire: 1,160 - 1,960 killed in action
Native allies: 10,000 dead from all causes (warriors and civilians)
East Coast
Great Lakes / Saint Lawrence River
West Indies / Gulf Coast
Pacific Ocean
The War of 1812 (1812 -- 1815) was a conflict fought between the United States, the United Kingdom, and their respective allies. Historians in Britain often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars; in the United States and Canada, it is seen as a war in its own right.
Since the outbreak of war with Napoleonic France, Britain had enforced a naval blockade to choke off neutral trade to France, which the United States contested as illegal under international law. To man the blockade, Britain impressed American merchant sailors into the Royal Navy. Incidents such as the Chesapeake -- Leopard Affair inflamed anti-British sentiment. In 1811, the British were in turn outraged by the Little Belt Affair, in which 11 British sailors died. The British supplied Indians who conducted raids on American settlers on the frontier, which hindered American expansion and also provoked resentment. Historians remain divided on whether the desire to annex some or all of British North America contributed to the American decision to go to war. On June 18, 1812, President James Madison, after receiving heavy pressure from the War Hawks in Congress, signed the American declaration of war into law.
With the majority of their army in Europe fighting Napoleon, the British adopted a defensive strategy. American prosecution of the war effort suffered from its unpopularity, especially in New England, where it was derogatorily referred to as "Mr. Madison 's War ''. American defeats at the Siege of Detroit and the Battle of Queenston Heights thwarted attempts to seize Upper Canada, improving British morale. American attempts to invade Lower Canada and capture Montreal also failed. In 1813, at the Battle of Lake Erie the Americans won control of Lake Erie, and at the Battle of the Thames defeated Tecumseh 's Confederacy, securing a primary war goal. At sea, the powerful Royal Navy blockaded American ports, cutting off trade and allowing the British to raid the coast at will. In 1814, one of these raids burned the capital, Washington, although the Americans subsequently repulsed British attempts to invade New England and capture Baltimore.
At home, the British faced mounting opposition to wartime taxation, and demands to reopen trade with America. With the abdication of Napoleon, the blockade of France ended and the British ceased impressment, rendering the issue of the impressment of American sailors moot. The British were then able to increase the strength of the blockade on the United States coast, annihilating American maritime trade and bringing the United States government near to bankruptcy. Peace negotiations began in August 1814 and the Treaty of Ghent was signed on December 24 as neither side wanted to continue fighting. News of the peace did not reach America for some time. Unaware that the treaty had been signed, British forces invaded Louisiana and were defeated at the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815. These late victories were viewed by Americans as having restored national honour, leading to the collapse of anti-war sentiment and the beginning of the Era of Good Feelings, a period of national unity. News of the treaty arrived shortly thereafter, halting military operations. The treaty was unanimously ratified by the United States on February 17, 1815, ending the war with Status quo ante bellum (no boundary changes).
Historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States.
As Risjord (1961) notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake -- Leopard Affair. H.W. Brands says, "The other war hawks spoke of the struggle with Britain as a second war of independence; (Andrew) Jackson, who still bore scars from the first war of independence held that view with special conviction. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also about vindication of American identity. '' Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States ' "Second War of Independence ''.
The British too were offended by what they considered insults such as the Little Belt Affair. This led to the British having a particular interest in capturing the United States flagship President which they succeeded in doing during 1815.
In 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via the Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, which Britain was then fighting in the Napoleonic Wars. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law. Historian Reginald Horsman states, "a large section of influential British opinion, both in the government and in the country, thought that America presented a threat to British maritime supremacy. ''
The American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80 % of U.S. cotton and 50 % of other U.S. exports. The British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States ' view was that Britain 's restrictions violated its right to trade with others.
During the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. While the Royal Navy could man its ships with volunteers in peacetime, it competed in wartime with merchant shipping and privateers for a small pool of experienced sailors and turned to impressment from ashore and foreign or domestic shipping when it could not operate its ships with volunteers alone.
The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U.S. citizens. Britain did not recognize a right whereby a British subject could relinquish his status as a British subject, emigrate and transfer his national allegiance as a naturalized citizen to any other country. This meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and the widespread use of unofficial or forged identity or protection papers by sailors. This made it difficult for the Royal Navy to distinguish Americans from non-Americans and led it to impress some Americans who had never been British. Some gained freedom on appeal. Thus while the United States recognized British - born sailors on American ships as Americans, Britain did not. It was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805. U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin stated that 9,000 U.S. sailors were born in Britain. Moreover, a great number of these British born sailors were Irish. An investigation by Captain Isaac Chauncey in 1808 found that 58 % of sailors based in New York City were either naturalized citizens or recent immigrants, the majority of these foreign born sailors (134 of 150) being from Britain. Moreover, 80 of the 134 British sailors were Irish.
American anger at impressment grew when British frigates were stationed just outside U.S. harbours in view of U.S. shores and searched ships for contraband and impressed men while within U.S. territorial waters. Well publicized impressment actions such as the Leander Affair and the Chesapeake -- Leopard Affair outraged the American public.
The British public in turn were outraged by the Little Belt Affair, in which a larger American ship clashed with a small British sloop, resulting in the deaths of 11 British sailors. Both sides claimed the other fired first, but the British public in particular blamed the U.S. for attacking a smaller vessel, with calls for revenge by some newspapers, while the U.S. was encouraged by the fact they had won a victory over the Royal Navy. The U.S. Navy also forcibly recruited British sailors but the British government saw impressment as commonly accepted practice and preferred to rescue British sailors from American impressment on a case - by - case basis.
The Northwest Territory, which consisted of the modern states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, was the battleground for conflict between the Native American Nations and the United States. The British Empire had ceded the area to the United States in the Treaty of Paris in 1783, both sides ignoring the fact that the land was already inhabited by various Native American nations. These included the Miami, Winnebago, Shawnee, Fox, Sauk, Kickapoo, Delaware and Wyandot. Some warriors, who had left their nations of origin, followed Tenskwatawa, the Shawnee Prophet and the brother of Tecumseh. Tenskwatawa had a vision of purifying his society by expelling the "children of the Evil Spirit '': the American settlers. The Indians wanted to create their own state in the Northwest to end the American threat forever as it became clear that the Americans wanted all of the land in the Old Northwest for themselves. Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh formed a confederation of numerous tribes to block American expansion. The British saw the Native American nations as valuable allies and a buffer to its Canadian colonies and provided arms. Attacks on American settlers in the Northwest further aggravated tensions between Britain and the United States. Raiding grew more common in 1810 and 1811; Westerners in Congress found the raids intolerable and wanted them permanently ended. British policy towards the Indians of the Northwest was torn between the desire to keep the Americans fighting in the Northwest, and to preserve a region that provided rich profits for Canadian fur traders, versus the fear that too much support for the Indians would cause a war with the United States. Through Tecumseh 's plans for an Indian state in the Northwest would benefit British North America by making it more defensible, at the same time, the defeats suffered by Tecumseh 's confederation had the British leery of going too far to support what was probably a losing cause. In the months running up to the war, British diplomats attempted to defuse tensions on the frontier.
The confederation 's raids, and its very existence, hindered American expansion into rich farmlands in the Northwest Territory. Pratt writes:
There is ample proof that the British authorities did all in their power to hold or win the allegiance of the Indians of the Northwest with the expectation of using them as allies in the event of war. Indian allegiance could be held only by gifts, and to an Indian no gift was as acceptable as a lethal weapon. Guns and ammunition, tomahawks and scalping knives were dealt out with some liberality by British agents.
However, according to the U.S. Army Center of Military History, the "land - hungry frontiersmen '', with "no doubt that their troubles with the Native Americans were the result of British intrigue '', exacerbated the problem by "(circulating stories) after every Native American raid of British Army muskets and equipment being found on the field ''. Thus, "the westerners were convinced that their problems could best be solved by forcing the British out of Canada ''.
The British had the long - standing goal of creating a large, "neutral '' Native American state to cover much of Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan. They made the demand as late as the fall of 1814 at the peace conference, but lost control of western Ontario in 1813 at key battles on and around Lake Erie. These battles destroyed the Indian confederacy which had been the main ally of the British in that region, weakening its negotiating position. Although much of the area remained under British or British - allied Native Americans ' control until the end of the war, the British, at American insistence and with higher priorities, dropped the demands.
American expansion into the Northwest Territory was being obstructed by various Indian tribes since the end of the Revolution, who were supplied and encouraged by the British. Americans on the western frontier demanded that interference be stopped. There is dispute, however, over whether or not the American desire to annex Canada brought on the war. Several historians believe that the capture of Canada was intended only as a means to secure a bargaining chip, which would then be used to force Britain to back down on the maritime issues. It would also cut off food supplies for Britain 's West Indian colonies, and temporarily prevent the British from continuing to arm the Indians. However, many historians believe that a desire to annex Canada was a cause of the war. This view was more prevalent before 1940, but remains widely held today. Congressman Richard Mentor Johnson told Congress that the constant Indian atrocities along the Wabash River in Indiana were enabled by supplies from Canada and were proof that "the war has already commenced... I shall never die contented until I see England 's expulsion from North America and her territories incorporated into the United States. ''
Madison believed that British economic policies designed to foster imperial preference were harming the American economy and that as British North America existed, here was a conduit for American strugglers who were undercutting his trade policies, which thus required that the United States annex British North America. Furthermore, Madison believed that the Great Lakes - St. Lawrence trade route might become the main trade route for the export of North American goods to Europe at the expense of the U.S. economy, and if the United States controlled the resources of British North America like timber which the British needed for their navy, then Britain would be forced to change its maritime policies which had so offended American public opinion. Many Americans believed it was only natural that their country should swallow up North America with one Congressman, John Harper saying in a speech that "the Author of Nature Himself had marked our limits in the south, by the Gulf of Mexico and on the north, by the regions of eternal frost ''. Upper Canada (modern southern Ontario) had been settled mostly by Revolution - era exiles from the United States (United Empire Loyalists) or postwar American immigrants. The Loyalists were hostile to union with the United States, while the immigrant settlers were generally uninterested in politics and remained neutral or supported the British during the war. The Canadian colonies were thinly populated and only lightly defended by the British Army. Americans then believed that many men in Upper Canada would rise up and greet an American invading army as liberators. That did not happen. One reason American forces retreated after one successful battle inside Canada was that they could not obtain supplies from the locals. But the Americans thought that the possibility of local support suggested an easy conquest, as former President Thomas Jefferson believed: "The acquisition of Canada this year, as far as the neighborhood of Quebec, will be a mere matter of marching, and will give us the experience for the attack on Halifax, the next and final expulsion of England from the American continent. ''
Annexation was supported by American border businessmen who wanted to gain control of Great Lakes trade.
Carl Benn noted that the War Hawks ' desire to annex the Canadas was similar to the enthusiasm for the annexation of Spanish Florida by inhabitants of the American South; both expected war to facilitate expansion into long - desired lands and end support for hostile Indian tribes (Tecumseh 's Confederacy in the North and the Creek in the South).
Tennessee Congressman Felix Grundy considered it essential to acquire Canada to preserve domestic political balance, arguing that annexing Canada would maintain the free state - slave state balance, which might otherwise be thrown off by the acquisition of Florida and the settlement of the southern areas of the new Louisiana Purchase.
Historian Richard Maass argued in 2015 that the expansionist theme is a myth that goes against the "relative consensus among experts that the primary U.S. objective was the repeal of British maritime restrictions ''. He argues that consensus among scholars is that the United States went to war "because six years of economic sanctions had failed to bring Britain to the negotiating table, and threatening the Royal Navy 's Canadian supply base was their last hope. '' Maass agrees that theoretically expansionism might have tempted Americans, but finds that "leaders feared the domestic political consequences of doing so. Notably, what limited expansionism there was focused on sparsely populated western lands rather than the more populous eastern settlements (of Canada). '' Nevertheless, Maas notes that many historians continue to believe that expansionism was a cause.
Horsman argued expansionism played a role as a secondary cause after maritime issues, noting that many historians have mistakenly rejected expansionism as a cause for the war. He notes that it was considered key to maintaining sectional balance between free and slave states thrown off by American settlement of the Louisiana Territory, and widely supported by dozens of War Hawk congressmen such as John A. Harper, Felix Grundy, Henry Clay, and Richard M. Johnson, who voted for war with expansion as a key aim.
In disagreeing with those interpretations that have simply stressed expansionism and minimized maritime causation, historians have ignored deep - seated American fears for national security, dreams of a continent completely controlled by the republican United States, and the evidence that many Americans believed that the War of 1812 would be the occasion for the United States to achieve the long - desired annexation of Canada... Thomas Jefferson well - summarized American majority opinion about the war... to say "that the cession of Canada... must be a sine qua non at a treaty of peace ''.
However, Horsman states that in his view "the desire for Canada did not cause the War of 1812 '' and that "The United States did not declare war because it wanted to obtain Canada, but the acquisition of Canada was viewed as a major collateral benefit of the conflict. ''
Historian Alan Taylor says that many Democratic - Republican congressmen, such as Richard M. Johnson, John A. Harper and Peter B. Porter, "longed to oust the British from the continent and to annex Canada. '' A few Southerners opposed this, fearing an imbalance of free and slave states if Canada was annexed, while anti-Catholicism also caused many to oppose annexing mainly Catholic Lower Canada, believing its French - speaking inhabitants "unfit... for republican citizenship ''. Even major figures such as Henry Clay and James Monroe expected to keep at least Upper Canada in the event of an easy conquest. Notable American generals, like William Hull were led by this sentiment to issue proclamations to Canadians during the war promising republican liberation through incorporation into the United States; a proclamation the government never officially disavowed. General Alexander Smyth similarly declared to his troops that when they invaded Canada "You will enter a country that is to become one of the United States. You will arrive among a people who are to become your fellow - citizens. '' A lack of clarity about American intentions undercut these appeals, however.
David and Jeanne Heidler argue that "Most historians agree that the War of 1812 was not caused by expansionism but instead reflected a real concern of American patriots to defend United States ' neutral rights from the overbearing tyranny of the British Navy. That is not to say that expansionist aims would not potentially result from the war. ''
However, they also argue otherwise, saying that "acquiring Canada would satisfy America 's expansionist desires '', also describing it as a key goal of western expansionists, who, they argue, believed that "eliminating the British presence in Canada would best accomplish '' their goal of halting British support for Indian raids. They argue that the "enduring debate '' is over the relative importance of expansionism as a factor, and whether "expansionism played a greater role in causing the War of 1812 than American concern about protecting neutral maritime rights. ''
While the British government was largely oblivious to the deteriorating North American situation because of its involvement in a continent - wide European War, the U.S. was in a period of significant political conflict between the Federalist Party (based mainly in the Northeast), which favoured a strong central government and closer ties to Britain, and the Democratic - Republican Party (with its greatest power base in the South and West), which favoured a weak central government, preservation of states ' rights (including slavery), expansion into Indian land, and a stronger break with Britain. By 1812, the Federalist Party had weakened considerably, and the Republicans, with James Madison completing his first term of office and control of Congress, were in a strong position to pursue their more aggressive agenda against Britain. Throughout the war, support for the U.S. cause was weak (or sometimes non-existent) in Federalist areas of the Northeast. Few men volunteered to serve; the banks avoided financing the war. The negativism of the Federalists, especially as exemplified by the Hartford Convention of 1814 -- 15, ruined its reputation and the Party survived only in scattered areas. By 1815 there was broad support for the war from all parts of the country. This allowed the triumphant Democratic - Republicans to adopt some Federalist policies, such as a national bank, which Madison reestablished in 1816.
The United States Navy (USN) had 7,250 sailors and Marines in 1812. The American Navy was well trained and a professional force that fought well against the Barbary pirates and France in the Quasi-War. The USN had 13 ocean - going warships, three of them "super-frigates '' and its principal problem was a lack of funding as many in Congress did not see the need for a strong navy. The American warships were all well - built ships that were equal, if not superior to British ships of a similar class (British shipbuilding emphasized quantity over quality). However, the biggest ships in the USN were frigates, and the Americans had no ships - of - the - line capable of engaging in a fleet action with the Royal Navy at sea.
On the high seas, the Americans could only pursue a strategy of commerce raiding, taking British merchantmen with their frigates and privateers. Before the war, the USN was largely concentrated on the Atlantic coast and at the war 's outbreak had only two gunboats on Lake Champlain, one brig on Lake Ontario and another brig in Lake Erie.
The United States Army was much larger than the British Army in North America, and the soldiers well trained and brave. However, leadership in the American officer corps was inconsistent; some officers proved themselves to be outstanding but many others inept, owing their positions to political favors. Congress was hostile to a standing army, and during the war, the U.S. government called out 450,000 men from the state militas, a number that was slightly smaller than the entire population of British North America. However, the state militias were poorly trained, armed, and led. After the Battle of Bladensburg in 1814, in which the Maryland and Virginia militias were soundly defeated by the British Army, President Madison commented: "I could never have believed so great a difference existed between regular troops and a militia force, if I not witnessed the scenes of this day. ''
The British Royal Navy was a well - led, professional force, considered the world 's most powerful navy. However, as long as the war with France continued, North America was a secondary concern. In 1813, France had 80 ships - of - the - line while building another 35. Therefore, containing the French fleet had to be the main British naval concern. In Upper Canada, the British had the Provincial Marine was essential for keeping the army supplied since the roads in Upper Canada were abysmal. On Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence, the Royal Navy had two schooners while the Provincial Marine maintained four small warships on Lake Erie. The British Army in North America was a very professional and well trained force, but suffered from being outnumbered.
The militias of Upper Canada and Lower Canada had a much more lower level of military effectiveness. Nevertheless, Canadian militia (and locally recruited regular units known as "Fencibles '') were often more reliable than American militia, particularly when defending their own territory. As such they played pivotal roles in various engagements, including at the Battle of Chateauguay where Canadian and Indian forces alone stopped a much larger American force despite not having assistance from regular British units.
Because of their lower population compared to whites, and lacking artillery, Indian allies of the British avoided pitched battles and instead relied on irregular warfare, including raids and ambushes. Given their low population, it was crucial to avoid heavy losses and, in general, Indian chiefs sought to fight only under favorable conditions; any battle that promised heavy losses was avoided if possible. The main Indian weapons were a mixture of tomahawks, knives, swords, rifles, clubs, arrows and muskets. Indian warriors were brave, but the need to avoid heavy losses meant that they fought only under the most favorable conditions and their tactics favored a defensive as opposed to offensive style.
In the words of Benn, those Indians fighting with the Americans provided the U.S with their "most effective light troops '' while the British desperately needed the Indian tribes to compensate for their numerical inferiority. The Indians, regardless of which side they fought for, saw themselves as allies, not subordinates and Indian chiefs did what they viewed as best for their tribes, much to the annoyance of both American and British generals, who often complained about their unreliability.
On June 1, 1812, President James Madison sent a message to Congress recounting American grievances against Great Britain, though not specifically calling for a declaration of war. After Madison 's message, the House of Representatives deliberated for four days behind closed doors before voting 79 to 49 (61 %) in favor of the first declaration of war. The Senate concurred in the declaration by a 19 to 13 (59 %) vote in favour. The conflict began formally on June 18, 1812, when Madison signed the measure into law and proclaimed it the next day. This was the first time that the United States had declared war on another nation, and the Congressional vote was the closest vote to formally declare war in American history. The Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 1991, while not a formal declaration of war, was a closer vote. None of the 39 Federalists in Congress voted in favour of the war; critics of war subsequently referred to it as "Mr. Madison 's War. ''
Earlier in London on May 11, an assassin had killed Prime Minister Spencer Perceval, which resulted in Lord Liverpool coming to power. Liverpool wanted a more practical relationship with the United States. On June 23, he issued a repeal of the Orders in Council, but the United States was unaware of this, as it took three weeks for the news to cross the Atlantic. On June 28, 1812, HMS Colibri was despatched from Halifax under a flag of truce to New York. On July 9, she anchored off Sandy Hook, and three days later sailed on her return with a copy of the declaration of war, in addition to transporting the British ambassador to the United States, Mr. Foster and consul, Colonel Barclay. She arrived in Halifax, Nova Scotia eight days later. The news of the declaration took even longer to reach London.
However, the British commander in Upper Canada received news of the American declaration of war much faster. In response to the U.S. declaration of war, Isaac Brock issued a proclamation alerting the citizenry in Upper Canada of the state of war and urging all military personnel "to be vigilant in the discharge of their duty '' to prevent communication with the enemy and to arrest anyone suspected of helping the Americans. He also issued orders to the commander of the British post at Fort St. Joseph to initiate offensive operations against U.S. forces in northern Michigan, who it turned out, were not yet aware of their own government 's declaration of war. The resulting Siege of Fort Mackinac on July 17 was the first major land engagement of the war, and ended in an easy British victory.
The war was conducted in three theatres:
Although the outbreak of the war had been preceded by years of angry diplomatic dispute, neither side was ready for war when it came. Britain was heavily engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, most of the British Army was deployed in the Peninsular War (in Portugal and Spain), and the Royal Navy was compelled to blockade most of the coast of Europe. The number of British regular troops present in Canada in July 1812 was officially stated to be 6,034, supported by Canadian militia. Throughout the war, the British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies was Earl Bathurst. For the first two years of the war, he could spare few troops to reinforce North America and urged the commander - in - chief in North America (Lieutenant General Sir George Prévost) to maintain a defensive strategy. The naturally cautious Prévost followed these instructions, concentrating on defending Lower Canada at the expense of Upper Canada (which was more vulnerable to American attacks) and allowing few offensive actions.
The United States was not prepared to prosecute a war, for Madison had assumed that the state militias would easily seize Canada and that negotiations would follow. In 1812, the regular army consisted of fewer than 12,000 men. Congress authorized the expansion of the army to 35,000 men, but the service was voluntary and unpopular; it offered poor pay, and there were few trained and experienced officers, at least initially. The militia objected to serving outside their home states, were not open to discipline, and performed poorly against British forces when outside their home states. American prosecution of the war suffered from its unpopularity, especially in New England, where anti-war speakers were vocal. "Two of the Massachusetts members (of Congress), Seaver and Widgery, were publicly insulted and hissed on Change in Boston; while another, Charles Turner, member for the Plymouth district, and Chief - Justice of the Court of Sessions for that county, was seized by a crowd on the evening of August 3, (1812) and kicked through the town ''. The United States had great difficulty financing its war. It had disbanded its national bank, and private bankers in the Northeast were opposed to the war. The United States was able to obtain financing from London - based Barings Bank to cover overseas bond obligations. The failure of New England to provide militia units or financial support was a serious blow. Threats of secession by New England states were loud, as evidenced by the Hartford Convention. Britain exploited these divisions, blockading only southern ports for much of the war and encouraging smuggling.
U.S. leaders assumed that Canada could be easily overrun. Former President Jefferson optimistically referred to the conquest of Canada as "a matter of marching ''. Many Loyalist Americans had migrated to Upper Canada after the Revolutionary War. There was also significant non-Loyalist American immigration to the area due to the offer of land grants to immigrants, and the U.S. assumed the latter would favour the American cause, but they did not. In prewar Upper Canada, General Prévost was in the unusual position of having to purchase many provisions for his troops from the American side. This peculiar trade persisted throughout the war in spite of an abortive attempt by the U.S. government to curtail it. In Lower Canada, which was much more populous, support for Britain came from the English elite with strong loyalty to the Empire, and from the French - speaking Canadien elite, who feared American conquest would destroy the old order by introducing Protestantism, Anglicization, republican democracy, and commercial capitalism; and weakening the Catholic Church. The Canadien inhabitants feared the loss of a shrinking area of good lands to potential American immigrants.
In 1812 -- 13, British military experience prevailed over inexperienced American commanders. Geography dictated that operations take place in the west: principally around Lake Erie, near the Niagara River between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and near the Saint Lawrence River area and Lake Champlain. This was the focus of the three - pronged attacks by the Americans in 1812. Although cutting the St. Lawrence River through the capture of Montreal and Quebec would have made Britain 's hold in North America unsustainable, the United States began operations first in the western frontier because of the general popularity there of a war with the British, who had sold arms to the Native Americans opposing the settlers.
The British scored an important early success when their detachment at St. Joseph Island, on Lake Huron, learned of the declaration of war before the nearby American garrison at the important trading post at Mackinac Island in Michigan. A scratch force landed on the island on July 17, 1812, and mounted a gun overlooking Fort Mackinac. After the British fired one shot from their gun, the Americans, taken by surprise, surrendered. This early victory encouraged the natives, and large numbers moved to help the British at Amherstburg. The island totally controlled access to the Old Northwest, giving the British nominal control of this area, and, more vitally, a monopoly on the fur trade.
An American army under the command of William Hull invaded Canada on July 12, with his forces chiefly composed of untrained and ill - disciplined militiamen. Once on Canadian soil, Hull issued a proclamation ordering all British subjects to surrender, or "the horrors, and calamities of war will stalk before you ''. This led many of the British forces to defect. John Bennett, printer and publisher of the York Gazette & Oracle, was a prominent defector. Andrew Mercer, who had the publication 's production moved to his house, lost the press and type destroyed during American occupation, an example of what happened to resisters. He also threatened to kill any British prisoner caught fighting alongside a native. The proclamation helped stiffen resistance to the American attacks. Hull 's army was too weak in artillery and badly supplied to achieve its objectives, and had to fight just to maintain its own lines of communication.
The senior British officer in Upper Canada, Major General Isaac Brock, felt that he should take bold measures to calm the settler population in Canada, and to convince the aboriginals who were needed to defend the region that Britain was strong. He moved rapidly to Amherstburg near the western end of Lake Erie with reinforcements and immediately decided to attack Detroit. Hull, fearing that the British possessed superior numbers and that the Indians attached to Brock 's force would commit massacres if fighting began, surrendered Detroit without a fight on August 16. Knowing of British - instigated indigenous attacks on other locations, Hull ordered the evacuation of the inhabitants of Fort Dearborn (Chicago) to Fort Wayne. After initially being granted safe passage, the inhabitants (soldiers and civilians) were attacked by Potowatomis on August 15 after travelling only 2 miles (3.2 km) in what is known as the Battle of Fort Dearborn. The fort was subsequently burned.
Brock promptly transferred himself to the eastern end of Lake Erie, where American General Stephen Van Rensselaer was attempting a second invasion. An armistice (arranged by Prévost in the hope the British renunciation of the Orders in Council to which the United States objected might lead to peace) prevented Brock from invading American territory. When the armistice ended, the Americans attempted an attack across the Niagara River on October 13, but suffered a crushing defeat at Queenston Heights. Brock was killed during the battle. While the professionalism of the American forces improved by the war 's end, British leadership suffered after Brock 's death. A final attempt in 1812 by American General Henry Dearborn to advance north from Lake Champlain failed when his militia refused to advance beyond American territory.
In contrast to the American militia, the Canadian militia performed well. French Canadians, who found the anti-Catholic stance of most of the United States troublesome, and United Empire Loyalists, who had fought for the Crown during the American Revolutionary War, strongly opposed the American invasion. Many in Upper Canada were recent settlers from the United States who had no obvious loyalties to the Crown; nevertheless, while there were some who sympathized with the invaders, the American forces found strong opposition from men loyal to the Empire.
After Hull 's surrender of Detroit, General William Henry Harrison was given command of the U.S. Army of the Northwest. He set out to retake the city, which was now defended by Colonel Henry Procter in conjunction with Tecumseh. A detachment of Harrison 's army was defeated at Frenchtown along the River Raisin on January 22, 1813. Procter left the prisoners with an inadequate guard, who could not prevent some of his North American aboriginal allies from attacking and killing perhaps as many as sixty Americans, many of whom were Kentucky militiamen. The incident became known as the River Raisin Massacre. The defeat ended Harrison 's campaign against Detroit, and the phrase "Remember the River Raisin! '' became a rallying cry for the Americans.
In May 1813, Procter and Tecumseh set siege to Fort Meigs in northwestern Ohio. American reinforcements arriving during the siege were defeated by the natives, but the fort held out. The Indians eventually began to disperse, forcing Procter and Tecumseh to return north to Canada. A second offensive against Fort Meigs also failed in July. In an attempt to improve Indian morale, Procter and Tecumseh attempted to storm Fort Stephenson, a small American post on the Sandusky River, only to be repulsed with serious losses, marking the end of the Ohio campaign.
On Lake Erie, American commander Captain Oliver Hazard Perry fought the Battle of Lake Erie on September 10, 1813. His decisive victory at "Put - In - Bay '' ensured American military control of the lake, improved American morale after a series of defeats, and compelled the British to fall back from Detroit. This paved the way for General Harrison to launch another invasion of Upper Canada, which culminated in the U.S. victory at the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813, in which Tecumseh was killed.
Because of the difficulties of land communications, control of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River corridor was crucial. When the war began, the British already had a small squadron of warships on Lake Ontario and had the initial advantage. To redress the situation, the Americans established a Navy yard at Sackett 's Harbor in northwestern New York. Commodore Isaac Chauncey took charge of the large number of sailors and shipwrights sent there from New York; they completed the second warship built there in a mere 45 days. Ultimately, almost 3,000 men worked at the naval shipyard, building eleven warships and many smaller boats and transports. Having regained the advantage by their rapid building program, Chauncey and Dearborn attacked York, on the northern shore of the lake, the capital of Upper Canada, on April 27, 1813. The Battle of York was a "pyrrhic '' American victory, marred by looting and the burning of the small Provincial Parliament buildings and a library (resulting in a spirit of revenge by the British / Canadians led by Gov. George Prévost, who later demanded satisfaction encouraging the British Admiralty to issue orders to their officers later operating in the Chesapeake Bay region to exact similar devastation on the American Federal capital village of Washington the following year). However, Kingston was strategically much more valuable to British supply and communications routes along the St. Lawrence corridor. Without control of Kingston, the U.S. Navy could not effectively control Lake Ontario or sever the British supply line from Lower Canada.
On May 25, 1813 the guns of the American Lake Ontario squadron joined by Fort Niagara began bombarding Fort George. On May 27, 1813, an American amphibious force from Lake Ontario assaulted Fort George on the northern end of the Niagara River and captured it without serious losses. The British also abandoned Fort Erie and headed towards the Burlington Heights. With the British position in Upper Canada on the verge of collapse, the Iroquois Indians living along the banks of the Grand River considered changing side and ignored a British appeal to come to their aid. The retreating British forces were not pursued, however, until they had largely escaped and organized a counteroffensive against the advancing Americans at the Battle of Stoney Creek on June 5. With Upper Canada on the line, the British a surprise attack at Stoney Creek at 2: 00 am, leading to much confused fighting. Through tactically a draw, the battle was a strategic British victory as the Americans pulled back to Forty Mile Creek rather than continuing their advance into Upper Canada. At this point, the Six Nations living on the Grand River began to come out to fight for the British as an American victory no longer seemed inevitable. The Iroquis ambushed an American patrol at Forty Mile Creek while the Royal Navy squadron based in Kingston came to bombard the American camp, leading to General Dearborn to retreat back to Fort George as he now mistakenly believed he was outnumbered and outgunned. The British commander, General John Vincent was heartened by the fact that more and more First Nations warriors were now arriving to assist him, providing about 800 additional men. On June 24, with the help of advance warning by Laura Secord, another American force was forced to surrender by a much smaller British and native force at the Battle of Beaver Dams, marking the end of the American offensive into Upper Canada. The British commander General Francis de Rottenberg did not have the strength to retake Fort George, so he built a blockade, hoping to starve the Americans into surrender. Meanwhile, Commodore James Lucas Yeo had taken charge of the British ships on the lake and mounted a counterattack, which was nevertheless repulsed at the Battle of Sackett 's Harbor. Thereafter, Chauncey and Yeo 's squadrons fought two indecisive actions, neither commander seeking a fight to the finish.
Late in 1813, the Americans abandoned the Canadian territory they occupied around Fort George. They set fire to the village of Newark (now Niagara - on - the - Lake) on December 10, 1813, incensing the Canadians and politicians in control. Many of the inhabitants were left without shelter, freezing to death in the snow. This led to British retaliation following the Capture of Fort Niagara on December 18, 1813. Early the next morning on December 19, the British and their native allies stormed the neighbouring town of Lewiston, New York, torching homes and buildings and killing about a dozen civilians. As the British were chasing the surviving residents out of town, a small force of Tuscarora natives intervened and stopped the pursuit, buying enough time for the locals to escape to safer ground. It is notable in that the Tuscaroras defended the Americans against their own Iroquois brothers, the Mohawks, who sided with the British. Later, the British attacked and burned Buffalo on December 30, 1813.
In 1814, the contest for Lake Ontario turned into a building race. Naval superiority shifted between the opposing fleets as each built new, bigger ships. However, neither was able to bring the other to battle when in a position of superiority, leaving the Engagements on Lake Ontario a draw. At war 's end, the British held the advantage with the 112 - gun HMS St Lawrence, but the Americans had laid down two even larger ships. The majority of these ships never saw action and were decommissioned after the war.
The British were potentially most vulnerable over the stretch of the St. Lawrence where it formed the frontier between Upper Canada and the United States. During the early days of the war, there was illicit commerce across the river. Over the winter of 1812 and 1813, the Americans launched a series of raids from Ogdensburg on the American side of the river, which hampered British supply traffic up the river. On February 21, Sir George Prévost passed through Prescott on the opposite bank of the river with reinforcements for Upper Canada. When he left the next day, the reinforcements and local militia attacked. At the Battle of Ogdensburg, the Americans were forced to retire.
For the rest of the year, Ogdensburg had no American garrison, and many residents of Ogdensburg resumed visits and trade with Prescott. This British victory removed the last American regular troops from the Upper St. Lawrence frontier and helped secure British communications with Montreal. Late in 1813, after much argument, the Americans made two thrusts against Montreal. Taking Montreal would have cut off the British forces in Upper Canada and thus potentially changed the war. The plan eventually agreed upon was for Major General Wade Hampton to march north from Lake Champlain and join a force under General James Wilkinson that would embark in boats and sail from Sackett 's Harbor on Lake Ontario and descend the St. Lawrence. Hampton was delayed by bad roads and supply problems and also had an intense dislike of Wilkinson, which limited his desire to support his plan. On October 25, his 4,000 - strong force was defeated at the Chateauguay River by Charles de Salaberry 's smaller force of Canadian Voltigeurs and Mohawks. Salaberry 's force of Lower Canada militia and Indians numbered only 339, but had a strong defensive position. Wilkinson 's force of 8,000 set out on October 17, but was also delayed by bad weather. After learning that Hampton had been checked, Wilkinson heard that a British force under Captain William Mulcaster and Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Wanton Morrison was pursuing him, and by November 10, he was forced to land near Morrisburg, about 150 kilometres (90 mi) from Montreal. On November 11, Wilkinson 's rear guard, numbering 2,500, attacked Morrison 's force of 800 at Crysler 's Farm and was repulsed with heavy losses. After learning that Hampton could not renew his advance, Wilkinson retreated to the U.S. and settled into winter quarters. He resigned his command after a failed attack on a British outpost at Lacolle Mills. Had the Americans taken Montreal as planned, Upper Canada would have certainly been lost and the failure of the campaign ended in the greatest British defeat in the Canadas during the war.
Rather trying to take Montreal or Kingston, the Americans chose again to invade the Niagara frontier to take Upper Canada, largely because the Americans had occupied southwestern Upper Canada after their victory in Moraviantown, and it was believed in Washington that if the Americans could take the rest of Upper Canada, then they would force the British to cede that province to them when it came time to negotiate the peace. The end of the war in Europe in April 1814 meant that the British could now redeploy their Army to North America, so the Americans were anxious to have Upper Canada to negotiate from a position of strength. The plan for 1814 to invade Upper Canada via the Niagara frontier while sending another force to recapture Mackinac. The British were sending supplies to the Indians in the Old Northwest from Montreal via Mackinac, so is why the island was considered important. By the middle of 1814, American generals, including Major Generals Jacob Brown and Winfield Scott, had drastically improved the fighting abilities and discipline of the army. The Americans ' renewed attack on the Niagara peninsula quickly captured Fort Erie on July 3, 1814 with the 170 garrison quickly surrendering to the 5, 000 Americans. General Phineas Riall rushed towards the frontier and unaware of Fort Erie 's fall or the size of the American force chose to engage in battle. Winfield Scott then gained a victory over an inferior British force at the Battle of Chippawa on July 5. The Americans brought out overwhelming firepower against the attacking British who lost about 600 dead to the 350 dead on the American side. An attempt to advance further ended with a hard - fought but inconclusive Battle of Lundy 's Lane on July 25. Both sides stood their ground, but after the battle, the American commander, General Jacob Brown, pulled back to Fort George while the British did not pursue them.
The outnumbered Americans withdrew but withstood a prolonged Siege of Fort Erie. The British tried to storm Fort Erie on August 14, 1814, but suffered heavy losses losing 950 killed, wounded and captured compared to only 84 dead and wounded on the American side. The British suffered heavy casualties in a failed assault and were weakened by exposure and shortage of supplies in their siege lines. Eventually the British raised the siege, but American Major General George Izard took over command on the Niagara front and followed up only halfheartedly. An American raid along the Grand River destroyed many farms that weakened British logistics. In October 1814 the American advanced into Upper Canada, engaged in skirmishes at Cook 's Mill, but pulled back when they heard that the new British warship, HMS St. Lawrence armed with 104 guns, which had been launched in Kingston that September was on its way. The Americans lacked provisions, and eventually destroyed the Fort Erie and retreated across the Niagara.
Meanwhile, following the abdication of Napoleon, 15,000 British troops were sent to North America under four of Wellington 's ablest brigade commanders. Fewer than half were veterans of the Peninsula and the rest came from garrisons. Prévost was ordered to neutralize American power on the lakes by burning Sackets Harbor, gain naval control of Lake Erie, Lake Ontario and the Upper Lakes, and defend Lower Canada from attack. He did defend Lower Canada but otherwise failed to achieve his objectives. Given the late season he decided to invade New York State. His army outnumbered the American defenders of Plattsburgh, but he was worried about his flanks so he decided he needed naval control of Lake Champlain. On the lake, the British squadron under Captain George Downie and the Americans under Master Commandant Thomas Macdonough were more evenly matched.
On reaching Plattsburgh, Prévost delayed the assault until the arrival of Downie in the hastily completed 36 - gun frigate HMS Confiance. Prévost forced Downie into a premature attack, but then unaccountably failed to provide the promised military backing. Downie was killed and his naval force defeated at the naval Battle of Plattsburgh in Plattsburgh Bay on September 11, 1814. The Americans now had control of Lake Champlain; Theodore Roosevelt later termed it "the greatest naval battle of the war ''. The successful land defence was led by Alexander Macomb. To the astonishment of his senior officers, Prévost then turned back, saying it was too hazardous to remain on enemy territory after the loss of naval supremacy. Prévost was recalled and in London, a naval court - martial decided that defeat had been caused principally by Prévost 's urging the squadron into premature action and then failing to afford the promised support from the land forces. Prévost died suddenly, just before his own court - martial was to convene. Prévost 's reputation sank to a new low, as Canadians claimed that their militia under Brock did the job and he failed. Recently, however, historians have been more kindly, measuring him not against Wellington but against his American foes. They judge Prévost 's preparations for defending the Canadas with limited means to be energetic, well - conceived, and comprehensive; and against the odds, he had achieved the primary objective of preventing an American conquest.
To the east, the northern part of Massachusetts, soon to be Maine, was invaded. Fort Sullivan at Eastport was taken by Sir Thomas Hardy on July 11. Castine, Hampden, Bangor, and Machias were taken, and Castine became the main British base till April 15, 1815, when the British left, taking £ 10,750 in tariff duties, the "Castine Fund '' which was used to found Dalhousie University. Eastport was not returned to the United States till 1818.
The Mississippi River valley was the western frontier of the United States in 1812. The territory acquired in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 contained almost no U.S. settlements west of the Mississippi except around Saint Louis and a few forts and trading posts. Fort Bellefontaine, an old trading post converted to a U.S. Army post in 1804, served as regional headquarters. Fort Osage, built in 1808 along the Missouri was the western-most U.S. outpost, it was abandoned at the start of the war. Fort Madison, built along the Mississippi in what is now Iowa, was also built in 1808, and had been repeatedly attacked by British - allied Sauk since its construction. In September 1813 Fort Madison was abandoned after it was attacked and besieged by natives, who had support from the British. This was one of the few battles fought west of the Mississippi. Black Hawk played a leadership role.
Little of note took place on Lake Huron in 1813, but the American victory on Lake Erie and the recapture of Detroit isolated the British there. During the ensuing winter, a Canadian party under Lieutenant Colonel Robert McDouall established a new supply line from York to Nottawasaga Bay on Georgian Bay. When he arrived at Fort Mackinac with supplies and reinforcements, he sent an expedition to recapture the trading post of Prairie du Chien in the far west. The Siege of Prairie du Chien ended in a British victory on July 20, 1814.
Earlier in July, the Americans sent a force of five vessels from Detroit to recapture Mackinac. A mixed force of regulars and volunteers from the militia landed on the island on August 4. They did not attempt to achieve surprise, and at the brief Battle of Mackinac Island, they were ambushed by natives and forced to re-embark. The Americans discovered the new base at Nottawasaga Bay, and on August 13, they destroyed its fortifications and the schooner Nancy that they found there. They then returned to Detroit, leaving two gunboats to blockade Mackinac. On September 4, these gunboats were taken unawares and captured by British boarding parties from canoes and small boats. These Engagements on Lake Huron left Mackinac under British control.
The British garrison at Prairie du Chien also fought off another attack by Major Zachary Taylor. In this distant theatre, the British retained the upper hand until the end of the war, through the allegiance of several indigenous tribes that received British gifts and arms, enabling them to take control of parts of what is now Michigan and Illinois, as well as the whole of modern Wisconsin. In 1814 U.S. troops retreating from the Battle of Credit Island on the upper Mississippi attempted to make a stand at Fort Johnson, but the fort was soon abandoned, along with most of the upper Mississippi valley.
After the U.S. was pushed out of the Upper Mississippi region, they held on to eastern Missouri and the St. Louis area. Two notable battles fought against the Sauk were the Battle of Cote Sans Dessein, in April 1815, at the mouth of the Osage River in the Missouri Territory, and the Battle of the Sink Hole, in May 1815, near Fort Cap au Gris.
At the conclusion of peace, Mackinac and other captured territory was returned to the United States. At the end of the war, some British officers and Canadians objected to handing back Prairie du Chien and especially Mackinac under the terms of the Treaty of Ghent. However, the Americans retained the captured post at Fort Malden, near Amherstburg, until the British complied with the treaty.
Fighting between Americans, the Sauk, and other indigenous tribes continued through 1817, well after the war ended in the east.
In 1812, Britain 's Royal Navy was the world 's largest, with over 600 cruisers in commission and some smaller vessels. Although most of these were involved in blockading the French navy and protecting British trade against (usually French) privateers, the Royal Navy still had 85 vessels in American waters, counting all British Navy vessels in North American and the Caribbean waters. However, the Royal Navy 's North American squadron based in Halifax, Nova Scotia (which bore the brunt of the war), numbered one small ship of the line, seven frigates, nine smaller sloops and brigs along with five schooners. By contrast, the United States Navy comprised 8 frigates, 14 smaller sloops and brigs, and no ships of the line. The U.S. had embarked on a major shipbuilding program before the war at Sackets Harbor, New York and continued to produce new ships. Three of the existing American frigates were exceptionally large and powerful for their class, larger than any British frigate in North America. Whereas the standard British frigate of the time was rated as a 38 gun ship, usually carrying up to 50 guns, with its main battery consisting of 18 - pounder guns; USS Constitution, President, and United States, in comparison, were rated as 44 - gun ships, carrying 56 -- 60 guns with a main battery of 24 - pounders.
The British strategy was to protect their own merchant shipping to and from Halifax, Nova Scotia, and the West Indies, and to enforce a blockade of major American ports to restrict American trade. Because of their numerical inferiority, the American strategy was to cause disruption through hit - and - run tactics, such as the capture of prizes and engaging Royal Navy vessels only under favourable circumstances. Days after the formal declaration of war, however, it put out two small squadrons, including the frigate President and the sloop Hornet under Commodore John Rodgers, and the frigates United States and Congress, with the brig Argus under Captain Stephen Decatur. These were initially concentrated as one unit under Rodgers, who intended to force the Royal Navy to concentrate its own ships to prevent isolated units being captured by his powerful force.
Large numbers of American merchant ships were returning to the United States with the outbreak of war, and if the Royal Navy was concentrated, it could not watch all the ports on the American seaboard. Rodgers ' strategy worked, in that the Royal Navy concentrated most of its frigates off New York Harbor under Captain Philip Broke, allowing many American ships to reach home. But, Rodgers ' own cruise captured only five small merchant ships, and the Americans never subsequently concentrated more than two or three ships together as a unit.
Both American and British naval honor had been challenged in the leadup to the war. The Chesapeake -- Leopard Affair had left the United States insulted by the Royal Navy 's impressment of sailors. Given that honor was at stake, the appropriate method for the United States Navy to redeem itself was by dueling. Similarly, British honor was challenged in the Little Belt Affair where the British sloop Little Belt was fired upon by the United States frigate USS President after the President had mistaken Little Belt for the British frigate HMS Guerriere. Captain James Dacres of the Guerriere began a cycle of frigate duels by challenging the USS President to a single ship duel to avenge the losses aboard the Little Belt. Commodore John Rodgers of the USS President declined the challenge because he feared the intervention of the rest of British squadron under Commodore Philip Broke that Guerriere was part of.
Meanwhile, the USS Constitution, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, sailed from the Chesapeake Bay on July 12. On July 17, Commodore Broke 's British squadron which included Guerriere gave chase off New York, but Constitution evaded her pursuers after two days. Constitution briefly called at Boston to replenish water. Commodore Borke detached Guerriere from his squadron to seek out repairs as Guerriere being a French - built ship had weak scantlings (beams fastened with a thickened clamp rather than vertical and horizontal knees) and had, therefore, become leaky and rotten. Furthermore, she had been struck by lightning severely damaging her masts. Constitution encountered and engaged engaged the HMS Guerriere in a duel to redeem American honor. Captain Dacres was eager to engage the American frigate as Constitution was the sister ship of President and would serve equally well as ship to duel against to redeem British honor. USS Constitution had nearly 50 percent more men, more firepower, heavier tonnage and heavier scantlings (which determine how much damage enemy shot does to a ship) than Guerriere. Unsurprisingly, Constitution emerged the victor. After a 35 - minute battle, Guerriere had been dis - masted and captured, and was later burned. Constitution earned the nickname "Old Ironsides '' following this battle as many of the British cannonballs were seen to bounce off her hull due to Constitution 's heavy scantlings. Hull returned to Boston with news of this significant victory.
Similarly, On October 25, USS United States, commanded by Captain Decatur, captured the British frigate HMS Macedonian, which he then carried back to port. At the close of the month, Constitution sailed south, now under the command of Captain William Bainbridge. On December 29, off Bahia, Brazil, she met the British frigate HMS Java. After a battle lasting three hours, Java struck her colors and was burned after being judged unsalvageable. Constitution, at first seemed relatively undamaged in the battle, but it was later determined that Java had successfully hit Constitution 's masts with 18 - pounder shot, but the mast had n't fallen due to its immense diameter. Constitution 's fell while she was docked. United States, Constitution and President were all almost 50 percent larger by tonnage, crew, firepower, and scantling size than the Macedonian, Guerriere and Java (Guerriere was rotten and had lightning damage as well as being weakly built as a French ship, Java had extra marines onboard making the disparity in crew more similar although she too was a French - built ship, Macedonian fitted the 50 percent statistic near perfectly)
The United States Navy 's sloops had also won several victories over Royal Navy sloops of approximately equal armament, although the American sloops Hornet, Wasp 1807, Argus (1813), Erie (1813), Ontario, Peacock (1813), Wasp (1813), Frolic (1813) were all ship - rigged and the British Cruizer - class sloops which they encountered were brig rigged which gave the American 's a significant advantage. Ship rigged vessels are more maneuverable in battle because they have a wider variety of sails the can back allowing ship - rigged vessels to wear as well as heave to. More significantly, if some spars are shot away on a brig because it is more difficult to wear, the brig loses the ability to steer, while a ship could adjust its more diverse canvas as if to wear to compensate for the imbalance caused by damage in battle. Furthermore, ship - rigged vessels which three masts simply have more masts to shoot away than brigs with two masts before the vessel is unmanagable. In addition While the American ships had experienced and well - drilled volunteer crews, the enormous size of the overstretched Royal Navy meant that many ships were shorthanded and the average quality of crews suffered and the constant sea duties of those serving in North America interfered with their training and exercises. The only engagement between two brig - sloops was between the British Cruizer class brig Pelican and the United States ' Argus where the Pelican emerged the victor as she had greater firepower and tonnage, despite having fewer crew. Although not a sloop, the gun - brig Boxer was taken by the brig - sloop Enterprise in a bloody battle where the Enterprise emerged the victor again due to superior force.
It was clear that in single ship battle 's superior force was the most significant factor. In response to the majority of the American ship 's being of greater force than the British ships of the same class. Britain to constructed five 40 - gun, 24 - pounder heavy frigates and two "spar - decked '' frigates (the 60 - gun HMS Leander and HMS Newcastle) and to razee three old 74 - gun ships of the line to convert them to heavy frigates. To counter the American sloops of war, the British constructed the Cyrus - class ship - sloops of 22 guns. The British Admiralty also instituted a new policy that the three American heavy frigates should not be engaged except by a ship of the line or frigates in squadron strength.
Commodore Philip Broke had lost Guerriere to Constitution from his very own squadron. He knew that Dacres of the Guerriere intended to duel American frigate to avenge the losses on the Little Belt caused by the USS President in 1811. Since, Constitution had taken Guerriere, Broke intended to redeem Dacres ' honor by taking the Constitution which was undergoing repairs in Boston in early 1813. Broke found that Constitution was not ready for sea. Instead, he decided to challenge Chesapeake as Broke was short on water and provisions and could not wait for Constitution. Captain James Lawrence of the Chesapeake was misguided by propaganda intended to boost American morale (and successfully did) that claimed that the three frigate duels of 1812 were of equal force leading Lawrence to believe taking Broke 's Shannon would be easy. Lawrence even went to the extent of preemptively arranging for a banquet to be held for his victorious crew. Broke, on the other hand had spend years training his crew and developing artillery innovations on his ship, making Shannon particularly well prepared for battle. On June 1, 1813, Shannon took Chesapeake in a duel that lasted less than fifteen minutes in Boston Harbor. Lawrence was mortally wounded and famously cried out, "Tell the men to fire faster! Do n't give up the ship! '' The two frigates were of near - identical armament and length. Chesapeake 's crew was larger, had greater tonnage and was of greater scantling strength (which led to the British claiming she was overbuilt), but many of her crew had not served or trained together. Shannon had been at sea for a long time, and her hull had begun to rot, further exaggerating the disparity in scantling strength. Nevertheless, this engagement proved to the only single - ship action where both ships were of essentially equal force during the War of 1812. British citizens reacted with celebration and relief that the run of American victories had ended. Notably, this action was by ratio one of the bloodiest contests recorded during this age of sail due to the close - range engagement, the boarding (hand - to - hand combat) and Broke 's philosophy of artillery being "Kill the men and the ship is yours '', with more dead and wounded than HMS Victory suffered in four hours of combat at Trafalgar. Captain Lawrence was killed, and Captain Broke was so badly wounded that he never again held a sea command. The Americans then did as the British had done in 1812 and banned single - ship duels after this engagement.
In January 1813, the American frigate Essex, under the command of Captain David Porter, sailed into the Pacific to harass British shipping. Many British whaling ships carried letters of marque allowing them to prey on American whalers, and they nearly destroyed the industry. Essex challenged this practice. She inflicted considerable damage on British interests. Essex consort USS Essex Junior (armed with twenty guns) were captured off Valparaíso, Chile, by the British frigate HMS Phoebe and the sloop HMS Cherub on March 28, 1814 it what statistically appeared to be a battle of equal force as Essex and Phoebe were of similar tonnage, scantling, and broadside weight as well as Cherub and Essex Junior (with the exception of scantling, which Essex Junior was much more lightly built than Cherub). Once again the Americans had more men. Nevertheless, Phoebe was armed with long guns which none of the other ships engaged had. Furthermore, Captain Hillyar had used Phillip Broke 's methods of artillery on Phoebe and Cherub with tangent and dispart sights. This gave the British ships a significant advantage at the range at which the battle was fought. Once again proving that superior force was the deciding factor.
To conclude the cycle of duels cause by the Little Belt affair, the USS President was finally captured in January 1815. Unlike the previous engagements, President was not taken in a duel. Following the both Royal Navy 's requirements, President was pursued by a squadron consisting of four frigates, one being a 56 - gun razee. President was an extremely fast ship and successfully outsailed the fast British squadron with the exception of the HMS Endymion which has been regarded as the fastest ship in the age of fighting sail. Captain Henry Hope of the Endymion had fitted his ship with Phillip Broke 's technology as Captain Hillyar had done on the Phoebe. This gave him the slight advantage at range and slowed President. Commodore Decatur on the President had the advantage in scantling strength, firepower, crew, and tonnage, but not in maneuverability. Despite having fewer guns, Endymion was armed with 24 - pounders just like the President. This meant that Endymion shot could pierce the hull of President unlike the Guerriere 's which bounced of the Constitution 's hull or the Java 's that failed to cut through Constitution 's mast. Following Broke 's philosophy of "Kill the man and the ship is your 's '', Endymion fired into President 's hull severely damaging her (shot holes below the waterline, 10 / 15 starboard guns on the gundeck disabled, water in the hold, and shot from Endymion found inside President 's Magazine.). Decatur knew his only hope was to dismantle Endymion and sail away from the rest of the squadron. When he failed, he surrendered his ship to "the captain of the black frigate (Endymion) ''. Decatur took advantage of the fact the Endymion had no boats that were intact and attempted to sneak away under the cover of night, only to be caught up by the HMS Pomone. Decatur surrendered without a fight. Decatur had surrendered the United States finest frigate and flagship President to a smaller ship, but part of a squadron of greater force.
Decatur gave unreliable accounts of the battle stating that President was already "severely damaged '' by a grounding before the engagement, but undamaged after the engagement with Endymion. He stated Pomone caused "significant '' losses aboard President, although President 's crew claim they were below deck gathering their belongings as they had already surrendered. Despite saying "I surrender my ship to the captain of the black frigate '', Decatur also writes that he said, "I surrender to the squadron ''. Nevertheless, many historians such as Ian Toll, Theodore Roosevelt, and William James quote Decatur 's remarks to either enforce that Endymion alone took President or that President surrendered to the whole squadron, when actually it was something in - between. These arguments show the significance to honor of last frigate engagement 's of the War of 1812 as the question as to how President was taken is only significant to honor as the outcome is maintained that President was taken. British honor was finally redeemed as President was taken and the Little Belt was avenged. Furthermore, President was used as an example to prove to the British that the American 44 - gun frigates were nowhere near evenly matched to the standard British 38 - gun frigates which had been taken in 1812. Nevertheless, this was not a duel (which was stressed by Decatur) and the United States still maintained greater success in frigate duels, and American honor was maintained. Both countries therefore emerged with the sense that they had redeemed their honor.
Success in single ship battles raised American morale after the repeated failed invasion attempts in Upper and Lower Canada. However, these single ship victories had no military effect on the war at sea as they did not alter the balance of naval power, impede British supplies and reinforcements, or even raise insurance rates for British trade. During the war, the United States Navy captured 165 British merchantmen (although privateers captured many more) while the Royal Navy captured 1,400 American merchantmen. More significantly, the British blockade of the Atlantic coast caused the majority warships to be unable to put to sea and devastated the United States economy.
The operations of American privateers proved a more significant threat to British trade than the U.S. Navy. They operated throughout the Atlantic and continued until the close of the war, most notably from ports such as Baltimore. American privateers reported taking 1300 British merchant vessels, compared to 254 taken by the U.S. Navy. although the insurer Lloyd 's of London reported that only 1,175 British ships were taken, 373 of which were recaptured, for a total loss of 802. The Canadian historian Carl Benn wrote that American privateers took 1, 344 British ships, of which 750 were retaken by the British. However the British were able to limit privateering losses by the strict enforcement of convoy by the Royal Navy and by capturing 278 American privateers. Due to the massive size of the British merchant fleet, American captures only affected 7.5 % of the fleet, resulting in no supply shortages or lack of reinforcements for British forces in North America. Of 526 American privateers, 148 were captured by the Royal Navy and only 207 ever took a prize.
Due to the large size of their navy, the British did not rely as much on privateering. The majority of the 1,407 captured American merchant ships were taken by the Royal Navy. The war was the last time the British allowed privateering, since the practice was coming to be seen as politically inexpedient and of diminishing value in maintaining its naval supremacy. However privateering remained popular in British colonies. It was the last hurrah for privateers in Bermuda who vigorously returned to the practice after experience in previous wars. The nimble Bermuda sloops captured 298 American ships. Privateer schooners based in British North America, especially from Nova Scotia took 250 American ships and proved especially effective in crippling American coastal trade and capturing American ships closer to shore than the Royal Navy cruisers.
The naval blockade of the United States began informally in 1812 and expanded to cut off more ports as the war progressed. Twenty ships were on station in 1812 and 135 were in place by the end of the conflict. In March 1813, the Royal Navy punished the Southern states, who most vocal about annexing British North America by blockading Charleston, Port Royal, Savannah and New York city was well. However, as additional ships were sent to North America in 1813, the Royal Navy was able to tighten the blockade and extend it, first to the coast south of Narragansett by November 1813 and to the entire American coast on May 31, 1814. In May 1814, following the abdication of Napoleon, and the end of the supply problems with Wellington 's army, New England was blockaded.
The British government, having need of American foodstuffs for its army in Spain, benefited from the willingness of the New Englanders to trade with them, so no blockade of New England was at first attempted. The Delaware River and Chesapeake Bay were declared in a state of blockade on December 26, 1812. Illicit trade was carried on by collusive captures arranged between American traders and British officers. American ships were fraudulently transferred to neutral flags. Eventually, the U.S. government was driven to issue orders to stop illicit trading; this put only a further strain on the commerce of the country. The overpowering strength of the British fleet enabled it to occupy the Chesapeake and to attack and destroy numerous docks and harbours.
The blockade of American ports later tightened to the extent that most American merchant ships and naval vessels were confined to port. The American frigates USS United States and Macedonian ended the war blockaded and hulked in New London, Connecticut. The USS United States and USS Macedonian attempted to set sail to raid British shipping in the Caribbean, but were forced to turn back when confronted with a British squadron, and by the end of the war, the United States had six frigates and four ships - of - the - line sitting in port. Some merchant ships were based in Europe or Asia and continued operations. Others, mainly from New England, were issued licences to trade by Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren, commander in chief on the American station in 1813. This allowed Wellington 's army in Spain to receive American goods and to maintain the New Englanders ' opposition to the war. The blockade nevertheless resulted in American exports decreasing from $130 million in 1807 to $7 million in 1814. Most of these were food exports that ironically went to supply their enemies in Britain or British colonies. The blockade had a devastating effect on the American economy with the value of American exports and imports falling from $114 million in 1811 down to $20 million by 1814 while the US Customs took in $13 million in 1811 and $6 million in 1814, despite the fact that Congress had voted to double the rates. The British blockade further damaged the American economy by forcing merchants to abandon the cheap and fast coastal trade to the slow and more expensive inland roads. In 1814, only 1 out of 14 American merchantmen risked leaving port as a high probability that any ship leaving port would be seized.
As the Royal Navy base that supervised the blockade, Halifax profited greatly during the war. From that base British privateers seized many French and American ships and sold their prizes in Halifax.
The British Royal Navy 's blockades and raids allowed about 4,000 African Americans to escape slavery by fleeing American plantations to find freedom aboard British ships, migrants known, as regards those who settled in Canada, as the Black Refugees. The blockading British fleet in Chesapeake Bay received increasing numbers of enslaved black Americans during 1813. By British government order they were treated as free persons when reaching British hands. Alexander Cochrane 's proclamation of April 2, 1814, invited Americans who wished to emigrate to join the British, and though not explicitly mentioning slaves was taken by all as addressed to them. About 2,400 of the escaped slaves and their families who were carried on ships of the Royal Navy following their escape settled in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick during and after the war. From May 1814, younger men among the volunteers were recruited into a new Corps of Colonial Marines. They fought for Britain throughout the Atlantic campaign, including the Battle of Bladensburg and the attacks on Washington, D.C. and Battle of Baltimore, later settling in Trinidad after rejecting British government orders for transfer to the West India Regiments, forming the community of the Merikins. The slaves who escaped to the British represented the largest emancipation of African Americans before the American Civil War.
Maine, then part of Massachusetts, was a base for smuggling and illegal trade between the U.S. and the British. Until 1813 the region was generally quiet except for privateer actions near the coast. In September 1813, there was a notable naval action when the U.S. Navy 's brig Enterprise fought and captured the Royal Navy brig Boxer off Pemaquid Point. The first British assault came in July 1814, when Sir Thomas Masterman Hardy took Moose Island (Eastport, Maine) without a shot, with the entire American garrison of Fort Sullivan -- which became the British Fort Sherbrooke -- surrendering. Next, from his base in Halifax, Nova Scotia, in September 1814, Sir John Coape Sherbrooke led 3,000 British troops in the "Penobscot Expedition ''. In 26 days, he raided and looted Hampden, Bangor, and Machias, destroying or capturing 17 American ships. He won the Battle of Hampden (losing two killed while the Americans lost one killed). Retreating American forces were forced to destroy the frigate Adams. The British occupied the town of Castine and most of eastern Maine for the rest of the war, re-establishing the colony of New Ireland. The Treaty of Ghent returned this territory to the United States, though Machias Seal Island has remained in dispute. The British left in April 1815, at which time they took ₤ 10,750 obtained from tariff duties at Castine. This money, called the "Castine Fund '', was used to establish Dalhousie University, in Halifax, Nova Scotia.
The strategic location of the Chesapeake Bay near America 's new national capital, Washington, D.C. on the major tributary of the Potomac River, made it a prime target for the British and their Royal Navy and the King 's Army. Starting in March 1813, a squadron under Rear Admiral George Cockburn started a blockade of the mouth of the Bay at Hampton Roads harbour and raided towns along the Bay from Norfolk, Virginia, to Havre de Grace, Maryland.
On July 4, 1813, Commodore Joshua Barney, a Revolutionary War naval hero, convinced the U.S. Navy Department to build the Chesapeake Bay Flotilla, a squadron of twenty barges powered by small sails or oars (sweeps) to defend the Chesapeake Bay. Launched in April 1814, the squadron was quickly cornered in the Patuxent River, and while successful in harassing the Royal Navy, they were powerless to stop the British campaign that ultimately led to the "Burning of Washington ''. This expedition, led by Cockburn and General Robert Ross, was carried out between August 19 and 29, 1814, as the result of the hardened British policy of 1814 (although British and American commissioners had convened peace negotiations at Ghent in June of that year). As part of this, Admiral Warren had been replaced as commander in chief by Admiral Alexander Cochrane, with reinforcements and orders to coerce the Americans into a favourable peace.
A force of 2,500 soldiers under General Ross had just arrived in Bermuda aboard HMS Royal Oak, three frigates, three sloops and ten other vessels. Released from the Peninsular War in Spain and Portugal by British victory, the British intended to use them for diversionary raids along the coasts of Maryland and Virginia. In response to Prévost 's request, they decided to employ this force, together with the naval and military units already on the station, to strike at the "Federal City '' of Washington, D.C.
On August 24, U.S. Secretary of War John Armstrong Jr. insisted that the British were going to attack Baltimore rather than Washington, even when units of the British Army, accompanied by major ships of the Royal Navy, were obviously on their way to the capital. The inexperienced American militia, which had congregated nearby at Bladensburg, Maryland, to protect the capital, were defeated in the Battle of Bladensburg, opening the route to Washington. While First Lady Dolley Madison saved valuables from the then named "President 's House '' (or "President 's Palace '' (executive mansion) -- now the "White House ''), Fourth President James Madison and the government with members of the Presidential Cabinet, fled to Virginia. Seeing that the Battle of Bladensburg, northeast of the town in rural Prince George 's County was not going well, Secretary of the Navy William Jones ordered Captain Thomas Tingey, commandant of the Washington Naval Yard on the Eastern Branch of the Potomac River (now the Anacostia River), to set the facility ablaze to prevent the capture of American naval ships, buildings, shops and supplies. Tingey had overseen the Naval Yard 's planning and development since the national capital had been moved from Philadelphia to Washington in 1800, and waited until the very last possible minute, nearly four hours after the order was given to execute it. The destruction included most of the facility as well as the nearly - completed frigate "Columbia '' and the sloop "Argus ''.
The British commanders ate the supper that had been prepared for the President and his departmental secretaries after returning from hopeful glorious U.S. victory, before they burned the Executive Mansion; American morale was reduced to an all - time low. The British viewed their actions as retaliation for the destructive American invasions and raids into Canada, most notably the Americans ' burning of York earlier in 1813. Later that same evening, a furious storm (some later weather experts called it a thunderstorm, almost a hurricane) swept into Washington, D.C., sending one or more tornadoes into the rough, unfinished town that caused more damage but finally extinguished the fires with torrential rains, leaving fire - blackened walls and partial ruins of the President 's House, The Capitol and Treasury Department that were set alight the first night. In addition, the combustibles used to finish off the Navy Yard destruction that the Americans had started, exploded, killing or maiming a large number of "Red - Coats. '' The British left Washington, D.C. the day after the storm subsided.
Having destroyed Washington 's public buildings, including the President 's Mansion and the Treasury, the British army and navy next moved several weeks later to capture Baltimore, forty miles northeast, a busy port and a key base for American privateers. However, by not immediately going overland to the port city they sneeringly called a "nest of pirates '', but returning to their ships anchored in the Patuxent River and proceeding later up to the Upper Bay, they gave the Baltimoreans plenty of time to reinforce their fortifications and gather regular U.S. Army and state militia troops from surrounding counties and states. The subsequent "Battle for Baltimore '' began with the British landing on Sunday, September 12, 1814, at North Point, where the Baltimore harbour 's Patapsco River met the Chesapeake Bay, where they were met by American militia further up the "Patapsco Neck '' peninsula. An exchange of fire began, with casualties on both sides. Major Gen. Robert Ross was killed by American snipers as he attempted to rally his troops in the first skirmish. The snipers were killed moments later, and the British paused, then continued to march northwestward to the stationed Maryland and Baltimore City militia units deployed further up Long Log Lane on the peninsula at "Godly Wood '' where the later Battle of North Point was fought for several afternoon hours in a musketry and artillery duel under command of British Col. Arthur Brooke and American commander for the Maryland state militia and its Third Brigade (or "Baltimore City Brigade ''), Brig. Gen. John Stricker. The British also planned to simultaneously attack Baltimore by water on the following day, September 13, to support their military now arrayed facing the massed, heavily dug - in and fortified American units of approximately 15,000 with about a hundred cannon gathered along the eastern heights of the city named "Loudenschlager 's Hill '' (later "Hampstead Hill '' - now part of Patterson Park). These overall Baltimore defences had been planned in advance and foreseen by the state militia commander, Maj. Gen. Samuel Smith, who had been set in charge of the Baltimore defences instead of the discredited U.S. Army commander for the Mid-Atlantic's 10th Military District (following the debacle the previous month at Bladensburg), William H. Winder. Smith had been earlier a Revolutionary War officer and commander, then wealthy city merchant and U.S. Representative, Senator and later Mayor of Baltimore. The "Red Coats '' were unable to immediately reduce Fort McHenry, at the entrance to Baltimore Harbor to allow their ships to provide heavier naval gunfire to support their troops to the northeast.
At the bombardment of Fort McHenry, the British naval guns, mortars and revolutionary new "Congreve rockets '' had a longer range than the American cannon onshore, and the ships mostly stood off out of the Americans ' range, bombarding the fort, which returned very little fire and was not too heavily damaged during the onslaught except for a burst over a rear brickwall knocking out some fieldpieces and resulting in a few casualties. Despite however the heavy bombardment, casualties in the fort were slight and the British ships eventually realized that they could not force the passage to attack Baltimore in coordination with the land force. After a last ditch night feint and barge attack during the heavy rain storm at the time led by Capt. Charles Napier around the fort up the Middle Branch of the river to the west which was split and misdirected partly in the storm, then turned back with heavy casualties by alert gunners at supporting western batteries Fort Covington and Battery Babcock, so the British called off the attack and sailed downriver to pick up their army which had retreated from the east side of Baltimore. All the lights were extinguished in Baltimore the night of the attack, and the fort was bombarded for 25 hours. The only light was given off by the exploding shells over Fort McHenry, illuminating the flag that was still flying over the fort. The defence of the fort inspired the American lawyer Francis Scott Key to write "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', a poem that was set to music as "The Star - Spangled Banner ''.
Before 1813, the war between the Creeks (or Muscogee) had been largely an internal affair sparked by the ideas of Tecumseh farther north in the Mississippi Valley. A faction known as the Red Sticks, so named for the color of their war paint, had broken away from the rest of the Creek Confederacy, which wanted peace with the United States. The Red Sticks were allied with Tecumseh, who about a year before 1813 had visited the Creeks and encouraged greater resistance to the Americans. The Creek Nation was a trading partner of the United States actively involved with Spanish and British trade as well. The Red Sticks, as well as many southern Muscogeean people like the Seminole, had a long history of alliance with the Spanish and British Empires. This alliance helped the North American and European powers protect each other 's claims to territory in the south.
The Battle of Burnt Corn between Red Sticks and U.S. troops, occurred in the southern parts of Alabama on July 27, 1813. It prompted the state of Georgia as well as the Mississippi territory militia to immediately take major action against Creek offensives. The Red Sticks chiefs gained power in the east along the Alabama, Coosa, and Tallapoosa Rivers -- Upper Creek territory. The Lower Creek lived along the Chattahoochee River. Many Creeks tried to remain friendly to the United States, and some were organized by federal Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins to aid the 6th Military District under General Thomas Pinckney and the state militias. The United States combined forces were large. At its peak the Red Stick faction had 4,000 warriors, only a quarter of whom had muskets.
On August 30, 1813, Red Sticks, led by chiefs Red Eagle and Peter McQueen, attacked Fort Mimms, north of Mobile, the only American - held port in the territory of West Florida. The attack on Fort Mimms resulted in the death of 400 settlers and became an ideological rallying point for the Americans.
The Indian frontier of western Georgia was the most vulnerable but was partially fortified already. From November 1813 to January 1814, Georgia 's militia and auxiliary Federal troops - from the Creek and Cherokee Indian nations and the states of North Carolina and South Carolina -- organized the fortification of defences along the Chattahoochee River and expeditions into Upper Creek territory in present - day Alabama. The army, led by General John Floyd, went to the heart of the "Creek Holy Grounds '' and won a major offensive against one of the largest Creek towns at Battle of Autosee, killing an estimated two hundred people. In November, the militia of Mississippi with a combined 1200 troops attacked the "Econachca '' encampment ("Battle of Holy Ground '') on the Alabama River. Tennessee raised a militia of 5,000 under Major Generals Andrew Jackson and Brigadier General John Coffee and won the battles of Tallushatchee and Talladega in November 1813.
Jackson suffered enlistment problems in the winter. He decided to combine his force with that of the Georgia militia. However, from January 22 -- 24, 1814, while on their way, the Tennessee militia and allied Muscogee were attacked by the Red Sticks at the Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek. Jackson 's troops repelled the attackers, but outnumbered, were forced to withdraw to his base at Fort Strother.
In January Floyd 's force of 1,300 state militia and 400 Creek Indians moved to join the U.S forces in Tennessee, but were attacked in camp on the Calibee Creek by Tuckaubatchee Indians on the 27th.
Jackson 's force increased in numbers with the arrival of U.S. Army soldiers and a second draft of Tennessee state militia and Cherokee and Creek allies swelled his army to around 5,000. In March 1814 they moved south to attack the Creek. On March 27, Jackson decisively defeated the Creek Indian force at Horseshoe Bend, killing 800 of 1,000 Creeks at a cost of 49 killed and 154 wounded out of approximately 2,000 American and Cherokee forces. The American army moved to Fort Jackson on the Alabama River. On August 9, 1814, the Upper Creek chiefs and Jackson 's army signed the "Treaty of Fort Jackson ''. The most of western Georgia and part of Alabama was taken from the Creeks to pay for expenses borne by the United States. The Treaty also "demanded '' that the "Red Stick '' insurgents cease communicating with the Spanish or British, and only trade with U.S. - approved agents.
British aid to the Red Sticks arrived after the end of the Napoleonic Wars in April 1814 and after Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane assumed command from Admiral Warren in March. The Creek promised to join any body of ' troops that should aid them in regaining their lands, and suggesting an attack on the tower off Mobile. ' In April 1814 the British established an outpost on the Apalachicola River (see Fort Gadsden Historic Site). Cochrane sent a company of Royal Marines, the vessels HMS Hermes and HMS Carron, commanded by Edward Nicolls, and further supplies to meet the Indians. In addition to training the Indians, Nicolls was tasked to raise a force from escaped slaves, as part of the Corps of Colonial Marines.
In July 1814, General Jackson complained to the Governor of Pensacola, Mateo González Manrique, that combatants from the Creek War were being harboured in Spanish territory, and made reference to the British presence on Spanish soil. Although he gave an angry reply to Jackson, Manrique was alarmed at the weak position he found himself in. He appealed to the British for help, with Woodbine arriving on July 28, and Nicolls arriving at Pensacola on August 24.
The first engagement of the British and their Creek allies against the Americans on the Gulf Coast was the attack on Fort Bowyer September 14, 1814. Captain William Percy tried to take the U.S. fort, hoping to then move on Mobile and block U.S. trade and encroachment on the Mississippi. After the Americans repulsed Percy 's forces, the British established a military presence of up to 200 Marines at Pensacola. In November, Jackson 's force of 4,000 men took the town in November. This underlined the superiority of numbers of Jackson 's force in the region. The U.S force moved to New Orleans in late 1814. Jackson 's army of 1,000 regulars and 3,000 to 4,000 militia, pirates and other fighters, as well as civilians and slaves built fortifications south of the city.
American forces under General James Wilkinson, who was himself earning $4,000 per year as a Spanish secret agent, took the Mobile area -- formerly part of West Florida -- from the Spanish in March 1813; this was the only territory permanently gained by the U.S. during the war. The Americans built Fort Bowyer, a log and earthenwork fort with 14 guns, on Mobile Point.
At the end of 1814, the British launched a double offensive in the South weeks before the Treaty of Ghent was signed. On the Atlantic coast, Admiral George Cockburn was to close the Intracoastal Waterway trade and land Royal Marine battalions to advance through Georgia to the western territories. On the Gulf coast, Admiral Alexander Cochrane moved on the new state of Louisiana and the Mississippi Territory. Admiral Cochrane 's ships reached the Louisiana coast December 9, and Cockburn arrived in Georgia December 14.
On January 8, 1815, a British force of 8,000 under General Edward Pakenham attacked Jackson 's defences in New Orleans. The Battle of New Orleans was an American victory, as the British failed to take the fortifications on the East Bank. The British suffered high casualties: 291 dead, 1262 wounded, and 484 captured or missing whereas American casualties were 13 dead, 39 wounded, and 19 missing. It was hailed as a great victory across the U.S., making Jackson a national hero and eventually propelling him to the presidency. The American garrison at Fort St. Philip endured ten days of bombardment from Royal Navy guns, which was a final attempt to invade Louisiana; British ships sailed away from the Mississippi River on January 18. However, it was not until January 27, 1815, that the army had completely rejoined the fleet, allowing for their departure.
After New Orleans, the British tried to take Mobile a second time; General John Lambert laid siege for five days and took the fort, winning the Second Battle of Fort Bowyer on February 12, 1815. HMS Brazen brought news of the Treaty of Ghent the next day, and the British abandoned the Gulf coast.
In January 1815, Admiral Cockburn succeeded in blockading the southeastern coast by occupying Camden County, Georgia. The British quickly took Cumberland Island, Fort Point Peter, and Fort St. Tammany in a decisive victory. Under the orders of his commanding officers, Cockburn 's forces relocated many refugee slaves, capturing St. Simons Island as well, to do so. During the invasion of the Georgia coast, an estimated 1,485 people chose to relocate in British territories or join the military. In mid-March, several days after being informed of the Treaty of Ghent, British ships finally left the area.
In May 1815, a band of British - allied Sauk, unaware that the war had ended months before, attacked a small band of U.S. soldiers northwest of St. Louis. Intermittent fighting, primarily with the Sauk, continued in the Missouri Territory well into 1817, although it is unknown if the Sauk were acting on their own or on behalf of British agents. Several uncontacted isolated warships continued fighting well into 1815 and were the last American forces to take offensive action against the British.
By 1814, both sides had either achieved their main war goals or were weary of a costly war that offered little but stalemate. They both sent delegations to a neutral site in Ghent, Flanders (now part of Belgium). The negotiations began in early August and concluded on December 24, when a final agreement was signed; both sides had to ratify it before it could take effect. Meanwhile, both sides planned new invasions.
In 1814 the British began blockading the United States, and brought the American economy to near bankruptcy, forcing it to rely on loans for the rest of the war. American foreign trade was reduced to a trickle. The parlous American economy was thrown into chaos with prices soaring and unexpected shortages causing hardship in New England which was considering secession. The Hartford Convention led to widespread fears that the New England states might attempt to leave the Union, which was exaggerated as most New Englanders did not wish to leave the Union and merely wanted an end to a war which was bringing much economic hardship, suggested that the continuation of the war might threaten the union. But also to a lesser extent British interests were hurt in the West Indies and Canada that had depended on that trade. Although American privateers found chances of success much reduced, with most British merchantmen now sailing in convoy, privateering continued to prove troublesome to the British, as shown by high insurance rates. British landowners grew weary of high taxes, and colonial interests and merchants called on the government to reopen trade with the U.S. by ending the war.
At last in August 1814, peace discussions began in the neutral city of Ghent. Both sides began negotiations warily The British diplomats stated their case first, demanding the creation of an Indian barrier state in the American Northwest Territory (the area from Ohio to Wisconsin). It was understood the British would sponsor this Indian state. The British strategy for decades had been to create a buffer state to block American expansion. Britain demanded naval control of the Great Lakes and access to the Mississippi River. The Americans refused to consider a buffer state and the proposal was dropped. Although article IX of the treaty included provisions to restore to Natives "all possessions, rights and privileges which they may have enjoyed, or been entitled to in 1811 '', the provisions were unenforceable; the British did not try and the Americans simply broke the treaty. The Americans (at a later stage) demanded damages for the burning of Washington and for the seizure of ships before the war began.
American public opinion was outraged when Madison published the demands; even the Federalists were now willing to fight on. The British had planned three invasions. One force burned Washington but failed to capture Baltimore, and sailed away when its commander was killed. In northern New York State, 10,000 British veterans were marching south until a decisive defeat at the Battle of Plattsburgh forced them back to Canada. Nothing was known of the fate of the third large invasion force aimed at capturing New Orleans and southwest. The Prime Minister wanted the Duke of Wellington to command in Canada and take control of the Great Lakes. Wellington said that he would go to America but he believed he was needed in Europe. Wellington emphasized that the war was a draw and the peace negotiations should not make territorial demands:
I think you have no right, from the state of war, to demand any concession of territory from America... You have not been able to carry it into the enemy 's territory, notwithstanding your military success and now undoubted military superiority, and have not even cleared your own territory on the point of attack. You can not on any principle of equality in negotiation claim a cessation of territory except in exchange for other advantages which you have in your power... Then if this reasoning be true, why stipulate for the uti possidetis? You can get no territory: indeed, the state of your military operations, however creditable, does not entitle you to demand any.
The Prime Minister, Lord Liverpool, aware of growing opposition to wartime taxation and the demands of Liverpool and Bristol merchants to reopen trade with America, realized Britain also had little to gain and much to lose from prolonged warfare especially after the growing concern about the situation in Europe. After months of negotiations, against the background of changing military victories, defeats and losses, the parties finally realized that their nations wanted peace and there was no real reason to continue the war. The main focus on British foreign policy was the Congress of Vienna, during which British diplomats had clashed with Russian and Prussian diplomats over the terms of the peace with France, and there were fears at the Britain might have go to war with Russia and Prussia. Now each side was tired of the war. Export trade was all but paralyzed and after Napoleon fell in 1814 France was no longer an enemy of Britain, so the Royal Navy no longer needed to stop American shipments to France, and it no longer needed to impress more seamen. It had ended the practices that so angered the Americans in 1812. The British were preoccupied in rebuilding Europe after the apparent final defeat of Napoleon.
British negotiators were urged by Lord Liverpool to offer a status quo and dropped their demands for the creation of an Indian barrier state, which was in any case hopeless after the collapse of Tecumseh 's alliance. This allowed negotiations to resume at the end of October. British diplomats soon offered the status quo to the U.S. negotiators, who accepted them. Prisoners were to be exchanged and captured slaves returned to the United States or paid for by Britain. At this point, the number of slaves was approximately 6,000. Britain eventually refused the demand, allowing many to either emigrate to Canada or Trinidad.
On December 24, 1814 the diplomats had finished and signed the Treaty of Ghent. The treaty was ratified by the British three days later on December 27 and arrived in Washington on February 17 where it was quickly ratified and went into effect, thus finally ending the war. The terms called for all occupied territory to be returned, the prewar boundary between Canada and the United States to be restored, and the Americans were to gain fishing rights in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.
The Treaty of Ghent failed to secure official British acknowledgement of American maritime rights or ending impressment. However, in the century of peace until World War I these rights were not seriously violated. The defeat of Napoleon made irrelevant all of the naval issues over which the United States had fought. The Americans had achieved their goal of ending the Indian threat; furthermore the American armies had scored enough victories (especially at New Orleans) to satisfy honour and the sense of becoming fully independent from Britain.
British losses in the war were about 1,160 killed in action and 3,679 wounded; 3,321 British died from disease. American losses were 2,260 killed in action and 4,505 wounded. While the number of Americans who died from disease is not known, it is estimated that about 15,000 died from all causes directly related to the war. These figures do not include deaths among Canadian militia forces or losses among native tribes.
There have been no estimates of the cost of the American war to Britain, but it did add some £ 25 million to the national debt. In the U.S., the cost was $105 million, about the same as the cost to Britain. The national debt rose from $45 million in 1812 to $127 million by the end of 1815, although by selling bonds and treasury notes at deep discounts -- and often for irredeemable paper money due to the suspension of specie payment in 1814 -- the government received only $34 million worth of specie. Stephen Girard, the richest man in America at the time, was one of those who personally funded the United States government involvement in the war.
In addition, at least 3,000 American slaves escaped to the British lines. Many other slaves simply escaped in the chaos of war and achieved their freedom on their own. The British settled some of the newly freed slaves in Nova Scotia. Four hundred freedmen were settled in New Brunswick. The Americans protested that Britain 's failure to return the slaves violated the Treaty of Ghent. After arbitration by the Tsar of Russia the British paid $1,204,960 in damages to Washington, which reimbursed the slaveowners.
In the United States, there was inflation of about 30 % and a large loss of business by East Coast shipping interests. GDP nationwide rose in 1812 (up 1.1 %), 1813 (up 3.9 %), 1814 (up 4.7 %) and also 1815 (up 2.4 %). Hundreds of new banks were opened; they largely handled the loans that financed the war since tax revenues were down. Money that would have been spent on foreign trade was diverted to opening new factories, which were profitable since British factory - made products were not for sale. This gave a major boost to the industrial revolution in the U.S., as typified by the Boston Associates. The Boston Manufacturing Company, built the first integrated spinning and weaving factory in the world at Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1813.
During the 19th century the popular image of the war in the United States was of an American victory, and in Canada, of a Canadian victory. Each young country saw its self - perceived victory as an important foundation of its growing nationhood. The British, on the other hand, who had been preoccupied by Napoleon 's challenge in Europe, paid little attention to what was to them a peripheral and secondary dispute, a distraction from the principal task at hand.
In British North America, the War of 1812 was seen by Loyalists as a victory, as they had claimed they had successfully defended their country from an American takeover.
A long - term consequence of the Canadian militia 's success was the view widely held in Canada at least until the First World War that Canada did not need a regular professional army. While Canadian militia units had played instrumental roles in several engagements, such as at the Battle of the Chateauguay, it was the regular units of the British Army, including its "Fencible '' regiments which were recruited within North America, which ensured that Canada was successfully defended.
The U.S. Army had done poorly, on the whole, in several attempts to invade Canada, and the Canadians had fought bravely to defend their territory. But the British did not doubt that the thinly populated territory would remain vulnerable in a third war. "We can not keep Canada if the Americans declare war against us again '', Admiral Sir David Milne wrote to a correspondent in 1817, although the Rideau Canal was built for just such a scenario.
By the 21st century it was a forgotten war in Britain, although still remembered in Canada, especially Ontario. In a 2009 poll, 37 % of Canadians said the war was a Canadian victory, 9 % said the U.S. won, 15 % called it a draw, and 39 % said they knew too little to comment. A 2012 poll found that in a list of items that could be used to define Canadians ' identity, the belief that Canada successfully repelled an American invasion in the War of 1812 places second (25 %).
Today, American popular memory includes the British capture and the burning of Washington in August 1814, which necessitated its extensive renovation. The fact that before the war, many Americans wanted to annex British North America, was swiftly forgotten, and instead American popular memory focused on the victories at Baltimore, Plattsburg and New Orleans to present the war as a successful effort to assert American national honour, the "second war of independence '' that saw the mighty British empire humbled and humiliated. In a speech before Congress on February 18, 1815, President Madison proclaimed the war a complete American victory. This interpretation of the war was and remains the dominant American view of the war The American newspaper the Niles Register in an editorial on September 14, 1816 announced that the Americans had crushed the British, declaring "... we did virtually dictate the treaty of Ghent to the British ''. A minority of Americans, mostly associated with the Federalists, saw the war as a defeat and an act of folly on Madison 's part, caustically asking if the Americans were "dictating '' the terms of the treaty of Ghent, why the British Crown did not cede British North America to the United States? However, the Federalist view of the war is not the mainstream American memory of the war. The view of Congressman George Troup who stated in a speech in 1815 that the Treaty of Ghent was "the glorious termination of the most glorious war ever waged by any people '' is the way that most Americans remembered the war. Another memory is the successful American defence of Fort McHenry in September 1814, which inspired the lyrics of the U.S. national anthem, "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. The successful captains of the U.S. Navy became popular heroes with plates with the likeness of Decatur, Steward, Hull, and others becoming popular items. Ironically, many were made in England. The Navy became a cherished institution, lauded for the victories that it won against all odds. After engagements during the final actions of the war, U.S. Marines had acquired a well - deserved reputation as excellent marksmen, especially in ship - to - ship actions.
Historians have differing and complex interpretations of the war. In recent decades the view of the majority of historians has been that the war ended in stalemate, with the Treaty of Ghent closing a war that had become militarily inconclusive. Neither side wanted to continue fighting since the main causes had disappeared and since there were no large lost territories for one side or the other to reclaim by force. Insofar as they see the war 's resolution as allowing two centuries of peaceful and mutually beneficial intercourse between the U.S., Britain and Canada, these historians often conclude that all three nations were the "real winners '' of the War of 1812. These writers often add that the war could have been avoided in the first place by better diplomacy. It is seen as a mistake for everyone concerned because it was badly planned and marked by multiple fiascoes and failures on both sides, as shown especially by the repeated American failures to seize parts of Canada, and the failed British attack on New Orleans and upstate New York.
However, other scholars hold that the war constituted a British victory and an American defeat. They argue that the British achieved their military objectives in 1812 (by stopping the repeated American invasions of Canada) and retaining their Canadian colonies. By contrast, they say, the Americans suffered a defeat when their armies failed to achieve their war goal of seizing part or all of Canada. Additionally, they argue the U.S. lost as it failed to stop impressment, which the British refused to repeal until the end of the Napoleonic Wars, arguing that the U.S. actions had no effect on the Orders in Council, which were rescinded before the war started.
Historian Troy Bickham, author of The Weight of Vengeance: The United States, the British Empire, and the War of 1812, sees the British as having fought to a much stronger position than the United States.
"Even tied down by ongoing wars with Napoleonic France, the British had enough capable officers, well - trained men, and equipment to easily defeat a series of American invasions of Canada. In fact, in the opening salvos of the war, the American forces invading Upper Canada were pushed so far back that they ended up surrendering Michigan Territory. The difference between the two navies was even greater. While the Americans famously (shockingly for contemporaries on both sides of the Atlantic) bested British ships in some one - on - one actions at the war 's start, the Royal Navy held supremacy throughout the war, blockading the U.S. coastline and ravaging coastal towns, including Washington, D.C. Yet in late 1814, the British offered surprisingly generous peace terms despite having amassed a large invasion force of veteran troops in Canada, naval supremacy in the Atlantic, an opponent that was effectively bankrupt, and an open secessionist movement in New England. ''
He considers that the British offered the United States generous terms, in place of their initially harsh terms (which included massive forfeiture of land to Canada and the American Indians), because the "reigning Liverpool ministry in Britain held a loose grip on power and feared the war - weary, tax - exhausted public. '' The war was also technically a British victory "because the United States failed to achieve the aims listed in its declaration of war. ''
A second minority view is that both the U.S. and Britain won the war -- that is, both achieved their main objectives, while the Indians were the losing party. The British won by losing no territories and achieving their great war goal, the total defeat of Napoleon. U.S. won by (1) securing her honor and successfully resisting a powerful empire once again, thus winning a "second war of independence ''; and (2) ending the threat of Indian raids and the British plan for a semi-independent Indian sanctuary -- thereby opening an unimpeded path for the United States ' westward expansion.
Historians generally agree that the real losers of the War of 1812 were the Indians (called First Nations in Canada). Hickey says:
The big losers in the war were the Indians. As a proportion of their population, they had suffered the heaviest casualties. Worse, they were left without any reliable European allies in North America... The crushing defeats at the Thames and Horseshoe Bend left them at the mercy of the Americans, hastening their confinement to reservations and the decline of their traditional way of life.
The Indians of the Old Northwest (the modern Midwest) had hoped to create an Indian state to be a British protectorate. American settlers into the Middle West had been repeatedly blocked and threatened by Indian raids before 1812, and that now came to an end. Throughout the war the British had played on terror of the tomahawks and scalping knives of their Indian allies; it worked especially at Hull 's surrender at Detroit. By 1813 Americans had killed Tecumseh and broken his coalition of tribes. Jackson then defeated the Creek in the Southwest. Historian John Sugden notes that in both theatres, the Indians ' strength had been broken prior to the arrival of the major British forces in 1814. The one campaign that the Americans had decisively won was the campaign in the Old Northwest, which put the British in a weak hand to insist upon an Indian state in the Old Northwest.
Notwithstanding the sympathy and support from commanders (such as Brock, Cochrane and Nicolls), the policymakers in London reneged in assisting the Indians, as making peace was a higher priority for the politicians. At the peace conference the British demanded an independent Indian state in the Midwest, but, although the British and their Indian allies maintained control over the territories in question (i.e. most of the Upper Midwest), British diplomats did not press the demand after an American refusal, effectively abandoning their Indian allies. The withdrawal of British protection gave the Americans a free hand, which resulted in the removal of most of the tribes to Indian Territory (present - day Oklahoma). In that sense according to historian Alan Taylor, the final victory at New Orleans had "enduring and massive consequences ''. It gave the Americans "continental predominance '' while it left the Indians dispossessed, powerless, and vulnerable.
The Treaty of Ghent technically required the United States to cease hostilities and "forthwith to restore to such Tribes or Nations respectively all possessions, rights and privileges which they may have enjoyed, or been entitled to in 1811 ''; the United States ignored this article of the treaty and proceeded to expand into this territory regardless; Britain was unwilling to provoke further war to enforce it. A shocked Henry Goulburn, one of the British negotiators at Ghent, remarked:
Till I came here, I had no idea of the fixed determination which there is in the heart of every American to extirpate the Indians and appropriate their territory.
The Creek War came to an end, with the Treaty of Fort Jackson being imposed upon the Indians. About half of the Creek territory was ceded to the United States, with no payment made to the Creeks. This was, in theory, invalidated by Article 9 of the Treaty of Ghent. The British failed to press the issue, and did not take up the Indian cause as an infringement of an international treaty. Without this support, the Indians ' lack of power was apparent and the stage was set for further incursions of territory by the United States in subsequent decades.
Neither side lost territory in the war, nor did the treaty that ended it address the original points of contention -- and yet it changed much between the United States of America and Britain.
The Treaty of Ghent established the status quo ante bellum; that is, there were no territorial losses by either side. The issue of impressment was made moot when the Royal Navy, no longer needing sailors, stopped impressment after the defeat of Napoleon in spring 1814 ended the war. (Napoleon unexpectedly returned in 1815, after the final end of the war of 1812.) Except for occasional border disputes and some tensions during the American Civil War, relations between the U.S. and Britain remained peaceful for the rest of the 19th century, and the two countries became close allies in the 20th century.
The Rush -- Bagot Treaty between the United States and Britain was enacted in 1817. It provided for the demilitarization of the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain, where many British naval arrangements and forts still remained. The treaty laid the basis for a demilitarized boundary and was indicative of improving relations between the United States and Great Britain in the period following the War of 1812. It remains in effect to this day.
Border adjustments between the U.S. and British North America were made in the Treaty of 1818. Eastport, Massachusetts, was returned to the U.S. in 1818; it became part of the new State of Maine in 1820. A border dispute along the Maine -- New Brunswick border was settled by the 1842 Webster -- Ashburton Treaty after the bloodless Aroostook War, and the border in the Oregon Country was settled by splitting the disputed area in half by the 1846 Oregon Treaty. A further dispute about the line of the border through the island in the Strait of Juan de Fuca resulted in another almost bloodless standoff in the Pig War of 1859. The line of the border was finally settled by an international arbitration commission in 1872.
The U.S. suppressed the Native American resistance on its western and southern borders. The nation also gained a psychological sense of complete independence as people celebrated their "second war of independence ''. Nationalism soared after the victory at the Battle of New Orleans. The opposition Federalist Party collapsed, and the Era of Good Feelings ensued.
No longer questioning the need for a strong Navy, the U.S. built three new 74 - gun ships of the line and two new 44 - gun frigates shortly after the end of the war. (Another frigate had been destroyed to prevent it being captured on the stocks.) In 1816, the U.S. Congress passed into law an "Act for the gradual increase of the Navy '' at a cost of $1,000,000 a year for eight years, authorizing 9 ships of the line and 12 heavy frigates. The Captains and Commodores of the U.S. Navy became the heroes of their generation in the U.S. Decorated plates and pitchers of Decatur, Hull, Bainbridge, Lawrence, Perry, and Macdonough were made in Staffordshire, England, and found a ready market in the United States. Several war heroes used their fame to win election to national office. Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison both took advantage of their military successes to win the presidency, while Richard Mentor Johnson used his wartime exploits to help attain the vice presidency.
During the war, New England states became increasingly frustrated over how the war was being conducted and how the conflict was affecting them. They complained that the U.S. government was not investing enough in the states ' defences militarily and financially, and that the states should have more control over their militias. The increased taxes, the British blockade, and the occupation of some of New England by enemy forces also agitated public opinion in the states. As a result, at the Hartford Convention (December 1814 -- January 1815) Federalist delegates deprecated the war effort and sought more autonomy for the New England states. They did not call for secession but word of the angry anti-war resolutions appeared at the same time that peace was announced and the victory at New Orleans was known. The upshot was that the Federalists were permanently discredited and quickly disappeared as a major political force.
This war enabled thousands of slaves to escape to British lines or ships for freedom, despite the difficulties. The planters ' complacency about slave contentment was shocked by their seeing slaves, who risked so much to be free.
After the decisive defeat of the Creek Indians at the battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, some Indian warriors escaped to join the Seminoles in Florida. The remaining Creek chiefs signed away about half their lands, comprising 23,000,000 acres, covering much of southern Georgia and two thirds of modern Alabama. The Creeks were now separated from any future help from the Spanish in Florida, or from the Choctaw and Chickasaw to the west. During the war the United States seized Mobile, Alabama, which was a strategic location providing oceanic outlet to the cotton lands to the north. Jackson invaded Florida in 1818, demonstrating to Spain that it could no longer control that territory with a small force. Spain sold Florida to the United States in 1819 in the Adams - Onís Treaty following the First Seminole War. Pratt concludes:
Thus indirectly the War of 1812 brought about the acquisition of Florida... To both the Northwest and the South, therefore, the War of 1812 brought substantial benefits. It broke the power of the Creek Confederacy and opened to settlement a great province of the future Cotton Kingdom.
Pro-British leaders demonstrated a strong hostility to American influences in western Canada (Ontario) after the war and shaped its policies, including a hostility to American - style republicanism. Immigration from the U.S. was discouraged, and favour was shown to the Anglican church as opposed to the more Americanized Methodist church.
The Battle of York showed the vulnerability of Upper and Lower Canada. In the 1820s, work began on La Citadelle at Quebec City as a defence against the United States. Additionally, work began on the Halifax citadel to defend the port against foreign navies. From 1826 to 1832, the Rideau Canal was built to provide a secure waterway not at risk from American cannon fire. To defend the western end of the canal, the British Army also built Fort Henry at Kingston.
The Native Americans allied to the British lost their cause. The British proposal to create a "neutral '' Indian zone in the American West was rejected at the Ghent peace conference and never resurfaced. After 1814 the natives, who lost most of their fur - gathering territory, became an undesirable burden to British policymakers who now looked to the United States for markets and raw materials. British agents in the field continued to meet regularly with their former American Indian partners, but they did not supply arms or encouragement and there were no American Indian campaigns to stop U.S. expansionism in the Midwest. Abandoned by their powerful sponsor, American Great Lakes - area Indians ultimately migrated or reached accommodations with the American authorities and settlers.
Bermuda had been largely left to the defences of its own militia and privateers before U.S. independence, but the Royal Navy had begun buying up land and operating from there in 1795, as its location was a useful substitute for the lost U.S. ports. It originally was intended to be the winter headquarters of the North American Squadron, but the war saw it rise to a new prominence. As construction work progressed through the first half of the 19th century, Bermuda became the permanent naval headquarters in Western waters, housing the Admiralty and serving as a base and dockyard. The military garrison was built up to protect the naval establishment, heavily fortifying the archipelago that came to be described as the "Gibraltar of the West ''. Defence infrastructure remained the central leg of Bermuda 's economy until after World War II.
The war is seldom remembered in Great Britain. The massive ongoing conflict in Europe against the French Empire under Napoleon ensured that the War of 1812 against America was never seen as more than a sideshow to the main event by the British. Britain 's blockade of French trade had been entirely successful and the Royal Navy was the world 's dominant nautical power (and remained so for another century). While the land campaigns had contributed to saving Canada, the Royal Navy had shut down American commerce, bottled up the U.S. Navy in port and heavily suppressed privateering. British businesses, some affected by rising insurance costs, were demanding peace so that trade could resume with the U.S. The peace was generally welcomed by the British, though there was disquiet at the rapid growth of the U.S. However, the two nations quickly resumed trade after the end of the war and, over time, a growing friendship.
Hickey argues that for Britain:
the most important lesson of all (was) that the best way to defend Canada was to accommodate the United States. This was the principal rationale for Britain 's long - term policy of rapprochement with the United States in the nineteenth century and explains why they were so often willing to sacrifice other imperial interests to keep the republic happy.
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what is the difference between life history pattern and age structure | Age disparity in sexual relationships - wikipedia
Age disparity in sexual relationships is the difference in ages of individuals in sexual relationships. Concepts of these relationships, including what defines an age disparity, have developed over time and vary among societies. Differences in age preferences for mates can stem from evolutionary mating strategies and age preferences in sexual partners may vary cross culturally. There are also social theories for age differences in relationships as well as suggested reasons for ' alternative ' age - hypogamous relationships. Age - disparity relationships have been documented for most of recorded history and have been regarded with a wide range of attitudes dependant on sociocultural norms and legal systems.
Data in Australia and United Kingdom show an almost identical pattern.
Relationships with age disparity of all kinds have been observed with both men and women as the older or younger partner. In various cultures, older men and younger women often seek one another for sexual or marital relationships. Older women sometimes date younger men as well, and in both cases wealth and physical attractiveness are often relevant. Nevertheless, because men generally are interested in women in their twenties, adolescent boys are generally sexually interested in women somewhat older than themselves.
Most men marry women younger than they are; with the difference being between two and three years in Spain, the UK reporting the difference to be on average about three years, and the US, two and a half. The pattern was also confirmed for the rest of the world, with the gap being largest in Africa. A study released in 2003 by the United Kingdom 's Office for National Statistics concluded that the proportion of women in England and Wales marrying younger men rose from 15 % to 26 % between 1963 and 1998. Another study also showed a higher divorce rate as the age difference rose for when either the woman was older or the man was older. A 2008 study, however, concluded that the difference is not significant.
In August 2010, Michael Dunn of the University of Wales Institute, Cardiff completed and released the results of a study on age disparity in dating. Dunn concluded that "Not once across all ages and countries... did females show a preference for males significantly younger than male preferences for females '' and that there was a "consistent cross-cultural preference by women for at least same - age or significantly older men ''. A 2003 AARP study reported that 34 % of women over 39 years old were dating younger men.
A 2011 study suggested that age disparity in marriage is positively correlated with decreased longevity, particularly for women, though married individuals still have longer lifespans than singles.
Explanations for age disparity usually focus on either the rational choice model or the analysis of demographic trends in a society. The rational choice model suggests that people look for partners who can provide for them in their life (bread - winners); as men traditionally earn more as they get older, women will therefore prefer older men. This factor is diminishing as more women enter the labor force. The demographic trends are concerned with the gender ratio in the society, the marriage squeeze, and migration patterns. Another explanation concerns cultural values: the higher the value placed in having children, the higher the age gap will be.
As people have chosen to marry later, the age differences between couples have increased as well.
In a Brown University study, it has been noted that the social structure of a country determines the age difference between spouses more than any other factor. One of the concerns of relationships with age disparities in some cultures is a perceived difference between people of different age ranges. These differences may be sexual, financial or social in nature. Gender roles may complicate this even further. Socially, a society with a difference in wealth distribution between older and younger people may affect the dynamics of the relationship.
Although the "cougar '' theme, in which older women date much younger men, is often portrayed in the media as a widespread and established facet of modern Western culture, at least one academic study has found the concept to be a "myth ''. A British psychological study published in Evolution and Human Behavior in 2010 concluded that men and women, in general, continued to follow traditional gender roles when searching for mates. The study found that, as supported by other academic studies, most men preferred younger, physically attractive women, while most women, of any age, preferred successful, established men their age or older. The study found very few instances of older women pursuing much younger men and vice versa.
The evolutionary approach, based on the theories of Charles Darwin attempts to explain age disparity in sexual relationships in terms of natural selection and sexual selection. Within sexual selection Darwin identified a further two mechanisms which are important factors in the evolution of sex differences (sexual dimorphism): intrasexual selection (involve competition with those of the same sex over access to mates) and intersexual choice (discriminative choice of mating partners). An overarching evolutionary theory which can provide an explanation for the above mechanisms and strategies adopted by individuals which leads to age disparity in relationships is called Life History theory which also includes Parental Investment Theory. Life History theory posits that individuals have to divide energy and resources between activities (as energy and resources devoted to one task can not be used for another task) and this is shaped by natural selection.
Parental Investment Theory refers to the value that is placed on a potential mate based on reproductive potential and reproductive investment. The theory predicts that preferred mate choices have evolved to focus on reproductive potential and reproductive investment of members of the opposite sex. This theory predicts both intrasexual selection and intersexual choice due to differences in parental investment; typically there is competition among members of the lower investing sex (generally males) over the parental investment of the higher investing sex (generally females) who will be more selective in their mate choice. However, human males tend to have more parental investment compared to mammal males (although females still tend to have more parental investment). Thus, both sexes will have to compete and be selective in mate choices. These two theories explain why natural and sexual selection acts slightly differently on the two sexes so that they display different preferences. For example, different age preferences may be a result of sex differences in mate values assigned to the opposite sex at those ages.
A study conducted by David Buss investigated sex differences in mate preferences in 37 cultures with 10,047 participants. In all 37 cultures it was found that males preferred females younger than themselves and females preferred males older than themselves. These age preferences were confirmed in marriage records with males marrying females younger than them and vice versa. A more recent study has supported these findings, conducted by Schwarz and Hassebrauck. This study used 21,245 participants between 18 and 65 years of age who were not involved in a close relationship. As well as asking participants a number of questions on mate selection criteria, they also had to provide the oldest and youngest partner they would accept. It was found that for all ages males were willing to accept females that are slightly older than they are (on average 4.5 years older), but they accept females considerably younger than their own age (on average 10 years younger). Females demonstrate a complementary pattern, being willing to accept considerably older males (on average 8 years older) and were also willing to accept males slightly younger than themselves (on average 5 years younger). This is somewhat different to our close evolutionary relatives: chimpanzees. Male chimpanzees tend to prefer older females than younger and it is suggested that specific cues of female mate value are very different to humans.
Buss attributed the young age preference for females to the cues that youth has. In females, relative youth and physical attractiveness (which males valued more compared to females) demonstrated cues for fertility and high reproductive capacity. Buss stated the specific age preference of around 25 years implied that fertility was a stronger ultimate cause of mate preference than reproductive value as data suggested that fertility peaks in females around mid-twenties. From a life history theory perspective, females that have these cues, display they are more capable of reproductive investment. This notion of preference of age due to peak fertility is supported by Kenrick, Keefe, Gabrielidis, and Cornelius 's study which found that although teenage males would accept a mate slightly younger than themselves, there was a wider range of preference for ages above their own. Teenage males also report that their ideal mates would be several years older than themselves.
Buss and Schmitt highlight that although long term mating relationships is common for humans, it is not characteristic of all mating relationships: there is both short term and long term mating relationships. Buss and Schmitt provided a Sexual Strategies Theory which predicts the two sexes have evolved distinct psychological mechanisms which underlie the strategies utilised for short and long term mating. This theory is directly relevant and compatible with the two already mentioned theories Life History and Parental Investment. Males tend to appear orientated towards short term mating (greater desire for short term mates than women, prefer larger number of sexual partners and take less time to consent to sexual intercourse) and this appears to solve a number of adaptive problems including using less resources to access a mate. Although there is a number of reproductive advantages to short term mating, males still pursue long term mates and this is due to the possibility of monopolising a female 's lifetime reproductive resources. Consistent with findings, for both short term and long term mates, males prefer younger females (reproductively valuable).
As they are the higher investing sex, females tend to be slightly more demanding when picking a mate (as predicted by parental investment theory). They also tend to have a more difficult task of evaluating a male 's reproductive value accurately based on physical appearance as age tends to have fewer constraints on a male 's reproductive resources. Buss attributed the older age preference to older males displaying characteristics of having high providing capacity) such as status and resources. In terms of short term and long term mating, females tend be orientated towards long term mating due to the costs incurred from short term mating. Although some of these costs will be the same for males and females (risk of STIs and impairing long term mate value), the costs for women will be more severe due to paternity uncertainty (cues of multiple mates will be disfavoured by males).
In contrast to above, in short term mating, females will tend to favour males that demonstrate physical attractiveness as this displays cues of ' good genes '. Cues of good genes tend to be typically associated with older males such as facial masculinity and cheek - bone prominence. Buss and Schmitt found similar female preferences for long term mating which supports the notion that for long term relationships females prefer cues of high resource capacity, one of which is age.
Cross-culturally, research has consistently supported the trend in which males prefer to mate with younger females, and females with older males. In a cross-cultural study that covered 37 countries, preferences for age differences were measured and research supported the theory that people prefer to marry close to the age when female fertility is at its highest (24 -- 25 years). Analysing the results further we see that cross culturally; the average age females prefer to marry is 25.4 years old, and they prefer a mate 3.4 years older than themselves, therefore their preferred mate would be aged 28.8 years of age. Males however prefer to marry when they are 27.5 years old, and a female to be 2.7 years younger than themselves, yielding their preferred mate to be 24.8 years old. The results from the study therefore show that the mean preferred marriage age difference (3.04 years averaging male and female preferred age) corresponds very closely with the actual mean marriage age difference (2.99). The preferred age of females is 24.8 years and the actual average age females marry is 25.3 years old (and 28.2 for males) which actually falls directly on the age where females are most fertile, so the sexes have evolutionarily adapted mating preferences that maximise reproductivity.
The United Nations Marriage Statistics Department measures the SMAM difference (Singulate Mean Age Marriage difference - the difference in average age at first marriage between men and women) across the main regions in the world (refer to Table. 1).
However, in some regions of the world there is a substantially larger age gap between marriage partners in that males are much older than their wife (or wives). A theory that can explain this finding from an evolutionary perspective is the parasite - stress theory which explains that an increase of infectious disease can cause humans to evolve selectively according to these pressures. Evidence also shows that as disease risk gets higher, it puts a level of stress on mating selection and increases the use of polygamy.
In Table 2 we see the 20 countries with the largest age - gaps between spouses showing that 17 / 20 practice polygyny, and males ranging from 6.1 - 9.2 years older than their partners. In regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa the use of polygyny is commonly practiced as a consequence of; high sex - ratios (more males born per 100 females) and passing on heterozygous (diverse) genetics from different females onto offspring. When disease is prevalent, if a male is producing offspring with a more diverse range of alleles, offspring will be more likely to withstand mortality from disease and continue the family line. Another reason that polygynous communities have larger age - gaps between spouses is that intrasexual competition for females increases as fewer females remain on the marriage market (with males having more than one wife each), therefore the competitive advantage values younger females due to their higher reproductive value. As the competition for younger women becomes more common, we see the age in females ' first marriage lower as older men seek younger and younger females.
Comparatively in Western societies such as the US and Europe we see a trend of smaller age - gaps between spouses, reaching its peak average in Southern Europe of 3.3 years. Using the same pathogen - stress model we see a lower prevalence of disease in these economically developed areas, and therefore a reduced stress on reproduction for survival. Additionally, it is common to see monogamous relationships widely in more modern societies as there are more women in the marriage market and polygamy is illegal throughout most of Europe and the United States.
As access to education increases worldwide, the age of marriage increases with it, with more of the youth staying in education for longer. The mean age of marriage in Europe is well above 25, and averaging at 30 in Nordic countries, however this may also be due to the increase of cohabitation in European countries. In some countries in Europe such as France, Netherlands, United Kingdom, Norway, Estonia, Finland and Denmark with 20 -- 30 % of women aged 20 -- 34 cohabiting as opposed to legally marrying. In addition to this with the gender pay gap decreasing, we see more women working equal hours (average of 40 hours in Europe and the US) to males and looking less for males with financial resources.
Interestingly, in regions such as the Caribbean and Latin America we see a lower SMAM difference than expected, however there are also a large proportion of partners living in consensual unions; 24 % in Brazil, 20 % in Nicaragua and 18 % in Dominican Republic.
A 2011 study suggested that age disparity in marriage is positively correlated with decreased longevity, particularly for women, though married individuals still have longer lifespans than singles.
Social Structural Origin Theory argues that the underlying cause of sex - differentiated behaviour is the concentration of men and women in differing roles in society. It has been argued that a reason gender roles are so prevalent in society is that the expectations of gender roles can become internalised in a person 's self - concept and personality. In a Brown University study, it has been noted that the social structure of a country determines the age difference between spouses more than any other factor. In regards to mate selection, social structural theory supports the idea that individuals aim to maximise what they can provide in the relationship in an environment that is limiting their utilities through expected gender roles in society and marriage.
It is thought that a trade - off or equilibrium is reached in regards to what each gender brings to the mating partnership and that this equilibrium is most likely to be reached with a trade - off of ages when selecting a mate. Women are said to trade youth and physical attractiveness for economic security in their male partner. This economic approach to choosing a partner ultimately depends on the marital or family system that is adopted by society. Women and men tend to seek a partner that will fit in with their society 's sexual division of labour. For example, a marital system based on males being the provider and females the domestic worker, favours an age gap in the relationship. An older male is more likely to have more resources to provide to the family and a younger female is more likely to have less status or resources and so therefore will be these in a relationship, therefore lending the younger female to be more suited to the domestic worker role in the relationship.
The rational choice model also suggests that people look for partners who can provide for them in their life (bread - winners); as men traditionally earn more as they get older, women will therefore prefer older men. This factor is diminishing as more women enter the labour force and the gender pay gap decreases.
Age - hypogamy defines a relationship where the woman is the older partner, the opposite of this being age - hypergamy. Marriage between partners of roughly similar age is known as "age homogamy ''.
Older female - younger male relationships are, relative to age - hypergamous relationships (older male - younger female), less researched in scientific literature. Slang terms such as ' Cougar ' have been used in films, TV shows and the media to depict older females with younger male mates. The picture often displays a stereotypical pairing of a divorced, middle - aged, white, affluent female dating a younger male with the relationship taking the form of a non-commitment arrangement between the partners.
Although historically, age - hypogenous relationships have been very infrequent, recent US census data has shown an increase in age - hypogenous relationships from 6.4 % in 2000 to 7.7 % in 2012.
There may be many reasons as to why age - hypogamous relationships are not very frequent. Sexual double standards in society may be one particular reason as to why women do not exhibit as many age - hypogamous relationships in comparison to age - hypergamous relationships. Women also experience a double standard regarding the effects of ageing. In comparison to male sexuality, it considered that ageing in women is associated with decreased sex appeal and dating potential.
There is debate in the literature as to what determines age - hypogamy in sexual relationships. A number of variables have been argued to influence the likelihood of women entering into an age - hypogamous relationship such as; racial or ethnic background, level of education, income, marital status, conservatism, age and number of sexual partners. For example, it was found that in US Census data that African American communities showed an imbalanced sex ratio, whereby there were 100 African American woman for every 89 African American Males. Support for this evidence was then found in regard to marriage, whereby it was shown that African American women were more likely to be in age - hypogamous or age - hypergamous marriages in comparison with White American women. However, more recent evidence has found that women of other - race categories, outside of African or white American women were more likely to sleep with younger men, showing that it is still unclear which, if any ethnic groups, are more likely to have age - hypogamous relationships.
Another example illustrating the varying literature surrounding age - hypogamous relationships is research indicating that a woman 's marital status can influence her likelihood of engaging in age - hypogamous relationships. It has been found that married women are less likely to be partnered with a younger male compared to non-married women in comparison to more recent findings, which provides evidence to suggest that previously married women are more likely to engage in an age - hypogamous sexual relationship compared to women who are married or who have never been married.
Despite social views depicting age - hypogamous relationships as short lived and fickle, recent research published by Psychology of Women Quarterly has found that women in age - hypogamous relationships are more satisfied and the most committed in their relationships compared to younger women or similarly aged partners. It has also been suggested that male partners to an older female partner may engage in age - hypogamous relationships due to findings that men choose beauty over age. A recent study found that when shown pictures of women of ages ranging from 20 -- 45 with different levels of attractiveness, regardless of age, males chose the more attractive individuals as long term partners.
The "never date anyone under half your age plus seven '' rule is a rule of thumb sometimes used to prejudge whether an age difference is socially acceptable. Although the origin of the rule is unclear, it is sometimes considered to have French origin.
In earlier sources, the rule had a different interpretation than in contemporary culture, as it was understood as a formula to calculate ideal age for the bride, instead of a lower limit for the suitable age. Max O'Rell 's Her Royal Highness Woman from 1901 gives the rule in the format "A man should marry a woman half his age, plus seven. '' Similar interpretation is also present in the 1951 play The Moon Is Blue by F. Hugh Herbert.
The half - your - age - plus seven rule also appears in John Fox, Jr. 's The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come in 1903, in American newspapers in 1931, attributed to Maurice Chevalier, and in The Autobiography of Malcolm X.
In modern times, this rule has been criticised as being more accurate for men than women, and for allowing a greater maximum age for a woman 's partner later in her life than is actually socially acceptable.
The age disparity between two partners is typically met with some disdain in industrialized nations, and various derogatory terms for participants have arisen in the vernacular.
In English - speaking countries, where financial disparity, and an implicit money - for - companionship exchange, is perceived as central to the relationship, the elder of the two partners (perceived as the richer) is often called a "sugar daddy '' or "sugar mama '' depending on gender. The younger of the two is similarly called the sugar baby. In extreme cases, a person who marries into an extremely wealthy family can be labelled a gold digger, especially in cases where the wealthy partner is of extreme age and / or poor health; this term often describes women but can be applied to either gender.
An attractive younger woman pursued by a wealthy man who is perceived as wanting her only for her looks may be called a trophy wife. The opposite term trophy husband does not have an agreed upon use, but is becoming more common in usage: some will use the term to refer to the attractive stay - at - home husband of a much more famous woman; whereas some will use it to refer to the husband of a trophy wife, as he is her trophy due to the wealth and prestige he brings her. In the latter case, the term trophy is broadened to include any substantial difference in power originating from physical looks, wealth and / or status.
It should be noted that the trophy label is often perceived as objectifying the partner, with or without the partner 's implicit consent.
Where the primary perceived reason for a relationship with a significant age difference is sexual, many gender - specific terms have become popular in English - speaking cultures. A woman of middle to elderly age who pursues younger men is a cougar or puma, and a man in a relationship with an older woman is often called a boytoy, toyboy, himbo, or cub. In reverse, the terms rhino, trout and manther (a play on the panther term for women) are generally used to label an older man pursuing younger women, and the younger woman in such a relationship may be called a kitten or panther. If the woman is extremely young (just over, or possibly under, the legal age of consent), the man may be labelled a cradle - robber. An older term for any licentious or lascivious man is a lecher, and that term and its shortening of lech have become common to describe an elderly man who makes passes at much younger women.
While often intended to be derogatory, some of these terms are often used by the participants in the relationship to describe themselves and each other. Some are viewed as mildly self - deprecating, others as neutral or even complimentary terms, much like individuals stereotypically referred to as nerds, geeks, or jocks have often come to own those terms as a source of pride in their identity. When the attraction between two people of significantly different ages seems genuinely romantic, the terms are often used playfully, especially as one or the other of the partners ages in to a particular term.
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october sky at the beginning of the movie what was the radio announcement about | October Sky - Wikipedia
October Sky is a 1999 American biographical drama film directed by Joe Johnston, starring Jake Gyllenhaal, Chris Cooper, Chris Owen, and Laura Dern. It is based on the true story of Homer H. Hickam, Jr., a coal miner 's son who was inspired by the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957 to take up rocketry against his father 's wishes and eventually became a NASA engineer.
"October Sky '' is based on the lives of four young men who grew up in Coalwood, West Virginia. Most of the film was shot in rural East Tennessee, including Oliver Springs, Harriman and Kingston in Morgan and Roane counties. The movie received a positive critical reception and is still celebrated in the regions of its setting and filming.
October Sky is an anagram of Rocket Boys, the title of the 1998 book upon which the movie is based. It is also used in a period radio broadcast describing Sputnik 1 as it crossed the "October sky ''. Homer Hickam stated that "Universal Studios marketing people got involved and they just had to change the title because, according to their research, women over thirty would never see a movie titled Rocket Boys '' so Universal Pictures changed the title to be more inviting to a wider audience. The book was later re-released with the name in order to capitalize on interest in the movie.
In October 1957, news of the Soviet Union 's launch of Sputnik 1 reaches the town of Coalwood, where most people work in the coal mines. As the townspeople gather outside on the night of the broadcast, they see the satellite orbit across the sky. Homer H. Hickam Jr., filled with awe, sets out to build his own rockets to hopefully get out of Coalwood. His family and classmates ' do not respond kindly, especially his father and the mine superintendent, John, who wants Homer to join him in the mines.
Despite this, Homer eventually teams up with math geek Quentin Wilson, who also has an interest in rocket engineering; with the support of his friends, Roy Lee Cooke and Sherman O'Dell, and their science teacher, Miss Frieda J. Riley -- known as Miss Reily, the four construct small rockets. While their first launches are failures, they experiment with new fuels and designs and eventually succeed. The local paper runs a story about them after a few of their launches. Nevertheless, they are accused of starting a forest fire with an astray rocket and are arrested. After John picks up Homer, Roy Lee is beaten up by his abusive stepfather, Vernon. John intervenes and rescues Roy Lee, warning Vernon that he will protect him as Roy Lee 's late father would have.
The four abandon rocketry and destroy their launch site. After a mine disaster, John is injured while rescuing other men. One of the miners, Ike Bykovsky, a machine shop worker who let Homer use the shop for rocketry and transferred for better pay, is killed. Homer drops out of high school and works the mine to provide for the family while his father recovers.
Later, Homer is inspired to look at a rocket science book Miss Riley has given him, learning how to calculate the trajectory of a rocket. Using this, he and Quentin locate the rocket while proving that it could not have caused the fire, as it was unable to travel that far. The boys present their findings to Miss Riley and the school principal, Mr. Turner, who follows up and identifies the catalyst as a flare from a nearby airfield. Homer returns to school by special invitation; the boys return to rocketry and win the school science fair. This wins them the opportunity to participate in the National Science Fair in Indianapolis. As only one of them can go there, they elect Homer.
Meanwhile, the workers ' union goes on strike against John. That night, when the family eats dinner, Vernon shoots into the kitchen and misses John. Homer and Jim express their concern to their father, but John dismisses their fears. Fed up, Homer confronts his father, and a heated argument ensues. The mines are set to close down and there is nothing but trouble and no future for Homer in the mines. He resents his father 's pressures to follow in the mine work and storms out of the house, vowing to never return.
At the fair, Homer 's display is received very well. After a scheduled few days show, the prizes are to be awarded, and Homer enjoys top popularity and some sightseeing. Overnight, someone steals his machined rocket part model -- the de Laval nozzle -- as well as his autographed picture of Dr. Wernher von Braun. Homer makes an urgent phone call home for help. His mother, Elsie, implores John to end the ongoing strike so that Mr. Bolden, Bykovsky 's replacement, can use the mine 's machine shop to build a replacement nozzle. John relents when Elsie, fed up with his lack of support for their son, threatens to leave him. With the town 's support, Homer wins the top prize and is bombarded with scholarship offers from colleges. He is also congratulated by his inspiration, von Braun, but does not realize the engineer 's identity until he has gone.
Homer returns to Coalwood as a hero and visits Miss Riley, who is dying of Hodgkin 's disease. A launch of their largest rocket yet (the Miss Riley) is the last scene of the film. John, who never attended any of the launchings, attends and is given the honor of pushing the launch button. The Miss Riley reaches an altitude of 30,000 feet (9,100 m) -- higher than the summit of Mount Everest. As the crowd (and the rest of the town) looks up to the skies, John slowly puts his hand on Homer 's shoulder and smiles, showing Homer that he is proud of him.
At the end of the film, a series of vignettes reveals the true outcomes of the main characters ' lives.
Filming began on February 23, 1998, almost a year before the movie 's release. Although the film takes place in West Virginia, Tennessee was the location of choice for filming in part because of the weather and area terrain. Film crews reconstructed the sites to look like the 1957 mining town setting the movie demanded. The weather of east Tennessee gave the filmmakers trouble and delayed production of the film. Cast and Crew recalled the major weather shifts and tornadoes in the area during the filming months but Joe Johnston claims, "ultimately, the movie looks great because of it. It gave the film a much more interesting and varied look. '' The crews also recreated a mine for the underground scenes. Director Joe Johnston expressed that he felt that the looks of the mine in the film gave it an evil look, like the mine was the villain in the film. And felt it ironic because that is what gave the town its nourishment. More than 2000 extras were used in the movie. A small switching yard allowed the filmmakers and actors to film the scenes with the boys on the rail road and gave them freedom to do as they pleased, even tear apart tracks, the train used in the scene was former Southern Railway 4501 relettered as Norfolk and Western 4501. Filming concluded on April 30, 1998.
The film 's star, Jake Gyllenhaal, was 17 years old during filming, the same as Homer Hickam 's character. In an interview in 2014, Natalie Canerday recalled that Gyllenhaal was tutored on set because he was still in school and taking advanced classes.
October Sky opened on February 19, 1999 in 1,495 theaters and had an opening weekend gross of $5,905,250. At its widest theater release, 1,702 theaters were showing the movie. The movie has had a total lifetime gross of $34,675,800 worldwide.
The film received critical acclaim from film critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 90 % out of 72 critics gave the film a positive review, with a rating average of 7.6 / 10. The critic 's consensus states: "Rich in sweet sincerity, intelligence, and good old - fashioned inspirational drama, October Sky is a coming - of - age story with a heart to match its Hollywood craftsmanship. '' Metacritic gave the film a 71 rating with these being dubbed "Generally Favorable Reviews '' based on 23 professional critic reviews of the movie.
Many critics tend to commend the movie for its values, family, and inspirational aspects. A lot of reviews focus on the main character 's relationship with his father and on the actors ' performances. Roger Ebert recognized that the film "does n't simplify the father into a bad guy or a tyrant. He understandably wants his son to follow in his footsteps, and one of the best elements of the movie is in breaking free, he is respecting his father. This movie has deep values. ''
Joe Leydon of Variety reviewed the film and called it, "Immensely entertaining and unabashedly inspirational. ''
James Wall of The Christian Century describes the film 's concentration on the father - son relationship as "at times painful to watch. There are no winners or losers when sons go their separate ways. October Sky does not illustrate good parenting; rather, it evokes the realization that since parents have only a limited vision of how to shape their children 's future, the job requires a huge amount of love and a lot of divine assistance. '' However, some reviews, such as one from Entertainment Weekly and TV Guide, claim that the movie 's highlight was the acting of Jake Gyllenhaal and Chris Cooper.
October Sky won three awards, including: OCIC Award for Joe Johnston at the Ajijic International Film Festival 1999, the Critics ' Choice Movie Awards for Best Family Film from the Broadcast Film Critics Association in 2000, and a Humanitas Prize 1999 for Featured Film Category.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
Although the movie was praised for its portrayal of 1950s Appalachia, it has several major and minor differences from the book on which it is based.
There are two annual festivals in honor of the Rocket Boys and the movie that are held. One is held in West Virginia where the real life events that the book and film took place, and the other is in Tennessee where the movie was actually shot. The "Rocket Boys '' often visit the festival in West Virginia on a regular basis, and it is also called the "Rocket Boys Festival '', while the festival in Tennessee focuses more on the filming locations being the relevance to the movie. The Tennessee festival 's site claims that the festival is "a celebration of our heritage. ''
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what is the technical name for a cough | Cough - wikipedia
A cough is a sudden and often repetitively occurring, protective reflex, which helps to clear the large breathing passages from fluids, irritants, foreign particles and microbes. The cough reflex consists of three phases: an inhalation, a forced exhalation against a closed glottis, and a violent release of air from the lungs following opening of the glottis, usually accompanied by a distinctive sound. Coughing is either voluntary or involuntary.
Frequent coughing usually indicates the presence of a disease. Many viruses and bacteria benefit, from an evolutionary perspective, by causing the host to cough, which helps to spread the disease to new hosts. Most of the time, irregular coughing is caused by a respiratory tract infection but can also be triggered by choking, smoking, air pollution, asthma, gastroesophageal reflux disease, post-nasal drip, chronic bronchitis, lung tumors, heart failure and medications such as ACE inhibitors.
Treatment should target the cause; for example, smoking cessation or discontinuing ACE inhibitors. Cough suppressants such as codeine or dextromethorphan are frequently prescribed, but have been demonstrated to have little effect. Other treatment options may target airway inflammation or may promote mucus expectoration. As it is a natural protective reflex, suppressing the cough reflex might have damaging effects, especially if the cough is productive.
A cough can be classified by its duration, character, quality, and timing. The duration can be either acute (of sudden onset) if it is present less than three weeks, subacute if it is present between three or eight weeks, and chronic when lasting longer than eight weeks. A cough can be non-productive (dry) or productive (when sputum is coughed up). It may occur only at night (then called nocturnal cough), during both night and day, or just during the day.
A number of characteristic coughs exist. While these have not been found to be diagnostically useful in adults, they are of use in children. A barky cough is part of the common presentation of croup, while a staccato cough has been classically described with chlamydia pneumonia.
A cough in children may be either a normal physiological reflex or due to an underlying cause. In healthy children it may be normal in the absence of any disease to cough ten times a day. The most common cause of an acute or subacute cough is a viral respiratory tract infection. In adults with a chronic cough, i.e. a cough longer than 8 weeks, more than 90 % of cases are due to post-nasal drip, asthma, eosinophilic bronchitis, and gastroesophageal reflux disease. The causes of chronic cough are similar in children with the addition of bacterial bronchitis.
A cough can be the result of a respiratory tract infection such as the common cold, acute bronchitis, pneumonia, pertussis, or tuberculosis. In the vast majority of cases, acute coughs, i.e. coughs shorter than 3 weeks, are due to the common cold. In people with a normal chest X-ray, tuberculosis is a rare finding. Pertussis is increasingly being recognised as a cause of troublesome coughing in adults.
After a respiratory tract infection has cleared, the person may be left with a postinfectious cough. This typically is a dry, non-productive cough that produces no phlegm. Symptoms may include a tightness in the chest, and a tickle in the throat. This cough may often persist for weeks after an illness. The cause of the cough may be inflammation similar to that observed in repetitive stress disorders such as carpal tunnel syndrome. The repetition of coughing produces inflammation which produces discomfort, which in turn produces more coughing. Postinfectious cough typically does not respond to conventional cough treatments. Treatment consists of any anti-inflammatory medicine (such as ipratropium) to treat the inflammation, and a cough suppressant to reduce frequency of the cough until inflammation clears. Inflammation may increase sensitivity to other existing issues such as allergies, and treatment of other causes of coughs (such as use of an air purifier or allergy medicines) may help speed recovery. A bronchodilator, which helps open up the airways, may also help treat this type of cough.
When coughing is the only complaint of a person who meets the criteria for asthma (bronchial hyperresponsiveness and reversibility), this is termed cough - variant asthma. Two related conditions are atopic cough and eosinophilic bronchitis. Atopic cough occurs in individuals with a family history of atopy (an allergic condition), abundant eosinophils in the sputum, but with normal airway function and responsiveness. Eosinophilic bronchitis is also characterized by eosinophils in the sputum, without airway hyperresponsiveness or an atopic background. This condition responds to treatment with corticosteroids. Cough can also worsen in an acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Asthma is a common cause of chronic cough in adults and children. Coughing may be the only symptom the person has from their asthma, or asthma symptoms may also include wheezing, shortness of breath, and a tight feeling in their chest. Depending on how severe the asthma is, it can be treated with bronchodilators (medicine which causes the airways to open up) or inhaled steroids. Treatment of the asthma should make the cough go away.
Chronic bronchitis is defined clinically as a persistent cough that produces sputum (phlegm) and mucus, for at least three months in two consecutive years. Chronic bronchitis is often the cause of "smoker 's cough ''. The tobacco smoke causes inflammation, secretion of mucus into the airway, and difficulty clearing that mucus out of the airways. Coughing helps clear those secretions out. May be treated by quitting smoking. May also be caused by pneumoconiosis and long - term fume inhalation.
In people with unexplained cough, gastroesophageal reflux disease should be considered. This occurs when acidic contents of the stomach come back up into the esophagus. Symptoms usually associated with GERD include heartburn, sour taste in the mouth, or a feeling of acid reflux in the chest, although, more than half of the people with cough from GERD do n't have any other symptoms. An esophageal pH monitor can confirm the diagnosis of GERD. Sometimes GERD can complicate respiratory ailments related to cough, such as asthma or bronchitis. The treatment involves anti-acid medications and lifestyle changes with surgery indicated in cases not manageable with conservative measures.
Coughing may be caused by air pollution including tobacco smoke, particulate matter, irritant gases, and dampness in a home. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body 's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual 's health status and genetics. People who exercise outdoors on hot, smoggy days, for example, increase their exposure to pollutants in the air.
A foreign body can sometimes be suspected, for example if the cough started suddenly when the patient was eating. Rarely, sutures left behind inside the airway branches can cause coughing. A cough can be triggered by dryness from mouth breathing or recurrent aspiration of food into the windpipe in people with swallowing difficulties.
Angiotensin - converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are drugs used in diabetics, heart disease, and high blood pressure. In 10 - 25 % of the people who take it, it can cause them to have a cough as a side effect. Cessation of ACE Inhibitor use is the only way to stop the cough. Such medicines for hypertension are very common in use such as ramipril and quinapril. There are cases of "cough of unknown origin '' who had resolution with stopping the drug.
A psychogenic cough, "habit cough '' or "tic cough '' may be the cause in the absence of a physical problem. In these instances, emotional and psychological problems are suspected. However, other illnesses have to be ruled out before a firm diagnosis of psychogenic cough is made. Psychogenic coughing is different from habit coughing and tic coughing.
Psychogenic cough is thought to be more common in children than in adults. A possible scenario: psychogenic cough develops in a child who has a chronically ill brother or sister.
Some cases of chronic cough may be attributed to a sensory neuropathic disorder. Treatment for neurogenic cough may include the use of certain neuralgia medications. Coughing may occur in tic disorders such as Tourette syndrome, although it should be distinguished from throat - clearing in this disorder.
Cough may also be caused by conditions affecting the lung tissue such as bronchiectasis, cystic fibrosis, interstitial lung diseases and sarcoidosis. Coughing can also be triggered by benign or malignant lung tumors or mediastinal masses. Through irritation of the nerve, diseases of the external auditory canal (wax, for example) can also cause cough. Cardiovascular diseases associated with cough are heart failure, pulmonary infarction and aortic aneurysm. Nocturnal cough is associated with heart failure, as the heart does not compensate for the increased volume shift to the pulmonary circulation, in turn causing pulmonary edema and resultant cough. Other causes of nocturnal cough include asthma, post-nasal drip and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Another cause of cough occurring preferentially in supine position is recurrent aspiration.
Given its irritant nature to mammal tissues, capsaicin is widely used to determine the cough threshold and as a tussive stimulant in clinical research of cough suppressants. Capsaicin is what makes chili peppers spicy, and might explain why workers in factories with these fruits can develop a cough.
Coughing may also be used for social reasons, such as coughing before giving a speech. Coughing is not always involuntary, and can be used in social situations. Coughing can be used to attract attention, release internal psychological tension, or become a maladaptive displacement behavior. It is believed that the frequency of such coughing increases in environments vulnerable to psychological tension and social conflict. In such environments, coughing may become one of many displacement behaviors or defense mechanisms.
A cough is a protective reflex in healthy individuals which is influenced by psychological factors. The cough reflex is initiated by stimulation of two different classes of afferent nerves, namely the myelinated rapidly adapting receptors, and nonmyelinated C - fibers with endings in the lungs. However it is not certain that the stimulation of nonmyelinated C - fibers leads to cough with a reflex as it 's meant in physiology (with its own five components): this stimulation may cause mast cells degranulation (through an asso - assonic reflex) and edema which may work as a stimulus for rapidly adapting receptors.
The type of cough may help in the diagnosis. For instance, an inspiratory "whooping '' sound on coughing almost doubles the likelihood that the illness is pertussis.
Blood may occur in small amounts with severe cough of many causes, but larger amounts suggests bronchitis, bronchiectasis, tuberculosis, or primary lung cancer.
Further workup may include labs, x-rays, and spirometry.
The treatment of a cough in children is based on the underlying cause. In children half of cases go away without treatment in 10 days and 90 % in 25 days.
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics the use of cough medicine to relieve cough symptoms is supported by little evidence and thus not recommended for treating cough symptoms in children. There is tentative evidence that the use of honey is better than no treatment or diphenhydramine in decreasing coughing. It does not alleviate coughing to the same extent as dextromethorphan. A trial of antibiotics or inhaled corticosteroids may be tried in children with a chronic cough in an attempt to treat protracted bacterial bronchitis or asthma respectively.
The complications of coughing can be classified as either acute or chronic. Acute complications include cough syncope (fainting spells due to decreased blood flow to the brain when coughs are prolonged and forceful), insomnia, cough - induced vomiting, rupture of blebs causing spontaneous pneumothorax (although this still remains to be proven), subconjunctival hemorrhage or "red eye '', coughing defecation and in women with a prolapsed uterus, cough urination. Chronic complications are common and include abdominal or pelvic hernias, fatigue fractures of lower ribs and costochondritis. Chronic or violent coughing can contribute to damage to the pelvic floor and a possible cystocele.
A cough is the most common reason for visiting a primary care physician in the United States.
Marine mammals such as dolphins can not cough.
As of this edit, this article uses content from "Acute cough: a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge '', which is licensed in a way that permits reuse under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, but not under the GFDL. All relevant terms must be followed.
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how did germany italy and japan become allies | Germany -- Japan relations - wikipedia
The relations between Germany and Japan (Japanese: 日 独 関係, translit. Nichidokukankei and German: Deutsch - japanische Beziehungen) were officially established in 1860 with the first ambassadorial visit to Japan from Prussia (which predated the formation of the German Empire in 1866 / 1870). Japan modernized rapidly after the Meiji Restoration of 1867, often using German models through intense intellectual and cultural exchange. After 1900 Japan aligned itself with Britain, and Germany and Japan were enemies in World War I. Japan declared war on the German Empire in 1914 and seized key German possessions in China and the Pacific.
In the 1930s, both countries adopted aggressive militaristic attitudes toward their respective regions. This led to a rapprochement and, eventually, a political and military alliance that included Italy: the "Axis ''. During the Second World War, however, the Axis was limited by the great distances between the Axis powers; for the most part, Japan and Germany fought separate wars, and eventually surrendered separately.
After the Second World War, the economies of both nations experienced rapid recoveries; bilateral relations, now focused on economic issues, were soon re-established. Today, Japan and Germany are, respectively, the third and fourth largest economies in the world, and benefit greatly from many kinds of political, cultural, scientific and economic cooperation.
According to a late 2012 Bertelsmann Foundation Poll, the Germans view Japan overwhelmingly positively, and regard that nation as less a competitor and more a partner. The Japanese views of Germany are positive as well, with 97 % viewing Germany positively and only 3 % viewing Germany negatively.
Relations between Japan and Germany date from the Tokugawa shogunate (1603 -- 1868), when Germans in Dutch service arrived in Japan to work for the Dutch East India Company (VOC). The first well - documented cases are those of the physicians Engelbert Kaempfer (1651 -- 1716) and Philipp Franz Balthasar von Siebold (1796 -- 1866) in the 1690s and 1820s, respectively. Both accompanied the director of the Dutch trading post at Dejima on the obligatory voyage to Edo to pay tribute to the Shogun. Siebold became the author of Nippon, Archiv zur Beschreibung von Japan (Nippon, Archive For The Description of Japan), one of the most valuable sources of information on Japan well into the 20th century; since 1979 his achievements have been recognised with an annual German award in his honour, the Philipp Franz von Siebold - Preis, granted to Japanese scientists. Von Siebold 's second visit to Japan (1859 - 1862) became a disaster because he tried to influence Dutch politics in Japan and tried to obtain a permanent post as a diplomat in that country.
In 1854 the United States pressured Japan into the Convention of Kanagawa, which ended Japan 's isolation, but was considered an "unequal treaty '' by the Japanese public, since the US did not reciprocate most of Japan 's concessions with similar privileges. In many cases Japan was effectively forced into a system of extraterritoriality that provided for the subjugation of foreign residents to the laws of their own consular courts instead of the Japanese law system, open up ports for trade, and later even allow Christian missionaries to enter the country. Shortly after the end of Japan 's seclusion, in a period called "Bakumatsu '' (幕末, "End of the Shogunate ''), the first German traders arrived in Japan. In 1860 Count Friedrich Albrecht zu Eulenburg led the Eulenburg Expedition to Japan as ambassador from Prussia, a leading regional state in the German Confederation at that time. After four months of negotiations, another "unequal treaty '', officially dedicated to amity and commerce, was signed in January 1861 between Prussia and Japan.
Despite being considered one of the numerous unjust negotiations pressed on Japan during that time, the Eulenburg Expedition, and both the short - and long - term consequences of the treaty of amity and commerce, are today honoured as the beginning of official Japanese - German relations. To commemorate its 150th anniversary, events were held in both Germany and Japan from autumn 2010 through autumn 2011 hoping "to ' raise the treasures of (their) common past ' in order to build a bridge to the future. ''
In 1863, three years after von Eulenburg 's visit in Tokyo, a Shogunal legation arrived at the Prussian court of King Wilhelm I and was greeted with a grandiose ceremony in Berlin. After the treaty was signed, Max von Brandt became diplomatic representative in Japan -- first representing Prussia, and after 1866 representing the North German Confederation, and by 1871 representing the newly established German Empire.
In 1868 the Tokugawa Shogunate was overthrown and the Empire of Japan under Emperor Meiji was established. With the return of power to the Tenno Dynasty, Japan demanded a revocation of the "unequal treaties '' with the western powers and a civil war ensued. During the conflict, German weapons trader Henry Schnell counselled and supplied weapons to the Daimyo of Nagaoka, a land lord loyal to the Shogunate. One year later, the war ended with the defeat of the Tokugawa and the renegotiation of the "unequal treaties ''.
With the start of the Meiji period (1868 -- 1912), many Germans came to work in Japan as advisors to the new government as so - called "oyatoi gaikokujin '' (お 雇い 外国 人, "hired foreigners '') and contributed to the modernization of Japan, especially in the fields of medicine (Leopold Mueller, 1824 -- 1894; Julius Scriba, 1848 -- 1905; Erwin Bälz, 1849 -- 1913), law (K.F. Hermann Roesler, 1834 -- 1894; Albert Mosse, 1846 -- 1925) and military affairs (K.W. Jacob Meckel, 1842 -- 1906). Meckel had been invited by Japan 's government in 1885 as an advisor to the Japanese general staff and as teacher at the Army War College. He spent three years in Japan, working with influential persons including Katsura Tarō and Kawakami Soroku, thereby decisively contributing to the modernization of the Imperial Japanese Army. Meckel left behind a loyal group of Japanese admirers, who, after his death, had a bronze statue of him erected in front of his former army college in Tokyo. Overall, the Imperial Japanese Army intensively oriented its organization along Prusso - German lines when building a modern fighting force during the 1880s. The French model that had been followed by the late shogunate and the early Meiji government was gradually replaced by the Prussian model under the leadership of officers such as Katsura Taro and Nogi Maresuke.
In 1889 the ' Constitution of the Empire of Japan ' was promulgated, greatly influenced by German legal scholars Rudolf von Gneist and Lorenz von Stein, whom the Meiji oligarch and future Prime Minister of Japan Itō Hirobumi (1841 -- 1909) visited in Berlin and Vienna in 1882. At the request of the German government, Albert Mosse also met with Hirobumi and his group of government officials and scholars and gave a series of lectures on constitutional law, which helped to convince Hirobumi that the Prussian - style monarchical constitution was best - suited for Japan. In 1886 Mosse was invited to Japan on a three - year contract as "hired foreigner '' to the Japanese government to assist Hirobumi and Inoue Kowashi in drafting the Meiji Constitution. He later worked on other important legal drafts, international agreements, and contracts and served as a cabinet advisor in the Home Ministry, assisting Prime Minister Yamagata Aritomo in establishing the draft laws and systems for local government. Dozens of Japanese students and military officers also went to Germany in the late 19th century, to study the German military system and receive military training at German army educational facilities and within the ranks of the German, mostly the Prussian army. For example, later famous writer Mori Rintarô (Mori Ōgai), who originally was an army doctor, received tutoring in the German language between 1872 and 1874, which was the primary language for medical education at the time. From 1884 to 1888, Ōgai visited Germany and developed an interest in European literature producing the first translations of the works of Goethe, Schiller, and Gerhart Hauptmann.
At the end of the 19th century, Japanese -- German relations cooled due to Germany 's, and in general Europe 's, imperialist aspirations in East Asia. After the conclusion of the First Sino - Japanese War in April 1895, the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed, which included several territorial cessions from China to Japan, most importantly Taiwan and the eastern portion of the bay of the Liaodong Peninsula including Port Arthur. However, Russia, France and Germany grew wary of an ever - expanding Japanese sphere of influence and wanted to take advantage of China 's bad situation by expanding their own colonial possessions instead. The frictions culminated in the so - called "Triple Intervention '' on 23 April 1895, when the three powers "urged '' Japan to refrain from acquiring its awarded possessions on the Liaodong Peninsula. In the following years, Wilhelm II 's nebulous fears of a "Yellow Peril '' -- a united Asia under Japanese leadership, led to further Japanese -- German estrangement. Wilhelm II also introduced a regulation to limit the number of members of the Japanese army to come to Germany to study the military system.
Another stress test for German -- Japanese relations was the Russo - Japanese War of 1904 / 05, during which Germany strongly supported Russia. This circumstance triggered the Japanese foreign ministry to proclaim that any ship delivering coal to Russian vessels within the war zone would be sunk. After the Russo - Japanese War, Germany insisted on reciprocity in the exchange of military officers and students, and in the following years, several German military officers were sent to Japan to study the Japanese military, which, after its victory over the tsarist army became a promising organization to study. However, Japan 's growing power and influence also caused increased distrust on the German side.
The onset of the First World War in Europe eventually showed how far German -- Japanese relations had truly deteriorated. On 7 August 1914, only two days after Britain declared war on the German Empire, the Japanese government received an official request from the British government for assistance in destroying the German raiders of the Kaiserliche Marine in and around Chinese waters. Japan, eager to reduce the presence of European colonial powers in South - East Asia, especially on China 's coast, sent Germany an ultimatum on 14 August 1914, which was left unanswered. Japan then formally declared war on the German Empire on 23 August 1914 thereby entering the First World War as an ally of Britain, France and the Russian Empire to seize the German - held Caroline, Marshall, and Mariana Islands in the Pacific.
The only major battle that took place between Japan and Germany was the siege of the German - controlled Chinese port of Tsingtao in Kiautschou Bay. The German forces held out from August until November 1914, under a total Japanese / British blockade, sustained artillery barrages and manpower odds of 6: 1 -- a fact that gave a morale boost during the siege as well as later in defeat. After Japanese troops stormed the city, the German dead were buried at Tsingtao and the remaining troops were transported to Japan where they were treated with respect at places like the Bandō Prisoner of War camp. In 1919, when the German Empire formally signed the Treaty of Versailles, all prisoners of war were set free and returned to Europe.
Japan was a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles, which stipulated harsh repercussions for Germany. In the Pacific, Japan gained Germany 's islands north of the equator (the Marshall Islands, the Carolines, the Marianas, the Palau Islands) and Kiautschou / Tsingtao in China. Article 156 of the Treaty also transferred German concessions in Shandong to Japan rather than returning sovereign authority to China, an issue soon to be known as Shandong Problem. Chinese outrage over this provision led to demonstrations, and a cultural movement known as the May Fourth Movement influenced China not to sign the treaty. China declared the end of its war against Germany in September 1919 and signed a separate treaty with Germany in 1921. This fact greatly contributed to Germany relying on China, and not Japan, as its strategic partner in East Asia for the coming years.
After Germany had to cede most of former German New Guinea and Kiautschou / Tsingtao to Japan and with an intensifying Sino - German cooperation, relations between Berlin and Tokyo were nearly dead. Under the initiative of Wilhelm Solf, who served as German ambassador to Japan from 1920 to 1928, cultural exchange was strengthened again, culminating in the re-establishment of the "German - Japanese Society '' (1926), the founding of the "Japanese - German Cultural Society '' (1927), and of the "Japanese - German Research Institute '' (1934). In the 1920s - 30s, Germany was the destination of choice for Japanese students wanting to study abroad with 80 % of the Japanese students going abroad to study doing so at German universities. In the 1920s, both France and Germany kept the franc and the Reichmark undervalued, making both countries very attractive for Japanese wanting to study abroad, but as German universities were considered to be far better than French universities, Japanese students tended to opt for the former rather than the latter. Many of the men who emerged as leaders of the Pan-Asia movement in Japan in the 1930s studied at German universities in the 1920s, which led the Japanese historian Hotta Eri to note there was a strong German influence on the discourse of Japanese Pan-Asianism.
In the spring and again in the fall of 1933, German - Japanese relations were badly troubled when the SA took to beating up Asians studying at German universities, which led to a number of complaints to the Auswärtiges Amt from both the Japanese and Chinese governments that their nationals studying at German universities were not safe. Both the Japanese ambassador to Germany and the Chinese minister handed numerous notes of protest in 1933 to Prince Bernard von Bülow, the State Secretary at the Auswärtiges Amt (who should not be confused with his uncle of the same name who served as Chancellor in 1900 - 09), complaining about "Yellow Peril '' propaganda in German newspapers, reports that the German government was planning on banning interracial marriage and sex, and almost all of the Chinese and Japanese students studying in Germany had been beaten up by the SA. A frustrated Bülow sent a memo to his superior, the Foreign Minister, Baron Konstantin von Neurath, asking if anything could be done to stop the SA from beating up Asians in Germany, saying he was tired of taking almost daily complaints from Japanese and Chinese diplomats about their nationals ' being assaulted by the SA. In October 1933, the Japanese government warned its nationals not to visit Germany, saying the country was unsafe for Asians to be in, and in November 1933, the Chinese government issued a similar warning to its citizens not to visit Germany. Neurath persuaded Hitler to order the SA to stop beating up Asians, pointing out that Chiang Kai - shek was threatening to expel the German military mission to China and replace it with a French military mission if the assaults continued. In regards to Japan, Neurath noted it was advantageous to have so many scions of the Japanese elite studying at German universities, arguing that was an incalculable advantage to Germany in the long run. In November 1933, Hitler ordered the SA not to assault Asians in Germany anymore. At this time, Germany had much closer relations with China, to which a German military mission was attached to train the National Revolutionary Army than it did with Japan, and it was the complaints of the Chinese minister rather than the Japanese ambassador that were taken more seriously by the Auswärtiges Amt. At the same time, as the German military mission to China continued to grow together with German arms sales to China, which caused a number of Japanese complaints.
In late 1933 - early 1934, a major strain was placed on German - Japanese relations when the German ambassador to Japan, when Ambassador Herbert von Dirksen appointed Ferdinand Heye, a Nazi Party member and a disreputable German businessman convicted by a Chinese court of opium smuggling in 1927 the Special German Trade Commissioner for Manchukuo. The Japanese attached much importance to the question of recognizing Manchukuo, which was seen as a litmus test for whatever one was a true friend of Japan or of China. Heye attempted with the support of Dirksen to have the Japanese give him a monopoly of exporting soybeans from Manchukuo, in exchange for which he promised to have Germany recognize Manchukuo. The ambitious Heye, having won the friendship of the Kwantung Army by promising that he would have the Reich recognize Manchukuo, then attempted to use his position as German Trade Commissioner to Manchukuo to secure a monopoly on all German investments in Manchukuo. The attempts of Heye and Dirksen to have Germany recognize Manchukuo involved them in a dispute with Neurath who preferred to keep Germany 's special relationship it had established with the Kuomintang regime in China going, and who knew well that the Chinese would be extremely offended if Germany recognized Manchukuo. The Heye affair caused much bad feelings on both sides, and was ended in February 1935 with the victory of Neurath when Hitler disallowed Heye and his promises he made.
Reflecting the tendency in the Third Reich to have several rival agencies operating in the same field, a number of new organizations emerged in the diplomatic field that competed with the Auswärtiges Amt. The most important of the rivals of the Auswärtiges Amt was the Dienststelle Ribbentrop, which was the rival foreign office headed by Joachim von Ribbentrop that operated its own foreign policy in direct competition with the Auswärtiges Amt. Neurath favored a pro-Chinese policy whereas Ribbentrop favored a pro-Japanese policy. In the summer of 1935, Ribbentrop and his friend, the Japanese military attache to Germany General Hiroshi Ōshima, came up with a plan to square the circle between Germany having to chose between Japan or China, and bring China into the Japanese sphere of influence by devising a plan for anti-Communist alliance that would unite Germany, China and Japan together. This was the origin of what become the Anti-Comintern Pact, but the Ribbentrop - Ōshima plan was vetoed in November 1935 jointly by the Foreign Minister Konstantin von Neurath and by the War Minister Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg, who told Hitler that the Chinese would never join this proposed alliance, and that on economic grounds China had much more to offer Germany than did Japan...
A temporary strain was put on German - Japanese rapprochement in June 1935, when the Anglo - German Naval Agreement was signed between the United Kingdom and Nazi Germany, one of many attempts by Adolf Hitler to improve relations between the two countries. After all, Hitler had already laid down his plans in Mein Kampf, in which he identified England as a promising partner, but also defined Japan as a target of "international Jewry '', and thus a possible ally:
It was not in the interests of Great Britain to have Germany annihilated, but primarily a Jewish interest. And to - day the destruction of Japan would serve British political interests less than it would serve the far - reaching intentions of those who are leading the movement that hopes to establish a Jewish world - empire.
At the time, many Japanese politicians, including Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto (who was an outspoken critic of an alliance with Nazi Germany), were shocked by the Anglo - German Naval Agreement. Nevertheless, the leaders of the military clique then in control in Tokyo concluded that it was a ruse designed to buy the Nazis time to match the British navy.
Tokyo 's military leaders proceeded to devise plans assuring the Empire 's supply with resources by eventually creating a "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere ''. In general, further expansion was envisioned -- either northwards, attacking the Soviet Union, a plan which was called Hokushin - ron, or by seizing French, Dutch and / or British colonies to the south, a concept dubbed "Nanshin ''. Hitler, on the other hand, never desisted from his plan to conquer new territories in Eastern Europe for Lebensraum; thus, conflicts with Poland and later with the Soviet Union seemed inevitable.
The first legal consolidation of German - Japanese mutual interests occurred in 1936, when the two countries then signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which was directed against the Communist International (Comintern) in general and the Soviet Union in particular. After the signing, Nazi Germany 's government also included the Japanese people in their concept of "honorary Aryans ''. Yasuhito, Prince Chichibu then attended the 1937 Nuremberg Rally in Germany and met Adolf Hitler, with whom he tried to boost personal relations. Fascist Italy, led by Benito Mussolini joined the pact the same year, initiating the formation of the so - called Axis between Rome, Berlin and Tokyo.
Originally, Germany had a very close relationship with the Chinese nationalist government, even providing military aid and assistance to the Republic of China. Relations soured after the outbreak of the Second Sino - Japanese War on 7 July 1937, and when China shortly thereafter concluded the Sino - Soviet Non-Aggression Pact with the Soviet Union. Eventually Hitler concluded that Japan, not China, would be a more reliable geostrategic partner, notwithstanding the superior Sino - German economic relationship and chose to end his alliance with the Chinese as the price of gaining an alignment with the more modern and militarily powerful Japan. In a May 1938 address to the Reichstag, Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo, the Japanese - occupied puppet state in Manchuria, and renounced the German claims to the former colonies in the Pacific held by Japan. Hitler ordered the end of arm shipments to China, as well as the recall of all German officers attached to the Chinese Army. Despite this move, however, Hitler retained his general perception of neither the Japanese nor the Chinese civilizations being inferior to the German one. In The Political Testament of Adolf Hitler, he wrote:
Pride in one 's own race -- and that does not imply contempt for other races -- is also a normal and healthy sentiment. I have never regarded the Chinese or the Japanese as being inferior to ourselves. They belong to ancient civilizations, and I admit freely that their past history is superior to our own. They have the right to be proud of their past, just as we have the right to be proud of the civilization to which we belong. Indeed, I believe the more steadfast the Chinese and the Japanese remain in their pride of race, the easier I shall find it to get on with them.
During the late 1930s, though motivated by political and propaganda reasons, several cultural exchanges between Japan and Germany took place. A focus was put on youth exchanges, and numerous mutual visits were conducted; for instance, in late 1938, the ship Gneisenau carried a delegation of 30 members of the Hitlerjugend to Tokyo for a study visit.
In 1938, representative measures for embracing the German - Japanese partnership were sought and the construction of a new Japanese embassy building in Berlin was started. After the preceding embassy had to give way to Hitler 's and Albert Speer 's plans of re-modeling Berlin to the world capital city of Germania, a new and more pompous building was erected in a newly established diplomatic district next to the Tiergarten. It was conceived by Ludwig Moshamer under the supervision of Speer and was placed opposite the Italian embassy, thereby bestowing an architectural emphasis on the Rome - Berlin - Tokyo axis.
Despite tentative plans for a joint German - Japanese approach against the USSR were hinted on in the 1936 Anti-Comintern Pact, the years 1938 and 1939 were already decisive for Japan 's decision to not expand northward (i.e., against the USSR) but to the south. The Empire decisively lost two border fights against the Soviets, the Battles of Lake Khasan and Khalkin Gol, thereby convincing itself that the Imperial Japanese Army, lacking heavy tanks and the like, would be in no position to challenge the Red Army at that time. Nevertheless, Hitler 's anti-Soviet sentiment soon led to further rapprochements with Japan, since he still believed that Japan would join Germany in a future war against the Soviet Union, either actively by invading southeast Siberia, or passively by binding large parts of the Red Army, which was fearing an attack of Japan 's Kwantung Army in Manchukuo, numbering ca. 700,000 men as of the late 1930s.
In contrast to his actual plans, Hitler 's concept of stalling -- in combination with his frustration with a Japan embroiled in seemingly endless negotiations with the United States, and tending against a war with the USSR -- led to a temporary cooperation with the Soviets in the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact, which was signed in August 1939. Neither Japan nor Italy had been informed beforehand of Germany 's pact with the Soviets, demonstrating the constant subliminal mistrust between Nazi Germany and its partners. After all, the pact not only stipulated the division of Poland between both signatories in a secret protocol, but also rendered the Anti-Comintern Pact more or less irrelevant. In order to remove the strain that Hitler 's move had put on German -- Japanese relations, the "Agreement for Cultural Cooperation between Japan and Germany '' was signed in November 1939, only a few weeks after Germany and the Soviet Union had concluded their invasion of Poland and Great Britain and France declared war on Nazi Germany.
Over the following year, Japan also proceeded with its expansion plans. The Invasion of French Indochina on 22 September 1940 (which by then was controlled by the collaborating government of Vichy France), and Japan 's ongoing bloody conflict with China, put a severe strain on American - Japanese relations. On 26 July 1940, the United States had passed the Export Control Act, cutting oil, iron and steel exports to Japan. This containment policy was Washington 's warning to Japan that any further military expansion would result in further sanctions. However, such US moves were interpreted by Japan 's militaristic leaders as signals that they needed to take radical measures to improve the Empire 's situation, thereby driving Japan closer to Germany.
With Nazi Germany not only having conquered most of continental Europe including France, but also maintaining the impression of a Britain facing imminent defeat, Tokyo interpreted the situation in Europe as proof of a fundamental and fatal weakness in western democracies. Japan 's leadership concluded that the current state of affairs had to be exploited and subsequently started to seek even closer cooperation with Berlin. Hitler, for his part, not only feared a lasting stalemate with Britain, but also had started planning an invasion of the Soviet Union. These circumstances, together with a shortage in raw materials and food, increased Berlin 's interest in a stronger alliance with Japan. German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop was sent to negotiate a new treaty with Japan, whose relationships with Germany and Italy, the three soon to be called "Axis powers '', were cemented with the Tripartite Pact of 27 September 1940.
The purpose of the Pact, directed against an unnamed power presumed to be the United States, was to deter that power from supporting Britain, thereby not only strengthening Germany 's and Italy 's cause in the North African Campaign and the Mediterranean theatre, but also weakening British colonies in South - East Asia in advance of a Japanese invasion. The treaty stated that the three countries would respect each other 's "leadership '' in their respective spheres of influence, and would assist each other if attacked by an outside party. However, already - ongoing conflicts, as of the signing of the Pact, were explicitly excluded. With this defensive terminology, aggression on the part of a member state toward a non-member state would result in no obligations under the Pact. These limitations can be interpreted as a symptom of the German - Japanese relations of that time being driven by mutual self - interest, underpinned by the shared militarist, expansionist and nationalistic ideologies of their respective governments.
Another decisive limitation in the German - Japanese alliance were the fundamental differences between the two nation 's policies towards Jews. With Nazi Germany 's well - known attitude being extreme Antisemitism, Japan refrained from adopting any similar posture. On 31 December 1940, Japanese foreign minister Yōsuke Matsuoka, a strong proponent of the Tripartite Pact, told a group of Jewish businessmen:
I am the man responsible for the alliance with Hitler, but nowhere have I promised that we would carry out his anti-Semitic policies in Japan. This is not simply my personal opinion, it is the opinion of Japan, and I have no compunction about announcing it to the world.
On a similar note, both countries would continue to conceal any war crimes committed by the other side for the remainder of the war. The Holocaust was systematically concealed by the leadership in Tokyo, just as Japanese war crimes, e.g. the situation in China, were kept secret from the German public. An example would be the atrocities committed by the Japanese Army in Nanking in 1937, which were denounced by German industrialist John Rabe. Subsequently, the German leadership ordered Rabe back to Berlin, confiscating all his reports and prohibiting any further discussion of the topic.
After the signing of the Tripartite Pact, mutual visits of political and military nature increased. After German ace and parachute expert Ernst Udet visited Japan in 1939 to inspect the Japanese aerial forces, reporting to Hermann Göring that "Japanese flyers, though brave and willing, are no sky - beaters '', General Tomoyuki Yamashita was given the job of reorganizing the Japanese Air Arm in late 1940. For this purpose, Yamashita arrived in Berlin in January 1941, staying almost six months. He inspected the broken Maginot Line and German fortifications on the French coast, watched German flyers in training, and even flew in a raid over Britain after decorating Hermann Göring, head of the German Luftwaffe, with the Japanese "Grand Cordon of the Rising Sun ''. General Yamashita also met and talked with Hitler, on whom he commented,
I felt, that in the mind of Hitler there was much of spiritual matters, transcending material plans. When I met the Führer he said that since boyhood he had been attracted by Japan. He read carefully reports of Japan 's victory over Russia when he was only 17 years old and was impressed by Japan 's astonishing strength.
According to Yamashita, Hitler promised to remember Japan in his will, by instructing the Germans "to bind themselves eternally to the Japanese spirit. '' In fact, General Yamashita was so excited that he said: "In a short time, something great will happen. You just watch and wait. '' Returning home, the Japanese delegation was accompanied by more than 250 German technicians, engineers and instructors. Soon, Japan 's Air Force was among the most powerful in the world.
On 11 November 1940, German -- Japanese relations, as well as Japan 's plans to expand southwards into South - East Asia, were decisively bolstered when the crew of the German auxiliary cruiser Atlantis boarded the British cargo ship SS Automedon. Fifteen bags of Top Secret mail for the British Far East Command were found, including naval intelligence reports containing the latest assessment of the Japanese Empire 's military strength in the Far East, along with details of Royal Air Force units, naval strength, and notes on Singapore 's defences. It painted a gloomy picture of British land and naval capabilities in the Far East, and declared that Britain was too weak to risk war with Japan. The mail reached the German embassy in Tokyo on 5 December, and was then hand - carried to Berlin via the Trans - Siberian railway. On the initiative of the German naval attaché Paul Wenneker, a copy was given to the Japanese; it provided valuable intelligence prior to their commencing hostilities against the Western Powers. The captain of the Atlantis, Bernhard Rogge, was rewarded for this with an ornate katana Samurai sword; the only other Germans honored were Hermann Göring and Field Marshal Erwin Rommel.
After reading the captured documents, on 7 January 1941 Japanese Admiral Yamamoto wrote to the Naval Minister asking whether, if Japan knocked out America, the remaining British and Dutch forces would be suitably weakened for the Japanese to deliver a deathblow. Thereby, Nanshin - ron, the concept of the Japanese Navy conducting a southern campaign quickly matured and gained further proponents.
Hitler, on the other hand, was concluding the preparations for "Operation Barbarossa '', the invasion of the Soviet Union. In order to directly or indirectly support his imminent eastward strike, the Führer had repeatedly suggested to Japan that it reconsider plans for an attack on the Soviet Far East throughout 1940 and 1941. In February 1941, as a result of Hitler 's insistence, General Oshima returned to Berlin as ambassador. On 5 March 1941, Wilhelm Keitel, chief of OKW issued "Basic Order Number 24 regarding Collaboration with Japan '':
On 18 March 1941, at a conference attended by Hitler, Alfred Jodl, Wilhelm Keitel and Erich Raeder, Admiral Raeder stated:
Japan must take steps to seize Singapore as soon as possible, since the opportunity will never again be as favorable (tie - up of the whole English Meet; unpreparedness of U.S.A. for war against Japan; inferiority of the United States Pacific Fleet in comparison with the Japanese). Japan is indeed making preparations for this action; but according to all declarations made by Japanese officers, she will only carry it out if Germany proceeds to land in England. Germany must, therefore, concentrate all her efforts on spurring Japan to act immediately. If Japan has Singapore, all other East Asiatic questions regarding the U.S.A. and England are thereby solved (Guam, Philippines, Borneo, Dutch East Indies). Japan wishes, if possible, to avoid war against the U.S.A. She can do so if she determinedly takes Singapore as soon as possible.
In talks involving Hitler, his foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop, his Japanese counterpart at that time, Yōsuke Matsuoka, as well as Berlin 's and Tokyo 's respective ambassadors, Eugen Ott and Hiroshi Ōshima, the German side then broadly hinted at, but never openly asked for, either invading the Soviet Union from the east or attacking Britain 's colonies in South - East Asia, thereby preoccupying and diverting the British Empire away from Europe and thus somewhat covering Germany 's back. Although Germany would have clearly favored Japan 's attacking the USSR, exchanges between the two allies were always kept overly formal and indirect, as shown in the following statement by Hitler to ambassador Ōshima (2 June 1941):
It would, of course, be up to Japan to act as it saw fit, but Japan 's cooperation in the fight against the Soviet Union would be welcomed if the (Japanese) advance to the south should run into difficulty because of supply and equipment.
Matsuoka, Ōshima and parts of the Japanese Imperial Army were proponents of Hokushin - ron, Japan 's go - north strategy aiming for a coordinated attack with Germany against the USSR and seizing East Siberia. But the Japanese army - dominated military leadership, namely persons like minister of war Hideki Tōjō, were constantly pressured by the Japanese Imperial Navy and, thus, a strong tendency towards "Nanshin '' existed already in 1940, meaning to go south and exploit the weakened European powers by occupying their resource - rich colonies in South - East Asia. In order to secure Japan 's back while expanding southwards and as a Soviet effort to demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany, the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact was signed in Moscow on 13 April 1941 by Matsuoka on his return trip from a visit to Berlin. Hitler, who was not informed in advance by the Japanese and considering the pact a ruse to stall, misinterpreted the diplomatic situation and thought that his attack on the USSR would bring a tremendous relief for Japan in East Asia and thereby a much stronger threat to American activities through Japanese interventions. As a consequence, Nazi Germany pressed forward with Operation Barbarossa, its attack on the Soviet Union, which started two months later on 22 June without any specific warning to its Axis partners.
Joseph Stalin had little faith in Japan 's commitment to neutrality even before the German attack, but he felt that the pact was important for its political symbolism, to reinforce a public affection for Germany. From Japan 's point of view the attack on Russia very nearly ruptured the Tripartite Pact on which the Empire was depending for Germany 's aid in maintaining good relations with Moscow so as to preclude any threat from Siberia. Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe felt betrayed because the Germans clearly trusted their Axis allies too little to warn them of Barbarossa, even though he had feared the worst since receiving an April report from Ōshima in Berlin that "Germany is confident she can defeat Russia and she is preparing to fight at any moment. '' Foreign minister Matsuoka on the other hand vividly tried to convince the Emperor, the cabinet as well as the army staff of an immediate attack on the Soviet Union. However, his colleagues rejected any such proposal, even regarding him as "Hitler 's office boy '' by now and pointed out to the fact that the Japanese army, with its light and medium tanks, had no intention of taking on Soviet tanks and aircraft until they could be certain that the Wehrmacht had smashed the Red Army to the brink of defeat.
Subsequently, Konoe removed Matsuoka from his cabinet and stepped up Japan 's negotiations with the US again, which still failed over the China and Indochina issues, however, and the American demand to Japan to withdraw from the Tripartite Pact in anticipation of any settlement. Without any perspective with respect to Washington, Matsuoka felt that his government had to reassure Germany of its loyalty to the pact. In Berlin, Ōshima was ordered to convey to the German foreign minister Ribbentrop that the "Japanese government have decided to secure ' points d'appui ' in French Indochina to enable further to strengthen her pressure on Great Britain and the United States of America, '' and to present this as a "valuable contribution to the common front '' by promising that "We Japanese are not going to sit on the fence while you Germans fight the Russians. ''
Over the first months, Germany 's advances in Soviet Russia were spectacular and Stalin 's need to transfer troops currently protecting South - East Siberia from a potential Japanese attack to the future defense of Moscow grew. Japan 's Kwantung Army in Manchuria was constantly kept in manoeuvres and, in talks with German foreign minister Ribbentrop, ambassador Oshima in Berlin repeatedly hinted at an "imminent Japanese attack '' against the USSR. In fact, however, the leadership in Tokyo at this time had in no way changed its mind and these actions were merely concerted to create the illusion of an eastern threat to the Soviet Union in an effort to bind its Siberian divisions. Unknown to Japan and Germany, however, Richard Sorge, a Soviet spy disguised as a German journalist working for Eugen Ott, the German ambassador in Tokyo, advised the Red Army on 14 September 1941, that the Japanese were not going to attack the Soviet Union until:
Toward the end of September 1941, Sorge transmitted information that Japan would not initiate hostilities against the USSR in the East, thereby freeing Red Army divisions stationed in Siberia for the defence of Moscow. In October 1941 Sorge was unmasked and arrested by the Japanese. Apparently, he was entirely trusted by the German ambassador Eugen Ott, and was allowed access to top secret cables from Berlin in the embassy in Tokyo. Eventually, this involvement would lead to Heinrich Georg Stahmer replacing Ott in January 1943. Sorge on the other hand would be executed in November 1944 and elevated to a national hero in the Soviet Union.
In September 1941 Japan began its southward expansion by expanding its military presence in Indochina ("securing ' points d'appui ' '') and decisively increased the number of stationed personnel and planes. This provoked the United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments to freeze Japanese assets, while the US (which supplied 80 percent of Japan 's oil) responded by placing a complete oil embargo on the Japanese Empire. As a result, Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in South - East Asia and its prosecution of the war against China, or seizing the natural resources it needed by force. The Japanese military did not consider the former an option as attacking Soviet Russia instead of expanding into South Asia had become a more and more unpopular choice since Japan 's humiliating defeat at the Battle of Khalkin Gol in 1939 and the final rejection of any near - term action in Siberia shortly after Germany began its invasion of the USSR. Moreover, many officers considered America 's oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. With the harsh oil sanctions imposed by the United States, the Japanese leadership was now even more determined to remain in China. Germany had refused to sell Japan the blueprints to make synthetic oil, so Japan 's only hope for oil was to invade the Dutch East Indies, which would result in war with the United States and Britain. To succeed the Japanese had to neutralize the powerful United States Pacific Fleet, so they could prevent it from interfering with future Japanese movements in South - East Asia and negotiate peace terms from a strong hand.
On 25 November 1941, Germany tried to further solidify the alliance against Soviet Russia by officially reviving the Anti-Comintern Pact of 1936, now joined by additional signatories, Hungary and Romania. However, with the Soviet troops around Moscow now being reinforced by East Siberian divisions, Germany 's offensive substantially slowed with the onset of the Russian winter in November and December 1941. In the face of his failing Blitzkrieg tactics, Hitler 's confidence in a successful and swift conclusion of the war diminished, especially with a US - supported Britain being a constant threat in the Reich 's western front. Furthermore, it was evident that the "neutrality '' which the US had superficially maintained to that point would soon change to an open and unlimited support of Britain against Germany. Hitler thus welcomed Japan 's sudden entry into the war with its air raid on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 and its subsequent declaration of war on the United States and Britain, just as the German army suffered its first military defeat at the gates of Moscow. Upon learning of Japan 's successful attack, Hitler even became euphoric, stating: "With such a capable ally we can not lose this war. '' Preceding Japan 's attack were numerous communiqués between Berlin and Tokyo. The respective ambassadors Ott and Ōshima tried to draft an amendment to the Tripartite Pact, in which Germany, Japan and Italy should pledge each other 's allegiance in the case one signatory is attacked by -- or attacks -- the United States. Although the protocol was finished in time, it would not be formally signed by Germany until four days after the raid on Pearl Harbor. Also among the communiqués was another definitive Japanese rejection of any war plans against Russia:
In case Germany demands that we participate in the war against the Soviet Union, we will respond that we do not intend to join the war for the time being. If this should lead to a situation whereby Germany will delay her entry into the war against the United States, it can not be helped.
Nevertheless, publicly the German leadership applauded their new ally and ambassador Ōshima became one of only eight recipients of the Grand Cross of the Order of the German Eagle in Gold, which was awarded by Hitler himself, who reportedly said:
You gave the right declaration of war. This method is the only proper one. Japan pursued it formerly and it corresponds with his own system, that is, to negotiate as long as possible. But if one sees that the other is interested only in putting one off, in shaming and humiliating one, and is not willing to come to an agreement, then one should strike as hard as possible, and not waste time declaring war.
Although the amendment to the Tripartite Pact was not yet in force, Hitler chose to declare war on the United States and ordered the Reichstag, along with Italy, to do so on 11 December 1941, three days after the United States ' declaration of war on the Empire of Japan. His hopes that, despite the previous rejections, Japan would reciprocally attack the Soviet Union, were not realized, as Japan stuck to its Nanshin strategy of going south, not north, and would continue to maintain an uneasy peace with the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, Germany 's declaration of war further solidified German -- Japanese relations and showed Germany 's solidarity with Japan, which was now encouraged to cooperate against the British. To some degree, Japan 's actions in South - East Asia and the Pacific in the months after Pearl Harbor, including the sinking of the HMS Prince of Wales and the HMS Repulse, the occupation of the Crown Colonies of Singapore, Hong Kong, and British Burma, and the air raids on Australia, were a tremendous blow to the United Kingdom 's war effort and preoccupied the Allies, shifting British (including Australian) and American assets away from the Battle of the Atlantic and the North African Campaign against Germany to Asia and the Pacific against Japan. In this context, sizeable forces of the British Empire were withdrawn from North Africa to the Pacific theatre with their replacements being only relatively inexperienced and thinly spread divisions. Taking advantage of this situation, Erwin Rommel 's Afrika Korps successfully attacked only six weeks after Pearl Harbor, eventually pushing the allied lines as far east as El Alamein.
Until the attack on the Soviet Union, Germany and Japan were able to exchange materials and personnel using the Trans - Siberian Railway. Afterwards, submarines had to be sent on so - called "Yanagi '' (Willow) -- missions, since the American and British navies rendered the high seas too dangerous for Axis surface cargo ships. However, given the limited capacities of submarines, eyes were soon focused directly on the Mediterranean, the Middle East and British India, all vital to the British war effort. In the long run, Germany and Japan envisioned a partnered linkage running across the British - held Indian subcontinent that would allow for the transfer of weaponry and resources as well as potential joint military operations. After all, the choice of potential trading partners was very limited during the war and Germany was anxious for rubber and precious metals, while the Japanese sought industrial products, technical equipment, and chemical goods. By August 1942 the German advances in North Africa rendered an offensive against Alexandria and the Suez Canal feasible, which, in turn, had the potential of enabling maritime trade between Europe and Japan through the Indian Ocean. On the other hand, in the face of its defeat at the Battle of Midway in June 1942 with the loss of four aircraft carriers, the Japanese Navy decided to pursue all possibilities of gaining additional resources to quickly rebuild its forces. As a consequence, Ambassador Ōshima in Berlin was ordered to submit an extensive "wish list '' requesting the purchase of vast amounts of steel and aluminium to be shipped from Germany to Japan. German Foreign Minister Ribbentrop quickly dismissed Tokyo 's proposal, since those resources were vital for Germany 's own industry. However, in order to gain Japanese backing for a new German - Japanese trade treaty, which should also secure the rights of German companies in South - East Asia, he asked Hitler to at least partially agree upon the Japanese demands. It took another five months of arguing over the Reichsmark - Yen - exchange rate and additional talks with the third signatory, the Italian government, until the "Treaty on Economic Cooperation '' was signed on 20 January 1943.
Despite this treaty, the envisioned German - Japanese economic relations were never able to grow beyond mostly propagandistic status. The British kept control of the Suez Canal and submarines with very small cargo capability remained the main method of contact. With the loss of North Africa and the heavy defeat at Stalingrad, Germany was in a defensive posture by early 1943, and never regained the initiative.
Japan was being outproduced in carriers and was unable to launch any offensives after its defeat at Midway in June 1942. It was overextended and could not even feed its garrisons on islands across the Pacific. Tokyo 's plan of conquering the Solomons at Australia 's doorstep turned into a continuous retreat for the Japanese of which the defeat on Guadalcanal in early 1943 marked the beginning. Japan 's invasion of India had been halted at Imphal and Kohima, rendering impossible any joint operations against India.
With submarines remaining practically the only link between Nazi - controlled Europe and Japan, trade was soon focused on strategic goods such as technical plans and weapon templates. Only 20 -- 40 % of goods managed to reach either destination and merely 96 persons travelled by submarine from Europe to Japan and 89 vice versa during the war as only six submarines succeeded in their attempts of the trans - oceanic voyage: I - 30 (April 1942), I - 8 (June 1943), I - 34 (October 1943), I - 29 (December 1943), I - 52 (March 1944), and the German submarine U-511 (August 1943). Before I - 29 embarked on her voyage to German - occupied France in December 1943, she had rendezvoused with the German submarine U-180 during an earlier mission to the Indian Ocean. During this meeting on 28 April 1943, Indian freedom fighter Subhas Chandra Bose transferred to I - 29, thereby becoming the only civilian exchange between two submarines of two different navies in World War II. U-234 on the other hand is one of the most popular examples of an aborted Yanagi mission in May 1945. Amongst others, her cargo included examples of the newest electric torpedoes, one crated Me 262 jet aircraft, a Henschel Hs 293 glide bomb, and 560 kg of uranium oxide. Whether the uranium was weapons - grade material has not yet been clarified, however.
On rare occasions, German surface ships were able to reach Japan as well. These included auxiliary cruisers Michel and Thor, which were brought to Yokohama after the Kriegsmarine chiefs realized in the late 1942 that it would not practical for them to return to Germany - controlled European ports. German supply ships (Uckermark) and foreign ships captured by German merchant raiders would come to Japanese ports as well.
In the face of their failing war plans, Japanese and German representatives more and more began to deceive each other at tactical briefings by exaggerating minor victories and deemphasizing losses. In several talks in spring and summer 1943 between Generaloberst Alfred Jodl and the Japanese naval attaché in Berlin, Vice Admiral Naokuni Nomura, Jodl downplayed the afore described defeats of the German Army, e.g. by claiming the Soviet offensive would soon run out of steam and that "anywhere the Wehrmacht can be sent on land, it is sure of its untertaking, but where it has to be taken over sea, it becomes somewhat more difficult. '' Japan, on the other hand, not only evaded any disclosure of its true strategic position in the Pacific, but also declined any interference in American shipments being unloaded at Vladivostok and large numbers of men and amounts of material being transported from East Siberia to the German front in the west. Being forced to watch the continued reinforcement of Soviet troops from the east without any Japanese intervention was a thorn in Hitler 's flesh, especially considering Japan 's apparent ignorance with respect to the recent Casablanca Conference at which the Allies declared only to accept the unconditional surrenders of the Axis nations. During a private briefing on 5 March 1943, Hitler remarked:
They lie right to your face and in the end all their depictions are calculated on something which turns out to be a deceit afterwards!
As the war progressed and Germany began to retreat further, Japanese ambassador Ōshima never wavered in his confidence that Germany would emerge victorious. However, in March 1945 he reported to Tokyo on the "danger of Berlin becoming a battlefield '' and revealing a fear "that the abandonment of Berlin may take place another month ''. On 13 April, he met with Ribbentrop -- for the last time, it turned out -- and vowed to stand with the leaders of the Third Reich in their hour of crisis but had to leave Berlin at once by Hitler 's direct order. On 7 and 8 May 1945, as the German government surrendered to the Allied powers, Ōshima and his staff were taken into custody and brought to the United States. Now fighting an even more hopeless war, the Japanese government immediately denounced the German surrender as an act of treason and interned the few German individuals as well as confiscated all German property (such as submarines) in Japanese territory at the time. Four months later, on 2 September, Japan had to sign its own surrender documents.
After the Second World War was officially concluded with the capitulation of the Empire of Japan, plans for trying the major German and Japanese war criminals were quickly implemented in 1946. While Japanese officials had to face the Tokyo Trials, major German war crimes were dealt with at the Nuremberg Trials. Here it was the goal of the Allied prosecutors to portray the limited cooperation between the Third Reich and Imperial Japan as a long - planned conspiracy to divide the world among the two Axis - partners and thereby delivering just another demonstration of the common viciousness expressed by alleged joint long - term war plans.
The Nazi plans of aggression called for use of Asiatic allies and they found among the Japanese men of kindred mind and purpose. They were brothers, under the skin.
According to modern historic research, however, such a conspiracy did not exist and is considered Allied propaganda. Although there was a limited and cautious military cooperation between Japan and Germany during the Second World War, no documents corroborating any long - term planning or real coordination of military operations of both powers exist.
After their defeat in World War II, both Japan and Germany were occupied. Japan regained its sovereignty with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952 and joined the United Nations in 1956. Germany was split into two states. It was agreed in 1951 to take up diplomatic relations between Japan and the Federal Republic of (West Germany) again. The bilateral diplomatic ties between West Germany and Japan were fully restored in 1955; between East Germany and Japan in 1973, the year both German states became UN-members.
Beginning in the 1950s, Japanese companies sought to acquire needed raw materials like steel and chemical products in the German Ruhr region, with a small Japanese business community in Düsseldorf. In 1974, West Germany and Japan signed an intergovernmental agreement on cooperation in science and technology, re-intensifying joint scientific endeavours and technological exchange. The accord resulted in numerous projects, generally focused on marine research and geosciences, life sciences and environmental research. Additionally, youth exchange programs were launched, including a "Youth Summit '' held annually since 1974.
German - Japanese political dealings were enlarged with both countries taking part in the creation of the so - called Group of Six, or simply "G6 '', together with the US, the UK, France and Italy in 1975 as a response to the 1973 oil crisis. The G6 was soon expanded by Canada and later Russia, with G6 -, G7 -, and later G8 -, summits being held annually since then.
Over the following years, institutions, such as in 1985 the "Japanese -- German Center '' (JDZB) in Berlin and in 1988 the German Institute for Japanese Studies (DIJ) in Tokyo, were founded to further contribute to the academic and scientific exchange between Japan and Germany.
Around the mid-1980s, German and Japanese representatives decided to rebuild the old Japanese embassy in Berlin from 1938. Its remains had remained unused after the building was largely destroyed during World War II. In addition to the original complex, several changes and additions were made until 2000, like moving the main entrance to the Hiroshima Street, which was named in honour of the Japanese city, and the creation of a traditional Japanese Garden.
Post-war relations between Japan and both Germanies, as well as with unified Germany since 1990, have generally focused on economic and business questions. Germany, dedicated to free trade, continues to be Japan 's largest trading partner within Europe. This general posture is also reflected in the so - called "7 pillars of cooperation '' agreed on by Foreign Minister of Japan Yōhei Kōno and Foreign Minister of Germany Joschka Fischer on 30 October 2000:
In 2000, bilateral cultural exchange culminated in the "Japan in Germany '' year, which was then followed by the "Germany in Japan '' year in 2005 / 2006. Also in 2005, the annual German Film Festival in Tokyo was brought into being.
In 2004, German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi agreed upon cooperations in the assistance for reconstruction of Iraq and Afghanistan, the promotion of economic exchange activities, youth and sports exchanges as well as exchanges and cooperation in science, technology and academic fields.
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Germany and Japan, being the United Nations ' second and third largest funders respectively, demanded a reform of the United Nations Security Council and an increase of the number of its permanent members. For this purpose both nations organized themselves together with Brazil and India to form the so - called "G4 nations ''. On 21 September 2004, the G4 issued a joint statement mutually backing each other 's claim to permanent seats, together with two African countries. This proposal has found opposition in a group of countries called Uniting for Consensus. In January 2006, Japan announced that it would not support putting the G4 resolution back on the table and was working on a resolution of its own.
Certain inefficiencies with respect to the bilateral cooperation between Germany and Japan were also reflected in 2005, when former Japanese Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa wrote in a commemoration to the 20th anniversary of the Japanese - German Center in Berlin that
the German - Japanese relations are generally good and there are no particular bilateral problems. This results in a certain indifference, which may be considered a problem by now.
Nevertheless, as of 2008, Japan still was Germany 's second largest trading partner in Asia after China. In 2006, German imports from Japan totaled € 15.6 billion and German exports to Japan € 14.2 billion (15.4 % and 9 % more than the previous year, respectively). In 2008, however, Japanese exports and imports to and from the European Union fell by 7.8 and 4.8 % after growing by 5.8 % in 2007 due to the global financial crisis. Bilateral trade between Germany and Japan also shrank in 2008, with imports from Japan having dropped by 6.6 % and German exports to Japan having declined by 5.5 %. Despite Japan having remained Germany 's principal trading partner in Asia after China in 2008, measured in terms of total German foreign trade, Japan 's share of both exports and imports is relatively low and falls well short of the potential between the world 's third - and fifth - largest economies.
Unaffected by any stagnating German - Japanese trade relations, the Japanese community in Düsseldorf, home to Europe 's largest Japantown, is growing again after a decline in the 1980s and 1990s. In 2008, over 8000 Japanese lived in the Düsseldorf area, which features a Japanese school, two kindergartens, three libraries and numerous Japanese clubs. Moreover, over 200 Japanese companies are active in that region, creating over 20,000 jobs. The Japanese community is widely considered a great asset for Düsseldorf.
On 14 and 15 January 2010, German foreign minister Guido Westerwelle conducted his personal inaugural visit to Japan, focusing the talks with his Japanese counterpart, Katsuya Okada, on both nation 's bilateral relations and global issues. Westerwelle emphasized, that
We want to make our joint contribution towards ensuring that this decade is a decade of disarmament -- not a decade of armament
and both ministers instructed their Ministries to draw up disarmament initiatives and strategies which Berlin and Tokyo can present to the international community together. Especially with regard to Iran 's nuclear program, it was also stressed that Japan and Germany, both technically capable of and yet refraining from possessing any ABC weapons, should assume a leading role in realizing a world free of nuclear weapons and that international sanctions are considered to be an appropriate instrument of pressure. Furthermore, Westerwelle and Okada agreed to enhance cooperation in Afghanistan and to step up the stagnating bilateral trade between both countries. The visit was concluded in talks with Japan 's Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama, before which the German foreign minister visited the famous Meiji Shrine in the heart of Tokyo.
On Friday 11 March 2011, the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, the most powerful known earthquake to hit Japan at the time, and one of the five most powerful recorded earthquakes of which Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan said, "In the 65 years after the end of World War II, this is the toughest and the most difficult crisis for Japan. '' hit Honshu. The earthquake and the resulting tsunami not only devastated wide coastal areas in Miyagi Prefecture but also caused the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster triggering a widespread permanent evacuation surrounding the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant. German chancellor Angela Merkel immediately expressed her deepest sympathy to all those affected and promised Japan any assistance it would call for. As a consequence rescue specialists from the Technisches Hilfswerk as well as a scout team of I.S.A.R. Germany (International Search and Rescue) were sent to Japan, however parts of the German personnel had to be recalled due to radiation danger near the damaged power plant. Furthermore, the German Aerospace Center provided TerraSAR - X - and RapidEye - satellite imagery of the affected area. In the days after the disaster, numerous flowers, candles and paper cranes were placed in front of the Japanese embassy in Berlin by compassionates, including leading German politicians. Though never materialised, additional proposals for aid included sending special units of the German Bundeswehr to Japan, as the German Armed Forces ' decontamination equipment belongs to the most sophisticated in the world.
On 2 April 2011, German Foreign Minister Westerwelle visited Tokyo on an Asia voyage, again offering Japan "all help, where it is needed '' to recover from the tsunami and subsequent nuclear disaster of the previous month. Westerwelle also emphasised the importance of making progress with a free trade agreement between Japan and the European Union in order to accelerate the recovery of the Japanese economy. Together with his German counterpart, Japanese foreign minister Takeaki Matsumoto also addressed potential new fields of cooperation between Tokyo and Berlin with respect to a reform of the United Nations Security Council.
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when does the national league fixtures come out | 2018 -- 19 National League - wikipedia
The 2018 -- 19 National League season, known as the Vanarama National League for sponsorship reasons, is the fourth season under English football 's new title of National League, fifteenth season consisting of three divisions and the fortieth season overall.
The National League covers the top two levels of non-League football in England. The National League is the fifth highest level of the overall pyramid, while the National League North and National League South exist at the sixth level. The top team and the winner of the play - off of the Premier division will be promoted to English Football League Two, while the bottom four are relegated to the North or South divisions. The champions of the North and South divisions will be promoted to the Premier division, alongside the play - off winners from each division. The bottom four in each of the North and South divisions are relegated to the premier divisions of the Northern Premier League, Southern Football League (Central or Eastern) or Isthmian League.
The National League consists of 24 clubs.
The following clubs changed divisions after the 2017 -- 18 season:
Despite a 2 - 1 defeat to Boston United on 21 April 2018, Salford City became 2017 - 18 National League North champions after Harrogate Town lost 3 -- 1 to Bradford Park Avenue. Havant & Waterlooville were crowned 2017 - 18 National League South champions on 28 April 2018 after a 3 - 2 victory over Concord Rangers. On 13 May 2018, Harrogate Town were promoted after a 3 - 0 win against Brackley Town in the 2017 - 18 National League North playoff final. All three teams will play in the National League for the first time in their History. On the same day as Harrogate 's promotion, Braintree Town were also promoted after beating Hampton & Richmond 4 - 3 on penalites after a 1 - 1 draw in the 2017 - 18 National League South playoff final, securing an instant return to the National League.
On 24 April 2018, after 97 years as an EFL club, Chesterfield were relegated to the National League following Morecambe 's 0 - 0 draw against Cambridge United. On 5 May 2018, despite a 3 - 0 victory against Chesterfield, Barnet became the second club to be relegated from League Two following Morecambe 's 0 - 0 draw against Coventry City, ending their three year stay in the EFL.
These teams will replace Macclesfield Town, Tranmere Rovers, Chester, Guiseley, Torquay United & Woking. Macclesfield Town were crowned 2017 - 18 National League champions and promoted to League Two on 21 April 2018 after a 2 - 0 victory over Eastleigh, ending their six - year absence from the EFL. Tranmere Rovers were promoted to League Two on 12 May 2018 after a 2 - 1 victory over Boreham Wood in the 2017 - 18 National League playoff final and returned to the EFL after a three - year absence.
Chester were the first team to be relegated from National League on 8 April 2018 after a 2 -- 0 loss to Tranmere Rovers. Despite staying up on the final day for the past two seasons, it was not to be third time lucky for Guiseley who joined them on 17 April 2018 after a 1 - 0 loss to relegation rivals Barrow. Torquay United became the third team to be relegated from the National league on 21 April 2018 after a 1 - 1 draw with Hartlepool United, confirming the clubs first ever relegation to the Sixth Tier. The fourth and final team to suffer relegation was Woking, who were relegated on 28 April 2018 following a 2 - 1 defeat to Dover Athletic, ending their five year stay in the National League.
Promoted from National League North
Promoted from National League South
Relegated from League Two
Promoted to League Two
Relegated to National League North
Relegated to National League South
Bernard Morley
Promoted from Northern Premier League Premier Division
Promoted from Southern Football League Premier Division
Relegated from National League
Relegated to Northern Premier League Premier Division
Relegated to 2018 -- 19 Southern League Premier Division Central
Promoted to National League
The National League South consisted of 22 clubs.
Promoted from Southern Football League Premier Division
Promoted from Isthmian League
Relegated from National League
Relegated to Isthmian League Premier Division
Relegated to Southern Football League South Division
Promoted to National League
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who played tom hanks daughter in apollo 13 | Apollo 13 (film) - wikipedia
Apollo 13 is a 1995 American space docudrama film directed by Ron Howard and starring Tom Hanks, Kevin Bacon, Bill Paxton, Gary Sinise, and Ed Harris. The screenplay by William Broyles, Jr. and Al Reinert, that dramatizes the aborted 1970 Apollo 13 lunar mission, is an adaptation of the book Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13 by astronaut Jim Lovell and Jeffrey Kluger. The film depicts astronauts Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise aboard Apollo 13 for America 's third Moon landing mission. En route, an on - board explosion deprives their spacecraft of most of its oxygen supply and electric power, forcing NASA 's flight controllers to abort the Moon landing, and turning the mission into a struggle to get the three men home safely.
Howard went to great lengths to create a technically accurate movie, employing NASA 's technical assistance in astronaut and flight controller training for his cast, and obtaining permission to film scenes aboard a reduced gravity aircraft for realistic depiction of the "weightlessness '' experienced by the astronauts in space.
Released to cinemas in the United States on June 30, 1995, Apollo 13 was nominated for nine Academy Awards, including Best Picture (winning for Best Film Editing and Best Sound). In total, the film grossed over $355 million worldwide during its theatrical releases. The film was very positively received by critics.
In July 1969, astronaut Jim Lovell hosts a house party where guests watch Neil Armstrong 's televised first human steps on the Moon. Afterwards Lovell, who had orbited the Moon on Apollo 8, tells his wife Marilyn that he intends to return to the Moon to walk on its surface.
Three months later, as Lovell conducts a VIP tour of NASA 's Vertical Assembly Building, his boss Deke Slayton informs him that because of problems with Alan Shepard 's crew, his crew will fly Apollo 13 instead of 14. Lovell, Ken Mattingly, and Fred Haise train for their new mission. A few days before launch, Mattingly is exposed to the measles, and the flight surgeon demands his replacement with Mattingly 's backup, Jack Swigert. Lovell resists breaking up his team, but relents when Slayton threatens to bump his crew to a later mission. As the launch date approaches, Marilyn has a nightmare about her husband getting killed in space, but goes to the Kennedy Space Center the night before launch to see him off.
On April 11, 1970, Flight Director Gene Kranz gives the go - ahead from Houston 's Mission Control Center for the Apollo 13 launch. As the Saturn V rocket climbs through the atmosphere, a second stage engine cuts off prematurely, but the craft reaches its Earth parking orbit. After the third stage fires to send Apollo 13 to the Moon, Swigert performs the maneuver to connect the Command / Service Module Odyssey to the Lunar Module Aquarius and pull it away from the spent rocket.
Three days into the mission, the crew makes a television transmission, which the networks decline to broadcast live. After Swigert turns on the liquid oxygen tank stirring fans as requested, one of the tanks explodes, emptying its contents into space and sending the craft tumbling. The other tank is soon found to be leaking. They attempt to stop the leak by shutting off fuel cells # 1 and # 3, but to no avail. With the fuel cells closed, the Moon landing must be aborted, and Lovell and Haise must hurriedly power up Aquarius to use as a "lifeboat '' for the return home, as Swigert shuts down Odyssey before its battery power runs out. In Houston, Kranz rallies his team to come up with a plan to bring the astronauts home safely, declaring "failure is not an option ''. Controller John Aaron recruits Mattingly to help him invent a procedure to restart Odyssey for the landing on Earth.
As Swigert and Haise watch the Moon pass beneath them, Lovell laments his lost chance of walking on its surface, then turns their attention to the business of getting home. With Aquarius running on minimal electrical power, the crew suffers freezing conditions, and Haise contracts a urinary infection and a fever. Swigert suspects Mission Control is withholding their inability to get them home; Haise angrily blames Swigert 's inexperience for the accident; and Lovell quickly squelches the argument. When carbon dioxide approaches dangerous levels, ground control must quickly invent a way to make the Command Module 's square filters work in the Lunar Module 's round receptacles. With the guidance systems on Aquarius shut down, the crew must make a difficult but vital course correction by manually igniting the Lunar Module 's engine.
Mattingly and Aaron struggle to find a way to turn on the Command Module systems without drawing too much power, and finally transmit the procedure to Swigert, who restarts Odyssey by transferring extra power from Aquarius. When the crew jettisons the Service Module, they are surprised to see the extent of the damage. As they release Aquarius and re-enter the Earth 's atmosphere, no one is sure that Odyssey 's heat shield is intact. The tense period of radio silence due to ionization blackout is longer than normal, but the astronauts report all is well and splash down in the Pacific Ocean.
As helicopters bring the three men aboard the recovery ship USS Iwo Jima for a hero 's welcome, Lovell 's voice - over describes the subsequent investigation into the explosion, and the careers of Haise, Swigert, Mattingly, and Kranz. He wonders if and when mankind will return to the Moon.
The real Jim Lovell appears as captain of the recovery ship USS Iwo Jima; Howard had intended to make him an admiral, but Lovell himself, having retired as a captain, chose to appear in his actual rank. Horror film director Roger Corman, a mentor of Howard, appears as a congressman being given a VIP tour by Lovell of the Vehicle Assembly Building, as it had become something of a tradition for Corman to make a cameo appearance in his protégés ' films. The real Marilyn Lovell appeared among the spectators during the launch sequence. CBS News anchor Walter Cronkite appears in archive news footage and can be heard in newly recorded announcements, some of which he edited himself to sound more authentic.
In addition to his brother, Clint Howard, several other members of Ron Howard 's family appear in the movie:
Brad Pitt was offered a role in the film, but turned it down to star in Se7en. Reportedly, the real Pete Conrad expressed interest in appearing in the film.
Jeffrey Kluger appears as a television reporter.
The screenplay by William Broyles, Jr. and Al Reinert was rewritten by John Sayles after Hanks had been cast and construction of the spacecraft sets had begun.
While planning the film, director Ron Howard decided that every shot of the film would be original and that no mission footage would be used. The spacecraft interiors were constructed by the Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center 's Space Works, which also restored the Apollo 13 Command Module. Two individual Lunar Modules and two Command Modules were constructed for filming. While each was a replica, composed of some of the original Apollo materials, they were built so that different sections were removable, which enabled filming to take place inside the capsules. Space Works also built modified Command and Lunar Modules for filming inside a Boeing KC - 135 reduced - gravity aircraft, and the pressure suits worn by the actors, which are exact reproductions of those worn by the Apollo astronauts, right down to the detail of being airtight. When the actors put the suits on with their helmets locked in place, air was pumped into the suits to cool them down and allow them to breathe, exactly as in launch preparations for the real Apollo missions.
The real Mission Control Center consisted of two control rooms located on the second and third floors of Building 30 at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. NASA offered the use of the control room for filming, but Howard declined, opting instead to make his own replica from scratch. Production designer Michael Corenblith and set decorator Merideth Boswell were in charge of the construction of the Mission Control set at Universal Studios. The set was equipped with giant rear - screen projection capabilities and a complex set of computers with individual video feeds to all the flight controller stations. The actors playing the flight controllers were able to communicate with each other on a private audio loop. The Mission Control room built for the film was on the ground floor. One NASA employee, who was a consultant for the film, said that the set was so realistic that he would leave at the end of the day and look for the elevator before remembering he was not in Mission Control. By the time the film was made, the USS Iwo Jima had been scrapped, so her sister ship, the USS New Orleans, was used as the recovery ship instead.
-- Tom Hanks
Howard anticipated difficulty in portraying weightlessness in a realistic manner. He discussed this with Steven Spielberg, who suggested using a KC - 135 airplane, which can be flown in such a way as to create about 23 seconds of weightlessness, a method NASA has always used to train its astronauts for space flight. Howard obtained NASA 's permission and assistance in filming in the realistic conditions aboard multiple KC - 135 flights.
In Los Angeles, Ed Harris and all the actors portraying flight controllers enrolled in a Flight Controller School led by Gerry Griffin, an Apollo 13 flight director, and flight controller Jerry Bostick. The actors studied audiotapes from the mission, reviewed hundreds of pages of NASA transcripts, and attended a crash course in physics. Astronaut Dave Scott was impressed with their efforts, stating that each actor was determined to make every scene technically correct, word for word.
The score to Apollo 13 was composed and conducted by James Horner. The soundtrack was released in 1995 by MCA Records and has seven tracks of score, eight period songs used in the film, and seven tracks of dialogue by the actors at a running time of nearly seventy - eight minutes. The music also features solos by vocalist Annie Lennox and Tim Morrison on the trumpet. The score was a critical success and garnered Horner an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score.
All music composed by James Horner, except where noted.
The film was released on June 30, 1995 in North America and on September 22, 1995 in the UK.
In September 2002 the film was re-released in IMAX. It was the first film to be digitally remastered using IMAX DMR technology.
The film was a box - office success, bringing in $355,237,933 worldwide. The film 's widest release was 2,347 theaters. The film 's opening weekend and the following two weeks placed it at # 1 with a US gross of $25,353,380, which made up 14.7 % of the total US gross.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that the film has an overall approval rating of 95 %, based on 85 reviews, with a weighted average rating of 8.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "In recreating the troubled space mission, Apollo 13 pulls no punches: it 's a masterfully told drama from director Ron Howard, bolstered by an ensemble of solid performances. '' Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews from mainstream critics, gave the film an average score of 77 out of 100, based on 22 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times praised the film in his review saying: "A powerful story, one of the year 's best films, told with great clarity and remarkable technical detail, and acted without pumped - up histrionics. '' Richard Corliss from Time highly praised the film, saying: "From lift - off to splashdown, Apollo 13 gives one hell of a ride. '' Edward Guthmann of San Francisco Chronicle gave a mixed review and wrote: "I just wish that Apollo 13 worked better as a movie, and that Howard 's threshold for corn, mush and twinkly sentiment were n't so darn wide. '' Peter Travers from Rolling Stone praised the film and wrote: "Howard lays off the manipulation to tell the true story of the near - fatal 1970 Apollo 13 mission in painstaking and lively detail. It 's easily Howard 's best film. '' Movie Room Reviews said "This film is arguably one of the most dramatic and horrendous spaceflight stories ever told. ''
Janet Maslin made the film an NYT Critics ' Pick, calling it an "absolutely thrilling '' film that "unfolds with perfect immediacy, drawing viewers into the nail - biting suspense of a spellbinding true story. '' According to Maslin, "like Quiz Show, Apollo 13 beautifully evokes recent history in ways that resonate strongly today. Cleverly nostalgic in its visual style (Rita Ryack 's costumes are especially right), it harks back to movie making without phony heroics and to the strong spirit of community that enveloped the astronauts and their families. Amazingly, this film manages to seem refreshingly honest while still conforming to the three - act dramatic format of a standard Hollywood hit. It is far and away the best thing Mr. Howard has done (and Far and Away was one of the other kind). '' The academic critic Raymond Malewitz focuses on the DIY aspects of the "mailbox '' filtration system to illustrate the emergence of an unlikely hero in late 20th - century American culture -- "the creative, improvisational, but restrained thinker -- who replaces the older prodigal cowboy heroes of American mythology and provides the country a better, more frugal example of an appropriate ' husband '. ''
Ron Howard stated that, after the first test preview of the film, one of the comment cards indicated "total disdain ''; the audience member had written that it was a "typical Hollywood '' ending and that the crew would never have survived. Marilyn Lovell praised Quinlan 's portrayal of her, stating she felt she could feel what Quinlan 's character was going through, and remembered how she felt in her mind.
A 10th - anniversary DVD of the film was released in 2005; it included both the theatrical version and the IMAX version, along with several extras. The IMAX version has a 1.66: 1 aspect ratio.
In 2006, Apollo 13 was released on HD DVD and on April 13, 2010 it was released on Blu - ray disc as the 15th - anniversary edition on the 40th anniversary of the Apollo 13 accident. The Film was released on 4K UHD Blu - Ray on October 17, 2017.
The film depicts the crew hearing a bang quickly after Swigert followed directions from mission control to stir the oxygen and hydrogen tanks. In reality, the crew heard the bang 93 seconds later.
The film portrays the Saturn V launch vehicle being rolled out to the launch pad two days before launch. In reality, the launch vehicle was rolled out on the mobile launch platform using the crawler - transporter weeks before the launch date.
The movie depicts Swigert and Haise arguing about who was at fault. The show The Real Story: Apollo 13 broadcast on the Smithsonian Channel includes Haise stating that no such argument took place and that there was no way anyone could have foreseen that stirring the tank would cause problems.
The dialogue between ground control and the astronauts was taken nearly verbatim from transcripts and recordings, with the exception of one of the taglines of the film, "Houston, we have a problem. '' (This quote was voted # 50 on the list "AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes ''.) According to the mission transcript, the actual words uttered by Jack Swigert were "Hey, we 've got a problem here '' (talking over Haise, who had started "Okay, Houston ''). Ground control responded by saying "This is Houston, say again please. '' Jim Lovell then repeated, "Houston, we 've had a problem. ''
One other incorrect dialogue is after the re-entry blackout. In the movie, Tom Hanks (as Lovell) says "Hello Houston... this is Odyssey... it 's good to see you again. '' In the actual re-entry, the Command Module 's transmission was finally acquired by a Sikorsky SH - 3D Sea King recovery aircraft which then relayed communications to Mission Control. CAPCOM and fellow astronaut Joe Kerwin (not Mattingly, who serves as CAPCOM in this scene in the movie) then made a call to the spacecraft "Odyssey, Houston standing by. Over. '' Jack Swigert, not Lovell, replied "Okay, Joe, '' and unlike in the movie, this was well before the parachutes deployed; the celebrations depicted at Mission Control were triggered by visual confirmation of their deployment.
The tagline "Failure is not an option '', stated in the film by Gene Kranz, also became very popular, but was not taken from the historical transcripts. The following story relates the origin of the phrase, from an e-mail by Apollo 13 Flight Dynamics Officer Jerry Bostick:
As far as the expression "Failure is not an option, '' you are correct that Kranz never used that term. In preparation for the movie, the script writers, Al Reinart and Bill Broyles, came down to Clear Lake to interview me on "What are the people in Mission Control really like? '' One of their questions was "Were n't there times when everybody, or at least a few people, just panicked? '' My answer was "No, when bad things happened, we just calmly laid out all the options, and failure was not one of them. We never panicked, and we never gave up on finding a solution. '' I immediately sensed that Bill Broyles wanted to leave and assumed that he was bored with the interview. Only months later did I learn that when they got in their car to leave, he started screaming, "That 's it! That 's the tag line for the whole movie, Failure is not an option. Now we just have to figure out who to have say it. '' Of course, they gave it to the Kranz character, and the rest is history.
In the film, Flight Director Gene Kranz and his White Team are portrayed as managing all of the essential parts of the flight, from liftoff to landing. Consequently, the actual role of the other flight directors and teams, especially Glynn Lunney and his Black Team, were neglected. In fact, it was Flight Director Lunney and his Black Team who got Apollo 13 through its most critical period in the hours immediately after the explosion, including the mid-course correction that sent Apollo 13 on a "free return '' trajectory around the Moon and back to the Earth. Astronaut Ken Mattingly, who was replaced as Apollo 13 Command Module Pilot at the last minute by Jack Swigert, later said:
If there was a hero, Glynn Lunney was, by himself, a hero, because when he walked in the room, I guarantee you, nobody knew what the hell was going on. Glynn walked in, took over this mess, and he just brought calm to the situation. I 've never seen such an extraordinary example of leadership in my entire career. Absolutely magnificent. No general or admiral in wartime could ever be more magnificent than Glynn was that night. He and he alone brought all of the scared people together. And you 've got to remember that the flight controllers in those days were -- they were kids in their thirties. They were good, but very few of them had ever run into these kinds of choices in life, and they were n't used to that. All of a sudden, their confidence had been shaken. They were faced with things that they did n't understand, and Glynn walked in there, and he just kind of took charge.
A DVD commentary track, recorded by Jim and Marilyn Lovell and included with both DVD versions, mentions several inaccuracies included in the film, all done for reasons of artistic license:
-- Jim Lovell, on the real reason for the delay in replying after Apollo 13 's four - minute re-entry into Earth 's atmosphere
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
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what happened to the dog in i am legend | I Am Legend (film) - Wikipedia
I Am Legend is a 2007 American post-apocalyptic science fiction horror film based on the novel of the same name, directed by Francis Lawrence and starring Will Smith, who plays US Army virologist Robert Neville. The story is set in New York City after a virus, which was originally created to cure cancer, has wiped out most of mankind, leaving Neville as the last human in New York, other than nocturnal mutants. Neville is immune to the virus and he works to develop a cure while defending himself against the hostile mutants.
Warner Bros. began developing I Am Legend in 1994, and various actors and directors were attached to the project, though production was delayed due to budgetary concerns related to the script. Production began in 2006 in New York City, filming mainly on location in the city, including a $5 million scene at the Brooklyn Bridge. It is the third feature - film adaptation of Richard Matheson 's 1954 I Am Legend novel, following 1964 's The Last Man on Earth and 1971 's The Omega Man.
The film was released on December 14, 2007, in the United States and Canada, and opened to the largest ever box office (not adjusted for inflation) for a non-Christmas film released in the U.S. in December. The film was the seventh - highest grossing film of 2007, earning $256 million domestically and $329 million internationally, for a total of $585 million.
In 2009, a genetically re-engineered measles virus, originally created as a cure for cancer, turns into a lethal strain which kills 90 % of those it infects, mutates 9 % into predatory, nocturnal and vampiric mutants, who are extremely vulnerable to sunlight, with only 1 % immune. Three years after the outbreak, US Army virologist Lieutenant Colonel Robert Neville (Will Smith) lives an isolated life in the deserted ruins of New York City, unsure if any other uninfected humans are left in the world.
Neville 's daily routine includes experimentation on infected rats to find a cure to the virus and venturing through Manhattan to search for food and supplies. Also awaiting for potential human survivors each day for a response to his continuous recorded radio broadcasts, which instruct any uninfected survivors to meet him at midday at the South Street Seaport.
Flashbacks reveal that his wife (Salli Richardson) and daughter (Willow Smith) died in a helicopter accident during the chaotic evacuation of Manhattan, prior to the military - enforced quarantine of the island in 2009, in which Neville stays behind on the island as military personnel. Neville 's loneliness is mitigated by the companionship of his German Shepherd Samantha aka Sam (given to him by his daughter Marley as a puppy to protect him before she died in the helicopter crash), interaction with mannequins he has set up as patrons at a video store, and recordings of old television broadcasts. At night, he barricades himself and Sam inside his heavily fortified Washington Square Park home to hide from the Darkseekers. One day, while waiting for survivors, Sam follows a deer into a dark building. Neville cautiously goes in after her and finds the deer 's corpse along with Sam, but the building is infested by a colony of Darkseekers. Both manage to escape unharmed and the attacking Darkseekers are killed by the sunlight.
Neville finds a promising treatment derived from his own blood, so he sets a snare trap and captures a female Darkseeker from the colony building, while a male Darkseeker (termed "Alpha Male '' in the script, and played by Dash Mihok) tries to go after them, but is blocked by the sunlight and returns to the shadows. Back in his laboratory in the basement of his house, Neville treats the female without success. The next day, he is ensnared in a trap similar to the one he used to capture the female; by the time he manages to escape, the sun is setting and he is attacked by infected dogs. Neville and Sam manage to eliminate them, but Sam is bitten in the fight. Neville injects her with a strand of his serum, but when she shows signs of infection, Neville is forced to strangle her to death. Heartbroken and driven over the edge of insanity by his dog 's death, he ventures out and suicidally attacks a group of Darkseekers the next night. He kills a large number of Darkseekers but the rest overwhelm him and he is nearly killed, but is rescued by a pair of immune survivors, Anna (Alice Braga) and a young boy named Ethan (Charlie Tahan), who have traveled from Maryland after hearing one of his broadcasts. They take the injured Neville back to his home, where Anna explains that they survived the outbreak aboard a Red Cross evacuation ship from São Paulo and are making their way to a survivors ' camp in Bethel, Vermont. Neville angrily argues that no such survivors ' camp exists.
Neville once again attempts to administer a potential cure to the infected woman in his laboratory, but the next night, a group of Darkseekers, who had followed Anna and Neville back the night before, attacks the house. Neville, Anna, and Ethan retreat into the basement laboratory, sealing themselves in with the female Darkseeker on which Neville has been experimenting. Discovering that the last treatment was successful, Neville tries to assess the situation as the alpha male deliberately rams himself against a glass door to break in. Neville draws a vial of blood from the woman he cured and gives it to Anna, before shutting her and Ethan inside a coal chute in the back of the lab. He then takes a grenade and kills the Darkseekers at the cost of his own life, saving the cure. The next day, before dusk, Anna and Ethan discover that her theory is right as they arrive at the survivors camp in Vermont. They are greeted by military officers and other human survivors before Anna is shown handing the cure to military personnel.
During the lab attack, the alpha male makes a butterfly - shaped smear on the glass. Neville realizes that the alpha male is identifying the female which he was experimenting on by her butterfly tattoo and that it wants her back. Neville puts his gun down and returns the female. Neville and the alpha male stare each other down as the former apologizes to the latter. The alpha male accepts it and the Darkseekers leave. Shocked, Neville looks over the pictures of his numerous test subjects and the implications of his research methods begin to dawn on him. Neville, Anna, and Ethan then drive to the survivors ' camp in Vermont with the antidote.
The science - fiction horror genre reemerged in the late 1990s. In 1995, Warner Bros. began developing the film project, having owned the rights to Richard Matheson 's 1954 novel I Am Legend since 1970 and having already made the 1971 adaptation The Omega Man. Mark Protosevich was hired to write the script after the studio was impressed with his spec script of The Cell. Protosevich 's first draft took place in 2000 in San Francisco, and contained many similarities with the finished film, though the Darkseekers (called ' Hemocytes ') were civilized to the point of the creatures in The Omega Man and Anna was a lone morphine addict, as well as the fact that a Hemocyte character named Christopher joined forces with Neville. Warner Bros. immediately put the film on the fast track, attaching Neal H. Moritz as producer.
Actors Tom Cruise, Michael Douglas, and Mel Gibson had been considered to star in the film, using a script by Protosevich and with Ridley Scott as director; however, by June 1997, the studio 's preference was for actor Arnold Schwarzenegger. In July, Scott and Schwarzenegger finalized negotiations, with production slated to begin the coming September, using Houston as a stand - in for the film 's setting of Los Angeles. Scott had Protosevich replaced by a screenwriter of his own choosing, John Logan, with whom he spent months of intensive work on a number of different drafts. The Scott / Logan version of I Am Legend was a mix of sci - fi and psychological thriller, without dialogue in the first hour and with a sombre ending. The creatures in Logan 's version were similar to the Darkseekers of the finished film in their animalistic, barbaric nature. The studio, fearing its lack of commercial appeal and merchandising potential, began to worry about the liberties they had given Scott -- then on a negative streak of box office disappointments -- and urged the production team to reconsider the lack of action in the screenplay. After an "esoteric '' draft by writer Neal Jimenez, Warner Bros. reassigned Protosevich to the project, reluctantly working with Scott again.
In December 1997, the project was called into question when the projected budget escalated to $108 million due to media and shareholder scrutiny of the studio in financing a big - budget film. Scott rewrote the script in an attempt to reduce the film 's budget by $20 million, but in March 1998, the studio canceled the project due to continued budgetary concerns, and quite possibly to the box office disappointment of Scott 's last three films, 1492: Conquest of Paradise, White Squall, and G.I. Jane. Likewise, Schwarzenegger 's recent films at the time (Eraser and Warner Bros. own Batman & Robin) also underperformed, and the studio 's latest experiences with big budget sci - fi movies Sphere and The Postman were negative, as well. In August 1998, director Rob Bowman was attached to the project, with Protosevich hired to write a third all - new draft, far more action - oriented than his previous versions, but the director (who reportedly wished for Nicolas Cage to play the lead) moved on to direct Reign of Fire and the project did not get off the ground.
In March 2002, Schwarzenegger became the producer of I Am Legend, commencing negotiations with Michael Bay to direct and Will Smith to star in the film. Bay and Smith were attracted to the project based on a redraft that would reduce its budget. However, the project was shelved due to Warner Bros. president Alan F. Horn 's dislike of the script. In 2004, Akiva Goldsman was asked by head of production Jeff Robinov to produce the film. In September 2005, director Francis Lawrence signed on to helm the project, with production slated to begin in 2006. Guillermo del Toro was originally approached to direct by Smith, but turned it down to direct Hellboy II: The Golden Army. Lawrence, whose film Constantine was produced by Goldsman, was fascinated by empty urban environments. He said, "Something 's always really excited me about that... to have experienced that much loss, to be without people or any kind of social interaction for that long. ''
Goldsman took on the project as he admired the second I Am Legend film adaptation, The Omega Man. A rewrite was done to distance the project from the other zombie films inspired by the novel, as well as from the recently released 28 Days Later, although Goldsman was inspired by the scenes of a deserted London in the British horror film to create the scenes of a deserted New York City. A 40 - page scene - by - scene outline of the film was developed by May 2006. When delays occurred on Smith 's film Hancock, which was scheduled for 2007, it was proposed to switch the actor 's films. This meant filming would have to begin in 16 weeks: production was given a green light, using Goldsman 's script and the outline. Elements from Protosevich 's script were introduced, while the crew consulted with experts on infectious diseases and solitary confinement. Rewrites continued throughout filming, because of Smith 's improvisational skills and Lawrence 's preference to keep various scenes silent. The director had watched Jane Campion 's film The Piano with a low volume so as to not disturb his newborn son, and realized that silence could be very effective cinema.
Will Smith signed on to play Robert Neville in April 2006. He said he took on I Am Legend because he felt it could be like "Gladiator (or) Forrest Gump -- these are movies with wonderful, audience - pleasing elements, but also uncompromised artistic value. (This) always felt like it had those possibilities to me. '' The actor found Neville to be his toughest acting challenge since portraying Muhammad Ali in Ali (2001). He said that "when you 're on your own, it is kind of hard to find conflict. '' The film 's dark tone and exploration of whether Neville has gone insane during his isolation meant Smith had to restrain himself from falling into a humorous routine during takes. To prepare for his role, Smith visited the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Georgia. He also met with a person who had been in solitary confinement and a former prisoner of war. Smith compared Neville to Job, who lost his children, livelihood, and health. Like the Book of Job, I Am Legend studies the questions, "Can he find a reason to continue? Can he find the hope or desire to excel and advance in life? Or does the death of everything around him create imminent death for himself? '' He also cited an influence in Tom Hanks ' performance in Cast Away (2000).
Abbey and Kona, both three - year - old German Shepherd dogs, played Neville 's dog Sam. The rest of the supporting cast consists of Salli Richardson as Zoe, Robert 's wife, and Alice Braga as a survivor named Anna. Willow Smith, Will Smith 's daughter, makes her film debut as Marley, Neville 's daughter. Emma Thompson has an uncredited role as Dr. Alice Krippin, who appears on television explaining her vaccine for cancer that mutates into the virus. Singer Mike Patton provided the guttural screams of the infected "hemocytes '', and Dash Mihok provided the character animation for the infected "alpha male ''. Several filler characters with uncredited roles were in old news broadcasts and flashbacks, such as the unnamed President 's voice (Pat Fraley), and the cast of The Today Show.
Akiva Goldsman decided to move the story from Los Angeles to New York City to take advantage of locations that would more easily show emptiness. Goldsman explained, "L.A. looks empty at three o'clock in the afternoon, (but) New York is never empty... it was a much more interesting way of showing the windswept emptiness of the world. '' Warner Bros. initially rejected this idea because of the logistics, but Francis Lawrence was determined to shoot on location, to give the film a natural feel that would benefit from not shooting on soundstages. Lawrence went to the city with a camcorder, and filmed areas filled with crowds. Then, a special effects test was conducted to remove all those people. The test had a powerful effect on studio executives. Michael Tadross convinced authorities to close busy areas such as the Grand Central Terminal viaduct, several blocks of Fifth Avenue, and Washington Square Park. The film was shot primarily in the anamorphic format, with flashback scenes shot in Super 35.
Filming began on September 23, 2006. The Marcy Avenue Armory in Williamsburg was used for the interior of Neville 's home, while Greenwich Village was used for the exterior. Other locations include the Tribeca section of lower Manhattan, the aircraft carrier Intrepid, the Kingsbridge Armory in the Bronx, and St. Patrick 's Cathedral. Weeds were imported from Florida and were strewn across locations to make the city look like it had been overgrown with them. The closure of major streets was controversial with New Yorkers. Will Smith said, "I do n't think anyone 's going to be able to do that in New York again anytime soon. People were not happy. That 's the most middle fingers I 've ever gotten in my career. ''
A bridge scene was filmed for six consecutive nights in January on the Brooklyn Bridge to serve as a flashback scene in which New York 's citizens evacuate the city. Shooting the scene consumed $5 million of the film 's reported $150 million budget, which was likely the most expensive shoot in the city to date. The scene, which had to meet requirements from 14 government agencies, involved 250 crew members and 1,000 extras, including 160 National Guard members. Also present were several Humvees, three Strykers, a 110 - foot (34 m) cutter, a 41 - foot (12 m) utility boat, and two 25 - foot (7.6 m) response boat small craft, as well as other vehicles including taxis, police cars, fire trucks, and ambulances. Filming concluded on March 31, 2007. Computer - generated imagery (CGI) was used to depict the main spans of the Brooklyn Bridge and the Manhattan Bridge collapsing as missiles from passing military jets blew them up to quarantine Manhattan island.
Reshoots were conducted around November 2007. Lawrence noted, "We were n't seeing fully rendered shots until about a month ago. The movie starts to take on a whole other life. It 's not until later that you can judge a movie as a whole and go, ' Huh, maybe we should shoot this little piece in the middle, or tweak this a little bit. ' It just so happened that our re-shoots revolved around the end of the movie. ''
A week into filming, Francis felt the infected (referred to as "Darkseekers '' or "hemocytes '' in the script), who were being portrayed by actors wearing prosthetics, were not convincing. His decision to use CGI resulted in an increased budget and extended post-production, although the end results were not always well received. The concept behind the infected was that their adrenal glands were open all of the time and Lawrence explained, "They needed to have an abandon in their performance that you just ca n't get out of people in the middle of the night when they 're barefoot. And their metabolisms are really spiked, so they 're constantly hyperventilating, which you ca n't really get actors to do for a long time or they pass out. '' The actors remained on set to provide motion capture. "The film 's producers and sound people wanted the creatures in the movie to sound somewhat human, but not the standard '', so Mike Patton, lead singer of Faith No More, was engaged to provide the screams and howls of the infected.
In addition, CGI was used for the lions and deer in the film, and to erase pedestrians in shots of New York. Workers visible in windows, spectators, and moving cars in the distance were all removed. In his vision of an empty New York, Lawrence cited John Ford as his influence: "We did n't want to make an apocalyptic movie where the landscape felt apocalyptic. A lot of the movie takes place on a beautiful day. There 's something magical about the empty city as opposed to dark and scary that was the ideal that the cast and crew wanted. ''
I Am Legend was originally slated for a November 21, 2007, release in the United States and Canada, but was delayed to December 14. The film opened on December 26, 2007, in the United Kingdom, and Ireland, having been originally scheduled for January 4, 2008.
In December 2007, China temporarily suspended the release of all American films in the country, which is believed to have delayed the release of I Am Legend. Will Smith spoke to the chairman of China Film Group about securing a release date, later explaining, "We struggled very, very hard to try to get it to work out, but there are only a certain amount of foreign films that are allowed in. ''
Premieres were held in Tokyo, New York, and London. At the London premiere in Leicester Square, British comedian and actor Neg Dupree was arrested after pushing his way onto the red carpet and running around shouting "I am Negend! ''. The stunt was part of his "Neg 's Urban Sports '' section of comedy game show Balls of Steel.
The film 's teaser was attached to the screenings of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. And a tie - in comic from DC Comics and Vertigo Comics has been created, I Am Legend: Awakening. The project draws upon collaboration from Bill Sienkiewicz, screenwriter Mark Protosevich, and author Orson Scott Card. The son of the original book 's author, Richard Christian Matheson, also collaborated on the project. The project will advance from the comic to an online format in which animated featurettes (created by the team from Broken Saints) will be shown on the official website.
In October 2007, Warner Bros. Pictures, in conjunction with the Electric Sheep Company, launched the online multiplayer game I Am Legend: Survival in the virtual world Second Life. The game is the largest launched in the virtual world in support of a film release, permitting people to play against each other as the infected or the uninfected across a replicated 60 acres (240,000 m) of New York City. The studio also hired the ad agency Crew Creative to develop a website that would be specifically viewable on the iPhone.
I Am Legend grossed $77,211,321 on its opening weekend in 3,606 theaters, averaging $21,412 per venue, and placing it at the top of the box office. This set a record for highest - grossing opening for a film for December. The film grossed $256,393,010 in North America and a total of $585,349,010 worldwide. The film was the sixth - highest grossing film of 2007 in North America, and as of April 2014, it remained among the top 100 all - time highest - grossing films both domestically and worldwide (unadjusted for ticket price inflation).
The film was released on DVD on March 18, 2008, in two editions: a one - disc release, including the movie with four animated comics ("Death As a Gift '', "Isolation '', "Sacrificing the Few for the Many '', and "Shelter ''), and other DVD - ROM features, and a two - disc special edition that includes all these extras, an alternative theatrical version of the movie with an alternate ending, and a digital copy of the film. On the high - definition end, the movie has been released on the Blu - ray Disc format and HD DVD format along with the DVD release, with the HD - DVD version being released later on April 8, 2008. Both HD releases include all the features available in the two - disc DVD edition. A three - disk Ultimate Collector 's Edition was also released on December 9, 2008.
The film has sold 7.04 million DVDs and earned $126.2 million in revenue, making it the sixth - best - selling DVD of 2008. However, Warner Bros. was reportedly "a little disappointed '' with the film 's performance on the DVD market.
The soundtrack for I Am Legend was released on January 15, 2008, under the record label Varèse Sarabande. The music was composed by James Newton Howard. This Also features Bob Marley songs Redemption Song, Three Little Birds and I Shot The Sheriff
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes the film had an approval rating of 69 % based on 211 reviews, with an average rating of 6.8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "I Am Legend overcomes questionable special effects and succeeds largely on the strength of Will Smith 's mesmerizing performance. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a rating to reviews, the film has an average score of 65 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
A.O. Scott wrote that Will Smith gave a "graceful and effortless performance '' and also noted the "third - act collapse ''. He felt that the movie "does ponder some pretty deep questions about the collapse and persistence of human civilization ''. Dana Stevens of Slate wrote that the movie lost its way around the hour mark, noting that "the Infected just are n't that scary. '' NPR critic Bob Mondello noted the film 's subtext concerning global terrorism and that this aspect made the film fit in perfectly with other, more direct cinematic explorations of the subject. Richard Roeper gave the film a positive review on the television program At the Movies with Ebert & Roeper, commending Will Smith as being in "prime form '', also saying there are "some amazing sequences '' and that there was "a pretty heavy screenplay for an action film. '' The film has been criticized for diverging from Matheson 's novel, especially in its portrayal of a specifically Christian theme. Much of the negative criticism concerned the film 's third act, with some critics favoring the alternative ending in the DVD release. Doug Walker said the alternate ending was "powerful, thought provoking, and challenging '', and the theatrical ending was "a betrayal '' and "castration '' of both the film 's tone and of what made the original story so impactful.
Popular Mechanics published an article on December 14, 2007, addressing some of the scientific issues raised by the film:
The magazine solicited reactions from Alan Weisman, author of The World Without Us, virologist W. Ian Lipkin, MD, and Michel Bruneau, PhD, comparing their predictions with the film 's depictions. The article raised the most questions regarding the virus ' mutation and the medical results, and pointed out that a suspension bridge like the Brooklyn Bridge would likely completely collapse rather than losing only its middle span. Neville 's method of producing power using gasoline - powered generators seemed the most credible: "This part of the tale is possible, if not entirely likely, '' Popular Mechanics editor Roy Berendsohn says.
Philosopher Slavoj Zizek criticized the film politically as being the most regressive adaptation from the novel. He said that while the original novel had a progressive multicultural message where Neville became a "legend '' to the new creatures and is subsequently killed by them (much like vampires were legends to humans), the 2007 film finds a cure for the Darkseekers and it is delivered by a survivor through apparent divine intervention. According to Zizek, this misses the original message and "openly opt (s) for religious fundamentalism. ''
I Am Legend earned four nominations for the Visual Effects Society awards, and was also nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble at the Screen Actors Guild Awards, Outstanding Film and Actor at the Image Awards, and Best Sound at the Satellite Awards. In June 2008, Will Smith won a Saturn Award for Best Actor. Will Smith also won the MTV Movie Awards for Best Male Performance.
Director Francis Lawrence said in 2008 that there would be a prequel and that Will Smith would be reprising his role. The plot of the film would reveal what happened to Neville before the infected took over New York. D.B. Weiss was hired to write the script, while Lawrence was in negotiations to return as director on the contingent that the story was interesting enough. Smith later discussed the premise, which would have his character and a team going from New York City to Washington, D.C., as they made their last stand against those infected with the virus. The film would again explore the premise of what it is like to be alone. Lawrence stated, "... the tough thing is, how do we do that again and in a different way? '' In May 2011, Francis Lawrence stated that the prequel was no longer in development saying, "I do n't think that 's ever going to happen. ''
In 2012, Warner Bros. announced that negotiations had been made to produce another installment, with the intention of having Will Smith reprise his role. In April 2014, the studio attained a script entitled A Garden at the End of the World, described as a post-apocalyptic variation of The Searchers. Studio executives found so many similarities to I Am Legend in the screenplay, they had the writer Gary Graham rewrite it so it could serve as the next film. Serving as a reboot of the story, the studio hopes to create a franchise of films. Will Smith, who is known for his reluctance to appear in sequels, has not commented on whether he will appear or not.
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when was the first dot.com web site published on the web | History of the World Wide Web - Wikipedia
The World Wide Web ("WWW '' or simply the "Web '') is a global information medium which users can read and write via computers connected to the Internet. The term is often mistakenly used as a synonym for the Internet itself, but the Web is a service that operates over the Internet, just as e-mail also does. The history of the Internet dates back significantly further than that of the World Wide Web.
The hypertext portion of the Web in particular has an intricate intellectual history; notable influences and precursors include Vannevar Bush 's Memex, IBM 's Generalized Markup Language, and Ted Nelson 's Project Xanadu.
Paul Otlet 's Mundaneum project has also been named as an early 20th century precursor of the Web.
The concept of a global information system connecting homes is prefigured in "A Logic Named Joe '', a 1946 short story by Murray Leinster, in which computer terminals, called "logics, '' are present in every home. Although the computer system in the story is centralized, the story anticipates a ubiquitous information environment similar to the Web. The cultural impact of the web was imagined even further back in a short story by E.M. Forster, "The Machine Stops, '' first published in 1909.
In 1980, Tim Berners - Lee, an English independent contractor at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Switzerland, built ENQUIRE, as a personal database of people and software models, but also as a way to play with hypertext; each new page of information in ENQUIRE had to be linked to an existing page.
Berners - Lee 's contract in 1980 was from June to December, but in 1984 he returned to CERN in a permanent role, and considered its problems of information management: physicists from around the world needed to share data, yet they lacked common machines and any shared presentation software.
Shortly after Berners - Lee 's return to CERN, TCP / IP protocols were installed on some key non-Unix machines at the institution, turning it into the largest Internet site in Europe within a few years. As a result, CERN 's infrastructure was ready for Berners - Lee to create the Web.
Berners - Lee wrote a proposal in March 1989 for "a large hypertext database with typed links ''. Although the proposal attracted little interest, Berners - Lee was encouraged by his boss, Mike Sendall, to begin implementing his system on a newly acquired NeXT workstation. He considered several names, including Information Mesh, The Information Mine or Mine of Information, but settled on World Wide Web.
Berners - Lee found an enthusiastic supporter in Robert Cailliau. Berners - Lee and Cailliau pitched Berners - Lee 's ideas to the European Conference on Hypertext Technology in September 1990, but found no vendors who could appreciate his vision of marrying hypertext with the Internet.
By Christmas 1990, Berners - Lee had built all the tools necessary for a working Web: the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 0.9, the HyperText Markup Language (HTML), the first Web browser (named WorldWideWeb, which was also a Web editor), the first HTTP server software (later known as CERN httpd), the first web server (http://info.cern.ch), and the first Web pages that described the project itself. The browser could access Usenet newsgroups and FTP files as well. However, it could run only on the NeXT; Nicola Pellow therefore created a simple text browser, called the Line Mode Browser, that could run on almost any computer. To encourage use within CERN, Bernd Pollermann put the CERN telephone directory on the web -- previously users had to log onto the mainframe in order to look up phone numbers.
While inventing and working on setting up the Web, Berners - Lee spent most of his working hours in Building 31 (second floor) at CERN (46 ° 13 ′ 57 '' N 6 ° 02 ′ 42 '' E / 46.2325 ° N 6.0450 ° E / 46.2325; 6.0450 (CERN Building 31, Birthplace of the World Wide Web)), but also at his two homes, one in France, one in Switzerland. In January 1991 the first Web servers outside CERN itself were switched on.
The first web page may be lost, but Paul Jones of UNC - Chapel Hill in North Carolina revealed in May 2013 that he has a copy of a page sent to him in 1991 by Berners - Lee which is the oldest known web page. Jones stored the plain - text page, with hyperlinks, on a floppy disk and on his NeXT computer. CERN put the oldest known web page back online in 2014, complete with hyperlinks that helped users get started and helped them navigate what was then a very small web.
On August 6, 1991, Berners - Lee posted a short summary of the World Wide Web project on the alt. hypertext newsgroup, inviting collaborators. This date is sometimes confused with the public availability of the first web servers, which had occurred months earlier.
Paul Kunz from the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center visited CERN in September 1991, and was captivated by the Web. He brought the NeXT software back to SLAC, where librarian Louise Addis adapted it for the VM / CMS operating system on the IBM mainframe as a way to display SLAC 's catalog of online documents; this was the first web server outside of Europe and the first in North America. The www - talk mailing list was started in the same month.
A widely unknown fact is that the Computing and Networking Department of CERN, headed in 1992 by David Williams, did not support Berners - Lee work. In 1992, in a 2 pager email sent by the head of the division, M. David Williams stated that the work of Berners - Lee, whose goal was to create a facility to exchange information such as results and comments from CERN experiments to the scientific community, was not the core activity of CERN and was a misallocation of CERN 's IT resources. Following this decision, Tim Berners - Lee left CERN despite many of his peers in the IT center tried to advocate for his support (in Particular M. Ben Segal from the distributed computing SHIFT project). He left to MIT, where he continued to develop the HTTP protocol.
An early CERN - related contribution to the Web was the parody band Les Horribles Cernettes, whose promotional image is believed to be among the Web 's first five pictures.
In keeping with its birth at CERN and the first page opened, early adopters of the World Wide Web were primarily university - based scientific departments or physics laboratories such as Fermilab and SLAC. By January 1993 there were fifty Web servers across the world; by October 1993 there were over five hundred. Two of the earliest webcomics started on the World Wide Web in 1993: Doctor Fun and NetBoy.
Early websites intermingled links for both the HTTP web protocol and the then - popular Gopher protocol, which provided access to content through hypertext menus presented as a file system rather than through HTML files. Early Web users would navigate either by bookmarking popular directory pages, such as Berners - Lee 's first site at http://info.cern.ch/, or by consulting updated lists such as the NCSA "What 's New '' page. Some sites were also indexed by WAIS, enabling users to submit full - text searches similar to the capability later provided by search engines.
By the end of 1994, the total number of websites was still minute compared to present figures, but quite a number of notable websites were already active, many of which are the precursors or inspiring examples of today 's most popular services.
Initially, a web browser was available only for the NeXT operating system. This shortcoming was discussed in January 1992, and alleviated in April 1992 by the release of Erwise, an application developed at the Helsinki University of Technology, and in May by ViolaWWW, created by Pei - Yuan Wei, which included advanced features such as embedded graphics, scripting, and animation. ViolaWWW was originally an application for HyperCard. Both programs ran on the X Window System for Unix.. In 1992, the first tests between browsers on different platforms were concluded successfully between buildings 513 and 31 in CERN, between browsers on the NexT station and the X11 - ported Mosaic browser.
Students at the University of Kansas adapted an existing text - only hypertext browser, Lynx, to access the web. Lynx was available on Unix and DOS, and some web designers, unimpressed with glossy graphical websites, held that a website not accessible through Lynx was n't worth visiting.
The first Microsoft Windows browser was Cello, written by Thomas R. Bruce for the Legal Information Institute at Cornell Law School to provide legal information, since access to Windows was more widespread amongst lawyers than access to Unix. Cello was released in June 1993.
The Web was first popularized by Mosaic, a graphical browser launched in 1993 by Marc Andreessen 's team at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign (UIUC). The origins of Mosaic date to 1992. In November 1992, the NCSA at the University of Illinois (UIUC) established a website. In December 1992, Andreessen and Eric Bina, students attending UIUC and working at the NCSA, began work on Mosaic with funding from the High - Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a US - federal research and development program. Andreessen and Bina released a Unix version of the browser in February 1993; Mac and Windows versions followed in August 1993. The browser gained popularity due to its strong support of integrated multimedia, and the authors ' rapid response to user bug reports and recommendations for new features.
After graduation from UIUC, Andreessen and James H. Clark, former CEO of Silicon Graphics, met and formed Mosaic Communications Corporation in April 1994, to develop the Mosaic Netscape browser commercially. The company later changed its name to Netscape, and the browser was developed further as Netscape Navigator.
In May 1994, the first International WWW Conference, organized by Robert Cailliau, was held at CERN; the conference has been held every year since. In April 1993, CERN had agreed that anyone could use the Web protocol and code royalty - free; this was in part a reaction to the perturbation caused by the University of Minnesota 's announcement that it would begin charging license fees for its implementation of the Gopher protocol.
In September 1994, Berners - Lee founded the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with support from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and the European Commission. It comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve the quality of the Web. Berners - Lee made the Web available freely, with no patent and no royalties due. The W3C decided that its standards must be based on royalty - free technology, so they can be easily adopted by anyone.
By 1996 it became obvious to most publicly traded companies that a public Web presence was no longer optional. Though at first people saw mainly the possibilities of free publishing and instant worldwide information, increasing familiarity with two - way communication over the "Web '' led to the possibility of direct Web - based commerce (e-commerce) and instantaneous group communications worldwide. More dotcoms, displaying products on hypertext webpages, were added into the Web.
Low interest rates in 1998 -- 99 facilitated an increase in start - up companies. Although a number of these new entrepreneurs had realistic plans and administrative ability, most of them lacked these characteristics but were able to sell their ideas to investors because of the novelty of the dot - com concept.
Historically, the dot - com boom can be seen as similar to a number of other technology - inspired booms of the past including railroads in the 1840s, automobiles in the early 20th century, radio in the 1920s, television in the 1940s, transistor electronics in the 1950s, computer time - sharing in the 1960s, and home computers and biotechnology in the 1980s.
In 2001 the bubble burst, and many dot - com startups went out of business after burning through their venture capital and failing to become profitable. Many others, however, did survive and thrive in the early 21st century. Many companies which began as online retailers blossomed and became highly profitable. More conventional retailers found online merchandising to be a profitable additional source of revenue. While some online entertainment and news outlets failed when their seed capital ran out, others persisted and eventually became economically self - sufficient. Traditional media outlets (newspaper publishers, broadcasters and cablecasters in particular) also found the Web to be a useful and profitable additional channel for content distribution, and an additional means to generate advertising revenue. The sites that survived and eventually prospered after the bubble burst had two things in common; a sound business plan, and a niche in the marketplace that was, if not unique, particularly well - defined and well - served.
In the aftermath of the dot - com bubble, telecommunications companies had a great deal of overcapacity as many Internet business clients went bust. That, plus ongoing investment in local cell infrastructure kept connectivity charges low, helped to make high - speed Internet connectivity more affordable. During this time, a handful of companies found success developing business models that helped make the World Wide Web a more compelling experience. These include airline booking sites, Google 's search engine and its profitable approach to keyword - based advertising, as well as eBay 's auction site and Amazon.com 's online department store.
This new era also begot social networking websites, such as MySpace and Facebook, which gained acceptance rapidly and became a central part of youth culture.
Beginning in 2002, new ideas for sharing and exchanging content ad hoc, such as Weblogs and RSS, rapidly gained acceptance on the Web. This new model for information exchange, primarily featuring user - generated and user - edited websites, was dubbed Web 2.0. The Web 2.0 boom saw many new service - oriented startups catering to a newly democratized Web.
As the Web became easier to query, it attained a greater ease of use overall and gained a sense of organization which ushered in a period of rapid popularization. Many new sites such as Wikipedia and its Wikimedia Foundation sister projects were based on the concept of user - edited content. In 2005, three former PayPal employees created a video viewing website called YouTube, which became popular quickly and introduced a new concept of user - submitted content in major events.
The popularity of YouTube, Facebook, etc., combined with the increasing availability and affordability of high - speed connections has made video content far more common on all kinds of websites. Many video - content hosting and creation sites provide an easy means for their videos to be embedded on third party websites without payment or permission.
This combination of more user - created or edited content, and easy means of sharing content, such as via RSS widgets and video embedding, has led to many sites with a typical "Web 2.0 '' feel. They have articles with embedded video, user - submitted comments below the article, and RSS boxes to the side, listing some of the latest articles from other sites.
Continued extension of the Web has focused on connecting devices to the Internet, coined Intelligent Device Management. As Internet connectivity becomes ubiquitous, manufacturers have started to leverage the expanded computing power of their devices to enhance their usability and capability. Through Internet connectivity, manufacturers are now able to interact with the devices they have sold and shipped to their customers, and customers are able to interact with the manufacturer (and other providers) to access new content.
"Web 2.0 '' has found a place in the English lexicon.
Popularized by Berners - Lee 's book Weaving the Web and a Scientific American article by Berners - Lee, James Hendler, and Ora Lassila, the term Semantic Web describes an evolution of the existing Web in which the network of hyperlinked human - readable web pages is extended by machine - readable metadata about documents and how they are related to each other, enabling automated agents to access the Web more intelligently and perform tasks on behalf of users. This has yet to happen. In 2006, Berners - Lee and colleagues stated that the idea "remains largely unrealized ''.
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who played the possessed girl in the exorcist | The Exorcist (film) - wikipedia
The Exorcist is a 1973 American supernatural horror film adapted by William Peter Blatty from his 1971 novel of the same name, directed by William Friedkin, and starring Ellen Burstyn, Linda Blair, Max von Sydow, and Jason Miller. The film is part of The Exorcist franchise. The book, inspired by the 1949 exorcism of Roland Doe, follows the demonic possession of a 12 - year - old girl and her mother 's attempts to win her back through an exorcism conducted by two priests. The adaptation is relatively faithful to the book, which itself has been commercially successful (earning a place on The New York Times Best Seller list).
The film experienced a troubled production; even in the beginning, several prestigious film directors including Stanley Kubrick and Arthur Penn turned it down. Incidents such as the toddler son of one of the main actors being hit by a motorbike and hospitalized attracted claims that the set was cursed. The complex special effects used, as well as the nature of the film locations, also presented severe challenges. The film 's notable psychological themes include the nature of faith and the boundaries of maternal love.
The Exorcist was released theatrically in the United States by Warner Bros. on December 26, 1973. The film was initially booked in only 26 theaters across the U.S., although it soon became a major commercial success. The film earned ten Academy Award nominations, winning Best Sound and Writing (Adapted Screenplay). It became one of the highest - grossing films in history, grossing over $441 million worldwide in the aftermath of various re-releases, and was the first horror film to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture.
The film has had a significant influence on popular culture. Several publications have regarded it one of the greatest horror films of all time. For example, it was named the scariest film of all time by Entertainment Weekly in 1999, Movies.com in 2010, viewers of AMC in 2006, and the editors of Time Out in 2014. Prominent film critic Mark Kermode named it as his "favorite film of all time. '' CHUD.com rated it as the 10th best film of all time in 2014. In addition, a scene from the film was ranked # 3 on Bravo 's The 100 Scariest Movie Moments. In 2010, the Library of Congress selected the film to be preserved as part of its National Film Registry as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. On January 22, 2016, 20th Century Fox Television announced that they were developing a television series of The Exorcist. It premiered on the Fox TV network on September 23, 2016.
Lankester Merrin, a veteran Catholic priest and exorcist, is on an archaeological dig in the ancient city of Hatra in Iraq. There he finds an amulet that resembles the statue of Pazuzu, a demon of ancient origins with whose history Merrin is familiar.
In Georgetown, actress Chris MacNeil is living on location with her 12 - year - old daughter Regan; she is starring in a film about student activism directed by her friend and associate Burke Dennings. After playing with a Ouija board and contacting a supposedly imaginary friend whom she calls Captain Howdy, Regan begins acting strangely, including making mysterious noises, stealing, constantly using obscene language and exhibiting abnormal strength. Chris hosts a party, only for Regan to come downstairs unannounced, telling one of the guests, who is an astronaut, "You 're gon na die up there '' and then urinating on the floor. Later, Regan 's bed begins to shake violently, adding further to her mother 's horror. Chris consults a number of physicians, but Dr. Klein and his associates find nothing physiologically wrong with her daughter, despite Regan undergoing a battery of diagnostic tests.
One night when Chris is out, Burke Dennings is babysitting a heavily sedated Regan, only for Chris to come home to hear he has died falling out the window. Although this is assumed to have been an accident, given Burke 's history of heavy drinking, his death is investigated by Lieutenant William Kinderman, who interviews Chris, as well as priest and psychiatrist Father Damien Karras, who has recently been emotionally shaken after the death of his frail mother.
The doctors, thinking that Regan 's aberrations are mostly psychiatric in origin, recommend an exorcism be performed. Chris arranges a meeting with Karras. After recording Regan speaking backwards and witnessing the apparent effect of the scarification of her flesh with the words "Help Me '' on her stomach, Karras is convinced that Regan is possessed. Believing her soul is in danger, he decides to perform an exorcism. The experienced Merrin is selected for performing the actual exorcism with Karras present to assist.
Both priests witness Regan perform a series of bizarre, vulgar acts and confine her to her bedroom. They attempt to exorcise the demon, but a stubborn Pazuzu toys with them, especially Karras. Karras shows weakness and is dismissed by Merrin, who attempts the exorcism alone. Karras enters the room and discovers Merrin has died of a heart attack. After failing to revive Merrin, the enraged Karras confronts the mocking, laughing spirit of Pazuzu, tackling the demon to the ground. At Karras 's furious demand, Pazuzu then possesses Karras, leaving Regan 's body. In a moment of self - sacrifice, the priest throws himself out of the window before allowing Pazuzu to compel him to harm Regan and is himself mortally injured. Father Dyer, an old friend of Karras, happens upon the scene and administers the last rites to his friend.
A few days later, Regan, who is now back to her normal self, prepares to leave for Los Angeles with her mother. Although Regan has no apparent recollection of her possession, she gives Father Dyer a kiss on the cheek. Kinderman, who narrowly misses their departure, befriends Father Dyer as he investigates Karras ' death.
Aspects of Blatty 's fictional novel were inspired by the 1949 exorcism performed on an anonymous young boy known as "Roland Doe '' or "Robbie Mannheim '' (pseudonyms) by the Jesuit priest Fr. William S. Bowdern, who formerly taught at both St. Louis University and St. Louis University High School. Doe 's family became convinced the boy 's aggressive behavior was attributable to demonic possession, and called upon the services of several Catholic priests, including Bowdern, to perform the rite of exorcism. It was one of three exorcisms to have been sanctioned by the Catholic Church in the United States at that time. Later analysis by paranormal skeptics has concluded that Doe was likely a mentally ill teenager acting out, as the actual events likely to have occurred (such as words being carved on skin) were such that they could have been faked by Doe himself. The novel changed several details of the case, such as changing the gender of the allegedly possessed victim from a boy into a girl and changing the alleged victim 's age.
Although Friedkin has admitted he is very reluctant to speak about the factual aspects of the film, he made the film with the intention of immortalizing the events involving Doe that took place in St. Louis in 1949, and despite the relatively minor changes that were made, the film depicts everything that could be verified by those involved. In order to make the film, Friedkin was allowed access to the diaries of the priests involved, as well as the doctors and nurses; he also discussed the events with Doe 's aunt in great detail. Friedkin has said that he does not believe that the "head - spinning '' actually occurred, but this has been disputed. Friedkin is secular, despite coming from a Jewish family.
Although the agency representing Blair did not send her for the role, Blair 's mother took her to meet with Warner 's casting department and then with Friedkin. Pamelyn Ferdin, a veteran of science fiction and supernatural drama, was a candidate for the role of Regan, but was ultimately turned down because her career thus far had made her too familiar to the public. April Winchell was considered, until she developed pyelonephritis, which caused her to be hospitalized and ultimately taken out of consideration. Denise Nickerson, who played Violet Beauregarde in Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, was considered, but the material troubled her parents too much, and they pulled her out of consideration. Anissa Jones, known for her role as Buffy in Family Affair, auditioned for the role, but she too was rejected, for much the same reason as Ferdin. The part went instead to Blair, a relative unknown until the film 's success.
The question of whether or not such a young actress, even a talented one, could carry the film on her shoulders was an issue from the beginning, with film directors asked to do the project such as Mike Nichols being skeptical. As well, the studio wanted Marlon Brando for the role of Father Lankester Merrin. Friedkin immediately vetoed this by stating it would become a "Brando movie. '' Jack Nicholson was up for the part of Karras before Stacy Keach was hired by Blatty. According to Friedkin, Paul Newman also wanted to portray Karras. Friedkin then spotted Jason Miller following a performance of Miller 's play That Championship Season in New York. Even though Miller had never acted in a film, Keach 's contract was bought out by Warner Brothers, and Miller was signed.
Jane Fonda, Audrey Hepburn, and Anne Bancroft were under consideration for the role of Chris. Blatty also suggested his friend, Shirley MacLaine, for the part, but Friedkin was hesitant to cast her, given her lead role in another possession film, The Possession of Joel Delaney (1971) two years prior. Ellen Burstyn received the part after she phoned Friedkin and emphatically stated that she was going to play Chris.
Friedkin originally intended to use Blair 's voice, electronically deepened and roughened, for the demon 's dialogue. Although Friedkin felt this worked fine in some places, he felt scenes with the demon confronting the two priests lacked the dramatic power required and selected legendary radio actress Mercedes McCambridge, an experienced voice actress, to provide the demon 's voice. After filming, Warner Brothers did not include a credit for McCambridge during early screenings of the film, which led to Screen Actors Guild arbitration before she was credited for her performance. Ken Nordine was also considered for the demon 's voice, but Friedkin thought it would be best not to use a man 's voice.
Warners had approached Arthur Penn, Stanley Kubrick, and Mike Nichols, to direct, all of whom turned the project down. Originally Mark Rydell was hired to direct, but William Peter Blatty insisted on Friedkin instead, because he wanted his film to have the same energy as Friedkin 's previous film, The French Connection. After a standoff with the studio, which initially refused to budge over Rydell, Blatty eventually got his way. Principal photography for The Exorcist began on August 21, 1972. The shooting schedule was estimated to run 105 days, but ultimately ran well over 200.
Friedkin went to some extraordinary lengths, reminiscent of some directors from the old Hollywood directing style, manipulating the actors, to get the genuine reactions he wanted. Yanked violently around in harnesses, both Blair and Burstyn suffered back injuries and their painful screams went right into the film. Burstyn injured her back after landing on her coccyx when a stuntman jerked her around using a special effects cable during the scene when Regan slaps her mother. According to the documentary Fear of God: The Making of the Exorcist, however, the injury did not cause permanent damage, although Burstyn was upset the shot of her screaming in pain was used in the film. After asking Father William O'Malley if he trusted him and being told yes, Friedkin slapped him hard across the face before a take to generate a deeply solemn reaction that was used in the film as a very emotional Father Dyer read last rites to Father Karras; this offended the many Catholic crew members on the set. He also fired blanks without warning on the set to elicit shock from Jason Miller for one of the takes, and only told Miller that pea soup would hit him in the chest rather than the face concerning the projectile - vomiting scene, resulting in his disgusted reaction. Lastly, he had Regan 's bedroom set built inside a freezer so that the actors ' breath could be visible on camera, which required the crew to wear parkas and other cold - weather gear.
The film 's opening sequences were filmed in and near the city of Mosul, Iraq. The archaeological dig site seen at the film 's beginning is the actual site of ancient Hatra, south of Mosul.
The "Exorcist stairs '' are concrete stairs located in Georgetown at the corner of Prospect St NW and 36th St NW, leading down to M Street NW. The stairs were padded with 1 / 2 "- thick rubber to film the death of the character Father Karras. Because the house from which Karras falls is set back slightly from the stairs, the film crew constructed an extension with a false front to the house in order to film the scene. The stuntman tumbled down the stairs twice. Georgetown University students charged people around $5 each to watch the stunt from the rooftops.
Although the film is set in Washington, D.C., many interior scenes were shot in various parts of New York City. The MacNeil residence interiors were filmed at CECO Studios in Manhattan. The bedroom set had to be refrigerated to capture the authentic icy breath of the actors in the exorcism scenes. The temperature was brought so low that a thin layer of snow fell onto the set one morning. Blair, who was only in a thin nightgown, says to this day she can not stand being cold. Exteriors of the MacNeill house were filmed at 36th and Prospect in Washington, using a family home and a false wall to convey the home 's thrust toward the steps.
The scenes involving Regan 's medical tests were filmed at New York University Medical Center and were performed by actual medical staff that normally carry out the procedures. In the film Regan first undergoes an electroencephalography (EEG), then an early type of cerebral angiography and finally a pneumoencephalography.
The scene in which Father Karras listens to the tapes of Regan 's dialogue were filmed in the basement of Keating Hall at Fordham University in the Bronx. William O'Malley, who plays Father Joseph Dyer in the film, was a real - life Jesuit and assistant professor of theology at Fordham at the time.
The interior of Karras ' room at Georgetown was a meticulous reconstruction of Theology professor Father Thomas M. King, S.J. 's "corridor Jesuit '' room in New North Hall. Fr. King 's room was photographed by production staff after a visit by Blatty, a Georgetown graduate, and Friedkin. Upon returning to New York, every element of King 's room, including posters and books, was recreated for the set, including a poster of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, S.J., a theologian on whom the character of Fr. Merrin was loosely based. Georgetown was paid $1,000 per day of filming, which included both exteriors, such as Burstyn 's first scene, shot on the steps of the Flemish Romanesque Healy Hall, and interiors, such as the defilement of the statue of the Virgin Mary in Dahlgren Chapel, or the Archbishop 's office, which is actually the office of the president of the university. One scene was filmed in The Tombs, a student hangout across from the steps that was founded by a Blatty classmate.
Father Merrin 's arrival scene was filmed on Max von Sydow 's first day of work. The scene where the elderly priest, Father Merrin (portrayed by Max von Sydow) steps out of a cab and stands in front of the MacNeil residence, between the open gates of the driveway -- silhouetted in a misty streetlamp 's glow and staring up at an intense beam of light shining from a bedroom window above -- is one of the most famous scenes in the movie. The shot was used for film posters and home DVD / VHS release covers. The scene and photo was inspired by the 1954 painting "Empire of Light '' ("L'Empire des lumières '') by René Magritte.
Stuntwoman Ann Miles performed the spider - walk scene in November 1973. Director Friedkin deleted this scene just prior to the December 26, 1973 premiere, as he judged the scene as appearing too early in the film 's plot and chose to remove it, despite screenplay writer William Peter Blatty 's objection. In the book, the spider - walk is somewhat more muted, consisting of Regan following Sharon around near the floor and flicking a snake - like tongue at her ankles. A take of this version of the scene was filmed but went unused. A different take showing Regan with blood flowing from her mouth was inserted into the 2000 Director 's Cut of the film however.
The Exorcist contained a number of special effects, engineered by makeup artist Dick Smith. In one scene from the film, Max von Sydow is actually wearing more makeup than the possessed girl (Linda Blair). This was because director Friedkin wanted some very detailed facial close - ups. When this film was made, von Sydow was 44, though he was made up to look 74. Alan McKenzie stated in his book Hollywood Tricks of the Trade that the fact "that audiences did n't realize von Sydow was wearing makeup at all is a tribute to the skills of veteran makeup artist Dick Smith. ''
The Exorcist was also at the center of controversy due to its alleged use of subliminal imagery introduced as special effects during the production of the film. Wilson Bryan Key wrote a whole chapter on the film in his book Media Sexploitation alleging repeated use of subliminal and semi-subliminal imagery and sound effects. Key observed the use of the Pazuzu face (in which Key mistakenly assumed it was Jason Miller made up in a death mask makeup, when it was actress Eileen Dietz) and claimed that the safety padding on the bedposts were shaped to cast phallic shadows on the wall and that a skull face is superimposed into one of Father Merrin 's breath clouds. Key also wrote much about the sound design, identifying the use of pig squeals, for instance, and elaborating on his opinion of the subliminal intent of it all. A detailed article in the July / August 1991 issue of Video Watchdog examined the phenomenon, providing still frames identifying several uses of subliminal "flashing '' throughout the film. In an interview from the same issue, Friedkin explained, "I saw subliminal cuts in a number of films before I ever put them in The Exorcist, and I thought it was a very effective storytelling device... The subliminal editing in The Exorcist was done for dramatic effect -- to create, achieve, and sustain a kind of dreamlike state. '' However, these quick, scary flashes have been labeled "(not) truly subliminal '' and "quasi - '' or "semi-subliminal ''. In an interview in a 1999 book about the film, The Exorcist author Blatty addressed the controversy by explaining that, "There are no subliminal images. If you can see it, it 's not subliminal. ''
The editing of the title sequence was the first major project for the film title designer Dan Perri. As a result of the success of The Exorcist, Perri went on to design opening titles for a number of major films including Taxi Driver (1976), Star Wars (1977) and Gangs of New York (2002).
Lalo Schifrin 's working score was rejected by Friedkin. Schifrin had written six minutes of music for the initial film trailer but audiences were reportedly too scared by its combination of sights and sounds. Warner Bros. executives told Friedkin to instruct Schifrin to tone it down with softer music, but Friedkin did not relay the message. It has been claimed Schifrin later used the music written for The Exorcist for The Amityville Horror, but he has denied this in interviews. According to The Fear of God: The Making of the Exorcist on the 25th Anniversary DVD release of the film, Friedkin (known for his temper) literally took the tapes that Schifrin had recorded and threw them away in the studio parking lot.
In the soundtrack liner notes for his 1977 film, Sorcerer, Friedkin said that if he had heard the music of Tangerine Dream earlier, then he would have had them score The Exorcist. Instead, he used modern classical compositions, including portions of the 1972 Cello Concerto No. 1, of Polymorphia, and other pieces by Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki, Five Pieces for Orchestra by Austrian composer Anton Webern as well as some original music by Jack Nitzsche. The music was heard only during scene transitions. The 2000 "Version You 've Never Seen '' features new original music by Steve Boddacker, as well as brief source music by Les Baxter.
What is now considered the "Theme from The Exorcist '', i.e. the piano - based melody which opens the first part of Tubular Bells, the 1973 debut album by English progressive rock musician Mike Oldfield, became very popular after the film 's release, although Oldfield himself was not impressed with the way his work was used.
In 1998 a restored and remastered soundtrack was released by Warner Bros. (without Tubular Bells) that included three pieces from Lalo Schifrin 's rejected score. The pieces are "Music from the unused Trailer '', an 11 - minute "Suite from the Unused Score '', and "Rock Ballad (Unused Theme) ''.
That same year, the Japanese version of the original soundtrack LP did not include the Schifrin pieces but did include the main theme from Tubular Bells by Mike Oldfield, and the movement titled Night of the Electric Insects from George Crumb 's string quartet Black Angels.
The Greek song playing on the radio when Father Karras leaves his mother 's house is called "Paramythaki mou '' (My Tale) and is sung by Giannis Kalatzis. Lyric writer Lefteris Papadopoulos has admitted that a few years later when he was in financial difficulties he asked for some compensation for the intellectual rights of the song. Part of Hans Werner Henze 's 1966 composition Fantasia for Strings is played over the closing credits.
Upon its December 26, 1973, release, the film received mixed reviews from critics, "ranging from ' classic ' to ' claptrap '. ''
A limited special edition box set was released in 1998 for the film 's 25th anniversary; it was limited to 50,000 copies, with available copies circulating around the Internet. There are two versions: a special edition VHS released on November 10, 1998, and a special edition DVD released on December 1, 1998. The only difference between the two copies is the recording format.
The extended edition labeled "The Version You 've Never Seen '' (which was released theatrically in 2000) was released on DVD on February 3, 2004.
The extended edition was later re-released on DVD (and released on Blu - ray) with slight alterations under the new label "Extended Director 's Cut '' on October 5, 2010.
In an interview with DVD Review, Friedkin mentioned that he was scheduled to begin work on The Exorcist Blu - ray on December 2, 2008. This edition features a new restoration, including both the 1973 theatrical version and the 2000 "Version You 've Never Seen '' (re-labeled as "Extended Director 's Cut ''). It was released on October 5, 2010. A 40th Anniversary Edition Blu - ray was released on October 8, 2013, containing both cuts of the film and many of the previously released bonus features in addition to two featurettes that revolve around author William Peter Blatty.
The Exorcist: The Complete Anthology (box set) was released on DVD on October 10, 2006, and on Blu - ray on September 23, 2014. This collection includes the original theatrical release version of The Exorcist, the extended version (labelled The Exorcist: The Version You 've Never Seen on the DVD release and The Exorcist: Extended Director 's Cut on the Blu - ray release), the sequels Exorcist II: The Heretic and The Exorcist III, and the prequels Exorcist: The Beginning and Dominion: Prequel to the Exorcist.
The film earned $66.3 million in distributors ' domestic (US / CAN) rentals during its theatrical release in 1974, becoming the second most popular film of that year (trailing The Sting). After several reissues, the film eventually grossed $232,671,011 in North America, which if adjusted for inflation, would be the ninth highest - grossing film of all time and the top - grossing R - rated film of all time. To date, it has a total gross of $441,071,011 worldwide. Adjusted to 2014 prices, The Exorcist has grossed $1.794 billion.
Stanley Kauffmann, in The New Republic, wrote, "This is the scariest film I 've seen in years -- the only scary film I 've seen in years... If you want to be shaken -- and I found out, while the picture was going, that that 's what I wanted -- then The Exorcist will scare the... (shit) out of you. '' Variety noted that it was "an expert telling of a supernatural horror story... The climactic sequences assault the senses and the intellect with pure cinematic terror. '' In Castle of Frankenstein, Joe Dante called it "an amazing film, and one destined to become at the very least a horror classic. Director Friedkin 's film will be profoundly disturbing to all audiences, especially the more sensitive and those who tend to ' live ' the movies they see... Suffice it to say, there has never been anything like this on the screen before. '' Roger Ebert gave the film a 4 - out - of - 4 star review, praising the actors (particularly Burstyn) and the convincing special effects but at the end of the review wrote, "I am not sure exactly what reasons people will have for seeing this movie; surely enjoyment wo n't be one, because what we get here are n't the delicious chills of a Vincent Price thriller, but raw and painful experience. Are people so numb they need movies of this intensity in order to feel anything at all? ''
The reviews were not all positive. Vincent Canby, writing in The New York Times, dismissed The Exorcist as "a chunk of elegant occultist claptrap... a practically impossible film to sit through... It establishes a new low for grotesque special effects... '' Andrew Sarris complained that "Friedkin 's biggest weakness is his inability to provide enough visual information about his characters... whole passages of the movie 's exposition were one long buzz of small talk and name droppings... The Exorcist succeeds on one level as an effectively excruciating entertainment, but on another, deeper level it is a thoroughly evil film. '' Writing in Rolling Stone, Jon Landau felt the film was "nothing more than a religious porn film, the gaudiest piece of shlock this side of Cecil B. DeMille (minus that gentleman 's wit and ability to tell a story)... ''
Over the years, The Exorcist 's critical reputation has grown considerably. The film currently has an 87 % "Certified Fresh '' approval rating on the Rotten Tomatoes website, based on 67 reviews the website collected. Chicago Tribune film critic Gene Siskel placed it in the top five films released that year. BBC film critic Mark Kermode believes the film to be the best film ever made, saying: "There 's a theory that great films give back to you whatever it is you bring to them. It 's absolutely true with The Exorcist -- it reflects the anxieties of the audience. Some people think it 's an outright horror-fest, but I do n't. It was written by a devout Catholic who hoped it would make people think positively about the existence of God. William Peter Blatty, who wrote the book, thought that if there are demons then there are also angels and life after death. He could n't see why people thought it was scary. I 've seen it about 200 times and every time I see something I have n't seen before. ''
Director Martin Scorsese placed The Exorcist on his list of the 11 scariest horror films of all time. In 2008, the film was selected by Empire Magazine as one of The 500 Greatest Movies Ever Made. It was also placed on a similar list of 1000 films by The New York Times.
The Exorcist was available on home video from the early 1980s in the UK. After the British Board of Film Classification created the Video Recordings Act in 1984, the film was submitted for a home video certificate. James Ferman, Director of the Board, vetoed the decision to grant a certificate to the film, despite the majority of the group willing to pass it. It was out of Ferman 's concerns that, even with a proposed 18 certificate, the film 's notoriety would entice underage viewers to seek it out. As a result, all video copies of The Exorcist were withdrawn in the UK and remained unavailable for purchase for more than a decade.
Following a successful re-release in cinemas in 1998, the film was submitted for home video release again in February 1999, and was passed uncut with an 18 certificate, signifying a relaxation of the censorship rules with relation to home video in the UK, in part due to James Ferman 's departure. The film was shown on terrestrial television in the UK for the first time in 2001, on Channel 4.
Roger Ebert, while praising the film, believed the special effects to be so unusually graphic he wrote, "That it received an R rating and not the X is stupefying. '' Some theaters provided "Exorcist barf bags ''.
The Exorcist was nominated for ten Academy Awards in 1974, winning two. It is the first horror film to be nominated for Best Picture. At the 46th Annual Academy Awards ceremony, the film won two statuettes (highlighted in bold).
The film was nominated for:
The Exorcist was nominated for seven total Golden Globes in 1974. At the 31st Golden Globes ceremony that year, the film won four awards.
The film was nominated for
Several versions of The Exorcist have been released:
In 1998, Warner re-released the digitally remastered DVD of The Exorcist: 25th Anniversary Special Edition. The DVD includes the BBC documentary, The Fear of God: The Making of The Exorcist, highlighting the never - before - seen original non-bloody variant of the spider - walk scene.
To appease the screenwriter and some fans of The Exorcist, Friedkin reinstated the bloody variant of the spider - walk scene for the 2000 theatrically re-released version of The Exorcist: The Version You 've Never Seen. In October 2010, Warner released The Exorcist (Extended Director 's Cut & Original Theatrical Edition) on Blu - ray, including the behind - the - scenes filming of the spider - walk scene. Linda R. Hager, the lighting double for Linda Blair, was incorrectly credited for performing the stunt. In 2015, Warner Bros. finally acknowledged that stuntwoman Ann Miles was the only person who performed the stunt.
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what is the meaning of the name downpatrick | Downpatrick - wikipedia
Downpatrick (from Irish: Dún Pádraig, meaning "Patrick 's stronghold '') is a small - sized town about 33 km (21 mi) south of Belfast in County Down, Northern Ireland. It has been an important site since ancient times. Its cathedral is said to be the burial place of Saint Patrick. Today it is the county town of Down and the joint headquarters of Newry, Mourne and Down District Council. It had a population of 10,822 at the 2011 Census.
As the largest town in the Lecale area, Downpatrick is a commercial, recreational and administrative centre for the locality and serves as a hub for the nearby towns and villages. Within a 30 minutes drive from Belfast, the location serves as a commuter town for a large number of people. The town has a number of primary and post-primary schools educating students from all over the east Down area.
Downpatrick is characterised by the rolling drumlins that are a feature of the Lecale area and a legacy of glaciation during the Pleistocene, the Down drumlins themselves are underlaid by Ordovician and Silurian shales and grits. Its lowest point lies within the marshland surrounding the north east of the town, recorded as being 1.3 ft (0.40 m) below sea level. Downpatrick is approximately 22 miles (35 km) from Belfast and has a regular bus service to the city.
An early Bronze Age site was excavated in Downpatrick on the Meadowlands housing estate, revealing two round houses. One measured over 4 metres in diameter and contained a hearth in the centre, while the other round house was over seven metres across.
Some archaeological evidence indicates a Neolithic settlement at the Cathedral Hill site, which otherwise appears to have been unoccupied until the late Bronze Age. It then had an undefended settlement at least on the south west of the hill top.
Downpatrick or Duno is one of Ireland 's most ancient and historic towns. It takes its name from a dún (fort), which once stood on the hill that dominates the town and on which Down Cathedral was later built. Ptolemy, about the year AD 130, includes it (in Latin) as Dunum in his list of towns of Ireland.
The Gaelic name of the town was Rath Celtair, named after the mythological warrior of Ulster called Celtchar (in modern Irish: Cealtachair), who resided there and who fought alongside Ulster King Conchobar mac Neasa (anglicised Conor Mac Nessa). He is mentioned in the Ulster Cycle and, in particular, the Táin Bó Cuailgne. The name was superseded by the name Dún Lethglaise then Dún Dá Lethglas, which in turn gave way, in the 13th century, to the present name of Dún Phádraig (anglicised as Downpatrick) -- from the town 's connection with the patron saint of Ireland.
Saint Patrick was reputedly buried here in 461 on Cathedral Hill, together with Saint Brigit and Saint Columba. Down Cathedral was later constructed on this spot. His grave is still a place of pilgrimage on St Patricks Day (17 March each year). The Saint Patrick Visitor Centre in Downpatrick is purpose - built to tell the story of St Patrick.
From the seventh century the dominant power in Ulster were the Dál Fiatach so much so that the title "Rí Uladh '' could simultaneously mean "King of Ulster '' and "King of the Dál Fiatach ''. County Down was the ancient centre of the Dál Fiatach lands, and the chief royal site and religious centre of the Dál Fiatach was at Downpatrick from where they ruled Ulster for centuries.
In 1137, St. Malachy after resigning as Archbishop of Armagh, separating the two dioceses and appointing another as Bishop of Connor, became the Bishop of Down. He administered the diocese of Dún dá leth glas (Down) from Bangor and introduced a community of Augustinians (canons) to Dún dá leth glas dedicated to St. John the Evangelist. He repaired and enlarged Down Cathedral.
After having received a grant of Ulster from King Henry II of England, Norman Knight John de Courcy set out from Dublin in early 1177 to take possession of it. He marched north with a force of 20 knights and 300 men and reached Downpatrick four days later. Downpatrick was an open ecclesiastical town of the old type, and the invaders rode in and surprised it in the small hours of 2 February. De Courcy attacked the fortress and administrative centre of Rath Celtair (the Mound of Down), defeating and driving off Rory MacDonlevy (Ruaidhri Mac Duinnshleibhe), King of the Dál Fiatach and Ulster (Ulaid).
In 1183, John de Courcy brought in some Benedictines from the abbey of St. Werburgh in Chester (today Chester Cathedral) in England; he built a cathedral friary for them at Downpatrick. This building was destroyed by an earthquake in 1245. De Courcy reputedly found not only the bones of St. Patrick on Cathedral Hill but also the bones of St. Brigid and St. Colmcille (St. Columba). In the presence of the Papal Legate, Vivian, Cardinal - priest of Santo Stefano Rotondo (also Santo Stefano al Monte Celio), the relics were reburied on 9 June 1186.
In 1260 Brian O'Neill (Brian Ua Néill), King of Tír Eoghain (Tyrone) and who had been acknowledged as High King of Ireland by Hugh O'Conor of Connacht and Tadhg O'Brien of Thomond) marched to Downpatrick, a centre of English settlement. Allied with a Connacht force under Hugh O'Conor, he fought the foreigners in the Battle of Down. The battle took place outside the city of Down and O'Neill, eight Connacht lords, and many others died. The death of O'Neill and defeat of the Irish was lamented by the Cenél nEógain bard Gilbride MacNamee (Giolla Brighde Mac Con Midhe) (1210 -- 1272) in a poem.
Following the rebellion of Shane O'Neill in 1567, Downpatrick fell briefly into Irish hands before being re-taken by Sir Richard Morrison (Moryson).
Great scholar, poet, bishop and Franciscan theologian Aodh Mac Aingil (real name Aodh Mac Cathmhaoil) was born outside Dún (Downpatrick) in 1571.
On 21 January 1575, Franciscans John Lochran, Donagh O'Rorke, and Edmund Fitzsimon were hanged by Protestants at Downpatrick.
Cathedral Hill was the subject of an archaeologiocal investigation in Series 5 of the Channel 4 Time Team programme.
Four main thoroughfares are shown converging on a town plan of 1724, namely, English Street, Scotch (now Saul) Street, Barrack (now Scotch) Street, and Irish Street. Topography limited expansion of the town. The basic early - 18th - century street plan continued largely unchanged until 1838 when Church Street was built, followed by Market Street in 1846.
The condition of the town was greatly improved in the 18th century by a land - owning family named Southwell. The first Edward Southwell was responsible for building a shambles in 1719 and paving of the streets, which started in 1727. In 1717 he built a quay and grain store at Quoile Quay, contributing to the economic expansion of the town. The second Edward Southwell was responsible for building Southwell School in 1733, considered one of the most beautiful examples of a Georgian charity school and almshouse.
Down County Infirmary was established in a house in Saul Street in October 1767, were it operated for seven years. It was moved to Barrack Lane (now Fountain Street) where the former Horse Barracks was purchased in 1774 for £ 150 for use as the Infirmary. It was used until the new Infirmary (now the Downe Hospital) was opened in 1834.
In June 1778, John Wesley, the founder of Methodism famously preached both in the new preaching house in Downpatrick and in The Grove beside the ruins of Down Cathedral which he called a "noble ruin ''.
On 21 October 1803, co-founder and leader of the United Irishmen, Thomas Russell, "the man from God knows where '', was hanged outside Downpatrick Gaol for his part in Robert Emmet 's failed rebellion of the same year. Thomas Russell is buried in the graveyard of the Anglican parish Church of Downpatrick, St Margaret 's, in a grave paid for by his great friend, Mary Ann McCracken sister of leading Belfast United Irishman Henry Joy McCracken.
In his role as barrister, Daniel O'Connell, "The Liberator '', was called away from London to Downpatrick to attend the County Down Assizes, as counsel in a case heard on 1 April 1829. As the leading proponent campaigning for Catholic Emancipation, he had been in London for the passage in its final legislative stages of the Emancipation Bill from the British House of Commons through to the House of Lords and thence into law. Once passed, the Emancipation Act 1829 allowed Catholics to become members of parliament in the British House of Commons, something which they had been previously barred from doing. Taken along with the highly significant Catholic Relief Act 1829 which O'Connell had also vigorously campaigned for, and which saw amongst other things repeal of the remaining Penal Laws, many of the substantial restrictions on Catholics in the United Kingdom were now lifted.
On 30 March 1829, a meeting of the Catholics of the parish of Down, under the chairmanship of the Rev. Cornelius Denvir, voted an address of gratitude to O'Connell on having achieved Emancipation. A deputation presented this address to O'Connell. On 2 April 1829 O'Connell was present at a public dinner at Downpatrick in his honour attended by ' upwards of eighty gentlemen, of different religious persuasions '.
On 17 March 1848, a crowd of between 2,000 -- 3,000 set off from Old Course Road intending to march to the reputed grave of St. Patrick on Cathedral Hill but were attacked en route by Orange protesters at the Irish Street shambles who had heard about the St. Patrick 's day parade; a riot ensued.
Downpatrick, throughout the course of The Troubles, had a significant paramilitary presence in the town, mostly through the presence of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) & Irish National Liberation Army (INLA)
Downpatrick is classified as a medium town by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (i.e. with population between 10,000 and 18,000 people). On Census day (29 April 2001) there were 10,316 people living in Downpatrick. Of these:
The area is served by two weekly newspapers:
Community Radio:
Downpatrick is home to RGU Dún Phádraig GAC. The Russell Gaelic Union was formed by an Englishman, a Scotsman, and an Irishman: Willie King, Alex McDowell, and Willie Byrne, respectively, in the county town in the early 20th century. The team traditionally wears green and white hoops. Downpatrick has had mixed fortunes over the years but has still managed to produce excellent county footballers such as Ray McConville, Conor Deegan, and Barry Breen, all of whom won All - Irelands with Down. Peter and Damien Turley are current Down players. The club was named in honor of United Irishman, Thomas Russell (rebel).
Downpatrick Cricket Club has won the Irish Senior Cup on two occasions, the NCU Senior League on six occasions and the NCU Challenge Cup on six occasions. The club 's Strangford Road ground has hosted Ireland international matches, most recently against Australia "A '' and South Africa in 1998.
The community of Downpatrick also features two Rugby Clubs. These clubs are Ballynahinch Rugby Football and Dromorer Rugby Football.
Downpatrick 's most prominent team is Downpatrick F.C., which competes in the Northern Amateur Football League. There are, however, numerous other clubs associated with the town, and others from surrounding areas. These include Castleabbey F.C, Ballynagross F.C and Rossglass County F.C
There are also many youth teams such as the Celtic Bhoys, Ballynagross Shamrocks, Rossglass and Patrician, who along with many other teams in the area, participate in the Downpatrick Youth League. Downpatrick also has two female clubs in the town Ballyvange Ladies F.C & Downpatrick Ladies F.C who compete in The Northern Ireland Woman 's Football Association. Most famous football side out of Downpatrick were Downpatrick Rec who won the Steel & Sons Cup in 1978. Downpatrick is home to one of the biggest Irish branches of the Manchester United Supporters ' Club, the Downpatrick Manchester United Supporters ' Club, which was founded in 1993.
Downpatrick is also the home of the Downpatrick & District Snooker & Billiard League. Many of the local towns compete in the highly successful leagues. Teams from Downpatrick, Newcastle, Ballynahinch, Crossgar, Drumaness, Ballykinler, Castlewellan, Newtownards and Ballyalton strive to be the best in the local district. The league currently has the Northern Ireland Billiards and Snooker Association Billiard Champion Darren Dornan playing in the league.
Downpatrick Bowling Club is situated on the Old Belfast road, Downpatrick. Having been established since the early 1950s it is only over the last several years that they have finally enjoyed a sustained period of success. The club won the Irish Bowling Association Junior Cup for the first time in their history in 2006. The following year they once again reached the final only to be beaten by Cookstown in a close encounter. However the club once again regained the Irish Cup in 2011, with a resounding victory against Kilrea. In 2011 Downpatrick also won the PGL Midweek Division 2 title.
Downpatrick Golf Club has its own club grounds. The town also has its own tennis club, Downpatrick Tennis Club. Downpatrick has several other clubs that use the facilities of the Down Leisure Centre (run by Down District Council) such as the Lecale Amateur Swimming Club, the Downpatrick School of Lifesaving and the East Down Athletics Club.
See Annals of Inisfallen
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who is the longest serving actor in eastenders | List of longest - serving soap opera actors - wikipedia
This is a list of longest - serving soap opera actors from radio and television soap operas, sorted by country. The list details actors with eight or more years spent on one soap opera, despite itinerant breaks in some cases with the actor / actress portraying multiple roles.
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tv series doc martin where is it filmed | Doc Martin - wikipedia
Doc Martin is a British television medical comedy drama series starring Martin Clunes in the title role. It was created by Dominic Minghella after the character of Dr Martin Bamford in the 2000 comedy film Saving Grace. The show is set in the fictional seaside village of Portwenn and filmed on location in the village of Port Isaac, Cornwall, England, with most interior scenes shot in a converted local barn.
Seven series aired between 2004 and 2015, and a feature - length special aired on Christmas Day 2006. The eighth and most recent series began airing on ITV on 20 September 2017, and will stream in the United States and Canada on Acorn TV. An American TV remake of the series is also being planned. While it was initially reported that the series would end after Series 9 in 2018, Martin Clunes clarified that it had only been commissioned as far as the next year, thereby not ruling out future plans by the broadcaster.
Dr Martin Ellingham (Martin Clunes), a brilliant and successful vascular surgeon at Imperial College London, develops haemophobia (a fear of blood), forcing him to stop practising surgery. He obtains a post as the sole general practitioner (GP) in the sleepy Cornish village of Portwenn, where he had spent childhood holidays with his Aunt Joan (Stephanie Cole), who owns a local farm. Upon arriving in Portwenn -- where, to his frustration, the locals address him as "Doc Martin '' -- he finds the surgery (medical clinic) in chaos and inherits an incompetent receptionist, Elaine Denham (Lucy Punch). In Series 2 -- 4, she is replaced by Pauline Lamb (Katherine Parkinson), a new receptionist, and later also a phlebotomist. In Series 5, Morwenna Newcross (Jessica Ransom) takes up the post.
The show revolves around Ellingham 's interactions with the local Cornish villagers. Despite his medical excellence, Ellingham is grouchy, pugnacious, and lacks social skills. His direct, emotionless manner offends many of the villagers, made worse by his invariably unpleasant responses to their ignorant, often foolish, comments. They perceive him to be hot - tempered and lacking in a bedside manner, whereas he feels he is performing his duties in a professional and by - the - book manner, not wasting time chatting. Ellingham is very deadpan and dresses formally in a business suit and tie, regardless of the weather or the occasion, and he never takes off his jacket, even when delivering babies. He does not smoke and has no hesitation in pointing out the risks of unhealthy behaviours, both in private and in public gatherings.
The villagers eventually discover his fear of blood, and the frequent and debilitating bouts of nausea and vomiting it causes. In spite of this handicap, Ellingham proves to be an expert diagnostician and responds effectively to various emergencies in his medical practice; thus, he gradually gains grudging respect from his neighbours. Ellingham 's aunt, Joan Norton (Stephanie Cole), provides emotional support in the face of the controversy his impatient manner causes among the villagers. When she dies after a heart attack, her sister Ruth (Eileen Atkins), a retired psychiatrist, comes to Portwenn to take care of her affairs, and eventually decides to use the village as a permanent retreat, offering Martin the support Joan had provided.
Ellingham finds it difficult to express his developing romantic feelings towards primary school teacher Louisa Glasson (Caroline Catz). He often spoils rare tender moments with, for example, a comment about an unpleasant medical condition or by requesting a stool sample. Martin eventually proposes to Louisa, but on the day of their wedding they suddenly break their engagement. Louisa leaves for a job in London; returning after six months, visibly pregnant with Martin 's child. When the child is born, the couple renew their relationship. Following much indecision, Martin resolves to remain in Portwenn and marries Louisa, but continued arguments relating to his insensitive nature lead to their becoming estranged again. In Series 7, Louisa lives in Martin 's surgery with their baby James Henry, while Martin boards in the village and sees a therapist for his inability to form and maintain relationships.
Martin Clunes originally played a character called "Dr Martin Bamford '' in the 2000 film Saving Grace and its two made - for - TV prequels, Doc Martin and Doc Martin and the Legend of the Cloutie, which were made by British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB). The prequels show Bamford as a successful obstetrician, rather than a surgeon, who finds out that his wife has been carrying on extramarital affairs behind his back. After confronting her with his discovery, he escapes London and heads for Port Isaac, a small coastal town in Cornwall which he remembers fondly from his youth. Shortly after he arrives, he is involved in the mystery of the "Jellymaker '' and, following the departure of the village 's resident GP, decides to stay and fill the vacancy. In these three films the village is not known as Portwenn.
The Martin Bamford character is friendly and laid - back, seeming to enjoy his retreat from the career pressures and conflicts he left behind in London. He drinks and smokes carelessly, including a mild illegal drug, and has no problem getting his hands and clothes dirty by temporarily working as a lobster and crab fisherman aboard a local boat.
The original deal had been to produce two television films per year for three years, but Sky Pictures folded after the first two episodes were made, so Clunes ' company tried to sell the franchise to ITV. The new network felt that the doctor character should be portrayed as a "townie '', a fish out of water who is uncomfortable in the countryside. They also wanted something darker, so Clunes suggested that the doctor be curmudgeonly, socially inept, and formal. The new doctor 's surname was changed to Ellingham, an anagram of the last name of the new writer, Dominic Minghella, who was brought in to rework the doctor 's background and create a new cast of supporting characters.
Along with Clunes, the only actors to appear in both versions of Doc Martin are Tristan Sturrock and Tony Maudsley.
Eight series totaling 62 episodes aired on ITV in the UK between 2004 and 2017. Episodes are just under 50 minutes long, except for the 2006 TV film which is 92 minutes. In the US, American Public Television provided the 2006 TV film as a two - part episode, with the second episode airing the week after the first.
In the UK, Doc Martin has been a ratings success for ITV with the third series achieving ITV 's best midweek drama performance in the 9pm Monday slot since December 2004. The final episode of the third series was watched by 10.37 million viewers, which is the programme 's highest - ever viewing figure for a single episode.
In 2009, Doc Martin was moved to a 9pm Sunday time slot for the broadcast of Series 4. That change meant that it followed - on from ITV 's The X Factor programme. Series 4 ratings were adversely affected by STV not screening the majority of ITV drama productions in Scotland. The final episode of Series 4 had ratings of 10.29 million viewers. STV went back on its decision not to screen ITV drama in Scotland. Series 4 of Doc Martin was broadcast on Sunday afternoons in August 2011.
In 2004, Doc Martin won the British Comedy Award for Best TV Comedy Drama, having also been nominated as Best New TV Comedy. In the same year, Martin Clunes won the Best TV Comedy Actor award, primarily for his portrayal of Doc Martin.
Notro Films produced a Spanish version under the title Doctor Mateo for Antena 3 Televisión. It aired in 2009 and was shot in Lastres, Asturias, called the fictional village of San Martín del Sella. French television producers Ego Productions, in cooperation with TF1, have produced a French version of the series starring Thierry Lhermitte as Dr Martin Le Foll, with the series based in the fictional Breton town of Port - Garrec.
In Germany, Doktor Martin, an adaptation of the original series, airs on ZDF with Axel Milberg as Doktor Martin Helling, a surgeon from Berlin. The counterpart of Portwenn was the real village of Neuharlingersiel in East Frisia. In Greece, Kliniki Periptosi, an adaptation of the original series, was aired in November 2011 on Mega Channel with Yannis Bezos as Markos Staikos, a surgeon from New York.
In the Netherlands Dokter Tinus based on the original series began airing in late August 2012 on SBS6, with the main role being played by actor Thom Hoffman. The series was shot in Woudrichem. A Russian version is mentioned in the Series 5 DVD bonus material. In 2014, Czech Television began filming their own TV series starring Miroslav Donutil, which is heavily inspired by the original British series. The series started to air from 4 September 2015. The Czech version is set in the Beskydy mountains, which is a picturesque area in the east of the Czech Republic, like Portwenn, a long way from the capital, Prague, and dependent on the tourist industry.
As of January 2016, an American remake of the show is being planned, led by Marta Kauffman, co-creator of the successful TV show Friends.
Series 1, 2 and 3 and "On the Edge '' were released separately in Region 1 and 2 and in the "complete Series 1 to 3 '' box set. Series 3 was released on 2 February 2010 and Series 4 was released in Region 1 and 2 on 6 July 2010. Series 5 was released in Region 1 on 5 June 2012 and Region 2 on 5 March 2012. A complete boxset of Series 1 - 5 is also available in Region 2. Series 6 of Doc Martin was released in Region 1 in December 2013 and in the UK (Region 2) on 24 March 2014. Series 7 of Doc Martin was released on DVD / Blu - ray in Region 1 on December 8, 2015 and in the UK (Region 2) on 16 November 2015.
In Region 4, Series 1, 2, 4, and "On the Edge '' were released separately and in a nine - disc boxset entitled "Doc Martin: Comedy Cure '', as well as an earlier seven - disc boxset not including Series 4. The two Sky Pictures telefilms were individually released in Region 4 (as ' Doc Martin: volume 1 ' and ' Doc Martin: volume 2, the Legend of the Cloutie ') on the Magna Pacific label, but are now out - of - print. Series 1 - 8 are streaming on Acorn TV in the U.S. and Canada. The show is available on Netflix. Series 1 - 6 are currently available on Amazon Prime Video.
In 2013, it was announced that two novels were to be released to coincide with the sixth series.
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my little pony friendship is magic episodes season 8 | My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic (season 8) - wikipedia
The eighth season of the animated television series My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic, developed by Lauren Faust, is currently airing on the Discovery Family channel in the United States. The series is based on Hasbro 's My Little Pony line of toys and animated works and is often referred by collectors to be the fourth generation, or "G4 '', of the My Little Pony franchise. Season 8 of the series premiered on March 24, 2018, on Discovery Family, an American pay television channel partly owned by Hasbro.
The show follows a pony named Twilight Sparkle as she learns about friendship in the town of Ponyville. Twilight continues to learn with her close friends Applejack, Rarity, Fluttershy, Rainbow Dash, and Pinkie Pie. Each represents a different face of friendship, and Twilight discovers herself to be a key part of the magical artifacts, the "Elements of Harmony ''. The ponies share adventures and help out other residents of Ponyville, while working out the troublesome moments in their own friendships.
On May 25, 2017, supervising director Jim Miller announced via Twitter an eighth season for the series. At Hasbro 's first self - themed convention (aptly named HasCon) on September 9, an animatic from an upcoming episode was shown.
On February 8, 2018, Discovery Family 's March press release states that this season, "viewers will witness major milestones featuring the introduction of Starlight Glimmer 's parents and Princess Celestia 's big acting debut. Additionally, the Mane 6 's Twilight Sparkle, Rarity, Applejack, Pinkie Pie, Rainbow Dash and Fluttershy are accompanied by six new creatures including Ocellus the Changeling, Silverstream the Hippogriff / Seapony, Smolder the Dragon, Gallus the Griffin, Yona the Yak and Sandbar the Pony, joining them on epic adventures throughout new and familiar lands such as Mount Aris, Everfree Forest, Las Pegasus and more. Fan - favorite characters Maud Pie, Spike, the Cutie Mark Crusaders, Queen Chrysalis and Discord return with exciting storylines and a whole lot of magic! ''
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can you sign players outside transfer window fifa 18 | Transfer window - wikipedia
The transfer window is the period during the year in which a football club can transfer players from other playing staff into their playing staff. Such a transfer is completed by registering the player into the new club through FIFA. "Transfer window '' is the unofficial term commonly used by the media for the concept of "registration period '' as described in the FIFA Regulations on the Status and Transfer of Player. According to the rules, each national football association decides on the time (such as the dates) of the ' window ' but it may not exceed 12 weeks. The second registration period occurs during the season and may not exceed four weeks.
The transfer window of a given football association governs only international transfers into that football association. International transfers out of an association are always possible to those associations that have an open window. The transfer window of the association that the player is leaving does not have to be open.
The window was introduced in response to negotiations with the European Commission. The system has been used in many European leagues before being brought into compulsory effect by FIFA during the 2002 -- 03 season. English football was initially behind the plans when they were proposed in the early 1990s, in the hope that it would improve teams ' stability and prevent agents from searching for deals all year around, but by the time it was eventually introduced they had to be persuaded that it would work. However, the exact regulations and possible exceptions are established by each competition 's governing body rather than by the national football association.
FIFA regulates in general that there shall be two windows, a longer one (max. twelve weeks) in the break between seasons and a shorter one (max. one month) in the middle of a season. The specific periods depend on the league 's season cycle and are determined by the national football authorities.
Most major European leagues commence in the second half of the year (e.g. August or September) and stretch over two calendar years to the first half of the next year (e.g. May), resulting in a close season window in the Summer ending in August, and a mid-season window in January.
The periods are different when a league runs throughout a single calendar year, as in most Nordic countries due to weather constraints, Major League Soccer due to both weather and competition from other locally popular sports (notably basketball and American football), or as the traditional season in the Southern Hemisphere. The first window generally opens from 1 March until midnight of 30 April, followed by the in - season window from 1 to 31 August.
Premier League clubs in England voted to end the summer window on the Thursday before the start of the season - on August 9 in 2018, instead of August 31. Because FIFA demands the window must be open for 12 weeks, the window will open around May 17, shortly after the final games of the season on May 13. Clubs will be able to sell players until August 31 but not buy replacements after the deadline of August 9.
Although, in England, transfers between clubs in the same league can take place as soon as the last competitive fixtures for the season have been played, many transfers will not be completed until 1 July because many players ' contracts expire on 30 June. International transfers into the English leagues (including the Premier League) can not be made until the window has opened on 17 May. Outside the transfer window, a club may still sign players on an emergency basis, usually if they have no goalkeeper available. Special dispensation from their competition 's governing body, for example the Premier League, is required. The transfer window restriction does not apply to clubs below the National League division.
If the last day of a transfer window is on a weekend, the deadline can be extended to the following Monday at the request of those involved for business reasons. The first shift of the deadline since its inception took place in summer 2008, when the deadline was extended by 24 hours to fall on Monday 1 September at midnight. The transfer deadline in England was similarly extended to 5 pm 1 September 2009, due to the August Bank Holiday. The German football league announced an extension of the January 2009 deadline to 2 February.
Free agents can be signed by a club at any time during the season, if they had been released by their previous club before the end of the transfer window. A club can request to sign a player on emergency basis, e.g. if several goalkeepers are injured at the same time. Outside the transfer window in England, once seven days have passed following the end of a transfer window, clubs from the English Football League (Regulation 53.3. 4) and (provided the player is not registered with a club from any league below the National League division) National League division (Rule 6.6. 4) can loan in players i) in the first half of the season, until 5.00 pm on the fourth Thursday in November and ii) in the second half of the season, until 5.00 pm on the fourth Thursday in March. An existing loan deal can be made permanent at any time outside the transfer window.
The day upon which a window closes is known as transfer deadline day, and is usually one of the busiest days of the window, generating a flurry of transfers, often because a number of interdependent transfers are completed resembling a housing chain, generating much media interest.
Steve Coppell, former manager of Reading in England 's Premier League, and others have called for the transfer window to be scrapped in favour of the previous system, where deals could be struck throughout the season until the closing weeks. Coppell said that the transfer window breeds panic and encourages "scurrilous '' transfer activity adding that "I can not see the logic in a transfer window. It brings on a fire - sale mentality, causes unrest via the media and means clubs buy too many players '' adding that "The old system, where if you had a problem you could look at loans or make a short - term purchase, was far better than this system we have at the moment ''. Former England Manager Sven - Göran Eriksson has also questioned the value of the transfer window, commenting: "You do wonder at times if it is right to have a window, it was easier when it was open all the time and perhaps fairer for the players. I am sure much of the business being done on the last day is a little bit desperate and that is not right. I think it was better before, but then I am old ''.
In January 2013 Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger asked for the January transfer window to be limited to two transfers per window and claimed it is "unfair '' in its current form. He cited Newcastle United transfer activity as an example. The following year, Wenger hit out at Manchester United 's £ 37m purchase of Juan Mata from rivals Chelsea. Wenger argued that the transfer was unfair because United and Chelsea had already played each other twice during the season, but United would still have to play Arsenal, and said that "the rules should be adapted more for fairness ''. Manchester City manager Manuel Pellegrini backed the sentiment of Wenger, disagreeing that a player "can go from one team to another team in the same league at this part of the year '' and also said that the winter transfer window was unbalanced in favour of big clubs, saying "a club with money can take the best players from the other teams ''.
Former Crystal Palace manager Alan Pardew questioned why the Premier League transfer window remains open after the start of the season after Arsenal made a bid for midfielder Yohan Cabaye during his time as Newcastle United manager in August 2013.
In January 2015, FIFPro said that the current transfer window system is "failing football and its players '', one of the main issues being that players are released from clubs without explanation or compensation.
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when did china adopt the one child policy | One - child policy - wikipedia
The one - child policy, a part of the family planning policy, was a population planning policy of China. It was introduced in 1979 and began to be formally phased out in 2015. The policy allowed exceptions for many groups, including ethnic minorities. In 2007, 36 % of China 's population was subject to a strict one - child restriction, with an additional 53 % being allowed to have a second child if the first child was a girl. Provincial governments imposed fines for violations, and the local and national governments created commissions to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work.
According to the Chinese government, 400 million births were prevented. This claim has been called "false '' by scholars, because "three - quarters of the decline in fertility since 1970 occurred before the launching of the one - child policy; and most of the further decline in fertility since 1980 can be attributed to economic development. '' Thailand and Iran, along with the Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, have had similar declines of fertility without a one - child policy. Although 76 % of Chinese people supported the policy in a 2008 survey, it was controversial outside of China.
On October 29, 2015, it was reported that the existing law would be changed to a two - child policy, citing a statement from the Communist Party of China. The new law became effective on January 1, 2016, following its passage in the standing committee of the National People 's Congress on December 27, 2015.
During the period of Mao Zedong 's leadership in China, the birth rate fell from 37 per thousand to 20 per thousand. Infant mortality declined from 227 per thousand births in 1949 to 53 per thousand in 1981, and life expectancy dramatically increased from around 35 years in 1948 to 66 years in 1976. Until the 1960s, the government encouraged families to have as many children as possible because of Mao 's belief that population growth empowered the country, preventing the emergence of family planning programs earlier in China 's development. The population grew from around 540 million in 1949 to 940 million in 1976. Beginning in 1970, citizens were encouraged to marry at later ages and have only two children.
Although the fertility rate began to decline, the Chinese government observed the global debate over a possible overpopulation catastrophe suggested by organizations such as Club of Rome and Sierra Club. While visiting Europe in 1979, one of the top Chinese officials, Song Jian, read two influential books of the movement, The Limits to Growth and A Blueprint for Survival. With a group of mathematicians, Song determined the correct population of China to be 700 million. A plan was prepared to reduce China 's population to the desired level by 2080, with the one - child policy as one of the main instruments of social engineering. In spite of some criticism inside the party, the plan (also referred to as the Family Planning Policy) was officially adopted in 1979. The plan called for families to have one child each in order to curb a then - surging population and limit the demands for water and other resources, as well as to alleviate social, economic and environmental problems in China. The policy was formally implemented as a temporary measure on September 18, 1980.
The one - child policy was originally designed to be a One - Generation Policy. It was enforced at the provincial level and enforcement varied; some provinces had more relaxed restrictions. The one - child limit was most strictly enforced in densely populated urban areas.
Beginning in 1980, official policy granted local officials the flexibility to make exceptions and allow second children in the case of "practical difficulties '' (such as cases in which the father is a disabled serviceman) or when both parents are single children, and some provinces had other exemptions worked into their policies as well. In most areas, families were allowed to apply to have a second child if their first - born is a daughter. Furthermore, families with children with disabilities have different policies and families whose first child suffers from physical disability, mental illness, or intellectual disability were allowed to have more children. However, second children were sometimes subject to birth spacing (usually 3 or 4 years). Children born in overseas countries were not counted under the policy if they do not obtain Chinese citizenship. Chinese citizens returning from abroad were allowed to have a second child. Sichuan province allowed exemptions for couples of certain backgrounds. By one estimate there were at least 22 ways in which parents could qualify for exceptions to the law towards the end of the one - child policy 's existence. As of 2007, only 35.9 % of the population were subject to a strict one - child limit. 52.9 % were permitted to have a second child if their first was a daughter; 9.6 % of Chinese couples were permitted two children regardless of their gender; and 1.6 % -- mainly Tibetans -- had no limit at all.
Following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, a new exception to the regulations was announced in Sichuan province for parents who had lost children in the earthquake. Similar exceptions had previously been made for parents of severely disabled or deceased children. People have also tried to evade the policy by giving birth to a second child in Hong Kong, but at least for Guangdong residents, the one - child policy was also enforced if the birth was given in Hong Kong or abroad.
In accordance with China 's affirmative action policies towards ethnic minorities, all non-Han ethnic groups are subjected to different laws and were usually allowed to have two children in urban areas, and three or four in rural areas. Han Chinese living in rural towns were also permitted to have two children. Because of couples such as these, as well as who simply pay a fine (or "social maintenance fee '') to have more children, the overall fertility rate of mainland China was close to 1.4 children per woman as of 2011.
The Family Planning Policy was enforced through a financial penalty in the form of the "social child - raising fee '', sometimes called a "family planning fine '' in the West, which was collected as a fraction of either the annual disposable income of city dwellers or of the annual cash income of peasants, in the year of the child 's birth. For instance, in Guangdong, the fee is between 3 and 6 annual incomes for incomes below the per capita income of the district, plus 1 to 2 times the annual income exceeding the average. Both members of the couple need to pay the fine.
As part of the policy, women were required to have a contraceptive intrauterine device (IUD) surgically installed after having a first child, and to be sterilized by tubal ligation after having a second child. From 1980 to 2014, 324 million Chinese women were fitted with IUDs in this way and 107 million were sterilized. Women who refused these procedures -- which many resented -- could lose their government employment and their children could lose access to education or health services. The IUDs installed in this way were modified such that they could not be removed manually, but only through surgery. In 2016, following the abolition of the one - child policy, the Chinese government announced that IUD removals would now be paid for by the government.
In 2013, Deputy Director Wang Peian of the National Health and Family Planning Commission said that "China 's population will not grow substantially in the short term ''. A survey by the commission found that only about half of eligible couples wish to have two children, mostly because of the cost of living impact of a second child.
In November 2013, following the Third Plenum of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, China announced the decision to relax the one - child policy. Under the new policy, families could have two children if one parent, rather than both parents, was an only child. This mainly applied to urban couples, since there were very few rural only children due to long - standing exceptions to the policy for rural couples. The coastal province of Zhejiang, one of China 's most affluent, became the first area to implement this "relaxed policy '' in January 2014. The relaxed policy has been implemented in 29 out of the 31 provinces, with the exceptions of Xinjiang and Tibet. Under this policy, approximately 11 million couples in China are allowed to have a second child; however, only "nearly one million '' couples applied to have a second child in 2014, less than half the expected number of 2 million per year. By May 2014, 241,000 out of 271,000 applications had been approved. Officials of China 's National Health and Family Planning Commission claimed that this outcome was expected, and that "second - child policy '' would continue progressing with a good start.
In October 2015, the Chinese news agency Xinhua announced plans of the government to abolish the one - child policy, now allowing all families to have two children, citing from a communiqué issued by the Communist Party "to improve the balanced development of population '' -- an apparent reference to the country 's female - to - male sex ratio -- and to deal with an aging population according to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. The new law took effect 1 January 2016 after it was passed in the standing committee of the National People 's Congress on 27 December 2015.
The rationale for the abolition is summarized by former Wall Street Journal reporter Mei Fong: "The reason China is doing this right now is because they have too many men, too many old people, and too few young people. They have this huge crushing demographic crisis as a result of the one - child policy. And if people do n't start having more children, they 're going to have a vastly diminished workforce to support a huge aging population. '' China 's ratio is about five working adults to one retiree; the huge retiree community must be supported, and that will dampen future growth, according to Fong.
Since the citizens of China are living longer and having fewer children, the growth of the population imbalance is expected to continue, as reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation which referred to a United Nations projections forecast that "China will lose 67 million working - age people by 2030, while simultaneously doubling the number of elderly. That could put immense pressure on the economy and government resources. '' The longer term outlook is also pessimistic, based on an estimate by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, revealed by Cai Fang, deputy director. "By 2050, one - third of the country will be aged 60 years or older, and there will be fewer workers supporting each retired person. ''
Although many critics of China 's reproductive restrictions approve of the policy 's abolition, an Amnesty International spokesperson said that the move to the two - child policy would not end forced sterilizations, forced abortions, or government control over birth permits. Others also state that the abolition is not a sign of the relaxation of authoritarian control in China. A reporter for CNN said, "It was not a sign that the party will suddenly start respecting personal freedoms more than it has in the past. No, this is a case of the party adjusting policy to conditions... The new policy, raising the limit to two children per couple, preserves the state 's role. '' The abolition may not achieve a significant benefit, as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation analysis indicates: "Repealing the one - child policy may not spur a huge baby boom, however, in part because fertility rates are believed to be declining even without the policy 's enforcement. Previous easings of the one - child policy have spurred fewer births than expected, and many people among China 's younger generations see smaller family sizes as ideal. '' The CNN reporter adds that China 's new prosperity is also a factor in the declining birth rate, saying, "Couples naturally decide to have fewer children as they move from the fields into the cities, become more educated, and when women establish careers outside the home. ''
The one - child policy was managed by the National Population and Family Planning Commission under the central government since 1981. The Ministry of Health of the People 's Republic of China and the National Health and Family Planning Commission were made defunct and a new single agency National Health and Family Planning Commission took over national health and family planning policies in 2013. The agency reports to the State Council.
The policy was enforced at the provincial level through fines that were imposed based on the income of the family and other factors. "Population and Family Planning Commissions '' existed at every level of government to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work.
According to a 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, it is complicated to evaluate the effects of the one - child policy on family outcomes because the Chinese government had already enacted aggressive family planning policy before the introduction of the one - child policy; seen a sharp drop in fertility rates before the enactment of the one - child policy; the one - child policy coincided with Chinese economic reform which would have contributed to reduced fertility rates; and other developing East Asian countries also experienced sharp declines in fertility rates. According to the study, "In general, very different views exist on how the one - child policy affected fertility: one group of studies argued that the one - child policy had a significant or decisive effect on fertility in China, while another group argued that socioeconomic development played a key role in China 's fertility decline. A plausible reconciliation of these views is that the one - child policy accelerated the already - occurring drop in fertility for a few years, but in the longer term, economic development played a more fundamental role in leading to and maintaining China 's low fertility level. To put it more bluntly, China 's fertility might well have dropped to the current low level with rapid economic development, even without the one - child policy, although the timeline of the decline would not appear quite the same. ''
The fertility rate in China continued its fall from 2.8 births per woman in 1979 (already a sharp reduction from more than five births per woman in the early 1970s) to 1.5 in 2010. This is similar to demographic transition seen in Thailand, Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu which have undergone similar changes in fertility rates without a one child policy. The One - child policy has also created an aging population where there is an increase in the elderly population.
The sex ratio of a newborn infant (between male and female births) in mainland China reached 117: 100, and stabilized between 2000 and 2013, substantially higher than the natural baseline, which ranges between 103: 100 and 107: 100. It had risen from 108: 100 in 1981 -- at the boundary of the natural baseline -- to 111: 100 in 1990. According to a report by the National Population and Family Planning Commission, there will be 30 million more men than women in 2020, potentially leading to social instability, and courtship - motivated emigration.
The disparity in the gender ratio at birth increases dramatically after the first birth, for which the ratios remained steadily within the natural baseline over the 20 year interval between 1980 and 1999. Thus, a large majority of couples appear to accept the outcome of the first pregnancy, whether it is a boy or a girl. If the first child is a girl, and they are able to have a second child, then a couple may take extraordinary steps to assure that the second child is a boy. If a couple already has two or more boys, the sex ratio of higher parity births swings decidedly in a feminine direction. This demographic evidence indicates that while families highly value having male offspring, a secondary norm of having a girl or having some balance in the sexes of children often comes into play. Zeng 1993 reported a study based on the 1990 census in which they found sex ratios of just 65 or 70 boys per 100 girls for births in families that already had two or more boys. A study by Anderson & Silver (1995) found a similar pattern among both Han and non-Han nationalities in Xinjiang Province: a strong preference for girls in high parity births in families that had already borne two or more boys. This tendency to favour girls in high parity births to couples who had already borne sons was later also noted by Coale and Banister, who suggested as well that once a couple had achieved its goal for the number of males, it was also much more likely to engage in "stopping behavior '', i.e., to stop having more children.
The long - term disparity has led to a significant gender imbalance or skewing of the sex ratio. As reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, China has between 32 million and 36 million more males than would be expected naturally, and this has led to social problems. "Because of a traditional preference for baby boys over girls, the one - child policy is often cited as the cause of China 's skewed sex ratio... Even the government acknowledges the problem and has expressed concern about the tens of millions of young men who wo n't be able to find brides and may turn to kidnapping women, sex trafficking, other forms of crime or social unrest. '' The situation will not improve in the near future. According to the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, there will be 24 million more men than women of marriageable age by 2020.
According to a 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, "existing studies indicate either a modest or minimal effect of the fertility change induced by the one - child policy on children education ''.
The one - child policy of China made it more expensive for parents with children to adopt, which may have had an effect upon the numbers of children living in state - sponsored orphanages. However, in the 1980s and early 1990s, poor care and high mortality rates in some state institutions generated intense international pressure for reform.
In the 1980s, adoptions accounted for half of the so - called "missing girls ''. Through the 1980s, as the one - child policy came into force, parents who desired a son but had a daughter often failed to report or delayed reporting female births to the authorities. Some parents may have offered up their daughters for formal or informal adoption. A majority of children who went through formal adoption in China in the later 1980s were girls, and the proportion who were girls increased over time.
In an interview with National Public Radio on October 30, 2015, Adam Pertman, president and CEO of the National Center on Adoption and Permanency, indicated that many young girls were adopted by citizens of other countries, particularly the United States, a trend which has been declining for some years. "The infant girls of yesteryear have not been available, if you will, for five, seven years. China has been... trying to keep the girls within the country... And the consequence is that, today, rather than those young girls who used to be available -- primarily girls -- today, it 's older children, children with special needs, children in sibling groups. It 's very, very different. ''
Since there are no penalties for multiple births, it is believed that an increasing number of couples are turning to fertility medicines to induce the conception of twins. According to a 2006 China Daily report, the number of twins born per year was estimated to have doubled.
The one - child policy has played a major role in improving the quality of life for women in China. For thousands of years, girls have held a lower status in Chinese households. However, the one - child policy 's limit on the number of children has prompted parents of women to start investing money in their well - being. As a result of being an only child, women have increased opportunity to receive an education, and support to get better jobs.
It is reported that the focus of China on population planning helps provide a better health service for women and a reduction in the risks of death and injury associated with pregnancy. At family planning offices, women receive free contraception and pre-natal classes that contributed to the policy 's success in two respects. First, the average Chinese household expends fewer resources, both in terms of time and money, on children, which gives many Chinese people more money with which to invest. Second, since Chinese adults can no longer rely on children to care for them in their old age, there is an impetus to save money for the future.
As the first generation of law - enforced only - children came of age for becoming parents themselves, one adult child was left with having to provide support for his or her two parents and four grandparents. Called the "4 - 2 - 1 Problem '', this leaves the older generations with increased chances of dependency on retirement funds or charity in order to receive support. If personal savings, pensions, or state welfare fail, most senior citizens would be left entirely dependent upon their very small family or neighbours for assistance. If, for any reason, the single child is unable to care for their older adult relatives, the oldest generations would face a lack of resources and necessities. In response to such an issue, all provinces have decided that couples are allowed to have two children if both parents were only children themselves: By 2007, all provinces in the nation except Henan had adopted this new policy; Henan followed in 2011.
Heihaizi (Chinese: 黑 孩子; pinyin: hēiháizi) or "black child '' is a term denoting children born outside the one - child policy, or generally children who are not registered in the Chinese national household registration system.
Being excluded from the family register (in effect, a birth certificate), they do not legally exist and as a result can not access most public services, such as education and health care, and do not receive protection under the law.
Some parents may over-indulge their only child. The media referred to the indulged children in one - child families as "little emperors ''. Since the 1990s, some people have worried that this will result in a higher tendency toward poor social communication and cooperation skills amongst the new generation, as they have no siblings at home. No social studies have investigated the ratio of these over-indulged children and to what extent they are indulged. With the first generation of children born under the policy (which initially became a requirement for most couples with first children born starting in 1979 and extending into the 1980s) reaching adulthood, such worries were reduced.
However, the "little emperor syndrome '' and additional expressions, describing the generation of Chinese singletons are very abundant in the Chinese media, Chinese academia and popular discussions. Being over-indulged, lacking self - discipline and having no adaptive capabilities are traits that are highly associated with Chinese singletons.
Some 30 delegates called on the government in the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference in March 2007 to abolish the one - child rule, citing "social problems and personality disorders in young people ''. One statement read, "It is not healthy for children to play only with their parents and be spoiled by them: it is not right to limit the number to two children per family, either. '' The proposal was prepared by Ye Tingfang, a professor at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, who suggested that the government at least restore the previous rule that allowed couples to have up to two children. According to a scholar, "The one - child limit is too extreme. It violates nature 's law. And in the long run, this will lead to mother nature 's revenge. ''
Reports surfaced of Chinese women giving birth to their second child overseas, a practice known as birth tourism. Many went to Hong Kong, which is exempt from the one - child policy. Likewise, a Hong Kong passport differs from China mainland passport by providing additional advantages. Recently though, the Hong Kong government has drastically reduced the quota of births set for non-local women in public hospitals. As a result, fees for delivering babies there have surged. As further admission cuts or a total ban on non-local births in Hong Kong are being considered, mainland agencies that arrange for expectant mothers to give birth overseas are predicting a surge in those going to North America.
As the United States practises birthright citizenship, most children born in the US will automatically have US citizenship. The closest US location from China is Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands, a US dependency in the western Pacific Ocean that allows Chinese visitors without visa restrictions. The island is currently experiencing an upswing in Chinese births. This option is used by relatively affluent Chinese who often have secondary motives as well, wishing their children to be able to leave mainland China when they grow older or bring their parents to the US. Canada is less achievable as their government denies many visa requests.
The policy is controversial outside China for many reasons, including accusations of human rights abuses in the implementation of the policy, as well as concerns about negative social consequences.
The Chinese government, quoting Zhai Zhenwu, director of Renmin University 's School of Sociology and Population in Beijing, estimates that 400 million births were prevented by the one - child policy as of 2011, while some demographers challenge that number, putting the figure at perhaps half that level, according to CNN. Zhai clarified that the 400 million estimate referred not just to the one - child policy, but includes births prevented by predecessor policies implemented one decade before, stating that "there are many different numbers out there but it does n't change the basic fact that the policy prevented a really large number of births ''.
This claim is disputed by Wang Feng, director of the Brookings - Tsinghua Center for Public Policy, and Cai Yong from the Carolina Population Center at University of North Carolina Chapel Hill Wang claims that "Thailand and China have had almost identical fertility trajectories since the mid 1980s '', and "Thailand does not have a one - child policy. '' China 's Health Ministry has also disclosed that at least 336 million abortions were performed on account of the policy.
According to a report by the US Embassy, scholarship published by Chinese scholars and their presentations at the October 1997 Beijing conference of the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population seemed to suggest that market - based incentives or increasing voluntariness is not morally better but that it is in the end more effective. In 1988, Zeng Yi and Professor T. Paul Schultz of Yale University discussed the effect of the transformation to the market on Chinese fertility, arguing that the introduction of the contract responsibility system in agriculture during the early 1980s weakened family planning controls during that period. Zeng contended that the "big cooking pot '' system of the People 's Communes had insulated people from the costs of having many children. By the late 1980s, economic costs and incentives created by the contract system were already reducing the number of children farmers wanted.
A long - term experiment in a county in Shanxi Province, in which the family planning law was suspended, suggested that families would not have many more children even if the law were abolished. A 2003 review of the policy - making process behind the adoption of the one - child policy shows that less intrusive options, including those that emphasized delay and spacing of births, were known but not fully considered by China 's political leaders.
Corrupted government officials and especially wealthy individuals have often been able to violate the policy in spite of fines. Filmmaker Zhang Yimou had three children and was subsequently fined 7.48 million yuan ($1.2 million). For example, between 2000 and 2005, as many as 1,968 officials in central China 's Hunan province were found to be violating the policy, according to the provincial family planning commission; also exposed by the commission were 21 national and local lawmakers, 24 political advisors, 112 entrepreneurs and 6 senior intellectuals.
Some of the offending officials did not face penalties, although the government did respond by raising fines and calling on local officials to "expose the celebrities and high - income people who violate the family planning policy and have more than one child ''. Also, people who lived in the rural areas of China were allowed to have two children without punishment, although the family is required to wait a couple of years before having another child.
The one - child policy has been challenged for violating a human right to determine the size of one 's own proper family. According to a 1968 proclamation of the International Conference on Human Rights, "Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children. ''
According to the UK newspaper The Daily Telegraph, a quota of 20,000 abortions and sterilizations was set for Huaiji County in Guangdong Province in one year due to reported disregard of the one - child policy. According to the article local officials were being pressured into purchasing portable ultrasound devices to identify abortion candidates in remote villages. The article also reported that women as far along as 8.5 months pregnant were forced to abort, usually by an injection of saline solution. A 1993 book by social scientist Steven W. Mosher reported that women in their ninth month of pregnancy, or already in labour, were having their children killed whilst in the birth canal or immediately after birth.
According to a 2005 news report by Australian Broadcasting Corporation correspondent John Taylor, China outlawed the use of physical force to make a woman submit to an abortion or sterilization in 2002 but ineffectively enforces the measure. In 2012, Feng Jianmei, a villager from central China 's Shaanxi province was forced into an abortion by local officials after her family refused to pay the fine for having a second child. Chinese authorities have since apologized and two officials were fired, while five others were sanctioned.
In the past China promoted eugenics as part of its population planning policies, but the government has backed away from such policies, as evidenced by China 's ratification of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which compels the nation to significantly reform its genetic testing laws. Recent research has also emphasized the necessity of understanding a myriad of complex social relations that affect the meaning of informed consent in China. Furthermore, in 2003, China revised its marriage registration regulations and couples no longer have to submit to a pre-marital physical or genetic examination before being granted a marriage license.
The United Nations Population Fund 's (UNFPA) support for family planning in China, which has been associated with the One - Child policy in the United States, led the United States Congress to pull out of the UNFPA during the Reagan administration, and again under George W. Bush 's presidency, citing human rights abuses and stating that the right to "found a family '' was protected under the Preamble in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. President Obama resumed U.S. government financial support for the UNFPA shortly after taking office in 2009, intending to "work collaboratively to reduce poverty, improve the health of women and children, prevent HIV / AIDS and provide family planning assistance to women in 154 countries ''.
Sex - selected abortion, abandonment, and infanticide are illegal in China. Nevertheless, the United States Department of State, the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and the human rights organization Amnesty International have all declared that infanticide still exists. A writer for the Georgetown Journal of International Affairs wrote, "The ' one - child ' policy has also led to what Amartya Sen first called ' Missing Women ', or the 100 million girls ' missing ' from the populations of China (and other developing countries) as a result of female infanticide, abandonment, and neglect ''.
The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation offered the following summary as to the long term effects of sex - selective abortion and abandonment of female infants: "Multiple research studies have also found that sex - selective abortion -- where a woman undergoes an ultrasound to determine the sex of her baby, and then aborts it if it 's a girl -- was widespread for years, particularly for second or subsequent children. Millions of female fetuses have been aborted since the 1970s. China outlawed sex selective abortions in 2005, but the law is tough to enforce because of the difficulty of proving why a couple decided to have an abortion. The abandonment, and killing, of baby girls has also been reported, though recent research studies say it has become rare, in part due to strict criminal prohibitions. ''
Anthropologist G. William Skinner at the University of California, Davis and Chinese researcher Yuan Jianhua have claimed that infanticide was fairly common in China before the 1990s.
General:
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who do you call to baker act someone | Florida mental health Act - wikipedia
The Florida Mental Health Act of 1971 (Florida Statute 394.451 - 394.47891 (2009 rev.)), commonly known as the "Baker Act, '' allows the involuntary institutionalization and examination of an individual.
The Baker Act allows for involuntary examination (what some call emergency or involuntary commitment). It can be initiated by judges, law enforcement officials, physicians, or mental health professionals. There must be evidence that the person:
Examinations may last up to 72 hours after a person is deemed medically stable and occur in over 100 Florida Department of Children and Families - designated receiving facilities statewide.
There are many possible outcomes following examination of the patient. This includes the release of the individual to the community (or other community placement), a petition for involuntary inpatient placement (what some call civil commitment), involuntary outpatient placement (what some call outpatient commitment or assisted treatment orders), or voluntary treatment (if the person is competent to consent to voluntary treatment and consents to voluntary treatment). The involuntary outpatient placement language in the Baker Act took effect as part of the Baker Act reform in 2005.
The act was named for the late Florida Democratic state representative from Miami, Maxine Baker, who served from 1963 to 1972. She had a strong interest in mental health issues, served as chair of the House Committee on Mental Health, and was the sponsor of the bill.
The nickname of the legislation has led to the term "Baker Act '' as a transitive verb, and "Baker Acted '' as a passive - voice verb, for invoking the Act to force an individual 's commitment. Although the Baker Act is a statute only for the state of Florida, use of "Baker Acting '' as a verb has become prevalent as a slang term for involuntary commitment in other regions of the United States.
Specific criteria must be met in order to initiate involuntary examination. Among those criteria are the following elements, that by themselves, do not qualify an individual as having met or meeting the criteria:
Reason to believe that the person has a mental illness; refusal of voluntary examination; the person is unable to determine whether examination is necessary. Criteria are not met simply because a person has mental illness, appears to have mental problems, takes psychiatric medication, or has an emotional outburst. Criteria are not met simply because a person refuses voluntary examination. Criteria are not met if there are family members or friends that will help prevent any potential and present threat of substantial harm.
The criteria, as stated in the statute, mentions a substantial likelihood that without care or treatment the person will cause serious bodily harm in the near future. ("Substantial '' means ample, considerable, firm or strong.)
To further clarify this point of substantial likelihood, there must be evidence of recent behavior to justify the substantial likelihood of serious bodily harm in the near future. Moments in the past, when an individual may have considered harming themselves or another, do not qualify the individual as meeting the criteria. ("Near '' means close, short, or draws near.)
An editorial in the Tampa Bay Times wrote that the Act is currently only a bandaid solution and should be reformed to allow public defenders to have access to the patient 's medical records and ongoing counseling and outpatient mental health treatment should be provided to the patient.
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when is season 6 of lego ninjago coming out on netflix | List of Lego Ninjago: Masters of Spinjitzu episodes - Wikipedia
Lego Ninjago: Masters of Spinjitzu (also known as Ninjago), is a Danish - Canadian animated television series produced by Wil Film ApS and distributed by The Lego Group. Based on the Lego Construction Toys of the same name, it centers on the fictional world of Ninjago, telling the story of a group of Ninja, and their battles against the forces of evil.
To date, eight seasons (totaling 84 episodes) have been produced, along with two pilot episodes, six mini movies and one extended special.
The two pilot episodes were aired in January 2011, coinciding with the launch of the Lego theme. Their popularity led the first two full seasons (' Rise of the Serpentine ' and ' The Green Ninja ') to be commissioned. These each consisted of 13 episodes. Both the Lego theme and the TV series had an intended shelf life of three years, so it was expected that the second season would be the last. However, after comments from fans, it was soon revived and has been in production ever since.
Season 9 (COMING SOON)
The Nindroids melt down the fused Golden Weapons into a suit of armor for the Overlord, who has fully transformed into the Golden Master. The ninja return to Ninjago from space to find the Golden Master wreaking havoc on the city. Using the Temple of Fortitude, the ninja gain a means of hiding from the Golden Master and his destructive powers by wearing Stone Warrior armor. The ninja, Wu and Garmadon converge on the Golden Master. The group attempts to shrink the Golden Master using a pill, but this fails because of Pythor 's intervention, which shrinks him down to a minuscule size. As his allies are quickly seized by the Golden Master 's web, Zane sacrifices himself to save the others, killing himself and the Golden Master. In the end, a remembrace ceremony is held for Zane, and in Borg 's tower, P.I.X.A.L. finds that he may still be alive.
After the ninja arrive at Chen 's island, Garmadon tells them he used to train under Chen. When inside, Chen himself greets the Elemental Fighters, and teaches them about the Tournament of Elements and the Jade Blades. In the end, Karlof becomes the first Elemental Master to lose. While the ninja are searching for Zane, they accidentally stumble into a secret gathering of Chen and his cultists just in time to see Chen steal Karlof 's powers.
The very first one - hour special of Lego Ninjago.
This season aired first on Cartoon Network UK in April as part of Easter Holidays.
The scene opens up with a flashback of Harumi 's childhood. The Apartment Complex is getting attacked by the Great Devourer. Harumi manages to escape because her parents push her into a packed elevator at the last second, and they get killed by the building collapsing moments later. Later Harumi is seen with nurses and one of the nurses say "Well are n't you the Quiet One. '' The next scene opens up in the present and Lloyd and Harumi are in the Oni Temple trying to avoid the hidden traps. Harumi sets off one of the traps on purpose hoping to kill Lloyd but the cave closes in instead. Meanwhile the Ninja are on the Bounty tied up after being captured by the Sons of Garmadon. The Ninja try to reason with the Sons of Garmadon that nothing good happens when a villain awakens a ancient evil. They ignored it because Ultra Violet says "Good thing the Quiet One is n't a bad guy, but a bad girl. '' Lloyd and Harumi find the Mask of Hatred, but when Harumi tries to take it, a force prevents her from doing so. Harumi then says to Lloyd, "Only someone with Oni blood can take the mask. '' Lloyd then finds out Harumi is the Quiet One because she 's not suppose to know he 's part Oni because she never went to Mistake 's tea shop with him and Jay. Harumi tries to tricks Lloyd by telling him she loves him but fails. Then Lloyd and Harumi start fighting and Harumi reveals that her parents were killed by the Great Devourer by saying, "Lloyd you are n't so naïve to think nobody got hurt that day did you?... It was n't until the all mighty Lord Garmadon saved the day, but he could n't save my family... It was to late... I died that day too. '' She also reveals that she wants to resurrect Garmadon to bring Ninjago back to it 's glory, along with have him destroy Lloyd so he feels the pain Harumi felt when she lost her parents. They continue to fight and Harumi puts on the Mask and defeats the heartbroken Lloyd easily.
The Ninja return to Ninjago and go to the Police Station for help stopping the Return of Garmadon and saving Lloyd. The Police Commissioner agrees and they go plan to attack the Sons of Garmadon at nightfall. Meanwhile Harumi, a.k.a "The Quiet One, '' returns to the Palace of Secrets which is actually the Temple of Resurrection to plan for the ceremony. Harumi threatens Misako 's life if the Ninja come and stop the ceremony. Lloyd tells Harumi to leave his mother out of their conflict because it was just between them. Harumi breaks Lloyd 's heart again by saying there was never anything between them. Harumi walks away and starts whistling her creepy lullaby. Later on it 's night time and the Police invade the Temple to distract members of the Sons of Garmadon so the Ninja can stop Harumi and the ceremony. Harumi begins the ceremony and reaches out to the Departed Realm with the Oni Masks to get Lord Garmadon. Meanwhile, the Ninja hide in the shadows and knock out Luke Cunningham and eventually get to the resurrection part of the temple. The Ninja see Harumi reaching out to Garmadon, but when they hear Garmadon 's voice, they quickly run in to stop the ceremony. Things get tough when they also have to save Lloyd and Misako and stop the Sons of Garmadon. Nya and Cole save Lloyd and Misako while Jay, Kai and Zane take on Sons of Garmadon members and try to stop the ceremony. Lloyd and the Ninja must fight the wind - like force field surrounding Harumi and the portal by using Spinjitzu. Lloyd gets into the circle and knocks Harumi out of the center and stops the ceremony. The Police come running to the resurrection part of the temple and start arresting members of the Sons of Garmadon. Cole, Jay and a couple of policemen take down Killow together. Misako and Lloyd have a mother and son talk, as Lloyd feels bad that she got involved because he trusted Harumi, (the former love of his life.) Misako comforts him by assuring him that this was n't his fault and saying, "Your only mistake is that you 're trusting and good, and see the best in people. '' Lloyd says in response, "Not anymore. '' The Ninja come out of the temple and are cheered on by the police. During this Lloyd sees Harumi getting escorted to a police car. Harumi tries to trick Lloyd again, but Lloyd does n't fall for it; Lloyd 's final words to Harumi are: "Stop. Save it for someone who cares. It looks like you were wrong. You were n't the one who got away. '' Lloyd closes the door on Harumi 's face and looks down in sadness as the car drives away.
Garmadon, with Harumi and the S.O.G., begins his conquering of Ninjago. The ninja find the badly hurt Lloyd and take him to Mistaké 's Tea Shop. There, they manage to save Lloyd, but now he has no more elemental powers. Garmadon arrives in Ninjago City and uses his new giant stone Colossi which he built after unlocking his true potential. Kai, Jay, Zane, and Cole go to fight it, after receiving a mysterious package from Mistaké. The 4 ninja and P.I.X.A.L. try fighting the Colossi, but with no success. In the meantime, Garmadon goes to steal Baby Wu, but runs into is Misako, Nya and Lloyd. Lloyd runs away with Wu, but Harumi (who has the Mask of Hatered) and the S.O.G. start chasing him. The ninja arrive in Destiny 's Bounty and rescue Wu, but Lloyd gets captured by Harumi who forces him to watch how the Colossi destroys the Bounty. Now, powerless and believing that he has lost his friends, Lloyd tells Harumi that he 'll continue fighting and jumps away, being caught by Nya, P.I.X.A.L. and Misako. The 4 run away, into hiding. On top of a building, Garmadon continues watching how the Colossi destroys the city and Proclaims himself as the New Emperor of Ninjago.
Being the only separately released shorts in canon with the storyline, these are set between the Pilot Episodes and Season One.
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when did the last person from the titanic die | Millvina Dean - wikipedia
Eliza Gladys "Millvina '' Dean (2 February 1912 -- 31 May 2009) was a British civil servant, cartographer, and the last remaining survivor of the sinking of the RMS Titanic on 15 April 1912. At 2 months old, she was also the youngest passenger aboard.
Dean was born in Branscombe, England, to Bertram Frank Dean (1886 -- 1912) and Georgette Eva Light (1879 -- 1975). She had an older brother, Bertram Vere Dean, born 21 May 1910. She never married and had no children. Her father died on the Titanic; her mother died on 16 September 1975, aged 96; and her brother died on 14 April 1992, age 81, the 80th anniversary of the iceberg collision.
Dean 's parents decided to leave the United Kingdom and emigrate to Wichita, Kansas, where her father had relatives, and his cousin owned a tobacco shop that he was going to co-own. They were not supposed to be aboard the Titanic, but due to a coal strike, they were transferred onto it and boarded it as third - class passengers at Southampton, England. Dean was barely two months old when she boarded the ship. Her father felt its collision with the iceberg on the night of 14 April 1912, and after investigating, returned to his cabin, telling his wife to dress the children and go up on deck. Dean, her mother, and her brother were placed in Lifeboat 10 and were among the first third - class passengers to escape. Her father, however, did not survive, and his body, if recovered, was never identified.
At first, Dean 's mother wanted to continue on to Kansas to fulfil her husband 's wish of a new life in the United States. However, after losing him and being left with two small children for whom to care, they returned to Britain aboard the RMS Adriatic. While aboard the ship, Dean attracted considerable attention. An article in the Daily Mirror dated 12 May 1912 described the ordeal:
Millvina and Bertram were raised mostly on pension funds and educated in Southampton schools, including The Gregg School. It was not until she was eight years old, and her mother was planning to remarry, that Dean was told she had been a passenger on the Titanic.
Dean worked for the British government during the Second World War and later as a purchaser for a local engineering firm. Other careers she held were as a cartographer, a secretary, and an assistant to a tobacconist.
It was not until Dean was in her seventies that she became involved in Titanic - related events. Over the years, she participated in numerous conventions, exhibitions, documentaries, radio and television interviews, and personal correspondence. In 1998, she travelled to the United States to participate in a Titanic convention in Springfield, Massachusetts, and another in 1999 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. She had also been scheduled to appear at a commemoration of the 94th anniversary of the sinking in 2006, but a broken hip prevented her appearance. She also appeared in the History special Titanic 's Final Moments: Missing Pieces.
In October 2007, Dean became the last Titanic survivor following the death of Barbara West Dainton, who died at age 96 in England.
In December 2007, Dean criticised the BBC and its television programme Doctor Who for including an episode with a starship "cruise liner '' called the Titanic, that was similar in appearance to the historical liner. Speaking from her nursing home, she said: "The Titanic was a tragedy which tore so many families apart. I lost my father and he lies on that wreck. I think it is disrespectful to make entertainment of such a tragedy. '' A spokeswoman for the show said: "No offence was intended. ' Voyage of the Damned ' is set on a spaceship called The Titanic and not a boat. ''
In April 2008, Dean had accepted an invitation to speak in Southampton at an event commemorating the 96th anniversary of the sinking, but ill health resulting from a respiratory infection forced her to cancel.
In December 2008, at age 96, Dean was forced to sell several of her family 's possessions to pay for her private medical care following a broken hip. These included a letter sent to her mother from the Titanic Relief Fund, and a suitcase given to her and her mother in New York following the sinking. Their sale raised approximately £ 32,000. In February 2009, she announced that she would be selling several more items to pay for her increasing medical costs which she said exceeded £ 3,000 a month.
Dean died of pneumonia on the morning of 31 May 2009, 97 years and seven weeks after the Titanic sailed, at a care home in Ashurst, Hampshire. She was cremated, and on 24 October 2009, her ashes were scattered from a launch at the docks in Southampton where the Titanic set sail.
In response to the escalating cost of Dean 's healthcare, The Millvina Fund was set up in April 2009 by the Belfast, British, and International Titanic Societies with the exclusive aim of taking care of her nursing home bills. It was given a boost by the Irish author and campaigning journalist, Don Mullan, at the opening of his worldwide Nokia photographic exhibition, A Thousand Reasons for Living, (featuring a portrait of Dean) in Dublin on 22 April 2009. Mullan introduced an additional portrait of Dean 's hands, as she signed a card for a Titanic autograph collector, which he produced as a limited edition of 100 copies. He made the edition available at € 500 each and then challenged the director and stars of the film Titanic (1997) - James Cameron, Leonardo DiCaprio, and Kate Winslet - singer Celine Dion, and the corporations Sony Music, 20th Century Fox, and Paramount Pictures to match him euro - for - euro to support her with her bills. DiCaprio and Winslet led the way with a joint contribution of US $20,000. Cameron and Dion donated US $10,000 each.
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when was the eiffel tower built and who built it | Eiffel tower - wikipedia
The Eiffel Tower (/ ˈaɪfəl / EYE - fəl; French: tour Eiffel (tuʁ ‿ ɛfɛl) (listen)) is a wrought iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower.
Constructed from 1887 -- 89 as the entrance to the 1889 World 's Fair, it was initially criticized by some of France 's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, but it has become a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognisable structures in the world. The Eiffel Tower is the most - visited paid monument in the world; 6.91 million people ascended it in 2015.
The tower is 324 metres (1,063 ft) tall, about the same height as an 81 - storey building, and the tallest structure in Paris. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres (410 ft) on each side. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to become the tallest man - made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York City was finished in 1930. Due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres (17 ft). Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second tallest structure in France after the Millau Viaduct.
The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top level 's upper platform is 276 m (906 ft) above the ground -- the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift (elevator) to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the climb from the first level to the second. Although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually accessible only by lift.
The design of the Eiffel Tower was the product of Maurice Koechlin and Émile Nouguier, two senior engineers working for the Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel, after discussion about a suitable centrepiece for the proposed 1889 Exposition Universelle, a world 's fair to celebrate the centennial of the French Revolution. Eiffel openly acknowledged that inspiration for a tower came from the Latting Observatory built in New York City in 1853. In May 1884, working at home, Koechlin made a sketch of their idea, described by him as "a great pylon, consisting of four lattice girders standing apart at the base and coming together at the top, joined together by metal trusses at regular intervals ''. Eiffel initially showed little enthusiasm, but he did approve further study, and the two engineers then asked Stephen Sauvestre, the head of company 's architectural department, to contribute to the design. Sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments.
The new version gained Eiffel 's support: he bought the rights to the patent on the design which Koechlin, Nougier, and Sauvestre had taken out, and the design was exhibited at the Exhibition of Decorative Arts in the autumn of 1884 under the company name. On 30 March 1885, Eiffel presented his plans to the Société des Ingénieurs Civils; after discussing the technical problems and emphasising the practical uses of the tower, he finished his talk by saying the tower would symbolise,
Not only the art of the modern engineer, but also the century of Industry and Science in which we are living, and for which the way was prepared by the great scientific movement of the eighteenth century and by the Revolution of 1789, to which this monument will be built as an expression of France 's gratitude.
Little progress was made until 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as president of France and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as minister for trade. A budget for the exposition was passed and, on 1 May, Lockroy announced an alteration to the terms of the open competition being held for a centrepiece to the exposition, which effectively made the selection of Eiffel 's design a foregone conclusion, as entries had to include a study for a 300 m (980 ft) four - sided metal tower on the Champ de Mars. (A 300 - meter tower was then considered a herculean engineering effort). On 12 May, a commission was set up to examine Eiffel 's scheme and its rivals, which, a month later, decided that all the proposals except Eiffel 's were either impractical or lacking in details.
After some debate about the exact location of the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. This was signed by Eiffel acting in his own capacity rather than as the representative of his company, and granted him 1.5 million francs toward the construction costs: less than a quarter of the estimated 6.5 million francs. Eiffel was to receive all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition and for the next 20 years. He later established a separate company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself.
The proposed tower had been a subject of controversy, drawing criticism from those who did not believe it was feasible and those who objected on artistic grounds. These objections were an expression of a long - standing debate in France about the relationship between architecture and engineering. It came to a head as work began at the Champ de Mars: a "Committee of Three Hundred '' (one member for each metre of the tower 's height) was formed, led by the prominent architect Charles Garnier and including some of the most important figures of the arts, such as Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Maupassant, Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet. A petition called "Artists against the Eiffel Tower '' was sent to the Minister of Works and Commissioner for the Exposition, Charles Alphand, and it was published by Le Temps on 14 February 1887:
We, writers, painters, sculptors, architects and passionate devotees of the hitherto untouched beauty of Paris, protest with all our strength, with all our indignation in the name of slighted French taste, against the erection... of this useless and monstrous Eiffel Tower... To bring our arguments home, imagine for a moment a giddy, ridiculous tower dominating Paris like a gigantic black smokestack, crushing under its barbaric bulk Notre Dame, the Tour Saint - Jacques, the Louvre, the Dome of les Invalides, the Arc de Triomphe, all of our humiliated monuments will disappear in this ghastly dream. And for twenty years... we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the hateful column of bolted sheet metal.
Gustave Eiffel responded to these criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian pyramids: "My tower will be the tallest edifice ever erected by man. Will it not also be grandiose in its way? And why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris? '' These criticisms were also dealt with by Édouard Lockroy in a letter of support written to Alphand, ironically saying, "Judging by the stately swell of the rhythms, the beauty of the metaphors, the elegance of its delicate and precise style, one can tell this protest is the result of collaboration of the most famous writers and poets of our time '', and he explained that the protest was irrelevant since the project had been decided upon months before, and construction on the tower was already under way.
Indeed, Garnier was a member of the Tower Commission that had examined the various proposals, and had raised no objection. Eiffel was similarly unworried, pointing out to a journalist that it was premature to judge the effect of the tower solely on the basis of the drawings, that the Champ de Mars was distant enough from the monuments mentioned in the protest for there to be little risk of the tower overwhelming them, and putting the aesthetic argument for the tower: "Do not the laws of natural forces always conform to the secret laws of harmony? ''
Some of the protesters changed their minds when the tower was built; others remained unconvinced. Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the tower 's restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible.
By 1918, it had become a symbol of Paris and of France after Guillaume Apollinaire wrote a nationalist poem in the shape of the tower (a calligram) to express his feelings about the war against Germany. Today, it is widely considered to be a remarkable piece of structural art, and is often featured in films and literature.
Work on the foundations started on 28 January 1887. Those for the east and south legs were straightforward, with each leg resting on four 2 m (6.6 ft) concrete slabs, one for each of the principal girders of each leg. The west and north legs, being closer to the river Seine, were more complicated: each slab needed two piles installed by using compressed - air caissons 15 m (49 ft) long and 6 m (20 ft) in diameter driven to a depth of 22 m (72 ft) to support the concrete slabs, which were 6 m (20 ft) thick. Each of these slabs supported a block of limestone with an inclined top to bear a supporting shoe for the ironwork.
Each shoe was anchored to the stonework by a pair of bolts 10 cm (4 in) in diameter and 7.5 m (25 ft) long. The foundations were completed on 30 June, and the erection of the ironwork began. The visible work on - site was complemented by the enormous amount of exacting preparatory work that took place behind the scenes: the drawing office produced 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detailed drawings of the 18,038 different parts needed. The task of drawing the components was complicated by the complex angles involved in the design and the degree of precision required: the position of rivet holes was specified to within 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) and angles worked out to one second of arc. The finished components, some already riveted together into sub-assemblies, arrived on horse - drawn carts from a factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois - Perret and were first bolted together, with the bolts being replaced with rivets as construction progressed. No drilling or shaping was done on site: if any part did not fit, it was sent back to the factory for alteration. In all, 18,038 pieces were joined together using 2.5 million rivets.
At first the legs were constructed as cantilevers, but about halfway to the first level, construction was paused in order to create a substantial timber scaffold. This renewed concerns about the structural integrity of the tower, and sensational headlines such as "Eiffel Suicide! '' and "Gustave Eiffel Has Gone Mad: He Has Been Confined in an Asylum '' appeared in the tabloid press. At this stage, a small "creeper '' crane designed to move up the tower was installed in each leg. They made use of the guides for the lifts which were to be fitted in the four legs. The critical stage of joining the legs at the first level was completed by the end of March 1888. Although the metalwork had been prepared with the utmost attention to detail, provision had been made to carry out small adjustments in order to precisely align the legs; hydraulic jacks were fitted to the shoes at the base of each leg, capable of exerting a force of 800 tonnes, and the legs were intentionally constructed at a slightly steeper angle than necessary, being supported by sandboxes on the scaffold. Although construction involved 300 on - site employees, only one person died thanks to Eiffel 's stringent safety precautions and the use of movable gangways, guardrails and screens.
The start of the erection of the metalwork.
7 December 1887: Construction of the legs with scaffolding.
20 March 1888: Completion of the first level.
15 May 1888: Start of construction on the second stage.
21 August 1888: Completion of the second level.
26 December 1888: Construction of the upper stage.
15 March 1889: Construction of the cupola.
Equipping the tower with adequate and safe passenger lifts was a major concern of the government commission overseeing the Exposition. Although some visitors could be expected to climb to the first level, or even the second, lifts clearly had to be the main means of ascent.
Constructing lifts to reach the first level was relatively straightforward: the legs were wide enough at the bottom and so nearly straight that they could contain a straight track, and a contract was given to the French company Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape for two lifts to be fitted in the east and west legs. Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape used a pair of endless chains with rigid, articulated links to which the car was attached. Lead weights on some links of the upper or return sections of the chains counterbalanced most of the car 's weight. The car was pushed up from below, not pulled up from above: to prevent the chain buckling, it was enclosed in a conduit. At the bottom of the run, the chains passed around 3.9 m (12 ft 10 in) diameter sprockets. Smaller sprockets at the top guided the chains.
Installing lifts to the second level was more of a challenge because a straight track was impossible. No French company wanted to undertake the work. The European branch of Otis Brothers & Company submitted a proposal but this was rejected: the fair 's charter ruled out the use of any foreign material in the construction of the tower. The deadline for bids was extended but still no French companies put themselves forward, and eventually the contract was given to Otis in July 1887. Otis were confident they would eventually be given the contract and had already started creating designs.
The car was divided into two superimposed compartments, each holding 25 passengers, with the lift operator occupying an exterior platform on the first level. Motive power was provided by an inclined hydraulic ram 12.67 m (41 ft 7 in) long and 96.5 cm (38.0 in) in diameter in the tower leg with a stroke of 10.83 m (35 ft 6 in): this moved a carriage carrying six sheaves. Five fixed sheaves were mounted higher up the leg, producing an arrangement similar to a block and tackle but acting in reverse, multiplying the stroke of the piston rather than the force generated. The hydraulic pressure in the driving cylinder was produced by a large open reservoir on the second level. After being exhausted from the cylinder, the water was pumped back up to the reservoir by two pumps in the machinery room at the base of the south leg. This reservoir also provided power to the lifts to the first level.
The original lifts for the journey between the second and third levels were supplied by Léon Edoux. A pair of 81 m (266 ft) hydraulic rams were mounted on the second level, reaching nearly halfway up to the third level. One lift car was mounted on top of these rams: cables ran from the top of this car up to sheaves on the third level and back down to a second car. Each car only travelled half the distance between the second and third levels and passengers were required to change lifts halfway by means of a short gangway. The 10 - ton cars each held 65 passengers.
The main structural work was completed at the end of March 1889 and, on 31 March, Eiffel celebrated by leading a group of government officials, accompanied by representatives of the press, to the top of the tower. Because the lifts were not yet in operation, the ascent was made by foot, and took over an hour, with Eiffel stopping frequently to explain various features. Most of the party chose to stop at the lower levels, but a few, including the structural engineer, Émile Nouguier, the head of construction, Jean Compagnon, the President of the City Council, and reporters from Le Figaro and Le Monde Illustré, completed the ascent. At 2: 35 pm, Eiffel hoisted a large Tricolour to the accompaniment of a 25 - gun salute fired at the first level.
There was still work to be done, particularly on the lifts and facilities, and the tower was not opened to the public until nine days after the opening of the exposition on 6 May; even then, the lifts had not been completed. The tower was an instant success with the public, and nearly 30,000 visitors made the 1,710 - step climb to the top before the lifts entered service on 26 May. Tickets cost 2 francs for the first level, 3 for the second, and 5 for the top, with half - price admission on Sundays, and by the end of the exhibition there had been 1,896,987 visitors.
After dark, the tower was lit by hundreds of gas lamps, and a beacon sent out three beams of red, white and blue light. Two searchlights mounted on a circular rail were used to illuminate various buildings of the exposition. The daily opening and closing of the exposition were announced by a cannon at the top.
On the second level, the French newspaper Le Figaro had an office and a printing press, where a special souvenir edition, Le Figaro de la Tour, was made. There was also a pâtisserie.
At the top, there was a post office where visitors could send letters and postcards as a memento of their visit. Graffitists were also catered for: sheets of paper were mounted on the walls each day for visitors to record their impressions of the tower. Gustave Eiffel described some of the responses as vraiment curieuse ("truly curious '').
Famous visitors to the tower included the Prince of Wales, Sarah Bernhardt, "Buffalo Bill '' Cody (his Wild West show was an attraction at the exposition) and Thomas Edison. Eiffel invited Edison to his private apartment at the top of the tower, where Edison presented him with one of his phonographs, a new invention and one of the many highlights of the exposition. Edison signed the guestbook with this message:
To M Eiffel the Engineer the brave builder of so gigantic and original specimen of modern Engineering from one who has the greatest respect and admiration for all Engineers including the Great Engineer the Bon Dieu, Thomas Edison.
Eiffel had a permit for the tower to stand for 20 years. It was to be dismantled in 1909, when its ownership would revert to the City of Paris. The City had planned to tear it down (part of the original contest rules for designing a tower was that it should be easy to dismantle) but as the tower proved to be valuable for communication purposes, it was allowed to remain after the expiry of the permit.
Eiffel made use of his apartment at the top of the tower to carry out meteorological observations, and also used the tower to perform experiments on the action of air resistance on falling bodies.
For the 1900 Exposition Universelle, the lifts in the east and west legs were replaced by lifts running as far as the second level constructed by the French firm Fives - Lille. These had a compensating mechanism to keep the floor level as the angle of ascent changed at the first level, and were driven by a similar hydraulic mechanism to the Otis lifts, although this was situated at the base of the tower. Hydraulic pressure was provided by pressurised accumulators located near this mechanism. At the same time the lift in the north pillar was removed and replaced by a staircase to the first level. The layout of both first and second levels was modified, with the space available for visitors on the second level. The original lift in the south pillar was removed 13 years later.
On 19 October 1901, Alberto Santos - Dumont, flying his No. 6 airship, won a 100,000 - franc prize offered by Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe for the first person to make a flight from St. Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and back in less than half an hour.
Many innovations took place at the Eiffel Tower in the early 20th century. In 1910, Father Theodor Wulf measured radiant energy at the top and bottom of the tower. He found more at the top than expected, incidentally discovering what are known today as cosmic rays. Just two years later, on 4 February 1912, Austrian tailor Franz Reichelt died after jumping from the first level of the tower (a height of 57 metres) to demonstrate his parachute design. In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, a radio transmitter located in the tower jammed German radio communications, seriously hindering their advance on Paris and contributing to the Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne. From 1925 to 1934, illuminated signs for Citroën adorned three of the tower 's sides, making it the tallest advertising space in the world at the time. In April 1935, the tower was used to make experimental low - resolution television transmissions, using a shortwave transmitter of 200 watts power. On 17 November, an improved 180 - line transmitter was installed.
On two separate but related occasions in 1925, the con artist Victor Lustig "sold '' the tower for scrap metal. A year later, in February 1926, pilot Leon Collet was killed trying to fly under the tower. His aircraft became entangled in an aerial belonging to a wireless station. A bust of Gustave Eiffel by Antoine Bourdelle was unveiled at the base of the north leg on 2 May 1929. In 1930, the tower lost the title of the world 's tallest structure when the Chrysler Building in New York City was completed. In 1938, the decorative arcade around the first level was removed.
Upon the German occupation of Paris in 1940, the lift cables were cut by the French. The tower was closed to the public during the occupation and the lifts were not repaired until 1946. In 1940, German soldiers had to climb the tower to hoist a swastika - centered Reichskriegsflagge, but the flag was so large it blew away just a few hours later, and was replaced by a smaller one. When visiting Paris, Hitler chose to stay on the ground. When the Allies were nearing Paris in August 1944, Hitler ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz, the military governor of Paris, to demolish the tower along with the rest of the city. Von Choltitz disobeyed the order. On 25 June, before the Germans had been driven out of Paris, the German flag was replaced with a Tricolour by two men from the French Naval Museum, who narrowly beat three men led by Lucien Sarniguet, who had lowered the Tricolour on 13 June 1940 when Paris fell to the Germans.
A fire started in the television transmitter on 3 January 1956, damaging the top of the tower. Repairs took a year, and in 1957, the present radio aerial was added to the top. In 1964, the Eiffel Tower was officially declared to be a historical monument by the Minister of Cultural Affairs, André Malraux. A year later, an additional lift system was installed in the north pillar.
According to interviews, in 1967, Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau negotiated a secret agreement with Charles de Gaulle for the tower to be dismantled and temporarily relocated to Montreal to serve as a landmark and tourist attraction during Expo 67. The plan was allegedly vetoed by the company operating the tower out of fear that the French government could refuse permission for the tower to be restored in its original location.
In 1982, the original lifts between the second and third levels were replaced after 97 years in service. These had been closed to the public between November and March because the water in the hydraulic drive tended to freeze. The new cars operate in pairs, with one counterbalancing the other, and perform the journey in one stage, reducing the journey time from eight minutes to less than two minutes. At the same time, two new emergency staircases were installed, replacing the original spiral staircases. In 1983, the south pillar was fitted with an electrically driven Otis lift to serve the Jules Verne restaurant. The Fives - Lille lifts in the east and west legs, fitted in 1899, were extensively refurbished in 1986. The cars were replaced, and a computer system was installed to completely automate the lifts. The motive power was moved from the water hydraulic system to a new electrically driven oil - filled hydraulic system, and the original water hydraulics were retained solely as a counterbalance system. A service lift was added to the south pillar for moving small loads and maintenance personnel three years later.
Robert Moriarty flew a Beechcraft Bonanza under the tower on 31 March 1984. In 1987, A.J. Hackett made one of his first bungee jumps from the top of the Eiffel Tower, using a special cord he had helped develop. Hackett was arrested by the police. On 27 October 1991, Thierry Devaux, along with mountain guide Hervé Calvayrac, performed a series of acrobatic figures while bungee jumping from the second floor of the tower. Facing the Champ de Mars, Devaux used an electric winch between figures to go back up to the second floor. When firemen arrived, he stopped after the sixth jump.
For its "Countdown to the Year 2000 '' celebration on 31 December 1999, flashing lights and high - powered searchlights were installed on the tower. Fireworks were set off all over it. An exhibition above a cafeteria on the first floor commemorates this event. The searchlights on top of the tower made it a beacon in Paris 's night sky, and 20,000 flashing bulbs gave the tower a sparkly appearance for five minutes every hour on the hour.
The lights sparkled blue for several nights to herald the new millennium On 31 December 2000. The sparkly lighting continued for 18 months until July 2001. The sparkling lights were turned on again on 21 June 2003, and the display was planned to last for 10 years before they needed replacing.
The tower received its 200,000,000 th guest on 28 November 2002. The tower has operated at its maximum capacity of about 7 million visitors since 2003. In 2004, the Eiffel Tower began hosting a seasonal ice rink on the first level. A glass floor was installed on the first level during the 2014 refurbishment.
The puddled iron (wrought iron) of the Eiffel Tower weighs 7,300 tons, and the addition of lifts, shops and antennae have brought the total weight to approximately 10,100 tons. As a demonstration of the economy of design, if the 7,300 tons of metal in the structure were melted down, it would fill the square base, 125 metres (410 ft) on each side, to a depth of only 6.25 cm (2.46 in) assuming the density of the metal to be 7.8 tons per cubic metre. Additionally, a cubic box surrounding the tower (324 mx 125 mx 125 m) would contain 6,200 tons of air, weighing almost as much as the iron itself. Depending on the ambient temperature, the top of the tower may shift away from the sun by up to 18 cm (7 in) due to thermal expansion of the metal on the side facing the sun.
When it was built, many were shocked by the tower 's daring form. Eiffel was accused of trying to create something artistic with no regard to the principles of engineering. However, Eiffel and his team -- experienced bridge builders -- understood the importance of wind forces, and knew that if they were going to build the tallest structure in the world, they had to be sure it could withstand them. In an interview with the newspaper Le Temps published on 14 February 1887, Eiffel said:
Is it not true that the very conditions which give strength also conform to the hidden rules of harmony?... Now to what phenomenon did I have to give primary concern in designing the Tower? It was wind resistance. Well then! I hold that the curvature of the monument 's four outer edges, which is as mathematical calculation dictated it should be... will give a great impression of strength and beauty, for it will reveal to the eyes of the observer the boldness of the design as a whole.
He used graphical methods to determine the strength of the tower and empirical evidence to account for the effects of wind, rather than a mathematical formula. Close examination of the tower reveals a basically exponential shape. All parts of the tower were over-designed to ensure maximum resistance to wind forces. The top half was even assumed to have no gaps in the latticework. In the years since it was completed, engineers have put forward various mathematical hypotheses in an attempt to explain the success of the design. The most recent, devised in 2004 after letters sent by Eiffel to the French Society of Civil Engineers in 1885 were translated into English, is described as a non-linear integral equation based on counteracting the wind pressure on any point of the tower with the tension between the construction elements at that point.
The Eiffel Tower sways by up to 9 centimetres (3.5 in) in the wind.
When originally built, the first level contained three restaurants -- one French, one Russian and one Flemish -- and an "Anglo - American Bar ''. After the exposition closed, the Flemish restaurant was converted to a 250 - seat theatre. A promenade 2.6 - metre (8 ft 6 in) wide ran around the outside of the first level. At the top, there were laboratories for various experiments, and a small apartment reserved for Gustave Eiffel to entertain guests, which is now open to the public, complete with period decorations and lifelike mannequins of Eiffel and some of his notable guests.
In May 2016, an apartment was created on the first level to accommodate four competition winners during the UEFA Euro 2016 football tournament in Paris in June. The apartment has a kitchen, two bedrooms, a lounge, and views of Paris landmarks including the Seine, the Sacre Coeur, and the Arc de Triomphe.
The arrangement of the lifts has been changed several times during the tower 's history. Given the elasticity of the cables and the time taken to align the cars with the landings, each lift, in normal service, takes an average of 8 minutes and 50 seconds to do the round trip, spending an average of 1 minute and 15 seconds at each level. The average journey time between levels is 1 minute. The original hydraulic mechanism is on public display in a small museum at the base of the east and west legs. Because the mechanism requires frequent lubrication and maintenance, public access is often restricted. The rope mechanism of the north tower can be seen as visitors exit the lift.
Gustave Eiffel engraved on the tower the names of 72 French scientists, engineers and mathematicians in recognition of their contributions to the building of the tower. Eiffel chose this "invocation of science '' because of his concern over the artists ' protest. At the beginning of the 20th century, the engravings were painted over, but they were restored in 1986 -- 87 by the Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel, a company operating the tower.
The tower is painted in three shades: lighter at the top, getting progressively darker towards the bottom to complement the Parisian sky. It was originally reddish brown; this changed in 1968 to a bronze colour known as "Eiffel Tower Brown ''.
The only non-structural elements are the four decorative grill - work arches, added in Sauvestre 's sketches, which served to make the tower look more substantial and to make a more impressive entrance to the exposition.
A pop - culture movie cliché is that the view from a Parisian window always includes the tower. In reality, since zoning restrictions limit the height of most buildings in Paris to seven storeys, only a small number of tall buildings have a clear view of the tower.
Maintenance of the tower includes applying 60 tons of paint every seven years to prevent it from rusting. The tower has been completely repainted at least 19 times since it was built. Lead paint was still being used as recently as 2001 when the practice was stopped out of concern for the environment.
The nearest Paris Métro station is Bir - Hakeim and the nearest RER station is Champ de Mars - Tour Eiffel. The tower itself is located at the intersection of the quai Branly and the Pont d'Iéna.
More than 250 million people have visited the tower since it was completed in 1889. In 2015, there were 6.91 million visitors. The tower is the most - visited paid monument in the world. An average of 25,000 people ascend the tower every day which can result in long queues. Tickets can be purchased online to avoid the long queues. A wall has been constructed around the tower to allow for better security, as of 2018.
The tower has two restaurants: Le 58 Tour Eiffel on the first level, and Le Jules Verne, a gourmet restaurant with its own lift on the second level. This restaurant has one star in the Michelin Red Guide. It is run by the multi-Michelin star chef Alain Ducasse and owes its name to the famous science - fiction writer Jules Verne. Additionally, there is a champagne bar at the top of the Eiffel Tower.
As one of the most iconic landmarks in the world, the Eiffel Tower has been the inspiration for the creation of many replicas and similar towers. An early example is Blackpool Tower in England. The mayor of Blackpool, Sir John Bickerstaffe, was so impressed on seeing the Eiffel Tower at the 1889 exposition that he commissioned a similar tower to be built in his town. It opened in 1894 and is 158.1 metres (518 ft) tall. Tokyo Tower in Japan, built as a communications tower in 1958, was also inspired by the Eiffel Tower.
There are various scale models of the tower in the United States, including a half - scale version at the Paris Las Vegas, Nevada, one in Paris, Texas built in 1993, and two 1: 3 scale models at Kings Island, Ohio, and Kings Dominion, Virginia, amusement parks opened in 1972 and 1975 respectively. Two 1: 3 scale models can be found in China, one in Durango, Mexico that was donated by the local French community, and several across Europe.
In 2011, the TV show Pricing the Priceless on the National Geographic Channel speculated that a full - size replica of the tower would cost approximately US $480 million to build.
The tower has been used for making radio transmissions since the beginning of the 20th century. Until the 1950s, sets of aerial wires ran from the cupola to anchors on the Avenue de Suffren and Champ de Mars. These were connected to longwave transmitters in small bunkers. In 1909, a permanent underground radio centre was built near the south pillar, which still exists today. On 20 November 1913, the Paris Observatory, using the Eiffel Tower as an aerial, exchanged wireless signals with the United States Naval Observatory, which used an aerial in Arlington, Virginia. The object of the transmissions was to measure the difference in longitude between Paris and Washington, D.C. Today, radio and digital television signals are transmitted from the Eiffel Tower.
A television antenna was first installed on the tower in 1957, increasing its height by 18.7 m (61.4 ft). Work carried out in 2000 added a further 5.3 m (17.4 ft), giving the current height of 324 m (1,063 ft). Analogue television signals from the Eiffel Tower ceased on 8 March 2011.
The tower and its image have long been in the public domain. In June 1990 a French court ruled that a special lighting display on the tower in 1989 to mark the tower 's 100th anniversary was an "original visual creation '' protected by copyright. The Court of Cassation, France 's judicial court of last resort, upheld the ruling in March 1992. The Société d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SETE) now considers any illumination of the tower to be a separate work of art that falls under copyright. As a result, the SNTE alleges that it is illegal to publish contemporary photographs of the lit tower at night without permission in France and some other countries for commercial use.
The imposition of copyright has been controversial. The Director of Documentation for what was then called the Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SNTE), Stéphane Dieu, commented in 2005: "It is really just a way to manage commercial use of the image, so that it is n't used in ways (of which) we do n't approve ''. SNTE made over € 1 million from copyright fees in 2002. However, it could also be used to restrict the publication of tourist photographs of the tower at night, as well as hindering non-profit and semi-commercial publication of images of the illuminated tower.
French doctrine and jurisprudence allows pictures incorporating a copyrighted work as long as their presence is incidental or accessory to the subject being represented, a reasoning akin to the de minimis rule. Therefore, SETE may be unable to claim copyright on photographs of Paris which happen to include the lit tower.
The Eiffel Tower was the world 's tallest structure when completed in 1889, a distinction it retained until 1929 when the Chrysler Building in New York City was topped out. The tower has lost its standing both as the world 's tallest structure and the world 's tallest lattice tower but retains its status as the tallest freestanding (non-guyed) structure in France.
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what city has the most murders in california | California locations by crime rate - wikipedia
The following is a list of California locations by crime rate.
In 2014, California reported 153,709 violent crimes (3.96 for every 1,000 people) and 947,192 property crimes (24.41 for every 1,000 people). These rates are very similar for the average county and city in California.
The following table includes the number of incidents reported and the rate per 1,000 persons for each type of offense.
There is no correlation between crime rate and population for counties in California. There is also no correlation between county crime rate and population density if the outlier of San Francisco is excluded. The median county in California has violent and property crime rates roughly the same as California 's.
San Bernardino County also has violent and property crime rates similar to that of the state.
There 's hardly any correlation between crime rates and population or population density whatsoever for cities in California.
The median city had crime rates slightly lower than that of the state, with a violent crime rate of 2.74 and a property crime rate of 21.66. The fact that the average city had crime rates similar to the state in contrast to the lower median rates indicates the presence of outliers with high crime rates. Indeed, the 66th percentile for violent crime rates was 3.69 crimes per 1,000 people, still not as high as the average crime rate among cities (the 33rd percentile was 1.81).
Irvine ranks second with regard to lowest violent crime rates among places with a population of 50,000 or more even though it has a population roughly five times that. Its violent crime rate is 0.49 per 1,000 people. Joining Irvine among the top five in that population class are San Ramon (0.31), Murrieta (0.63), Cupertino (0.66), and Yorba Linda (0.66). Change the focus to property crime and Orange County cities with a population not much higher than 50,000 dominate the top ten, with seven of the ten places ranking in the top ten being located in Orange County, including (in ascending order of violent crime rate) Aliso Viejo, Laguna Niguel, Lake Forest, Mission Viejo, and Yorba Linda.
Of the ten places with populations over 50,000 and the highest violent crime rates, only two had populations under 100,000: they are Santa Cruz (8.26) and Compton (11.49). The other places include (in descending order of violent crime rate) Oakland, Stockton, San Bernardino, Vallejo, and San Francisco.
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who has received the congressional medal of honor | List of Medal of Honor recipients - wikipedia
The Medal of Honor was created during the American Civil War and is the highest military decoration presented by the United States government to a member of its armed forces. The recipient must have distinguished themselves at the risk of their own life above and beyond the call of duty in action against an enemy of the United States. Due to the nature of this medal, it is commonly presented posthumously.
The President of the United States, in the name of the United States Congress, has awarded more than 3500 Medals of Honor including 19 second awards to the nation 's soldiers, sailors, airmen, Marines, and coast guardsmen since the decoration 's creation in 1861.
The citations highlighting acts of gallantry that received the Medal of Honor have been and continue to be regularly released by book publishers. After the Second World War both the Army and Navy produced hardbound Medal of Honor compilations. Between 1964 and 1979, the United States Senate Subcommittee on Veterans ' Affairs of the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare and later the Committee on Veterans ' Affairs produced a number of consolidated compilations of all Medal of Honor citations to date. Additions and changes to the list of recipients of the medal since the 1979 have been regularly published by the Congressional research Service.
The first Army Medal of Honor was awarded to Private Jacob Parrott during the American Civil War for his role in the Great Locomotive Chase. The first African American recipient for this award was William Harvey Carney who, despite being shot in the face, shoulders, arms, and legs, refused to let the American flag touch the ground. The only female Medal of Honor recipient is Mary Edwards Walker, a Civil War surgeon. Her medal was rescinded in 1917 along with many other non-combat awards, but it was restored by President Jimmy Carter in 1977.
While current law, (10 U.S.C. § 6241), beginning in 1918, explicitly states that recipients must be serving in the U.S. Armed Forces at the time of performing a valorous act that warrants the award, exceptions have been made. For example, Charles Lindbergh, while a reserve member of the U.S. Army Air Corps, received his Medal of Honor as a civilian pilot. Although Medals of Honor can only be awarded to members of the U.S. armed forces, being a U.S. citizen is not a prerequisite for eligibility to receive the medal. Sixty - one Canadians who were serving in the United States armed forces have received the Medal of Honor; most received it for actions in the American Civil War. Since 1900, only four have been awarded to Canadians. In the Vietnam War, Peter C. Lemon was the only Canadian born recipient of the Medal of Honor. However, he was a US citizen.
The American Civil War (1861 -- 1865) was a war between the United States (the Union) and the Southern states of the newly formed Confederate States of America under Jefferson Davis. The Medal of Honor was established during this conflict; 1523 were awarded (33 posthumously) for acts of bravery and gallantry in combat. Most awards were granted after the end of the Civil War with two late awards to Andrew Jackson Smith and Alonzo Cushing in 2001 and 2014.
The term Indian Wars is the name generally used in the United States to describe a series of conflicts between colonial or federal governments and the American Indian population resident in North America before the arrival of white settlers. During this conflict the Medal of Honor was presented to 426 soldiers, 13 posthumously for acts of bravery and gallantry in combat. Some 20 Medal of Honor recipients were involved in the Wounded Knee Massacre.
The United States expedition to Korea in 1871, also known as Sinmiyangyo (Western Disturbance of the Year Sinmi year), was the first American military action in Korea. It took place predominantly on and around the Korean island of Ganghwa. The reason for the presence of the American military expeditionary force in Korea was to support an American diplomatic delegation sent to establish trade and diplomatic relations with Korea and to ascertain the fate of the General Sherman merchant ship. The isolationist nature of the Joseon Dynasty government and the assertiveness of the Americans led to an armed conflict between the two parties. Eventually, the United States failed to secure its objectives.
The Spanish -- American War (Spanish: Guerra Hispano - Estadounidense, desastre del 98, Guerra Hispano - Cubana - Norteamericana or Guerra de Cuba) was a military conflict between Spain and the United States that began in April 1898. Hostilities halted in August of that year, and the Treaty of Paris was signed in December. The war began after the American demand for Spain 's peacefully resolving the Cuban fight for independence was rejected, though strong expansionist sentiment in the United States may have motivated the government to target Spain 's remaining overseas territories: Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, Guam and the Caroline Islands.
Riots in Havana by pro-Spanish "Voluntarios '' gave the United States reason to send in the warship USS Maine. This action by the U.S. indicated high national interest. Tension among the American people was raised because of the explosion of the USS Maine, and "yellow journalism '' that accused Spain of extensive atrocities, agitating American public opinion. The war ended after decisive naval victories for the United States in the Philippines and Cuba. The Treaty of Paris ended the conflict 109 days after the outbreak of war giving the United States ownership of the former Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam. 111 people received the Medal of Honor from the Spanish -- American War.
The Samoan Civil War is a Western definition of political activity in the Samoa Islands of the South Pacific in the late 19th century. By this non-Samoan definition, the Samoan Civil Wars were a series of wars between Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, ending in the partitioning of the island chain in 1899. The concluding event was the Second Samoan Civil War. The first Samoan Civil War lasted for eight years. The warring Samoan parties were supplied arms, training and sometimes even combat troops by Germany, Britain and the United States. These three powers valued Samoa as a refueling station for coal fired shipping. In addition, these countries sought to gain more power in Europe and wanted Samoa due to the scarcity of unclaimed territory from 1870 onwards.
The Philippine -- American War was an armed military conflict between the United States and the First Philippine Republic, fought between 1899 and at least 1902, which arose from a Filipino political struggle against U.S. occupation of the Philippines. While the conflict was officially declared over on July 4, 1902, American troops continued hostilities against remnants of the Philippine Army and other resistance groups until 1913, and some historians consider these unofficial extensions part of the war.
Eighty - six men were awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions in the Philippine -- American War: 70 from the Army, 10 from the Navy, and 6 from the Marine Corps. Four of the awards were posthumous. Among the recipients were Webb Hayes, the son of former U.S. President Rutherford B. Hayes, and two prominent Marine Corps officers, Hiram I. Bearss and David Dixon Porter. Bearss became known for leading long - range reconnaissance patrols behind enemy lines and was later wounded as a colonel in World War I. Porter was from a distinguished military family and rose to become a major general. José B. Nísperos, a member of the Philippine Scouts who was honored for continuing to fight after being wounded, was the first Asian recipient of the Medal of Honor.
The Boxer Movement or Boxer Rebellion, which occurred in China from November 1899 to September 7, 1901, was an uprising by members of the Chinese Society of Right and Harmonious Fists against foreign influence in areas such as trade, politics, religion and technology that occurred in China during the final years of the Manchu rule (Qing Dynasty). The members of the Society of Right and Harmonious Fists were simply called boxers by the Westerners due to the martial arts and calisthenics they practiced. The uprising began as an anti-foreign, anti-imperialist peasant - based movement in northern China. They attacked foreigners who were building railroads and violating Feng shui, as well as Christians, who were held responsible for the foreign domination of China. In June 1900, the Boxers invaded Beijing and killed 230 non-Chinese. Tens of thousands of Chinese Christians, Catholic and Protestant alike, were killed mostly in Shandong and Shanxi Provinces as part of the uprising. The government of Empress Dowager Cixi was not helpful, and diplomats, foreign civilians, soldiers and some Chinese Christians retreated to the legation quarter where they held out for fifty - five days until a multinational coalition rushed 20,000 troops to their rescue. The Chinese government was forced to indemnify the victims and make many additional concessions. Subsequent reforms implemented after the crisis of 1900 laid the foundation for the end of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of the modern Chinese Republic.
During the Boxer rebellion, 59 American servicemen received the Medal of Honor for their actions. Four of these were for Army personnel, twenty - two went to navy sailors and the remaining thirty - three went to Marines. Harry Fisher was the first Marine to receive the medal posthumously and the only posthumous recipient for this conflict.
The United States occupation of the Mexican port of Veracruz lasted for six months in response to the Tampico Affair of April 9, 1914. The incident came in the midst of poor diplomatic relations between Mexico and the United States, related to the ongoing Mexican Revolution.
Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels ordered that 56 Medals of Honor be awarded to participants in the occupation of Veracruz, the most for any single action before or since. In total 63 Medals of Honor were received for actions during the occupation; 1 Army, 9 to members of the United States Marine Corps and 53 to Navy personnel.
The first United States occupation of Haiti began on July 28, 1915 and ended in mid-August 1934.
The United States occupied the Dominican Republic from 1916 to 1924. In May 1917, Rear Admiral William Caperton forced Arias to leave Santo Domingo by threatening the city with naval bombardment. U.S. Marines invaded and took control of the country within two months; in November that same year, the U.S. imposed a military government. The Marines restored order throughout most of the republic (with the exception of the eastern region); the country 's budget was balanced, its debt was diminished, and economic growth resumed; infrastructure projects produced new roads that linked all the country 's regions for the first time in its history; a professional military organization, the Dominican Constabulary Guard, replaced the partisan forces that had waged a seemingly endless struggle for power.
World War I, also known as the First World War and the Great War, was a global military conflict which took place primarily in Europe from 1914 -- 1918. Over 40 million casualties resulted, including approximately 20 million military and civilian deaths. Over 60 million European soldiers were mobilized from 1914 -- 1918. The immediate cause of the war was the June 28, 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro - Hungarian throne, by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb citizen of Austria - Hungary and member of the Black Hand. The retaliation by Austria - Hungary against Serbia activated a series of alliances that set off a chain reaction of war declarations. Within a month, much of Europe was in a state of open warfare.
During this War, 126 men received the Medal of Honor for their actions with five Marines receiving both the Army and Navy versions of the medal for the same action.
The United States occupied Nicaragua from 1909 to 1933 and intervened in the country several times before that. The American interventions in Nicaragua were designed to prevent the construction of a trans - isthmian canal by any nation but the USA. Nicaragua assumed a quasi-protectorate status under the 1916 Chamorro - Bryan Treaty. The occupation ended as Augusto César Sandino, a Nicaraguan revolutionary, led guerrilla armies against US troops. Furthermore, the onset of the Great Depression made it costly for the USA to maintain occupation.
World War II, or the Second World War, was a global military conflict. The conflicts joined from two separate conflicts. The first began in Asia in 1937 as the Second Sino - Japanese War; the other began in Europe in 1939 with the German and Russian invasion of Poland. This global conflict split the majority of the world 's nations into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis powers. It involved the mobilization of over 100 million military personnel, making it the most widespread war in history, and placed the participants in a state of "total war '', erasing the distinction between civil and military resources. This resulted in the complete activation of a nation 's economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities for the purposes of the war effort. Over 60 million people, the majority of them civilians, were killed, making it the deadliest conflict in human history. The worldwide financial cost of the war is estimated at a trillion 1944 U.S. dollars, making it the most costly war both in capital expenditures as well as loss of lives.
During this conflict 471 United States military personnel received the Medal of Honor, 273 of them posthumously. A total of 42 Medals of Honor, representing 9 % of all awarded during World War II, were presented for action in just two battles -- 15 for actions during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, and 27 for actions during the Battle of Iwo Jima. Also a total of 21 (4.5 % of all World War II Medals of Honor) were awarded to members of the all - Japanese American 100th Infantry Battalion of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, for actions in numerous battles across six different campaigns. Additionally, the only Medal of Honor ever presented to a member of the United States Coast Guard was received for actions during this war.
The Korean War was ignited by the 1950 invasion of South Korea when the North Korean Army moved south on June 25, 1950 to attempt to reunite the Korean peninsula, which had been formally divided since 1948. The conflict was then expanded by the United States, China 's and the Soviet Union 's involvement. The main hostilities were during the period from June 25, 1950, until the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed on July 27, 1953.
In South Korea, the war is often called "6 25 '', or the 6 25 War (Korean: 6 25 전쟁), from the date of the start of the conflict or, more formally, Hanguk Jeonjaeng literally "Korean War ''. In North Korea, while commonly known as the Korean War, it is formally called the Fatherland Liberation War. In the early days of the war, United States President Harry Truman called the United Nations response a "police action ''. The war is sometimes called "The Forgotten War '' because it is a major conflict of the 20th century that gets less attention than World War II, which preceded it, and the controversial Vietnam War, which succeeded it. In China, the conflict was known as the War to Resist America and Aid Korea, but is today commonly called the "Korean War ''.
During this war, 145 Medals of Honor were presented for bravery in action, 107 of them posthumously.
The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, and in Vietnam as the American War, occurred from 1959 to April 30, 1975. The term "Vietnam Conflict '' is often used to refer to events which took place between 1959 and April 30, 1975. The war was fought between the Communist - supported Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and the United States supported Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). During the Vietnam War and in the following twelve months, 235 Medals of Honor were received and since 1978 a further 22 awards have been presented. On the total of 257 awards. 171 were to the US Army, 15 to the US Navy, 57 to the USMC and 14 to the USAF. The first medal of the war was presented to Roger Donlon for rescuing and administering first aid to several wounded soldiers and leading a group against an enemy force. The first African American recipient of the war was Milton L. Olive, III who sacrificed himself to save others by smothering a grenade with his body. Riley L. Pitts was killed after attacking an enemy force with rifle fire and grenades and was the first African American commissioned officer of the war to receive the medal. Thomas Bennett was a conscientious objector who received the medal for his actions as a medic; three chaplains received the medal, including Vincent R. Capodanno, who served with the Marine Corps and was known as the Grunt Padre.
The USS Liberty incident was an attack on a neutral United States Navy technical research ship, USS Liberty, by Israeli jet fighter planes and motor torpedo boats on June 8, 1967, during the Six - Day War. The combined air and sea attack killed 34 and wounded more than 170 crew members, and damaged the ship severely.
Since the end of the Vietnam War, also known as the Vietnam Conflict and Second Indochina War, the United States was involved in a number of smaller conflicts during the end of the Cold War, including in Grenada, Panama, and elsewhere. In the Post-Cold War, the United States was involved in conflicts in the Middle East, Africa, the Caribbean, and in the Balkans. No Medals of Honor have been awarded for any of the aforementioned conflicts so far either proactively or retroactively.
On October 3, 1993, during the Battle of Mogadishu, members of the U.S. Army Rangers and SOCOM 's Delta Force executed a mission to capture members of Gen. Mohamed Farrah Aidid 's forces. In the ensuing battle, two UH - 60 Blackhawk helicopters were shot down. As the second Blackhawk, containing Chief Warrant Officer Michael Durant, was hit and crashed, Master Sergeant Gary I. Gordon and Sergeant First Class Randall D. Shughart were in a nearby Blackhawk monitoring radio traffic. Gordon and Shughart were part of a sniper team for Delta Force that was assigned to watch over the operation, engaging targets from their position in the Blackhawk. As they monitored the downing of the second Blackhawk, it became evident that ground forces would not be available to secure the crash site and protect the critically injured crew of four, all of whom survived the crash. Gordon, the sniper team leader, requested that they be inserted at the 2nd crash site. His request was denied twice before finally being approved on the third request. The snipers were armed only with their sniper rifles and pistols.
Upon reaching the downed Blackhawk, which was under intense enemy fire, Gordon and Shughart pulled the crew from the wreckage and proceeded to set up a defensive perimeter. The snipers, assisted by the severely injured Durant, began to engage the attacking Somalis from the opposite side of the wreckage using assault rifles stored on the Blackhawk. Shughart and Gordon were eventually mortally wounded after nearly exhausting all available ammunition; Durant, the only survivor, was taken hostage. According to Durant 's account, 25 Somalis were killed and many more were wounded.
On Monday, May 23, 1994, President Clinton presented the Medal of Honor to the widows of Gordon and Shughart. They are the only snipers to have received the Medal of Honor. The film Black Hawk Down, based on the book of the same name, includes a narrative of the events.
The War in Afghanistan, which began on October 7, 2001, was launched by the United States, the United Kingdom, and NATO allies in response to the September 11, 2001 attacks. It was the beginning of the War on Terrorism. The stated purpose of the invasion was to capture Osama bin Laden, destroy al - Qaeda, and remove the Taliban regime which had provided support and safe harbor to al - Qaeda. Since 2001, 13 American service - members have received the Medal of Honor for actions in Afghanistan, three of them posthumously. Army Sergeant First Class Jared C. Monti received his medal for attempting to rescue a wounded soldier at the cost of his own life. Navy Lieutenant Michael P. Murphy received his for actions against insurgent forces and for sacrificing his life to call for help when his team had been overwhelmed by a much larger enemy force. Army Staff Sergeant Robert James Miller 's surviving family was presented with his medal on October 6, 2010. The fourth recipient, Salvatore Giunta received his for his actions in 2007 when he risked his life to save a wounded comrade. He is the first living recipient since the Vietnam War. A second living recipient, Sergeant First Class Leroy Petry, received the medal from President Obama during a July 12, 2011, ceremony. Marine Corps Corporal Dakota Meyer became the third living recipient awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Battle of Ganjgal. An additional seven living individuals have been awarded the Medal since Meyer.
The Iraq War, also known as the Second Gulf War, Operation Iraqi Freedom (US), Operation TELIC (UK) or the occupation of Iraq, was a conflict which began on March 20, 2003 with the United States - led invasion of Iraq by a multinational coalition composed of U.S. and U.K. troops supported by smaller contingents from Australia, Poland, and other nations. Four service members have received the Medal of Honor for actions in Iraq; two from the Army, one from the Marine Corps and one from the Navy. Paul R. Smith was the first to receive it for his actions on April 4, 2003 when he held enemy forces back, allowing other wounded soldiers to be evacuated to safety. The other three, Corporal Jason Dunham of the Marine Corps, Specialist Ross A. McGinnis of the Army and Master - at - Arms Second Class Michael A. Monsoor of the Navy received it after being killed while using their own bodies to smother grenades to protect their comrades.
Before World War II, the Medal of Honor could be received for actions not involving direct combat with the enemy and 193 men earned the medal in this way. Most of these medals were presented to members of the United States Navy for rescuing or attempting to rescue someone from drowning. One of those awarded the Medal of Honor for rescuing others was Fireman Second Class Telesforo Trinidad, who as of 2010 has been the only Asian American Sailor to be awarded the Medal of Honor. In addition to the medals that were presented for lifesaving acts, one Medal of Honor was presented to William Halford who sailed in a small boat for 31 days to get help for the other members of the USS Saginaw who had been stranded on an island. Three explorers were also presented with the medal by special acts of Congress. Charles Lindbergh received the medal for flying the first solo non-stop flight across the Atlantic Ocean as well as Floyd Bennett and Richard Evelyn Byrd who received it for their participation in what was thought to be the first successful heavier - than - air flight to the North Pole and back. One recipient, Adolphus W. Greely received his for a lifetime of military service.
No individual serving as a member of a foreign force has been awarded the Medal of Honor. Current law, 10 U.S.C. § 6241 explicitly states that recipients must be serving in the U.S. Armed Forces at the time of performing a valorous act that warrants the award. However, the Medal of Honor has been presented to five First World War unknown soldiers of allied countries: the British Unknown Warrior in the United Kingdom by General Pershing on October 17, 1921; the Romanian Unknown Soldier, the French Unknown Soldier (entombed under the Arc de Triomphe), the Belgian Unknown Soldier, and the Italian Unknown Soldier (entombed in the Monument of Vittorio Emanuele II). Each of the countries reciprocally awarded medals to the U.S. Unknown Soldier.
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where did chicken fried steak get its name | Chicken fried steak - wikipedia
Chicken fried steak (similar to country fried steak) is an American breaded cutlet dish consisting of a piece of beefsteak (tenderized cube steak) coated with seasoned flour and pan-fried. It is sometimes associated with the Southern cuisine of the United States. Despite the name, the dish contains no chicken, but is so - named because the cooking method is similar to that of fried chicken.
Chicken fried steak resembles the Austrian dish Wiener Schnitzel and the Italian - South American dish Milanesa, which is a tenderized veal or pork cutlet, coated with flour, eggs, and bread crumbs, and then fried. It is also similar to the recipe for Scottish collops.
The precise origins of the dish are unclear, but many sources attribute its development to German and Austrian immigrants to Texas in the 19th century, who brought recipes for Wiener Schnitzel from Europe to the USA. Lamesa, the seat of Dawson County on the Texas South Plains, claims to be the birthplace of chicken fried steak, and hosts an annual celebration accordingly.
The Virginia Housewife, published in 1838 by Mary Randolph, has a recipe for veal cutlets that is one of the earliest recipes for a food like chicken fried steak. The recipe for what we now know as chicken fried steak was included in many regional cookbooks by the late 19th century. The Oxford English Dictionary 's earliest attestation of the term "chicken - fried steak '' is from a restaurant advertisement in the 19 June 1914 edition of the Colorado Springs Gazette newspaper.
A 1943 American cookbook recipe for Wiener Schnitzel includes a white salt and pepper cream gravy.
Chicken fried steak is among numerous popular dishes which make up the official state meal of Oklahoma, added to the list in 1988.
Chicken fried steak is prepared by taking a thin cut of beefsteak and tenderizing it by pounding, cubing, or forking. It is then either immersed in egg batter and / or dredged in flour to which salt, pepper, and often other seasonings have been added (called breading). After this, the steak is fried in a skillet or, less commonly, deep - fried. Restaurants often call the deep fried version chicken fried and the pan fried type country fried. The frying medium has traditionally been butter, lard, or other shortening, but in recent years, health concerns have led most cooks to substitute the shortening with vegetable oil.
The cuts of steak used for chicken fried steak are usually the less expensive, less desirable ones, such as cube steak, chuck, round steak, and occasionally flank steak. The method may be used for chopped or ground beef, but it is not called chicken fried steak. Chicken fried steak is usually served for lunch or dinner topped with cream gravy and with mashed potatoes, vegetables, and biscuits or Texas toast served on the side. In the Midwest, it is also common to serve chicken fried steak for breakfast, along with toast and hash browns.
The steak can be served on a hamburger bun with cream gravy as a sandwich, cubed and stuffed in a baked potato with the gravy and cheese, or cut into strips and served in a basket with fries and cream gravy, which is then known as "steak fingers ''.
Typically, in Texas and surrounding states, chicken fried steak is fried in a thick layer of oil in a pan and served with traditional peppered milk gravy.
A similar dish is sometimes known as "country fried steak '' in other parts of the United States, where it is subject to some regional variations. On rare occasions there is a brown gravy, and occasionally the meat is either pan-fried with little oil, or simmered in the gravy. In some areas, "country steak '' may refer to Salisbury steak, a chopped or minced beef patty in brown gravy.
There are also dishes similar to chicken fried steak that are made with other meats. One is "chicken - fried chicken '' which has appeared on many menus, substituting a boneless chicken breast for the steak. Chicken fried chicken differs from the dish known as "fried chicken '' because the meat is removed from the bones, and cooked in the fashion of chicken fried steak, and served with cream gravy.
Another dish similar to chicken fried steak is "chicken fried hamburger '' which is made with a ground beef patty and served with cream gravy.
Boneless pork chops, usually center cut, can be served in this manner, as well as chicken fried buffalo steak. Chicken fried catfish may also be found on occasion.
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where was stephen king's it filmed 1990 | It (miniseries) - wikipedia
It (also known as Stephen King 's It) is a 1990 American supernatural horror drama made - for - television directed by Tommy Lee Wallace and adapted by Lawrence D. Cohen from the Stephen King novel of the same name. It is the first of two adaptations of the novel; the second being the 2017 film adaptation and its upcoming 2019 sequel.
The story revolves around a predatory shapeshifter which has the ability to transform itself into its prey 's worst fears, allowing it to exploit the phobias of its victims. It mostly takes the human form of a sadistic, wisecracking clown called Pennywise. The protagonists are The Lucky Seven, or The Losers Club, a group of outcast kids who discover Pennywise and vow to destroy him by any means necessary. The series takes place over two different time periods, the first when the Losers first confront Pennywise as children in 1960, and the second when they return as adults in 1990 to defeat him a second time after he resurfaces.
It features an ensemble cast, starring Richard Thomas, John Ritter, Annette O'Toole, Harry Anderson, Dennis Christopher, Tim Reid and Richard Masur as the seven members of the Losers Club, and Tim Curry as Pennywise. The child counterparts of the Losers that appear in part one are played by Jonathan Brandis, Seth Green, Emily Perkins, Brandon Crane, Adam Faraizl, Marlon Taylor and Ben Heller. Michael Cole, Jarred Blancard, Gabe Khouth, Chris Eastman, Olivia Hussey, Frank C. Turner, Tony Dakota, Ryan Michael, Tom Heaton and Chelan Simmons also play supporting roles.
Originally planning a four - part eight - hour series, ABC enlisted writer Lawrence D. Cohen to adapt the 1,138 - page King novel. Cohen 's script condensed the source work into a two - part, three - hour TV movie that retained the core elements of the novel, but Cohen was forced to abandon numerous subplots by virtue of the novel 's length and the network 's time - slot restrictions. Production on It began in early 1990, and the series was filmed over a period of three months in New Westminster, British Columbia in mid-1990.
It aired on ABC over two nights on November 18 and 20, 1990, attracting 30 million viewers in its premiere. Critics praised Tim Curry 's performance as Pennywise. For his work on the miniseries, Richard Bellis received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a mini-series or a Special (Dramatic Underscore).
In Derry, Maine, in 1960, Georgie Denbrough plays in the streets with a paper sailboat made by his stuttering big brother Bill. It goes down a storm drain, where Georgie encounters Pennywise the Dancing Clown. Pennywise entices Georgie to reach in to retrieve his boat, only for him to bite his arm off and leaves him to bleed to death. Months later, Bill and asthmatic Eddie Kaspbrak befriend the overweight new kid Ben Hanscom. They are later joined by Beverly Marsh, who lives with her abusive father, the comical Richie Tozier, and Jewish boy scout Stan Uris. As they all start to know each other, Ben develops feelings for Beverly, only to discover she has feelings for Bill. Besides being bullied by a gang led by Henry Bowers, the children all encounter Pennywise.
The group are joined by Mike Hanlon, an African American new kid in town being pursued by Bowers ' gang. They chase them off with a rock fight, Bowers vowing to kill the children, who are dubbed the Losers Club. While looking through Mike 's history scrapbook, the Losers realise that Pennywise, which they refer to as "It '', is a monster who awakens every thirty years to devour children. Bill realizes It killed Georgie, leading the Losers into Derry 's sewers to kill the clown.
Stan is ambushed by Bowers and his friends Victor Criss and Belch Huggins, but the latter are both killed by It. Henry is left traumatized, his hair turned white. Stanley regroups with the Losers, but is grabbed by It. The Losers use It 's ability to access their imaginations and use it against him. Eddie imagines his inhaler is full of battery acid, melting half of It 's face. Beverly fires silver bullets at It, the Losers believing it can kill the clown. It escapes down a drain to hibernate. The Losers make a vow to return to Derry as adults, should It return. Bowers, driven insane, falsely confesses to the child murders and is institutionalized.
In 1990, Mike works as a librarian in Derry. It resurfaces and murders several children, prompting Mike to contact his estranged friends to fulfil their vow. Bill has become a bestselling horror novelist married to British actress Audra Phillips, Ben is an architect, Beverly is a fashion designer abused by her husband Tom Rogan, Richie is a late night television comedian, Eddie runs a limousine service but still lives with his overbearing mother, and Stan is a married real estate broker. All of the Losers, save Stan, promise to return. Stan 's wife later discovers he has committed suicide in the bath.
The other Losers return to Derry, tormented by Pennywise, and reunite, later learning of Stan 's suicide. Henry escapes from the asylum with help from It, to murder the Losers. Audra travels to Derry but is captured by It, hypnotised by the monster 's "Deadlights ''. Henry ambushes Mike, but is stabbed by his own knife when Eddie and Ben fight him. Mike is hospitalised, giving Bill the two pieces of silver he retrieved from the sewers. The five remaining Losers return to the sewers to confront It. Bill discovers Audra has been taken prisoner, but is supported by his friends.
They reach It 's inner sanctum, find the catatonic Audra, and It 's true form of a gigantic, otherworldly spider. Bill, Ben, and Richie are entranced by the Deadlights, while Beverly scrambles to retrieve the silver bullets after misfiring them. Eddie attempts to repeat the wound he inflicted on It as a child, but is mortally wounded. Beverly frees her friends, but Eddie dies. The others chase the injured It, ripping out its heart and killing It. They remove Eddie 's body and the catatonic Audra from the sewers.
The Losers go their separate ways once again, their memories of It fading over time. Mike recovers in hospital, Beverly and Ben get married and expect their first child, and Richie is cast in a film. Bill is the last to leave Derry, coaxing Audra out of her catatonia by riding down a street on his childhood bike "Silver ''. Audra recovers; she and Bill kissing in the middle of town.
ABC had acquired the rights to a television mini-series of It, for what would be the first made - for - television film based on a Stephen King work since Salem 's Lot (1979), directed by Tobe Hooper. Lawrence D. Cohen, who had previously written the film adaptation of Carrie in 1976, was hired to write It. According to both Stephen King and Cohen, King had little to no involvement in the writing of the miniseries. George A. Romero had originally been signed on to direct the project, which at the time ABC had planned for an eight - to - ten - hour series that would run over four two - hour blocks. Romero left the project due to scheduling conflicts, after which ABC condensed it to a three - part series. Shortly after, Tommy Lee Wallace was brought in to direct. After Wallace signed on to the project, ABC had ultimately decided to condense the TV movie to two parts.
According to writer Cohen: "Speaking candidly, ABC was always nervous about It, primarily the fact that it was in the horror genre, but also the eight - to - ten hour commitment. They loved the piece, but lost their nerve in terms of how many hours they were willing to commit. Eventually, they agreed to a two - night, four - hour commitment. '' Given the length of the King novel, which runs 1,138 pages, a great deal of material was left out of Cohen 's adaptation, including subplots concerning the personal lives of the adult characters, one of which had the main male characters each losing their virginity to Beverly. "I ca n't even begin to enumerate my favorite scenes from the book that we had to cut, because there are so many of them, '' Cohen reflected. "I look at it as a glass half full situation. There are scenes in both nights that were created by Steve (King) on the page, and I 'm delighted that they survived, like the fortune cookie scene and adult Beverly going to her childhood house. The way I see it, the best moments from the book made the cut and the rest are casualties of war. ''
However, Wallace and Cohen retained the centrality of Pennywise in the source novel; as noted by film scholar Tony Magistrale in Hollywood 's Stephen King, the made for television movie retains the "association between the adult world of Derry and It (which) is further established in the masterful choice of a carnival clown as a unifying symbol for the various creatures representing the monster. ''
The majority of the adult actors in the film, including John Ritter, Dennis Christopher, Tim Reid and Harry Anderson, were hand - chosen by Wallace and Cohen for their roles. Annette O'Toole was cast in the film at the suggestion of Ritter, with whom she had recently shot The Dreamer of Oz: The L. Frank Baum Story (1990): "I think (John) may have talked to somebody, because I got an offer (to play Beverly), '' O'Toole recalled. "It happened really fast; I do n't think I even went in for a reading. I was living in Oregon at the time, and the next thing I knew, I was in Vancouver hanging out with the coolest, most fun guys of all time. ''
Emily Perkins and Marlon Taylor, who played the young Beverly Marsh and Mike Hanlon, were cast out of Vancouver, while Seth Green and Jonathan Brandis were cast out of Los Angeles for the parts of young Richie and Bill.
According to Cohen, he had written the script for the series without a specific actor in mind for the role of Pennywise. According to director Tommy Lee Wallace, before he was attached to the project, Malcolm McDowell and Roddy McDowall were in consideration to play Pennywise, but Wallace wanted Tim Curry for the role; Wallace had previously worked with the latter in Fright Night Part 2 (1988).
It was shot over a period of three months in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada on a budget of $12 million. Given that the shooting entailed an adult cast with child counterparts, Wallace sought to have the adult actors meet with the children playing the younger versions of their characters: "We made a point of bringing the adult and children actors together for a couple of days, even though it was costly, since the adults and the kids have no scenes together. '' Filming locations in Vancouver included Stanley Park, Beaver Lake and Saint Thomas Aquinas High School Convent in North Vancouver. Wallace told The Hollywood Reporter that his job as a director "was to give Tim the stage and not get in his way too much. He was like Robin Williams in the way he brought a spontaneous improvisation to the part. '' Curry gave Pennywise a Bronx accent in order to sound like "an old - time Catskills comic ''. "I just let it happen, '' Curry said. "Clowns are your worst fear realized. I think I scared a lot of children. ''
Original storyboards for Pennywise featured exaggerated cheekbones, a sharp chin, and bulbous forehead. According to director Wallace, "Tim (Curry) objected strongly to all the rubber. He had recently been in several movies which covered him in prosthetics and I 'm sure he felt all the glue and latex would just get in his way. He was right, of course. With those eyes, and that mouth, and his crazy, sardonic sense of humor, less turned out to be more in the makeup department. ''
Special effects coordinator Bart Mixon began working on a head cast for the Pennywise character after Curry was cast in the role; he also designed three clay molds for testing. According to Mixon, he based the shape of Pennywise 's head on Lon Chaney in The Phantom of the Opera (1925), "stylized into a clown. '' Three different versions of the clown 's face were created, one of which resembled a hobo clown, another that was "a little meaner, '' and the final one seen in the series. To achieve the white complexion, Curry wore prosthetic make - up cream to make him appear "almost like a living cartoon. ''
The majority of the special effects in the film were done practically without digital alteration, aside from the shower scene in which Pennywise comes out of the drain; this scene was done with replacement animation, an animation technique similar to stop motion animation.
The spider figure in the conclusion of the movie was hand - constructed by Mixon and his art department team. Wallace recalled of the spider:
We labored long and hard designing a spider that was very beefy and muscular, almost reptilian in appearance. It looked great in the drawings, and I even recall a little clay model Bart did, which sealed the deal and won my enthusiastic approval. Bart and team went back to Hollywood to work the whole thing up full - size, and shooting started. When the SVFX team returned to Vancouver and unpacked the full - size spider, what I expected to see was the big version of that original model, the beefy, reptilian thing that was scary on sight. What they assembled on set was very, very different. Not chunky at all, very lean and mean. ''
In a panel at Fan Expo Canada in 2017, Tim Curry remarked of the spider, "It was... not very scary. Or convincing. ''
It originally aired on ABC in 1990 on the nights of November 18 and November 20. Part 1 was the fifth highest rated program of the week with an 18.5 / 29 rating / share, and being watched in 17.5 million households. Part 2 was the second highest rated program of the week with a 20.6 / 33 rating / share, and watched in 19.2 million households. According to writer Cohen, It was considered a major success for ABC, garnering nearly 30 million viewers over its two - night premiere.
As of February 2018, on Rotten Tomatoes, the film held an approval rating of 57 % based on 14 reviews, with a weighted average rating of 5.5 / 10.
Matt Roush of USA Today gave the series a positive review, writing: "If Twin Peaks is a midnight movie for prime - time live, It is the mini-series equivalent of those Saturday matinee shockers that merrily warped a generation before Freddie and Jason began stalking their more graphic turf... Accept It on its own popcorn - munching terms, and keep the lights on high. ''
Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly praised the performances in the film, but had a negative response to its special effects and pacing, noting: "It features a high level of ensemble acting rare for any horror film... in addition to It 's slow pace, I found the ending a big letdown -- unimaginative special effects animate the monster in its final incarnation. But the cast is terrific, Curry 's cackle is chilling, and King 's usual buried theme -- about the pain adults inflict on children without even realizing it (It?) -- is always worth pondering. ''
The Hollywood Reporter called It "one big kicky ride thanks to the charismatic acting of Curry as savage, sneering malevolence. ''
Sandra Harris of Movie Pilot said, "There 's some gorgeous scenery too and a nice interweaving of flashbacks with the regular scenes. For Stephen King fans, this film is a must for your collection. For fans of horror in general, I 'd say you could do a lot worse. Take the phone off the hook and burrow under the duvet for three hours with the popcorn and the remote control. ''
Ian Jane of DVD Talk highlighted the mini-series ' combination of childhood nostalgia with horror elements and praised Curry 's performance as Pennywise.
Bloody Disgusting 's John Campopiano commended director Tommy Lee Wallace for "relying less on jump scares and more on creating an unsettling atmosphere to contrast against the kids and their stories. ''
In 2017, Rolling Stone writer Sean T. Collins called the miniseries "legendary '' and commented that it had become a cult classic. He said although the miniseries "largely bungles Pennywise 's powers '', Curry 's portrayal of Pennywise is "the stuff sleepless nights are made of. He gloats, he giggles, he taunts, he devours the scenery like the monster himself devours middle - schoolers -- and he generally sears his way right into the brain of the viewer. ''
Dan Stephens from the UK website Top 10 Films awarded the film four out of five stars. In his review Stephens praised the film 's story, character development, and suspense during the first half. But criticized the second half as disappointing and criticizing the lack of "friendship and togetherness '' of the main characters that was present during the first half, and clichéd ending.
Stephen King commented on the miniseries in a 2015 interview, saying, "You have to remember, my expectations were in the basement. Here was a book that sprawled over 1,000 pages, and they were going to cram it into four hours, with commercials. But the series really surprised me by how good it was. It 's a really ambitious adaptation of a really long book. ''
It was released on VHS and Laserdisc in 1991. The original VHS release was on two cassette tapes, one for each part. The VHS and Laserdisc releases feature It as originally aired. In 1998, It was re-released on VHS, this time, on one cassette tape (in EP format). The film was later released on DVD in 2002 and on Blu - ray on October 4, 2016. Both the DVD and the Blu - ray feature an edited version of the film, which presents It as one "movie ''. The suicide scene at the end of Part 1 is shortened, the hotel scene from Part 2 is missing, and the graveyard scene toward the beginning of Part 2 is also slightly shortened to remove the on - screen credits that originally appeared.
A 2 - CD release of the TV movie ' complete score by Richard Bellis was released on November 15, 2011. The music of the film ranges from orchestral music to trumpet - heavy music that accompanies the setting of Derry to unsteady electronic instrument arrangements for the film 's scarier moments. Bellis won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a mini-series or a Special (Dramatic Underscore) for his work on the film.
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what device is used as the authentication server in an 802.1x implementation | IEEE 802.1 X - wikipedia
IEEE 802.1 X is an IEEE Standard for port - based Network Access Control (PNAC). It is part of the IEEE 802.1 group of networking protocols. It provides an authentication mechanism to devices wishing to attach to a LAN or WLAN.
IEEE 802.1 X defines the encapsulation of the Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) over IEEE 802, which is known as "EAP over LAN '' or EAPOL. EAPOL was originally designed for IEEE 802.3 Ethernet in 802.1 X-2001, but was clarified to suit other IEEE 802 LAN technologies such as IEEE 802.11 wireless and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (ISO 9314 - 2) in 802.1 X-2004. The EAPOL protocol was also modified for use with IEEE 802.1 AE ("MACsec '') and IEEE 802.1 AR (Secure Device Identity, DevID) in 802.1 X-2010 to support service identification and optional point to point encryption over the local LAN segment.
802.1 X authentication involves three parties: a supplicant, an authenticator, and an authentication server. The supplicant is a client device (such as a laptop) that wishes to attach to the LAN / WLAN. The term ' supplicant ' is also used interchangeably to refer to the software running on the client that provides credentials to the authenticator. The authenticator is a network device, such as an Ethernet switch or wireless access point; and the authentication server is typically a host running software supporting the RADIUS and EAP protocols. In some cases, the authentication server software may be running on the authenticator hardware.
The authenticator acts like a security guard to a protected network. The supplicant (i.e., client device) is not allowed access through the authenticator to the protected side of the network until the supplicant 's identity has been validated and authorized. With 802.1 X port - based authentication, the supplicant provides credentials, such as user name / password or digital certificate, to the authenticator, and the authenticator forwards the credentials to the authentication server for verification. If the authentication server determines the credentials are valid, the supplicant (client device) is allowed to access resources located on the protected side of the network.
EAPOL operates at the network layer on top of the data link layer, and in Ethernet II framing protocol has an EtherType value of 0x888E.
802.1 X-2001 defines two logical port entities for an authenticated port -- the "controlled port '' and the "uncontrolled port ''. The controlled port is manipulated by the 802.1 X PAE (Port Access Entity) to allow (in the authorized state) or prevent (in the unauthorized state) network traffic ingressing and egressing to / from the controlled port. The uncontrolled port is used by the 802.1 X PAE to transmit and receive EAPOL frames.
802.1 X-2004 defines the equivalent port entities for the supplicant; so a supplicant implementing 802.1 X-2004 may prevent higher level protocols being used if it is not content that authentication has successfully completed. This is particularly useful when an EAP method providing mutual authentication is used, as the supplicant can prevent data leakage when connected to an unauthorized network.
The typical authentication procedure consists of:
Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7 support 802.1 X for all network connections by default. Windows 2000 has support in the latest service pack (SP4) for wired connections. Windows Mobile 2003 and later operating systems also come with a native 802.1 X client.
An open source project known as Open1X produces a client, Xsupplicant. This client is currently available for both Linux and Windows. The main drawbacks of the Open1X client are that it does not provide comprehensible and extensive user documentation and the fact that most Linux vendors do not provide a package for it. The more general wpa_supplicant can be used for 802.11 wireless networks and wired networks. Both support a very wide range of EAP types.
The iPhone and iPod Touch support 802.1 X as of the release of iOS 2.0. Android has support for 802.1 X since the release of 1.6 Donut. Chrome OS has supported 802.1 X since mid-2011.
Mac OS X has offered native support since 10.3.
Avenda Systems provides a supplicant for Windows, Linux and Mac OS X. They also have a plugin for the Microsoft NAP framework. Avenda also offers health checking agents.
Windows defaults to not responding to 802.1 X authentication requests for 20 minutes after a failed authentication. This can cause significant disruption to clients.
The block period can be configured using the BlockTime value in the registry. A hotfix is required for Windows XP SP3 and Windows Vista SP2 to make the period configurable.
Wildcard server certificates are not supported by EAPHost, the Windows component that provides EAP support in the operating system. The implication of this is that when using a commercial certification authority, individual certificates must be purchased.
Windows XP has major issues with its handling of IP address changes that result from user - based 802.1 X authentication that changes the VLAN and thus subnet of clients. Microsoft has stated that it will not back port the SSO feature from Vista that resolves these issues.
If users are not logging in with roaming profiles, a hotfix must be downloaded and installed if authenticating via PEAP with PEAP - MSCHAPv2.
Windows Vista based computers that are connected via an IP phone may not authenticate as expected and, as a result, the client can be placed into the wrong VLAN. A hotfix is available to correct this.
Windows 7 based computers that are connected via an IP phone may not authenticate as expected and, as a result, the client can be placed into the wrong VLAN. A hotfix is available to correct this.
Windows 7 does not respond to 802.1 X authentication requests after initial 802.1 X authentication fails. This can cause significant disruption to clients. A hotfix is available to correct this.
For most enterprises deploying and rolling out operating systems remotely, it is worth noting that Windows PE does not have native support for 802.1 X. However, support can be added to WinPE 2.1 and WinPE 3.0 through hotfixes that are available from Microsoft. Although full documentation is not yet available, preliminary documentation for the use of these hotfixes is available via a Microsoft blog.
Most Linux distributions support 802.1 x via wpa_supplicant and desktop integration like NetworkManager.
eduroam (the international roaming service), mandates the use of 802.1 X authentication when providing network access to guests visiting from other eduroam enabled institutions.
BT (British Telecom, PLC) employs Identity Federation for authentication in services delivered to a wide variety of industries and governments.
Not all devices support 802.1 X authentication. Examples include network printers, Ethernet - based electronics like environmental sensors, cameras, and wireless phones. For those devices to be used in a protected network environment, alternative mechanisms must be provided to authenticate them.
One option would be to disable 802.1 X on that port, but that leaves that port unprotected and open for abuse. Another, slightly more reliable option is to use the MAB option. When MAB is configured on a port, that port will first try to check if the connected device is 802.1 X compliant, and if no reaction is received from the connected device, it will try to authenticate with the AAA server using the connected device 's MAC address as username and password. The network administrator then must make provisions on the RADIUS server to authenticate those MAC - addresses, either by adding them as regular users, or implementing additional logic to resolve them in a network inventory database.
Many managed Ethernet switches offer options for this.
In the summer of 2005, Microsoft 's Steve Riley posted an article detailing a serious vulnerability in the 802.1 X protocol, involving a man in the middle attack. In summary, the flaw stems from the fact that 802.1 X authenticates only at the beginning of the connection, but after that authentication, it 's possible for an attacker to use the authenticated port if he has the ability to physically insert himself (perhaps using a workgroup hub) between the authenticated computer and the port. Riley suggests that for wired networks the use of IPsec or a combination of IPsec and 802.1 X would be more secure.
EAPOL - Logoff frames transmitted by the 802.1 X supplicant are sent in the clear and contain no data derived from the credential exchange that initially authenticated the client. They are therefore trivially easy to spoof on shared media, and can be used as part of a targeted DoS on both wired and wireless LANs. In an EAPOL - Logoff attack a malicious third party with access to the medium the authenticator is attached to, repeatedly sends forged EAPOL - Logoff frames from the target device 's MAC Address. The authenticator (believing that the targeted device wishes to end its authentication session) closes the target 's authentication session, blocking traffic ingressing from the target, denying it access to the network.
The 802.1 X-2010 specification, which began as 802.1 af, addresses vulnerabilities in previous 802.1 X specifications, by using MACSec IEEE 802.1 AE to encrypt data between logical ports (running on top of a physical port) and IEEE 802.1 AR (Secure Device Identity / DevID) authenticated devices.
As a stopgap until these enhancements are widely implemented, some vendors have extended the 802.1 X-2001 and 802.1 X-2004 protocol, allowing multiple concurrent authentication sessions to occur on a single port. While this prevents traffic from devices with unauthenticated MAC addresses ingressing on an 802.1 X authenticated port, it will not stop a malicious device snooping on traffic from an authenticated device and provides no protection against MAC spoofing, or EAPOL - Logoff attacks.
The IETF - backed alternative is the Protocol for Carrying Authentication for Network Access (PANA), which also carries EAP, although it works at layer 3, using UDP, thus not being tied to the 802 infrastructure.
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you can be my bodyguard and i can be your long lost pal | You Can Call Me Al - wikipedia
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"You Can Call Me Al '' is a song by the American singer - songwriter Paul Simon. It was the lead single from his seventh studio album, Graceland (1986), released on Warner Bros. Records. Written by Simon, its lyrics follow an individual seemingly experiencing a midlife crisis. Its lyrics were partially inspired by Simon 's trip to South Africa and experience with its culture.
Released in September 1986, "You Can Call Me Al '' became one of Simon 's biggest solo hits, reaching the top five in seven countries.
The names in the song came from an incident at a party that Simon went to with his then - wife Peggy Harper. French composer and conductor Pierre Boulez, who was attending the same party, mistakenly referred to Paul as "Al '' and to Peggy as "Betty '', inspiring Simon to write a song.
"You Can Call Me Al '' was recorded entirely at The Hit Factory in New York City in April 1986; it differs from much of Graceland in this regard, as most songs on the record were recorded in numerous locales worldwide.
After the song 's completion, it was mixed at The Hit Factory alongside the rest of Graceland, at an average of two days per song. Simon 's vocals on the song are rather quick - paced, which made them difficult to mix over the numerous instruments in the backing track. After much work on the track, Simon 's long - time engineer Roy Halee used tape delays feeding separately into the two audio channels, which made the vocals clear.
The lyrics can be interpreted as describing a man experiencing a midlife crisis ("Where 's my wife and family? What if I die here? Who 'll be my role model? ''). However, as Paul Simon himself explained during the Graceland episode of the Classic Albums documentary series, by the third verse the lyrics move from a generic portrait - like perspective to a personal and autobiographical one, as he describes his journey to South Africa which inspired the entire album.
The song opens simply, with its protagonist wondering aloud why his life is difficult, amid other questions. Simon structured the song 's lyrics in a way that listeners would be given the simplest information first, before getting abstract with his imagery in the song 's third verse: "Because there 's been a structure, (...) those abstract images, they will come down and fall into one of the slots that the mind has already made up about the structure of the song. ''
Synthesizer player Rob Mounsey arranged and conducted the horn section, and contributed heavily to the track 's arrangement and groove. The song features a bass run performed by Bakithi Kumalo; the solo is palindromic as only the first half was recorded, and was then played backwards for the second half. The decision to reverse the recording was made by Halee, who noted in a later interview that this type of experimentation was common in order to make the songs more interesting. The penny whistle solo was performed by jazz musician Morris Goldberg.
Paul Simon did not like the original music video that was made, which was a performance of the song Simon gave during the monologue when he hosted Saturday Night Live in the perspective of a video monitor. A replacement video was conceived partly by Lorne Michaels and directed by Gary Weis, wherein Chevy Chase lip - synced Simon 's vocals, with gestures punctuating the lyrics.
"You Can Call Me Al '' became Simon 's biggest hit single as a solo act. In the United States, however, it initially fared poorly, reaching number 44 on the Billboard Hot 100 in September 1986. As sales and acclaim for Graceland grew, culminating in a win for Album of the Year at the 29th Annual Grammy Awards in February 1987, the single began to re-enter the charts. After making a second entry in March, the song rose to a peak of number 23 in May 1987.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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any kind of line drawing that shows the most important properties of an object is called a | Architectural drawing - wikipedia
An architectural drawing or architect 's drawing is a technical drawing of a building (or building project) that falls within the definition of architecture. Architectural drawings are used by architects and others for a number of purposes: to develop a design idea into a coherent proposal, to communicate ideas and concepts, to convince clients of the merits of a design, to enable a building contractor to construct it, as a record of the completed work, and to make a record of a building that already exists.
Architectural drawings are made according to a set of conventions, which include particular views (floor plan, section etc.), sheet sizes, units of measurement and scales, annotation and cross referencing. Conventionally, drawings were made in ink on paper or a similar material, and any copies required had to be laboriously made by hand. The twentieth century saw a shift to drawing on tracing paper, so that mechanical copies could be run off efficiently.
The development of the computer had a major impact on the methods used to design and create technical drawings, making manual drawing almost obsolete, and opening up new possibilities of form using organic shapes and complex geometry. Today the vast majority of drawings are created using CAD software.
The size of drawings reflects the materials available and the size that is convenient to transport -- rolled up or folded, laid out on a table, or pinned up on a wall. The draughting process may impose limitations on the size that is realistically workable. Sizes are determined by a consistent paper size system, according to local usage. Normally the largest paper size used in modern architectural practice is ISO A0 (841 mm × 1,189 mm or 33.1 in × 46.8 in) or in the USA Arch E (762 mm × 1,067 mm or 30 in × 42 in) or Large E size (915 mm × 1,220 mm or 36 in × 48 in).
Architectural drawings are drawn to scale, so that relative sizes are correctly represented. The scale is chosen both to ensure the whole building will fit on the chosen sheet size, and to show the required amount of detail. At the scale of one eighth of an inch to one foot (1: 96) or the metric equivalent 1 to 100, walls are typically shown as simple outlines corresponding to the overall thickness. At a larger scale, half an inch to one foot (1: 24) or the nearest common metric equivalent 1 to 20, the layers of different materials that make up the wall construction are shown. Construction details are drawn to a larger scale, in some cases full size (1 to 1 scale).
Scale drawings enable dimensions to be "read '' off the drawing, i.e. measured directly. Imperial scales (feet and inches) are equally readable using an ordinary ruler. On a one - eighth inch to one foot scale drawing, the one - eighth divisions on the ruler can be read off as feet. Architects normally use a scale ruler with different scales marked on each edge. A third method, used by builders in estimating, is to measure directly off the drawing and multiply by the scale factor.
Dimensions can be measured off drawings made on a stable medium such as vellum. All processes of reproduction introduce small errors, especially now that different copying methods mean that the same drawing may be re-copied, or copies made in several different ways. Consequently, dimensions need to be written ("figured '') on the drawing. The disclaimer "Do not scale off dimensions '' is commonly inscribed on architects drawings, to guard against errors arising in the copying process.
This section deals with the conventional views used to represent a building or structure. See the Types of architectural drawing section below for drawings classified according to their purpose.
A floor plan is the most fundamental architectural diagram, a view from above showing the arrangement of spaces in building in the same way as a map, but showing the arrangement at a particular level of a building. Technically it is a horizontal section cut through a building (conventionally at four feet / one metre and twenty centimetres above floor level), showing walls, windows and door openings and other features at that level. The plan view includes anything that could be seen below that level: the floor, stairs (but only up to the plan level), fittings and sometimes furniture. Objects above the plan level (e.g. beams overhead) can be indicated as dashed lines.
Geometrically, plan view is defined as a vertical orthographic projection of an object on to a horizontal plane, with the horizontal plane cutting through the building.
A site plan is a specific type of plan, showing the whole context of a building or group of buildings. A site plan shows property boundaries and means of access to the site, and nearby structures if they are relevant to the design. For a development on an urban site, the site plan may need to show adjoining streets to demonstrate how the design fits into the urban fabric. Within the site boundary, the site plan gives an overview of the entire scope of work. It shows the buildings (if any) already existing and those that are proposed, usually as a building footprint; roads, parking lots, footpaths, hard landscaping, trees and planting. For a construction project, the site plan also needs to show all the services connections: drainage and sewer lines, water supply, electrical and communications cables, exterior lighting etc.
Site plans are commonly used to represent a building proposal prior to detailed design: drawing up a site plan is a tool for deciding both the site layout and the size and orientation of proposed new buildings. A site plan is used to verify that a proposal complies with local development codes, including restrictions on historical sites. In this context the site plan forms part of a legal agreement, and there may be a requirement for it to be drawn up by a licensed professional: architect, engineer, landscape architect or land surveyor.
An elevation is a view of a building seen from one side, a flat representation of one façade. This is the most common view used to describe the external appearance of a building. Each elevation is labelled in relation to the compass direction it faces, e.g. looking toward the north you would be seeing the southern elevation of the building. Buildings are rarely a simple rectangular shape in plan, so a typical elevation may show all the parts of the building that are seen from a particular direction.
Geometrically, an elevation is a horizontal orthographic projection a building on to a vertical plane, the vertical plane normally being parallel to one side of the building.
Architects also use the word elevation as a synonym for façade, so the north elevation is literally the north - facing wall of the building.
A cross section, also simply called a section, represents a vertical plane cut through the object, in the same way as a floor plan is a horizontal section viewed from the top. In the section view, everything cut by the section plane is shown as a bold line, often with a solid fill to show objects that are cut through, and anything seen beyond generally shown in a thinner line. Sections are used to describe the relationship between different levels of a building. In the Observatorium drawing illustrated here, the section shows the dome which can be seen from the outside, a second dome that can only be seen inside the building, and the way the space between the two accommodates a large astronomical telescope: relationships that would be difficult to understand from plans alone.
A sectional elevation is a combination of a cross section, with elevations of other parts of the building seen beyond the section plane.
Geometrically, a cross section is a horizontal orthographic projection of a building on to a vertical plane, with the vertical plane cutting through the building.
Isometric and axonometric projections are a simple way of representing a three dimensional object, keeping the elements to scale and showing the relationship between several sides of the same object, so that the complexities of a shape can be clearly understood.
There is some confusion about the terms isometric and axonometric. "Axonometric is a word that has been used by architects for hundreds of years. Engineers use the word axonometric as a generic term to include isometric, diametric and trimetric drawings. '' This article uses the terms in the architecture - specific sense.
Despite fairly complex geometrical explanations, for the purposes of practical draughting the difference between isometric and axonometric is simple (see diagram above). In both, the plan is drawn on a skewed or rotated grid, and the verticals are projected vertically on the page. All lines are drawn to scale so that relationships between elements are accurate. In many cases a different scale is required for different axes, and again this can be calculated but in practice was often simply estimated by eye.
Traditional draughting techniques used 30 - 60 and 45 degree set squares, and that determined the angles used in these views. Once the adjustable square became common those limitations were lifted.
The axonometric gained in popularity in the twentieth century, not just as a convenient diagram but as a formal presentation technique, adopted in particular by the Modern Movement. Axonometric drawings feature prominently in the influential 1970 's drawings of Michael Graves, James Stirling and others, using not only straightforward views but worms - eye view, unusually and exaggerated rotations of the plan, and exploded elements.
The axonometric view is not readily generated by CAD programmes which create views from a three dimensional model. Consequently, it is now rarely used.
Detail drawings show a small part of the construction at a larger scale, to show how the component parts fit together. They are also used to show small surface details, for example decorative elements. Section drawings at large scale are a standard way of showing building construction details, typically showing complex junctions (such as floor to wall junction, window openings, eaves and roof apex) that can not be clearly shown on a drawing that includes the full height of the building. A full set of construction details needs to show plan details as well as vertical section details. One detail is seldom produced in isolation: a set of details shows the information needed to understand the construction in three dimensions. Typical scales for details are 1 / 10, 1 / 5 and full size.
In traditional construction, many details were so fully standardised, that few detail drawings were required to construct a building. For example, the construction of a sash window would be left to the carpenter, who would fully understand what was required, but unique decorative details of the facade would be drawn up in detail. In contrast, modern buildings need to be fully detailed because of the proliferation of different products, methods and possible solutions.
Perspective in drawing is an approximate representation on a flat surface of an image as it is perceived by the eye. The key concepts here are:
The basic categorization of artificial perspective is by the number of vanishing points:
The normal convention in architectural perspective is to use two - point perspective, with all the verticals drawn as verticals on the page.
Three - point perspective gives a casual, photographic snapshot effect. In professional architectural photography, conversely, a view camera or a perspective control lens is used to eliminate the third vanishing point, so that all the verticals are vertical on the photograph, as with the perspective convention. This can also be done by digital manipulation of a photograph taken with a standard lens.
Aerial perspective is a technique in painting, for indicating distance by approximating the effect of the atmosphere on distant objects. In daylight, as an ordinary object gets further from the eye, its contrast with the background is reduced, its colour saturation is reduced, and its colour becomes more blue. Not to be confused with aerial view or bird 's eye view, which is the view as seen (or imagined) from a high vantage point. In JM Gandy 's perspective of the Bank of England (see illustration at the beginning of this article), Gandy portrayed the building as a picturesque ruin in order to show the internal plan arrangement, a precursor of the cutaway view.
A montage image is produced by superimposing a perspective image of a building on to a photographic background. Care is needed to record the position from which the photograph was taken, and to generate the perspective using the same viewpoint. This technique is popular in computer visualisation, where the building can be photorealistically rendered, and the final image is intended to be almost indistinguishable from a photograph.
A sketch is a rapidly executed freehand drawing, a quick way to record and develop an idea, not intended as a finished work. A diagram could also be drawn freehand but deals with symbols, to develop the logic of a design. Both can be worked up into a more presentable form and used to communicate the principles of a design.
In architecture, the finished work is expensive and time consuming, so it is important to resolve the design as fully as possible before construction work begins. Complex modern buildings involve a large team of different specialist disciplines, and communication at the early design stages is essential to keep the design moving towards a coordinated outcome. Architects (and other designers) start investigating a new design with sketches and diagrams, to develop a rough design that provides an adequate response to the particular design problems.
There are two basic elements to a building design, the aesthetic and the practical. The aesthetic element includes the layout and visual appearance, the anticipated feel of the materials, and cultural references that will influence the way people perceive the building. Practical concerns include space allocated for different activities, how people enter and move around the building, daylight and artificial lighting, acoustics, traffic noise, legal matters and building codes, and many other issues. While both aspects are partly a matter of customary practice, every site is different. Many architects actively seek innovation, thereby increasing the number of problems to be resolved.
Architectural legend often refers to designs made on the back of an envelope / napkin / cigarette packet / bubblegum wrapper. Initial thoughts are important, even if they have to be discarded along the way, because they provide the central idea around which the design can develop. Although a sketch is inaccurate, it is disposable and allows for freedom of thought, for trying different ideas quickly. Choice becomes sharply reduced once the design is committed to a scale drawing, and the sketch stage is almost always essential.
Diagrams are mainly used to resolve practical matters. In the early phases of the design architects use diagrams to develop, explore, and communicate ideas and solutions. They are essential tools for thinking, problem solving, and communication in the design disciplines. Diagrams can be used to resolve spatial relationships, but they can also represent forces and flows, e.g. the forces of sun and wind, or the flows of people and materials through a building.
An exploded view diagram shows component parts dis - assembled in some way, so that each can be seen on its own. These views are common in technical manuals, but are also used in architecture, either in conceptual diagrams or to illustrate technical details. In a cutaway view parts of the exterior are omitted to show the interior, or details of internal construction. Although common in technical illustration, including many building products and systems, the cutaway is in fact little - used in architectural drawing.
Architectural drawings are produced for a specific purpose, and can be classified accordingly. Several elements are often included on the same sheet, for example a sheet showing a plan together with the principal façade.
Drawings intended to explain a scheme and to promote its merits. Working drawings may include tones or hatches to emphasise different materials, but they are diagrams, not intended to appear realistic. Basic presentation drawings typically include people, vehicles and trees, taken from a library of such images, and are otherwise very similar in style to working drawings. Rendering is the art of adding surface textures and shadows to show the visual qualities of a building more realistically. An architectural illustrator or graphic designer may be employed to prepare specialist presentation images, usually perspectives or highly finished site plans, floor plans and elevations etc.
Measured drawings of existing land, structures and buildings. Architects need an accurate set of survey drawings as a basis for their working drawings, to establish exact dimensions for the construction work. Surveys are usually measured and drawn up by specialist land surveyors.
Historically, architects have made record drawings in order to understand and emulate the great architecture known to them. In the Renaissance, architects from all over Europe studied and recorded the remains of the Roman and Greek civilizations, and used these influences to develop the architecture of the period. Records are made both individually, for local purposes, and on a large scale for publication. Historic surveys worth referring to include:
Record drawings are also used in construction projects, where "as - built '' drawings of the completed building take account of all the variations made during the course of construction.
A comprehensive set of drawings used in a building construction project: these will include not only architect 's drawings but structural and services engineer 's drawings etc. Working drawings logically subdivide into location, assembly and component drawings.
Traditionally, working drawings would typically combine plans, sections, elevations and some details to provide a complete explanation of a building on one sheet. That was possible because little detail was included, the building techniques involved being common knowledge amongst building professionals. Modern working drawings are much more detailed and it is standard practice to isolate each view on a separate sheet. Notes included on drawings are brief, referring to standardised specification documents for more information. Understanding the layout and construction of a modern building involves studying an often - sizeable set of drawings and documents.
Until the latter part of the 20th century, all architectural drawings were manually produced, if not by the architects, then by trained (but less skilled) draughtsmen (or drafters), who did not generate the design, but did make many of the less important decisions. This system has continued with CAD draughting: many design architects have little or no knowledge of CAD software programmes, relying upon others to take their designs beyond the sketch stage. Draughtsmen often specialize in a type of structure, such as residential or commercial, or in a type of construction: timber frame, reinforced concrete, prefabrication, etc.
The traditional tools of the architect were the drawing board or draughting table, T - square and set squares, protractor, compasses, pencil, and drawing pens of different types. Drawings were made on vellum, coated linen, and tracing paper. Lettering would either be done by hand, mechanically using a stencil, or a combination of the two. Ink lines were drawn with a ruling pen, a relatively sophisticated device similar to a dip - in pen, but with adjustable line width, capable of producing a very fine controlled line width. Ink pens had to be dipped into ink frequently. Draughtsmen worked standing up, keeping the ink on a separate table to avoid spilling ink on the drawing.
Developments in the 20th century included the parallel motion drawing board, as well as more complex improvements on the basic T - square. The development of reliable technical drawing pens allowed for faster draughting and stencilled lettering. Letraset dry transfer lettering and half - tone sheets were popular from the 1970s until computers made those processes obsolete.
Computer - aided design is the use of computer software to create drawings. Today the vast majority of technical drawings of all kinds are made using CAD. Instead of drawing lines on paper, the computer records equivalent information electronically. There are many advantages to this system: repetition is reduced because complex elements can be copied, duplicated and stored for re-use. Errors can be deleted, and the speed of draughting allows many permutations to be tried before the design is finalised. On the other hand, CAD drawing encourages a proliferation of detail and increased expectations of accuracy, aspects which reduce the efficiency originally expected from the move to computerisation.
Professional CAD software such as AutoCAD is complex and requires both training and experience before the operator becomes fully productive. Consequently, skilled CAD operators are often divorced from the design process. Simpler software such as SketchUp and Vectorworks allows for more intuitive drawing and is intended as a design tool.
CAD is used to create all kinds of drawings, from working drawings to photorealistic perspective views. Architectural renderings (also called visualisations) are made by creating a three - dimensional model using CAD. The model can be viewed from any direction to find the most useful viewpoints. Different software (for example Autodesk 3ds Max) is then used to apply colour and texture to surfaces, and to represent shadows and reflections. The result can be accurately combined with photographic elements: people, cars, background landscape.
Building information modeling (BIM) is the logical development of CAD drawing, a relatively new technology but fast becoming mainstream. The design team collaborates to create a three - dimensional computer model, and all plans and other two - dimensional views are generated directly from the model, ensuring spatial consistency. The key innovation here is to share the model via the internet, so that all the design functions (site survey, architecture, structure and services) can be integrated into a single model, or as a series of models associated with each specialism that are shared throughout the design development process. Some form of management, not necessarily by the architect, needs to be in place to resolve conflicting priorities. The starting point of BIM is spatial design, but it also enables components to be quantified and scheduled directly from the information embedded in the model.
An architectural animation is a short film showing how a proposed building will look: the moving image makes three - dimensional forms much easier to understand. An animation is generated from a series of hundreds or even thousands of still images, each made in the same way as an architectural visualisation. A computer - generated building is created using a CAD programme, and that is used to create more or less realistic views from a sequence of viewpoints. The simplest animations use a moving viewpoint, while more complex animations can include moving objects: people, vehicles, and so on.
Reprographics or reprography covers a variety of technologies, media, and support services used to make multiple copies of original drawings. Prints of architectural drawings are still sometimes called blueprints, after one of the early processes which produced a white line on blue paper. The process was superseded by the dye - line print system which prints black on white coated paper (Whiteprint). The standard modern processes are the ink - jet printer, laser printer and photocopier, of which the ink - jet and laser printers are commonly used for large - format printing. Although colour printing is now commonplace, it remains expensive above A3 size, and architect 's working drawings still tend to adhere to the black and white / greyscale aesthetic.
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is there a new season of attack on titan | List of Attack on Titan episodes - wikipedia
Attack on Titan is an anime series adapted from the manga of the same title by Hajime Isayama. It is set in a world where humanity lives inside cities surrounded by enormous walls due to the Titans, gigantic humanoid beings who devour humans seemingly without reason. The story follows the adventures of Eren Yeager, his adopted sister Mikasa Ackerman, and their friend Armin Arlert, whose lives are changed forever after a Colossal Titan breaches the wall of their home town. Vowing revenge and to reclaim the world from the Titans, Eren and his friends join the Scout Regiment, an elite group of soldiers who fight Titans.
Produced by IG Port 's Wit Studio and directed by Tetsurō Araki, Attack on Titan was broadcast on the Mainichi Broadcasting System from April 7 to September 29, 2013, and later aired on Tokyo MX, FBS, TOS, HTB, TV Aichi and BS11. Both Funimation and Crunchyroll have streamed the series with subtitles on their respective websites. Funimation has also licensed the anime for home video release in 2014. Episode 1 of the English version premiered at Anime Boston, with other episodes put on Funimation 's subscription services. On television of the series has broadcast weekly on Adult Swim 's Toonami block on May 3, 2014, starting at 11: 30 p.m. EST.
From episode 1 to 13, the anime 's opening theme song is "Feuerroter Pfeil und Bogen '' (紅蓮 の 弓矢, Guren no Yumiya, lit. "Crimson Bow and Arrow '') by Linked Horizon and the ending theme song is "Utsukushiki Zankoku na Sekai '' (美しき 残酷 な 世界, lit. "A Beautiful Cruel World '') by Yōko Hikasa. From episode 14 to 25, the anime 's opening theme song is "Die Flügel der Freiheit '' (自由 の 翼, Jiyū no Tsubasa, lit. "The Wings of Freedom '') by Linked Horizon and the ending theme song is "great escape '' by Cinema Staff. The opening themes were collected on Linked Horizon 's single "Jiyū e no Shingeki '' which sold over 100 thousand copies in its first week of sales.
A second season aired from April 1 to June 17, 2017 on MBS and other television networks. Funimation and Crunchyroll streamed the second season on their respective websites, while Adult Swim aired a dubbed version. The opening theme song is "Opfert eure Herzen! '' (心臓 を 捧げよ!, Shinzō o Sasageyo!, lit. "Dedicate Your Hearts! '') by Linked Horizon and the ending theme song is "Yūgure no Tori '' (夕暮れ の 鳥) by Shinsei Kamattechan.
On June 17, 2017, a third season was announced at the close of the second season 's final episode, with a release date slated for July 23, 2018. A trailer for the third season was released on April 27, 2018 along with confirmation for a 24 - episode long season. After 12 episodes, Season 3 was confirmed to be in hiatus until it returns with half of the episodes on April 2019. Adult Swim is scheduled to air the English version of the third season, starting on August 18, 2018. The opening theme for the third season is "Red Swan '' by Yoshiki featuring Hyde, and the ending theme song is "Akatsuki no Requiem '' (暁 の 鎮魂歌, Akatsuki no Chinkonka, lit. "Daybreak Requiem '') by Linked Horizon.
Each episode contains one or two panels entitled "Information Available for Public Disclosure '' presenting data about human society or the Titans.
The following bonus original video animation episodes were released alongside select volumes of the manga.
In the year 850, whilst Eren and the others are in training, the Recon Corps go on a mission, with Hange deciding to pursue a Titan spotted in the forest in the hopes she can capture it. Curiously, as Hange gets the Titan to chase after her, it suddenly retreats to the forest. Hange follows it to the center of the forest, where she finds it banging its head against a certain tree. The Titan turns hostile when Hange gets close to it, but Levi and the others arrive and kill it, much to Hange 's dismay. Upon inspecting the scene, they discover the decapitated body of Ilse Langnar, a soldier from the 34th Recon Corps division, resting inside of the tree, and find a notebook belonging to her lying on the ground. The notebook details Ilse 's records, as she escaped on foot after her squad was killed by Titans. She eventually became cornered by a Titan, but instead of killing her right away, it started to speak to her in the human language, calling her "Ymir ''. Ilse attempted to communicate with the Titan, but it inevitably became hostile again and bit off her head, curiously choosing not to devour her body but instead rest it inside the tree. Having read through all of Ilse 's notes, Hange uses the notebook as leverage to convince Erwin to approve of operations to capture Titans alive and study them, before returning Ilse 's belongings to her grief - stricken family.
In the year 848, the recruits are split into two groups for a wilderness exercise to learn how to sustain themselves in times of peace. Marco has trouble leading his group due to the arrogance of both Eren and Jean. Meanwhile, Mikasa 's group learns of the presence of a gang of thieves, who managed to steal their omni - directional mobility gear. That night, the thieves ambush Eren 's group, taking Christa hostage along with their equipment. Putting aside their petty squabbles in order to rescue her, the group discover the thieves ' hideout, using each of their talents to come up with a plan to ambush them. After Eren and Jean manage to recover the group 's maneuver equipment and put a stop to the thieves ' wagons, the thieves hold Christa at knifepoint, but she is rescued by the arrival of Mikasa and Annie after Armin had signalled for help. As the thieves are arrested, with no casualties taken, Armin wonders if the thieves ' attack was part of the exercise all along.
Chibi Theater: Fly, Cadets, Fly! (ち み キャラ 劇場 と んで け! 訓練 兵団, Chimi Kyara Gekijō -- Tondeke! Kunren Heidan) is a series of flash animated gag shorts included with the Blu - ray Disc / DVD releases, featuring the characters in chibi form based on designs by Yuupon.
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what was the most serious labor strike in truman's administration | 1952 Steel Strike - wikipedia
The 1952 steel strike was a strike by the United Steelworkers of America against U.S. Steel and nine other steelmakers. The strike was scheduled to begin on April 9, 1952, but President Harry S Truman nationalized the American steel industry hours before the workers walked out. The steel companies sued to regain control of their facilities. On June 2, 1952, in a landmark decision, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579 (1952), that the president lacked the authority to seize the steel mills. The Steelworkers struck to win a wage increase. The strike lasted 53 days, and ended on July 24, 1952, on essentially the same terms the union had proposed four months earlier.
On February 9, 1950, Senator Joseph McCarthy denounced the administration of President Harry S Truman for permitting known communists to remain in the employment of the United States government. The incident sparked a four - year period of anti-communist policies and attitudes which came to be known as McCarthyism. The accusations by McCarthy and others put the Truman administration on the political defensive, and led President Truman to seek ways in which he might prove he was not "soft on communism. ''
On June 25, 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, touching off the Korean War. American wartime mobilization agencies, including the recently formed National Security Resources Board (NSRB), were dormant. President Truman attempted to use the NSRB as the nation 's military mobilization agency. The president quadrupled the defense budget to $50 billion, and the NSRB placed controls on prices, wages and raw materials. Inflation soared and shortages in food, consumer goods and housing appeared.
On September 8, 1950, the U.S. Congress enacted the Defense Production Act. Title II of the Act permitted the president to requisition any facilities, property, equipment, supplies, component parts of raw materials needed for the national defense. Title IV of the Act gave the president the authority to impose wage and price controls in progressive steps (ranging from voluntary controls to controls only in essential industries to overall controls).
On September 9, Truman issued Executive Order 10161, which established the Economic Stabilization Agency (ESA) to coordinate and supervise wage and price controls. Utilizing the wage and price control model developed in World War II, the Truman administration created two sub-agencies within ESA. The Office of Price Stabilization (OPS) was given the power to regulate prices, while the Wage Stabilization Board (WSB) oversaw the creation of wage stabilization rules. The division of labor was specifically designed to unlink wages from prices. If prices rose automatically with wages, the inflationary spiral would continue unabated. Placing the onus solely on workers to keep wages low risked the wrath of labor, a lesson the administration had learned from the World War II experience. Delinking wages and prices leveled the playing field. Both workers and employers would now be forced to justify, independently, the wages and prices they demanded.
By October 1950, inflation had abated and shortages were easing. Although Truman had named Alan Valentine as ESA administrator and Cyrus S. Ching chairman of the WSB, the ESA and its sub-agencies were largely inactive and the president hesitated to name a director for the Office of Price Stabilization.
China entered the war on behalf of North Korea on October 19, and made fighting contact with American troops on October 25. The intervention of China in the Korean War unraveled the administration 's mobilization effort. A panicked public began hoarding and the administration accelerated its rearmament plans, and the economy went into an upward inflationary spiral. By December, public support for the war had fallen significantly, and Truman and his intelligence experts expected World War III to break out by spring.
Confronted with the failure of the NSRB, an economy on the verge of collapse, and a mobilization effort which was faltering and unable to meet the needs of accelerated production plans, President Truman declared a national emergency on December 16, 1950. The declaration of an emergency was, in part, motivated by the McCarthyite attacks on the administration and Truman 's desire to appear strong in the prosecution of the war. Using the powers granted to him by the Defense Production Act (which had been enacted only in September 1950), Truman created the Office of Defense Mobilization (ODM). Truman moved the ESA under ODM, and nominated Michael DiSalle as the director of OPS.
Unions felt that during World War II the National War Labor Board had unfairly held wages below the level of inflation while doing little to rein in corporate profits. The American Federation of Labor (AFL) and Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) as well as independent labor unions were determined to avoid a similar outcome under the new Wage Stabilization Board. On December 20, 1950, a United Labor Policy Committee (ULPC) composed of representatives of the AFL, CIO, the Railway Labor Executives ' Association (a group of railway labor unions) and the International Association of Machinists formed to influence the WSB 's deliberations on wage stabilization policy. The group demanded a yearly cost - of - living adjustment for all contracts, productivity pay increases linked to company profit margins, and price controls. But the WSB 's public and corporate representatives were in agreement that the board should only focus on wages, and strictly control wages to keep inflation in check.
On January 26, 1951, ESA imposed nationwide wage and price controls. Labor representatives, who opposed wholesale wage controls, were outvoted nine to three.
Labor representatives on the WSB charged that they were being frozen out of policy deliberations, and they threatened to resign unless they were given more influence over the process. Ching resigned on February 9 to head off a mass resignation, ESA Administrator Johnston appointed the president of the Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks as his special assistant a day later, but the United Labor Policy Committee members were not placated.
Labor representatives believed that wage controls were particularly unfair to some workers. Some workers had received very high wage increases in 1950 prior to the imposition of wage controls, while others had yet to negotiate contracts or receive wage increases. Labor representatives demanded a 12 percent wage increase for workers who had not yet negotiated contracts under the wage stabilization policy, but the public and corporate members of the board held to a 10 percent increase.
On February 16, the Wage Stabilization Board issued Wage Regulation 6 which permitted a 10 percent increase in wages for those workers who had not negotiated a wage increase in the last six months. The regulation was based on the "Little Steel formula '' of World War II. Labor representatives of the board resigned in protest. The mass resignations set off a crisis within the Truman administration. Unwilling to alienate labor by imposing wage controls involuntarily, Truman appointed a National Advisory Board on Mobilization Policy to come up with recommendations to win labor 's support for wage and price controls. On April 17, the National Advisory Board suggested re-establishing the WSB with a greatly enlarged membership. The National Advisory Board also recommended giving the WSB the power to intervene in labor disputes. The WSB should have the power, the report said, to make economic and non-economic recommendations in labor disputes as well as submit disputes directly to the president.
President Truman re-established the WSB on April 21, 1951. In Executive Order 10233, Truman gave the new board the recommended expanded powers. Dr. George W. Taylor, professor of industrial relations at the University of Pennsylvania, was tapped to be the WSB chairman. Taylor agreed to serve only until September 1, 1951, however, and was succeeded by Nathan Feinsinger, a professor of law at the University of Wisconsin.
The expanded powers of the WSB created some controversy, however. It was not clear what statutory authority gave Truman the power to provide the board with its expanded powers. Congressional hearings over the reconstituted WSB 's powers occurred as Congress also debated renewing the Defense Production Act. In July 1951, under pressure from numerous industries for price control relief, Congress enacted the Capehart Amendment to the DPA, which authorized companies to win price increases for costs incurred between June 1950 and July 26, 1951. Although opposed to the way in which the Capehart Amendment significantly weakened the administration 's wage and price control program, President Truman signed the legislation on July 31, 1951.
The Capehart Amendment put intense pressure on the Truman administration 's inflation program. On August 8, the federal government imposed stricter economic controls on the economy. In the steel industry, production quotas and procurement orders were extended to all civilian steelmakers, not just large manufacturers. Steel companies had reported record and near - record profits in the summer, but by mid-fall net revenues were down as defense needs consumed larger and larger quantities of raw and finished steel and steelmakers were unable to sell steel to the higher - margin civilian market. On September 4, DPA again increased the amount of steel needed for defense use, sharply scaling down allotments for the civilian economy. When steelmakers balked at expanding plant and equipment in order to meet new defense quotas, ODM officials ordered the chief executives of the nation 's largest steel manufacturers to attend a meeting in Washington where they were threatened with additional government regulation and oversight. The steelmakers quickly acceded to the government 's demands.
Stabilization officials were so upset by the Capehart Amendment that many resigned, leaving the agency almost leaderless at critical times. ESA Administrator Johnston announced his retirement on September 2 and quit on November 30. The job remained open until Truman persuaded Roger Putnam, a Massachusetts businessman and former Democratic mayor of Springfield, to accept the position on November 27.
Tensions also ruptured labor 's united front on the Wage Stabilization Board. The ULPC dissolved on August 14 when the AFL pulled out of the joint committee. AFL officials appeared to be upset that the ULPC had not led to additional unity talks between the two labor groups and that CIO officials were obtaining more than their fair share of federal appointments. By October, organized labor 's influence throughout the defense mobilization bureaucracy had significantly waned.
The Steelworkers indicated on September 22 that they would seek an industry - wide rather than company - by - company approach to the upcoming wage negotiations. Union leaders argued that employers would never voluntarily agree to a collective bargaining agreement because there would be no guarantee that a concomitant price increase would occur. Murray told the press that he assumed the wage dispute would end up in the hands of the Wage Stabilization Board, and the union was actively working to convince the WSB to alter its pay regulations to permit a pay increase in the 10 to 15 cents an hour range rather than the permissible 4 cents an hour. The consensus was that the WSB would permit steelworkers ' wages to rise rather than risk a strike.
The first indication of what the employer position was in the upcoming negotiations became known on October 25, when the chairman of Bethlehem Steel indicated steelmakers would make no wage proposal when talks opened. Furthermore, the company made it known that it had seen a significant fall in profits and that it lacked any financial ability to award a pay increase.
Negotiations opened with U.S. Steel on November 1, 1951. The union bargaining team numbered more than 100 individuals. Organized labor representatives on the Wage Stabilization Board immediately began pressing for a change in the WSB 's wage regulations to permit a higher wage increase, but administration officials balked. On November 15, Benjamin Fairless, president of U.S. Steel, not only declared that the steel industry had no intention of reaching a collective bargaining agreement with the union but expressed his opinion that workers were overpaid by at least 30 percent. Negotiations with Youngstown Sheet and Tube, Bethlehem Steel and some smaller steelmakers opened on December 1. The union asked for a "substantial '' wage increase, overtime pay for Saturday and Sunday work, the union shop, eight days of vacation a year, relaxed rules on when workers could take vacation, and higher wages for night work. U.S. Steel, the industry leader, refused to address economic issues and instead on December 5 proposed changes to seniority, grievance procedures and other minor issues. Employers ' refusal to discuss economic proposals angered union leaders.
As the talks dragged on to mid-December without movement, the government began to take action. ESA administrator Roger Putnam summoned to Washington, D.C., Fairless, Ernest T. Weir (president of National Steel Corporation), and Charles M. White (president of Republic Steel). The three met with Putnam on December 13, who attempted to determine what the employers ' bargaining position was. Although Putnam ruled out price relief based on a rise in wages, for the first time he and OPS director DiSalle indicated that the government would permit the steel manufacturers to seek the maximum price increase allowed by the Capehart Amendment. Cyrus Ching, now head of the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service, sent two of his top aides to meet with union officials to determine the union 's bargaining strategy and timeline. The aides met with Murray and the union 's collective bargaining committee on December 14, but made no headway. WSB director Feinsinger, however, began paving the way for a relaxation of Wage Regulation 6. On December 8, Feinsinger told the press that the Board was already working on a revision to the regulation which would permit merit pay increases. Five days later, Feinsinger let it be known that a number of economic issues (such as increased pension contributions) might be removed from the calculation of the basic wage rate in order to relieve the pressure on the negotiating parties.
Although the Steelworkers would be taking a strike vote on December 17, the New York Times reported on that same day that the union would consider postponing its strike. The union 's strike committee declined to give Murray the authority to sign a wage pact without approval of the union 's membership, and set its next meeting for January 3, 1952. The strike committee 's action, requested by Murray, was designed to make calling off a strike much more difficult and thus spur bargaining.
Union and employer representatives met with Ching 's staff in Washington from December 17 to December 20, but as expected there was no resolution.
By this time, the press was openly speculating that Truman would have to invoke the injunction and cooling - off period provisions of the Taft - Hartley Act. Truman himself said on Christmas Eve from his home in Missouri that use of the Taft - Hartley law was under consideration. Outright seizure of the steel mills was considered remote.
President Truman certified the dispute to the Wage Stabilization Board on December 22. Although steelmakers agreed not to shutter production until the Board made its wage determination, Murray kept the nation in suspense until December 28 before agreeing to postpone the strike.
Feinsinger appointed a six - member panel to hear the steel wage case. Two members came from the employers, one from the AFL, one from the CIO, and two from the public. Leading the panel was Harry Shulman, a professor of law at Yale University and a widely respected mediator. Hearings were set to being on January 7, 1952, with a report due 30 days later.
Nevertheless, when union leaders met at their announced January 3 meeting in Atlantic City, Murray warned the country that the union intended to keep its no - strike pledge only for 45 days. The union would strike on February 21 if no acceptable wage agreement was forthcoming.
Organized labor believed it was being frozen out of wage stabilization decision - making, and that political and economic pressure on Truman would push the president to establish a broad wage freeze. The Wage Stabilization Board assembled the steel wage panel on January 3, and opened hearings on Monday, January 7. Although economic stabilization officials were excluded from the panel 's proceedings under E.O. 10233, they nevertheless attempted to influence the panel 's deliberations. The day before the panel 's hearings opened, Putnam announced ESA would seek a better wage formula than that contained in Wage Regulation 6. Ten days later, Feinsinger announced that a wage regulation rewrite would be undertaken as quickly as possible.
The hearings opened with the Steelworkers arguing for a wage and benefit increase estimated between 30 and 50 cents an hour, while the employers claimed no increase whatsoever was possible without price relief. ODM director Charles E. Wilson made it clear in a public statement on January 15 that the administration 's inflation program would be wrecked if the workers succeeded in winning a wage increase larger than 4 cents an hour. Office of Price Stabilization economists were disturbed by the union 's request. A secret internal memorandum by OPS staff members indicated that the union was actually due a 22 - cents - an - hour wage increase, and that the steel companies could absorb up to 40 cents an hour in additional costs without a price hike. But for the union to win a wage increase without giving the employers price relief would appear inequitable and create political problems for both OPS and WSB with Republicans in Congress.
On January 12, the union and the steelmakers agreed to meet privately, outside the steel wage panel 's auspices. Both sides felt agreement could be reached on six non-economic issues: grievance procedures, arbitration mechanisms, improved suspension and discharge procedures, health and safety issues, military leave, and the contract 's preamble.
The steel wage panel recessed for three weeks after its opening hearings in order to allow the employers time to make their arguments. In the interim, OPS announced it was granting the steelmakers a price increase of $2 to $3 per ton -- even though they had not applied for it. OPS chief DiSalle hoped that the price increase would placate the employers and relieve pressure on the steel wage panel. But the employers began publicly talking about a price increase of $6 to $9 per ton, and the stratagem failed.
Press speculation that the union would win a 14 cent an hour wage increased after Shulman made a similar recommendation in an unrelated aircraft industry workers ' collective bargaining case on February 9.
The employers countered with testimony indicating the steel industry was on the verge of bankruptcy. When hearings resumed February 2, Retired Admiral Ben Moreell, president of Jones and Laughlin Steel Company, declared the steel industry to be financially insecure. He estimated the cost of the union 's wage and benefit package at $1.08 an hour, not 30 to 50 cents an hour. The estimate was more than double the industry 's previous assessment. Benjamin Fairless, meanwhile, testified that the wage demands would reduce steel industry profits so much that the federal government would lose more than $11 billion in tax revenues.
The employers also countered with a massive public relations campaign. The steel manufacturers had decided to wage a public relations campaign early in the wage dispute, possibly as early as August 1951. They coordinated their anti-union effort by forming a group called "Steel Companies in the Wage Case, '' and relied on the resources of the American Iron and Steel Institute as well. Designed to emphasize the patriotism of the steel companies during wartime, the public relations campaign was implemented in newspapers and on radio and television stations nationwide. The campaign attacked not only the union but also the WSB and the Truman administration generally. The public relations campaign asserted that "runaway inflation '' would occur if steelworkers ' pay rose even minimally. A pay increase, it was said, would ruin the economy of the Deep South, "hamper the country 's defense against atomic attack, undermine our foreign economic policy and introduce totalitarianism ''. The steel industry also charged that union proposals would create such inefficiency that workers would be driven to "radicalism and communism '' in sheer frustration. In United States Senate hearings after the strike ended, the Senate Committee on Labor and Public Welfare denounced the public relations campaign in very strong terms, accusing the steel companies of undermining the work of a government agency:
The steel industry completed making its case on February 14. Final arguments were made against the union shop. The issue had taken on increasing importance to the steel manufacturers over the previous three months. Many of the chief executives of the larger steel companies came to see themselves as the last bulwark against wholesale unionism. Fairless, in particular, felt that if the WSB included a union shop proposal in its recommendations, the ruling would put the government 's imprimatur on unionization. The steel industry, it was felt, was the last defender of capitalism and the free market.
The steel wage panel concluded its hearings on February 16, 1951. The issues proved so numerous and complex, however, that the panel advised the Wage Stabilization Board that it needed until March 13 to complete its report. The union was asked to extend its strike deadline. Despite Murray 's accusation that the government intended to provoke a strike, the union gave the WSB until March 20 to issue its wage ruling.
As the hearings ended, OPS Director DiSalle resigned on February 15, 1952, in order to run for the U.S. Senate. Truman appointed Ellis Arnall, a former governor of Georgia, as DiSalle 's successor.
The wage panel turned its report over to the Wage Stabilization Board on March 13.
The union shop issue came to increasingly dominate the WSB 's deliberations. Initially, Feinsinger refused to consider any issue other than wage increases. Feinsinger even refused to discuss the issue with his superior, Putnam. Feinsinger was under pressure to win support for a recommendation by a majority of the Board and issue a report before the union lost patience and struck. CIO and Steelworkers ' counsel Arthur Goldberg persuaded the WSB 's labor representatives to withhold their support for a recommendation until Feinsinger not only agreed to consider the union shop but recommend it to the president.
As the WSB 's deliberations stretched into March, Murray agreed to delay the strike deadline until April 8 -- although he kept the public guessing about the union 's plans until the day before the planned strike.
On March 20, 1952, the Wage Stabilization Board issued its recommendations. The report called for an 18 - month - long contract, with a pay increase of 12.5 cents retroactive to January 1, 1952, followed by a 2.5 cent an hour rise on June 30, 1952, and a 2.5 cent an hour rise on January 1, 1953. Various improvements to fringe benefits were also made. The board also recommended the union shop. In all, the cost of the pay hike ranged from 18 to 30 cents an hour, although 26 cents was the most quoted figure. The vote was 12 to 6, with all industry members of the WSB in the minority. The Board had not, however, included an automatic cost - of - living adjustment and only brought fringe benefits up to parity with other industries. And by front - loading the contract, the Board had practically ensured that inflation would outpace the wage increase, contributing to economic stabilization.
Reaction to the recommendations was overwhelmingly negative. Steel companies claimed they would need a $12 per ton increase in the price of steel in order to stay solvent. Nearly all Republicans in Congress denounced the recommendations, joined by a significant number of Democrats. The mass media portrayed the wage increase as political payback to the union for supporting Truman politically, and editorials accused the WSB of dereliction of duty in order to satisfy the union.
Unfortunately, President Truman 's initial reaction to the WSB 's recommendations was also negative. Based solely on press reports of the WSB report, Truman -- vacationing in Key West, Florida -- declared the recommendations to be economically destabilizing.
The union and employers immediately began bargaining over the terms of the wage recommendation and other, local issues. But negotiations proceeded slowly.
Defense mobilization chief Charles Wilson, however, determined to upend the Wage Stabilization Board 's recommendations. Wilson was convinced by Truman 's remarks at the Key West press conference that the president would reject the Board 's report. On March 21, Wilson met with steel industry officials to learn their views. On March 22, he consulted with Putnam and Arnall. On March 23, Wilson flew to Key West to speak with the president. The two men met the next morning. Wilson flew back to Washington that afternoon, convinced he had won Truman 's consent to settle the steel wage dispute at a level two - thirds lower than the recommendation of the WSB.
As Wilson departed Key West, he made an off - hand remark that he believed the WSB recommendations would seriously destabilize the economy. Murray was outraged by the statement, and declared that it was Wilson who had wrecked national economic stabilization policy. Although Murray said he remained committed to resuming bargaining on March 26, he refused to meet with Wilson. Murray, working with Goldberg, had initially prepared a much stronger statement, but Feinsinger successfully pleaded with him to moderate his tone and language.
Feinsinger, too, was deeply upset by Wilson 's remarks. He had consulted with Wilson and Putnam on the proposed recommendations shortly before the release of the report, and Wilson had expressed no concerns then.
Meanwhile, Truman had changed his views on the recommendations. The White House staff had analyzed the WSB 's report and concluded that the wage and benefit package did not violate stabilization guidelines. Truman 's political advisors also worried that by repudiating the agency 's recommendations, Truman was essentially repudiating his own economic policy.
On March 27, Wilson learned of the president 's change of heart. Wilson met with Putnam, Arnall and Feinsinger, but was unable to win their assent to a large steel price increase. To convince them that the president had authorized the price increase, the four went to the White House that afternoon. At the meeting, Putnam and Arnall argued that the wage recommendations had not breached the stabilization guidelines, but Wilson 's price increase would. Truman then stated that he had not given Wilson authority to negotiate higher steel prices.
Humiliated and declaring his integrity was called into question by the president, Wilson resigned late on the afternoon of March 27. The resignation was made public three days later. Most press reports interpreted the resignation as a sign that Truman was capitulating to union demands. Truman named John R. Steelman, Assistant to the President of the United States (a post which would later become White House Chief of Staff), acting director.
Steelman urged the employers and the union to begin negotiations again. The steel companies agreed to begin talks on March 30, but put them off until April 3. When talks did begin, the steel companies made the first economic offer to the union since negotiations began the previous November: A total wage and benefit package totaling 14.4 cents an hour, contingent on the companies receiving the maximum price increase allowed under the Capehart Amendment. The union rejected the offer. Arnall secretly offered the steel companies a price increase of $4.50 a ton on April 3, but the steel companies demanded at least $5.50 a ton.
Truman began to consider his options, and a seizure of the nation 's steel mills seemed the most likely course. Truman was told that supplies of ammunition in Korea were low, and even a 10 - day strike would endanger the war effort. Atomic weapons projects would be curtailed, 1,500 miles of highway would not be built, and U.S. commitments under the Mutual Defense Assistance Act could not be met -- which might encourage Soviet aggression. Truman ruled out use of the Taft - Hartley Act, believing it was unfair and unlikely to ensure steel production. Consideration was given to using Section 18 of the Selective Training and Service Act. Section 18 permitted the government to seize and operate manufacturing facilities if the manufacturer was unable to fulfill defense orders made by the government. Justice Department lawyers worried, however, because the act did not specifically mention failures to fulfill orders due to strikes, and because the government did not order steel directly from manufacturers. Section 18 's mechanisms were cumbersome and time - consuming, and Defense leaders argued against its use. Most of Truman 's advisors favored seizure of the steel mills under the inherent powers of the President as commander - in - chief.
The steel talks collapsed on April 4, and the union notified the steel manufacturers that day that it planned to call a nationwide strike which would begin at 12: 01 a.m. on April 9.
At 10: 30 p.m. Eastern time, President Truman announced in a national television and radio address that he had issued Executive Order 10340 and he was ordering Secretary of Commerce Charles W. Sawyer to seize the nation 's steel mills to ensure the continued production of steel. Truman attacked the steel companies ' price demands, explained why he was not using the other legal options open to him, and called on the employers and union to meet in Washington the following day to negotiate a new collective bargaining agreement. The union immediately called off its strike, even though Sawyer announced he had no intention of giving them a wage increase.
Twenty - seven minutes after the conclusion of Truman 's speech, attorneys for Republic Steel and the Youngstown Sheet & Tube Company arrived at the door of United States district court Judge Walter Bastian, papers in hand demanding a temporary restraining order preventing the seizure. Bastian refused to rule without hearing from the government, and set argument for April 9 at 11: 30 a.m.
The case was assigned to Judge Alexander Holtzoff. Attorneys for the steel companies argued that the president lacked the Constitutional authority to seize the steel mills and that the steel companies would suffer irreparable harm if seizure were not enjoined. Holmes Baldridge, assistant attorney general in the Claims Division of the Justice Department, argued the case for the administration. Unprepared and unfamiliar with the issues, Baldridge argued that no irreparable harm would ensue and that the steel companies had an adequate remedy under the Federal Tort Claims Act. Holtzoff denied the temporary restraining order 10 minutes after oral arguments concluded.
The press was almost unanimous in its condemnation of the steel mill seizure. The New York Daily News head line was typical: "Truman Does a Hitler ''. Only one newspaper with a sizeable circulation supported the president. Congress, too, reacted negatively. There were calls for Truman 's impeachment, and a number of bills introduced to strip the WSB of its powers, to permit the government to end the strike, and to withdraw congressional approval of the expenditure of funds to operate the steel plants. The steel companies also condemned the action. Clarence B. Randall, president of Inland Steel, gave a nationally broadcast speech on April 9 attacking Truman and the Steelworkers. The employers ' public relations group, "Steel Companies in the Wage Case, '' undertook an ambitious advertising campaign against the Truman administration. Full - page advertisements in major metropolitan newspapers appeared the next day excoriating the seizure, and within a week tens of thousands of pamphlets and fact sheets had been produced supporting the steel manufacturers ' position.
The steel companies next sought a permanent restraining order. On April 10, Bethlehem Steel, Jones and Laughlin Steel, Republic Steel and Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. asked Judge Bastian to hear their case, but Bastian recused himself because he held 30 shares of stock in the Sharon Steel Corporation. The case was assigned to Judge David Pine. Judge Pine set oral argument for April 24.
As preparations for the district court hearing began, the government tried to secure a wage settlement. Independent talks failed. Sawyer oversaw the next round of negotiations, his personal intervention also did not work. Arnall threatened to give the steel companies no price rise, then Putnam ordered a $3 - per - ton price increase. Neither tactic budged the steelmakers. Sawyer threatened to impose a wage increase; that stratagem failed. Sawyer then formally gave the workers a small pay raise; once more, the talks stalled.
Judge Pine began the hearing on schedule. The steel companies focused on the issue of equitable relief. The employers ' attorneys pointed out that they could not make a claim for relief if the courts found the seizure illegal. Additionally, the Federal Tort Claims Act required the government to give its consent to be sued for relief, and this the government had not done. Judge Pine pressed the steel company attorneys to address the constitutional issue, which the government had strongly emphasized in its briefs. Most of the company attorneys seemed shocked by Pine 's request, and were unable to address the issue. But Charles Tuttle, counsel for Armco Steel, squarely argued the issue. In his counter-argument the following day, Baldridge claimed that the courts had no authority to enjoin the President of the United States and then argued that the court should ignore the constitutional issue if it could decide the case on grounds of equity. Baldridge relied heavily on Ex parte Merryman 17 F. Cas. 144 (1861), Mississippi v. Johnson 71 U.S. 475 (1866), In re Debs 158 U.S. 564 (1895) and United States v. Pewee Coal Co. 341 U.S. 114 (1951) as justification for the government 's claims of unfettered executive power.
Baldridge 's claims of unlimited executive power created a firestorm of negative opinion on April 26. Newspapers denounced the claim, public opinion ran heavily against the president, and members of Congress took to the floor of their respective chambers to attack the argument. Truman was forced to issue a denial of Baldridge 's assertion, but the pressure on the administration continued unabated.
Judge Pine issued his opinion at 4: 45 p.m. on April 29. "There is no express grant of power in the Constitution authorizing the President to direct this seizure. There is no grant of power from which it reasonably can be implied. There is no enactment of Congress authorizing it, '' the court declared. The government, Pine wrote, says in its brief that it "does ' not perceive how Article II (of the Constitution) can be read so as to limit the Presidential power to meet all emergencies, ' and... claims that the finding of the emergency is ' not subject to judicial review. ' To my mind this spells a form of government alien to our Constitutional government of limited powers. I therefore find that the acts of defendant are illegal and without authority of law. ''
Pine 's decision was read as a ringing defense of limited government, and was widely praised by the press and Congress. But a furious Philip Murray ordered union members on strike on April 30, and federal officials made plans to curb commercial construction projects, cut back automobile production and shutter consumer appliance factories.
At 10: 00 a.m. on April 30, the government asked Judge Pine to stay his injunction, but Pine declined. Minutes later, the government filed papers for a stay with the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. The Court of Appeals decided to hear the case en banc. Oral argument began at 3: 15 p.m. and lasted three hours. The government forcefully argued that the national defense was imperiled by the strike; only a stay of the district court injunction would induce the union to return to work. The steel companies disagreed, and attempted to focus the court 's attention on the irreparable harm the companies were suffering.
After deliberating for 40 minutes, the judges delivered their verdict. In a 5 - to - 4 ruling, the Court of Appeals stayed the district court 's injunction. However, the stay was only good until 4: 30 p.m. on Friday, May 2. If a request for certiorari had been filed with and accepted by the Supreme Court, the stay would continue until the Supreme Court ruled. If the Supreme Court denied certiorari, the stay would end.
Attorneys for the steel companies were shocked by the ruling. They applied to the court for an amendment to the ruling requiring maintenance of the status quo. The court agreed to hear the application. At 10: 27 a.m. on May 1, the Court of Appeals heard 45 minutes of oral argument from each side. The court reconvened at 1: 30 p.m., and announced in a 5 - to - 4 ruling that it was denying the petition for an amended ruling.
On the evening of May 1, President Truman called Murray and asked that the strike be called off pending a ruling of the Supreme Court. Murray agreed.
On May 2 around 10: 30 a.m., the federal government attempted to file its appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court. However, the steel companies had already filed (at 9: 00 a.m.), which permitted them to open and close oral argument. In accepting the case, the Supreme Court ruled that no material change in the terms and conditions of employment be made. The ruling was inopportune: President Truman had called steelmakers and the union to the White House that morning to reach an agreement. At roughly 3: 00 p.m., after Sawyer, Fairless and Murray had bargained for five hours, a tentative agreement had been reached. But word of the high court 's acceptance of the case led the steel executives to back out of the deal. With Truman unable to force a resolution by threatening to impose a contract, the steelmakers ' hands were strengthened. Talks continued sporadically until May 10, but Sawyer ended them when it became clear the employers were not willing to come to an agreement.
Oral argument occurred on May 12.
Although a quick decision was expected from the court, a ruling was nearly two weeks in coming. During that time, the steelmakers continued to press their public relations advantage against the Truman administration and WSB. "Hitler and Mussolini did the same thing in Germany and Italy as Truman has done in the United States, '' declared Thomas E. Millsop, president of Weirton Steel.
The Steelworkers held their annual convention while the court deliberated. Murray strongly condemned the actions of the steel manufacturers, and declared that if a wage and benefit increase similar to the WSB 's recommendation was not forthcoming the union would strike. Murray declared that if the president attempted to use the Taft - Hartley Act, the union would not only resist but strike again as soon as the cooling - off period was over.
On June 2, 1952, in a 6 - 3 ruling, the Supreme Court declared in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer that the president lacked the authority to seize the steel mills. Writing for a heavily divided majority, Justice Hugo Black held that the president had no authority under the Constitution to seize private property on the grounds of national security. Since the Congress had not otherwise authorized the president to seize the steel mills, the president could not do so.
The Supreme Court 's ruling came at noon, and the government returned the mills to their owners that afternoon. The Steelworkers went on strike a few hours later. The companies struck included Armco Steel, Bethlehem Steel, Great Lakes Steel Corporation, Inland Steel, Jones and Laughlin Steel, Republic Steel, Sharon Steel, U.S. Steel, Wheeling Steel and Youngstown Sheet and Tube, as well as numerous small manufacturers.
The evening of June 2, Truman called a meeting of his top advisors to discuss what to do. Attending the meeting were Attorney - General James P. McGranery, who had been confirmed by the Senate on May 20; Solicitor General Philip Perlman; Secretary of Defense Robert A. Lovett; White House Counsel Charles S. Murphy; Press Secretary Joseph Short; Steelman and Sawyer. The group discussed invoking Taft - Hartley, but felt that the union would resent it and that the law would do little to end the strike.
Truman convened a second meeting the next morning. Several other advisors were also present, in addition to the initial group: Former White House Counsels and close Truman confidantes Sam Rosenman and Clark Clifford; Secretary of Labor Maurice J. Tobin; and National Production Authority director Henry H. Fowler. The group considered but rejected use of Taft - Hartley and asking Congress for legislation to end the strike, but both courses of action were rejected. Instead, the group decided to sponsor additional talks.
New collective bargaining talks opened in Pittsburgh on June 5. The talks were productive, but foundered on the issue of the union shop.
The economic impact of the strike began to be felt immediately. Layoffs in a number of steel - dependent industries occurred just two days after the strike began. National defense mobilization authorities began denying manufacturers of consumer goods steel four days after the strike started, and banned the export of steel on June 10. By June 17, defense plants producing the M47 Patton tank, the M41 Walker Bulldog tank, trucks, bazooka rockets and mortar shells had all shut down or were running half - or quarter - shifts. By June 21, consumer inventories of steel were almost gone, forcing manufacturing shut - downs in the auto industry. As the Independence Day holiday neared, most inventories of steel were gone even from defense stockpiles.
The union 's collective bargaining strategy was two - pronged. The union participated in all collective bargaining talks to seek a national master contract. But the union also devised a divide - and - conquer strategy in which it attempted to secure contracts with weaker, often smaller steelmakers. The first success at this second strategy came at Lukens Steel (later purchased by Bethlehem Steel) on June 11. A tentative agreement was reached with major steel producer Bethlehem Steel on June 23, but the other manufacturers forced the company to retract its agreement and cancel the deal.
The union also had to forestall invocation of the Taft - Hartley Act. Union leaders felt they had already delayed long enough (five months), and that further delays would only harm union members. President Truman was under intense pressure from Congress and his own aides to invoke Taft - Hartley. Murray reiterated the union 's opposition to the law and the union 's intention to fight an injunction, statements which tended to inflame emotions and delay a resolution to the strike.
Additionally, Murray worried that the impact of the strike on national defense would turn the public against the strike. On June 19, a limited number of union members agreed to return to work to finish and deliver steel for certain critical defense needs.
Congress, too, was active in the strike. Each chamber of Congress passed non-binding resolutions urging Truman to use the Taft - Hartley Act to end the strike, while also introducing or passing various bills to permit the president to end the strike. Ultimately, however, Congress did not act before the strike ended.
The first break in the strike came Pittsburgh Steel signed an agreement with the union on June 27. The agreement significantly undercut employer solidarity in the strike, and the six largest employers -- Bethlehem, Inland, Jones and Laughlin, Republic, U.S. Steel, and Youngstown Sheet and Tube -- worried that enough small employers would sign agreements to make the strike uneconomical.
The employers responded by attempting to make the union shop the major strike issue. The six largest employers first bolstered the resistance of the other manufacturers by declaring that the strike would be a long and arduous one. The steel companies then changed the strategy of their public relations campaign, emphasizing the union 's proposal for a union shop. These changes in strategy reinforced the decision of the smaller producers to refuse to sign a contract on the union 's terms. On July 3, all hold - out employers signed a "no union shop '' pledge. Union president Philip Murray was forced onto the employer 's ground in order to defend the union shop, which the organization had sought for more than 15 years.
The following day, the union shifted its strategy as well. Fairless ' November 1951 public announcement that the employers would not bargain unless guaranteed a price increase constituted a clear unfair labor practice (ULP), but the union had never filed a ULP with the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB). President Truman declared his belief that the steel companies were engaged in "a conspiracy against the public interest. '' The United Steelworkers finally filed ULP charges with the NLRB, and threatened as well to file an anti-trust suit in federal court against the six biggest steelmakers.
These legal strategies held significant risks for the employers, and led to a new round of negotiations. Secret talks were held in Pittsburgh on July 10. Agreement was reached once more on almost all economic and non-economic issues except for the union shop. Although the talks ended without an agreement, most observers felt the parties were close to a settlement. Something was needed to push the parties toward an agreement.
White House chief of staff John Steelman demanded on July 14 that the parties continue to meet, which they did. The talks collapsed again July 16 later over the union shop issue.
A number of events weakened employers ' bargaining position.
First, small steelmakers once more began breaking ranks. The union settled another contract with a small steel manufacturer on July 17. Several other agreements seemed near, leading the larger companies to fear that they were losing the battle for employer sentiment.
Second, the Office of Price Stabilization agreed to a new, higher price increase. The new offer to steel mills was for $5.60 a ton. Putnam offered the steelmakers the new price on July 15, but made it conditional on a swift conclusion to the strike. The price increase worsened the position of the six largest employers vis - a-vis the smaller manufacturers.
Third, President Truman let it be known that he was considering nationalizing the steel mills under Section 18 of the Selective Service Act. Truman made the decision to invoke Section 18 in mid-June. In order to overcome the legal objections to the Act 's use which had been raised in early April, the government began placing direct orders for steel on June 12. On July 19, the New York Times reported that Truman was expected to invoke Section 18 within a week. The threat of another government takeover of the steel mills -- this time on solid legal ground, with adequate preparation by the government, and with the appearance of even - handedness (steelworkers would be drafted and ordered to work in the mills) -- brought the manufacturers to the bargaining table again.
Negotiations resumed in Pittsburgh the day after the newspaper report. The talks broke down a day later. Sensing weakness on the management side, the union 's executive board voted to reject all previously agreed - to tentative contract terms. Desperate employers made a dramatic personal appearance before the Steelworkers ' executive board and asked the union to drop its demand for the union shop and sign off on the tentative contract terms. The union refused.
By this time, the strike had severely affected the nation. A half million workers were laid off as companies lacked steel to keep plants running. The number of railroad cars loaded in the week ending July 7, 1952, was the lowest since records had been kept, and many railroads began to suffer financial difficulty. California growers faced a loss of $200 million because there was not enough tin to make tin cans for their crops. On July 22, the United States Army shut down its largest shell - making plant due to a lack of steel.
The shut - down of the Army facility proved the last straw for Truman. On the evening of July 23, Truman ordered the steelmakers and the union to meet in the White House the following day and settle the strike. At 10: 00 a.m. on July 24, Murray and Fairless were ushered into the Oval Office. Truman informed the two men of top - secret statistics which showed the U.S. war effort in Korea was being crippled. The President then told Fairless: "You can settle this thing, Ben, and you 've got to settle it. I want it settled by tomorrow morning, or I will have some things to say that you wo n't like to hear, and I will have to do some things you wo n't like. '' Fairless started in surprise. Truman then turned to Murray and said, "Phil, you 've got to settle this thing too. Now go in there in the Cabinet room, and I want you to come out with a settlement. '' The two men adjourned to the Cabinet Room. At 4: 45 p.m., Fairless and Murray told the President that they had reached an agreement. Steelman witnessed its signing.
The strike was settled on essentially the same terms offered to the employers at the start of the strike. Workers received a 16 - cents - an - hour wage increase, and a 6 - cents - an - hour increase in fringe benefits. The wage and benefit package was a penny lower than the WSB had recommended, but markedly higher than anything the employers had publicly offered. The workers also won a version of the union shop: New employees were required to join the union, but could resign between the 15th and 30th day of employment (which few were expected to do).
The strike led to significant economic costs. The loss of economic output was estimated at $4 billion (equivalent to approximately $36,075,187,970 in 2016 dollars), 1.5 million people were pushed into unemployment before full steel production resumed, and the Federal Reserve estimated that industrial output dropped to 1949 levels. More than 19 million tons of steel were lost, roughly 90 percent of all steel production for a two - month period. Nearly four - fifths of the nation 's small defense contractors were forced to close, and officials observed that several thousand small - and medium - sized businesses would close or run on a part - time basis until steel production resumed (it would take three weeks before furnaces could be cleaned, relit and brought into production and four weeks for steel to reach manufacturers).
The strike led Congress to strip the Wage Stabilization Board of its labor dispute resolution powers. President Truman struggled to reconstitute the Board in his remaining five months in office. The Board never resumed full operation, and was abolished by President Eisenhower in March 1953.
Murray and the leaders of the union considered the strike a significant win. The union had avoided the imposition of a Taft - Hartley injunction, Truman had gone to significant lengths to protect the union, and the union shop was won for the first time in the steel industry.
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who lives in the home of the peasants | Peasant - wikipedia
A peasant is a pre-industrial agricultural laborer or farmer, especially one living in the Middle Ages under feudalism and paying rent, tax, fees or services to a landlord. In Europe, peasants were divided into three classes according to their personal status: slave, serf, and free tenant. Peasants either hold title to land in fee simple, or hold land by any of several forms of land tenure, among them socage, quit - rent, leasehold, and copyhold.
The word "peasant '' is -- and long has been -- often used pejoratively to refer to poor or landless farmers and agricultural workers, especially in the poorer countries of the world in which the agricultural labor force makes up a large percentage of the population. The implication of the term is that the "peasant '' is uneducated, ignorant, and unfamiliar with the more sophisticated mannerisms of the urban population.
The word peasantry is also commonly used in a non-pejorative sense as a collective noun for the rural population in the poor and under - developed countries of the world.
The word "peasant '' is derived from the 15th century French word païsant (compare Italian paesano), meaning one from the pays, or countryside; ultimately from the Latin pagus, or outlying administrative district.
Peasants typically made up the majority of the agricultural labour force in a pre-industrial society. The majority of the people in the Middle Ages were peasants.
Though "peasant '' is a word of loose application, once a market economy had taken root, the term peasant proprietors was frequently used to describe the traditional rural population in countries where smallholders farmed much of the land. More generally, the word "peasant '' is sometimes used to refer pejoratively to those considered to be "lower class '', perhaps defined by poorer education and / or a lower income.
The open field system of agriculture dominated most of northern Europe during medieval times and endured until the nineteenth century in many areas. Under this system, peasants lived on a manor presided over by a lord or a bishop of the church. Peasants paid rent or labor services to the lord in exchange for their right to cultivate the land. Fallowed land, pastures, forests, and wasteland were held in common. The open field system required cooperation among the peasants of the manor. It was gradually replaced by individual ownership and management of land.
The relative position of peasants in Western Europe improved greatly after the Black Death had reduced the population of medieval Europe in the mid-14th century: resulting in more land for the survivors and making labor more scarce. In the wake of this disruption to the established order, later centuries saw the invention of the printing press, the development of widespread literacy and the enormous social and intellectual changes of the Enlightenment.
The evolution of ideas in an environment of relatively widespread literacy laid the groundwork for the Industrial Revolution, which enabled mechanically and chemically augmented agricultural production while simultaneously increasing the demand for factory workers in cities, who became what Karl Marx called the proletariat. The trend toward individual ownership of land, typified in England by Enclosure, displaced many peasants from the land and compelled them, often unwillingly, to become urban factory - workers, who came to occupy the socio - economic stratum formerly the preserve of the medieval peasants.
This process happened in an especially pronounced and truncated way in Eastern Europe. Lacking any catalysts for change in the 14th century, Eastern European peasants largely continued upon the original medieval path until the 18th and 19th centuries. Serfdom was abolished in Russia in 1861, and while many peasants would remain in areas where their family had farmed for generations, the changes did allow for the buying and selling of lands traditionally held by peasants, and for landless ex-peasants to move to the cities. Even before emancipation in 1861, serfdom was on the wane in Russia. The proportion of serfs within the empire had gradually decreased "from 45 - 50 percent at the end of the eighteenth century, to 37.7 percent in 1858. ''
In Germany, peasants continued to center their lives in the village well into the 19th century. They belonged to a corporate body and helped to manage the community resources and to monitor community life. In the East they had the status of serfs bound permanently to parcels of land. A peasant is called a "Bauer '' in German and "Bur '' in Low German (pronounced in English like boor).
In most of Germany, farming was handled by tenant farmers who paid rents and obligatory services to the landlord -- typically a nobleman. Peasant leaders supervised the fields and ditches and grazing rights, maintained public order and morals, and supported a village court which handled minor offenses. Inside the family the patriarch made all the decisions, and tried to arrange advantageous marriages for his children. Much of the villages ' communal life centered on church services and holy days. In Prussia, the peasants drew lots to choose conscripts required by the army. The noblemen handled external relationships and politics for the villages under their control, and were not typically involved in daily activities or decisions.
In his seminal book Peasants into Frenchmen: the Modernization of Rural France, 1880 -- 1914 (1976), historian Eugen Weber traced the modernization of French villages and argued that rural France went from backward and isolated to modern and possessing a sense of French nationhood during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He emphasized the roles of railroads, republican schools, and universal military conscription. He based his findings on school records, migration patterns, military - service documents and economic trends. Weber argued that until 1900 or so a sense of French nationhood was weak in the provinces. Weber then looked at how the policies of the Third Republic created a sense of French nationality in rural areas. The book was widely praised, but some argued that a sense of Frenchness existed in the provinces before 1870.
Farmers in China have been sometimes referred to as "peasants '' in English - language sources. However, the traditional term for farmer, nongfu (农夫), simply refers to "farmer '' or "agricultural worker ''. In the 19th century, Japanese intellectuals reinvented the Chinese terms fengjian (封建) for "feudalism '' and nongmin (农民), or "farming people, '' terms used in the description of feudal Japanese society. These terms created a negative image of Chinese farmers by making a class distinction where one had not previously existed. Anthropologist Myron Cohen considers these terms to be neologisms that represented a cultural and political invention. He writes:
This divide represented a radical departure from tradition: F.W. Mote and others have shown how especially during the later imperial era (Ming and Qing dynasties), China was notable for the cultural, social, political, and economic interpenetration of city and countryside. But the term nongmin did enter China in association with Marxist and non-Marxist Western perceptions of the "peasant, '' thereby putting the full weight of the Western heritage to use in a new and sometimes harshly negative representation of China 's rural population. Likewise, with this development Westerners found it all the more "natural '' to apply their own historically derived images of the peasant to what they observed or were told in China. The idea of the peasant remains powerfully entrenched in the Western perception of China to this very day.
Modern Western writers often continue to use the term peasant for Chinese farmers, typically without ever defining what the term means. This Western use of the term suggests that China is stagnant, "medieval '', underdeveloped, and held back by its rural population. Cohen writes that the "imposition of the historically burdened Western contrasts of town and country, shopkeeper and peasant, or merchant and landlord, serves only to distort the realities of the Chinese economic tradition ''.
A bur is presented by the Rambam (Maimonides) as a person having neither (ethical) torah education nor virtues of manners nor the ability to acquire them. Maimonides gives five definitions of Hebrew terms found in Jewish scripture, that discuss foolishness and wisdom, they are, in ascending order: bur, am ha'aretz, golem, chacham, and chasid. The definition of the Hebrew term bur is extracted by Maimonides from the phrase sedeh bur, which translates as an "uncultivated field ''. The Talmud and Mishnah (Pirke Avot II: 4) also have this term.
He (R. Hillel) used to say: A boor can not be sin - fearing and an ignoramus can not be pious; a bashful person can not learn and a quick tempered person can not teach. Not everyone who increases belongings is wise and in a place where there are no (Royal) men, try to be a (Royal) man.
Commonly, bur would be translated into English as "boor ''.
Since the literate classes have left the most records, and these tended to dismiss peasants as figures of coarse appetite and rustic comedy, the term "peasant '' may have a pejorative rather than descriptive connotation in historical memory. Society was theorized as being organized into three "estates '': those who work, those who pray, and those who fight. The Annales School of French historians emphasized the importance of peasants. Its leader Fernand Braudel devoted the first volume -- called The Structures of Everyday Life -- of his major work, Civilization and Capitalism 15th -- 18th Century to the largely silent and invisible world that existed below the market economy.
Other research in the field of peasant studies was promoted by Florian Znaniecki and Fei Xiaotong, and in the post-1945 studies of the "great tradition '' and the "little tradition '' in the work of Robert Redfield. In the 1960s, anthropologists and historians began to rethink the role of peasant revolt in world history and in their own disciplines. Peasant revolution was seen as a Third World response to capitalism and imperialism.
The anthropologist Eric Wolf, for instance, drew on the work of earlier scholars in the Marxist tradition such as Daniel Thorner, who saw the rural population as a key element in the transition from feudalism to capitalism. Wolf and a group of scholars criticized both Marx and the field of modernization theorists for treating peasants as lacking the ability to take action. James C. Scott 's field observations in Malaysia convinced him that villagers were active participants in their local politics even though they were forced to use indirect methods. Many of these activist scholars looked back to the peasant movement in India and to the theories of the revolution in China led by Mao Zedong starting in the 1920s. The anthropologist Myron Cohen, however, asked why the rural population in China were called "peasants '' rather than "farmers '', a distinction he called political rather than scientific. One important outlet for their scholarly work and theory was the Journal of Peasant Studies.
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india's rank in richest country in the world | International rankings of India - wikipedia
The following are international rankings of India.
Following rankings involving technological advances in communication are taken from the CIA World Factbook.
6546 + 5 + 8165466
(1,222,559 sq mile) including land and water
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words of i vow to thee my country | I Vow to Thee, My Country - wikipedia
"I Vow to Thee, My Country '' is a British patriotic hymn, created in 1921, when a poem by Sir Cecil Spring Rice was set to music by Gustav Holst.
The origin of the hymn 's text is a poem by diplomat Sir Cecil Spring Rice, which he wrote in 1908 or 1912, entitled Urbs Dei ("The City of God '') or The Two Fatherlands. The poem described how a Christian owes his loyalties to both his homeland and the heavenly kingdom.
In 1908, Spring Rice was posted to the British Embassy in Stockholm. In 1912, he was appointed as Ambassador to the United States of America, where he influenced the administration of Woodrow Wilson to abandon neutrality and join Britain in the war against Germany. After the United States entered the war, he was recalled to Britain. Shortly before his departure from the US in January 1918, he re-wrote and renamed Urbs Dei, significantly altering the first verse to concentrate on the themes of love and sacrifice rather than "the noise of battle '' and "the thunder of her guns '', creating a more sombre tone in view of the dreadful loss of life suffered in the Great War. The first verse in both versions invoke Britain (in the 1912 version, anthropomorphised as Britannia with sword and shield; in the second version, simply called "my country ''); the second verse, the Kingdom of Heaven.
According to Sir Cecil 's granddaughter, the rewritten verse of 1918 was never intended to appear alongside the first verse of the original poem but was replacing it; the original first verse is nevertheless sometimes known as the "rarely sung middle verse ''. The text of the original poem was sent by Spring Rice to William Jennings Bryan in a letter shortly before his death in February 1918.
The poem circulated privately for a few years, until it was set to music by Holst, to a tune he adapted from his Jupiter to fit the words of the poem. It was performed as a unison song with orchestra in the early 1920s, and it was finally published as a hymn in 1925 / 6 in the Songs of Praise hymnal (no. 188).
It was included in later hymnals, including:
In 1921, Gustav Holst adapted the music from a section of Jupiter from his suite The Planets to create a setting for the poem. The music was extended slightly to fit the final two lines of the first verse. At the request of the publisher Curwen, Holst made a version as a unison song with orchestra (Curwen also published Sir Hubert Parry 's unison song with orchestra, "Jerusalem ''). This was probably first performed in 1921 and became a common element at Armistice memorial ceremonies, especially after it was published as a hymn in 1926.
In 1926, Holst harmonised the tune to make it usable as a hymn, which was included in the hymnal Songs of Praise. In that version, the lyrics were unchanged, but the tune was then called "Thaxted '' (named after the village where Holst lived for many years). The editor of the new (1926) edition of Songs of Praise was Holst 's close friend Ralph Vaughan Williams, which may have provided the stimulus for Holst 's co-operation in producing the hymn.
Holst 's daughter Imogen recorded that, at "the time when he was asked to set these words to music, Holst was so over-worked and over-weary that he felt relieved to discover they ' fitted ' the tune from Jupiter ''.
The hymn as printed in Songs of Praise (1925) consisted only of the two verses of the 1918 version, credited "Words: Cecil Spring - Rice, 1918; Music: Thaxted '', as follows:
I vow to thee, my country, all earthly things above, Entire and whole and perfect, the service of my love; The love that asks no question, the love that stands the test, That lays upon the altar the dearest and the best; The love that never falters, the love that pays the price, The love that makes undaunted the final sacrifice. And there 's another country, I 've heard of long ago, Most dear to them that love her, most great to them that know; We may not count her armies, we may not see her King; Her fortress is a faithful heart, her pride is suffering; And soul by soul and silently her shining bounds increase, And her ways are ways of gentleness, and all her paths are peace.
The final line of the second verse is based on Proverbs 3: 17, "Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace '' (KJV), in the context of which the feminine pronoun refers to Wisdom.
The original first verse of Spring - Rice 's poem Urbs Dei / The Two Father Lands (1908 -- 1912), never set to music, was as follows:
I heard my country calling, away across the sea, Across the waste of waters, she calls and calls to me. Her sword is girded at her side, her helmet on her head, And around her feet are lying the dying and the dead; I hear the noise of battle, the thunder of her guns; I haste to thee, my mother, a son among thy sons.
First performed in 1921, it is still associated with Remembrance Day services all over the Commonwealth of Nations.
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what is the flow of cooler air from the land towards the sea called | Sea breeze - wikipedia
A sea breeze or onshore breeze is any wind that blows from a large body of water toward or onto a landmass; it develops due to differences in air pressure created by the differing heat capacities of water and dry land. As such, sea breezes are more localised than prevailing winds. Because land absorbs solar radiation far more quickly than water, a sea breeze is a common occurrence along coasts after sunrise. By contrast, a land breeze or offshore breeze is the reverse effect: dry land also cools more quickly than water and, after sunset, a sea breeze dissipates and the wind instead flows from the land towards the sea. Sea breezes and land breezes are both important factors in coastal regions ' prevailing winds. The term offshore wind may refer to any wind over open water.
Wind farms are often situated near a coast to take advantage of the normal daily fluctuations of wind speed resulting from sea or land breezes. While many onshore wind farms and offshore wind farms do not rely on these winds, a nearshore wind farm is a type of offshore wind farm located on shallow coastal waters to take advantage of both sea and land breezes. (For practical reasons, other offshore wind farms are situated further out to sea and rely on prevailing winds rather than sea breezes.)
The sea has a greater heat capacity than land, so the surface of the sea warms up more slowly than the land 's. As the temperature of the surface of the land rises, the land heats the air above it by conduction. The warming air expands and becomes less dense, decreasing the pressure over the land near the coast. The air above the sea has a relatively higher pressure, causing air near the coast to flow towards the lower pressure over land. The strength of the sea breeze is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the land and the sea. If a strong offshore wind is present (that is, a wind greater than 8 knots (15 km / h)) and opposing the direction of a possible sea breeze, the sea breeze is not likely to develop.
A sea - breeze front is a weather front created by a sea breeze, also known as a convergence zone. The cold air from the sea meets the warmer air from the land and creates a boundary like a shallow cold front. When powerful this front creates cumulus clouds, and if the air is humid and unstable, the front can sometimes trigger thunderstorms. If the flow aloft is aligned with the direction of the sea breeze, places experiencing the sea breeze frontal passage will have benign, or fair, weather for the remainder of the day. At the front warm air continues to flow upward and cold air continually moves in to replace it and so the front moves progressively inland. Its speed depends on whether it is assisted or hampered by the prevailing wind, and the strength of the thermal contrast between land and sea. At night, the sea breeze usually changes to a land breeze, due to a reversal of the same mechanisms.
Thunderstorms caused by powerful sea breeze fronts frequently occur in Florida, a peninsula surrounded on both the east and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, respectively. During the wet season which typically lasts from June through September / October, any direction that the winds are blowing would always be off the water, thus making Florida the place most often struck by lightning in the United States, and one of the most on Earth. These storms also can produce significant hail due to the tremendous updraft it causes in the atmosphere especially during times when the upper atmosphere is cooler such as during the spring or fall.
On calm summer afternoons with little prevailing wind, sea breezes from both coasts may collide in the middle, creating especially severe storms down the center of the state. These thunderstorms can drift towards either the west or east coast depending on the relative strengths of the sea breezes, and sometimes survive to move out over the water at night, creating spectacular cloud - to - cloud lightning shows for hours after sunset. Due to its large size Lake Okeechobee may also contribute to this activity by creating its own lake breeze which collides with the east and west coast sea breezes.
In Cuba similar sea breeze collisions with the northern and southern coasts sometimes lead to storms.
At night, the land cools off faster than the ocean due to differences in their heat capacity, which forces the dying of the daytime sea breeze as the temperature of the land approaches that of the ocean. If the land becomes cooler than the adjacent sea surface temperature, the air pressure over the water will be lower than that of the land, setting up a land breeze blowing from the land to the sea, as long as the environmental surface wind pattern is not strong enough to oppose it. If there is sufficient moisture and instability available, the land breeze can cause showers, or even thunderstorms, over the water. Overnight thunderstorm development offshore due to the land breeze can be a good predictor for the activity on land the following day, as long as there are no expected changes to the weather pattern over the following 12 -- 24 hours. This is mainly because the strength of the land breeze is weaker than the sea breeze. The land breeze will die once the land warms up again the next morning.
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who got the most subscribers on youtube 2018 | List of Most - Subscribed YouTube Channels - wikipedia
This article lists the fifty most - subscribed channels on the video platform YouTube. The ability to "subscribe '' to a user 's channel was added to YouTube by late October 2005, and the "most subscribed '' list on YouTube began as a chart by May 2006, at which time Smosh was number one with fewer than three thousand subscribers. Since December 22, 2013, the most subscribed user has been PewDiePie, whose channel has over 62 million subscribers as of May 2018.
The following table lists the fifty most subscribed channels on YouTube, with each total rounded down to the nearest million subscribers, as well as the network and language of each channel. Channels marked as "Auto - generated by YouTube '' (such as Music, Gaming, Sports and Movies) and channels whose content has been transferred (such as JustinBieberVEVO and RihannaVEVO) are excluded. As of May 2018, 35 of these channels primarily produce content in English.
The following table lists the most subscribed YouTube channel in each country and territory from which at least one channel with at least five million subscribers originates, according to social media statistics complier DBase.
The following table lists the last 16 channels to become YouTube 's most subscribed channel, from May 2006 to present.
Timeline of Most Subscribed Channels (May 2006 -- May 2018)
In late 2006, when Peter Oakley, also known as Geriatric1927, became most subscribed, a number of TV channels wanted to interview him on his rise to fame. The Daily Mail and TechBlog published an article about him and his success. In 2009, the FRED channel was the first to have over one million subscribers.
Following the third time that Smosh became most subscribed, Ray William Johnson collaborated with the duo. A flurry of top YouTubers including Ryan Higa, Shane Dawson, Felix Kjellberg, Michael Buckley, Kassem Gharaibeh, The Fine Brothers, and Johnson himself, congratulated the duo shortly after they surpassed Johnson as the most subscribed channel.
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what is the first pillar of islam called | Shahada - wikipedia
Sunni theological traditions
Seven pillars of Ismailism
Other Shia concepts of Aqidah
The Shahada (Arabic: الشهادة aš - šahādah audio (help info), "the testimony ''; aš - šahādatān (الشَهادَتانْ, "the two testimonials ''); also Kalima Shahadat (كلمة الشهادة, "the testimonial word '')), is an Islamic creed declaring belief in the oneness of God (tawhid) and the acceptance of Muhammad as God 's prophet. The declaration, in its shortest form, reads (right to left in Arabic):
The noun šahāda (شَهادة), from the verbal root šahida (شَهِدَ) meaning "to observe, witness, testify '', translates as "testimony '' in both the everyday and the legal senses. The Islamic creed is also called, in the dual form, šahādatān (شَهادَتانْ, literally "two testimonials ''). The expression al - šahāda (the Witnessed) is used in Quran as one of the "titles of God ''.
In Sunni Islam, the shahada has two parts: la ilaha illa'llah (there is no god but God), and Muhammadun rasul Allah (Muhammad is the messenger of God), which are sometimes referred to as the first shahada and the second shahada. The first statement of the shahada is also known as the tahlīl.
In Shia Islam, the shahada also has a third part, a phrase concerning Ali, the first Shia Imam and the fourth Rashid caliph of Sunni Islam: وعليٌ وليُّ الله (wa ʿalīyyun walīyyu - llāh), which translates to "Ali is the wali of God ''.
In the Quran, the first shahadah takes the form la ilaha illa'llah twice (37: 35, 47: 19), and allahu la ilaha illa hu (God, there is no god but He) much more often. It appears in the shorter form la ilaha illa Hu (There is no god but He) in many places. It appears in these forms about 30 times in the Quran, and never attached with the other parts of the shahadah in Sunni or Shia Islam or "in conjunction with another name ''.
Islam 's monotheistic nature is reflected in the first shahada, which declares belief in the oneness of God and that he is the only entity truly worthy of worship. The second shahada indicates the means by which God has offered guidance to human beings. The verse reminds Muslims that they accept not only the prophecy of Muhammad but also the long line of prophets who preceded him. While the first part is seen as a cosmic truth, the second is specific to Islam, as it is understood that members of the older Abrahamic religions do not view Muhammad as one of their prophets.
Shahada is a statement of both ritual and worship. In a well - known hadith, Muhammad defines Islam as witnessing that there is no god but God and that Muhammad is God 's messenger, giving of alms (zakat), performing the ritual prayer, fasting during the month of Ramadan and making a pilgrimage to the Kaaba: the five pillars of Islam are inherent in this declaration of faith.
Recitation of the shahādah is the most common statement of faith for Muslims. In Sunni Islam, it is counted as the first of the Five Pillars of Islam, while the Shi'i Twelvers and Isma'ilis also have the shahada as among their pillars of faith. It is whispered by the father into the ear of a newborn child, and it is whispered into the ear of a dying person. The five canonical daily prayers each include a recitation of the shahada. Recitation of the shahada in front of witnesses is also the first and only formal step in conversion to Islam. This occasion often attracts more than the two required witnesses and sometimes includes a party - like celebration to welcome the convert into their new faith. In accordance with the central importance played by the notion of intention (Arabic: نیّة , niyyah) in Islamic doctrine, the recitation of the shahada must reflect understanding of its import and heartfelt sincerity. Intention is what differentiates acts of devotion from mundane acts and a simple reading of the shahada from invoking it as a ritual activity.
Though the two phrases of the shahada are both present in the Quran (for example, 37: 35 and 48: 29), they are not found there side by side as in the shahada formula. Versions of both phrases began to appear in coins and monumental architecture in the late seventh century, which suggests that it had not been officially established as a ritual statement of faith until then. An inscription in the Dome of the Rock (est. 692) in Jerusalem reads "There is no god but God alone; He has no partner with him; Muhammad is the messenger of God ''. Another variant appears in coins minted after the reign of Abd al - Malik ibn Marwan, the fifth Umayyad caliph, in the form "Muhammad is the servant of God and His messenger ''. Although it is not clear when the shahada first came into common use among Muslims, it is clear that the sentiments it expresses were part of the Quran and Islamic doctrine from the earliest period.
The shahada has been traditionally recited in the Sufi ceremony of dhikr (Arabic: ذِکْر , "remembrance ''), a ritual that resembles mantras found in many other religious traditions. During the ceremony, the shahada may be repeated thousands of times, sometimes in the shortened form of the first phrase where the word Allah is replaced by huwa (He). The chanting of the shahada sometimes provides a rhythmic background for singing.
The shahada appears as an architectural element in Islamic buildings around the world, such as those in Jerusalem, Cairo, and Istanbul.
Late - medieval and renaissance European art displays a fascination with Middle Eastern motifs in general and the Arabic script in particular, as indicated by its use, without concern for its content, in painting, architecture and book illustrations. In his San Giovenale Triptych, the Italian Renaissance artist Masaccio has copied the full shahada on the halo of the Madonna, written backwards.
The shahada is found on Islamic flags. Wahhabism used the shahada on their flags since the 18th century. In 1902, ibn Saud, leader of the House of Saud and the future founder of Saudi Arabia, added a sword to this flag. The modern Flag of Saudi Arabia was introduced in 1973. The Flag of Somaliland has a horizontal strip of green, white and red with the shahada inscribed in white on the green strip.
Between 1997 and 2001, the Taliban used a white flag with the shahada inscribed in black as the flag of their Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. The various jihadist black flag used by Islamic insurgents since the 2000s have often followed this example. The shahada written on a green background has been used by supporters of Hamas since about 2000. The 2004 draft constitution of Afghanistan proposed a flag featuring the shahada in white script centered on a red background. In 2006, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant designed its flag using the shahada phrase written in white on black background. The font used is supposedly similar to the font used as seal on the original letters written on Muhammad 's behalf.
Somaliland
Saudi Arabia
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
A mancus gold dinar of king Offa of Mercia, copied from the dinars of the Abbasid Caliphate (774); probably unintentionally, it still includes the Arabic text "Muhammad is the Apostle of God ''.
The Qibla of the Fatimid caliph al - Mustansir Billah in the Mosque of Ibn Tulun, Cairo showing the Shi'i shahada with the phrase ʿalī walī allāh at the end.
The first phrase of the shahada in kufic calligraphy (1309), Kashan, Iran.
The Testimony of Faith inscribed as calligraphy on top of the Babussalam gate of the Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, Turkey.
The Shi'i shahada on the mausoleum of Attar of Nishapur, Iran. The first phrase is in white, the rest in blue.
Tile panel in the Wazir Khan Mosque, Lahore, Pakistan. The shahada is on the top half of the panel.
Shahadas written in the style of a Mamluk tughra on the bottom right and in mirror image on bottom left.
The shahada written in square Kufic script, shown as buildings topped with domes and minarets, with its mirror image on the left.
Shia shahādah at Bab al - Futuh / Bab al - Nasr Fatimid Cairo with the phrase ʿalī walī allāh.
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what were the main features of the reconstruction act of 1867 | Reconstruction Acts - Wikipedia
The Reconstruction Acts, or Military Reconstruction Acts, (March 2, 1867, 14 Stat. 428 - 430, c. 153; March 23, 1867, 15 Stat. 2 - 5, c. 6; July 19, 1867, 15 Stat. 14 - 16, c. 30; and March 11, 1868, 15 Stat. 41, c. 25) were four statutes passed during the Reconstruction Era by the 40th United States Congress addressing requirement for Southern States to be readmitted to the Union. The actual title of the initial legislation was "An act to provide for the more efficient government of the Rebel States '' and it was passed on March 2, 1867. Fulfillment of the requirements of the Acts was necessary for the former Confederate States to be re-admitted to the Union from military and Federal control imposed during and after the American Civil War. The Acts excluded Tennessee, which had already ratified the 14th Amendment and had been readmitted to the Union.
A key feature of the Acts included the creation of five military districts in the South, each commanded by a general, which would serve as the acting government for the region. In addition, Congress required that each state draft a new state constitution, which would have to be approved by Congress. The states also were required to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and grant voting rights to black men. President Andrew Johnson 's vetoes of these measures were overridden by Congress.
General George Meade (of the Third Military District) appointed Brig. General Thomas H. Ruger to replace Governor of Georgia Charles J. Jenkins, who had been elected as the only candidate in 1865 to succeed James Johnson, who had been appointed by President Andrew Johnson.
After Ex parte McCardle (1869) came before the United States Supreme Court, Congress feared that the Court might strike the Reconstruction Acts down as unconstitutional. To prevent this, Congress repealed the Habeas Corpus Act 1867, eliminating the Supreme Court 's jurisdiction over the case.
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where is the chase center going to be located | Chase Center (arena) - wikipedia
Chase Center is a multi-purpose arena under construction in the Mission Bay neighborhood of San Francisco that will open before the 2019 -- 20 NBA season. It will mainly be used for basketball, becoming the new home of the Golden State Warriors of the National Basketball Association (NBA). The Warriors, who have been located in the San Francisco Bay Area since 1962, have played their home games at Oracle Arena in Oakland since 1971.
The name of Chase Center was announced on January 28, 2016, as part of an agreement with JPMorgan Chase. The planned location for the arena, which would house the Golden State Warriors, is in San Francisco at Third St and 16th St. The location will have an overlook of the water. The arena will have multiple layers and floors and will have a seating capacity of 18,000 people. It will also include a multi-purpose area that includes a theater configuration with an entrance overlooking a newly built park. It will contain 580,000 square feet (54,000 m) of office and lab space and have 100,000 square feet (9,300 m) of retail space. There will also be a public plaza that is 35,000 square feet. The construction will include a parking facility of about 950 spaces and will be accessible to the public transportation around the area. A new subway line is also under construction that will link the arena and the University of California, San Francisco to downtown hotels, convention centers and subway and commuter rail lines that serve the entire Bay Area. With a one - billion - dollar investment, Chase Center will anchor a district of 11 acres of restaurants, cafés, offices, public plazas and a new five - and - a-half - acre public waterfront park.
The plan for building a new arena was announced on May 22, 2012, at a Golden State Warriors press conference at the proposed site, attended by San Francisco Mayor Ed Lee, then - NBA Commissioner David Stern, California Lt. Governor Gavin Newsom, owners Joe Lacob and Peter Guber, and Warriors staff and city officials. A new privately financed, $500 million 17,000 to 19,000 - seat arena was planned to be located on Pier 30 - 32 along the San Francisco Bay waterfront, situated between the San Francisco Ferry Building and AT&T Park. A month after the proposal, the South Beach - Rincon - Mission Bay Neighborhood Association criticized the site and said that a second major league sport venue in the area would make it no longer "family friendly ''. Former San Francisco mayor Art Agnos began speaking to dozens of community gatherings in opposition to the proposed arena, stating that the project was pushed by two out - of - town billionaires and would severely impact traffic and city views. On December 30, 2013, a ballot proposition was submitted to the city titled the "Waterfront Height Limit Right to Vote Act ''. The initiative made it onto the June 2014 ballot as Proposition B, and its passage would affect three major waterfront developments, including the proposed Warriors arena.
On April 19, 2014, the Warriors abandoned plans for the pier site and purchased a 12 - acre site owned by Salesforce.com at the Mission Bay neighborhood for an undisclosed amount. The arena project will be financed privately. The architect for the project is MANICA Architecture and the current plan for Chase Center is to have it built by 2019 before the NBA season starts. The plan for Chase Center to open earlier was pushed back multiple times due to many complaints about the location. Construction on the arena began in January 2017.
In April 2015, the Mission Bay site was opposed by the Mission Bay Alliance, which cited traffic, lack of parking, and use of space that could go to UCSF expansion among other things as their reasons for opposition. Their complaint is that Chase Center will be located near UCSF Benioff Children 's Hospital and AT&T Park and will create more traffic in San Francisco. Others say that this area can be used to expand the campus of UCSF. To avoid the plan to build Chase Center being voided, representatives of the project have been working to address these issues such as traffic and parking.
The Golden State Warriors had the official groundbreaking ceremony for Chase Center on January 17, 2017.
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who plays snowman in smokey and the bandit | Smokey and the Bandit - wikipedia
Smokey and the Bandit is a 1977 American action comedy film starring Burt Reynolds, Sally Field, Jackie Gleason, Jerry Reed, Pat McCormick, Paul Williams and Mike Henry. The film was the directorial debut of stuntman Hal Needham. It inspired several other trucking films, including two sequels, Smokey and the Bandit II and Smokey and the Bandit Part 3.
There was also a series of 1994 television films (Bandit Goes Country, Bandit Bandit, Beauty and the Bandit, and Bandit 's Silver Angel) from original director / writer Hal Needham that were loosely based on the earlier version, with actor Brian Bloom playing Bandit. The three original films introduced two generations of the Pontiac Trans Am, and the Dodge Stealth in the television movie. Smokey and the Bandit was the second - highest - grossing film of 1977, second only to Star Wars.
Wealthy Texan Big Enos Burdette (Pat McCormick) and his son Little Enos (Paul Williams) seek a truck driver willing to bootleg Coors beer to Georgia for their refreshment. At the time, Coors was regarded as one of the finest beers in the United States, but it could not be legally sold east of the Mississippi River. Truck drivers who had taken the bet previously had been caught and arrested by "Smokey '' (CB slang for highway patrol officers, referring to the Smokey Bear -- type hats worn in some states).
The Burdettes find legendary trucker Bo "Bandit '' Darville (Burt Reynolds) competing in a truck rodeo at Lakewood Fairgrounds in Atlanta; they offer him $80,000 to haul 400 cases of Coors beer from Texarkana, Texas back to Atlanta in 28 hours; Big Enos has sponsored a driver running in the Southern Classic stockcar race and "when he wins I want to celebrate in style. '' Bandit accepts the bet and recruits his partner Cledus "Snowman '' Snow (Jerry Reed) to drive the truck, while Bandit drives the "blocker '', a black Trans Am bought on an advance from the Burdettes, to divert attention away from the truck and its illegal cargo.
The trip to Texas is mostly uneventful except for at least one pursuing Smokey whom Bandit evades with ease. They reach Texarkana an hour ahead of schedule, load their truck with the beer and head back toward Atlanta. Immediately upon starting the second leg of the run, Bandit picks up runaway bride Carrie (Sally Field), whom he eventually nicknames "Frog '' because she is "kinda cute like a frog '' and "always hoppin ' around ''. But in so doing, Bandit makes himself a target of Texas Sheriff Buford T. Justice (Jackie Gleason), a career lawman whose handsome but slow - witted son Junior (Mike Henry) was to have been Carrie 's bridegroom. Ignoring his own jurisdiction, Sheriff Justice, with Junior in tow, chases Bandit all the way to Georgia, even as various mishaps cause his cruiser to disintegrate around them.
The remainder of the film is one lengthy high - speed chase, as Bandit 's antics attract more and more attention from local and state police across Dixie while Snowman barrels on toward Atlanta with the contraband beer. Bandit and Snowman are helped along the way via CB radio by many colorful characters, including an undertaker with his hearse driver and their funeral procession, an elderly lady, a drive - in waitress and all her customers, a convoy of trucks, and even a madam who runs a brothel out of her RV. Neither Sheriff Justice nor any other police officers have any knowledge of Snowman 's illegal manifest.
The chase intensifies as Bandit and Snowman get closer to Atlanta; moments after crossing back into Georgia, Bandit comes to the rescue when Snowman is pulled over by a motorcycle patrolman, and state and local police step up their pursuit with more cruisers, larger roadblocks, and even a police helicopter to track Bandit 's movements. Discouraged by the unexpected mounting attention, and with just four miles left to go, Bandit is about to give up, but Snowman refuses to listen and takes the lead, smashing through the police roadblock at the entrance to the fairgrounds. They arrive back at Lakewood Speedway (while the Southern Classic race is being run) with only 10 minutes to spare, but instead of taking the payoff, Frog and Bandit accept a double - or - nothing offer from Little Enos: a challenge to run up to Boston and bring back clam chowder in 18 hours. They quickly escape in one of Big Enos ' Cadillac convertibles, passing Sheriff Justice 's badly damaged police car by the side of the road. Bandit first directs Sheriff Justice to Big and Little Enos, but then in a gesture of respect, reveals his true location and invites Justice to give chase, leaving Junior behind.
Director Hal Needham originally planned the film as a low - budget B movie with a production cost of $1 million, with Jerry Reed as the Bandit. It was not until Needham 's friend Burt Reynolds read the script, and said he would star, that the film was aimed at a more mainstream release; Reed would now portray Bandit 's friend Snowman (Reed would eventually play the Bandit in Smokey and the Bandit Part III). At that time Reynolds was the top box office star in the world.
Burt Reynolds revealed in his autobiography that Needham had written the first draft script on legal pads. Upon showing it to his friend, Reynolds told Needham that it was the worst script he had ever read but that he would still make the movie. Most of the dialogue was improvised on set.
Universal Studios bankrolled Smokey and the Bandit for $5.3 million, figuring it was a good risk. Just two days before production was to begin, Universal sent a "hatchet man '' to Atlanta to inform Needham that the budget was being trimmed by $1 million. With Reynolds ' salary at $1 million, Needham was left with only $3.3 million to make the film. Needham and assistant director David Hamburger spent 30 hours revising the shooting schedule.
"Buford T. Justice '' was the name of a real Florida Highway Patrolman known to Reynolds ' father, who himself was once Police Chief of Riviera Beach, Florida. His father was also the inspiration for the word "sumbitch '' used in the film, a variation of the phrase "son - of - a-bitch '' that according to Reynolds he uttered quite often.
Jackie Gleason was given free rein to ad - lib dialogue and make suggestions. It was his idea to have Junior alongside him throughout. In particular the scene where Sheriff Justice unknowingly encounters the Bandit in the "choke and puke '' (a roadside diner) was n't in the original story, but rather was Gleason 's idea.
Before Gleason was cast in the film, Richard Boone was originally considered for the role of Buford T. Justice.
Reportedly, Needham had great difficulty getting any studios or producers to take his project seriously (in the film industry, he was better known as a stuntman). He managed to obtain studio attention after his friend Reynolds agreed to portray the Bandit in the film.
The movie was primarily filmed in Georgia in the cities of McDonough, Jonesboro and Lithonia. The scenes set in Texarkana were filmed in Jonesboro and the surrounding area, and many of the chase scenes were filmed in the surrounding areas on Highway 54 between Fayetteville and Jonesboro for a majority of the driving scenes, Mundy 's Mill Road, Main Street in Jonesboro, Georgia State Route 400, I - 85 (Pleasant Hill exit), and in McDonough. However, the scene where they drive through the Shell gas station was filmed in Ojai, California on the corner of Ojai and El Paseo. Much of the surrounding scene comes from that immediate vicinity. The scene featuring the racetrack was filmed at Lakewood Speedway at the old Lakewood Fairgrounds on the south side of Atlanta. The rollercoaster seen in the movie was the Greyhound. It had not been used for some time and was repainted for the film. It was destroyed in Smokey and the Bandit II and a flashback scene in Part 3.
The film 's theme song, "East Bound and Down, '' was written virtually overnight by Jerry Reed. He gave Needham a preview of the song, and when initially he got no reaction from the director, offered to rewrite the song. Needham however liked the song so much he assured Jerry not to change a word. It became one of Reed 's biggest hits and his signature number.
The area around Helen, Georgia was also used for some locations. The scene where Buford T. Justice 's car has the door knocked off by a passing semi was shot on GA 75, 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Helen. The tow truck driver was an actual local garage owner, Berlin Wike.
The film features the custom clothing and costuming of Niver Western Wear of Fort Worth, Texas. NWW provided much of the western attire worn in the film, as well as the custom - made (size 64) sheriff 's uniforms that Jackie Gleason wore throughout the film.
Reynolds and Sally Field began dating during the filming of Smokey and the Bandit.
While made to take advantage of the ongoing 1970s CB radio fad, the film itself added to the craze.
Though the film Moonrunners (1975) is the precursor to the television series The Dukes of Hazzard (1979 - 1985), from the same creator and with many identical settings and concepts, the popularity of Smokey and the Bandit and similar films helped get the Dukes series on air. Three actors from the main cast of The Dukes of Hazzard appear in small uncredited roles in Smokey and the Bandit: Ben Jones, John Schneider and Sonny Shroyer (who played a police officer in both). In return, Reynolds portrayed the Dukes character Boss Hogg (originally portrayed by Sorrell Booke) in the film adaptation The Dukes of Hazzard (2005). Reynolds is also referenced by name in several early episodes of the series.
Needham saw an advertisement for the soon - to - be-released 1977 Pontiac Trans Am and knew right away that would be the Bandit 's car, or -- as Needham referred to it -- a character in the movie. He contacted Pontiac and an agreement was made that four 1977 Trans Ams and two Pontiac LeMans 4 - door sedans would be provided for the movie. The Trans Ams were actually 1976 model cars with ' 77 front ends. (From 1970 to 1976, both the Firebird / Trans Am and Chevrolet Camaro had two round headlights, and in 1977, the Firebird / Trans Am was changed to four square headlights, while the Camaro remained unchanged.) The decals were also changed to 1977 - style units, as evidenced by the engine size callouts on the hood scoop being in liters rather than cubic inches as had been the case in 1976. The hood scoop on these cars says "6.6 LITRE '', which in 1977 would have denoted an Oldsmobile 403 - equipped car or a non W - 72, 180 hp version of the 400 Pontiac engine. All four of the cars were badly damaged during production, one of which was all but destroyed during the jump over the dismantled bridge. The Trans Am used for the dismantled bridge jump was equipped with a booster rocket, the same type that was used by Evel Knievel during his failed Snake River Canyon jump. Needham served as the driver for the stunt (standing in for Reynolds) while Lada St. Edmund was in the same car (standing in for Sally Field during the jump). By the movie 's ending, the final surviving Trans Am and LeMans were both barely running and the other cars had become parts donors to keep them running. The Burdettes ' car is a 1974 Cadillac Eldorado convertible painted in a "Candy Red '' color scheme, and is seen briefly at the beginning of the movie and as Bandit, Snowman, Fred, and Frog make their escape in the final scene.
The film also made use of three Kenworth W900A short - frame semi trucks which Jerry Reed can be seen driving, each equipped with 38 '' sleepers. Two units were 1974 models as evidenced by standard silver Kenworth emblems on the truck grille, and one unit was a 1973 model as evidenced by the gold - painted Kenworth emblem on the truck 's grille signifying Kenworth 's 50 years in business. The paint code for each truck was coffee brown with gold trims, and the 48 - foot (15 m) mural trailer used was manufactured by Hobbs Trailers in Texas with a Thermo King Refrigeration unit which was non-operational. This is obvious because there is no fuel tank on the underside of the trailer to power the refrigeration unit, and the unit is never heard running.
In 1977, Coors was unavailable for sale east of Oklahoma. A 1974 Time magazine article explains why Coors was so sought after that someone could be willing to pay the Bandit such a high price to transport it. Coors Banquet Beer had a brief renaissance as certain people sought it out for its lack of stabilizers and preservatives. The article says that future Vice President Gerald Ford hid it in his luggage after a trip to Colorado in order to take it back to Washington. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had a steady supply airlifted to Washington by the Air Force. The article also mentions Frederick Amon, who smuggled it from Colorado to North Carolina and sold it for four times the retail price. The lack of additives and preservatives meant that Coors had the potential for spoiling in a week if it were not kept cold throughout its transportation and in storage at its destination. This explains the 28 - hour deadline.
The theme music, "East Bound and Down '', was sung and co-written by Reed (credited under his birth name, Jerry Hubbard) and Dick Feller. It became Reed 's signature song and is found on multiple albums, including Country Legends and his live album Jerry Reed: Live Still. In 1991 it was arranged for orchestra by Crafton Beck and recorded by Erich Kunzel and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra for their album Down on the Farm. Several other groups, such as US rock band Tonic, have also covered it. Reed also penned and performed the song for the opening credits, entitled "The Legend '', which tells of some of The Bandit 's escapades prior to the events of the film, and the ballad "The Bandit '', which features in several versions in the movie and on the soundtrack. Reed 's hit not withstanding, Bill Justis is the first name on the credits for the soundtrack as he composed and arranged original music throughout the film. Musicians such as Beegie Adair and George Tidwell played on the soundtrack as part of long careers in music. Legendary five - string banjo player Bobby Thompson is also heard prominently towards the end of "East Bound and Down. '' The soundtrack album was released in 1977 on vinyl, cassette and 8 - track through MCA Records.
Smokey and the Bandit was a smash hit at the box office. With an original budget of $5.3 million (cut to $4.3 million two days before initial production), the film grossed $126,737,428 in North America, making it the second - highest - grossing movie of 1977. The worldwide gross is estimated at over $300 million.
Film critic Leonard Maltin gave the film a good rating (3 stars out of a possible 4) and characterized it as "About as subtle as The Three Stooges, but a classic compared to the sequels and countless rip - offs which followed. ''
Gene Siskel, in his review in the Chicago Tribune, gave the film two stars and complained that the film failed to tell the audience when the clock started on the beer run, thus removing suspense throughout the film concerning how long remained to them. He also claimed that Bandit is never made aware of Frog 's leaving Junior at the altar, which is why the Bandit continually asks why a Texas sheriff is chasing him. However, this is inaccurate: within seconds of Bandit picking her up, Frog tells him "there is a wedding in search of a bride '', and goes on to explain her ill - advised romance with Junior, as Bandit holds up the CB mic for Snowman to hear.
The film 's editors, Walter Hannemann and Angelo Ross, were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Film Editing. It currently holds an 81 % "Fresh '' rating on review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 27 reviews.
Burt Reynolds rated the film as the one he most enjoyed and had the most fun making in his career.
Legendary film maker Alfred Hitchcock stated that the movie was one of his favorites.
Upon meeting Burt Reynolds, Billy Bob Thornton told him that the picture was not considered as such in the south, and was considered more of a documentary.
"Smokey and the Bandit '' was released in the United Kingdom on August 28, 1977 and was a sizeable success there, garnering positive reviews
American Film Institute Lists
After the debut of the movie the Trans Am became wildly popular with sales almost doubling in two years of the film 's release, to the delight of General Motors; in fact, it outsold its Camaro counterpart for the first time ever. Reynolds was given the 1977 vehicle used during promotion of the film as a gift, though the car itself never actually appeared in the film. Because of the popularity of the movie and the sales success of the Trans Am, then President of Pontiac Alex Mair promised to supply Reynolds with a Trans Am each year. Owing to his financial difficulties, in 2014 Reynolds put his vast collection of artwork and memorabilia up for auction, including the Trans Am. High estimates for the car were up to $80,000, but that was dwarfed by the actual sale price of $450,000. Also up for auction was a go - kart replica of the car, which sold for nearly $14,000. In 2016, Trans Am Depot, a Florida - based automobile customization company, announced that it would build 77 Trans Ams that would be modeled after the car that Reynolds drove in the 1977 original, despite Pontiac having been discontinued by GM in 2009. These new models were built off the Camaro platform (the very same one that the real Firebird and Trans Am used), came with Pontiac arrowhead, flaming bird and Bandit logos, as well as instrument panels, center consoles and hood scoops emulating their 1977 counterparts, and were signed by Reynolds. Some differences included the use of a supercharged 454 - cid (7.4 - liter) Chevrolet - sourced engine that put out 840 HP, and four round headlights, which appeared on the 1967 - 69 Firebirds / Trans Ams only; the actual 1977 - 81 models had square headlights.
The diablo sandwich ordered by Sheriff Justice in the Arkansas barbecue restaurant scene has entered popular culture as a minor reference to the film. While no authoritative source identifies the composition of the sandwich, there are several possibilities. A segment of the CMT program Reel Eats used a sloppy joe - style recipe consisting of seasoned ground beef, corn and sour cream. Another proposal, based more closely on images from the film and the shooting location of the scene (at an Old Hickory House restaurant in Georgia), is pulled pork and hot sauce on a hamburger bun.
First run in 2007 to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the movie, The Bandit Run was the brainchild of Dave Hall, owner of Restore A Muscle Car. A group of Trans Am owners and fans of the movie take part in an annual road trip from Texarkana to Jonesboro, Georgia, recreating the route taken by the characters in the film.
The Bandit Run quickly caught on and has become a fixture, most recently celebrating the 40th anniversary of the movie with a special screening of the film attended by Burt Reynolds and a recreation of the jump undertaken by Bandit and Frog across a river.
In 2014, petroleum company Mobil 1 produced television commercials, featuring NASCAR star Tony Stewart, closely based on the film. Called Smoke is the Bandit playing on Stewart 's nickname, the commercials featured him as the Bandit opposite Darrell Waltrip who played Snowman and Jeff Hammond as Buford T. Justice. The story replaced the Coors beer with Mobil 1 products. The adverts poked fun at the film and even featured a Pontiac Trans Am and a cover version of the song East Bound and Down. The commercials were produced after Stewart mentioned that the movie was one of his favorites.
When Smokey and the Bandit first aired on American network television in the early 1980s, censors were faced with the challenge of toning down the raw language of the original film. For this purpose, they overdubbed dialogue deemed offensive, which was (and remains, to an extent) common practice. The most noted change made for network broadcast was the replacing of Buford 's often - spoken phrase "sumbitch '' (a contraction of "son of a bitch ''; usually in reference to the Bandit) with the phrase "scum bum ''. This phrase achieved a level of popularity with children, and the 2007 Hot Wheels release of the 1970s Firebird Trans Am has "scum bum '' emblazoned on its tail. The TV prints of the first two Bandit films are still shown regularly on television, although a few TV stations aired the unedited version in recent years as some of the phraseology (i.e. "(son of a) bitch '', "ass '', etc.) became more acceptable on TV.
The original actors mostly redubbed their own lines for the television version, except for Gleason. Actor Henry Corden, who voiced Fred Flintstone after original performer Alan Reed died, was used to replace a considerable amount of Sheriff Justice 's dialogue. This is fitting, as Fred Flintstone was a parody of / homage to Gleason 's character Ralph Kramden and The Flintstones was a parody of / homage to The Honeymooners.
In the UK, the heavily dubbed version was shown for a number of years, particularly by the BBC. However, in more recent years, the original version has been shown (on ITV, a commercial channel), usually with the stronger language edited out, often quite awkwardly and noticeably.
The theatrical release itself had a few lines deleted, including a creative edit in which Sheriff Justice tells a state trooper to "fuck off. '' His expletive is obscured when a passing big rig sounds its horn. At the time, using the ' F ' word would immediately require an R rating which the producers were looking to avoid. This clever self - censorship allowed the film to avoid this rating and reach a much larger audience.
In 2006, a DVD re-release was issued of Smokey and the Bandit featuring a digitally - remastered audio track with 5.1 Dolby - compatible surround sound. It should be noted however that many of the film 's original sounds were replaced. For instance, the diesel engine start and run up sequence in the opening sequence of the film was completely dubbed over with a totally new sound. A few other examples of "sound effect replacement '' occur when Bandit takes off after managing to get a reluctant Cledus involved in the bet, and after he comes to a screeching halt on a roadway moments before picking up Carrie. Some of the original sound effects (such as Cledus ' dog Fred 's barking) and music (such as the final chase to the Southern Classic) were removed and not replaced. (Note: earlier DVD releases of the film have the original soundtrack intact.)
Major portions of the audio ' background ' have been modified with different engine sounds or tire squeals from the original film. The updated version of the film features sounds inaccurate for what would be produced by the Trans Am or the numerous other Pontiac vehicles in the film. The original film had correct sounds that were usually recorded live as the action took place.
Some TV versions also feature a longer version of the scene where Cledus wades into the pond after Fred.
A series of television movies aired in 1994. The car featured was a Dodge Stealth.
In late 2017, Universal Pictures accquires Edgar Wright to direct a reimagining / reboot of the first film, due to the summer of 2019 release.
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which type of address is the ip address | IP address - wikipedia
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing.
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32 - bit number. However, because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a new version of IP (IPv6), using 128 bits for the IP address, was developed in 1995, and standardized as RFC 2460 in 1998. IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s.
IP addresses are usually written and displayed in human - readable notations, such as 172.16. 254.1 in IPv4, and 2001: db8: 0: 1234: 0: 567: 8: 1 in IPv6. The size of the routing prefix of the address is designated in CIDR notation by suffixing the address with the number of significant bits, e.g., 192.168. 1.15 / 24, which is equivalent to the historically used subnet mask 255.255. 255.0.
The IP address space is managed globally by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and by five regional Internet registries (RIR) responsible in their designated territories for assignment to end users and local Internet registries, such as Internet service providers. IPv4 addresses have been distributed by IANA to the RIRs in blocks of approximately 16.8 million addresses each. Each ISP or private network administrator assigns an IP address to each device connected to its network. Such assignments may be on a static (fixed or permanent) or dynamic basis, depending on its software and practices.
An IP address serves two principal functions. It identifies the host, or more specifically its network interface, and it provides the location of the host in the network, and thus the capability of establishing a path to that host. Its role has been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there. '' The header of each IP packet contains the IP address of the sending host, and that of the destination host.
Two versions of the Internet Protocol are in common use in the Internet today. The original version of the Internet Protocol for use in the Internet is Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), first installed in 1983.
The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space available for assignment to Internet service providers and end user organizations by the early 1990s, prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to explore new technologies to expand the addressing capability in the Internet. The result was a redesign of the Internet Protocol which became eventually known as Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) in 1995. IPv6 technology was in various testing stages until the mid-2000s, when commercial production deployment commenced.
IANA 's primary IPv4 address pool was exhausted on 3 February 2011, when the last five blocks were allocated to the five RIRs. APNIC was the first RIR to exhaust its regional pool on 15 April 2011, except for a small amount of address space reserved for the transition to IPv6, intended to be allocated in a restricted process. Individual ISPs still had unassigned pools of IP addresses, and could recycle addresses no longer needed by their subscribers.
Today, these two versions of the Internet Protocol are in simultaneous use. Among other technical changes, each version defines the format of addresses differently. Because of the historical prevalence of IPv4, the generic term IP address typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4. The gap in version sequence between IPv4 and IPv6 resulted from the assignment of version 5 to the experimental Internet Stream Protocol in 1979, which however was never referred to as IPv5.
An IP address in IPv4 is 32 - bits in size, which limits the address space to 4294967296 (2) IP addresses. Of this number, IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private networks (~ 18 million addresses) or multicast addresses (~ 270 million addresses).
IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot - decimal notation, consisting of four decimal numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g., 172.16. 254.1. Each part represents a group of 8 bits (octet) of the address. In some cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may be presented in various hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations.
In the early stages of development of the Internet Protocol, network administrators interpreted an IP address in two parts: network number portion and host number portion. The highest order octet (most significant eight bits) in an address was designated as the network number and the remaining bits were called the rest field or host identifier and were used for host numbering within a network.
This early method soon proved inadequate as additional networks developed that were independent of the existing networks already designated by a network number. In 1981, the Internet addressing specification was revised with the introduction of classful network architecture.
Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments and fine - grained subnetwork design. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address were defined as the class of the address. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for universal unicast addressing. Depending on the class derived, the network identification was based on octet boundary segments of the entire address. Each class used successively additional octets in the network identifier, thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher order classes (B and C). The following table gives an overview of this now obsolete system.
Classful network design served its purpose in the startup stage of the Internet, but it lacked scalability in the face of the rapid expansion of the network in the 1990s. The class system of the address space was replaced with Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in 1993. CIDR is based on variable - length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow allocation and routing based on arbitrary - length prefixes.
Today, remnants of classful network concepts function only in a limited scope as the default configuration parameters of some network software and hardware components (e.g. netmask), and in the technical jargon used in network administrators ' discussions.
Early network design, when global end - to - end connectivity was envisioned for communications with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be uniquely assigned to a particular computer or device. However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks developed and public address space needed to be conserved.
Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with each other via TCP / IP, need not have globally unique IP addresses. Three non-overlapping ranges of IPv4 addresses for private networks were reserved in RFC 1918. These addresses are not routed on the Internet and thus their use need not be coordinated with an IP address registry.
Today, when needed, such private networks typically connect to the Internet through network address translation (NAT).
Any user may use any of the reserved blocks. Typically, a network administrator will divide a block into subnets; for example, many home routers automatically use a default address range of 192.168. 0.0 through 192.168. 0.255 (192.168. 0.0 / 24).
In IPv6, the address size was increased from 32 bits in IPv4 to 128 bits or 16 octets, thus providing up to 2 (approximately 7038340299999999999 ♠ 3.403 × 10) addresses. This is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future.
The intent of the new design was not to provide just a sufficient quantity of addresses, but also redesign routing in the Internet by more efficient aggregation of subnetwork routing prefixes. This resulted in slower growth of routing tables in routers. The smallest possible individual allocation is a subnet for 2 hosts, which is the square of the size of the entire IPv4 Internet. At these levels, actual address utilization ratios will be small on any IPv6 network segment. The new design also provides the opportunity to separate the addressing infrastructure of a network segment, i.e. the local administration of the segment 's available space, from the addressing prefix used to route traffic to and from external networks. IPv6 has facilities that automatically change the routing prefix of entire networks, should the global connectivity or the routing policy change, without requiring internal redesign or manual renumbering.
The large number of IPv6 addresses allows large blocks to be assigned for specific purposes and, where appropriate, to be aggregated for efficient routing. With a large address space, there is no need to have complex address conservation methods as used in CIDR.
All modern desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native support for the IPv6 protocol, but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such as residential networking routers, voice over IP (VoIP) and multimedia equipment, and network peripherals.
Just as IPv4 reserves addresses for private networks, blocks of addresses are set aside in IPv6. In IPv6, these are referred to as unique local addresses (ULA). RFC 4193 reserves the routing prefix fc00:: / 7 for this block which is divided into two / 8 blocks with different implied policies. The addresses include a 40 - bit pseudorandom number that minimizes the risk of address collisions if sites merge or packets are misrouted.
Early practices used a different block for this purpose (fec0::), dubbed site - local addresses. However, the definition of what constituted sites remained unclear and the poorly defined addressing policy created ambiguities for routing. This address type was abandoned and must not be used in new systems.
Addresses starting with fe80:, called link - local addresses, are assigned to interfaces for communication on the attached link. The addresses are automatically generated by the operating system for each network interface. This provides instant and automatic communication between all IPv6 host on a link. This feature is required in the lower layers of IPv6 network administration, such as for the Neighbor Discovery Protocol.
Private address prefixes may not be routed on the public Internet.
IP networks may be divided into subnetworks in both IPv4 and IPv6. For this purpose, an IP address is logically recognized as consisting of two parts: the network prefix and the host identifier, or interface identifier (IPv6). The subnet mask or the CIDR prefix determines how the IP address is divided into network and host parts.
The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the CIDR concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the routing prefix. For example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be 192.0. 2.1 and 255.255. 255.0, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is 192.0. 2.1 / 24, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet.
IP addresses are assigned to a host either dynamically at the time of booting, or permanently by fixed configuration of the host hardware or software. Persistent configuration is also known as using a static IP address. In contrast, when a computer 's IP address is assigned newly each time it restarts, this is known as using a dynamic IP address.
The configuration of a static IP address depends in detail on the software or hardware installed in the computer. Computers used for the network infrastructure, such as routers and mail servers, are typically configured with static addressing, Static addresses are also sometimes convenient for locating servers inside an enterprise.
Dynamic IP addresses are assigned using methods such as Zeroconf for self - configuration, or by the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) from a network server. The address assigned with DHCP usually has an expiration period, after which the address may be assigned to another device, or to the originally associated host if it is still powered up. A network administrator may implement a DHCP method so that the same host always receives a specific address.
DHCP is the most frequently used technology for assigning addresses. It avoids the administrative burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a network. It also allows devices to share the limited address space on a network if only some of them are online at a particular time. Typically, dynamic IP configuration is enabled by default in modern desk top operating systems. DHCP is not the only technology used to assign IP addresses dynamically. Dialup and some broadband networks use dynamic address features of the Point - to - Point Protocol.
In the absence or failure of static or stateful (DHCP) address configurations, an operating system may assign an IP address to a network interface using state-less auto - configuration methods, such as Zeroconf.
A sticky dynamic IP address is an informal term used by cable and DSL Internet access subscribers to describe a dynamically assigned IP address which seldom changes. The addresses are usually assigned with DHCP. Since the modems are usually powered on for extended periods of time, the address leases are usually set to long periods and simply renewed. If a modem is turned off and powered up again before the next expiration of the address lease, it often receives the same IP address.
RFC 3330 defines an address block 169.254. 0.0 / 16 for the special use in link - local addressing for IPv4 networks. In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic address assignments, also receives a local - link address automatically in the block fe80:: / 10.
These addresses are only valid on the link, such as a local network segment or point - to - point connection, that a host is connected to. These addresses are not routable and like private addresses can not be the source or destination of packets traversing the Internet.
When the link - local IPv4 address block was reserved, no standards existed for mechanisms of address autoconfiguration. Filling the void, Microsoft created an implementation that is called Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA). APIPA has been deployed on millions of machines and has, thus, become a de facto standard in the industry. In RFC 3927, the IETF defined a formal standard for this functionality, entitled Dynamic Configuration of IPv4 Link - Local Addresses.
An IP address conflict occurs when two devices on the same local physical or wireless network claim to have the same IP address. A second assignment of an address generally stops the IP functionality of one or both of the devices. Many modern operating systems notify the administrator of IP address conflicts. If one of the devices is the gateway, the network will be crippled. When IP addresses are assigned by multiple people and systems with differing methods, any of them may be at fault.
IP addresses are classified into several classes of operational characteristics: unicast, multicast, anycast and broadcast addressing.
The most common concept of an IP address is in unicast addressing, available in both IPv4 and IPv6. It normally refers to a single sender or a single receiver, and can be used for both sending and receiving. Usually, a unicast address is associated with a single device or host, but a device or host may have more than one unicast address. Some individual PCs have several distinct unicast addresses, each for its own distinct purpose. Sending the same data to multiple unicast addresses requires the sender to send all the data many times over, once for each recipient.
In IPv4 it is possible to send data to all possible destinations ("all - hosts broadcast ''), which permits the sender to send the data only once, and all receivers receive a copy of it. In the IPv4 protocol, the address 255.255. 255.255 is used for local broadcast. In addition, a directed (limited) broadcast can be made by combining the network prefix with a host suffix composed entirely of binary 1s. For example, the destination address used for a directed broadcast to devices on the 192.0. 2.0 / 24 network is 192.0. 2.255. IPv6 does not implement broadcast addressing and replaces it with multicast to the specially - defined all - nodes multicast address.
A multicast address is associated with a group of interested receivers. In IPv4, addresses 224.0. 0.0 through 239.255. 255.255 (the former Class D addresses) are designated as multicast addresses. IPv6 uses the address block with the prefix ff00:: / 8 for multicast applications. In either case, the sender sends a single datagram from its unicast address to the multicast group address and the intermediary routers take care of making copies and sending them to all receivers that have joined the corresponding multicast group.
Like broadcast and multicast, anycast is a one - to - many routing topology. However, the data stream is not transmitted to all receivers, just the one which the router decides is logically closest in the network. Anycast address is an inherent feature of only IPv6. In IPv4, anycast addressing implementations typically operate using the shortest - path metric of BGP routing and do not take into account congestion or other attributes of the path. Anycast methods are useful for global load balancing and are commonly used in distributed DNS systems.
A host may use geolocation software to deduce the geolocation of its communicating peer.
A public IP address, in common parlance, is a globally routable unicast IP address, meaning that the address is not an address reserved for use in private networks, such as those reserved by RFC 1918, or the various IPv6 address formats of local scope or site - local scope, for example for link - local addressing. Public IP addresses may be used for communication between hosts on the global Internet.
For security and privacy considerations, network administrators often desire to restrict public Internet traffic within their private networks. The source and destination IP addresses contained in the headers of each IP packet are a convenient means to discriminate traffic by IP address blocking or by selectively tailoring responses to external requests to internal servers. This is achieved with firewall software running on the networks gateway router. A database of IP addresses of permissible traffic may be maintained in blacklists or whitelists.
Multiple client devices can appear to share an IP address, either because they are part of a shared hosting web server environment or because an IPv4 network address translator (NAT) or proxy server acts as an intermediary agent on behalf of the client, in which case the real originating IP address might be masked from the server receiving a request. A common practice is to have a NAT mask a large number of devices in a private network. Only the "outside '' interface (s) of the NAT needs to have an Internet - routable address.
Commonly, the NAT device maps TCP or UDP port numbers on the side of the larger, public network to individual private addresses on the masqueraded network.
In residential networks, NAT functions are usually implemented in a residential gateway. In this scenario, the computers connected to the router have private IP addresses and the router has a public address on its external interface to communicate on the Internet. The internal computers appear to share one public IP address.
Computer operating systems provide various diagnostic tools to examine their network interface and address configuration. Windows provides the command - line interface tools ipconfig and netsh and users of Unix - like systems can use ifconfig, netstat, route, lanstat, fstat, or iproute2 utilities to accomplish the task.
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where will the super bowl be played next year | Super Bowl LII - wikipedia
Super Bowl LII, the 52nd Super Bowl and the 48th modern - era National Football League (NFL) championship game, will decide the league champion for the 2017 NFL season. The game is scheduled to be held on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the second Super Bowl in Minneapolis, which previously hosted Super Bowl XXVI in 1992. It will be the sixth Super Bowl in a cold weather city.
On October 8, 2013, the league announced the following three host finalists:
Minneapolis was selected as the game 's site at the league owners ' meeting in Atlanta on May 20, 2014.
The Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota, will host media day events and press conferences. More than 5,000 media members are expected to come to the Twin Cities for the Super Bowl. For coordination of the game and 10 days of events, the National Football League will temporarily operate an events office within the Minnesota Vikings office building next to U.S. Bank Stadium. More than one million visitors are expected to attend events associated with the Super Bowl over ten days.
Admission tickets to the game and related events, as well as parking, received state tax exemptions. Increased security operations around U.S. Bank Stadium will close the stadium 's light rail station for 48 hours before the game, and a nearby homeless shelter will temporarily relocate outside of the security perimeter.
The Minnesota Super Bowl Host Committee will present Super Bowl Live on Nicollet Mall in downtown Minneapolis. This ten - day concert series will feature Sheila E., The Revolution, Morris Day and The Time, and The New Power Generation, musicians from Minnesota who collaborated with Prince. Produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, Super Bowl Live will also include performances by Idina Menzel, Soul Asylum, The Suburbs, Bob Mould, Sounds of Blackness, Dessa, VocalEssence, Mint Condition, and The Jets. In addition to the concert series, Super Bowl Live will have a 200 - foot (61 m) American Birkebeiner International Bridge on Nicollet Mall to showcase cross-country skiing, skijoring and snow tubing demonstrations.
The NFL will present the Super Bowl Experience at the Minneapolis Convention Center. Kelly Clarkson will perform at the Minneapolis Armory and a U.S. Bank Stadium lounge on the day of the Super Bowl.
The Minneapolis Armory will also host Jennifer Lopez, Imagine Dragons, and Pink concerts close to U.S. Bank Stadium. The Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community 's Mystic Lake Casino will host The Chainsmokers and Florida Georgia Line at a 64,000 - square - foot (5,900 m) traveling nightclub. Dave Matthews Band will perform at Xcel Energy Center.
Other events will be held at the Mall of America (including Radio Row as a home for national shows), Saint Paul 's RiverCentre and Xcel Energy Center, the Minnesota Vikings ' Winter Park location in Eden Prairie, and the University of Minnesota. "Taste of the NFL '' is a fundraiser for food banks and will be held in Saint Paul. Minneapolis will offer a temporary zip - line across the Mississippi River near downtown.
The 2018 Saint Paul Winter Carnival will take place leading up to, during and after the Super Bowl. Carnival organizers will build a large ice palace to coincide with the Super Bowl festivities, as with Super Bowl XXVI in 1992. The ice palace was planned, cancelled for lack of funds, then re-announced with sponsors. Events in Saint Paul will also include an extreme sports demonstration, a "giant slide '', and a block party. Officials in the capital city hope to attract Minneapolis Super Bowl visitors.
ESPN will broadcast from the IDS Center in downtown Minneapolis.
Native American communities of Minnesota will perform nightly drum ceremonies.
NBC will hold the television rights to Super Bowl LII. This will be NBC 's 19th Super Bowl that they have covered since the inaugural game, that was simulcast with CBS, and the 18th Super Bowl overall, that they have done alone since Super Bowl III.
Calling the game will be play - by - play announcer Al Michaels, former Cincinnati Bengals wide receiver and current color commentator Cris Collinsworth, and sideline reporter Michele Tafoya. Joining Tafoya will be Heather Cox, who will call her first ever Super Bowl in her first two seasons with NBC Sports.
The studio pregame, halftime, and postgame shows will be managed by Dan Patrick and Bob Costas, who will call his last Super Bowl for NBC. Joining them include Super Bowl winning coach Tony Dungy and Super Bowl winning defensive back Rodney Harrison.
Taking advantage of the 2018 Winter Olympics that begin five days later (marking the first time since 1992 that a single broadcast network will air the Super Bowl and Winter Olympics in the same year), NBC disclosed plans to offer advertising packages that cover both events. Mike Tirico, who replaced Costas for the 2017 season as NBC 's lead NFL studio host, and as primetime host of NBC 's Olympics coverage, will not participate in coverage of the Super Bowl in order to prepare for the Games in Pyeongchang.
For the first time in the league 's history, the online television broadcast of the game will be fully network - neutral, at the behest of the league. As part of a five - year contract extension with the league, Verizon Wireless, which had previously held exclusive rights to distribute games to devices 7 inches (180 mm) or smaller and had only offered those streams to Verizon subscribers, agreed to offer the streams to all devices of that size in exchange for rights to stream games to larger Internet - connected devices; that agreement begins with the start of the 2017 -- 18 playoffs.
NBC 's lead - out program will be an episode of This is Us, alongside a special episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon from the Orpheum Theatre in Minneapolis.
This will be the last game in Westwood One 's current national radio contract with the NFL. Each participating team 's flagship station will also carry the game with local announcers. Under the terms of the Westwood One contract, any radio station that is not a local flagship, if they are to carry the game, must use the Westwood One feed.
Justin Timberlake will be headlining the Super Bowl LII halftime show. Timberlake performed in two previous Super Bowls: Super Bowl XXXV in 2001 as a member of NSYNC, and Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004 with Janet Jackson.
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a modern day example of an authoritarian government would be | Military dictatorship - wikipedia
A military dictatorship (also known as a military junta) is a form of government different from civilian dictatorship for a number of reasons: their motivations for seizing power, the institutions through which they organize their rule, and the ways in which they leave power. Often viewing itself as saving the nation from the corrupt or myopic civilian politicians, a military dictatorship justifies its position as "neutral '' arbiters on the basis of their membership within the armed forces. For example, many juntas adopt titles, such as "National Redemption Council '', "Committee of National Restoration '', or "National Liberation Committee ''. Military leaders often rule as a junta, selecting one of them as the head.
Since 1945 Latin America, Africa, Southern Europe, and the Middle East have been common areas for all military dictatorships. One of the reasons for this is the fact that the military often has more cohesion and institutional structure than most of the civilian institutions of society.
The typical military dictatorship in Latin America was ruled by a junta (derived from a Spanish word which can be translated as "conference '' or "board ''), or a committee composed of several officers, often from the military 's most senior leadership, but in other cases less senior, as evidenced by the term colonels ' regime, where the military leaders remained loyal to the previous regime. Other military dictatorships are entirely in the hands of a single president, sometimes called a caudillo, normally the senior army commander. In either case, the chairman of the junta or the single commander may often personally assume office as head of state.
In the Middle East, Africa and Spain, military governments more often came to be led by a single powerful person, and were autocracies in addition to military dictatorships. Leaders like Idi Amin, Siad Barre, Sani Abacha, Muammar Gaddafi, Gamal Abdel Nasser, Francisco Franco and Saddam Hussein worked to develop a personality cult and became the faces of the nation inside and outside their countries.
Most military dictatorships are formed after a coup d'état has overthrown the previous government.
Conversely, other military dictatorships may gradually restore significant components of civilian government while the senior military commander still maintains executive political power. In Pakistan, ruling Generals Muhammad Zia - ul - Haq (1977 -- 1988) and Pervez Musharraf (1999 -- 2008) have held singular referendums to elect themselves President of Pakistan for additional terms forbidden by the constitution.
In the past, military juntas have justified their rule as a way of bringing political stability for the nation or rescuing it from the threat of "dangerous ideologies ''. For example, in Latin America, Africa, and Asia the threat of communism was often used. Military regimes tend to portray themselves as non-partisan, as a "neutral '' party that can provide interim leadership in times of turmoil, and also tend to portray civilian politicians as corrupt and ineffective. One of the almost universal characteristics of a military government is the institution of martial law or a permanent state of emergency.
In pre-modern times, in many societies a monarch, tribal chief, or big man could gain or maintain power through interpersonal combat, by personally leading a military force against rival factions, or by personally providing for the physical security of followers. (This might be referred to as a might makes right system.) Additionally, the ruling class was often also the warrior class. Due to the large number of historic regimes of this type that could arguably be classed as military dictatorships, the following list is limited to those administrations in power at some point since 1800. Some regimes such as Nazi Germany or Fascist Italy, while they pursued considerable aggressive and expansionist strategies, were not strictly run by the military and so are not included below.
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the first film to show the use of camera shot composition editing and storytelling technique | Cinematography - wikipedia
Cinematography (also called Direction of Photography) is the science or art of motion - picture photography by recording light or other electromagnetic radiation, either electronically by means of an image sensor, or chemically by means of a light - sensitive material such as film stock.
Typically, a lens is used to repeatedly focus the light reflected from objects into real images on the light - sensitive surface inside a camera during a questioned exposure, creating multiple images. With an electronic image sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel, which is electronically processed and stored in a video file for subsequent display or processing. The result with photographic emulsion is a series of invisible latent images on the film stock, which are later chemically "developed '' into a visible image. The images on the film stock are played back at a rapid speed and projected onto a screen, creating the illusion of motion.
Cinematography finds uses in many fields of science and business as well as for entertainment purposes and mass communication.
The word "cinematography '' was created from the Greek words κίνημα (kinema), meaning "movement, motion '' and γράφειν (graphein) meaning "to record '', together meaning "recording motion. '' The word used to refer to the art, process, or job of filming movies, but later its meaning was restricted to "motion picture photography. ''
In the 1830s, moving images were produced on revolving drums and disks, with independent invention by Simon von Stampfer (stroboscope) in Austria, Joseph Plateau (phenakistoscope) in Belgium, and William Horner (zoetrope) in Britain.
In 1845, Francis Ronalds invented the first successful camera able to make continuous recordings of the varying indications of meteorological and geomagnetic instruments over time. The cameras were supplied to numerous observatories around the world and some remained in use until well into the 20th century.
William Lincoln patented a device, in 1867, that showed animated pictures called the "wheel of life '' or "zoopraxiscope ''. In it, moving drawings or photographs were watched through a slit.
On 19 June 1873, Eadweard Muybridge successfully photographed a horse named "Sallie Gardner '' in fast motion using a series of 24 stereoscopic cameras. The cameras were arranged along a track parallel to the horse 's, and each camera shutter was controlled by a trip wire triggered by the horse 's hooves. They were 21 inches apart to cover the 20 feet taken by the horse stride, taking pictures at one thousandth of a second. At the end of the decade, Muybridge had adapted sequences of his photographs to a zoopraxiscope for short, primitive projected "movies, '' which were sensations on his lecture tours by 1879 or 1880.
Nine years later, in 1882, French scientist Étienne - Jules Marey invented a chronophotographic gun, which was capable of taking 12 consecutive frames a second, recording all the frames of the same picture.
The late nineteenth to the early twentieth century brought rise to the use of film not only for entertainment purposes but for scientific exploration as well. French biologist and filmmaker Jean Painleve lobbied heavily for the use of film in the scientific field, as the new medium was more efficient in capturing and documenting the behavior, movement, and environment of microorganisms, cells, and bacteria, than the naked eye. The introduction of film into scientific fields allowed for not only the viewing "new images and objects, such as cells and natural objects, but also the viewing of them in real time '', whereas prior to the invention of moving pictures, scientists and doctors alike had to rely on hand drawn sketches of human anatomy and its microorganisms. This posed a great inconvenience in the science and medical worlds. The development of film and increased usage of cameras allowed doctors and scientists to grasp a better understanding and knowledge of their projects.
The experimental film Roundhay Garden Scene, filmed by Louis Le Prince on 14 October 1888, in Roundhay, Leeds, England, is the earliest surviving motion picture. This movie was shot on paper film.
W.K.L. Dickson, working under the direction of Thomas Alva Edison, was the first to design a successful apparatus, the Kinetograph, patented in 1891. This camera took a series of instantaneous photographs on standard Eastman Kodak photographic emulsion coated onto a transparent celluloid strip 35 mm wide. The results of this work were first shown in public in 1893, using the viewing apparatus also designed by Dickson, the Kinetoscope. Contained within a large box, only one person at a time looking into it through a peephole could view the movie.
In the following year, Charles Francis Jenkins and his projector, the Phantoscope, made a successful audience viewing while Louis and Auguste Lumière perfected the Cinématographe, an apparatus that took, printed, and projected film, in Paris in December 1895. The Lumière brothers were the first to present projected, moving, photographic, pictures to a paying audience of more than one person.
In 1896, movie theaters were open in France (Paris, Lyon, Bordeaux, Nice, Marseille); Italy (Rome, Milan, Naples, Genoa, Venice, Bologna, Forlì); Brussels; and London.
In 1896, Edison showed his improved Vitascope projector, the first commercially successful projector in the U.S.
Cooper Hewitt invented mercury lamps which made it practical to shoot films indoors without sunlight in 1905.
The first animated cartoon was produced in 1906.
Credits began to appear at the beginning of motion pictures in 1911.
The Bell and Howell 2709 movie camera invented in 1915 allowed directors to make close - ups without physically moving the camera.
By the late 1920s, most of the movies produced were sound films.
Wide screen formats were first experimented with in the 1950s.
By the 1970s, most movies were color films. IMAX and other 70mm formats gained popularity. Wide distribution of films became commonplace, setting the ground for "blockbusters. ''
Film cinematography dominated the motion picture industry from its inception until the 2010s when digital cinematography became dominant. Film cinematography is still used by some directors, especially in specific applications or out of fondness of the format.
From its birth in the 1880s, movies were predominantly monochrome. Contrary to popular belief, monochrome does n't always mean black and white; it means a movie shot in a single tone or color. Since the cost of tinted film bases was substantially higher, most movies were produced in black and white monochrome. Even with the advent of early color experiments, the greater expense of color meant films were mostly made in black and white until the 1950s, when cheaper color processes were introduced, and in some years the percentage of films shot on color film surpassed 51 %. By the 1960s, color became by far the dominant film stock. In the coming decades the usage of color film greatly increased while monochrome films became scarce.
After the advent of motion pictures, a tremendous amount of energy was invested in the production of photography in natural color. The invention of the talking picture further increased the demand for the use of color photography. However, in comparison to other technological advances of the time, the arrival of color photography was a relatively slow process.
Early movies were not actually color movies since they were shot monochrome and hand - colored or machine - colored afterwards. (Such movies are referred to as colored and not color.) The earliest such example is the hand - tinted Annabelle Serpentine Dance in 1895 by Edison Manufacturing Company. Machine - based tinting later became popular. Tinting continued until the advent of natural color cinematography in the 1910s. Many black and white movies have been colorized recently using digital tinting. This includes footage shot from both world wars, sporting events and political propaganda.
In 1902, Edward Raymond Turner produced the first films with a natural color process rather than using colorization techniques. In 1908, kinemacolor was introduced. In the same year, the short film A Visit to the Seaside became the first natural color movie to be publicly presented.
In 1917, the earliest version of Technicolor was introduced. Kodachrome was introduced in 1935. Eastmancolor was introduced in 1950 and became the color standard for the rest of the century.
In the 2010s, color films were largely superseded by color digital cinematography.
In digital cinematography, the movie is shot on digital medium such as flash storage, as well as distributed through a digital medium such as a hard drive.
Beginning in the late 1980s, Sony began marketing the concept of "electronic cinematography, '' utilizing its analog Sony HDVS professional video cameras. The effort met with very little success. However, this led to one of the earliest digitally shot feature movies, Julia and Julia, being produced in 1987. In 1998, with the introduction of HDCAM recorders and 1920 × 1080 pixel digital professional video cameras based on CCD technology, the idea, now re-branded as "digital cinematography, '' began to gain traction in the market.
Shot and released in 1998, The Last Broadcast is believed by some to be the first feature - length video shot and edited entirely on consumer - level digital equipment. In May 1999, George Lucas challenged the supremacy of the movie - making medium of film for the first time by including footage filmed with high - definition digital cameras in Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace. In late 2013, Paramount became the first major studio to distribute movies to theaters in digital format, eliminating 35mm film entirely. Since then the demand of movies to be developed onto digital format rather than 35mm has increased drastically.
As digital technology improved, movie studios began increasingly shifting towards digital cinematography. Since the 2010s, digital cinematography has become the dominant form of cinematography after largely superseding film cinematography.
Numerous aspects contribute to the art of cinematography, including:
The first film cameras were fastened directly to the head of a tripod or other support, with only the crudest kind of leveling devices provided, in the manner of the still - camera tripod heads of the period. The earliest film cameras were thus effectively fixed during the shot, and hence the first camera movements were the result of mounting a camera on a moving vehicle. The first known of these was a film shot by a Lumière cameraman from the back platform of a train leaving Jerusalem in 1896, and by 1898, there were a number of films shot from moving trains. Although listed under the general heading of "panoramas '' in the sales catalogues of the time, those films shot straight forward from in front of a railway engine were usually specifically referred to as "phantom rides ''.
In 1897, Robert W. Paul had the first real rotating camera head made to put on a tripod, so that he could follow the passing processions of Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee in one uninterrupted shot. This device had the camera mounted on a vertical axis that could be rotated by a worm gear driven by turning a crank handle, and Paul put it on general sale the next year. Shots taken using such a "panning '' head were also referred to as "panoramas '' in the film catalogues of the first decade of the cinema. This eventually led to the creation of a panoramic photo as well.
The standard pattern for early film studios was provided by the studio which Georges Méliès had built in 1897. This had a glass roof and three glass walls constructed after the model of large studios for still photography, and it was fitted with thin cotton cloths that could be stretched below the roof to diffuse the direct ray of the sun on sunny days. The soft overall light without real shadows that this arrangement produced, and which also exists naturally on lightly overcast days, was to become the basis for film lighting in film studios for the next decade.
Cinematography can begin with digital image sensor or rolls of film. Advancements in film emulsion and grain structure provided a wide range of available film stocks. The selection of a film stock is one of the first decisions made in preparing a typical film production.
Aside from the film gauge selection -- 8 mm (amateur), 16 mm (semi-professional), 35 mm (professional) and 65 mm (epic photography, rarely used except in special event venues) -- the cinematographer has a selection of stocks in reversal (which, when developed, create a positive image) and negative formats along with a wide range of film speeds (varying sensitivity to light) from ISO 50 (slow, least sensitive to light) to 800 (very fast, extremely sensitive to light) and differing response to color (low saturation, high saturation) and contrast (varying levels between pure black (no exposure) and pure white (complete overexposure). Advancements and adjustments to nearly all gauges of film create the "super '' formats wherein the area of the film used to capture a single frame of an image is expanded, although the physical gauge of the film remains the same. Super 8 mm, Super 16 mm, and Super 35 mm all utilize more of the overall film area for the image than their "regular '' non-super counterparts. The larger the film gauge, the higher the overall image resolution clarity and technical quality. The techniques used by the film laboratory to process the film stock can also offer a considerable variance in the image produced. By controlling the temperature and varying the duration in which the film is soaked in the development chemicals, and by skipping certain chemical processes (or partially skipping all of them), cinematographers can achieve very different looks from a single film stock in the laboratory. Some techniques that can be used are push processing, bleach bypass, and cross processing.
Most of modern cinema uses digital cinematography and has no film stocks, but the cameras themselves can be adjusted in ways that go far beyond the abilities of one particular film stock. They can provide varying degrees of color sensitivity, image contrast, light sensitivity and so on. One camera can achieve all the various looks of different emulsions. Digital image adjustments such as ISO and contrast are executed by estimating the same adjustments that would take place if actual film were in use, and are thus vulnerable to the camera 's sensor designers perceptions of various film stocks and image adjustment parameters.
Filters, such as diffusion filters or color effect filters, are also widely used to enhance mood or dramatic effects. Most photographic filters are made up of two pieces of optical glass glued together with some form of image or light manipulation material between the glass. In the case of color filters, there is often a translucent color medium pressed between two planes of optical glass. Color filters work by blocking out certain color wavelengths of light from reaching the film. With color film, this works very intuitively wherein a blue filter will cut down on the passage of red, orange, and yellow light and create a blue tint on the film. In black - and - white photography, color filters are used somewhat counter intuitively; for instance a yellow filter, which cuts down on blue wavelengths of light, can be used to darken a daylight sky (by eliminating blue light from hitting the film, thus greatly underexposing the mostly blue sky) while not biasing most human flesh tone. Certain cinematographers, such as Christopher Doyle, are well known for their innovative use of filters. Filters can be used in front of the lens or, in some cases, behind the lens for different effects. Christopher Doyle was a pioneer for increased usage of filters in movies. He was highly respected throughout the cinema world.
Lenses can be attached to the camera to give a certain look, feel, or effect by focus, color, etc.
As does the human eye, the camera creates perspective and spatial relations with the rest of the world. However, unlike one 's eye, a cinematographer can select different lenses for different purposes. Variation in focal length is one of the chief benefits. The focal length of the lens determines the angle of view and, therefore, the field of view. Cinematographers can choose from a range of wide - angle lenses, "normal '' lenses and long focus lenses, as well as macro lenses and other special effect lens systems such as borescope lenses. Wide - angle lenses have short focal lengths and make spatial distances more obvious. A person in the distance is shown as much smaller while someone in the front will loom large. On the other hand, long focus lenses reduce such exaggerations, depicting far - off objects as seemingly close together and flattening perspective. The differences between the perspective rendering is actually not due to the focal length by itself, but by the distance between the subjects and the camera. Therefore, the use of different focal lengths in combination with different camera to subject distances creates these different rendering. Changing the focal length only while keeping the same camera position does n't affect perspective but the camera angle of view only.
A zoom lens allows a camera operator to change his focal length within a shot or quickly between setups for shots. As prime lenses offer greater optical quality and are "faster '' (larger aperture openings, usable in less light) than zoom lenses, they are often employed in professional cinematography over zoom lenses. Certain scenes or even types of filmmaking, however, may require the use of zooms for speed or ease of use, as well as shots involving a zoom move.
As in other photography, the control of the exposed image is done in the lens with the control of the diaphragm aperture. For proper selection, the cinematographer needs that all lenses be engraved with T - Stop, not f - stop so that the eventual light loss due to the glass does n't affect the exposure control when setting it using the usual meters. The choice of the aperture also affects image quality (aberrations) and depth of field.
Focal length and diaphragm aperture affect the depth of field of a scene -- that is, how much the background, mid-ground and foreground will be rendered in "acceptable focus '' (only one exact plane of the image is in precise focus) on the film or video target. Depth of field (not to be confused with depth of focus) is determined by the aperture size and the focal distance. A large or deep depth of field is generated with a very small iris aperture and focusing on a point in the distance, whereas a shallow depth of field will be achieved with a large (open) iris aperture and focusing closer to the lens. Depth of field is also governed by the format size. If one considers the field of view and angle of view, the smaller the image is, the shorter the focal length should be, as to keep the same field of view. Then, the smaller the image is, the more depth of field is obtained, for the same field of view. Therefore, 70mm has less depth of field than 35mm for a given field of view, 16mm more than 35mm, and video cameras even more depth of field than 16mm. As videographers try to emulate the look of 35 mm film with digital cameras, this is one issue of frustration -- excessive depth of field with digital cameras and using additional optical devices to reduce that depth of field.
In Citizen Kane (1941), cinematographer Gregg Toland and director Orson Welles used tighter apertures to create every detail of the foreground and background of the sets in sharp focus. This practice is known as deep focus. Deep focus became a popular cinematographic device from the 1940s onwards in Hollywood. Today, the trend is for more shallow focus.
To change the plane of focus from one object or character to another within a shot is commonly known as a rack focus.
The aspect ratio of an image is the ratio of its width to its height. This can be expressed either as a ratio of 2 integers, such as 4: 3, or in a decimal format, such as 1.33: 1 or simply 1.33.
Different ratios provide different aesthetic effects. Standards for aspect ratio have varied significantly over time.
During the silent era, aspect ratios varied widely, from square 1: 1, all the way up to the extreme widescreen 4: 1 Polyvision. However, from the 1910s, silent motion pictures generally settled on the ratio of 4: 3 (1.33). The introduction of sound - on - film briefly narrowed the aspect ratio, to allow room for a sound stripe. In 1932, a new standard was introduced, the Academy ratio of 1.37, by means of thickening the frame line.
For years, mainstream cinematographers were limited to using the Academy ratio, but in the 1950s, thanks to the popularity of Cinerama, widescreen ratios were introduced in an effort to pull audiences back into the theater and away from their home television sets. These new widescreen formats provided cinematographers a wider frame within which to compose their images.
Many different proprietary photographic systems were invented and utilized in the 1950s to create widescreen movies, but one dominated film: the anamorphic process, which optically squeezes the image to photograph twice the horizontal area to the same size vertical as standard "spherical '' lenses. The first commonly used anamorphic format was CinemaScope, which used a 2.35 aspect ratio, although it was originally 2.55. CinemaScope was used from 1953 to 1967, but due to technical flaws in the design and its ownership by Fox, several third - party companies, led by Panavision 's technical improvements in the 1950s, dominated the anamorphic cine lens market. Changes to SMPTE projection standards altered the projected ratio from 2.35 to 2.39 in 1970, although this did not change anything regarding the photographic anamorphic standards; all changes in respect to the aspect ratio of anamorphic 35 mm photography are specific to camera or projector gate sizes, not the optical system. After the "widescreen wars '' of the 1950s, the motion - picture industry settled into 1.85 as a standard for theatrical projection in the United States and the United Kingdom. This is a cropped version of 1.37. Europe and Asia opted for 1.66 at first, although 1.85 has largely permeated these markets in recent decades. Certain "epic '' or adventure movies utilized the anamorphic 2.39.
In the 1990s, with the advent of high - definition video, television engineers created the 1.78 (16: 9) ratio as a mathematical compromise between the theatrical standard of 1.85 and television 's 1.33, as it was not practical to produce a traditional CRT television tube with a width of 1.85. Until that point, nothing had ever been originated in 1.78. Today, this is a standard for high - definition video and for widescreen television.
Light is necessary to create an image exposure on a frame of film or on a digital target (CCD, etc.). The art of lighting for cinematography goes far beyond basic exposure, however, into the essence of visual storytelling. Lighting contributes considerably to the emotional response an audience has watching a motion picture. The increased usage of filters can greatly impact the final image and affect the lighting.
Cinematography can not only depict a moving subject but can use a camera, which represents the audience 's viewpoint or perspective, that moves during the course of filming. This movement plays a considerable role in the emotional language of film images and the audience 's emotional reaction to the action. Techniques range from the most basic movements of panning (horizontal shift in viewpoint from a fixed position; like turning your head side - to - side) and tilting (vertical shift in viewpoint from a fixed position; like tipping your head back to look at the sky or down to look at the ground) to dollying (placing the camera on a moving platform to move it closer or farther from the subject), tracking (placing the camera on a moving platform to move it to the left or right), craning (moving the camera in a vertical position; being able to lift it off the ground as well as swing it side - to - side from a fixed base position), and combinations of the above. Early cinematographers often faced problems that were not common to other graphic artists because of the element of motion.
Cameras have been mounted to nearly every imaginable form of transportation.
Most cameras can also be handheld, that is held in the hands of the camera operator who moves from one position to another while filming the action. Personal stabilizing platforms came into being in the late 1970s through the invention of Garrett Brown, which became known as the Steadicam. The Steadicam is a body harness and stabilization arm that connects to the camera, supporting the camera while isolating it from the operator 's body movements. After the Steadicam patent expired in the early 1990s, many other companies began manufacturing their concept of the personal camera stabilizer. This invention is much more common throughout the cinematic world today. From feature length films to the evening news, more and more networks have begun to use a personal camera stabilizer.
The first special effects in the cinema were created while the film was being shot. These came to be known as "in - camera '' effects. Later, optical and digital effects were developed so that editors and visual effects artists could more tightly control the process by manipulating the film in post-production.
The 1896 movie The Execution of Mary Stuart shows an actor dressed as the queen placing her head on the execution block in front of a small group of bystanders in Elizabethan dress. The executioner brings his axe down, and the queen 's severed head drops onto the ground. This trick was worked by stopping the camera and replacing the actor with a dummy, then restarting the camera before the axe falls. The two pieces of film were then trimmed and cemented together so that the action appeared continuous when the film was shown. Thus creating a overall illusion and successfully laying the foundation for special affects.
This film was among those exported to Europe with the first Kinetoscope machines in 1895 and was seen by Georges Méliès, who was putting on magic shows in his Theatre Robert - Houdin in Paris at the time. He took up filmmaking in 1896, and after making imitations of other films from Edison, Lumière, and Robert Paul, he made Escamotage d'un dame chez Robert - Houdin (The Vanishing Lady). This film shows a woman being made to vanish by using the same stop motion technique as the earlier Edison film. After this, Georges Méliès made many single shot films using this trick over the next couple of years.
The other basic technique for trick cinematography involves double exposure of the film in the camera, which was first done by George Albert Smith in July 1898 in the UK. Smith 's The Corsican Brothers (1898) was described in the catalogue of the Warwick Trading Company, which took up the distribution of Smith 's films in 1900, thus:
"One of the twin brothers returns home from shooting in the Corsican mountains, and is visited by the ghost of the other twin. By extremely careful photography the ghost appears * quite transparent *. After indicating that he has been killed by a sword - thrust, and appealing for vengeance, he disappears. A ' vision ' then appears showing the fatal duel in the snow. To the Corsican 's amazement, the duel and death of his brother are vividly depicted in the vision, and overcome by his feelings, he falls to the floor just as his mother enters the room. ''
The ghost effect was done by draping the set in black velvet after the main action had been shot, and then re-exposing the negative with the actor playing the ghost going through the actions at the appropriate point. Likewise, the vision, which appeared within a circular vignette or matte, was similarly superimposed over a black area in the backdrop to the scene, rather than over a part of the set with detail in it, so that nothing appeared through the image, which seemed quite solid. Smith used this technique again in Santa Claus (1898).
Georges Méliès first used superimposition on a dark background in La Caverne maudite (The Cave of the Demons) made a couple of months later in 1898, and elaborated it with multiple superimpositions in the one shot in Un Homme de têtes (The Four Troublesome Heads). He created further variations in subsequent films.
Motion picture images are presented to an audience at a constant speed. In the theater it is 24 frames per second, in NTSC (US) Television it is 30 frames per second (29.97 to be exact), in PAL (Europe) television it is 25 frames per second. This speed of presentation does not vary.
However, by varying the speed at which the image is captured, various effects can be created knowing that the faster or slower recorded image will be played at a constant speed. Giving the cinematographer even more freedom for creativity and expression to be made.
For instance, time - lapse photography is created by exposing an image at an extremely slow rate. If a cinematographer sets a camera to expose one frame every minute for four hours, and then that footage is projected at 24 frames per second, a four - hour event will take 10 seconds to present, and one can present the events of a whole day (24 hours) in just one minute.
The inverse of this, if an image is captured at speeds above that at which they will be presented, the effect is to greatly slow down (slow motion) the image. If a cinematographer shoots a person diving into a pool at 96 frames per second, and that image is played back at 24 frames per second, the presentation will take 4 times as long as the actual event. Extreme slow motion, capturing many thousands of frames per second can present things normally invisible to the human eye, such as bullets in flight and shockwaves travelling through media, a potentially powerful cinematographical technique.
In motion pictures, the manipulation of time and space is a considerable contributing factor to the narrative storytelling tools. Film editing plays a much stronger role in this manipulation, but frame rate selection in the photography of the original action is also a contributing factor to altering time. For example, Charlie Chaplin 's Modern Times was shot at "silent speed '' (18 fps) but projected at "sound speed '' (24 fps), which makes the slapstick action appear even more frenetic.
Speed ramping, or simply "ramping '', is a process whereby the capture frame rate of the camera changes over time. For example, if in the course of 10 seconds of capture, the capture frame rate is adjusted from 60 frames per second to 24 frames per second, when played back at the standard movie rate of 24 frames per second, a unique time - manipulation effect is achieved. For example, someone pushing a door open and walking out into the street would appear to start off in slow - motion, but in a few seconds later within the same shot, the person would appear to walk in "realtime '' (normal speed). The opposite speed - ramping is done in The Matrix when Neo re-enters the Matrix for the first time to see the Oracle. As he comes out of the warehouse "load - point '', the camera zooms into Neo at normal speed but as it gets closer to Neo 's face, time seems to slow down, foreshadowing the manipulation of time itself within the Matrix later in the movie.
G.A. Smith initiated the technique of reverse motion and also improved the quality of self - motivating images. This he did by repeating the action a second time while filming it with an inverted camera and then joining the tail of the second negative to that of the first. The first films using this were Tipsy, Topsy, Turvy and The Awkward Sign Painter, the latter which showed a sign painter lettering a sign, and then the painting on the sign vanishing under the painter 's brush. The earliest surviving example of this technique is Smith 's The House That Jack Built, made before September 1901. Here, a small boy is shown knocking down a castle just constructed by a little girl out of children 's building blocks. A title then appears, saying "Reversed '', and the action is repeated in reverse so that the castle re-erects itself under his blows.
Cecil Hepworth improved upon this technique by printing the negative of the forwards motion backwards frame by frame, so that in the production of the print the original action was exactly reversed. Hepworth made The Bathers in 1900, in which bathers who have undressed and jumped into the water appear to spring backwards out of it, and have their clothes magically fly back onto their bodies.
The use of different camera speeds also appeared around 1900. Robert Paul 's On a Runaway Motor Car through Piccadilly Circus (1899), had the camera turn so slowly that when the film was projected at the usual 16 frames per second, the scenery appeared to be passing at great speed. Cecil Hepworth used the opposite effect in The Indian Chief and the Seidlitz powder (1901), in which a naïve Red Indian eats a lot of the fizzy stomach medicine, causing his stomach to expand and then he then leaps around balloon - like. This was done by cranking the camera faster than the normal 16 frames per second giving the first "slow motion '' effect.
In descending order of seniority, the following staff is involved:
In the film industry, the cinematographer is responsible for the technical aspects of the images (lighting, lens choices, composition, exposure, filtration, film selection), but works closely with the director to ensure that the artistic aesthetics are supporting the director 's vision of the story being told. The cinematographers are the heads of the camera, grip and lighting crew on a set, and for this reason, they are often called directors of photography or DPs. The ASC defines cinematography as a creative and interpretive process that culminates in the authorship of an original work of art rather than the simple recording of a physical event. Cinematography is not a subcategory of photography. Rather, photography is but one craft that the cinematographer uses in addition to other physical, organizational, managerial, interpretive. and image - manipulating techniques to effect one coherent process. In British tradition, if the DOP actually operates the camera him / herself they are called the cinematographer. On smaller productions, it is common for one person to perform all these functions alone. The career progression usually involves climbing up the ladder from seconding, firsting, eventually to operating the camera.
Directors of photography make many creative and interpretive decisions during the course of their work, from pre-production to post-production, all of which affect the overall feel and look of the motion picture. Many of these decisions are similar to what a photographer needs to note when taking a picture: the cinematographer controls the film choice itself (from a range of available stocks with varying sensitivities to light and color), the selection of lens focal lengths, aperture exposure and focus. Cinematography, however, has a temporal aspect (see persistence of vision), unlike still photography, which is purely a single still image. It is also bulkier and more strenuous to deal with movie cameras, and it involves a more complex array of choices. As such a cinematographer often needs to work co-operatively with more people than does a photographer, who could frequently function as a single person. As a result, the cinematographer 's job also includes personnel management and logistical organization. Given the in - depth knowledge. a cinematographer requires not only of his or her own craft but also that of other personnel, formal tuition in analogue or digital filmmaking can be advantageous.
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daedalus created king minos a maze so complex that nobody could escape from it | Daedalus - wikipedia
In Greek mythology, Daedalus (/ ˈdɛdələs ˈdiːdələs /; Ancient Greek: Δαίδαλος Daidalos "cunningly wrought '', perhaps related to δαιδάλλω "to work artfully ''; Latin: Daedalus; Etruscan: Taitale) was a skillful craftsman and artist. He is the father of Icarus, the uncle of Perdix, and possibly also the father of Iapyx, although this is unclear.
His parentage was supplied as a later addition to the mythos, providing him with a father in Metion, Eupalamus, or Palamaon, and a mother, Alcippe, Iphinoe, or Phrasmede. Daedalus had two sons: Icarus and Iapyx, along with a nephew either Talus or Perdix.
Athenians transferred Cretan Daedalus to make him Athenian - born, the grandson of the ancient king Erechtheus, claiming that Daedalus fled to Crete after killing his nephew Talos. Over time, other stories were told of Daedalus.
Daedalus is first mentioned by Homer as the creator of a wide dancing - ground for Ariadne. He also created the Labyrinth on Crete, in which the Minotaur (part man, part bull) was kept. In the story of the labyrinth as told by the Hellenes, the Athenian hero Theseus is challenged to kill the Minotaur, finding his way with the help of Ariadne 's thread. Daedalus ' appearance in Homer is in an extended metaphor, "plainly not Homer 's invention '', Robin Lane Fox observes: "He is a point of comparison and so he belongs in stories which Homer 's audience already recognized. '' In Bronze Age Crete, an inscription da - da - re-jo - de has been read as referring to a place at Knossos, and a place of worship.
In Homer 's language, daidala refers to finely crafted objects. They are mostly objects of armor, but fine bowls and furnishings are daidala, and on one occasion so are the "bronze - working '' of "clasps, twisted brooches, earrings and necklaces '' made by Hephaestus while cared for in secret by the goddesses of the sea.
Ignoring Homer, later writers envisaged the Labyrinth as an edifice rather than a single dancing path to the center and out again, and gave it numberless winding passages and turns that opened into one another, seeming to have neither beginning nor end. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, suggests that Daedalus constructed the Labyrinth so cunningly that he himself could barely escape it after he built it. Daedalus built the labyrinth for King Minos, who needed it to imprison his wife 's son the Minotaur. The story is told that Poseidon had given a white bull to Minos so that he might use it as a sacrifice. Instead, Minos kept it for himself; and in revenge, Poseidon, with the help of Aphrodite, made Pasiphaë, King Minos 's wife, lust for the bull For Pasiphaë, as Greek mythologers interpreted it, Daedalus also built a wooden cow so she could mate with the bull, for the Greeks imagined the Minoan bull of the sun to be an actual, earthly bull, the slaying of which later required a heroic effort by Theseus.
This story thus encourages others to consider the long - term consequences of their own inventions with great care, lest those inventions do more harm than good. As in the tale of Icarus ' wings, Daedalus is portrayed assisting in the creation of something that has subsequent negative consequences, in this case with his creation of the monstrous Minotaur 's almost impenetrable Labyrinth, which made slaying the beast an endeavour of legendary difficulty.
The most familiar literary telling explaining Daedalus ' wings is a late one, that of Ovid: in his Metamorphoses (VIII: 183 -- 235) Daedalus was shut up in a tower to prevent the knowledge of his Labyrinth from spreading to the public. He could not leave Crete by sea, as the king kept a strict watch on all vessels, permitting none to sail without being carefully searched. Since Minos controlled the land and sea routes, Daedalus set to work to fabricate wings for himself and his young son Icarus. He tied feathers together, from smallest to largest so as to form an increasing surface. He secured the feathers at their midpoints with string and at their bases with wax, and gave the whole a gentle curvature like the wings of a bird. When the work was done, the artist, waving his wings, found himself buoyed upward and hung suspended, poising himself on the beaten air. He next equipped his son in the same manner, and taught him how to fly. When both were prepared for flight, Daedalus warned Icarus not to fly too high, because the heat of the sun would melt the wax, nor too low, because the sea foam would soak the feathers.
They had passed Samos, Delos and Lebynthos by the time the boy, forgetting himself, began to soar upward toward the sun. The blazing sun softened the wax that held the feathers together and they came off. Icarus quickly fell in the sea and drowned. His father cried, bitterly lamenting his own arts, and called the land near the place where Icarus fell into the ocean Icaria in memory of his child. Some time later, the goddess Athena visited Daedalus and gave him wings, telling him to fly like a god.
An early image of winged Daedalus appears on an Etruscan jug of ca 630 BC found at Cerveteri, where a winged figure captioned Taitale appears on one side of the vessel, paired on the other side, uniquely, with Metaia, Medea: "its linking of these two mythical figures is unparalleled, '' Robin Lane Fox observes: "The link was probably based on their wondrous, miraculous art. Magically, Daedalus could fly, and magically Medea was able to rejuvenate the old (the scene on the jug seems to show her doing just this) ''. The image of Daedalus demonstrates that he was already well known in the West.
Further to the west Daedalus arrived safely in Sicily, in the care of King Cocalus of Kamikos on the island 's south coast; there Daedalus built a temple to Apollo, and hung up his wings, an offering to the god. In an invention of Virgil (Aeneid VI), Daedalus flies to Cumae and founds his temple there, rather than in Sicily; long afterward Aeneas confronts the sculpted golden doors of the temple.
Minos, meanwhile, searched for Daedalus by traveling from city to city asking a riddle. He presented a spiral seashell and asked for a string to be run through it. When he reached Kamikos, King Cocalus, knowing Daedalus would be able to solve the riddle, privately fetched the old man to him. He tied the string to an ant which, lured by a drop of honey at one end, walked through the seashell stringing it all the way through. Minos then knew Daedalus was in the court of King Cocalus and demanded he be handed over. Cocalus managed to convince Minos to take a bath first, where Cocalus ' daughters killed Minos. In some versions, Daedalus himself poured boiling water on Minos and killed him.
The anecdotes are literary and late; however, in the founding tales of the Greek colony of Gela, founded in the 680s on the southwest coast of Sicily, a tradition was preserved that the Greeks had seized cult images wrought by Daedalus from their local predecessors, the Sicani.
Daedalus was so proud of his achievements that he could not bear the idea of a rival. His sister had placed her son, named variously as Perdix, Talus, or Calos, under his charge to be taught the mechanical arts. He was an art scholar and showed striking evidence of ingenuity. Walking on the seashore, he picked up the spine of a fish. According to Ovid, imitating it, he took a piece of iron and notched it on the edge, and thus invented the saw. He put two pieces of iron together, connecting them at one end with a rivet, and sharpening the other ends, and made a pair of compasses. Daedalus was so envious of his nephew 's accomplishments that he took an opportunity and caused him to fall from the Acropolis. Athena turned Perdix into a partridge and left a scar that looked like a partridge on Daedalus ' right shoulder and Daedalus left Athens due to this.
Such anecdotal details as these were embroideries upon the reputation of Daedalus as an innovator in many arts. In Pliny 's Natural History (7.198) he is credited with inventing carpentry "and with it the saw, axe, plumb - line, drill, glue, and isinglass ''. Pausanias, in travelling around Greece, attributed to Daedalus numerous archaic wooden cult figures (see xoana) that impressed him: "All the works of this artist, though somewhat uncouth to look at, nevertheless have a touch of the divine in them. ''
It is said he first conceived masts and sails for ships for the navy of Minos. He is said to have carved statues so well they looked as if alive; even possessing self - motion. They would have escaped if not for the chain that bound them to the wall.
Daedalus gave his name, eponymously, to any Greek artificer and to many Greek contraptions that represented dextrous skill. At Plataea there was a festival, the Daedala, in which a temporary wooden altar was fashioned, and an effigy was made from an oak - tree and dressed in bridal attire. It was carried in a cart with a woman who acted as bridesmaid. The image was called Daedale and the archaic ritual given an explanation through a myth to the purpose
In the period of Romanticism, Daedalus came to denote the classic artist, a skilled mature craftsman, while Icarus symbolized the romantic artist, whose impetuous, passionate and rebellious nature, as well as his defiance of formal aesthetic and social conventions, may ultimately prove to be self - destructive. Stephen Dedalus, in Joyce 's Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man envisages his future artist - self "a winged form flying above the waves (...) a hawk - like man flying sunward above the sea, a prophecy of the end he had been born to serve ''.
Daedalus and Icarus, by Frederick Leighton, ca 1869.
Small bronze sculpture of Daedalus, 3rd century BC; found on Plaoshnik, Republic of Macedonia.
Landscape with the Fall of Icarus (detail) by Peter Brueghel the Elder, ca. 1558.
Daedalus and Pasiphaë. Roman fresco in the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, first century AD.
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what is the theme of the 2018 world health day whd | World Health Day - wikipedia
The World Health Day is a global health awareness day celebrated every year on 7 April, under the sponsorship of the World Health Organization (WHO), as well as other related organisations.
In 1948, the WHO held the First World Health Assembly. The Assembly decided to celebrate 7 April of each year, with effect from 1950, as the World Health Day. The World Health Day is held to mark WHO 's founding, and is seen as an opportunity by the organization to draw worldwide attention to a subject of major importance to global health each year. The WHO organizes international, regional and local events on the Day related to a particular theme. World Health Day is acknowledged by various governments and non-governmental organizations with interests in public health issues, who also organize activities and highlight their support in media reports, such as the Global Health Council.
World Health Day is one of eight official global health campaigns marked by WHO, along with World Tuberculosis Day, World Immunisation Week, World Malaria Day, World No Tobacco Day, World AIDS Day, World Blood Donor Day, and World Hepatitis Day.
In 2006, World Health Day was devoted to the health workforce crisis, or chronic shortages of health workers around the world due to decades of underinvestment in their education, training, salaries, working environment and management. The day was also meant to celebrate individual health workers -- the people who provide health care to those who need it, in other words those at the heart of health systems.
The Day also marked the launch of the WHO 's World Health Report 2006, which focused on the same theme. The report contained an assessment of the current crisis in the global health workforce, revealing an estimated shortage of almost 4.3 million physicians, midwives, nurses and other health care providers worldwide, and further proposed a series of actions for countries and the international community to tackle it.
In 2008, World Health Day focused on the need to protect health from the adverse effects of climate change and establish links between climate change and health and other development areas such as environment, food, energy, transport.
The theme "protecting health from climate change '' put health at the centre of the global dialogue about climate change. WHO selected this theme in recognition that climate change is posing ever growing threats to global public health security.
World Health Day 2009 focused on the safety of health facilities and the readiness of health workers who treat those affected by emergencies. Health centres and staff are critical lifelines for vulnerable people in disasters -- treating injuries, preventing illnesses and caring for people 's health needs. Often, already fragile health systems are unable to keep functioning through a disaster, with immediate and future public health consequences.
For this year 's World Health Day campaign, WHO and international partners underscored the importance of investing in health infrastructure that can withstand hazards and serve people in immediate need, and urged health facilities to implement systems to respond to internal emergencies, such as fires, and ensure the continuity of care.
With the campaign "1000 cities, 1000 lives '', events were organized worldwide during the week starting 7 April 2010. The global goals of the campaign were:
The theme of World Health Day 2011, marked on 7 April 2011, was "Antimicrobial resistance and its global spread '' and focused on the need for governments and stakeholders to implement the policies and practices needed to prevent and counter the emergence of highly resistant microorganisms.
When infections caused by resistant microorganisms fail to respond to standard treatments, including antibiotics and other antimicrobial medicines -- also known as drug resistance -- this may result in prolonged illness and greater risk of death.
On World Health Day 2011, WHO called for intensified global commitment to safeguard antimicrobial medicines for future generations. The organization introduced a six - point policy package to combat the spread of antimicrobial resistance:
World Health Day 2012 was marked with the slogan "Good health adds life to years ''. Life expectancy is going up in most countries, meaning more and more people live longer and enter an age when they may need health care. Meanwhile, birth rates are generally falling. Countries and health care systems need to find innovative and sustainable ways to cope with the demographic shift. As stated by John Beard, director of the WHO Department of Ageing and Life Course, "With the rapid ageing of populations, finding the right model for long - term care becomes more and more urgent. ''
Different activities were organized by WHO as well as non-governmental and community organizations around the world to mark World Health Day 2012. For example, Yogathon (an Art of Living Initiative) -- a marathon of Surya Namaskar -- happened in 100 + cities across the globe. Millions of people participated in that event to make awareness of Yoga as a part of healthy living. The event focused on prevention and not just medical treatment of chronic diseases, which remain unaffordable to many people.
The theme of World Health Day 2013, marked on 7 April 2013, was the need to control raised blood pressure (hypertension) as a "silent killer, global public health crisis ''. The slogan for the campaign was "Healthy Heart Beat, Healthy Blood Pressure ''. The WHO reports hypertension -- which is both preventable and treatable -- contributes to the burden of heart disease, stroke and kidney failure, and is an important cause of premature death and disability. The organization estimates one in 3 adults has raised blood pressure.
Specific objectives of the World Health Day 2013 campaign were to:
World Health Day 2014 put the spotlight on some of the most commonly known vectors -- such as mosquitoes, sandflies, bugs, ticks and snails -- responsible for transmitting a wide range of parasites and pathogens that can cause many different illnesses. Mosquitoes, for example, transmit malaria -- the most deadly vector - borne disease, causing an estimated 660 000 deaths annually worldwide -- as well as dengue fever, lymphatic filariasis, chikungunya, Japanese encephalitis and yellow fever. More than half of the world 's population is at risk of these diseases.
The goal of the World Health Day 2014 campaign was better protection from vector - borne diseases, especially for families living in areas where diseases are transmitted by vectors, and travelers to countries where they pose a health threat. The campaign advocated for health authorities in countries where vector - borne diseases are a public health problem or emerging threat, to put in place measures to improve surveillance and protection.
The WHO promoted improvement of food safety as part of the 2015 World Health Day campaign. Unsafe food -- food containing harmful bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances -- is responsible for more than 200 diseases, and is linked to the deaths of some 2 million people annually, mostly children. Changes in food production, distribution and consumption; changes to the environment; new and emerging pathogens; and antimicrobial resistance all pose challenges to food safety systems.
The WHO works with countries and partners to strengthen efforts to prevent, detect and respond to foodborne disease outbreaks in line with the Codex Alimentarius, advocating that food safety is a shared responsibility -- from farmers and manufacturers to vendors and consumers -- and raising awareness about the importance of the part everyone can play in ensuring that the food on our plate is safe to eat.
The WHO focused World Health Day 2016, on diabetes -- a largely preventable and treatable non-communicable disease that is rapidly increasing in numbers in many countries, most dramatically in low - and middle - income countries. Simple lifestyle measures have been shown to be effective in preventing or delaying the onset of type 2 diabetes, including maintaining normal body weight, engaging in regular physical activity, and eating a healthy diet. Diabetes can be controlled and managed to prevent complications through diagnosis, self - management education, and affordable treatment. The WHO estimates about 422 million people in the world have diabetes, with the disease the direct cause of some 1.5 million deaths. The goals of WHD 2016 are (1) scale up prevention, (2) strengthen care, and (3) enhance surveillance.
World Health Day 2017, celebrated on 7 April, aims to mobilize action on depression. This condition affects people of all ages, from all walks of life, in all countries. It impacts on people 's ability to carry out everyday tasks, with consequences for families, friends, and even communities, workplaces, and health care systems. At worst, depression can lead to self - inflicted injury and suicide. A better understanding of depression -- which can be prevented and treated -- will help reduce the stigma associated with the illness, and lead to more people seeking help.
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popular (mixed) systems are available in all legal traditions except in which legal tradition | List of national legal systems - wikipedia
The contemporary legal systems of the world are generally based on one of four basic systems: civil law, common law, statutory law, religious law or combinations of these. However, the legal system of each country is shaped by its unique history and so incorporates individual variations. The science that studies Law at the level of legal systems is called Comparative Law.
Both civil (also known as Roman) and common law systems can be considered the most widespread in the world: civil law because it is the most widespread by landmass, and common law because it is employed by the greatest number of people.
The central source of law that is recognized as authoritative is codifications in a constitution or statute passed by legislature, to amend a code. While the concept of codification dates back to the Code of Hammurabi in Babylon ca. 1790 BC, civil law systems derive from the Roman Empire and, more particularly, the Corpus Juris Civilis issued by the Emperor Justinian ca. AD 529. This was an extensive reform of the law in the Byzantine Empire, bringing it together into codified documents. Civil law was also partly influenced by religious laws such as Canon law and Islamic law. Civil law today, in theory, is interpreted rather than developed or made by judges. Only legislative enactments (rather than legal precedents, as in common law) are considered legally binding.
Scholars of comparative law and economists promoting the legal origins theory usually subdivide civil law into four distinct groups:
However, some of these legal systems are often and more correctly said to be of hybrid nature:
The Italian civil code of 1942 replaced the original one of 1865, introducing germanistic elements due to the geopolitical alliances of the time. The Italian approach has been imitated by other countries including the Netherlands (1992), Argentina (2014), Brazil (2002) and Portugal (1966). Most of them have innovations introduced by the Italian legislation, including the unification of the civil and commercial codes.
The Swiss civil code is considered mainly influenced by the German civil code and partly influenced by the French civil code. The civil code of the Republic of Turkey is a slightly modified version of the Swiss code, adopted in 1926 during Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 's presidency as part of the government 's progressive reforms and secularization.
A comprehensive list of countries that base their legal system on a codified civil law follows:
The Argentinian Civil Code was also in effect in Paraguay, as per a Paraguayan law of 1880, until the new Civil Code went in force in 1987.
In Argentina, this 1871 Civil Code remained in force until August 2015, when it was replaced by the new Código Civil y Comercial de la Nación.
During the second half of the 20th century, the German legal theory became increasingly influential in Argentina.
The Civil Code came into effect on 1 January 1857. The influence of the Napoleonic code and the Law of Castile of the Spanish colonial period (especially the Siete Partidas), is great; it is observed however that e.g. in many provisions of property or contract law, the solutions of the French code civil were put aside in favor of pure Roman law or Castilian law.
Regarding the theory of ' sources of law ' in the Guatemalan legal system, the ' Ley del Organismo Judicial ' recognizes ' the law ' as the main legal source (in the sense of legislative texts), although it also establishes ' jurisprudence ' as a complementary source. Although jurisprudence technically refers to judicial decisions in general, in practice it tends to be confused and identified with the concept of ' legal doctrine ', which is a qualified series of identical resolutions in similar cases pronounced by higher courts (the Constitutional Court acting as a ' Tribunal de Amparo ', and the Supreme Court acting as a ' Tribunal de Casación ') whose theses become binding for lower courts.
Federal courts and 49 states use the legal system based on English common law (see below), which has diverged somewhat since the mid-nineteenth century in that they look to each other 's cases for guidance on issues of first impression and rarely, if ever, look at contemporary cases on the same issue in the UK or the Commonwealth.
Common law and equity (legal concept) are systems of law whose sources are the decisions in cases by judges. In addition, every system will have a legislature that passes new laws and statutes. The relationships between statutes and judicial decisions can be complex. In some jurisdictions, such statutes may overrule judicial decisions or codify the topic covered by several contradictory or ambiguous decisions. In some jurisdictions, judicial decisions may decide whether the jurisdiction 's constitution allowed a particular statute or statutory provision to be made or what meaning is contained within the statutory provisions. Statutes were allowed to be made by the government. Common law developed in England, influenced by Anglo - Saxon law and to a much lesser extent by the Norman conquest of England, which introduced legal concepts from Norman law, which, in turn, had its origins in Salic law. Common law was later inherited by the Commonwealth of Nations, and almost every former colony of the British Empire has adopted it (Malta being an exception). The doctrine of stare decisis, also known as case law or precedent by courts, is the major difference to codified civil law systems.
Common law is currently in practice in Ireland, most of the United Kingdom (England and Wales and Northern Ireland), Australia, New Zealand, Bangladesh, India (excluding Goa), Pakistan, South Africa, Canada (excluding Quebec), Hong Kong, the United States (on a state level excluding Louisiana), and many other places. In addition to these countries, several others have adapted the common law system into a mixed system. For example, Nigeria operates largely on a common law system, but incorporates religious law.
In the European Union, the Court of Justice takes an approach mixing civil law (based on the treaties) with an attachment to the importance of case law. One of the most fundamental documents to shape common law is the English Magna Carta, which placed limits on the power of the English Kings. It served as a kind of medieval bill of rights for the aristocracy and the judiciary who developed the law.
Religious law refers to the notion of a religious system or document being used as a legal source, though the methodology used varies. For example, the use of Jewish and Halakha for public law has a static and unalterable quality, precluding amendment through legislative acts of government or development through judicial precedent; Christian Canon law is more similar to civil law in its use of codes; and Islamic Sharia law (and Fiqh jurisprudence) is based on legal precedent and reasoning by analogy (Qiyas), and is thus considered similar to common law.
The main kinds of religious law are Sharia in Islam, Halakha in Judaism, and canon law in some Christian groups. In some cases these are intended purely as individual moral guidance, whereas in other cases they are intended and may be used as the basis for a country 's legal system. The latter was particularly common during the Middle Ages.
The Halakha is followed by orthodox and conservative Jews in both ecclesiastical and civil relations. No country is fully governed by Halakha, but two Jewish people may decide, because of personal belief, to have a dispute heard by a Jewish court, and be bound by its rulings.
The Islamic legal system of Sharia (Islamic law) and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) is the most widely used religious law, and one of the three most common legal systems in the world alongside common law and civil law. It is based on both divine law, derived from the Qur'an and Sunnah, and the rulings of Ulema (jurists), who used the methods of Ijma (consensus), Qiyas (analogical deduction), Ijtihad (research) and Urf (common practice) to derive Fatwā (legal opinions). An Ulema was required to qualify for an Ijazah (legal doctorate) at a Madrasa (law school / college) before they could issue Fatwā. During the Islamic Golden Age, classical Islamic law may have had an influence on the development of common law and several civil law institutions. Sharia law governs a number of Islamic countries, including Saudi Arabia and Iran, though most countries use Sharia law only as a supplement to national law. It can relate to all aspects of civil law, including property rights, contracts or public law.
Canon law is not divine law, properly speaking, because it is not found in revelation. Instead, it is seen as human law inspired by the word of God and applying the demands of that revelation to the actual situation of the church. Canon law regulates the internal ordering of the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion. Canon law is amended and adapted by the legislative authority of the church, such as councils of bishops, individual bishops for their respective sees, the Pope for the entire Catholic Church, and the British Parliament for the Church of England.
Despite the usefulness of different classifications, every legal system has its own individual identity. Below are groups of legal systems, categorised by their geography. Click the "expand '' buttons on the right for the lists of countries. Some studies show that ethnic minorities are more likely to feel that the legal system within their particular jurisdiction is unfair and unjust. People with mental health issues, particularly young ones are also likely to have a low opinion of the justice system.
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where does the owner of in n out live | Lynsi Snyder - wikipedia
Lynsi Lavelle Snyder - Ellingson (previously Seawell, then Martinez and then Torres, born May 5, 1982) is an American businesswoman, the owner and heiress of the In - N - Out Burger company. She is the only child of Lynda and H. Guy Snyder and the only grandchild of Harry and Esther Snyder, who founded In - N - Out in 1948.
According to the Bloomberg Billionaires Index, Snyder was the second youngest American female billionaire after Elizabeth Holmes of Theranos. On June 1, 2016, however, Lynsi effectively became the youngest billionaire upon Elizabeth Holmes 's net worth being revised by Forbes from $4.5 billion to zero. As the sole beneficiary of family trusts, she is currently In - N - Out 's majority owner and ultimately received control of the company 's stock in its entirety on her 35th birthday, becoming the sole owner.
Snyder was born in Glendora, California to Lynda Lou (née Perkins) and Harry Guy Snyder. She is of Dutch descent on her father 's side. When she was 12, her parents separated and she moved with her mother to the small town of Shingletown, California, where she lived on a ranch and graduated from Redding Christian School, a private high school in Palo Cedro, California that her parents helped found. Her parents eventually divorced in January 1997. She has two older half - sisters (Traci and Teri) through her mother. Traci is married to former In - N - Out President and current COO Mark Taylor. Snyder 's uncle Rich died in 1993 in a plane crash, and her father died in 1999 from an accidental drug overdose.
On January 1, 2010, Snyder became the 6th President of In - N - Out, succeeding her brother - in - law, Mark Taylor, who was appointed the Chief Operating Officer of the company. She occupies the same position that her grandfather Harry (1948 -- 1976), uncle Rich (1976 -- 1993), father Guy (1993 -- 1999), and grandmother Esther (1999 -- 2006) previously held. Before Snyder became President of In - N - Out Burger, a taped message from her was broadcast to all company associates letting them know about the transition and the future of the company. Esther Snyder 's signature was finally replaced with Lynsi Snyder 's on associates ' paychecks in 2009, three years after Esther Snyder 's death.
During 2006, Snyder and In - N - Out were embroiled in a bitter lawsuit with a former company executive, Rich Boyd. Boyd was fired for allegedly misusing company funds, but he claimed that Snyder, and then Vice-President Mark Taylor, were trying to oust the elderly Esther Snyder from the company. Both Lynsi Snyder and Mark Taylor denied the claims, and the lawsuit was settled out of court in May 2006.
Snyder took ownership of her father 's share of In - N - Out (50 % of the company) on her 30th birthday, and inherited the balance of the company that was not already in trust for her when her grandmother Esther died. Snyder gained full control of the company when she turned 35.
In February 2013, Snyder was ranked a billionaire for the first time by the Bloomberg Billionaires Index, based on an In - N - Out valuation of $1.1 billion. That same year, she ranked # 93 on Maxim 's annual Hot 100 list.
Snyder funds Healing Hearts & Nations (HHN), a non-profit corporation that builds training centers in Africa and India and trains local community leaders for the purpose of providing different forms of counseling to the underprivileged local population. She is also actively involved with the In - N - Out Burger Foundation, which supports abused and neglected children.
Snyder has been married four times and has four children. Her husbands have been:
Snyder is a devout Evangelical Christian, and has spoken several times about her faith. In 2015, her testimonial was featured on I Am Second. In it, she spoke about the many deaths within her family and her previous failed marriages and how her faith helped her cope with these misfortunes.
Like her father, Snyder is an avid drag racing fan and member of the NHRA. She regularly competes in drag racing events. In 2015, she was featured on an episode of Jay Leno 's Garage, where she showed off a modified ' 41 Willys that was previously owned by her late father.
In August 2012, Snyder reportedly purchased a 7 - bedroom, 16 - bathroom mansion with 16,600 square feet (1,540 m) of interior space in Bradbury, California from Texas Rangers third baseman Adrián Beltré for a sum in excess of US $ 17 million. Snyder has stated that she works primarily out of the Baldwin Park office, home of In - N - Out University and formerly company headquarters, rather than the Irvine corporate headquarters because it is closer to her Bradbury home.
Snyder has frequently been called reclusive and media - shy, due to her long - time penchant for declining nearly all interview requests and rarely appearing at public events. However, in recent years she has become more open to the media, participating in profiles with the Orange County Register, Orange Coast, and CBS News.
In her January 2014 interview with Orange Coast, Snyder said that she has been the target of at least two kidnapping attempts. In the wake of these attempts, she has deliberately kept herself out of the public eye for the safety of her family, she said. The first purported kidnapping attempt occurred when she was still a high school student in Shingletown; the second took place several years later in Baldwin Park, near the local In - N - Out distribution center.
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when did season 1 of on my block come out | On My Block (tv series) - wikipedia
On My Block is a coming - of - age television series, created by Lauren Iungerich, Eddie Gonzalez, and Jeremy Haft. The first season, consisting of ten episodes, was released on Netflix on March 16, 2018. On April 13, 2018, the series was renewed for a second season.
The series stars Sierra Capri, Jason Genao, Brett Gray, Diego Tinoco, Jessica Marie Garcia, and Ronni Hawk. The series 's diverse cast, story - lines, and performances were praised by critics.
In a rough inner - city Los Angeles neighborhood, four teens find their lifelong friendship tested as they begin high school.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season an approval rating of 100 % based on 5 reviews, and a weighted average rating of 9.3 / 10. Trey Mangum of Shadow and Act wrote, "On My Block is different than anything we 've seen on television in relation to the experience of growing up. The stars are young people of color, dealing with real issues that happen in communities that they have to wrangle with during this pivotal time in their lives. For a lovely story about friendship and timely societal issues, along with superb youth acting, here is your next binge. '' Alexis Gunderson of Paste said, "When the final credits hit, it 's clear that not one second of the season 's 10 short episodes was wasted: Every line was measured out, every background track meticulously calibrated, every initially jarring tonal shift set up precisely for a singular cumulative effect that lands in the season 's final moments like a punch to the chest you realize too late you should have seen coming from a mile away. '' Matt Seitz of New York Magazine wrote, "One of the many remarkable things about this series is how it folds crime and the awareness of potential violence into everyday life, which is something white sitcoms never do unless it 's a Very Special Episode. ''
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young and the restless lily and cane twins | Lily Winters - wikipedia
Lily Winters is a fictional character from the American CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless. Created by William J. Bell, the character appeared as a child for her first five - year period. In 2002, Christel Khalil began portraying Lily as a teenager after the character rapidly aged. In 2005, Khalil left the series, resulting in the character 's recasting with Davetta Sherwood; however, Sherwood 's portrayal was brief when Khalil asked to return the following year. Khalil began playing the character as a "rebellious, yet naive teenager '', later becoming one of the soap opera 's heroines.
Winters is the daughter of supermodel - turned - executive Drucilla Winters (Victoria Rowell) born in the midst of a questioned paternity storyline, with Neil Winters (Kristoff St. John) believing he was her father. Eleven years later, the storyline was readdressed with the revelation that Malcolm Winters (Shemar Moore) is her biological father. Lily later began a relationship with Daniel Romalotti (Michael Graziadei), a romance inspired by Romeo and Juliet. The couple were popular with viewers, who were saddened at their separation (because of Daniel 's addiction to pornography).
Lily was later paired with leading character Cane Ashby (Daniel Goddard), a romance that has attracted significant fan attention. In 2009, the pair were married just before Lily was diagnosed with ovarian cancer, a storyline praised by viewers and critics. Lily and Cane had two children: Charlie and Mattie Ashby, born in 2010. The following year the couple divorced (after Cane faked his death and kept secrets from Lily), but reunited and were remarried in 2012. Khalil has received critical acclaim for her portrayal, which has garnered her an NAACP Image and Daytime Emmy Award. Critics have described her as having evolved from a "teen star '' into a "leading lady ''.
Winters was first portrayed as a child by Vanessa Carson in 1996, followed by Brooke Marie Bridges from 1998 to 2000. In August 2002 Khalil was cast in the role as a teenager at age 14. Lily was the first soap - opera role for which she auditioned. After screen tests with co-star Kristoff St. John and casting director Marnie Saitta, Khalil was given the part. In 2005 (after portraying the character for three years) Khalil left the series, citing stress as the reason for her departure. The producers tried unsuccessfully to convince Khalil to stay, and recast her role with Sherwood. Sherwood said that while the character Lily was the same, she and Khalil were not the same actress so it would be "a little different ''. Although she replaced a popular actress, Sherwood said she felt no anxiety over the recasting because Khalil chose to leave the part.
After leaving the series, Khalil and the producers began discussing her possible return. In 2006 she agreed to come back, and Sherwood was released from her contract. Former executive producer and head writer Lynn Marie Latham said she was happy with the casting change; she was impressed by Khalil 's work, saying that she is a "brilliant actress ''. Latham noted that Sherwood did a "fine job '' as the character, but "shows generally prefer to have original players back when they can get them ''. On her MySpace blog, Sherwood said she felt negativity from others on the set of the soap opera before her replacement; she was not told the reason for her firing, which she thought neither right nor fair. Khalil stated in 2007 that her return was a difficult decision to make, but was "the best decision ever ''.
On August 21, 2012, The Young and the Restless put out a casting call for the role of "Sally Tate '', and the character description lead to speculation that it was a recast for Lily Winters and Khalil was exiting the soap. On August 22, Khalil 's official website confirmed that she was leaving the show due to a contract dispute and her contract was set to expire in late - September. On August 23, 2012, Khalil gave an interview to MSN Entertainment in which she expressed her desire to remain on the show. Saying that she hoped she and the show could come to a mutual agreement but the show was n't interested in negotiating with her. Upon learning of her impending exit, fans of Khalil began a letter write - in, snail mail, e-mail and phone call campaign in support of her remaining on the show. Fan outcry led producers to rethink recasting the role with newly appointed executive producer Jill Farren Phelps later saying that negotiations with Khalil had resumed and she "did n't yet know '' how that would work out. On September 6, 2012 a plane carrying a banner stating "Y&R Fans Want Christel Khalil as Lily Ashby '' was flown over CBS Television City in support of Khalil. Fans did a similar campaign in spring 2011 when Khalil 's co-star Daniel Goddard was let go from the soap. In late September, newly appointed head writer Josh Griffith confirmed in an interview with TV Guide that contract negotiations had been resolved and Khalil would remain in the role.
In 2002, when Lily was rapidly aged to a teenager, the character was designed as an "angst - ridden '' heroine who struggled with "trauma ''; she was also described as strong, rebellious, and sassy. Khalil said that Lily "does n't take anybody 's crap '' and "she 's her own person ''. Sherwood was said to have brought a "fire '' to the role, and was told to use it only when necessary. She described Lily as "a lot like her mother '': "It makes sense. She spent a lot of time with her mother growing up and she 's seen how her mother reacts to certain situations when there is a problem or a dilemma. '' When Khalil returned to the role she felt that Lily had changed "a great deal '' since she last played her; she was more immature and although it was more fun, it was "definitely different ''.
In 2009, Soap Opera Digest said that Khalil and Lily had evolved from a "teen star '' into a "leading lady ''. Khalil described her happiness with her character 's evolution, with more adult storylines and having to "deal with things like losing a baby or breaking off her engagement (to Cane) ''. During her marital problems with Cane, Khalil described Lily as a "doormat '' and "hopeless romantic '', saying that her "daddy issues '' were part of that.
One of Lily 's first storylines centered around her manipulation by internet predator Kevin Fisher (Greg Rikaart), who gives her the sexually - transmitted disease chlamydia. Khalil taped public service announcements related to the story, and considered the plot one of her favorites: "How many soaps have really covered that? The meeting on the Internet, getting an STD, it was really great stuff. '' Lily was next involved in a Romeo and Juliet - inspired romance (attracting a significant fan following) with Daniel Romalotti (Michael Graziadei), Kevin 's friend. Lily was said to have brought out a new side to Daniel 's character, "taming '' him. When Khalil left the show, former head writer John F. Smith promised the character 's recast would "bring an entirely new level '' to Lily and Daniel 's romance. They fell in love and were married; the pair 's popularity continued with Sherwood in the role. Sherwood gave Lily more feistiness, although the character was never written as timid. Sherwood 's interpretation drew comparisons to Lily 's mother, Drucilla; that "fire '' was brought into Daniel and Lily 's relationship. Sherwood said that "Dru can be a little dramatic '', and when Lily faces an issue with Daniel "she 's not going to remain calm, she 's going to do what she saw her mother do ''. The actress praised the pair 's storyline for not focusing on the different races of the characters. Khalil was surprised by the advancement of Lily and Daniel 's storyline when she returned, particularly the characters ' marriage. The plot ended with a social issue: Daniel 's addiction to pornography. Graziadei said, "My initial conflict was that Daniel has had so many problems with his wife that I could n't figure out why he 'd be doing this '', and was concerned that Daniel might be seen as "lecherous and creepy ''. The pair tried to work through Daniel 's addiction, but it ended their marriage.
Lily was later written into a romance with Cane Ashby (Daniel Goddard) intertwined with a modeling career. The couple was designed as star - crossed true loves, and the relationship was said to add further growth to Lily 's character. Khalil said that Lily had been in "kind of an immature relationship '' and she thought being with a "real man '' would make Lily grow up and "start thinking about her life and situation in a different way '' and "would change Lily for the better ''. Goddard compared the romance to Lady Chatterley 's Lover, as both characters grew and learned from the relationship. Storylines for the lovers included the characters ' age gap, a miscarriage and a love rectangle with Chloe Mitchell (Elizabeth Hendrickson) and Billy Abbott (Billy Miller). In the love - rectangle story, Chloe deceives Cane into thinking they conceived a child. Goddard said he liked the storyline because of its originality. Love triangles and questioned paternity occur frequently in soap operas, but he felt that Maria Arena Bell made the plots fresh. Khalil said that she "loved '' the storyline and the actors in it; she thought it "was a possibility '' for Lily and Cane to have a happy ending, and Lily "can see the hope, and they can adapt and love each other in a more mature and honest way ''. In 2009, the pair were married. For their wedding, Lily wore the dress her mother Drucilla (Victoria Rowell) wore at her 1995 wedding to Neil. Rowell 's dress was altered, at Khalil 's request; she said it was an "old - fashioned, a typical ' 90s - style gown '', and she "did n't really like it ''. Khalil spoke with Bell and the head of the wardrobe department about updating the dress. Bell agreed; there were "little details '' about the original dress she wanted to keep, and it became "a really beautiful dress ''.
In 2010, Global BC said Lily was the love of Cane 's life. The following year, she divorced him after his continued lies about his faked death. However, she eventually discovered that Cane was trying to protect her and they remarried. Khalil said that she never lost faith in the pair reuniting, since their romance is "so popular '': "No matter what happens, they 'll always get through it. '' Goddard noted that their relationship "had come full circle '' and "was being done well ''. About Cane and Lily 's second wedding, Goddard said that Cane and Lily have "certainly had a lot of ups and downs '' but he thought their fans "stayed true and they have expressed their desire for what they want to see ''. He thought a wedding of "this caliber '' would make their fans "very, very happy and that is what this is about ''.
Lily was born into a paternity storyline, with brothers Neil or Malcolm Winters her father. Her mother, Drucilla, had been dating Neil but slept with Malcolm (thinking he was Neil when she was groggy from medication). The storyline continued unresolved for several years, with Neil believing he was Lily 's father. In 2006, former co-head writer Jack Smith decided to resolve Lily 's paternity by revealing that Malcolm was her father. About the storyline, Smith said:
Well, if you think about it as a storyteller the potential for interesting drama is much more interesting if Malcolm is the biological father and not Neil. If Neil was the biological father, the whole sub textual romantic potential between Drucilla and Malcolm fades away. The relationship between Lily and Malcolm becomes your normal, traditional uncle / niece relationship. The relationship between Neil and Lily becomes your typical father / daughter relationship. But if Malcolm is the biological father then, wow! You 've got the potential for years to come for fireworks.
In 2009, former head writer Maria Arena Bell developed a storyline about ovarian cancer for Lily. Bell said that the way Lily 's struggle was playing out "is very much how it would play out in real life '': "There 's days where you feel exhausted and you feel powerless... It helps that on our writing team, we have one writer who 's currently suffering from breast cancer, who put a lot of her own heart and soul into this story. I myself am a survivor (of) two different cancers. '' Khalil filmed a public - service announcement for CBS Cares about ovarian cancer and those affected by the disease. Lily shaves her head, requiring Khalil to wear hats, scarves, a bald cap and wigs. The wigs were shorter than the actress ' real hair because the writers wanted to make sure the audience knew they were wigs. In 2010 Lily went into remission, and has since been cancer - free.
In 2002, Lily is a rebellious teenager. After living in Paris, her mother Drucilla (Victoria Rowell) moves her back to the United States after she sprayed graffiti in the city. Drucilla hopes that Lily 's father, Neil (Kristoff St. John), will reason with her; however, they end up helping him deal with his alcoholism. Lily 's parents reunite and plan to remarry -- to her dismay, since she wanted her mother to be with Wesley Carter (Ben Watkins). Lily comes to terms with their relationship, becoming friends with Colleen Carlton (Lyndsy Fonseca). In 2004, Lily is victimized by Internet predator Kevin Fisher (Greg Rikaart), who rapes her and gives her a sexually - transmitted disease. She forgives him after he saves her from another predator who is trying to rape her, but the situation was staged by Daniel Romalotti (Michael Grazaidei) to make Kevin look like a hero. Lily and Daniel begin dating, to their parents ' dismay. In 2006, they marry, and soon afterwards Lily discovers her biological father is her uncle Malcolm (Shemar Moore); this strains her relationship with her mother. They reconcile before Drucilla is presumed dead after falling off a cliff during an argument with Daniel 's mother, Phyllis Summers (Michelle Stafford). Lily discovers that Daniel has been hiding a pornography addiction which, despite counseling, ends their marriage. Lily is then attracted to Cane Ashby (Daniel Goddard), but they hesitate to begin a relationship because of their age difference. They eventually begin dating, despite disapproval from Neil.
Chloe Mitchell (Elizabeth Hendrickson) deceives Cane into believing he fathered her child; however, the child 's biological father is Billy Abbott (Billy Miller). Cane 's relationship with Lily is interrupted, but they become engaged when the truth about the child 's paternity is revealed, and marry in February 2009. They briefly separate when Cane 's true identity is revealed, but are reunited when Lily is diagnosed with ovarian cancer (and mourns the death of her best friend, Colleen). During her hysterectomy, two of her eggs are preserved; Cane and Lily want to have children, using Mackenzie Browning (Clementine Ford) as their surrogate mother. She gives birth to twins, Charlie and Mattie Ashby, in June 2010. Soon afterwards, Lily goes into remission; an Australian (Blake Joseph) arrives in Genoa City and blackmails Cane, followed by his father Colin Atkinson (Tristan Rogers) in December 2010. Colin is later engaged to Jill Abbott (Jess Walton), and Cane is shot to death by Blake as he tries to stop their wedding. After Cane 's death, Lily sees hallucinations of him in the afterlife, leading her family to suggest therapy. After her "hallucination '' leaves footprints in the snow, Lily realizes that Cane is alive, having faked his death; his twin brother, Caleb, was the one who died. Lily feels betrayed and decides to divorce Cane, but later realizes that the story surrounding his faked death was to protect her. They decide to remarry in February 2012 and work at Jabot Cosmetics, where Lily develops an attraction to Tyler Michaelson (Redaric Williams) which makes Cane jealous. Lily and Tyler share a kiss, but she turns him down and returns to Cane.
Afterward, Cane hires an assistant at Chancellor Industries, Hilary Curtis (Mishael Morgan), whom Jill and then Lily become suspicious of. Meanwhile, an unknown blogger is targeting the Winters family online, with photos of Hilary kissing Cane as well as the two of them in a hotel room. After a private investigation, the Winters figure out Hilary is the blogger (because she blames Neil for her mother 's death years prior) just as Hilary attempts to drug Cane. She is fired from Chancellor Industries and shunned by the family. After repairing their marriage, Cane and Lily agree to become the new managers of the Genoa City Athletic Club after her brother Devon Hamilton (Bryton James) buys it.
-- CBS Soaps In Depth on Khalil 's portrayal during Lily 's loss of her mother (2007)
Khalil as Winters has grown in popularity among viewers, who voted her onto "Top Actress '' lists in publications such as Soap Opera Digest, Soaps In Depth and Soap Opera Update. Critics have also praised Khalil for her portrayal; Soap Opera Digest named her performer of the week during Lily 's internet - predator storyline, citing the subtlety of her performance. Mark McGarry of Soap Opera Weekly named the actress outstanding performer of the week on February 28, 2005, praising Khalil 's "remarkable range ''. CBS Soaps In Depth said Sherwood "got off to a slow start '', but praised her work during the revelation that Lily 's husband Daniel was responsible for her attempted rape by Alex. Khalil 's return in 2006 was greeted positively by viewers.
Lily 's cancer storyline was praised by critics and viewers. Janet Di Lauro of Soap Opera Weekly praised the storyline for highlighting Neil and Lily 's relationship, saying that they "are one of the most effective and heartfelt father - daughter combos in daytime. Kristoff St. John and Christel Khalil share a chemistry that lets the viewers feel Neil 's pain when Lily is hurting, and relate to his anger when she has been wronged. '' Di Lauro criticized the writers for placing a young character such as Lily into so many traumatic stories, including the cancer and hysterectomy. Soap Opera Digest made the cancer story its editor 's choice; Di Lauro praised Khalil for her performance during the death of Lily 's best friend Colleen Carlton (Tammin Sursok), calling Lily and Colleen 's final scenes "a bona - fide tearjerker '' and "one of the most touching scenes to air '' during Colleen 's death: "Lily could have easily fallen apart and chastised Colleen for leaving her during her house of need. Instead, she held her head high and gave Colleen a proper sendoff... It was as if Lily was gathering strength from Colleen, even as Colleen let go. ''
Lily 's relationships with Daniel and Cane were listed among Soaps In Depth 's 100 Greatest Soap Opera Couples. The Daniel - and - Lily storyline attracted viewer support for both Khalil and Sherwood, and the magazine called the scene when Daniel and Lily make love after his acquittal for the death of Cassie Newman (Camryn Grimes) one of the top three moments of 2005. Roscoe Born, who played Tom Fisher, praised their storyline: "It really brought the two families into so much conflict, and I thought they were very believable as young lovers. They were very passionate, and at the same time, really evoked that feeling of first love. '' When Lily and Daniel 's marriage ended, fans of the couple were saddened.
Lily 's romance with Cane first received a mixed response; viewers were divided on the couple because of the age difference between the characters. Khalil said that she was sure there were going to be people "who will always feel '' that Cane is too old for Lily, but there are others "who just do n't care about the age difference '': "You ca n't please everyone. You just have to do your best with the storyline and hope that people will like it. '' Soap Opera Digest gave the couple a thumbs - up: "On paper, a Cane - and - Lily pairing should n't work. They 've both just left marriages (to Amber and Daniel, though Cane 's was n't legal), their exes are living together, and Cane is older than Lily. Yet, the adorable Aussie and the cute coed make a charming match. '' The magazine praised the couple because they united the core families, the Winters and the Chancellors. Soap Opera Weekly considered their Valentine 's Day surprise in 2008 "a hit ''.
Michael Fairman of On - Air On - Soaps called Cane and Lily "one of daytime 's most popular couples '', and their story with Billy and Chloe "one of soaps all - time best quadrangle story arcs ''. Mallory Harlen of Soap Opera Digest praised the quadrangle for adding another layer to Lily: "The always prim, always perfect Lily reminded me way too much of Christine Blair... in a bad way. But being a woman scorned really worked for her; her newfound feistiness is completely fitting for Drucilla 's daughter. '' Nelson Branco of TV Guide Canada criticized the couple; he thought they had no chemistry and wanted Cane "in the big leagues and not with little girls '', but conceded that they had "a very vocal, and loyal fanbase ''. Soap Opera Update named Cane and Lily the best couple on The Young and the Restless in 2008, and viewers voted them into top - couple polls in soap - opera magazines.
Khalil received two nominations for Outstanding Younger Actress at the 2004 and 2006 Daytime Emmy Awards, and two Young Artist Award nominations for Leading Young Actress in 2003 and 2004. Khalil and Sherwood received NAACP Award nominations for Lead Actress in a Daytime Drama Series in 2007. The following year, Khalil won the award, receiving another nomination in 2009. She earned a third Daytime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Younger Actress in 2010, for the episode when Lily learns she has cancer. In 2012 Khalil received another NAACP Award nomination, winning her first Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actress in a Drama Series in the role after four nominations.
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ssris (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) such as prozac work by | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor - wikipedia
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), also known as serotonin - specific reuptake inhibitors or serotonergic antidepressants, are a class of drugs that are typically used as antidepressants in the treatment of major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders.
The exact mechanism of action of SSRIs is unknown. SSRIs are believed to increase the extracellular level of the neurotransmitter serotonin by limiting its reabsorption into the presynaptic cell, increasing the level of serotonin in the synaptic cleft available to bind to the postsynaptic receptor. They have varying degrees of selectivity for the other monoamine transporters, with pure SSRIs having only weak affinity for the norepinephrine and dopamine transporters.
SSRIs are the most widely prescribed antidepressants in many countries. The efficacy of SSRIs in mild or moderate cases of depression has been disputed, and may be outweighed by side effects.
The main indication for SSRIs is major depressive disorder (also called "major depression '', "clinical depression '' and often simply "depression ''). SSRIs are frequently prescribed for anxiety disorders, such as social anxiety disorder, panic disorders, obsessive -- compulsive disorder (OCD), eating disorders, chronic pain and occasionally, for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). They are also frequently used to treat depersonalization disorder, although generally with poor results.
Antidepressants are recommended by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) as a first - line treatment of severe depression and for the treatment of mild - to - moderate depression that persists after conservative measures such as cognitive therapy. They recommend against their routine use in those who have chronic health problems and mild depression.
There has been controversy regarding the efficacy of antidepressants in treating depression depending on its severity and duration.
There does not appear to be a big difference in the effectiveness between medications in the second generation antidepressants (SSRIs and SNRIs).
In children there are concerns around the quality of the evidence on the meaningfulness of benefits seen. If a medication is used, fluoxetine appears to be first line.
SSRIs are recommended by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) that has failed to respond to conservative measures such as education and self - help activities. GAD is a common disorder of which the central feature is excessive worry about a number of different events. Key symptoms include excessive anxiety about multiple events and issues, and difficulty controlling worrisome thoughts that persists for at least 6 months.
Antidepressants provide a modest - to - moderate reduction in anxiety in GAD, and are superior to placebo in treating GAD. The efficacy of different antidepressants is similar.
SSRIs are a second line treatment of adult obsessive -- compulsive disorder (OCD) with mild functional impairment and as first line treatment for those with moderate or severe impairment. In children, SSRIs can be considered a second line therapy in those with moderate - to - severe impairment, with close monitoring for psychiatric adverse effects. SSRIs are efficacious in the treatment of OCD; patients treated with SSRIs are about twice as likely to respond to treatment as those treated with placebo. Efficacy has been demonstrated both in short - term treatment trials of 6 to 24 weeks and in discontinuation trials of 28 to 52 weeks duration.
Anti-depressants are recommended as an alternative or additional first step to self - help programs in the treatment of bulimia nervosa. SSRIs (fluoxetine in particular) are preferred over other anti-depressants due to their acceptability, tolerability, and superior reduction of symptoms in short - term trials. Long - term efficacy remains poorly characterized.
Similar recommendations apply to binge eating disorder. SSRIs provide short - term reductions in binge eating behavior, but have not been associated with significant weight loss.
Clinical trials have generated mostly negative results for the use of SSRIs in the treatment of anorexia nervosa. Treatment guidelines from the National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence recommend against the use of SSRIs in this disorder. Those from the American Psychiatric Association note that SSRIs confer no advantage regarding weight gain, but that they may be used for the treatment of co-existing depressive, anxiety, or OCD.
SSRIs have been used in the treatment of stroke patients, including those with and without symptoms of depression. A recent meta - analysis of randomized, controlled clinical trials found a statistically significant effect of SSRIs on dependence, neurological deficit, depression, and anxiety. There was no statistically significant effect on death, motor deficits, or cognition.
SSRIs are effective for the treatment of premature ejaculation. Chronic administration is more efficacious than on demand use.
Side effects vary among the individual drugs of this class. However, certain types of adverse effects are found broadly among most if not all members of this class:
SSRIs can cause various types of sexual dysfunction such as anorgasmia, erectile dysfunction, diminished libido, genital numbness, and sexual anhedonia (pleasureless orgasm). Sexual problems are common with SSRIs. Poor sexual function is also one of the most common reasons people stop the medication.
Occasionally symptoms of sexual dysfunction may persist after discontinuation of SSRIs.
The mechanism by which SSRIs may cause sexual side effects is not well understood as of 2015. The range of possible mechanisms includes (1) nonspecific neurological effects (e.g., sedation) that globally impair behavior including sexual function; (2) specific effects on brain systems mediating sexual function; (3) specific effects on peripheral tissues and organs, such as the penis, that mediate sexual function; and (4) direct or indirect effects on hormones mediating sexual function. Management strategies include: for erectile dysfunction the addition of a PDE5 inhibitor such as sildenafil; for decreased libido, possibly adding or switching to bupropion; and for overall sexual dysfunction, switching to nefazodone.
A number of (non-SSRI) drugs are not associated with sexual side effects (such as bupropion, mirtazapine, tianeptine, agomelatine and moclobemide.)
Several small studies have suggested that SSRIs may adversely affect semen quality.
SSRIs do not appear to affect the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) in those without a previous diagnosis of CHD. A large cohort study suggested no substantial increase in the risk of cardiac malformations attributable to SSRI usage during the first trimester of pregnancy. A number of large studies of people without known pre-existing heart disease have reported no EKG changes related to SSRI use. The recommended maximum daily dose of citalopram and escitalopram was reduced due to concerns with QT interval prolongation. In overdose, fluoxetine has been reported to cause sinus tachycardia, myocardial infarction, junctional rhythms and trigeminy. Some authors have suggested electrocardiographic monitoring in patients with severe pre-existing cardiovascular disease who are taking SSRIs.
SSRIs interact with anticoagulants, like warfarin and aspirin. This includes an increased risk of GI bleeding, and post operative bleeding. The relative risk of intracranial bleeding is increased, but the absolute risk is very low. SSRIs are known to cause platelet dysfunction. This risk is greater in those who are also on anticoagulants, antiplatelet agents and NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), as well as with the co-existence of underlying diseases such as cirrhosis of the liver or liver failure.
Evidence from longitudinal, cross-sectional, and prospective cohort studies suggests an association between SSRI usage at therapeutic doses and a decrease in bone mineral density, as well as increased fracture risk, a relationship that appears to persist even with adjuvant bisphosphonate therapy. However, because the relationship between SSRIs and fractures is based on observational data as opposed to prospective trials, the phenomenon is not definitively causal. There also appears to be an increase in fracture - inducing falls with SSRI use, suggesting the need for increased attention to fall risk in elderly patients using the medication. The loss of bone density does not appear to occur in younger patients taking SSRIs.
Serotonin reuptake inhibitors should not be abruptly discontinued after extended therapy, and whenever possible, should be tapered over several weeks to minimize discontinuation - related symptoms which may include nausea, headache, dizziness, chills, body aches, paresthesias, insomnia, and electric shock - like sensations. Paroxetine may produce discontinuation - related symptoms at a greater rate than other SSRIs, though qualitatively similar effects have been reported for all SSRIs. Discontinuation effects appear to be less for fluoxetine, perhaps owing to its long half - life and the natural tapering effect associated with its slow clearance from the body. One strategy for minimizing SSRI discontinuation symptoms is to switch the patient to fluoxetine and then taper and discontinue the fluoxetine.
Meta analyses of short duration randomized clinical trials have found that SSRI use is related to a higher risk of suicidal behavior in children and adolescents. For instance, a 2004 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) analysis of clinical trials on children with major depressive disorder found statistically significant increases of the risks of "possible suicidal ideation and suicidal behavior '' by about 80 %, and of agitation and hostility by about 130 %. According to the FDA, the heightened risk of suicidality is within the first one to two months of treatment. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) places the excess risk in the "early stages of treatment ''. The European Psychiatric Association places the excess risk in the first two weeks of treatment and, based on a combination of epidemiological, prospective cohort, medical claims, and randomized clinical trial data, concludes that a protective effect dominates after this early period. A 2014 Cochrane review found that at six to nine months, suicidal ideation remained higher in children treated with antidepressants compared to those treated with psychological therapy.
A recent comparison of aggression and hostility occurring during treatment with fluoxetine to placebo in children and adolescents found that no significant difference between the fluoxetine group and a placebo group. There is also evidence that higher rates of SSRI prescriptions are associated with lower rates of suicide in children, though since the evidence is correlational, the true nature of the relationship is unclear.
In 2004, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) in the United Kingdom judged fluoxetine (Prozac) to be the only antidepressant that offered a favorable risk - benefit ratio in children with depression, though it was also associated with a slight increase in the risk of self - harm and suicidal ideation. Only two SSRIs are licensed for use with children in the UK, sertraline (Zoloft) and fluvoxamine (Luvox), and only for the treatment of obsessive -- compulsive disorder. Fluoxetine is not licensed for this use.
It is unclear whether SSRIs affect the risk of suicidal behavior in adults.
SSRI use in pregnancy has been associated with a variety of risks with varying degrees of proof of causation. As depression is independently associated with negative pregnancy outcomes, determining the extent to which observed associations between antidepressant use and specific adverse outcomes reflects a causative relationship has been difficult in some cases. In other cases, the attribution of adverse outcomes to antidepressant exposure seems fairly clear.
SSRI use in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion of about 1.7-fold. Use is also associated preterm birth.
A systematic review of the risk of major birth defects in antidepressant - exposed pregnancies found a small increase (3 % to 24 %) in the risk of major malformations and a risk of cardiovascular birth defects that did not differ from non-exposed pregnancies. A study of fluoxetine - exposed pregnancies found a 12 % increase in the risk of major malformations that just missed statistical significance. Other studies have found an increased risk of cardiovascular birth defects among depressed mothers not undergoing SSRI treatment, suggesting the possibility of ascertainment bias, e.g. that worried mothers may pursue more aggressive testing of their infants. Another study found no increase in cardiovascular birth defects and a 27 % increased risk of major malformations in SSRI exposed pregnancies.
The FDA issued a statement on July 19, 2006 stating nursing mothers on SSRIs must discuss treatment with their physicians. However, the medical literature on the safety of SSRIs has determined that some SSRIs like Sertraline and Paroxetine are considered safe for breastfeeding.
Several studies have documented neonatal abstinence syndrome, a syndrome of neurological, gastrointestinal, autonomic, endocrine and / or respiratory symptoms among a large minority of infants with intrauterine exposure. These syndromes are short - lived, but insufficient long - term data is available to determine whether there are long - term effects.
Persistent pulmonary hypertension (PPHN) is a serious and life - threatening, but very rare, lung condition that occurs soon after birth of the newborn. Newborn babies with PPHN have high pressure in their lung blood vessels and are not able to get enough oxygen into their bloodstream. About 1 to 2 babies per 1000 babies born in the U.S. develop PPHN shortly after birth, and often they need intensive medical care. It is associated with about a 25 % risk of significant long - term neurological deficits. A 2014 meta analysis found no increased risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension associated with exposure to SSRI 's in early pregnancy and a slight increase in risk associates with exposure late in pregnancy; "an estimated 286 to 351 women would need to be treated with an SSRI in late pregnancy to result in an average of one additional case of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. ''. A review published in 2012 reached conclusions very similar to those of the 2014 study.
According to a 2015 review available data found that "some signal exists suggesting that antenatal exposure to SSRIs may increase the risk of ASDs (autism spectrum disorders) '' even though a large cohort study published in 2013 and a cohort study using data from Finland 's national register between the years 1996 and 2010 and published in 2016 found no significant association between SSRI use and autism in offspring. The 2016 Finland study also found no association with ADHD, but did find an association with increased rates of depression diagnoses in early adolescence.
SSRIs appear safer in overdose when compared with traditional antidepressants, such as the tricyclic antidepressants. This relative safety is supported both by case series and studies of deaths per numbers of prescriptions. However, case reports of SSRI poisoning have indicated that severe toxicity can occur and deaths have been reported following massive single ingestions, although this is exceedingly uncommon when compared to the tricyclic antidepressants.
Because of the wide therapeutic index of the SSRIs, most patients will have mild or no symptoms following moderate overdoses. The most commonly reported severe effect following SSRI overdose is serotonin syndrome; serotonin toxicity is usually associated with very high overdoses or multiple drug ingestion. Other reported significant effects include coma, seizures, and cardiac toxicity.
The SSRIs, in decreasing toxicity in overdose, can be listed as follows: > citalopram (due to the potential for QT interval prolongation) > fluvoxamine > escitalopram > paroxetine > sertraline > fluoxetine.
The following drugs may precipitate serotonin syndrome in people on SSRIs:
Painkillers of the NSAIDs drug family may interfere and reduce efficiency of SSRIs and may compound the increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeds caused by SSRI use. NSAIDs include:
There are a number of potential pharmacokinetic interactions between the various individual SSRIs and other medications. Most of these arise from the fact that every SSRI has the ability to inhibit certain P450 cytochromes.
Legend: 0 -- no inhibition. + -- mild inhibition. + + -- moderate inhibition. + + + -- strong inhibition.
Although described as SNRIs, duloxetine (Cymbalta), venlafaxine (Effexor), and desvenlafaxine (Pristiq) are in fact relatively selective as serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRIs). They are about at least 10-fold selective for inhibition of serotonin reuptake over norepinephrine reuptake. The selectivity ratios are approximately 1: 30 for venlafaxine, 1: 9 for duloxetine, and 1: 14 for desvenlafaxine. At low doses, these SNRIs act mostly as SSRIs; only at higher doses do they also prominently inhibit norepinephrine reuptake. Milnacipran (Ixel, Savella) and its stereoisomer levomilnacipran (Fetzima) are the only widely marketed SNRIs that inhibit serotonin and norepinephrine to similar degrees, both with ratios close to 1: 1.
Vilazodone (Viibryd) and vortioxetine (Trintellix) are SRIs that also act as modulators of serotonin receptors and are described as serotonin modulators and stimulators (SMS). Vilazodone is a 5 - HT receptor partial agonist while vortioxetine is a 5 - HT receptor agonist and 5 - HT and 5 - HT receptor antagonist. Litoxetine (SL 81 - 0385) and lubazodone (YM - 992, YM - 35995) are similar drugs that were never marketed. They are SRIs and litoxetine is also a 5 - HT receptor antagonist while lubazodone is also a 5 - HT receptor antagonist.
Chlorphenamine (Chlor - Trimeton) is an over-the - counter antihistamine that also acts as a potent and selective SRI (K = 15.2 nM). It has been suggested for potential use as an over-the - counter antidepressant. The now - withdrawn SSRI zimelidine was derived from chlorphenamine.
In the brain, messages are passed from a nerve cell to another via a chemical synapse, a small gap between the cells. The presynaptic cell that sends the information releases neurotransmitters including serotonin into that gap. The neurotransmitters are then recognized by receptors on the surface of the recipient postsynaptic cell, which upon this stimulation, in turn, relays the signal. About 10 % of the neurotransmitters are lost in this process; the other 90 % are released from the receptors and taken up again by monoamine transporters into the sending presynaptic cell, a process called reuptake.
SSRIs inhibit the reuptake of serotonin. As a result, the serotonin stays in the synaptic gap longer than it normally would, and may repeatedly stimulate the receptors of the recipient cell. In the short run, this leads to an increase in signaling across synapses in which serotonin serves as the primary neurotransmitter. On chronic dosing, the increased occupancy of post-synaptic serotonin receptors signals the pre-synaptic neuron to synthesize and release less serotonin. Serotonin levels within the synapse drop, then rise again, ultimately leading to downregulation of post-synaptic serotonin receptors. Other, indirect effects may include increased norepinephrine output, increased neuronal cyclic AMP levels, and increased levels of regulatory factors such as BDNF and CREB. Owing to the lack of a widely accepted comprehensive theory of the biology of mood disorders, there is no widely accepted theory of how these changes lead to the mood - elevating and anti-anxiety effects of SSRIs.
In addition to their actions as reuptake inhibitors of serotonin, some SSRIs are also, coincidentally, ligands of the sigma receptors. Fluvoxamine is an agonist of the σ receptor, while sertraline is an antagonist of the σ receptor, and paroxetine does not significantly interact with the σ receptor. None of the SSRIs have significant affinity for the σ receptor, and the SNRIs, unlike the SSRIs, do not interact with either of the sigma receptors. Fluvoxamine has by far the strongest activity of the SSRIs at the σ receptor. High occupancy of the σ receptor by clinical dosages of fluvoxamine has been observed in the human brain in positron emission tomography (PET) research. It is thought that agonism of the σ receptor by fluvoxamine may have beneficial effects on cognition. In contrast to fluvoxamine, the relevance of the σ receptor in the actions of the other SSRIs is uncertain and questionable due to their very low affinity for the receptor relative to the SERT.
The role of inflammation and the immune system in depression has been extensively studied. The evidence supporting this link has been showed in numerous studies over the past ten years. Nationwide studies and meta - analyses of smaller cohort studies have uncovered a correlation between pre-existing inflammatory conditions such as type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), or hepatitis, and an increased risk of depression. Data also shows that using pro-inflammatory agents in the treatment of diseases like melanoma can lead to depression. Several meta - analytical studies have found increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in depressed patients. This link has led scientists to investigate the effects of antidepressants on the immune system.
SSRIs were originally invented with the goal of increasing levels of available serotonin in the extracellular spaces. However, the delayed response between when patients first begin SSRI treatment to when they see effects has led scientists to believe that other molecules are involved in the efficacy of these drugs. To investigate the apparent anti-inflammatory effects of SSRIs, both Kohler et al. and Więdłocha et al. conducted meta - analyses which have shown that after antidepressant treatment the levels of cytokines associated with inflammation are decreased. A large cohort study conducted by researchers in the Netherlands investigated the association between depressive disorders, symptoms, and antidepressants with inflammation. The study showed decreased levels of interleukin (IL) - 6, a cytokine that has proinflammatory effects, in patients taking SSRIs compared to non-medicated patients.
Treatment with SSRIs has shown reduced production of inflammatory cytokines such as IL - 1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) - α, IL - 6, and interferon (IFN) - γ, which leads to a decrease in inflammation levels and subsequently a decrease in the activation level of the immune response. These inflammatory cytokines have been shown to activate microglia which are specialized macrophages that reside in the brain. Macrophages are a subset of immune cells responsible for host defense in the innate immune system. Macrophages can release cytokines and other chemicals to cause an inflammatory response. Peripheral inflammation can induce an inflammatory response in microglia and can cause neuroinflammation. SSRIs inhibit proinflammatory cytokine production which leads to less activation of microglia and peripheral macrophages. SSRIs not only inhibit the production of these proinflammatory cytokines, they also have been shown to upregulate anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL - 10. Taken together, this reduces the overall inflammatory immune response.
In addition to affecting cytokine production, there is evidence that treatment with SSRIs has effects on the proliferation and viability of immune system cells involved in both innate and adaptive immunity. Evidence shows that SSRIs can inhibit proliferation in T - cells, which are important cells for adaptive immunity and can induce inflammation. SSRIs can also induce apoptosis, programmed cell death, in T - cells. The full mechanism of action for the anti-inflammatory effects of SSRIs is not fully known. However, there is evidence for various pathways to have a hand in the mechanism. One such possible mechanism is the increased levels of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) as a result of interference with activation of protein kinase A (PKA), a cAMP dependent protein. Other possible pathways include interference with calcium ion channels, or inducing cell death pathways like MAPK.
The anti-inflammatory effects of SSRIs have prompted studies of the efficacy of SSRIs in the treatment of autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis, RA, inflammatory bowel diseases, and septic shock. These studies have been performed in animal models but have shown consistent immune regulatory effects. Fluoxetine, an SSRI, has also shown efficacy in animal models of graft vs. host disease. SSRIs have also been used successfully as pain relievers in patients undergoing oncology treatment. The effectiveness of this has been hypothesized to be at least in part due to the anti-inflammatory effects of SSRIs.
Large bodies of research are devoted to using genetic markers to predict whether patients will respond to SSRIs or have side effects that will cause their discontinuation, although these tests are not yet ready for widespread clinical use.
SSRIs are described as ' selective ' because they affect only the reuptake pumps responsible for serotonin, as opposed to earlier antidepressants, which affect other monoamine neurotransmitters as well, and as a result, SSRIs have fewer side effects.
There appears to be no significant difference in effectiveness between SSRIs and tricyclic antidepressants, which were the most commonly used class of antidepressants before the development of SSRIs. However, SSRIs have the important advantage that their toxic dose is high, and, therefore, they are much more difficult to use as a means to commit suicide. Further, they have fewer and milder side effects. Tricyclic antidepressants also have a higher risk of serious cardiovascular side effects, which SSRIs lack.
SSRIs act on signal pathways such as cAMP (Cyclic AMP) on the postsynaptic neuronal cell, which leads to the release of Brain - Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF). BDNF enhances the growth and survival of cortical neurons and synapses.
A study examining publication of results from FDA - evaluated antidepressants concluded that those with favorable results were much more likely to be published than those with negative results.
David Healy has argued that warning signs were available for many years prior to regulatory authorities moving to put warnings on antidepressant labels that they might cause suicidal thoughts. At the time these warnings were added, others argued that the evidence for harm remained unpersuasive and others continued to do so after the warnings were added.
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when did the american revolution start and end | American Revolutionary war - Wikipedia
American - Allied victory:
Thirteen Colonies (before 1776) United States (after 1776) Vermont Republic French Empire Spanish Empire
Co-belligerents:
Dutch Republic Mysore
British Empire Hanover
German mercenaries: Hesse - Kassel Hesse - Hanau Waldeck Brunswick Ansbach Anhalt - Zerbst
George Washington Thomas Chittenden Louis XVI Charles III
William V Hyder Ali † Tipu Sultan
George III Lord North Lord George Germain
United States: Army & Militia: 40,000 (average) 200,000 (total served) Navy: 5,000 sailors (peak 1779) 53 frigates and sloops (total served) State Navies: 106 ships (total served) Privateers: 55,000 sailors (total served) 1,697 ships
Allies: Army: 63,000 French and Spanish (Gibraltar) Navy: 146 ships - of - the - line (1782)
Native American Allies:
Great Britain: Army: 48,000 (America peak) 121,000 (global 1781) 7,500 (Gibraltar) Navy: 94 ships - of - the - line (1782) 104 frigates (1781) 37 sloops (1781) 171,000 sailors
Loyalists: 25,000 (total served)
Hanoverians: 2,365 (total served)
German mercenaries: 29,875 (total served)
Native American Allies:
United States: 25,000 -- 70,000 total dead 6,800 killed in battle 17,000 died of disease
France: at least 7,000 dead (2,112 in the United States)
Spain: 5,000 killed
Netherlands: 500 killed
Great Britain: Army: 43,633 total dead ~ 9,372 killed in battle 27,000 died of disease Navy: 1,243 killed in battle 18,500 died of disease (1776 -- 1780) 42,000 deserted
Germans: 7,774 total dead 1,800 killed in battle 4,888 deserted
Loyalists: 5,300 total dead 1,700 killed in battle 3,600 died of disease (estimated)
The American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 1783), also known as the American War of Independence, was a global war that began as a conflict between Great Britain and her Thirteen Colonies which declared independence as the United States of America.
After 1765, growing philosophical and political differences strained the relationship between Britain and its colonies. Following the Stamp Act, Patriot protests against taxation without representation escalated into boycotts, which culminated in the Sons of Liberty destroying a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor. Britain responded by closing Boston Harbor and passing a series of punitive measures against Massachusetts colony. Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, and they established a shadow government which wrested control of the countryside from the Crown. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, establishing committees and conventions that effectively seized power.
British attempts to disarm the Massachusetts militia at Concord in April 1775 led to open combat. Militia forces then besieged Boston, forcing a British evacuation in March 1776, and Congress appointed George Washington to command the Continental Army. Concurrently, an American attempt to invade Quebec and raise rebellion against the British decisively failed. On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress voted for independence, issuing its declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe launched a British counter-offensive, capturing New York City and leaving American morale at a low ebb. However, victories at Trenton and Princeton restored American confidence. In 1777, the British launched an invasion from Quebec under John Burgoyne, intending to isolate New England. Instead of assisting this effort, Howe took his army on a separate campaign against Philadelphia, and Burgoyne was decisively defeated at Saratoga in October 1777.
Burgoyne 's defeat had drastic consequences; France formally allied with the Americans and entered the war in 1778, and Spain joined the war the following year as an ally of France but not as an ally of the United States. In 1780, the Kingdom of Mysore attacked the British in India, and tensions between Britain and the Netherlands erupted into open war. In North America, the British mounted a "Southern strategy '' led by Charles Cornwallis which hinged upon a Loyalist uprising, but too few came forward. Cornwallis suffered reversals at King 's Mountain and Cowpens. He retreated to Yorktown, Virginia, intending an evacuation, but a decisive French naval victory deprived him of an escape. A Franco - American army led by the Comte de Rochambeau and Washington then besieged Cornwallis ' army and, with no sign of relief, he surrendered.
Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tories in Parliament, and the surrender gave them the upper hand. In early 1782, Parliament voted to end all offensive operations in North America, but the war continued in Europe and India. Britain remained under siege in Gibraltar but scored a major victory over the French navy. On September 3, 1783, the belligerent parties signed the Treaty of Paris in which Britain agreed to recognize the sovereignty of the United States and formally end the war. French involvement had proven decisive, but France made few gains and incurred crippling debts. Spain made some minor territorial gains but failed in its primary aim of recovering Gibraltar. The Dutch were defeated on all counts and were compelled to cede territory to Great Britain. In India, the war against Mysore and its allies concluded in 1784 without any territorial changes.
In 1651, the Parliament of England sought to regulate trade in America by passing the Navigation Acts, ensuring that trade only enriched Britain. The economic effects were minimal, but they triggered serious political friction. The American colonists had fought King Philip 's War without significant assistance from the Crown, and this contributed to a growing sense of American identity separate from that of Britain. Britain continued to assert control into the 1680s, culminating in the abrogation of colonial charters and the establishment of the Dominion of New England in 1686. Colonists, however, felt that the Dominion was undermining their democratic liberty and they overthrew it in 1689; the Crown made no attempt to restore it.
The British government continued to pursue trade control, however, passing acts that taxed wool, hats, and molasses. The Molasses Act of 1733 was especially egregious to the colonists, as a significant part of colonial trade relied on the product. The taxes severely damaged the local economy, and consequently they were rarely paid. Smuggling, bribery, piracy, and intimidation of customs officials became commonplace. Colonial wars were also a contributing factor. The return of Louisbourg to France in 1748 following the War of the Austrian Succession caused considerable resentment in New England, the colonists having expended great effort in subduing the fortress only to have it returned to their erstwhile enemy.
Britain triumphed over France and Spain in the Seven Years ' War, but this led to a financial crisis, as the national debt had doubled to £ 130 million, and the annual cost of the British civil and military establishment in America had quintupled when compared to 1749. Smuggling had been tacitly accepted, but now the British began to consider that it blunted their revenue, so Whitehall decided to ensure that customs duties were unavoidable by passing the Stamp Act in 1765. Colonists condemned the tax because their rights as Englishmen protected them from being taxed by a Parliament in which they had no elected representatives. Parliament argued that the colonies were "represented virtually '', an idea that was criticized throughout the Empire. Parliament did repeal the act in 1766; however, it also affirmed its right to pass laws that were binding on the colonies. From 1767, Parliament began passing legislation to raise revenue for the salaries of civil officials, ensuring their loyalty while inadvertently increasing resentment among the colonists, and opposition soon became widespread.
Enforcing the acts proved difficult; the seizure of the sloop Liberty on suspicions of smuggling triggered a riot. In response, British troops occupied Boston, and Parliament threatened to extradite colonists to face trial in England. Tensions rose after the murder of a teen by a customs official in 1770 and escalated into outrage after British troops fired on civilians in the Boston Massacre. In 1772, colonists in Rhode Island boarded and burned a customs schooner. Parliament then repealed all taxes except the one on tea, passing the Tea Act in 1773, attempting to force colonists to buy East India Company tea on which the Townshend duties were paid, thus implicitly agreeing to Parliamentary supremacy. The landing of the tea was resisted in all colonies, but the governor of Massachusetts permitted British tea ships to remain in Boston Harbor -- so the Sons of Liberty destroyed the tea chests.
Parliament then passed punitive legislation. It closed Boston Harbor until the tea was paid for and revoked the Massachusetts Charter, taking upon themselves the right to directly appoint the Massachusetts Governor 's Council. Additionally, the royal governor was granted powers to undermine local democracy. Further measures allowed the extradition of officials for trial elsewhere in the Empire, if the governor felt that a fair trial could not be secured locally. The act 's vague reimbursement policy for travel expenses left few with the ability to testify, and colonists argued that it would allow officials to harass them with impunity. Further laws allowed the governor to billet troops in private property without permission. The colonists referred to the measures as the "Intolerable Acts '', and they argued that both their constitutional rights and their natural rights were being violated, viewing the acts as a threat to all of America. The acts were widely opposed, driving neutral parties into support of the Patriots and curtailing Loyalist sentiment.
The colonists responded by establishing the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, effectively removing Crown control of the colony outside Boston. Meanwhile, representatives from twelve colonies convened the First Continental Congress to respond to the crisis. The Congress narrowly rejected a proposal which would have created an American parliament to act in concert with the British Parliament; instead, they passed a compact declaring a trade boycott against Britain. Congress also affirmed that Parliament had no authority over internal American matters, but they were willing to consent to trade regulations for the benefit of the empire, and they authorized committees and conventions to enforce the boycott. The boycott was effective, as imports from Britain dropped by 97 % in 1775 compared to 1774.
Parliament refused to yield. In 1775, it declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and enforced a blockade of the colony. It then passed legislation to limit colonial trade to the British West Indies and the British Isles. Colonial ships were barred from the Newfoundland cod fisheries, a measure which pleased Canadiens but damaged New England 's economy. These increasing tensions led to a mutual scramble for ordnance and pushed the colonies toward open war. Thomas Gage was the British Commander - in - Chief and military governor of Massachusetts, and he received orders on April 14, 1775 to disarm the local militias.
On April 18, 1775, 700 troops were sent to confiscate militia ordnance stored at Concord. Fighting broke out, forcing the regulars to conduct a fighting withdrawal to Boston. Overnight, the local militia converged on and laid siege to Boston. On March 25, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with three senior generals; William Howe, John Burgoyne and Henry Clinton. On June 17, the British seized the Charlestown peninsular after a costly frontal assault, leading Howe to replace Gage. Many senior officers were dismayed at the attack which had gained them little, while Gage wrote to London stressing the need for a large army to suppress the revolt. On July 3, George Washington took command of the Continental Army besieging Boston. Howe made no effort to attack, much to Washington 's surprise. After a plan to assault the city was rejected, in early March 1776, the Americans fortified Dorchester Heights with heavy artillery captured from a raid on Fort Ticonderoga. On March 17, the British were permitted to withdraw unmolested, sailing to Halifax, Nova Scotia. Washington then moved his army to New York.
Meanwhile, British officials in Quebec began lobbying Native American tribes to support them, while the Americans attempted to maintain their neutrality. Fearing an Anglo - Indian attack from Canada, Congress authorized an invasion of Quebec. Quebec, with a largely Francophone population, had only been under British rule for twelve years, and the Americans expected that liberating them from the British would be welcomed. After an arduous march, the Americans attacked Quebec City on December 31, which was decisively defeated. After a loose siege, the Americans withdrew on May 6. 1776. A failed counter-attack on June 8 ended American operations in Quebec. However, the British could not conduct an aggressive pursuit, due to the presence of American ships on Lake Champlain. On October 11, the British defeated the American squadron, forcing the Americans to withdraw to Ticonderoga, ending the campaign. The invasion cost the Patriots their support in British public opinion, while aggressive anti-Loyalist policies diluted Canadien support. The Patriots continued to view Quebec as a strategic aim, though no further attempts to invade were ever realized.
In Virginia, the Royal governor, Lord Dunmore, had attempted to disarm the militia as tensions increased, although no fighting broke out. After war broke out, Dunmore issued a proclamation on November 7, 1775, promising freedom for slaves who fled their Patriot masters to fight for the Crown. After Dunmore 's troops were overwhelmed by Patriots at Great Bridge, Dunmore fled to naval ships anchored off Norfolk. After negotiations broke down, Dunmore ordered the ships to destroy the town. In South Carolina, fighting broke out on November 19 between Loyalist and Patriot militias, and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony. Loyalists recruited in North Carolina to reassert colonial rule in the South were decisively defeated, subduing Loyalist sentiment. An expedition of British regulars to reconquer South Carolina launched a failed attack on Charleston on June 28, 1776, effectively leaving the South in Patriot control until 1780.
The shortage of gunpowder had led Congress to authorize an expedition against the Bahamas Colony in the West Indies, in order to secure ordnance there. On March 3, 1776, the Americans landed after a bloodless exchange of fire, and the local militia offered no resistance. For two weeks, the Americans confiscated all the supplies they could load, and sailed away on March 17. After a brief skirmish with the Royal Navy frigate HMS Glasgow on April 6, the squadron reached New London on April 8.
After fighting began, Congress launched a final attempt to avert war, which Parliament rejected as insincere. King George III then issued a Proclamation of Rebellion on August 23, 1775, leading to an emboldening of hitherto weak support for independence in the colonies. After a speech by the King, Parliament rejected to oppose coercive measures on the colonies by 170 votes. British Tories refused to compromise, while Whigs argued current policy would drive the colonists towards secession. Despite opposition, the King himself began micromanaging the war effort. The Irish Parliament pledged to send troops to America, and Irish Catholics were allowed to enlist in the army for the first time. Irish Protestants favored the Americans, while Catholics favored the King.
Militarily, the initial hostilities was a sobering lesson for the British, causing them to rethink their views on colonial military capability. The weak British response gave the Patriots the advantage; the British lost control over every colony. The army had been kept deliberately small since 1688 to prevent abuses of power by the King. Parliament secured treaties with small German states for additional troops, and, after a year, were able to send an army of 32,000 men to America, the largest it had ever sent outside Europe at the time.
In the colonies, the success of Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense had boosted public support for independence. On July 2, Congress voted in favor of independence with twelve affirmatives and one abstention, issuing its declaration on July 4. Washington read the declaration to his men and the citizens of New York on July 9, invigorating the crowd to tear down a lead statue of the King, melting it to make bullets. British Tories criticized the signatories for not extending the same standards of equality to slaves. Patriots followed independence with the Test Laws, requiring residents to swear allegiance to the state in which they lived, intending to root out neutrals or opponents to independence. Failure to do so meant possible imprisonment, exile, and, in some cases, death. American Tories were barred from public office, forbidden from practising medicine and law, forced to pay increased taxes, barred from executing wills or becoming guardians to orphans. Congress enabled states to confiscate Loyalist property to fund the war, and offered them a choice between swearing loyalty to the republic, or either face exile, or forfeit the right to protection. Quakers, who remained neutral, had their property confiscated. States later prevented Loyalists from collecting any debts they were owed.
After regrouping at Halifax, William Howe determined to take the fight to the Americans. Howe set sail in June 1776, and began landing troops on Staten Island on July 2. Due to poor intelligence, Washington split his army to positions across the city. An informal attempt to negotiate peace was rejected by the Americans. On August 27, Howe defeated Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights. Had Howe chose to land on Manhattan, Washington could have been encircled and his army destroyed. Howe restrained his subordinates from pursuit, opting to besiege Washington instead. Washington managed to withdraw to Manhattan without any losses in men or ordnance. Following the withdrawal, a second attempt to negotiate peace failed, as the British delegates did not possess authorization to grant independence. Howe then seized control of New York on September 15, and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans the following day. Howe attempted encirclement of Washington again, but the Americans successfully withdrew. On October 28, the British fought an indecisive action against Washington, in which Howe declined to attack Washington 's army, instead concentrating his efforts upon a hill that was of no strategic value.
Washington 's retreat left the remnants of his forces isolated, and, on November 16, the British captured an American army, taking 3,000 prisoners, amounting to the worst American defeat to date. Washington fell back four days later. Henry Clinton then captured Newport, an operation which he opposed, feeling the 6,000 troops assigned to him could have been better employed in the pursuit of Washington. The American prisoners were then sent to the infamous "prison ships '', in which more American soldiers and sailors died of disease and neglect than died in every battle of the war combined. Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt, and Washington escaped unmolested. The outlook of the American cause was bleak; the army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men, and would be reduced further when the enlistments expired at the end of the year. Popular support wavered, morale ebbed away, and Congress abandoned Philadelphia. Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat, especially in New York.
News of the campaign was well received in Britain; festivities took place in London, and public support reached a peak. William Howe was awarded the Order of the Bath by the King. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year. The American defeat revealed Washington 's strategic deficiencies, such as dividing a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misreading the situation, and his poorly - trained troops, who fled in disorder when fighting began. In the meantime, the British entered winter quarters, and were in a good place to resume campaigning.
On December 25, 1776, Washington stealthily crossed the Delaware, and overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at Trenton the following morning, taking 900 prisoners. The decisive victory rescued the army 's flagging morale, and gave a new hope to the cause for independence. Cornwallis marched to re-take Trenton, though his efforts to this end were repulsed on January 2. Washington outmanoeuvred Cornwallis that night, and defeated his rearguard the following day. The victories proved instrumental in convincing the French and Spanish that the Americans were worthwhile allies, as well as recovering morale in the army. Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown on January 6, though a protracted guerrilla conflict continued. While encamped, Howe made no attempt to attack, much to Washington 's amazement.
In December 1776, John Burgoyne returned to London to set strategy with Lord George Germain. Burgoyne 's plan was to establish control of the Champlain - George - Hudson route from New York to Quebec, isolating New England. Efforts could then be concentrated on the southern colonies, where it was believed Loyalist support was in abundance. Howe instead argued capturing Philadelphia and defeating Washington was a priority. Germain approved this plan, leaving Howe unable to assist Burgoyne. Washington himself was baffled by Howe 's choices. Alden argues Howe was influenced by the idea that, upon success, he would not receive credit, but Burgoyne. Controversy persists over whether Germain approved Burgoyne 's plan after reading Howe 's, and whether he shared this information with his subordinates. Howe was not given any explicit orders to assist Burgoyne, however, a copy Germain sent to Quebec explicitly stated Howe was to assist Burgoyne 's efforts. Another letter stated Howe should launch his campaign against Philadelphia as intended, while allowing enough time to assist Burgoyne. Black argues Germain either left his generals too much latitude, or without a clear direction.
Burgoyne 's plan was to lead an army along Lake Champlain, while a strategic diversion advanced along the Mohawk River, and both would rendezvous at Albany. Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, quickly capturing Ticonderoga on July 5. The hasty withdrawal of the Continental Army after little resistance outraged the American public. Burgoyne 's pursuit ran into stiff resistance at Hubbardton and Fort Anne. Leaving 1,300 men behind as a garrison, Burgoyne continued the advance. Progress was slow; the Americans blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams and denuded the area of food. Meanwhile, Barry St. Ledger 's diversionary column laid siege to Fort Stanwix. St. Ledger withdrew to Quebec on August 22 after his Indian support abandoned him. On August 16, a British foraging expedition was soundly defeated at Bennington, and more than 700 troops were captured. As a result of the defeat, the vast majority of Burgoyne 's Indian support abandoned him. Meanwhile, Howe informed Burgoyne he would launch his campaign on Philadelphia as planned, and would be unable to render aid.
Having considered his options, Burgoyne decided to continue the advance. On September 19, he attempted to flank the American position, and clashed at Freeman 's Farm. The British won, but at the cost of 600 casualties. Burgoyne then dug in, but suffered a constant haemorrhage of deserters, and critical supplies were running low. Henry Clinton did capture two key forts on October 6 to divert American resources, though he turned back ten days later. Meanwhile, the American army was growing in size daily, swelling to some 15,000 men. On October 7, a British reconnaissance in force against the American lines was repulsed with heavy losses. Burgoyne then withdrew with the Americans in pursuit, and by October 13, he was surrounded. With no hope of relief and supplies exhausted, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17. 6,222 soldiers became prisoners of the Americans. The decisive success spurred France to enter the war as an ally of the United States, securing the final elements needed for victory over Britain, that of foreign assistance.
Meanwhile, Howe launched his campaign against Washington, though his initial efforts to bring him to battle in June 1777 failed. Howe declined to attack Philadelphia overland via New Jersey, or by sea via the Delaware Bay, even though both options would have enabled him to assist Burgoyne if necessary. Instead, he took his army on a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, leaving him completely unable to assist Burgoyne. This decision was so difficult to understand, Howe 's critics accused him of treason.
Howe outflanked and defeated Washington on September 11, though he failed to follow - up on the victory and destroy his army. A British victory at Willistown left Philadelphia defenceless, and Howe captured the city unopposed on September 26. Howe then moved 9,000 men to Germantown, north of Philadelphia. Washington launched a surprise attack on Howe 's garrison on October 4, which was eventually repulsed. Again, Howe did not follow - up on his victory, leaving the American army intact and able to fight. Later, after several days of probing American defences at White Marsh, Howe inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia, astonishing both sides. Howe ignored the vulnerable American rear, where an attack could have deprived Washington of his baggage and supplies. On December 19, Washington 's army entered winter quarters at Valley Forge. Poor conditions and supply problems resulted in the deaths of some 2,500 troops. Howe, only 20 miles (32 km) away, made no effort to attack, which critics observed could have ended the war.
The Continental Army was put through a new training program, supervised by Baron von Steuben, introducing the most modern Prussian methods of drilling. Meanwhile, Howe resigned, and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778. Clinton received orders to abandon Philadelphia and fortify New York following France 's entry into the war. On June 18, the British departed Philadelphia, with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit. The two armies fought at Monmouth Court House on June 28, with the Americans holding the field, greatly boosting morale and confidence. By July, both armies were back in the same positions they had been two years prior.
The defeat at Saratoga caused considerable anxiety in Britain over foreign intervention. The North ministry sought reconciliation with the colonies by consenting to their original demands, although Lord North refused to grant independence. No positive reply was received from the Americans.
French foreign minister the Comte de Vergennes was strongly anti-British, and he sought a casus belli to go to war with and weaken their perennial foe following the conquest of Canada in 1763. The French had covertly supplied the Americans through neutral Dutch ports since the onset of the war, proving invaluable throughout the Saratoga campaign. The French public favored war, though Vergennes and King Louis XVI were hesitant, owing to the military and financial risk. The American victory at Saratoga convinced the French that supporting the Patriots was worthwhile, but doing so also brought major concerns. The King was concerned that Britain 's concessions would be accepted, and that she would then reconcile with the Colonies to strike at French and Spanish possessions in the Caribbean. To prevent this, France formally recognized the United States on February 6, 1778 and followed with a military alliance. France aimed to expel Britain from the Newfoundland fishery, end restrictions on Dunkirk sovereignty, regain free trade in India, recover Senegal and Dominica, and restore the Treaty of Utrecht provisions pertaining to Anglo - French trade.
Spain was wary of provoking war with Britain before she was ready, so she covertly supplied the Patriots via her colonies in New Spain. Congress hoped to persuade Spain into an open alliance, so the first American Commission met with the Count of Aranda in 1776. Spain was still reluctant to make an early commitment, owing to a lack of direct French involvement, the threat against their treasure fleets, and the possibility of war with Portugal, Spain 's neighbor and a close ally of Britain. However, Spain affirmed its desire to support the Americans the following year, hoping to weaken Britain 's empire. In the Spanish - Portuguese War (1776 - 77), the Portuguese threat was neutralized. On 12 April 1779, Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez with France and went to war against Britain. Spain sought to recover Gibraltar and Menorca in Europe, as well as Mobile and Pensacola in Florida, and also to expel the British from Central America.
Meanwhile, George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight. He did not welcome war with France, but he believed that Britain had made all necessary steps to avoid it and cited the British victories over France in the Seven Years ' War as a reason to remain optimistic. Britain tried in vain to find a powerful ally to engage France, leaving it isolated, preventing Britain from focusing the majority of her efforts in one theater, and forcing a major diversion of military resources from America. Despite this, the King determined never to recognize American independence and to ravage the colonies indefinitely, or until they pleaded to return to the yoke of the Crown. Mahan argues that Britain 's attempt to fight in multiple theaters simultaneously without major allies was fundamentally flawed, citing impossible mutual support, exposing the forces to defeat in detail.
Since the outbreak of the conflict, Britain had appealed to her ally, the neutral Dutch Republic, to loan her the use of the Scots Brigade for service in America, but pro-American sentiment among the Dutch public forced them to deny the request. Consequently, the British attempted to invoke several treaties for outright Dutch military support, but the Republic still refused. Moreover, American troops were being supplied with ordnance by Dutch merchants via their West Indies colonies. French supplies bound for America had also passed through Dutch ports. The Republic maintained free trade with France following France 's declaration of war on Britain, citing a prior concession by Britain on this issue. Britain responded by confiscating Dutch shipping, and even firing upon it. Consequently, the Republic joined the First League of Armed Neutrality to enforce their neutral status. The Republic had also given sanctuary to American privateers and had drafted a treaty of commerce with the Americans. Britain argued that these actions contravened the Republic 's neutral stance and declared war in December 1780.
Soon after France declared war, French and British fleets fought an indecisive action off Ushant on 27 July 1778. On 12 April 1779, Spain entered the war, with a primary goal of capturing Gibraltar. On June 24, Spanish troops under the Duc de Crillon laid siege to the Rock. The naval blockade, however, was relatively weak, and the British were able to resupply the garrison. Meanwhile, a plan was formulated for a combined Franco - Spanish invasion of the British mainland. A combination of poor planning, disease, logistical issues and high financial expenditures resulted in the expedition 's failure. However, a diversionary Franco - American squadron under John Paul Jones did meet with some success on 23 September. On 16 January 1780, the Royal Navy under George Rodney scored a major victory over the Spanish, weakening the naval blockade of Gibraltar.
On 9 August, a Franco - Spanish fleet commanded by Luis de Córdova intercepted and decisively defeated a large British convoy off The Azores, led by John Moutray, bound for the West Indies. The defeat was catastrophic for Britain; losing 52 merchant ships, 5 East Indiamen, 80,000 muskets, equipment for 40,000 troops, 294 guns and 3,144 men, making it one of the most complete naval captures ever made. The loss was valued at some £ 1.5 million, or £ 180 million in today 's money, dealing a severe blow to British commerce.
In the Caribbean, intending to damage British trade, the French blockaded the lucrative sugar islands of Barbados and Jamaica. In order to improve communication among French Caribbean islands, and to strike a blow to privateering, French troops led by the Marquis de Bouillé captured Dominica on 7 September 1778. To monitor the French naval base on Martinique, the British defeated a French naval force on 15 December, and captured St. Lucia on 28 December. Though both fleets received reinforcements through the first half of 1779, the French under the Comte d'Estaing soon enjoyed superiority in the Caribbean, and began capturing British territories; seizing St. Vincent on 18 June, and Grenada on 4 July. On July 6, having pursued d'Estaing from Grenada, the British fleet under John Byron was tactically defeated, the worst loss the Royal Navy had suffered since 1690. Naval skirmishes continued until 17 April 1780, when British and French fleets clashed indecisively off Martinique.
On the mainland, Bernardo de Gálvez, governor of Louisiana, had intercepted intelligence the British were planning to invade New Orleans, and decided to strike first. Gálvez intended to conquer West Florida, and set out with 670 men on August 27, 1779, though his force was soon swollen to 1,400 by local Native Americans. On 7 September, Fort Bute fell to the Spanish, who then marched on to Baton Rouge, arriving on September 12. After a nine - day siege, the town fell. Leaving a garrison behind, Gálvez returned to New Orleans to recruit additional troops. In early 1780, Gálvez mounted an expedition to take Mobile, setting off with 750 troops on 11 January. Joined by reinforcements from Havana, siege operations commenced on March 1, and the town fell after a 14 - day siege. Gálvez had hoped to push on to Pensacola, the British capital of West Florida, however, a hurricane devastated his expedition, stalling it till 1781.
In Central America, the defence of Guatemala was a priority for Spain. The British intended to capture the key fortress of San Fernando de Omoa and drive the Spanish from the region. After inadequate first attempts, 1,200 British troops led by William Dalrymple arrived on 16 October, and captured the fort on 20 October. However, the British suffered terribly due to disease, and were forced to abandon the fort on 29 November, and Spanish troops subsequently reoccupied the fort. In 1780, John Dalling, governor of Jamaica, planned an expedition to cut New Spain in two, by capturing Granada, which would subsequently allow them full control of the San Juan River. The British expedition, led by John Polson and Horatio Nelson, set out on 3 February 1780. On 17 March, the expedition reached Fort San Juan and laid siege, capturing it on 29 April. The British were ravaged by disease, and were running low on food due to poor logistics. The British withdrew on 8 November, the expedition having suffered a decisive defeat; some 2,500 troops had perished, making it the costliest British disaster of the war.
After word of hostilities with France reached India, the British East India Company moved quickly to capture French possessions, and took Pondicherry after a two - week siege on 19 October 1778. The Company resolved to drive the French out of India entirely, capturing the Malabar port of Mahé in 1779. Mahé had been under the protection of Mysore, as French ordnance passed through the port to the Mysorean ruler, Hyder Ali. Tensions were already inflamed due to British support for Malabar rebels against Ali, and the fall of Mahé precipitated war. In July 1780, Ali invaded the Carnatic, and laid siege to Tellicherry and Arcot. A 7,000 - strong Company relief force under William Baille was intercepted and destroyed by the Tipu Sultan on 10 September; thus far the worst defeat suffered by a European army in India. Instead of pressing on for a decisive victory against a second Company army at Madras, Ali renewed the siege at Arcot, capturing it on 3 November. The delay allowed British forces to regroup for campaigning the following year.
Following the British defeat at Saratoga, and the entry of France into the war, Henry Clinton withdrew from Philadelphia, consolidating in New York. French admiral the Comte d'Estaing had been dispatched to North America in April 1778 to assist Washington, arriving shortly after Clinton withdrew into New York. Concluding New York 's defences were too formidable for the French fleet, the Franco - American forces opted to attack Newport. This effort, launched on August 29, failed after the French opted to withdraw, greatly angering the Americans. The war then ground down to a stalemate, with the majority of actions fought as large skirmishes, such as those at Chestnut Neck and Little Egg Harbor. In the summer of 1779, the Americans captured British posts at Stony Point and Paulus Hook.
In July, Clinton 's attempts to coax Washington into a decisive engagement with a major raid into Connecticut failed. That month, a large American naval operation to retake Maine resulted in the worst American naval defeat until Pearl Harbor in 1941. The high frequency of Iroquois raids on the locals compelled Washington to mount a punitive expedition, destroying a large number of Iroquois settlements, but the effort ultimately failed to stop the raids. During the winter of 1779 -- 80, the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge. Morale was poor; public support was being eroded by the long war, the national currency was virtually worthless, the army was plagued with supply problems, desertion was common, and, in early 1780, whole regiments mutinied over the conditions.
In 1780, Clinton launched an attempt to re-take New Jersey. On June 7, an invasion of 6,000 men under Hessian general Wilhelm von Knyphausen met stiff resistance from the local militia. Though the British held the field, Knyphausen feared a general engagement with Washington 's main army, and withdrew. A fortnight later, Knyphausen and Clinton decided upon a second attempt, which was soundly defeated at Springfield, effectively ending British ambitions in New Jersey. Meanwhile, American general Benedict Arnold had grown disenfranchised with the war, and conspired with the British to surrender the key American fortress of West Point. Arnold 's plot was foiled upon the capture of his contact, John André, and he escaped to British lines in New York. Though Arnold 's reasoning reflected Loyalist opinion, Patriots strongly condemned him.
West of the Appalachians, the war was largely confined to skirmishing and raids. In February 1778, an expedition of militia to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River was halted due to adverse weather. Later in the year, a second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois Country from the British. The Americans captured Kaskaskia on July 4, and then secured Vincennes, although the latter was quickly recaptured by Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit. In early 1779, the Americans counter-attacked by undertaking a risky winter march, and secured the surrender of the British at Vincennes, taking Hamilton prisoner.
On May 25, 1780, the British launched an expedition into Kentucky, as part of a wider operation to clear resistance from Quebec to the Gulf coast. The expedition met with only limited success, though hundreds of settlers were killed or captured. The Americans responded with a major offensive along the Mad River in August, which met with some success, but did little to abate the Native American raids on the frontier. An attempt by French militia to capture Detroit ended in disaster when Miami Indians ambushed and defeated the gathered troops on November 5. The war in the west had become a stalemate; the Americans did not have the manpower to simultaneously defeat the Indian tribes and occupy their land.
In 1778, despite the defeat at Saratoga, the British turned their attention to reconquering the South. Prominent Loyalists with great influence in London had convinced the British that Loyalist support was high in the South, and that a campaign there would inspire a popular Loyalist uprising. The British centred their strategy upon this thinking. A southern campaign also had the advantage of keeping the Royal Navy closer to the Caribbean, where it would be needed to defend lucrative colonies against the Franco - Spanish fleets.
On December 29, 1778, an expeditionary corps from New York captured Savannah. British troops then moved inland to recruit Loyalist support. Despite a promising initial turnout in early 1779, a large Loyalist militia was defeated at Kettle Creek on February 14, demonstrating their vulnerability when operating away from British regulars. The British recovered their loss, defeating Patriot militia at Brier Creek on March 3. The British then launched an abortive assault on Charleston, South Carolina. The operation was noted for a high degree of looting by British troops, enraging both Loyalists and Patriot colonists. In October, a combined Franco - American effort to capture Savannah failed. In 1780, Henry Clinton moved against Charleston, capturing it on May 12. With few losses of their own, the British took 5,266 prisoners, effectively destroying the Continental Army in the south. Organized American resistance in the region collapsed when Banastre Tarleton defeated the withdrawing Americans at Waxhaws on May 29.
Clinton returned to New York, leaving Charles Cornwallis in command in Charleston to oversee the southern war effort. In the interim, the war was carried on by Patriot militias, whom effectively suppressed Loyalists by winning victories in Fairfield County, Lincolnton, York County, Stanly County, and Lancaster County. Congress appointed Horatio Gates, victor at Saratoga, to lead the American effort in the south. Soon after arriving, on August 16, Gates suffered a major defeat at Camden, setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina. While Patriot militia continued to interfere in attempts to pacify the countryside, Cornwallis dispatched troops to raise Loyalist forces to cover his left flank as he moved north. This wing of Cornwallis ' army was virtually destroyed on October 7, irreversibly breaking Loyalist support in the Carolinas. Cornwallis subsequently aborted his advance and retreated back into South Carolina. In the interim, Washington replaced Gates with his trusted subordinate, Nathanael Greene.
Unable to confront the British directly, Greene dispatched a force under Daniel Morgan to recruit additional troops. Morgan then defeated the cream of the British army under Tarleton on January 17, 1781, at Cowpens. As after the defeat of the Loyalists at King 's Mountain, Cornwallis was criticized for his decision to detach a substantial part of his army without adequate support. Despite the setbacks, Cornwallis proceeded to advance into North Carolina, gambling that he would receive substantial Loyalist support. Greene evaded combat with Cornwallis, instead wearing his army down through a protracted war of attrition. By March, Greene 's army had grown enough where he felt confident in facing Cornwallis. The two armies engaged at Guilford Courthouse on March 15, and, though Greene was beaten, Cornwallis ' army had suffered irreplaceable casualties. Compounding this, far fewer Loyalists were joining as expected due to effective Patriot suppression. Cornwallis ' casualties were such that he was compelled to retreat to Wilmington for reinforcement, leaving the interior of the Carolinas, and Georgia, wide open to Greene.
In Cornwallis ' absence, Greene proceeded to reconquer the South. Despite suffering a reversal at Hobkirk 's Hill on April 25, American troops continued to dislodge strategic British posts in the area, capturing Fort Watson, and Fort Motte. Augusta, the last major British outpost in the South outside of Charleston and Savannah, fell on June 6. In an effort to stop Greene, a British force clashed with American troops at Eutaw Springs on September 8. Despite inflicting a tactical defeat on Greene 's army, the casualties suffered by the British were such that they withdrew to Charleston. While minor skirmishes in the Carolinas continued till the end of the war, British troops were effectively confined to Charleston and Savannah for the remainder of the conflict.
Cornwallis had discovered that the majority of the American 's supplies in the Carolinas were passing through Virginia, and had written to both Lord Germain and Clinton detailing his intentions to invade. Cornwallis believed a successful campaign there would cut supplies to Greene 's army and precipitate a collapse of American resistance in the South. Clinton strongly opposed the plan, instead favoring conducting a campaign further north in the Chesapeake region. Lord Germain wrote to Cornwallis approving his plan, neglecting to include Clinton in the decision - making entirely, despite him being Cornwallis ' superior officer. Cornwallis then decided to move into Virginia without informing Clinton. Clinton, however, had failed to construct a coherent strategy for British operations in 1781, owing to his difficult relationship with his naval counterpart, Marriot Arbuthnot.
Following the calamitous operations at Newport and Savannah, French planners realized closer cooperation with the Americans was required to achieve success. The French fleet, led by the Comte de Grasse, had received discretionary orders from Paris to assist joint efforts in the north if naval support was needed. Washington and his French counterpart, the Comte de Rochambeau, discussed their options. Washington pushed for an attack on New York, while Rochambeau preferred a strike in Virginia, where the British were less well - established and thus, easier to defeat. Franco - American movements around New York caused Clinton a great deal of anxiety, fearing an attack on the city. His instructions to Cornwallis during this time were vague, rarely forming explicit orders. However, Clinton did instruct Cornwallis to establish a fortified naval base, and transfer troops to the north to defend New York. Cornwallis dug in at Yorktown, and awaited the Royal Navy.
Washington still favored an assault on New York, but was essentially overruled when the French opted to send their fleet to their preferred target of Yorktown. In August, the combined Franco - American army moved south to cooperate with de Grasse to defeat Cornwallis. Lacking sufficient naval resources to effectively counter the French, the British dispatched an inadequate fleet under Thomas Graves to assist Cornwallis and assume naval dominance. On September 5, the French fleet decisively defeated Graves, giving the French control of the seas around Yorktown, cutting Cornwallis off from reinforcements and relief. Despite the continued urging of his subordinates, Cornwallis made no attempt to break out and engage the Franco - American army before it had established siege works, instead expecting reinforcements would arrive from New York.
On September 28, the Franco - American army laid siege to Yorktown. Believing relief from Clinton was imminent, Cornwallis prematurely abandoned all of his outer defences, which were then occupied by the Franco - American troops, serving to hasten his subsequent defeat. A British attempt to break out of the siege across the river at Gloucester Point failed when a storm hit. Under increasing bombardment and with dwindling supplies, Cornwallis and his subordinates agreed their situation was untenable, and negotiated a surrender on October 17. Some 7,685 soldiers became prisoners of the Franco - American army. The same day as the surrender, 6,000 troops under Clinton had departed New York, sailing to relieve Yorktown.
Following British successes at Newport and Charleston, the North government had gained support in Parliament. However, the government 's decision to allow Irish Catholics to enlist in the army was deeply unpopular, triggering a massive protest in London in 1780, culminating in widespread rioting. The riots were the most destructive in London 's history, damaging the prestige of the government. On 25 November 1781, the situation worsened when news of the surrender at Yorktown arrived in London. Prime Minister Lord North is said to have repeatedly exclaimed; "Oh, God! It 's all over! '' King George III received the news with dignity, though later became depressed and considered abdication. The Whig opposition gained traction in Parliament, though a motion proposed on December 12 to end the war was defeated by only one vote.
Lord Germain, who had overseen strategic matters in the war effort, was dismissed from office in early 1782. Soon after, a no confidence motion in the Prime Minister was passed, forcing the resignation of North and leading to the collapse of his ministry. The Rockingham Whigs came to power soon after and began opening negotiations for peace. Prime Minister the Marquess of Rockingham died in office on 1 July 1782, and was succeeded by the Earl of Shelburne, forcing the resignations of prominent Whigs Edmund Burke and Charles James Fox, with whom Shelburne had an icy relationship. Shelburne was initially hesitant to granting full American independence, instead preferring the colonies accept Dominion status, though such intentions were never realized.
Despite the defeats in America, the British still had 30,000 troops garrisoned there, occupying New York, Charleston and Savannah. Henry Clinton was recalled to London after the defeat at Yorktown, and departed America in March 1782. He was replaced by Guy Carleton, who was under orders to suspend offensive operations in America.
After hostilities with the Dutch began in late 1780, Britain had moved quickly, enforcing a blockade across the North Sea. Within weeks, the British had captured 200 Dutch merchantmen, and 300 more were holed up in foreign ports, though political turmoil within the Republic and peace negotiations by both sides helped keep conflict to a minimum. The majority of the Dutch public favored a military alliance with France against Britain, however, the Dutch Stadtholder impeded these efforts, hoping to secure an early peace. To restore diminishing trade a Dutch squadron under Johan Zoutman escorted a fleet of some 70 merchantmen from the Texel. Zoutman 's ships were intercepted by Sir Hyde Parker, who engaged Zoutman at Dogger Bank on 5 August 1781. Though the contest was tactically inconclusive, the Dutch fleet did not leave harbor again during the war, and their merchant fleet remained crippled.
On 6 January 1781, a French attempt to capture Jersey to neutralize British privateering failed. Frustrated in their attempts to capture Gibraltar, a Franco - Spanish force of 14,000 men under the Duc de Mahon met with more success in August; invading Menorca on 19 August. After a long siege of St. Philip 's, the British garrison under James Murray surrendered on 5 February 1782, securing a primary war goal for the Spanish. At Gibraltar, a major Franco - Spanish assault on 13 September 1782 was repulsed with heavy casualties. On 20 October 1782, following a successful resupply of Gibraltar, British ships under Richard Howe successfully refused battle to the Franco - Spanish fleet under Luis de Córdova, denying Córdova dominance at sea. On 7 February 1783, after 1,322 days of siege, the Franco - Spanish army withdrew, decisively defeated.
In the West Indies, on 29 -- 30 April 1781, a Royal Navy squadron under Samuel Hood was narrowly defeated by the French, led by the Comte de Grasse. de Grasse continued seizing British territories; Tobago fell on 2 June, Demerara and Essequibo on 22 January 1782, St. Kitts and Nevis on 12 February, despite a British naval victory on 25 January, and Montserrat on 22 February. In 1782, the primary strategic goal of the French and Spanish was the capture of Jamaica, whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the Thirteen Colonies combined. On 7 April 1782, de Grasse departed Martinique to rendezvous with Franco - Spanish troops at Saint Domingue, and invade Jamaica from the north. The British under Hood and George Rodney pursued and decisively defeated the French off Dominica between 9 -- 12 April. The Franco - Spanish plan to conquer Jamaica was in ruins, and the balance of naval power in the Caribbean shifted to the Royal Navy.
After the fall of Mobile to Spanish troops under Bernardo de Gálvez, an attempt to capture Pensacola was thwarted due to a hurricane. Emboldened by the disaster, John Campbell, British commander at Pensacola, decided to recapture Mobile. Campbell 's expeditionary force of around 700 men was defeated on 7 January 1781. After re-grouping at Havana, Gálvez set out for Pensacola on 13 February. Arriving on 9 March, siege operations did not begin until 24 March, owing to difficulties in bringing the ships into the bay. After a 45 - day siege, Gálvez decisively defeated the garrison, securing the conquest of West Florida. In May, Spanish troops captured the Bahamas, although the British bloodlessly recaptured the islands the following year on 18 April.
In Guatemala, Matías de Gálvez led Spanish troops in an effort to dislocate British settlements along the Gulf of Honduras. Gálvez captured Roatán on 16 March 1782, and then quickly took Black River. Following the decisive naval victory at the Saintes, Archibald Campbell, the Royal governor of Jamaica, authorized Edward Despard to re-take Black River, which he did on 22 August. However, with peace talks opening, and Franco - Spanish resources committed to the siege of Gibraltar, no further offensive operations took place.
Few operations were conducted against the Dutch, although several Dutch colonies were captured by the British in 1781. Sint Eustatius, a key supply port for the Patriots, was sacked by British forces under George Rodney on 3 February 1782, plundering the island 's wealth.
Following Dutch entry into the conflict, East India Company troops under Hector Munro captured the Dutch port of Negapatam after a three - week siege on 11 October 1781. Soon after, British Admiral Edward Hughes captured Trincomalee after a brief engagement on 11 January 1782.
In March 1781, French Admiral Bailli de Suffren was dispatched to India to assist colonial efforts. Suffren arrived off the Indian coast in February 1782, where he clashed with a British fleet under Hughes, winning a narrow tactical victory. After landing troops at Porto Novo to assist Mysore, Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again Providien on 12 April. There was no clear victor, though Hughes ' fleet came off worse, and he withdrew to the British - held port of Trincomalee. Hyder Ali wished for the French to capture Negapatam to establish naval dominance over the British, and this task fell to Suffren. Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again off Negapatam on 6 July. Suffren withdrew to Cuddalore, strategically defeated, and the British remained in control of Negapatam. Intending to find a more suitable port than Cuddalore, Suffren captured Trincomalee on 1 September, and successfully engaged Hughes two days later.
Meanwhile, Ali 's troops loosely blockaded Vellore as the East India Company regrouped. Company troops under Sir Eyre Coote led a counter-offensive, defeating Ali at Porto Novo on 1 July 1781, Pollilur on 27 August, and Sholinghur on 27 September, expelling the Mysorean troops from the Carnatic. On 18 February 1782, Tipu Sultan defeated John Braithwaite near Tanjore, taking his entire 1,800 - strong force prisoner. The war had, by this point, reached an uneasy stalemate. On 7 December 1782, Hyder Ali died, and the rule of Mysore passed to his son, Tipu Sultan.
Sultan advanced along the west coast, laying siege to Mangalore on 20 May 1783. Meanwhile, on the east coast, an army under James Stuart besieged the French - held port of Cuddalore on 9 June 1783. On 20 June, key British naval support for the siege was neutralized when Suffren defeated Hughes ' fleet off Cuddalore, and though narrow, the victory gave Suffren the opportunity to displace British holdings in India. On 25 June, the Franco - Mysorean defenders made repeated sorties against British lines, though all assaults failed. On 30 June, news arrived of a preliminary peace between the belligerent powers, and the siege was effectively over when the French abandoned the siege. Mangalore remained under siege, and capitulated to Sultan on 30 January 1784. Little fighting took place thereafter, and Mysore and Britain made peace on 11 March.
Following the surrender at Yorktown, the Whig party came to power in Britain and began opening negotiations for a cessation of hostilities. While peace negotiations were being undertaken, British troops in America were restricted from launching further offensives. Prime Minister the Earl of Shelburne was reluctant to accept American independence as a prerequisite for peace, as the British were aware that the French economy was nearly bankrupt, and reinforcements sent to the West Indies could potentially reverse the situation there. He preferred that the colonies accept Dominion status within the Empire, though a similar offer had been rejected by the Americans in 1778. Negotiations soon began in Paris.
The Americans initially demanded that Quebec be ceded to them as spoils of war, a proposal that was dropped when Shelburne accepted American demands for recognition of independence. On April 19, 1782, the Dutch formally recognized the United States as a sovereign power, enhancing American leverage at the negotiations. Spain initially impeded the negotiations, refusing to enter into peace talks until Gibraltar had been captured. The Comte de Vergennes proposed that American territory be confined to the east of the Appalachians; Britain would have sovereignty over the area north of the Ohio River, below which an Indian barrier state would be established under Spanish control. The United States fiercely opposed the proposal.
The Americans skirted their allies, recognizing that more favorable terms would be found in London. They negotiated directly with Shelburne, who hoped to make Britain a valuable trading partner of America at the expense of France. To this end, Shelburne offered to cede all the land east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of Quebec, while also allowing American fishermen access to the rich Newfoundland fishery. According to one historian, Shelburne was hoping to facilitate the growth of the American population, creating lucrative markets that Britain could exploit at no administrative cost to London. As Vergennes commented, "the English buy peace rather than make it ''.
Throughout the negotiations, Britain never consulted her American Indian allies, forcing them to reluctantly accept the treaty. However, the subsequent tension erupted into conflicts between the Indians and the young United States, the largest being the Northwest Indian War. Britain continued trying to create an Indian buffer state in the American Midwest as late as 1814 during the War of 1812.
Britain negotiated separate treaties with Spain, France, and the Dutch Republic. Gibraltar proved to be a stumbling block in the peace talks; Spain offered to relinquish their conquests in West Florida, Menorca, and the Bahamas in exchange for Gibraltar, terms which Shelburne steadfastly refused. Shelburne instead offered to cede East Florida, West Florida, and Menorca if Spain would relinquish the claim on Gibraltar, terms which were reluctantly accepted. However, in the long - term, the new territorial gains were of little value to Spain. France 's only net gains were the island of Tobago in the Caribbean and Senegal in Africa, after agreeing to return all other colonial conquests to British sovereignty. Britain returned Dutch Caribbean territories to Dutch sovereignty, in exchange for free trade rights in the Dutch East Indies and control of the Indian port of Negapatnam.
Preliminary peace articles were signed in Paris on 30 November 1782, while preliminaries between Britain, Spain, France, and the Netherlands continued until September 1783. The United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14, 1784. Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the other parties involved, the first reaching France in March 1784. British ratification occurred on April 9, 1784, and the ratified versions were exchanged in Paris on May 12, 1784. The war formally concluded on September 3, 1783.
The last British troops departed New York City on November 25, 1783, marking the end of British rule in the new United States.
The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As was typical in wars of the era, diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout North America, killing 40 people in Boston alone. Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington 's decision to have his troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions.
Between 25,000 and 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service. Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British, mostly in the prison ships in New York Harbor. If the upper limit of 70,000 is accepted as the total net loss for the Patriots, it would make the conflict proportionally deadlier than the American Civil War. Uncertainty arises due to the difficulties in accurately calculating the number of those who succumbed to disease, as it is estimated at least 10,000 died in 1776 alone. The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000.
The French suffered approximately 7,000 total dead throughout the conflict; of those, 2,112 were killed in combat in the American theaters of war.
The Dutch suffered around 500 total killed, owing to the minor scale of their conflict with Britain.
British returns in 1783 listed 43,633 rank and file deaths across the British Armed Forces. A table from 1781 puts total British Army deaths at 9,372 soldiers killed in battle across the Americas; 6,046 in North America (1775 -- 1779), and 3,326 in the West Indies (1778 -- 1780). In 1784, a British lieutenant compiled a detailed list of 205 British officers killed in action during the war, encompassing Europe, the Caribbean and the East Indies. Extrapolations based upon this list puts British Army losses in the area of at least 4,000 killed or died of wounds. Approximately 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters; of the former, it is estimated 1,800 were killed in combat.
Around 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during the war; approximately a quarter of whom had been pressed into service. Around 1,240 were killed in battle, while an estimated 18,500 died from disease (1776 -- 1780). The greatest killer at sea was scurvy, a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. It was not until 1795 that scurvy was eradicated from the Royal Navy after the Admiralty declared lemon juice and sugar were to be issued among the standard daily rations of sailors. Around 42,000 sailors deserted during the war. The impact on merchant shipping was substantial; an estimated 3,386 merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during the war; of those, 2,283 were taken by American privateers alone.
At the start of the war, the economy of the colonies was flourishing, and the free white population enjoyed the highest standard of living in the world. The Royal Navy enforced a naval blockade during the war to financially cripple the colonies, however, this proved unsuccessful; 90 % of the population worked in farming, not in coastal trade, and, as such, the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade.
Congress had immense difficulties throughout the conflict to efficiently finance the war effort. As the circulation of hard currency declined, the Americans had to rely on loans from American merchants and bankers, France, Spain and the Netherlands, saddling the young nation with crippling debts. Congress attempted to remedy this by printing vast amounts of paper money and bills of credit to raise revenue. The effect was disastrous; inflation skyrocketed, and the paper money became virtually worthless. The inflation spawned a popular phrase that anything of little value was "not worth a continental ''.
By 1791, the United States had accumulated a national debt of approximately $75.5 million. The United States finally solved its debt and currency problems in the 1790s, when Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton secured legislation by which the national government assumed all of the state debts, and, in addition, created a national bank and a funding system based on tariffs and bond issues that paid off the foreign debts.
Britain spent around £ 80 million and ended with a national debt of £ 250 million, (£ 27.1 billion in today 's money), generating a yearly interest of £ 9.5 million annually. The debts piled upon that which it had already accumulated from the Seven Years ' War. Due to wartime taxation upon the British populace, the tax for the average Briton amounted to approximately four shillings in every pound.
The French spent approximately 1.3 billion livres on aiding the Americans, accumulating a national debt of 3.315. 1 billion livres by 1783 on war costs. Unlike Britain, which had a very efficient taxation system, the French tax system was highly unstable, eventually leading to a financial crisis in 1786. The debts contributed to a worsening fiscal crisis that ultimately begat the French Revolution at the end of the century. The debt continued to spiral; on the eve of the French Revolution, the national debt had skyrocketed to 12 billion livres.
Spain had nearly doubled her military spending during the war, from 454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million in 1779. Spain more easily disposed of her debts unlike her French ally, partially due to the massive increase in silver mining in her American colonies; production increased approximately 600 % in Mexico, and by 250 % in Peru and Bolivia.
The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1780 was approximately 12.6 million, while the Thirteen Colonies held a population of some 2.8 million, including some 500,000 slaves. Theoretically, Britain had the advantage, however, many factors inhibited the procurement of a large army.
In 1775, the standing British Army, exclusive of militia, comprised 45,123 men worldwide, made up of 38,254 infantry and 6,869 cavalry. The Army had approximately eighteen regiments of foot, some 8,500 men, stationed in North America. Standing armies had played a key role in the purge of the Long Parliament in 1648, the maintenance of a military dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell, and the overthrow of James II, and, as such, the Army had been deliberately kept small in peacetime to prevent abuses of power by the King. Despite this, eighteenth century armies were not easy guests, and were regarded with scorn and contempt by the press and public of the New and Old World alike, derided as enemies of liberty. An expression ran in the Navy; "A messmate before a shipmate, a shipmate before a stranger, a stranger before a dog, a dog before a soldier ''.
Parliament suffered chronic difficulties in obtaining sufficient manpower, and found it impossible to fill the quotas they had set. The Army was a deeply unpopular profession, one contentious issue being pay. A Private infantryman was paid a wage of just 8 d. per day, the same pay as for a New Model Army infantryman, 130 years earlier. The rate of pay in the army was insufficient to meet the rising costs of living, turning off potential recruits, as service was nominally for life.
To entice people to enrol, Parliament offered a bounty of £ 1.10 s for every recruit. As the war dragged on, Parliament became desperate for manpower; criminals were offered military service to escape legal penalties, and deserters were pardoned if they re-joined their units. After the defeat at Saratoga, Parliament doubled the bounty to £ 3, and increased it again the following year, to £ 3.3 s, as well as expanding the age limit from 17 -- 45 to 16 -- 50 years of age.
Impressment, essentially conscription by the "press gang '', was a favored recruiting method, though it was unpopular with the public, leading many to enlist in local militias to avoid regular service. Attempts were made to draft such levies, much to the chagrin of the militia commanders. Competition between naval and army press gangs, and even between rival ships or regiments, frequently resulted in brawls between the gangs in order to secure recruits for their unit. Men would maim themselves to avoid the press gangs, while many deserted at the first opportunity. Pressed men were militarily unreliable; regiments with large numbers of such men were deployed to garrisons such as Gibraltar or the West Indies, purely to increase the difficulty in successfully deserting.
By 1781, the Army numbered approximately 121,000 men globally, 48,000 of whom were stationed throughout the Americas. Of the 171,000 sailors who served in the Royal Navy throughout the conflict, around a quarter were pressed. Interestingly, this same proportion, approximately 42,000 men, deserted during the conflict. At its height, the Navy had 94 ships - of - the - line, 104 frigates and 37 sloops in service.
In 1775, Britain unsuccessfully attempted to secure 20,000 mercenaries from Russia, and the use of the Scots Brigade from the Dutch Republic, such was the shortage of manpower. Parliament managed to negotiate treaties with the princes of German states for large sums of money, in exchange for mercenary troops. In total, 29,875 troops were hired for British service from six German states; Brunswick (5,723), Hesse - Kassel (16,992), Hesse - Hannau (2,422), Ansbach - Bayreuth (2,353), Waldeck - Pyrmont (1,225) and Anhalt - Zerbst (1,160). King George III, who also ruled Hanover as a Prince - elector of the Holy Roman Empire, was approached by Parliament to loan the government Hanoverian soldiers for service in the war. Hanover supplied 2,365 men in five battalions, however, the lease agreement permitted them to only be used in Europe.
Without any major allies, the manpower shortage became critical when France and Spain entered the war, forcing a major diversion of military resources from the Americas. Recruiting adequate numbers of Loyalist militia in America proved difficult due to high Patriot activity. To bolster numbers, the British promised freedom and grants of land to slaves who fought for them. Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the war, and provided some of the best troops in the British service; the British Legion, a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry commanded by Banastre Tarleton, gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies, especially in the South.
Britain had a difficult time appointing a determined senior military leadership in America. Thomas Gage, Commander - in - Chief of North America at the outbreak of the war, was criticized for being too lenient on the rebellious colonists. Jeffrey Amherst, who was appointed Commander - in - Chief of the Forces in 1778, refused a direct command in America, due to unwillingness to take sides in the war. Admiral Augustus Keppel similarly opposed a command, stating; "I can not draw the sword in such a cause ''. The Earl of Effingham resigned his commission when his regiment was posted to America, while William Howe and John Burgoyne were opposed to military solutions to the crisis. Howe and Henry Clinton both stated they were unwilling participants, and were only following orders.
As was the case in many European armies, except the Prussian Army, officers in British service could purchase commissions to ascend the ranks. Despite repeated attempts by Parliament to suppress it, the practise was common in the Army. Values of commissions varied, but were usually in line with social and military prestige, for example, regiments such as the Guards commanded the highest prices. The lower ranks often regarded the treatment to high - ranking commissions by wealthier officers as "plums for (their) consumption ''. Wealthy individuals lacking any formal military education, or practical experience, often found their way into positions of high responsibility, diluting the effectiveness of a regiment. Though Royal authority had forbade the practise since 1711, it was still permitted for infants to hold commissions. Young boys, often orphans of deceased wealthy officers, were taken from their schooling and placed in positions of responsibility within regiments.
Logistical organization of eighteenth century armies was chaotic at best, and the British Army was no exception. No logistical corps existed in the modern sense; while on campaign in foreign territories such as America, horses, wagons, and drivers were frequently requisitioned from the locals, often by impressment or by hire. No centrally organized medical corps existed. It was common for surgeons to have no formal medical education, and no diploma or entry examination was required. Nurses sometimes were apprentices to surgeons, but many were drafted from the women who followed the army. Army surgeons and doctors were poorly paid and were regarded as social inferiors to other officers.
The heavy personal equipment and wool uniform of the regular infantrymen were wholly unsuitable for combat in America, and the outfit was especially ill - suited to comfort and agile movement. During the Battle of Monmouth in late June 1778, the temperature exceeded 100 ° F (37.8 ° C) and is said to have claimed more lives through heat stroke than through actual combat. The standard - issue firearm of the British Army was the Land Pattern Musket. Some officers preferred their troops to fire careful, measured shots (around two per minute), rather than rapid firing. A bayonet made firing difficult, as its cumbersome shape hampered ramming down the charge into the barrel. British troops had a tendency to fire impetuously, resulting in inaccurate fire, a trait for which John Burgoyne criticized them during the Saratoga campaign. Burgoyne instead encouraged bayonet charges to break up enemy formations, which was a preferred tactic in most European armies at the time.
Every battalion in America had organized its own rifle company by the end of the war, although rifles were not formally issued to the army until the Baker Rifle in 1801. Flintlocks were heavily dependent on the weather; high winds could blow the gunpowder from the flash pan, while heavy rain could soak the paper cartridge, ruining the powder and rendering the musket unable to fire. Furthermore, flints used in British muskets were of notoriously poor quality; they could only be fired around six times before requiring resharpening, while American flints could fire sixty. This led to a common expression among the British: "Yankee flint was as good as a glass of grog ''.
Provisioning troops and sailors proved to be an immense challenge, as the majority of food stores had to be shipped overseas from Britain. The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the Army from living off the land. Other factors also impeded this option; the countryside was too sparsely populated and the inhabitants were largely hostile or indifferent, the network of roads and bridges was poorly developed, and the area which the British controlled was so limited that foraging parties were frequently in danger of being ambushed. After France entered the war, the threat of the French navy increased the difficulty of transporting supplies to America. The food that could be bought in America was purchased at vastly inflated prices. Soldiers stationed in the West Indies perhaps suffered the worst; the garrison commander of Tobago, Barbados, and Antigua frequently complained of the near - total lack of regular supply from Britain, and the food that could be bought was so expensive that the pay of the troops was inadequate to cover the costs.
Food supplies were frequently in terrible condition, infested with mould, weevils, worms, and maggots. Provisions were frequently destroyed by rats, and their containers were too fragile to sustain a long ocean voyage or the rigors of campaigning. The climate was also against the British in the southern colonies and the Caribbean, where the intense summer heat caused food supplies to sour and spoil. British troops stationed in America were often on the verge of starvation.
Life at sea was little better. Sailors and passengers were issued a daily food ration, largely consisting of hardtack and beer. The hardtack was often infested by weevils and was so tough that it earned the nicknames "molar breakers '' and "worm castles '', and it sometimes had to be broken up with cannon shot. Meat supplies often spoiled on long voyages. The lack of fresh fruit and vegetables gave rise to scurvy, one of the biggest killers at sea. Rum was issued as part of a daily ration and was a popular drink among soldiers and sailors alike, often mixed with fresh water to make grog.
Discipline in the armed forces was harsh, and the lash was used to punish even trivial offences, nor was it applied sparingly. For instance, during the Saratoga campaign, two redcoats received 1,000 lashes each for robbery, while another received 800 lashes for striking a superior officer. During the Napoleonic Wars, one soldier received 700 lashes for stealing a beehive, while another, whom had received only 175 strikes of his 400 - lash sentence, spent three weeks in hospital from his injuries. The practise could often be a contentious source of resentment; during the Battle of Quatre Bras in 1815, the commander of the 92nd Foot was shot and killed by a soldier whom he had recently flogged. Flogging was a common punishment in the Royal Navy, and came to be associated with the stereotypical hardiness of sailors.
Despite the harsh discipline, a distinct lack of self - discipline pervaded all ranks. Soldiers had an intense passion for gambling, reaching such excesses that troops would often wager their own uniforms. Soldiers drank heavily, and was not exclusive to the lower ranks; William Howe was said to have seen many "crapulous mornings '' while campaigning in New York. John Burgoyne drank heavily on a nightly basis towards the end of the Saratoga campaign. The two generals were also reported to have found solace with the wives of subordinate officers to ease the stressful burdens of command. During the Philadelphia campaign, British officers deeply offended local Quakers by entertaining their mistresses in the houses they had been quartered in. Despite such issues, British troops are reported to have been generally scrupulous in their treatment of non-combatants. This is contrasted by Hessian diaries, who wrote of their disapproval of British conduct towards the colonists, such as the destruction of property and the execution of prisoners.
The presence of Hessian soldiers caused considerable anxiety amongst the colonists, both Patriot and Loyalist, who viewed them as brutal mercenaries. British soldiers were often contemptuous in their treatment of Hessian troops, despite orders from General Howe that "the English should treat the Germans as brothers ''. The order only began to have any real effect when the Hessians learned to speak a minimal degree of English, which was seen as a prerequisite for the British troops to accord them any respect.
During peacetime, the Army 's idleness led to it becoming riddled with corruption and inefficiency, resulting in a myriad of administrative difficulties once campaigning began.
The British leadership soon discovered it had overestimated the capabilities of its own troops, while underestimating those of the colonists, causing a sudden re-think in British planning. The ineffective initial response of British military and civil officials to the onset of the rebellion had allowed the advantage to shift to the colonists, as British authorities rapidly lost control over every colony. A microcosm of these shortcomings were evident at the Battle of Bunker Hill. It took ten hours for the British leadership to respond following the sighting of the Americans on the Charlestown Peninsula, giving the colonists ample time to reinforce their defenses. Rather than opt for a simple flanking attack that would have rapidly succeeded with minimal loss, the British decided on repeated frontal attacks. The results were telling; the British suffered 1,054 casualties of a force of around 3,000 after repeated frontal assaults. The British leadership had nevertheless remained excessively optimistic, believing that just two regiments could suppress the rebellion in Massachusetts.
Debate persists over whether a British defeat was a guaranteed outcome. Ferling argues that the odds were so long, the defeat of Britain was nothing short of a miracle. Ellis, however, considers that the odds always favored the Americans, and questions whether a British victory by any margin was realistic. Ellis argues that the British squandered their only opportunities for a decisive success in 1777, and that the strategic decisions undertaken by William Howe underestimated the challenges posed by the Americans. Ellis concludes that, once Howe failed, the opportunity for a British victory "would never come again ''. Conversely, the United States Army 's official textbook argues that, had Britain been able to commit 10,000 fresh troops to the war in 1780, a British victory was within the realms of possibility.
Historians such as Ellis and Stewart have observed that, under William Howe 's command, the British squandered several opportunities to achieve a decisive victory over the Americans. Throughout the New York and Philadelphia campaigns, Howe made several strategic errors, errors which cost the British opportunities for a complete victory. At Long Island, Howe failed to even attempt an encirclement of Washington, and actively restrained his subordinates from mounting an aggressive pursuit of the defeated American army. At White Plains, he refused to engage Washington 's vulnerable army, and instead concentrated his efforts upon a hill which offered the British no strategic advantage. After securing control of New York, Howe dispatched Henry Clinton to capture Newport, a measure which Clinton was opposed to, on the grounds the troops assigned to his command could have been put to better use in pursuing Washington 's retreating army. Despite the bleak outlook for the revolutionary cause and the surge of Loyalist activity in the wake of Washington 's defeats, Howe made no attempt to mount an attack upon Washington while the Americans settled down into winter quarters, much to their surprise.
During planning for the Saratoga campaign, Howe was left with the choice of committing his army to support Burgoyne, or capture Philadelphia, the revolutionary capital. Howe decided upon the latter, determining that Washington was of a greater threat. The decision left Burgoyne precariously isolated, and left the Americans confounded at the decision. Alden argues Howe may have been motivated by political opportunism; if Burgoyne was successful, he would receive the credit for a decisive victory, and not Howe. However, the confusion was further compounded by the lack of explicit and contradictory instructions from London. When Howe launched his campaign, he took his army upon a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, rather than the more sensible choices of overland through New Jersey, or by sea through the Delaware Bay. The move left him unable to assist Burgoyne even if it was required of him. The decision so confused Parliament, that Howe was accused by Tories on both sides of the Atlantic of treason.
During the Philadelphia campaign, Howe failed to pursue and destroy the defeated Americans on two occasions; once after the Battle of Brandywine, and again after the Battle of Germantown. At the Battle of White Marsh, Howe failed to even attempt to exploit the vulnerable American rear, and then inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia after only minor skirmishes, astonishing both sides. While the Americans wintered only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, which critics argue could have ended the war. Following the conclusion of the campaign, Howe resigned his commission, and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778.
Contrary to Howe 's more hostile critics, however, there were strategic factors at play which impeded aggressive action. Howe may have been dissuaded from pursuing aggressive manoeuvres due to the memory of the grievous losses the British suffered at Bunker Hill. During the major campaigns in New York and Philadelphia, Howe often wrote of the scarcity of adequate provisions, which hampered his ability to mount effective campaigns. Howe 's tardiness in launching the New York campaign, and his reluctance to allow Cornwallis to vigorously pursue Washington 's beaten army, have both been attributed to the paucity of available food supplies.
During the winter of 1776 -- 1777, Howe split his army into scattered cantonments. This decision dangerously exposed the individual forces to defeat in detail, as the distance between them was such that they could not mutually support each other. This strategic failure allowed the Americans to achieve victory at the Battle of Trenton, and the concurrent Battle of Princeton. While a major strategic error to divide an army in such a manner, the quantity of available food supplies in New York was so low that Howe had been compelled to take such a decision. The garrisons were widely spaced so their respective foraging parties would not interfere with each other 's efforts. Howe 's difficulties during the Philadelphia campaign were also greatly exacerbated by the poor quality and quantity of available provisions.
In 1780, the primary British strategy hinged upon a Loyalist uprising in the south, for which Charles Cornwallis was chiefly responsible. After an encouraging success at Camden, Cornwallis was poised to invade North Carolina. However, any significant Loyalist support had been effectively destroyed at the Battle of Kings Mountain, and the British Legion, the cream of his army, had been decisively defeated at the Battle of Cowpens. Following both defeats, Cornwallis was fiercely criticized for detaching a significant portion of his army without adequate mutual support. Despite the defeats, Cornwallis chose to proceed into North Carolina, gambling his success upon a large Loyalist uprising which never materialized. As a result, subsequent engagements cost Cornwallis valuable troops he could not replace, as at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse, and the Americans steadily wore his army down in an exhaustive war of attrition. Cornwallis had thus left the Carolinas ripe for reconquest. The Americans had largely achieved this aim by the end of 1781, effectively confining the British to the coast, and undoing all the progress they had made in the previous year.
In a last - ditch attempt to win the war in the South, Cornwallis resolved to invade Virginia, in order to cut off the American 's supply base to the Carolinas. Henry Clinton, Cornwallis ' superior, strongly opposed the plan, believing the decisive confrontations would take place between Washington in the North. London had approved Cornwallis plan, however they had failed to include Clinton in the decision - making, despite his seniority over Cornwallis, leading to a muddled strategic direction. Cornwallis then decided to invade Virginia without informing Clinton of his intentions. Clinton, however, had wholly failed to construct a coherent strategy for British campaigning that year, owing to his fractious relationship that he shared with Mariot Arbuthnot, his naval counterpart.
As the Franco - American army approached Cornwallis at Yorktown, he made no attempt to sally out and engage before siege lines could be erected, despite the repeated urging of his subordinate officers. Expecting relief to soon arrive from Clinton, Cornwallis prematurely abandoned all of his outer defences, which were then promptly occupied by the besiegers, serving to hasten the British defeat. These factors contributed to the eventual surrender of Cornwallis ' entire army, and the end of major operations in North America.
Like Howe before him, Clinton 's efforts to campaign suffered from chronic supply issues. In 1778, Clinton wrote to Germain complaining of the lack of supplies, even after the arrival of a convoy from Ireland. That winter, the supply issue had deteriorated so badly, that Clinton expressed considerable anxiety over how the troops were going to be properly fed. Clinton was largely inactive in the North throughout 1779, launching few major campaigns. This inactivity was partially due to the shortage of food. By 1780, the situation had not improved. Clinton wrote a frustrated correspondence to Germain, voicing concern that a "fatal consequence will ensue '' if matters did not improve. By October that year, Clinton again wrote to Germain, angered that the troops in New York had not received "an ounce '' of that year 's allotted stores from Britain.
Suppressing a rebellion in America presented the British with major problems. The key issue was distance; it could take up to three months to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by the time that they arrived. The colonies had never been formally united prior to the conflict and there was no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance. Traditionally, the fall of a capital city often signalled the end of a conflict, yet the war continued unabated even after the fall of major settlements such as New York, Philadelphia (which was the Patriot capital), and Charleston. Britain 's ability to project its power overseas lay chiefly in the power of the Royal Navy, allowing her to control major coastal settlements with relative ease and enforce a strong blockade of colonial ports. However, the overwhelming majority of the American population was agrarian, not urban. As a result, the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade 's effects.
The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the British from using the harsh methods of suppressing revolts that they had used in Scotland and Ireland. For example, British troops looted and pillaged the locals during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779, enraging both Patriots and Loyalists. Neutral colonists were often driven into the ranks of the Patriots when brutal combat broke out between Tories and Whigs across the Carolinas in the later stages of the war. Conversely, Loyalists were often emboldened when Patriots resorted to intimidating suspected Tories, such as destroying property or tarring and feathering. The vastness of the American countryside and the limited manpower available meant that the British could never simultaneously defeat the Americans and occupy captured territory. One British statesman described the attempt as "like trying to conquer a map ''.
Wealthy Loyalists wielded great influence in London and were successful in convincing the British that the majority view in the colonies was sympathetic toward the Crown. Consequently, British planners pinned the success of their strategies on popular uprisings of Loyalists, which never transpired on the scale required. Historians have estimated that Loyalists made up only 15 -- 20 % of the population (vs. 40 - 45 % Patriots) and that they continued to deceive themselves on their level of support as late as 1780. The British discovered that any significant level of organized Loyalist activity would require the continued presence of British regulars, which presented them with a major dilemma. The manpower that the British had available was insufficient to both protect Loyalist territory and counter American advances. The vulnerability of Loyalist militias was repeatedly demonstrated in the South, where they suffered strings of defeats to their Patriot neighbors. The most crucial juncture of this was at Kings Mountain, and the victory of the Patriot partisans irreversibly crippled Loyalist military capability in the South.
Upon the entry of France and Spain into the conflict, the British were forced to severely limit the number of troops and warships that they sent to North America in order to defend other key territories and the British mainland. As a result, King George III abandoned any hope of subduing America militarily while he had a European war to contend with. The small size of Britain 's army left them unable to concentrate their resources primarily in one theater as they had done in the Seven Years ' War, leaving them at a critical disadvantage. The British were compelled to disperse troops from the Americas to Europe and the East Indies, and these forces were unable to assist one other as a result, precariously exposing them to defeat. In North America, the immediate strategic focus of the French, Spanish, and British shifted to Jamaica, whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the economy of the Thirteen Colonies combined.
Following the end of the war, Britain had lost some of her most populous colonies. However, the economic effects of the loss were negligible in the long - term, and she became a global superpower just 32 years after the end of the conflict.
The Americans began the war with significant disadvantages compared to the British. They had no national government, no national army or navy, no financial system, no banks, no established credit, and no functioning government departments, such as a treasury. The Congress tried to handle administrative affairs through legislative committees, which proved inefficient. The state governments were themselves brand new and officials had no administrative experience. In peacetime the colonies relied heavily on ocean travel and shipping, but that was now shut down by the British blockade and the Americans had to rely on slow overland travel.
However, the Americans had multiple advantages that in the long run outweighed the initial disadvantages they faced. The Americans had a large prosperous population that depended not on imports but on local production for food and most supplies, while the British were mostly shipped in from across the ocean. The British faced a vast territory far larger than Britain or France, located at a far distance from home ports. Most of the Americans lived on farms distant from the seaports -- the British could capture any port but that did not give them control over the hinterland. They were on their home ground, had a smoothly functioning, well organized system of local and state governments, newspapers and printers, and internal lines of communications. They had a long - established system of local militia, previously used to combat the French and Native Americans, with companies and an officer corps that could form the basis of local militias, and provide a training ground for the national army created by Congress.
Motivation was a major asset. The Patriots wanted to win; over 200,000 fought in the war; 25,000 died. The British expected the Loyalists to do much of the fighting, but they did much less than expected. The British also hired German mercenaries to do much of their fighting.
At the onset of the war, the Americans had no major international allies. Battles such as the Battle of Bennington, the Battles of Saratoga and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations such as France and Spain, who moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies, to overtly supporting them militarily, moving the war to a global stage.
The new Continental Army suffered significantly from a lack of an effective training regime, and largely inexperienced officers and sergeants. The inexperience of its officers was compensated for in part by its senior officers; officers such as George Washington, Horatio Gates, Charles Lee, Richard Montgomery and Francis Marion all had military experience with the British Army during the French and Indian War. The Americans solved their training dilemma during their stint in Winter Quarters at Valley Forge, where they were relentlessly drilled and trained by General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a veteran of the famed Prussian General Staff. He taught the Continental Army the essentials of military discipline, drills, tactics and strategy, and wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual. When the Army emerged from Valley Forge, it proved its ability to equally match the British troops in battle when they fought a successful strategic action at the Battle of Monmouth.
When the war began, the 13 colonies lacked a professional army or navy. Each colony sponsored local militia. Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time, were reluctant to travel far from home and thus were unavailable for extended operations, and lacked the training and discipline of soldiers with more experience. If properly used, however, their numbers could help the Continental armies overwhelm smaller British forces, as at the battles of Concord, Bennington and Saratoga, and the siege of Boston. Both sides used partisan warfare but the Americans effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area.
Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the Continental Congress established a regular army on June 14, 1775, and appointed George Washington as commander - in - chief. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war.
Three current branches of the United States Military trace their institutional roots to the American Revolutionary War; the United States Army comes from the Continental Army, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775. The United States Navy recognizes October 13, 1775 as the date of its official establishment, the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia that created the Continental Navy. And the United States Marine Corps traces its institutional roots to the Continental Marines of the war, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775, a date regarded and celebrated as the birthday of the Marine Corps. At the beginning of 1776, Washington 's army had 20,000 men, with two - thirds enlisted in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias. At the end of the American Revolution in 1783, both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded. About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time. About 55,000 American sailors served aboard privateers during the war. The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships, and they captured 2,283 enemy ships. John Paul Jones became the first great American naval hero, capturing HMS Drake on April 24, 1778, the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters.
Armies were small by European standards of the era, largely attributable to limitations such as lack of powder and other logistical capabilities on the American side. It was also difficult for Great Britain to transport troops across the Atlantic and they depended on local supplies that the Patriots tried to cut off. By comparison, Duffy notes that Frederick the Great usually commanded from 23,000 to 50,000 in battle. Both figures pale in comparison to the armies that were fielded in the early 19th century, where troop formations approached or exceeded 100,000 men.
African Americans -- slave and free -- served on both sides during the war. The British recruited slaves belonging to Patriot masters and promised freedom to those who served by act of Lord Dunmore 's Proclamation. Because of manpower shortages, George Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. Small all - black units were formed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts; many slaves were promised freedom for serving. Some of the men promised freedom were sent back to their masters, after the war was over, out of political convenience. Another all - black unit came from Saint - Domingue with French colonial forces. At least 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Revolutionary cause.
Tens of thousands of slaves escaped during the war and joined British lines; others simply moved off in the chaos. For instance, in South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (30 % of the enslaved population) fled, migrated or died during the disruption of the war. This greatly disrupted plantation production during and after the war. When they withdrew their forces from Savannah and Charleston, the British also evacuated 10,000 slaves belonging to Loyalists. Altogether, the British evacuated nearly 20,000 blacks at the end of the war. More than 3,000 of them were freedmen and most of these were resettled in Nova Scotia; other blacks were sold in the West Indies.
Most American Indians east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, and many tribes were divided over the question of how to respond to the conflict. A few tribes were on friendly terms with the other Americans, but most Indians opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Indians fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes, who fielded around 1,500 men. The powerful Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the conflict, although they did not take sides; the Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga nations sided with the British. Members of the Mohawk nation fought on both sides. Many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the colonists. The Continental Army sent the Sullivan Expedition on raids throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided with the Americans and the British respectively, and this further exacerbated the split.
Early in July 1776, a major action occurred in the fledgling conflict when the Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the western frontier areas of North Carolina. Their defeat resulted in a splintering of the Cherokee settlements and people, and was directly responsible for the rise of the Chickamauga Cherokee, bitter enemies of the Colonials who carried on a frontier war for decades following the end of hostilities with Britain.
Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the Broad River in Georgia. Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown 's raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the Siege of Savannah. Many Indians were involved in the fighting between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and up the Mississippi River -- mostly on the British side. Thousands of Creeks, Chickasaws, and Choctaws fought in major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte, the Battle of Mobile, and the Siege of Pensacola.
Pybus (2005) estimates that about 20,000 slaves defected to or were captured by the British, of whom about 8,000 died from disease or wounds or were recaptured by the Patriots. The British took some 12,000 at the end of the war; of these 8000 remained in slavery. Including those who left during the war, a total of about 8000 to 10,000 slaves gained freedom. About 4000 freed slaves went to Nova Scotia and 1200 blacks remained slaves.
Baller (2006) examines family dynamics and mobilization for the Revolution in central Massachusetts. He reports that warfare and the farming culture were sometimes incompatible. Militiamen found that living and working on the family farm had not prepared them for wartime marches and the rigors of camp life. Rugged individualism conflicted with military discipline and regimentation. A man 's birth order often influenced his military recruitment, as younger sons went to war and older sons took charge of the farm. A person 's family responsibilities and the prevalent patriarchy could impede mobilization. Harvesting duties and family emergencies pulled men home regardless of the sergeant 's orders. Some relatives might be Loyalists, creating internal strains. On the whole, historians conclude the Revolution 's effect on patriarchy and inheritance patterns favored egalitarianism.
McDonnell (2006) shows a grave complication in Virginia 's mobilization of troops was the conflicting interests of distinct social classes, which tended to undercut a unified commitment to the Patriot cause. The Assembly balanced the competing demands of elite slave - owning planters, the middling yeomen (some owning a few slaves), and landless indentured servants, among other groups. The Assembly used deferments, taxes, military service substitute, and conscription to resolve the tensions. Unresolved class conflict, however, made these laws less effective. There were violent protests, many cases of evasion, and large - scale desertion, so that Virginia 's contributions came at embarrassingly low levels. With the British invasion of the state in 1781, Virginia was mired in class division as its native son, George Washington, made desperate appeals for troops.
These are some of the standard works about the war in general that are not listed above; books about specific campaigns, battles, units, and individuals can be found in those articles.
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where is the last season of game of thrones filmed | Game of Thrones (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on July 16, 2017, and concluded on August 27, 2017. Unlike previous seasons that consisted of ten episodes each, the seventh season consisted of only seven. Like the previous season, it largely consisted of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, while also adapting material Martin revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss.
The penultimate season focuses primarily on the convergence of the show 's main plotlines, featuring major events such as Daenerys Targaryen arriving in Westeros with her army and three dragons and waging war against the Lannisters, Jon Snow forging an alliance with Daenarys in an attempt to unite their forces against the White Walker army, Arya and Bran Stark returning to Winterfell and reuniting with their sister Sansa, and the army of the dead breaching the Wall (with the help of a reanimated wight dragon) and entering the Seven Kingdoms.
HBO ordered the seventh season on April 21, 2016, three days before the premiere of the show 's sixth season, and began filming on August 31, 2016. The season was filmed primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia and Iceland.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington. The season introduces several new cast members, including Jim Broadbent and Tom Hopper.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 7. They are listed by the region in which they first appear.
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season. The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 7), Mark Mylod (episodes 2 and 3), Matt Shakman (episodes 4 and 5) and Alan Taylor (episode 6). This marks Taylor 's return to the series after an absence since the second season. Shakman is a first - time Game of Thrones director, with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons. Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer, after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season. She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons, as well as the end of the sixth season.
Depending upon the release of George R.R. Martin 's forthcoming The Winds of Winter, the seventh season may comprise original material not found in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. According to previous reports, some of the show 's sixth season had consisted of material revealed to the writers of the television series during discussions with Martin.
Filming began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017. In an interview with the showrunners, it was announced that the filming of the seventh season would be delayed until later in the year due to necessary weather conditions for filming. The showrunners stated "We 're starting a bit later because, you know, at the end of this season, winter is here, and that means that sunny weather does n't really serve our purposes any more. We kind of pushed everything down the line so we could get some grim, gray weather even in the sunnier places that we shoot. ''
Girona, Spain did not return as one of the filming locations. Girona stood in for Braavos and parts of King 's Landing. It was later announced that the seventh season would film in Northern Ireland, Spain and Iceland, with filming in Northern Ireland beginning in August 2016. The series filmed in the Spanish cities Seville, Cáceres, Almodóvar del Río, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. Spanish sources announced that the series would be filming the seventh season on Muriola Beach in Barrika, Las Atarazanas, the Royal Dockyards of Seville and at the shores of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, an islet belonging to the city of Bermeo. The series returned to film at The Dark Hedges in Stranocum, which was previously used as the Kingsroad in the second season. Some scenes were filmed in Iceland. Filming also occurred in Dubrovnik, Croatia, which is used for location of King 's Landing. The scene where Arya was reunited with Nymeria was filmed in Alberta, Canada.
Deadline reported on June 21, 2016, that the five main cast members, Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington had been in contract negotiations for the final two seasons. It was reported that the cast members have increased their salary to $500,000 per episode for the seventh and eighth season. It was later reported that the actors had gone through a renegotiation, for which they had increased their salary to $1.1 million per episode for the last two seasons. On April 25, 2017, it was reported by Daily Express that the actors ' new salary made them each earn £ 2 million ($2.6 million USD) per episode.
On August 31, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Jim Broadbent had been cast for the seventh season in a "significant '' role. It was announced that the role of Dickon Tarly has been recast, with Tom Hopper replacing Freddie Stroma, who had previously played the role in "Blood of My Blood ''. The seventh season sees the return of Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris, who did not appear in the sixth season, and Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie, who last appeared in the fourth season. After some speculation, UFC President Dana White announced that Conor McGregor would appear in a cameo role in the seventh season. However, in January 2017, McGregor confirmed it was a rumor. Members of the British indie pop band Bastille were reported to have filmed cameo appearances. British singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran also makes a cameo appearance in the season. Guitarist / vocalist of American heavy metal band Mastodon, Brent Hinds, has also revealed he would have a cameo appearance. This is Hinds ' second cameo in the series, following his appearance (along with bandmates Brann Dailor and Bill Kelliher) in the fifth season.
On April 21, 2016, HBO officially ordered the seventh season of Game of Thrones, just three days prior to the premiere of the show 's sixth season. According to an interview with co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the seventh season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating at the time of the interview that they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Director Jack Bender, who worked on the show 's sixth season, said that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes. Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed on July 18, 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16. According to a report by Entertainment Weekly, the seventh season of the series includes its longest episode, with the finale running for 81 minutes. The penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes -- around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode. The first five episodes mostly run longer than average (55 minutes), at 59, 59, 63, 50, and 59 minutes respectively. The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth - season finale, "The Winds of Winter '', which ran 69 minutes.
On July 23, 2016, a teaser production trailer was released by HBO at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con. The trailer mostly consisted of voice overs, and shots of crew members creating sets and props. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on November 28, 2016, showcasing Jon Snow, Sansa Stark and Arya Stark.
On March 1, 2017, HBO and Game of Thrones teamed up with Major League Baseball (MLB) for a cross-promotional partnership. At least 19 individual teams participate with this promotion. On March 8, 2017, HBO released the first promotional poster for the season ahead of the SXSW Festival in Austin, Texas, which teases the battle of "ice vs. fire ''. Showrunners Benioff and Weiss also spoke at the event, along with fellow cast members Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams.
On March 9, 2017, HBO hosted a live stream on the Game of Thrones Facebook page that revealed the premiere date for the seventh season as being July 16, 2017. It was accompanied by a teaser trailer. On March 30, 2017, the first official promo for the show was released, highlighting the thrones of Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Cersei Lannister. On April 20, 2017, HBO released 15 official photos shot during the season. On May 22, 2017, HBO released several new photos from the new season. On May 23, 2017, HBO released the official posters featuring the Night King. The first official trailer for season 7 was released on May 24, 2017. The trailer set a world record for being the most viewed show trailer ever, being viewed 61 million times across digital platforms, in the first 24 hours. The second official trailer was released on June 21, 2017. The season premiere was screened at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles on July 12, 2017.
Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season.
On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the seventh season has a 96 percent approval rating from 37 critics with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10, and a 93 % average episode score, with the site 's consensus reading "After a year - long wait, Game of Thrones roars back with powerful storytelling and a focused interest in its central characters -- particularly the female ones. ''
The series premiere surpassed 30 million viewers across all of the network 's domestic platforms weeks after its release. The show 's numbers continued to climb in other countries as well. In the UK, the premiere got up to 4.7 million viewers after seven days, setting a new record for Sky Atlantic. Compared to the previous season, HBO Asia saw an increases of between 24 percent to 50 percent. HBO Latin America saw a record viewership in the region, with a 29 percent climb. In Germany, the show went up 210 percent, in Russia it climbed 40 percent and in Italy it saw a 61 percent increase. In the United States, the finale was watched by 12.1 million viewers on its first airing on television, and 16.5 million when viewings on HBO Now and HBO Go apps are included. Over the season, the viewer numbers averaged at over 30 million per episode across all platform.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186 countries. While in some countries, it aired the day after its first release.
The season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on December 12, 2017.
The season premiere was pirated 90 million times in the first three days after it aired. On August 4, 2017, it was reported that, two days before its original broadcast, the fourth episode of the season was leaked online from Star India, one of HBO 's international network partners. The leaked copy has the "for internal viewing only '' watermark. On July 31, 2017, due to a security breach, HBO was the victim of 1.5 terabytes of stolen data. However, "this was not related to this episode leak '', according to The Verge. On August 16, 2017, four days before its intended release, it was reported that HBO Spain and HBO Nordic accidentally allowed the sixth episode of the series on - demand viewing for one hour before being removed.
Data from by piracy monitoring firm MUSO indicates that season seven was pirated more than one billion times mostly by unauthorized streaming, with torrent and direct downloads accounting for about 15 percent of this piracy. On average, each episode is estimated to have been pirated 140 million times.
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who plays rachel's birth mom on glee | Shelby Corcoran - wikipedia
Shelby Corcoran is a recurring fictional character from the Fox musical comedy - drama series Glee. Portrayed by actress Idina Menzel, Shelby was introduced in the fourteenth episode of the show as the coach of Vocal Adrenaline, a rival show choir to New Directions, the show 's primary musical group. Fans had lobbied for Menzel to be cast as Rachel Berry 's (Lea Michele) biological mother, due to the strong physical resemblance between Menzel and Michele. After it is revealed that Shelby is, in fact, Rachel 's biological mother, Shelby discloses that she had signed a contract that stated that she could not seek out her daughter until she was eighteen. She tells Rachel that instead of trying to act like mother and daughter, they should just be grateful that they have met, and maintain their distance.
In the season one finale, Shelby adopts Quinn and Puck 's newborn daughter, Beth. She leaves Vocal Adrenaline before the beginning of the next school year. Shelby returns in the second episode of the third season, having been recruited to lead a second glee club at McKinley High by Sugar Motta 's father when Sugar is refused entry into New Directions. Shelby offers to include both Quinn and Puck in Beth 's life. Struggling at being a mother, she forms a romantic bond with eighteen - year - old student Puck, leading to a sexual relationship before she tells him that their relationship is a mistake and resigns from McKinley in the eighth episode. While Menzel 's musical performances on the show have been lauded, Shelby 's storylines were characterized as rushed, incomprehensible and polarizing by contemporary reviewers.
Shelby Corcoran is introduced in the fourteenth episode of the series as the coach of Vocal Adrenaline, a rival show choir to New Directions, the show 's primary musical group. New Directions ' director, Will (Matthew Morrison), on a visit to Carmel High School, meets Shelby and they end up at his apartment making out, but Will is unable to continue and tells her about his relationship problems. Shelby suggests that as Will had been with Terri (Jessalyn Gilsig) since he was fifteen and has immediately moved on to a new relationship, he ought to take some time out for himself. She later observes as New Directions ' star singer, Rachel Berry (Lea Michele), and Vocal Adrenaline 's Jesse St. James (Jonathan Groff) kiss, and exchanges knowing looks with Jesse. In "Dream On '', Rachel confides in Jesse of her lifelong dream to discover the identity of her mother. While they are searching through boxes of records from her basement, Jesse takes a cassette tape from his jacket and pretends that it came from the box. The tape is labeled as a message from mother to daughter. Rachel refuses to listen to the tape, stating that she is not ready. Jesse later meets with Shelby, who reveals that she is Rachel 's biological mother, but a contractual agreement with Rachel 's two fathers prevents her from meeting with Rachel until she is 18. She implores Jesse to convince Rachel to listen to the tape. Back at Rachel 's house, Jesse starts the tape playing as Rachel enters her bedroom, then leaves her to listen to it. On the tape, Shelby sings "I Dreamed a Dream '', leading to a duet with Rachel in a dream sequence, ending with Rachel back in her room in tears.
While subsequently spying on a Vocal Adrenaline rehearsal, Rachel realizes that Shelby is her biological mother. After introducing herself, Will meets with Shelby, concerned that she is not as invested in forging a relationship as Rachel is. Shelby confesses that she can no longer have children, but wishes she could have her baby back, rather than the now fully grown Rachel, whom she feels does not need her. She tells Rachel that instead of trying to act like mother and daughter, they should just be grateful that they have met, and maintain their distance. Rachel hugs her goodbye, and they duet on an acoustic version of "Poker Face ''. In "Journey to Regionals '', the show 's first season finale, Rachel asks Shelby to help coach New Directions, but Shelby tells Rachel that she 's tired of coaching glee clubs, and is stepping down as Vocal Adrenaline 's coach to settle down and start a family. Shelby adopts Quinn 's (Dianna Agron) baby, whom she names Beth at Puck 's (Mark Salling) request.
Shelby returns in the second episode of the third season, "I Am Unicorn '', having been headhunted to coach a second glee club at McKinley High financed by Sugar Motta 's (Vanessa Lengies) wealthy and doting father. Shelby reaches out to Rachel, Puck and Quinn. She lets Puck see Beth, but rejects Quinn 's desire to do likewise due to Quinn 's bad - girl attitude, appearance and behavior. Quinn quickly resumes her normal appearance, but reveals to Puck she is only pretending to behave in order to take Beth back from Shelby, and intends to pursue full custody. After Puck tells Shelby of Quinn 's true intentions, Shelby informs Quinn that she does not want her in Beth 's life. Shelby tells Puck that she is struggling at being a mother; as the episode ends, they kiss. Puck falls in love with her, but Shelby tells him in "Mash Off '' that the kiss was a mistake. She compounds the mistake in "I Kissed a Girl '' when she sleeps with him, and resigns from McKinley in the eighth episode, "Hold On to Sixteen ''. In the season four "Sweet Dreams '' episode, which establishes that she is living in New York with Beth and is running a day care business, she tells Rachel to be original in her choice of music at her audition for the role of Fanny Brice in the upcoming Broadway revival of Funny Girl.
During its initial run of episodes, Glee fans lobbied for the Broadway actress (Idina Menzel) to be cast as the biological mother of Rachel Berry, due to the strong resemblance between her and Michele. Series creator Ryan Murphy commented to the media that he had met with Menzel, by December 2009, the break in the first season, but had not yet decided upon a role for her. The actress was ultimately cast as the coach of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline, with Murphy comparing her character to Faye Dunaway 's character, Diana Christensen, in Network. Menzel makes her first appearance in "Hell - O ''. On July 15, 2011, it was announced that Menzel would be returning to Glee in the third season "for a major arc that could span as many as 10 - 12 episodes ''. Murphy was quoted as saying, "I 'm really excited (...) that Idina is joining the family again. We missed her last year and we 're happy that she is coming back. '' The article also noted that her character, Shelby, would be "returning from New York to Ohio to join William McKinley High School as a new teacher ''. Menzel herself said that she would "be back and forth in Glee all throughout the season '', which she was "very excited about ''.
Upon the character 's introduction, Lisa Respers France of CNN wrote that she was "praying '' that Shelby would turn out to be Rachel 's biological mother, noting the stark resemblance between the two actresses. The A.V. Club author Todd VanDerWerff deemed the make - out sequence between Shelby and Will nonsensical, but wrote that Menzel brought "such an air of authority to what she 's doing that the scene still plays. '' The revelation that Shelby is Rachel 's biological mother, in the "Dream On '' episode, was greeted as poignant and realistic by VanDerWeff, and as "great '' and humanizing by Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack. Respers France was so impressed with the storyline that she was initially concerned it may be a dream sequence, and Eric Goldman of IGN found it the episode 's strongest attribute. Both James Poniewozik of Time and VanDerWerff praised the Rachel / Shelby storyline in "Theatricality ''. The former commended Michele and Menzel for conveying "straight emotion '' and the latter asserted that the storyline was "very well - handled, another emotional story that the series is mostly nailing the execution of ''. In contrast, BuddyTV editor Henrik Batallones criticized the storyline, suggesting that it was rushed and would have been better stretched out across the remainder of the season. VanDerWerff wrote that he did not "completely buy '' Shelby 's "sudden '' decision to adopt Beth in "Journey to Regionals ''.
Samantha Urban of The Dallas Morning News dismissed the fact that Shelby had been hired to form a second glee club at McKinley as "mind - bogglingly idiotic ''. Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times found the idea incomprehensible, and Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk wrote, "Given Will 's ongoing struggles to fill his own crooning baker 's dozen, this is about as realistic a plan as Michele Bachmann starting a rival chapter of PFLAG at Liberty University. '' Vicki Hyman of The Star - Ledger characterized the notion of "Shelby deciding to give up a burgeoning Broadway career because she was missing her daughter grow up '' to take a part - time job in Lima as "ridiculous '', and the whole scenario as "more than a little bizarre ''. Puck and Shelby 's kiss in the "Pot o ' Gold '' episode was characterized as "creepy '' and "super awkward '' by AOLTV 's Crystal Bell, as either "super creepy '' or "romantic '' by BuddyTV 's John Kubicek, and as "groan - inducing '' in the "You 're actually going to go there? '' vein by IGN journalist Robert Canning. Critics were polarized by Puck and Shelby 's sexual encounter in the "I Kissed a Girl '' episode. Kubicek declared that "the dumbest storyline Glee has ever done gets even dumber, '' MTV contributor Kevin Sullivan called it "the most divisive plot line of the season '', and Bell asked, "Instead of these super creepy scenes between Puck and Shelby, can we please get more screen time for Shelby and Rachel? ''
Michele and Menzel 's "I Dreamed a Dream '' duet attracted critical praise. Aly Semigran of MTV proclaimed that the performance represented "what musical theater lovers ' dreams are made of. '' At the time, Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal described the number as one of the most poignant duets the series had done, and concluded that "the vulnerability they conveyed is stunning in its simplicity and perfection. '' Respers France said that the two outdid themselves, Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle praised Menzel 's "awesome voice '', and Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "Menzel and Michele together? Singing? Die with me. Again, soundtrack please ''. VanDerWerff spoke of "absolute perfection '', while Blair Baldwin of Zap2it acclaimed it as "an ideal pairing of wicked - great vocalists, '' and as the show 's best musical sequence since its inception.
The acoustic performance of Lady Gaga 's "Poker Face '', in the "Theatricality '' episode, sung by Rachel and Shelby was met with mixed reviews. Menzel opined that the sexual meaning of the song is different in the context of the show, calling it "actually very simple and truthful. '' Both Mary Hanrahan of Broadway World and Kevin Coll of Fused Film noted that it was well done, but badly matched with the mother -- daughter scene and storyline. Despite considering the track 's lyricism "a tad weird '' in a mother -- daughter context, Stack gave the performance an "A + '', named it one of his "all - time favorite Glee moments '', and called their vocal performance "incredible '', as did Hankinson, who additionally applauded the duet 's "beautiful '' arrangement and favored it as the installment 's best musical number. VanDerWeff said the "incredibly bizarre '' selection "worked because Menzel and Michele sold it ''.
The duet of "Somewhere '', in the "I Am Unicorn '' episode, featuring Rachel and Shelby was generally complimented. Both Anthony Benigno, writing for The Faster Times, and Rae Votta of Billboard compared it favorably to their previous duet, "Poker Face '', from season one. Benigno gave the performance a "B + '', while Michael Slezak of TVLine gave it an "A − '' and praised their "powerful, evocative voices ''. Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman was not impressed and characterized it as "Lite FM snooze that does nothing to showcase these Broadway belters in a new and exciting way '', and Amy Lee of The Huffington Post named it "pretty bland ''. Flandez, however, hailed the duet as "pitch - perfect '' and "so sublime it makes you catch your breath ''.
The mash - up of "You and I '' by Lady Gaga and another "You and I '' by Eddie Rabbitt and Crystal Gayle, in the "Mash Off '' episode, performed by Menzel and Morrison was well received by critics. Berk said that the mash - up "almost worked '', while Los Angeles Times writer L'Oreal Thompson praised the vocals of Menzel: "It 's official. Shelby sings Gaga as good as, if not better than, Gaga sings Gaga. '' Slezak awarded the performance a "B '' grade, and opined: "I loved the audacity of mashing up Lady Gaga with an Eddie Rabbit -- Crystal Gayle chestnut, and the results had the sheen of ' 70s a.m. radio fare. Shelby 's voice was almost too crystal clear for the Gaga half of the composition. '' Futterman said that Menzel "can kill a Gaga ballad '', and while she "outshines '' Morrison, he "complements her nicely ''. Entertainment Weekly journalist Abby West gave the mash - up a "B + '', called it "really well - done '' and said it was "elevated '' by Menzel 's voice. Sullivan wanted Menzel to interpret more songs by Lady Gaga. Votta, however, described the sequence as "horrendous ''.
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what is a unit of alcohol in the us | Standard drink - wikipedia
A standard drink is a measure of alcohol consumption representing a hypothetical beverage which contains a fixed amount of pure alcohol. A standard drink varies in volume depending on the alcohol concentration of the beverage (for example, a standard drink of spirits takes up much less space than a standard drink of beer), but it always contains the same amount of alcohol and therefore produces the same amount of drunkenness.
The standard drink is used in relation to recommendations about alcohol consumption and its relative risks to health. Many government health guidelines specify low to high risk amounts in units of grams of pure alcohol per day, week, or single occasion. The concept of the standard drink is meant to help visualize and estimate the absolute alcohol content of various drink concentrations and serving sizes.
For example, in the United States, a standard drink contains about 14 grams of alcohol. This corresponds to a 12 - US - fluid - ounce (350 mL) glass of beer, a 5 - US - fluid - ounce (150 mL) glass of 12 % wine, or a 1.5 - US - fluid - ounce (44 mL) glass of spirit.
Different countries define standard drinks differently. For example, in Australia, a standard drink contains 10 grams of alcohol, but in Japan, it contains nearly 20 grams. In addition, a standard drink is often different from normal serving size in the country in which it is served.
Labeling is usually required to give an indication of alcoholic content of a serving. Australia requires that "the label on a package of an alcoholic beverage must include a statement of the number of standard drinks in the package ''.
The term "standard drink '' was used in the United Kingdom in the first guidelines (1984) that published "safe limits '' for drinking, but this was replaced by reference to units of alcohol in the 1987 guidelines and that term has been used in all subsequent UK guidance. A unit of alcohol is defined there as 10 millilitres (8 grams) of pure alcohol. This definition is independent of the strength (% ABV) and amount (volume) of any individual alcoholic beverage. The number of units of alcohol in a bottle or can (and, optionally, the number of units in a typical serving) are indicated on the drink container. Typical servings deliver 1 -- 3 units of alcohol.
The amount of alcohol is stated in the table in both grams (g) and millilitres (mL). The number of standard drinks contained in 500 mL (16.9 fluid ounces) of beer of 4.5 % ABV (a typical large drink of beer) is stated for comparison.
Pure alcohol mass in a serving can be calculated if concentration, density and volume are known.
For example, 0.35 litre glass of beer with ABV of 5.5 % has 15.2 grams of pure alcohol. Pure alcohol has density of 789.24 g / L (at 20 ° C).
When drink size is in fluid ounces (which differ between the UK and the US), the following conversions can be used:
One should bear in mind that a pint in the UK is 20 UK fluid ounces, whereas a pint in the US is only 16 US fluid ounces (but because 1 Imp. fl. oz. = 0.96 US fl. oz., 1 Imp. pint = 1.2 US pint, not (20 / 16 =) 1.25 US pints).
On average, it takes about one hour for the body to metabolise (break down) one standard drink as defined by U.S. guidelines (i.e. 12 ounces of 5 % beer, 5 ounces of 12 % wine, or 1.5 ounces of 40 % liquor). However, this can vary with body weight, sex, age, personal metabolic rate, recent food intake, the type and strength of the alcohol, and medications taken. Alcohol may be metabolised more slowly if liver function is impaired.
Explanatory notes
Citations
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how many pirates of the caribbeans movies are there | Pirates of the Caribbean (film series) - wikipedia
Pirates of the Caribbean is a series of American fantasy swashbuckler films produced by Jerry Bruckheimer and based on Walt Disney 's theme park ride of the same name.
Directors of the series include Gore Verbinski (1 -- 3), Rob Marshall (4) and Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg (5). The series is primarily written by Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio (1 -- 4); other writers include Stuart Beattie (1), Jay Wolpert (1) and Jeff Nathanson (5). The stories follow the adventures of Captain Jack Sparrow (Johnny Depp), Will Turner (Orlando Bloom) and Elizabeth Swann (Keira Knightley). Characters such as Hector Barbossa (Geoffrey Rush) and Joshamee Gibbs (Kevin McNally) follow Jack, Will and Elizabeth in the course of the films. The fourth film features Blackbeard (Ian McShane) and Angelica (Penélope Cruz), while the fifth film features Armando Salazar (Javier Bardem), Henry Turner (Brenton Thwaites) and Carina Smyth (Kaya Scodelario). The films take place in a fictional historical setting; a world ruled by the British Empire, the East India Trading Company (based on the real East India Company) and the Spanish Empire, with pirates representing freedom from the ruling powers.
The film series started in 2003 with Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, which received positive reviews from critics and grossed US $ 654 million worldwide. After the first film 's success, Walt Disney Pictures revealed that a trilogy was in the works. The franchise 's second film, subtitled Dead Man 's Chest, was released three years later in 2006; the sequel proved successful, breaking financial records worldwide the day of its premiere. Dead Man 's Chest ended up being the number one film of the year upon earning almost $1.1 billion at the worldwide box office. The third film in the series, subtitled At World 's End, followed in 2007, and Disney released a fourth film, subtitled On Stranger Tides, in 2011 in conventional 2D, Digital 3 - D and IMAX 3D. On Stranger Tides succeeded in also grossing more than $1 billion, becoming the second film in the franchise and only the eighth film in history to achieve this.
The franchise has grossed over $4.5 billion worldwide; it is the tenth highest - grossing film series of all time and it was the first franchise where more than one film grossed $1 billion worldwide.
Blacksmith Will Turner teams up with eccentric pirate Captain Jack Sparrow to save Turner 's love, Elizabeth Swann, from cursed pirates led by Jack 's mutinous former first mate, Captain Barbossa. Jack wants revenge against Barbossa, who left him stranded on an island before stealing his ship, the Black Pearl, along with 882 pieces of cursed Aztec Gold.
Lord Cutler Beckett of the East India Trading Company arrests Will and Elizabeth for aiding Captain Jack Sparrow in the previous film. Beckett offers clemency if Will agrees to search for Jack 's compass in a bid to find the Dead Man 's Chest -- and inside, the heart of villainous Davy Jones -- which would give Beckett control of the seas. However, Jack wants the Chest to escape from an unpaid debt with Jones, who made Jack captain of the Black Pearl for 13 years in exchange for 100 years of service aboard Jones ' ship, the Flying Dutchman.
Lord Beckett gains power over Davy Jones and, with the help of the Flying Dutchman, he is now executing his plans to extinguish piracy forever. To stand against the East India Trading Co., Will, Elizabeth, Barbossa, and the crew of the Black Pearl set out to rescue Captain Jack Sparrow from Davy Jones ' Locker. As one of the Nine Pirate Lords, Jack is needed in order to release an ancient goddess with the power to defeat Beckett 's forces.
Captain Jack Sparrow is on a quest to find the fabled Fountain of Youth and crosses paths with a former lover, Angelica. She forces Jack aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge, a ship captained by the infamous pirate Blackbeard, Angelica 's father. Both are also in search of the Fountain; Angelica to save her father 's soul, Blackbeard to escape a prophecy of his demise at the hands of a one - legged man. Joining the hunt is former pirate captain Barbossa, now a privateer in King George II 's Navy, who is in a race against the Spanish for the Fountain of Youth.
Ghost Spanish Royal Navy soldiers led by Jack Sparrow 's old nemesis, Captain Armando Salazar, escape from the Devil 's Triangle, with the goal of killing every pirate at sea, including him. To survive, Jack seeks out the legendary Trident of Poseidon, a powerful artifact whose owner can control the seas and break curses.
Shortly before the release of On Stranger Tides, it was reported that Disney was planning to shoot the fifth and the sixth films back - to - back, although it was later revealed that only the fifth film was in development. On March 4, 2017, director Joachim Rønning stated that Dead Men was only the beginning of the final adventure, implying that it would not be the last film of the franchise and that a sixth film could be realized. The post-credit scene of Dead Men shows Will Turner, Elizabeth Swann, and Davy Jones, implying that Will and Elizabeth will be main characters again and Davy Jones would be the main antagonist in the sixth film. In September 2017, producer Jerry Bruckheimer indicated that another Pirates sequel is still possible if Dead Men Tell No Tales does well in its home release. In October 2017, Kaya Scodelario said that she was contracted to return for a sixth film. Shortly after, it was announced that Joachim Rønning is being eyed to direct the film.
Wenches Scarlett (Lauren Maher) and Giselle (Vanessa Branch) fix each other up for their wedding, in which they would each marry their groom. Upon realizing that both their grooms were the same man -- Jack Sparrow -- the two wenches find themselves in an auction led by the Auctioneer. The short film serves as a prequel to The Curse of the Black Pearl, explaining just why Jack Sparrow 's boat, the Jolly Mon, was seen sinking at the beginning of the whole story, and explaining why wenches Scarlett and Giselle were so upset with him, and it also implies how Cotton lost his tongue. The plot took inspiration from the "Auction scene '' from the original ride.
The short was directed by James Ward Byrkit, and was only included as a special feature in the US 15 disc 3D Blu - ray / 2D Blu - ray / DVD + Digital Copy box set that includes Pirates 1 -- 4; and in the similar UK 5 - disc set.
In the early 1990s screenwriters Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio conceived a supernatural spin on the pirate genre after completing work on Aladdin, but there was no interest from any studio. Undeterred, the writing team refused to give up the dream, waiting for a studio to pick up their take on a pirate tale. Disney had Jay Wolpert write a script based on the Pirates of the Caribbean, which producer Jerry Bruckheimer rejected, feeling it was "a straight pirate movie ''. Bruckheimer brought Stuart Beattie in to rewrite the script in March 2002, due to his knowledge of piracy, and later that month Elliott and Rossio were brought in. Elliott and Rossio, inspired by the opening narration of the Pirates of the Caribbean ride, decided to give the film a supernatural edge. As the budget rose, Michael Eisner and Robert Iger threatened to cancel the film, though Bruckheimer changed their minds when he showed them concept art and animatics.
In June 2002 Gore Verbinski signed on to direct The Curse of the Black Pearl, and Johnny Depp and Geoffrey Rush signed on the following month to star. Verbinski was attracted to the idea of using modern technology to resurrect a genre, one that had disappeared after the Golden Age of Hollywood, and recalled his childhood memories of the ride, feeling the film was an opportunity to pay tribute to the "scary and funny '' tone of it. Depp was attracted to the story as he found it quirky: rather than trying to find treasure, the crew of the Black Pearl were trying to return it in order to lift their curse; also, the traditional mutiny had already taken place. Verbinski approached Rush for the role of Barbossa, as he knew he would not play it with attempts at complexity, but with a simple villainy that would suit the story 's tone. Orlando Bloom read the script after Rush, with whom he was working on Ned Kelly, suggested it to him. Keira Knightley came as a surprise to Verbinski: he had not seen her performance in Bend It Like Beckham and was impressed by her audition. Tom Wilkinson was negotiated with to play Governor Swann, but the role went to Jonathan Pryce, whom Depp idolized.
Shooting for The Curse of the Black Pearl began on October 9, 2002 and wrapped by March 7, 2003. Before its release, many executives and journalists had expected the film to flop, as the pirate genre had not been successful for years, the film was based on a theme - park ride, and Depp rarely made a big film. However, The Curse of the Black Pearl became both a critical and commercial success.
After seeing how well the first film was made, the cast and crew signed for two sequels to be shot back - to - back, a practical decision on Disney 's part to allow more time with the same cast and crew. Writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio knew that with an ensemble cast, they were n't free to invent totally different situations and characters, as with the Indiana Jones and James Bond series, and so had to retroactively turn The Curse of the Black Pearl into the first of a trilogy. They wanted to explore the reality of what would happen after Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann 's embrace at the end of the first film, and initially considered the Fountain of Youth as the plot device. They settled on introducing Davy Jones, the Flying Dutchman and the Kraken, a mythology mentioned twice in the first film. They introduced the historical East India Trading Company (also mentioned in the first film), which for them represented a counterpoint to the themes of personal freedom represented by pirates.
Filming for the sequels began on February 28, 2005, with Dead Man 's Chest finishing on March 1, 2006, and At World 's End on January 10, 2007. The second film was also the first Disney theatrical feature film with the computer - generated Walt Disney Pictures logo.
Rossio and Elliot discovered the novel On Stranger Tides during production of Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End and decided to use it as the basis for a fourth film. As Gore Verbinski was unavailable, Bruckheimer invited Rob Marshall to direct the film. Elliott and Rossio decided to do a stand - alone film, with a story that would support new characters, and incorporate elements from the novel, such as Blackbeard, the Fountain of Youth and mermaids -- the latter two having been already alluded to in the previous films. Depp, Rush, Greg Ellis and Kevin McNally returned to their roles, and the cast saw the additions of Ian McShane as Blackbeard and Penélope Cruz as Angelica, Blackbeard 's daughter and Jack Sparrow 's love interest. A further addition was Richard Griffiths as King George II of Great Britain. After the costly production of two simultaneous films, Disney tried to scale down the fourth installment, giving a lower budget, which led to cheaper locations and fewer scenes with special effects. It was also filmed in 3D, with cameras similar to the ones used in Avatar.
Filming for On Stranger Tides began June 14, 2010 and ended on November 19, 2010. It was released in the United States on May 20, 2011. With a budget of $378.5 million, On Stranger Tides holds the record for most expensive film ever made.
On January 14, 2011, it was confirmed that Terry Rossio would write the screenplay for the fifth installment, without his co-writer Ted Elliott. On January 11, 2013, Jeff Nathanson signed on to write the script for the film. On May 29, 2013, it was announced that Norwegian directors Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg were selected to direct. On August 22, 2013, the two revealed that the title of the fifth film would be Dead Men Tell No Tales, alluding to the line well - known from the Pirates of the Caribbean theme park attractions. Although, the film was given an alternative title, Salazar 's Revenge, in selected European, South American and Asian countries for marketing purposes. They also confirmed that they were working on the film, speaking highly of Jeff Nathanson 's "funny and touching '' script and that they are inspired by the first film, The Curse of the Black Pearl. On September 10, 2013, Disney pushed back the film 's initial 2015 release, with sources indicating that a Summer 2016 release is likely. Producer Jerry Bruckheimer revealed that script issues were behind the delay, and that Jeff Nathanson was at work on a second attempt based on a well - received outline. While Disney originally announced a release on July 7, 2017, Dead Men Tell No Tales was released on May 26, 2017.
A spokesman for the Australian Arts Minister confirmed that the fifth installment was set to shoot in Australia after the government agreed to repurpose $20 million of tax incentives originally intended for the remake of 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. According to Australian film industry sources, pre-production started in late September 2014 with filming expected to commence in February 2015. This was officially confirmed by Disney and Ian Walker the Queensland Arts Minister on October 2, 2014, stating that filming will take place exclusively in Australia, being the largest production to ever shoot in the country. Village Roadshow Studios and Port Douglas were officially confirmed as filming locations. Production began in Australia on February 17, 2015 and wrapped on July 9, 2015.
The Pirates of the Caribbean film series was successful at the box office, with each film grossing over $650 million, and all but Dead Men Tell No Tales at some point ranking among the fifty highest - grossing films of all time. It also became the first ever series to have multiple films passing the billion dollar mark in box office revenues with Dead Man 's Chest and On Stranger Tides, which is followed by other series, such as the Batman series, J.R.R. Tolkien 's Middle - earth series, the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Transformers series, Jurassic Park series, Star Wars series and The Fast and the Furious series.
The Curse of the Black Pearl was the third highest - grossing 2003 film in North America (behind The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King and Finding Nemo) and fourth worldwide (behind The Return of the King, Finding Nemo and The Matrix Reloaded). Dead Man 's Chest was the most successful film of 2006 worldwide, and At World 's End led the worldwide grosses in 2007, though being only fourth in North America (behind Spider - Man 3, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and Shrek the Third). On Stranger Tides was the third highest - grossing film of 2011 worldwide (behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 and Transformers: Dark of the Moon) and the fifth in North America. The first three sequels broke box office records upon release, of which the most notable are the opening - weekend record in North America (Dead Man 's Chest), the Memorial - Day weekend record in North America (At World 's End) and the opening - weekend record outside North America (On Stranger Tides).
The series is noted for its high quality of acting talent, and is one of the aspects of the films that is always praised. The visual and practical effects are considered some of the best ever done on film, so much so that audiences believed certain CGI elements of the films were real and done practically. However, the plots of the four sequels have received mixed reviews, with the general consensus that they are too bloated and convoluted to follow. Pirates of the Caribbean is noted for reinvigorating the pirate genre of film after decades of either no pirate films or failed pirate films. The success of the series saw Disney and Jerry Bruckheimer try to replicate the franchise 's success by launching films such as Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time and The Lone Ranger, the latter of which directed by Gore Verbinski. Both movies failed critically and commercially.
Together, all the first three films were nominated for a total of 11 Academy Awards, of which a single award was won.
Together, all the four films were nominated for a total of 2 Golden Globe Awards, of which neither were won.
Together, all the first three films were nominated for a total of 13 MTV Movie Awards, of which 4 were won.
Together, the first four films were nominated for a total of 25 Teen Choice Awards, of which 16 were won.
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the hormone that is responsible for the formation of the corpus luteum | Corpus luteum - wikipedia
The corpus luteum (Latin for "yellow body ''; plural corpora lutea) is a temporary endocrine structure in female ovaries and is involved in the production of relatively high levels of progesterone, moderate levels of estradiol, inhibin A and small amounts of estrogen. It is the remains of the ovarian follicle that has released a mature ovum during a previous ovulation.
The corpus luteum is colored as a result of concentrating carotenoids (including lutein) from the diet and secretes a moderate amount of estrogen to inhibit further release of gonadotropin - releasing hormone (GnRH) and thus secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle - stimulating hormone (FSH). A new corpus luteum develops with each menstrual cycle.
The corpus luteum develops from an ovarian follicle during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle or oestrous cycle, following the release of a secondary oocyte from the follicle during ovulation. The follicle first forms a corpus hemorrhagicum before it becomes a corpus luteum, but the term refers to the visible collection of blood, left after rupture of the follicle, that secretes progesterone. While the oocyte (later the zygote if fertilization occurs) traverses the Fallopian tube into the uterus, the corpus luteum remains in the ovary.
The corpus luteum is typically very large relative to the size of the ovary; in humans, the size of the structure ranges from under 2 cm to 5 cm in diameter.
Its cells develop from the follicular cells surrounding the ovarian follicle. The follicular theca cells luteinize into small luteal cells (thecal - lutein cells) and follicular granulosa cells luteinize into large luteal cells (granulosal - lutein cells) forming the corpus luteum. Progesterone is synthesized from cholesterol by both the large and small luteal cells upon luteal maturation. Cholesterol - LDL complexes bind to receptors on the plasma membrane of luteal cells and are internalized. Cholesterol is released and stored within the cell as cholesterol ester. LDL is recycled for further cholesterol transport. Large luteal cells produce more progesterone due to uninhibited / basal levels of protein kinase A (PKA) activity within the cell. Small luteal cells have LH receptors that regulate PKA activity within the cell. PKA actively phosphorylates steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and translocator protein to transport cholesterol from the outer mitochondrial membrane to the inner mitochondrial membrane.
The development of the corpus luteum is accompanied by an increase in the level of the steroidogenic enzyme P450scc that converts cholesterol to pregnenolone in the mitochondria. Pregnenolone is then converted to progesterone that is secreted out of the cell and into the blood stream. During the bovine estrous cycle, plasma levels of progesterone increase in parallel to the levels of P450scc and its electron donor adrenodoxin, indicating that progesterone secretion is a result of enhanced expression of P450scc in the corpus luteum.
The mitochondrial P450 system electron transport chain including adrenodoxin reductase and adrenodoxin has been shown to leak electrons leading to the formation of superoxide radical. Apparently to cope with the radicals produced by this system and by enhanced mitochondrial metabolism, the levels of antioxidant enzymes catalase and superoxide dismutase also increase in parallel with the enhanced steroidogenesis in the corpus luteum.
Like the previous theca cells, the theca lutein cells lack the aromatase enzyme that is necessary to produce estrogen, so they can only perform steroidogenesis until formation of androgens. The granulosa lutein cells do have aromatase, and use it to produce estrogens, using the androgens previously synthesized by the theca lutein cells, as the granulosa lutein cells in themselves do not have the 17α - hydroxylase or 17, 20 lyase to produce androgens. Once the corpus luteum regresses the remnant is known as corpus albicans.
The corpus luteum is essential for establishing and maintaining pregnancy in females. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which is a steroid hormone responsible for the decidualization of the endometrium (its development) and maintenance, respectively. It also produces relaxin, a hormone responsible for softening of the pubic symphysis which helps in parturition.
If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum stops secreting progesterone and decays (after approximately 10 days in humans). It then degenerates into a corpus albicans, which is a mass of fibrous scar tissue.
The uterine lining (endometrium) is expelled through the vagina (in mammals that go through a menstrual cycle). In an estrous cycle, the lining degenerates back to normal size.
If the egg is fertilized and implantation occurs, the syncytiotrophoblast (derived from trophoblast) cells of the blastocyst secrete the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG, or a similar hormone in other species) by day 9 post-fertilization.
Human chorionic gonadotropin signals the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion, thereby maintaining the thick lining (endometrium) of the uterus and providing an area rich in blood vessels in which the zygote (s) can develop. From this point on, the corpus luteum is called the corpus luteum graviditatis.
The introduction of prostaglandins at this point causes the degeneration of the corpus luteum and the abortion of the fetus. However, in placental animals such as humans, the placenta eventually takes over progesterone production and the corpus luteum degrades into a corpus albicans without embryo / fetus loss.
Luteal support refers to the administration of medication (generally progestins) for the purpose of increasing the success of implantation and early embryogenesis, thereby complementing the function of the corpus luteum.
The yellow color and name of the corpus luteum, like that of the macula lutea of the retina, is due to its concentration of certain carotenoids, especially lutein. In 1968, a report indicated that beta - carotene was synthesized in laboratory conditions in slices of corpus luteum from cows. However, attempts have been made to replicate these findings, but have not succeeded. The idea is not presently accepted by the scientific community. Rather, the corpus luteum concentrates carotenoids from the diet of the mammal.
Similar structures and functions of the corpus luteum exist in some reptiles. Dairy cattle also follow a similar cycle.
Order of changes in ovary
Human ovary with fully developed corpus luteum
Luteinized follicular cyst. H&E stain.
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who were the opening bowlers in india’s first one-day international | India national cricket team - Wikipedia
Test kit
ODI kit
T20I kit
The India national cricket team, also known as Team India and Men in Blue, represents India in international cricket. Governed by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI), it is a full member of the International Cricket Council (ICC) with Test, One Day International (ODI) and Twenty20 International (T20I) status.
Although cricket was introduced to India by European merchant sailors in the 18th century, and the first cricket club was established in Calcutta (currently known as Kolkata) in 1792, India 's national cricket team did not play its first Test match until 25 June 1932 at Lord 's, becoming the sixth team to be granted Test cricket status. In its first fifty years of international cricket, India was one of the weaker teams, winning only 35 of the first 196 Test matches it played. From 1932 India had to wait until 1952, almost 20 years for its first Test victory. The team, however, gained strength in the 1970s with the emergence of players such as batsmen Sunil Gavaskar and Gundappa Viswanath, all - rounder Kapil Dev and the Indian spin quartet of Erapalli Prasanna, Srinivas Venkataraghavan, Bhagwat Chandrasekhar and Bishen Singh Bedi.
Traditionally much stronger at home than abroad, the Indian team has improved its overseas form, especially in limited - overs cricket, since the start of the 21st century, winning Test matches in Australia, England and South Africa. It has won the Cricket World Cup twice -- in 1983 under the captaincy of Kapil Dev and in 2011 under the captaincy of Mahendra Singh Dhoni. After winning the 2011 World Cup, India became only the third team after West Indies and Australia to have won the World Cup more than once, and the first cricket team to win the World Cup at home. It also won the 2007 ICC World Twenty20 and 2013 ICC Champions Trophy, under the captaincy of MS Dhoni. It was also the joint champions of 2002 ICC Champions Trophy, along with Sri Lanka.
As of 2 May 2018, India is ranked first in Test 2nd in ODIs and third in T20Is by the ICC. Virat Kohli is the current captain of the team across all formats, while the head coach is Ravi Shastri. The Indian cricket team has rivalries with other Test - playing nations, most notably with Pakistan, the political arch - rival of India. However, in recent times, rivalries with nations like Australia, South Africa and England have also gained prominence.
The British brought cricket to India in the early 1700s, with the first cricket match played in 1721. In 1848, the Parsi community in Bombay formed the Oriental Cricket Club, the first cricket club to be established by Indians. After slow beginnings, the Europeans eventually invited the Parsis to play a match in 1877. By 1912, the Parsis, Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims of Bombay played a quadrangular tournament with the Europeans every year. In the early 1900s, some Indians went on to play for the England cricket team. Some of these, such as Ranjitsinhji and KS Duleepsinhji were greatly appreciated by the British and their names went on to be used for the Ranji Trophy and Duleep Trophy -- two major first - class tournaments in India. In 1911, an Indian team went on their first official tour of the British Isles, but only played English county teams and not the England cricket team.
India was invited to The Imperial Cricket Council in 1926, and made their debut as a Test playing nation in England in 1932, led by CK Nayudu, who was considered as the best Indian batsman at the time. The one - off Test match between the two sides was played at Lord 's in London. The team was not strong in their batting at this point and went on to lose by 158 runs. In 1933, the first Test series in India was played between India and England with matches in Bombay, Calcutta (now Kolkata) and Madras (now Chennai). England won the series 2 -- 0. The Indian team continued to improve throughout the 1930s and ' 40s but did not achieve an international victory during this period. In the early 1940s, India did n't play any Test cricket due to the Second World War. The team 's first series as an independent country was in late 1947 against Sir Donald Bradman 's Invincibles (a name given to the Australia national cricket team of that time). It was also the first Test series India played which was not against England. Australia won the five - match series 4 -- 0, with Bradman tormenting the Indian bowling in his final Australian summer. India subsequently played their first Test series at home not against England against the West Indies in 1948. West Indies won the 5 - Test series 1 -- 0.
India recorded their first Test victory, in their 24th match, against England at Madras in 1952. Later in the same year, they won their first Test series, which was against Pakistan. They continued their improvement throughout the early 1950s with a series win against New Zealand in 1956. However, they did not win again in the remainder of the decade and lost badly to strong Australian and English sides. On 24 August 1959, India lost by an innings in the Test to complete the only 5 -- 0 whitewash ever inflicted by England. The next decade saw India 's reputation develop as a team with a strong record at home. They won their first Test series against England at home in 1961 -- 62 and also won a home series against New Zealand. They managed to draw home series against Pakistan and Australia and another series against England. In this same period, India also won its first series outside the subcontinent, against New Zealand in 1967 -- 68.
The key to India 's bowling in the 1970s were the Indian spin quartet -- Bishen Bedi, E.A.S. Prasanna, BS Chandrasekhar and Srinivas Venkataraghavan. This period also saw the emergence of two of India 's best ever batsmen, Sunil Gavaskar and Gundappa Viswanath. Indian pitches have had the tendency to support spin and the spin quartet exploited this to create collapses in opposing batting line - ups. These players were responsible for the back - to - back series wins in 1971 in the West Indies and in England, under the captaincy of Ajit Wadekar. Gavaskar scored 774 runs in the West Indian series while Dilip Sardesai 's 112 played a big part in their one Test win.
The advent of One Day International (ODI) cricket in 1971 created a new dimension in the cricket world. However, India was not considered strong in ODIs at this point and batsmen such as the captain Gavaskar were known for their defensive approach to batting. India began as a weak team in ODIs and did not qualify for the second round in the first two editions of the Cricket World Cup. Gavaskar infamously blocked his way to 36 not out off 174 balls against England in the first World Cup in 1975, India scored just 132 for 3 and lost by 202 runs.
In contrast, India fielded a strong team in Test matches and was particularly strong at home, where their combination of stylish batsmen and beguiling spinners were at their best. India set a then Test record in the third Test against the West Indies at Port - of - Spain in 1976, when they chased 403 to win, thanks to 112 from Viswanath. This West Indian defeat is considered to be a watershed in the history of their cricket because it led to captain Clive Lloyd dispensing with spin altogether and relying entirely on a four - man pace attack instead. In November 1976, the team established another record by scoring 524 for 9 declared against New Zealand at Kanpur without any individual batsman scoring a century. There were six fifties, the highest being 70 by Mohinder Amarnath. This innings was only the eighth instance in Test cricket where all eleven batsmen reached double figures.
During the 1980s, India developed a more attack - minded batting line - up with stroke makers such as the wristy Mohammed Azharuddin, Dilip Vengsarkar and all - rounders Kapil Dev and Ravi Shastri. India won the Cricket World Cup in 1983, defeating the favourites and the two - time defending champions West Indies in the final at Lords, owing to a strong bowling performance. In spite of this, the team performed poorly in the Test arena, including 28 consecutive Test matches without a victory. In 1984, India won the Asia Cup and in 1985, won the World Championship of Cricket in Australia. Apart from this, India remained a weak team outside the Indian subcontinent. India 's Test series victory in 1986 against England remained the last Test series win by India outside the subcontinent for the next 19 years. The 1980s saw Gavaskar and Kapil Dev (India 's best all - rounder to date) at the pinnacle of their careers. Gavaskar made a Test record 34 centuries as he became the first man to reach the 10,000 run mark. Kapil Dev later became the highest wicket - taker in Test cricket with 434 wickets. The period was also marked by an unstable leadership, with Gavaskar and Kapil exchanging the captaincy several times.
The addition of Sachin Tendulkar and Anil Kumble to the national side in 1989 and 1990 further improved the team. The following year, Javagal Srinath, India 's fastest bowler since Amar Singh made his debut. Despite this, during the 1990s, India did not win any of its 33 Tests outside the subcontinent while it won 17 out of its 30 Tests at home. After being eliminated by neighbours Sri Lanka on home soil at the 1996 Cricket World Cup semifinal, the team underwent a year of change as Sourav Ganguly and Rahul Dravid, later to become captains of the team, made their debut in the same Test at Lord 's. Tendulkar replaced Azharuddin as captain in late 1996, but after a personal and team form slump, Tendulkar relinquished the captaincy and Azharuddin was reinstated at the beginning of 1998. With the captaincy burden removed, Tendulkar was the world 's leading run - scorer in both Tests and ODIs, as India enjoyed a home Test series win over Australia, the best - ranked team in the world.
After failing to reach the semifinals at the 1999 Cricket World Cup, Tendulkar was again made captain, and had another poor run, losing 3 -- 0 on a tour of Australia and then 2 -- 0 at home to South Africa. Tendulkar resigned, vowing never to captain the team again. Ganguly was appointed the new captain and the team was further damaged in 2000 when former captain Azharuddin and fellow batsman Ajay Jadeja were implicated in a match - fixing scandal and given life and five years bans respectively. This period was described by the BBC as "the Indian cricket 's worst hour ''. However, the new core -- Tendulkar, Dravid, Kumble and Ganguly -- swore not to let this happen to them again, and lead Indian cricket out of the dark times. And the first three put aside personal ambitions to let Ganguly lead them into a new era.
Since 2000, the Indian team underwent major improvements with the appointment of John Wright as India 's first ever foreign coach. India maintained their unbeaten home record against Australia in Test series after defeating them in 2001. The series was famous for the Kolkata Test match, in which India became only the third team in the history of Test cricket to win a Test match after following on. Australian captain Steve Waugh labelled India as the "Final Frontier '' as a result of his side 's inability to win a Test series in India. Victory in 2001 against the Australians marked the beginning of a dream run for India under their captain Ganguly, winning Test matches in Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka, West Indies and England. The England series is also known for India 's highest ODI run - chase of 325 runs at Lord 's which came in the Natwest ODI Series final against England. In the same year, India were joint - winners of the ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka and then went to the 2003 Cricket World Cup in South Africa where they reached the final, only to be beaten by Australia. The 2003 -- 04 season also saw India play out a Test series in Australia where they drew 1 -- 1 with the world champions, and then win a Test and ODI series in Pakistan.
At the end of the 2004 season, India suffered from lack of form and fitness from its older players. A defeat in a following home Test series against Australia was followed by an ODI home series defeat against Pakistan followed by a Test series levelled 1 -- 1. Greg Chappell took over from John Wright as the coach of the Indian cricket team following the series, and his methods proved to be controversial during the beginning of his tenure. The tension resulted in a fallout between Chappell and Ganguly, resulting in Rahul Dravid being made captain. This triggered a revival in the team 's fortunes, following the emergence of players like Mahendra Singh Dhoni, Suresh Raina, and the coming of age of players like Irfan Pathan and Yuvraj Singh. A thumping home series victory over Sri Lanka in 2005 and a drawn series with South Africa put India at second place in the ICC ODI rankings. Dravid, Tendulkar and Virender Sehwag were selected to play for the ICC World XI in the 2005 "SuperTest '' against Australia. A convincing ODI series win in Pakistan in early 2006, following a loss in the Test series, gave India the world record of 17 successive ODI victories while batting second. Towards the middle of 2006, however, a 4 -- 1 series loss in the West Indies gave rise to a slump in India 's ODI form, while they achieved a 1 -- 0 victory in the Test series that followed, giving them their first Test series victory in the Caribbean since 1971. India 's ODI form slumped further with a disappointing performance in the 2006 Champions Trophy and a drubbing in the ODI series in South Africa. This was followed yet again by an initial good performance in the Tests, giving India its first Test match win in South Africa, although they went on to lose the series 2 -- 1. This Test series was marked by Ganguly 's comeback to the Indian team.
In December 2006, India played and won its first ever Twenty20 international in South Africa, becoming the most recent Test team to play Twenty20 cricket. The beginning of 2007 had seen a revival in the Indian team 's ODI fortunes before the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Series victories against the West Indies and Sri Lanka, marked by the comeback of Ganguly, and strong form by Tendulkar, and the emergence of young players like Robin Uthappa saw many pundits to tip India as a real contender to win the 2007 Cricket World Cup. However, defeats to Bangladesh and Sri Lanka saw India fail to reach the second round.
After winning the Test series against England in August 2007, Dravid stepped down as the captain of the team, following which Dhoni was made the captain of the Twenty20 and ODI team. In September 2007, India won the first - ever Twenty20 World Cup held in South Africa, beating Pakistan by 5 runs in the final. In 2007 -- 08, they toured Australia where India lost the highly controversial home Test series 2 -- 1 but managed to win the CB series the following month with a whitewash final of Australia.
In April 2009, India secured their first Test series win in New Zealand in 41 years. After beating Sri Lanka 2 -- 0 in December 2009, India became the No. 1 Test team in the world. They retained the ranking by drawing series against South Africa and Sri Lanka. In October 2010, India whitewashed Australia 2 -- 0 in the home test series, giving them back - to - back series wins against them. Later that year, India managed to draw the Test series in South Africa at 1 -- 1.
On 2 April 2011, India won the 2011 Cricket World Cup by defeating Sri Lanka in the final, thus becoming the third team after West Indies and Australia to win the World Cup twice, the previous win being in 1983. Gautam Gambhir and the skipper Dhoni led the way with 97 and 91 * respectively. India also became the first team to win the World Cup on home soil.
India were whitewashed 4 -- 0 in away Test series by England in August 2011 due to which England replaced India as the No. 1 Test team in the rankings. This series was followed by another 4 -- 0 whitewash of India in January 2012 in Australia. The disastrous whitewashes saw the retirement of Dravid and VVS Laxman from Test cricket in 2012. Tendulkar retired in November 2013 after his 200th Test match. With Ganguly having retired in 2008, this period signalled the end of the fabled middle - order batting line - up India had for a decade. 2012 signalled a rough period for Indian cricket as they were beaten 2 -- 1 by England at home in the Test series. This was the first Team India were beaten by England at home in the modern era. This was followed by a 2 -- 1 loss in the ODI series against Pakistan, India 's arch - rivals, at home. India was then knocked out in the second round of the 2012 ICC World Twenty20. India also failed to qualify for the 2012 Asia Cup final which closed out a disappointing 2012 for the Indian cricket team. 2013 saw a resurgence in Indian cricket.
In early 2013, India returned the favour to Australia and whitewashed them 4 -- 0 at home in a Test series. India then beat the Aussies 3 -- 2 in the 7 - match ODI series and won the one - off T20I. However, India lost heavily against New Zealand and South Africa away from home and led to heavy criticism of Indian cricketers for not being able to perform overseas. India defeated England in the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy final and Mahendra Singh Dhoni became the first captain in history to win the three major ICC trophies, namely - ICC Cricket World Cup, ICC World Twenty20 and ICC Champions Trophy. This was followed by a victory in the West Indies Triangular Series in 2013 consisting of India, West Indies and Sri Lanka. In 2014, India toured Bangladesh and England. Although they beat the former 2 -- 0 in 3 One Day Internationals, Team India were beaten 3 -- 1 in 5 Test matches by England. This series included a famous win for the Indian team in the first match of the series at Lord 's. The Test series was followed by a 3 -- 1 win for the Indians in a 5 - match ODI series and a loss in a one - off T20, both against England.
India failed to reach the final of the Asia Cup yet again in 2014. In the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 hosted in Bangladesh, India narrowly missed out on another ICC trophy by losing to Sri Lanka in the final. This tournament saw the rise of Virat Kohli as one of the best limited overs batsmen in world cricket, as he was adjudged the man of the series. India soon comprehensively beat Sri Lanka and West Indies in ODI series to cement their position at the top of the ODI rankings. India toured Australia towards the end of 2014 for a 4 - match Test series, which is remembered for MS Dhoni 's sudden retirement from Test cricket after the end of the second Test. Virat Kohli was appointed as the captain of Team India in Test matches but he was unable to turn the series around and India lost 2 -- 0. Kohli 's first series win as captain came away from home in a 3 - match Test series vs Sri Lanka, which signalled the beginning of an unbeaten Test series run for India.
2015 saw the beginning of India 's dominance at home in Test matches under new captain Virat Kohli when they comprehensively beat South Africa. This series was the beginning of an unbeaten streak of 19 Test matches for India which was brought to an end by Australia in early 2017. This series also saw the emergence of Ravichandran Ashwin and Ravindra Jadeja as two of the best spinners and all - rounders. They spun webs around touring batsmen, much like the spinning quartet of the 1970s. This was followed by limited overs victories over Australia and Sri Lanka away from home. India was knocked out of the 2015 World Cup in the semi-final stage, to eventual winners Australia. India began 2016 by winning the 2016 Asia Cup, remaining unbeaten throughout the tournament, beating Pakistan along the way. India were favourites to win the 2016 ICC World Twenty20 which was being held at home, but they lost in the semi-final to eventual champions West Indies. Virat Kohli was again named the man of the series.
In 2016, "The Grand Home Season '' began for India, including series at home against New Zealand, England, Bangladesh and Australia. India whitewashed New Zealand to regain the number one ranking in Test cricket after almost 10 years. Before the series against England in November 2016, MS Dhoni resigned as captain of India in limited overs, thus handing the captaincy to Virat Kohli across all formats. India beat England across all three formats, with a notable 4 -- 0 win in the Test series. This was followed by Test series wins against Bangladesh and Australia, which meant India reclaimed the Border Gavaskar Trophy. Ravichandran Ashwin became the fastest cricketer of all time to reach 250 wickets; he and Ravindra Jadeja occupied the top two spots in both the ICC Bowlers and All - Rounders rankings at the time. In the process, India became the third team (after South Africa and Australia) to have won their most recent Test series against all the other Test - playing nations. India holds an unbeaten streak of 8 consecutive Test series wins as of 19 August 2017.
India defeated Pakistan in their first game of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy, winning by a convincing 124 - run margin, but lost their second game of the group against Sri Lanka by 7 wickets despite posting a total of 321. In their final group game against South Africa, a must - win encounter, India won comfortably and sealed a spot in the semi-finals, against Bangladesh. India comfortably won the match by 9 wickets, and faced arch - rivals Pakistan in the final, the first time they had met at this stage of a tournament since 2007. In an anti-climax, considering India were the clear favourites, Pakistan defeated India comfortably by 180 runs in the final, outclassing them across all three departments.
India beat the West Indies 3 -- 1 in a 5 - match ODI series in the Caribbean in July 2017, but lost to the same opposition in a one - off T20I. India then toured Sri Lanka, and comprehensively defeated them 3 - 0 in a three - match Test series, the first time India had whitewashed a team away from home in a Test series with at least three games.
The Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) is the governing body for the Indian cricket team and first - class cricket in India. The Board has been operating since 1929 and represents India at the International Cricket Council. It is amongst the richest sporting organisations in the world. It sold media rights for India 's matches from 2006 -- 2010 for US $612,000,000. It manages the Indian team 's sponsorships, its future tours and team selection.
The International Cricket Council determines India 's upcoming matches through its future tours program. However, the BCCI, with its influential financial position in the cricketing world, has often challenged the ICC 's program and called for more series between India, Australia and England which are more likely to earn more revenue as opposed to tours with Bangladesh or Zimbabwe. In the past, the BCCI has also come into conflict with the ICC regarding sponsorships and the legitimacy of the ICC Champions Trophy.
Selection for the Indian cricket team occurs through the BCCI 's zonal selection policy, where each of the five zones is represented with one selector and one of the members nominated by BCCI as the Chairman of the selection committee. This has sometimes led to controversy as to whether these selectors are biased towards their zones.
The current chairman of the selection committee is M.S.K. Prasad. Devang Gandhi, Sarandeep Singh, Jatin Paranjpe, and Gagan Khoda are the other members of the selection committee from 21 September 2016.
Since colours have made their way into international cricket, the Indian cricket team has chosen blue as their primary colour and orange / red as their secondary colour and have worn one or the other shade of blue. The blue colour of their uniform has also earned them the nickname of "Men in Blue ''. With the advent of the World Series Cup in the 1970s, each team was to don a primary and secondary colour on their uniforms. The Indian team elected to wear light - blue as their primary colour and yellow as their secondary colour. Even during the 1999 Cricket World Cup, the secondary colour on the Indian cricket team 's clothing was yellow. However, this has since been replaced with the tricolour. In the past, the Indian ODI outfits were changed to different shades of blue, mostly darker than the current, and the team donned navy blue during 1992, and then the sky blue colour for the next decade. Indian team has got a new kit from 2009 which is feroza blue with India written on it in orange. From October 2010, the team is once again using a light blue shade though not as light as the previous sky blue one, with India written in orange, and shades of the tricolour at the sides. The kit sponsor for the Indian cricket team is Nike, which in 2005 bought the kit rights in a $27.2 million contract with BCCI.
Due to their love for blue colour Nike with Board for Control of Cricket in India launched the mega campaign called "Bleed Blue '' for the support of Indian team in 2011 ICC Cricket World Cup which turned out to be a huge success and people over the internet and places adopted this to cheer for India.
A new ultramarine blue coloured jersey of the one - day cricket team was released on 20 October 2010 for the upcoming tours and ICC Cricket World Cup. The jersey has been designed by team 's apparel and kit sponsor Nike. Previously, the Indian cricket team has worn a darker shade of blue and before that, the team has worn sky blue. The vertical tricolour band has been made on both sides in comparison to just one side in the previous shirt. OPPO, the manufacturer of Chinese electronics is the official team sponsor logo is on the central part of the jersey (above orange coloured INDIA logo) and on the right arm Nike logo is visible. The name and jersey number of the player are printed in orange at the back while on the chest the logo of BCCI is on the left side. The one - day cap was also sky blue with the BCCI logo on the front.
When playing first - class cricket, in addition to their cricket whites, Indian fielders sometimes wear a sunhat, which is dark blue and has a wide brim, with the BCCI logo in the middle of the front of the hat. Helmets are coloured similarly. Some players sport the Indian flag on their helmet. The current kit sponsor for the Indian team is Nike and current team sponsor is OPPO (since April, 2017). Previously, the Indian team was sponsored by Star India (2014 - 2017), Sahara India Pariwar (2002 - 2013) and Wills (1994 - 2000).
There are numerous world - renowned cricket stadiums located in India. Most grounds are under the administration of various state cricket boards as opposed to being under the control of the BCCI. The Bombay Gymkhana was the first ground in India to host a full - scale cricket match featuring an Indian cricket team. This was between the Parsis and the Europeans in 1877. The first stadium to host a Test match in India was also the Gymkhana Ground in Bombay in 1933, the only Test it ever hosted. The second and third Tests in the 1933 series were hosted at Eden Gardens and Chepauk. The Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi was the first stadium to host a Test match after independence, a draw against the West Indies in 1948, the first of a 5 - Test series. 21 stadiums in India have hosted at least one official Test match. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of world - class cricket stadiums in India, with multiple Test venues in Indore, Chandigarh Mohali, Chennai, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Rajkot, Ranchi, Pune, Dharamshala and Nagpur.
Eden Gardens in Kolkata has hosted the most Tests, and also has the second - largest seating capacity of any cricket stadium in the world, being capable of holding more than 66,000 spectators. Founded in 1864, it is one of the most historical stadiums in India, having hosted numerous historical and controversial matches. Other major stadiums in India include the Feroz Shah Kotla, which was established in 1883 and hosted memorable matches including Anil Kumble 's ten wickets in an innings haul against Pakistan. For the last two years, the ground has been undergoing renovation.
The Bombay Gymkhana hosted the first ever Test match in India which is the only Test it has hosted to date. Wankhede Stadium, established in 1974, has a capacity to hold 33,000 spectators and is currently the most popular venue in the city. It has hosted 24 Test matches. It was the unofficial successor of the Brabourne Stadium, which is also located in Mumbai. Mumbai is often considered the cricketing capital of India because of its fans and the talent it produces (see Mumbai cricket team) and thus the stadium regularly hosts major Test matches. The M.A. Chidambaram Stadium in Chepauk is also considered to be an important historical Indian cricket ground, established in the early 1900s it was the site of India 's first Test victory.
Thirty - two men have captained the Indian cricket team in at least one Test match, although only six have led the team in more than 25 matches, and six have captained the team in ODIs but not Tests. India 's first captain was CK Nayudu, who led the team in four matches against England: one in England in 1932 and a series of three matches at home in 1933 -- 34. Lala Amarnath, India 's fourth captain, led the team in its first Test match after Indian independence. He also captained the side to its first Test victory and first series win, both in a three - match series at home against Pakistan in 1952 -- 53. From 1952 until 1961 -- 62, India had a number of captains such as Vijay Hazare, Polly Umrigar and Nari Contractor.
The Nawab of Pataudi, Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi, was the team 's captain for 36 Test matches from 1961 -- 62 to 1969 -- 70, returning for another four matches against West Indies in 1974 -- 75. In the early years of his captaincy tenure, the team was whitewashed in the West Indies, England and Australia. However, in 1967 -- 68, Pataudi led India on its maiden New Zealand tour, which ended in India winning the Test series 3 -- 1. In 1970 -- 71, Ajit Wadekar took over the captaincy from Pataudi. Under Wadekar 's captaincy, India registered its first Test series win in the West Indies and England. India played its first ODI in 1974, also under his captaincy. India won its first ODI under the captaincy of Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan in the 1975 Cricket World Cup, against East Africa. Between 1975 -- 76 and 1978 -- 79, Bishen Singh Bedi captained the team in 22 Tests and 4 ODIs, winning 6 Tests and one ODI.
Sunil Gavaskar took over as Test and ODI captain in 1978 -- 79, leading India in 47 Test matches and 37 ODIs, winning 9 Tests and 14 ODIs. He was succeeded by Kapil Dev in the 1980s, who captained for 34 Test matches, including 4 victories. Kapil Dev led India to victory in 39 of his 74 ODIs in charge, including the 1983 Cricket World Cup. Kapil Dev also captained India 's 2 -- 0 Test series victory in England in 1986. Between 1987 -- 88 and 1989 -- 90, India had three captains in Dilip Vengsarkar, Ravi Shastri and Krishnamachari Srikkanth. Vengsarkar took over the captaincy from Kapil Dev after the 1987 Cricket World Cup. Although he started with two centuries in his first series as captain, his captaincy period was turbulent and he lost the job following a disastrous tour of the West Indies in early - 1989 and a stand - off with the Indian cricket board (BCCI).
India has had six regular Test captains since Mohammad Azharuddin took charge in 1989. Azharuddin led the team in 47 Test matches from 1989 -- 90 to 1998 -- 99, winning 14, and in 174 ODIs, winning 90. He was followed by Sachin Tendulkar, who captained the team in 25 Test matches and 73 ODIs in the late 1990s; Tendulkar was relatively unsuccessful as a captain, winning only 4 Test matches and 23 ODIs. He was replaced as ODI captain by Ajay Jadeja and then by Sourav Ganguly.
Ganguly became the regular captain of the team in both Tests and ODIs in 2000. He remained captain until 2005 -- 06 and became the then most successful Indian captain, winning 21 of his 49 Test matches in charge and 76 of his 146 ODIs. Under his captaincy, India became the joint - winners of the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka, and the runners - up of the 2003 Cricket World Cup. India lost only three Tests at home under Ganguly and managed to draw Test series in England and Australia. Rahul Dravid took over as Test captain in 2005. In 2006, he led India to its first Test series victory in the West Indies in more than 30 years.
In September 2007, Mahendra Singh Dhoni was named as the new captain of the ODI and T20I teams, after Dravid stepped down from the post. Soon after taking up the captaincy, Dhoni led the team to the inaugural World Twenty20 title. Anil Kumble was appointed Test captain in November 2007, but retired from international cricket in November 2008 after captaining in 14 Tests. Dhoni succeeded him as the Test captain, making him the captain in all formats. Under the captaincy of Dhoni, the Indian team held the number one position in the Test rankings for 21 months (from November 2009 to August 2011), and set a national record for most back - to - back ODI wins (nine straight wins). Dhoni also led the team to victory in 2011 Cricket World Cup and 2013 ICC Champions Trophy. Thus, Dhoni became the first captain in history to win all three major ICC trophies, namely - ICC Cricket World Cup in 2011, ICC World Twenty20 in 2007 and ICC Champions Trophy in 2013. He is widely regarded as India 's best ever captain. However, the team performed poorly in away Tests from 2011 to 2014 and Dhoni retired from Test cricket in December 2014, with Virat Kohli being named as the new Test captain. Dhoni resigned as captain of the ODI and T20 teams in January 2017 and Kohli succeeded him at the position.
Under Kohli 's captaincy, India was unbeaten in 19 Test matches, starting from a 3 -- 0 series win over New Zealand and ending with a 2 -- 1 series win over Australia. India has an unbeaten streak of winning 9 consecutive Test series as of Dec 2017, starting with a 2 -- 1 series win over Sri Lanka. India also became only the third team after Australia and South Africa to have won their most recent Test series simultaneously against all the other Test playing nations. As per winning percentage in Test matches, Kohli is India 's most successful test captain, having won more than 61 % of Test matches (at least 2 games).
The recent results and forthcoming fixtures of India in international cricket:
This lists all the players who have played for India in the past 12 months and the forms in which they have played. Correct as of 7 March 2018.
Key
Other players with a central contract who have not played for India in the past 12 months: Karun Nair and Jayant Yadav (both Grade C)
The BCCI awards central contracts to its players, its pay graded according to the importance of the player. Players ' salaries are as follows:
Players also receive a match fee of ₹ 15 lakh (US $23,000) per Test match, ₹ 6 lakh (US $9,200) per ODI, and ₹ 3 lakh (US $4,600) per T20I.
† Cricket was played only at the 1998 Commonwealth Games. † The Indian team that won the 1985 World Championship of Cricket was adjudged by Wisden as the ' Team of the Century '.
Sachin Tendulkar, who began playing for India as a 16 - year - old in 1989 and has since become the most prolific run - scorer in the history of both Test and ODI cricket, holds a large number of national batting records. He holds the record of most appearances in both Tests and ODIs, most runs in both Tests and ODIs and most centuries in Tests and ODIs. The highest score by an Indian is the 319 scored by Virender Sehwag in Chennai. It is the second triple century in Test cricket by an Indian, the first being a 309 also made by Sehwag although against Pakistan. The team 's highest ever score was a 759 / 7 against England at MA Chidambaram Stadium, Chennai in 2016, while its lowest was 42 against England in 1974. In ODIs, the team 's highest score is 418 / 5 against West Indies at Indore in 2011 -- 12. India score 413 -- 5 in a match against Bermuda in 2007 World Cup which is the highest score ever in Cricket World Cup history. In the same match, India set a world record of the highest winning margin in an ODI match of 257 runs.
India has also had some very strong bowling figures, with spin bowler Anil Kumble being a member of the elite group of 3 bowlers who have taken 600 Test wickets. In 1999, Anil Kumble emulated Jim Laker to become the second bowler to take all ten wickets in a Test match innings when he took 10 wickets for 74 runs against Pakistan at the Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi.
Many of the Indian cricket team 's records are also world records, for example Sachin Tendulkar 's century tally (in Tests and ODIs) and run tally (also in both Tests and ODIs). Mahendra Singh Dhoni 's 183 not out against Sri Lanka in 2005 is the world record score by a wicketkeeper in ODIs. The Indian cricket team also holds the record sequence of 17 successful run - chases in ODIs, which ended in a dramatic match against the West Indies in May 2006, which India lost by just 1 run when Yuvraj Singh was bowled by Dwayne Bravo 's full toss.
Sachin Tendulkar was the first batsman to score 200 runs (he was unbeaten on 200 from 147 deliveries including 25x4 and 3x6) in a single ODI innings, on 24 February 2010 against South Africa in Gwalior. On 8 December 2011, this achievement was eclipsed by compatriot Virender Sehwag, who scored 219 runs from 149 deliveries (25x4 7x6) versus West Indies in Indore. On 13 November 2014 the record was broken by another Indian opening batsmen, Rohit Sharma, who scored 264 runs from 173 deliveries (33x4 9x6) against Sri Lanka in Kolkata. In 2013, MS Dhoni became the first captain in history to win all three major ICC trophies - ICC Cricket World Cup in 2011, ICC World Twenty20 in 2007 and ICC Champions Trophy in 2013.
In 2014, Virat Kohli became the first cricketer to win back - to - back man of the series awards in the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 and 2014 ICC World Twenty20. In 2017, Ravichandran Ashwin became the fastest cricketer in history to reach 250 wickets. He and Ravindra Jadeja are considered to be the best bowlers in Test cricket and occupy the top two spots in the rankings for Test bowlers as of May 2017. Virat Kohli became the first captain in history to score double tons in three consecutive series, against New Zealand, England and Bangladesh in 2017.
Test record versus other nations
Most Test runs for India
Most Test wickets for India
ODI record versus other nations
Most ODI runs for India
Most ODI wickets for India
T20I record versus other nations
Most T20I runs for India
Most T20I wickets for India
Players in bold text are still active with India.
Due to the massive Indian diaspora in nations like Australia, England and South Africa, a large Indian fan turnout is expected whenever India plays in each of these nations.
There have been a number of official fan groups that have been formed over the years, including the Swami Army or Bharat Army, the Indian equivalent of the Barmy Army, that were very active in their support when India toured Australia in 2003 / 2004. They are known to attribute a number of popular Indian songs to the cricket team.
Fan rivalry and cross-border tension has created a strong rivalry between the Indian and the Pakistani cricket teams. In tours between these two nations, cricket visas are often employed to accommodate for the tens of thousands of fans wishing to cross the border to watch cricket. This intense fan dedication is one of the major causes of the BCCI 's financial success.
However, there are downsides to having such a cricket - loving population. Many Indians hold cricket very close to their hearts and losses are not received well by the Indian population. In some cases, particularly after losses to Pakistan or after a long string of weak performances, there have been reports of player effigies being burnt in the streets and vandalism of player homes. In many cases, players have come under intense attention from the media for negative reasons, this has been considered as one of the reasons for Sourav Ganguly being left out of the Indian team. At times, when a match is surrounded by controversy, it has resulted in a debacle. For example, when India slid to defeat against Australia at Brabourne Stadium in 1969, fans began throwing stones and bottles onto the field as well as setting fire to the stands, before laying siege to the Australian dressing rooms. During the same tour, a stampede occurred at Eden Gardens when tickets were oversold and India fell to another loss; the Australian team bus was later stoned with bricks. A similar event occurred during the 1996 Cricket World Cup, where India were losing the semi-final to Sri Lanka at Eden Gardens. In this case, the fan behaviour was directed at the Indian team in disappointment at their lacklustre performance. An armed guard had to be placed at the home of captain Mohammad Azharuddin to ensure his safety. Indian fans have also been passionate in their following of Sachin Tendulkar, who has been commonly thought of as one of the best batsmen in the world. Glorified for the bulk of his career, a riot occurred in early 1999 in a Test against Pakistan at Eden Gardens after a collision with Pakistani paceman Shoaib Akhtar saw him run out, forcing police to eject spectators and the game to be played in an empty stadium. Although in 2006, a string of low scores resulted in Tendulkar being booed by the Mumbai crowd when he got out against England
Often, fans engage in protests regarding players if they believe that regionalism has affected selection, or because of regional partisan support for local players. In 2005, when Sourav Ganguly was dropped due to lack of form, Ganguly 's home state of West Bengal erupted in protests. India later played a match against South Africa in Kolkata, West Bengal. The Indian team was booed by the crowd who supported South Africa instead of India in response to Ganguly 's dropping. Similar regional divisions in India regarding selection have also caused protests against the team, with political activists from the regional Kalinga Kamgar Sena party in Odisha disrupting the arrival of the team in Cuttack for an ODI over the lack of a local player in the team, with one activist manhandling coach Greg Chappell. Similar treatment was handed to Sunil Gavaskar in the 1987 World Cup Semi Finals by crowds at Wankhede Stadium when he got bowled by Philip DeFreitas.
A successful string of results, victories against arch - rivals Pakistan or victory in major tournaments such as the World Cup are greeted with particular ecstasy from the Indian fans.
The Indian women 's cricket team has a much lower profile than the men 's team. For all national women 's cricket teams, the female players are paid much less their male counterparts, and the women 's teams do not receive as much popular support or recognition as the men 's team. The women 's teams also have a less packed schedule compared to men 's teams and play fewer matches. The Indian women 's cricket team played its first Test match in 1976 / 7, when they drew with the West Indies in a six - match series.
The Women 's Cricket World Cup was held in India in 1978 and featured 4 teams. India lost both the matches they have played. Their next appearance in the Test and ODI circuit was against Australia in 1984, in which the Test series was tied but the ODI series was lost in a whitewash.
The Indian women 's cricket team has since picked up their form, reaching the finals in the World Cup, but then losing to Australia. The Women 's Asia Cup of 2005 -- 06 was won by India, who beat Sri Lanka in the final. They also beat the West Indies in the 2004 -- 05 season, winning the 5 ODI series 5 -- 0. They were knocked out in the group stage of the 2013 Women 's Cricket World Cup held in India. India reached the final of the 2017 World Cup but lost to England by 9 runs, following which the team was praised by many including Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
Jhulan Goswami is the world 's leading ODI wicket - taker while Mithali Raj, the captain, is the leading run - scorer in ODI cricket.
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which is the most industrialized state in india | List of industrial centres in India - wikipedia
The major industrial centres in India are listed below:
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why did lucas and peyton leave in season 7 | One Tree Hill (season 6) - wikipedia
The sixth season of One Tree Hill, an American television series, began on September 1, 2008 and concluded on May 18, 2009 with a total of 24 episodes. This is the third season to air on The CW television network. The seasons seventh episode, "Messin ' with the Kid '' achieved a series high in Adults 18 -- 34 with a 2.7 rating.
Season six is the final season for original cast members Chad Michael Murray and Hilarie Burton. Their characters, Lucas and Peyton, leave Tree Hill with their newborn baby in the finale.
Lucas proposes to Peyton. They decide to get married. Peyton gives Lucas the startling news that she is having his baby. Nathan tries to make a comeback in basketball, Haley has to make a decision involving her career, Brooke takes in a young girl named Sam and deals with being attacked in her own store, and Dan spends time with Jamie as he waits on a heart transplant. Meanwhile, a movie producer named Julian Baker comes to Tree Hill and wants to make An Unkindness of Ravens into a movie.
Lucas proposes to Peyton, however the two decide Vegas is n't romantic enough. Victoria returns to steal Brooke 's company. Carrie takes Dan hostage seeking revenge, and Brooke is attacked.
Brooke seeks help from Deb after the attack. Dan notes that Carrie 's plan is a total failure. Skills and Deb are seen kissing by Jamie.
Everyone is shocked about Quentin 's unexpected death. Haley and Nathan must find the words to help Jamie understand. Brooke continues to hide the truth of her attack which strains her friendship with Peyton and Lucas and Skills meet Quentin 's grief - stricken family. Dan finds a mysterious grave while unsuccessfully trying to run away from Carrie 's house.
Lucas struggles to inspire the Ravens, while Haley investigates the disappearance of Dan. Brooke confronts an old demon from her past, as Nathan comes to terms with Deb 's relationship with Skills. Peyton is surprised when a famous musician visits her studio.
Lucas and Peyton set a wedding date. After talking more to Mick about her dad and Ellie, Peyton believes Mick is her father. Lucas goes to New York and sees Lindsay, to plan his new book and he comes clean. Nathan is asked to coach a team while Haley, Dan, Jamie and Deb have to deal with a crazed Nanny Carrie. Meanwhile Sam and Brooke bond.
Lucas leaves for his book tour, and is surprised to see that the publishers have sent someone else other than Lindsey. Nathan is given an opportunity to play basketball again, but not in a way he expects. Haley tries to help a student in need. Brooke considers a life - changing proposition. Peyton and Mick have a confrontation over his identity. The episode ends with Mouth giving up his dream job for his dream girl, and he and Lucas drive home to Tree Hill.
Lucas and Peyton discover more about each other. Jamie has been fighting with a kid at school. Brooke continues to look after Sam who begins stealing and sneaking away from Brooke. Owen returns to Brooke but she rejects him. To stop Jamie from being bullied Nathan comes to his school wearing a cape and shows the other kids how cool it is to have a cape by slam dunking.
Lucas is offered to turn his book into a movie by someone his fiancée knows very well. Peyton meets her brother Derek and decides to organize a USO concert at Tric.
Nathan confronts an old rival; Brooke faces a dark past; Lucas 's decision with making his book into a movie puts him in troubled waters.
Nathan wrestles with his former self as to whether to give up basketball to be a family - man only or pursue his dream, as he encourages Haley to perform at a USO concert for the armed forces. Lucas punches Julian in the face but must reconsider collaborating on the movie he already sold the rights to. Angels and Airwaves also performs.
As Lucas is talking on the phone with Peyton in present time, Lucas falls asleep and has a film noir dream about a club he owns in an alternate reality. Haley 's on stage and Dan practically owns her. Nathan 's a bartender who 's deployed to war not before he have Haley elope, Skills a piano player, Brooke 's desperate for money and Peyton is sort of with Dan. Mouth discovers Dan 's true intentions and whilst trying to uncover the truth, he is thrown off a bridge by Dan, And Lucas and Dan face off ending in Peyton and Julian 's deaths. Then, Lucas wakes up, realizing it was all a dream. Peyton collapses after making a call to Lucas after he wakes up from his dream.
As Lucas takes a trip to Hollywood to meet his film director, Nathan gets a pro basketball try - out. Peyton struggles with Mia to focus on her follow - up album, and Millicent confronts Mouth about Gigi. Julian approaches a dubious Brooke about designing clothes for his movie, and Haley takes a reluctant Jamie to his school talent show. Meanwhile, Peyton fears she may have cancer, because it runs in the family.
Peyton shares some startling news with Lucas. Brooke frantically searches for runaway Sam, and in doing so, she encounters some obstacles which confronts Brooke to recall the night of her attack. In the meantime, Millicent confesses to Mouth that she has slept with someone and Lucas discovers that Julian has been keeping another secret from him when trouble arise at the company. Chase returns to find Owen has reverted back to his old ways (guest star Stephen Colletti).
News of Peyton 's condition spreads quickly through Tree Hill. Brooke has to deal with Julian 's intentions and in the meantime, Lucas and Peyton babysit Jamie and his friend. Haley and Nathan double up with Mia and Chase on their date. Millie attempts to reconcile her relationship with Mouth to no avail.
Problems arise when Lucas and Julian try to find a new director. Peyton is puzzled by a present from Lucas and Brooke battles with some complications in her love life.
Tree Hill is in an uproar again when Lucas has problems with the casting for the movie and Peyton tries to solve the wedding plans. Brooke meets the actress who will play her in the movie. Nathan gets good news and Haley must make a tough decision by herself. Dan advises Jamie on how to deal with a school crush.
Peyton and Lucas receive some startling news about their baby 's condition. Brooke and Julian come to a crossroads within their relationship. It 's Nathan and Haley 's wedding anniversary, and as they celebrate, Dan and Deb are left to babysit Jamie. Elsewhere Mouth and Millie try to pick up the pieces of their relationship.
Lucas and Julian hit a setback with the production of the film. Peyton and Haley help Mia with her new single. Brooke must intervene when Sam is arrested. Jamie discovers the truth about Dan and Uncle Keith.
Julian asks Brooke to move to LA with him. Lucas brings Nathan and Jamie to an important place from his past, while Peyton prepares for the future. Sam and Jack take a stand against the principal who fired Haley. Skills takes Mouth on a road trip to get his mind off Millie. Towards the end of this episode Brooke shows up at the airport and turns Julian 's offer to go to LA down.
When Peyton 's pregnancy is threatened, Lucas struggles to pick up the pieces. Victoria returns to lure Brooke back to Clothes Over Bros. Haley and Nathan clash over the decision to pull Jamie from his school. Mouth tries to mend fences with Millicent. Sam 's friend Jack leaves to a foster home, which leads Victoria to comfort her.
Brooke discovers something that could change Sam 's life. Nathan questions his dreams of playing in the NBA while Haley receives an unexpected offer from Nick Lachey. Jamie and Skills mend their broken hearts at Jamie 's first school dance. Meanwhile, Lucas and Peyton have a road trip to remember.
Brooke and Haley throw Peyton a baby shower, while Sam grows closer to Victoria. Lucas and Jamie bond while working on Peyton 's car, and Nathan learns that NBA scouts will be at his next game. Meanwhile, Skills and Lauren go on a date that goes all wrong. Sam leaves Brooke 's house to go live with her birth mother.
Peyton and Lucas ' wedding day has finally arrived and surprise guests attend. Haley plays an unexpected role in the ceremony while Nathan hopes to be called up to the NBA. Skills keeps Jamie on a short leash, and Brooke does the same with Nick Lachey as she tries to make Julian jealous after he shows up with a date.
Peyton is rushed to surgery after losing blood and fainting. On the eve of Peyton 's delivery, Peyton and Lucas receive a surprise visit from a friend of theirs, and they welcome a daughter, Sawyer Brooke Scott. Victoria finally understands Brooke 's pain, and gives her the company back. They make amends and Victoria urges Brooke to do one special thing. Nathan is released from the Chiefs but gets surprising news he 's made it to the NBA. Facing death, Dan visits someone from the past, and apologizes for everything that happened. Dan wants him to take his life, but he offers redemption to Dan. Lucas, Peyton and Sawyer pack up their stuff, and ride away in to the sunset with the newly repaired Comet, leaving Tree Hill for good as this season finale closes.
The CW announced on March 3, 2008 that One Tree Hill was renewed for a sixth season. It was later reported the season would consist of twenty - four episodes.
Brooke begins her battle with her mom, Victoria, who battles to claim Clothes Over Bro 's. Lucas and the Ravens basketball team must come to terms with the death of the star player. Nathan begins his comeback, Haley also hits the recording studio, while Peyton and Lucas settle down and begin a family. Brooke, left broken and shaken after her attack, takes in foster child Sam, who was responsible for the attack, and the attacker also turned out to be Q 's killer. Nanny Carrie returns, after hitting Dan with a car, and taking him hostage, she lures Haley and Jamie to her, and attacks them, only to be killed by Dan, after weeks of torture. Mouth and Millicent have dramas and depart, while newcomer Julian Baker, rocks Brooke 's world and begins to turn Lucas ' book into a movie. With Peyton 's alarming pregnancy, Lucas ' finally allows for a wedding, only for Peyton to collapse at home, and go into a coma. The season finale ends with Brooke and Julian declaring their love for one another, Nathan making it into the NBA, and Lucas and Peyton leave Tree Hill.
The season opened to 3.24 million viewers and a 1.7 Adults 18 -- 49 rating. Episode 7 hit series highs in Adults 18 -- 34 with a 2.7 rating, it also hit its second best numbers in The CW 's target audience of Women 18 - 34 with a 4.0 rating. The episode also reached its highest Adults 18 -- 49 rating of the season, with a 1.9. The finale was seen by 2.67 million viewers and achieved a 1.3 Adults 18 -- 49.
The DVD release of season six was released after the season has completed broadcast on television. It has been released in Region 1. As well as every episode from the season, the DVD release features bonus material such as audio commentaries on some episodes from the creator and cast, deleted scenes, gag reels and behind - the - scenes featurettes.
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where did the term divide and conquer come from | Divide and rule - wikipedia
Divide and rule (or divide and conquer, from Latin dīvide et imperā) in politics and sociology is gaining and maintaining power by breaking up larger concentrations of power into pieces that individually have less power than the one implementing the strategy. The concept refers to a strategy that breaks up existing power structures, and especially prevents smaller power groups from linking up, causing rivalries and fomenting discord among the people.
Traiano Boccalini cites "divide et impera '' in La bilancia politica as a common principle in politics. The use of this technique is meant to empower the sovereign to control subjects, populations, or factions of different interests, who collectively might be able to oppose his rule. Machiavelli identifies a similar application to military strategy, advising in Book VI of The Art of War (Dell'arte della guerra), that a Captain should endeavor with every art to divide the forces of the enemy, either by making him suspicious of his men in whom he trusted, or by giving him cause that he has to separate his forces, and, because of this, become weaker.
The maxim divide et impera has been attributed to Philip II of Macedon, and together with the maxim divide ut regnes was utilised by the Roman ruler Caesar and the French emperor Napoleon.
The strategy, but not the phrase, applies in many ancient cases: the example of Gabinius exists, parting the Jewish nation into five conventions, reported by Flavius Josephus in Book I, 169 - 170 of The Wars of the Jews (De bello Judaico). Strabo also reports in Geography, 8.7. 3 that the Achaean League was gradually dissolved under the Roman possession of the whole of Macedonia, owing to them not dealing with the several states in the same way, but wishing to preserve some and to destroy others.
The strategy of division and rule has been attributed to sovereigns, ranging from Louis XI to the Habsburgs. Edward Coke denounces it in Chapter I of the Fourth Part of the Institutes, reporting that when it was demanded by the Lords and Commons what might be a principal motive for them to have good success in Parliament, it was answered: "Eritis insuperabiles, si fueritis inseparabiles. Explosum est illud diverbium: Divide, & impera, cum radix & vertex imperii in obedientium consensus rata sunt. '' (You would be insuperable if you were inseparable. This proverb, Divide and rule, has been rejected, since the root and the summit of authority are confirmed by the consent of the subjects.) On the other hand, in a minor variation, Sir Francis Bacon wrote the phrase "separa et impera '' in a letter to James I of 15 February 1615. James Madison made this recommendation in a letter to Thomas Jefferson of 24 October 1787, which summarized the thesis of The Federalist # 10: "Divide et impera, the reprobated axiom of tyranny, is under certain (some) qualifications, the only policy, by which a republic can be administered on just principles. '' In Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch by Immanuel Kant (1795), Appendix one, Divide et impera is the third of three political maxims, the others being Fac et excusa (Act now, and make excuses later) and Si fecisti, nega (when you commit a crime, deny it).
Elements of this technique involve:
Historically, this strategy was used in many different ways by empires seeking to expand their territories.
The concept is also mentioned as a strategy for market action in economics to get the most out of the players in a competitive market.
A primary strategy the narcissist uses to assert control, particularly within his family, is to create divisions among individuals. This weakens and isolates them, making it easier for the narcissist to manipulate and dominate. Some are favoured, others are scapegoated. Such dynamics can play out in a workplace setting.
Clive R. Boddy found that "divide and conquer '' was a common strategy by corporate psychopaths used as a smokescreen to help consolidate and advance their grip on power in the corporate hierarchy.
The divide and conquer strategy was used by foreign countries in parts of Africa during the colonial and post-colonial period.
The strategy of "Divide and Rule '' was employed by most imperial powers in Indian subcontinent. The British and French backed various Indian states in conflicts between each other, both as a means of undermining each other 's influence and consolidating their authority.
Further, it is argued that the British used the strategy to destroy the harmony between various religions and use it for their benefits; a Times Literary Supplement review suggests that although this was broadly the case a more nuanced approach might be closer to the facts.
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who plays the knight in night at the museum 3 | Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb - wikipedia
Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb is a 2014 American comedy adventure film directed by Shawn Levy and written by David Guion and Michael Handelman. It is the sequel to the 2006 film Night at the Museum and the 2009 film Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian. The film stars Ben Stiller, Robin Williams, Owen Wilson, Steve Coogan, Ricky Gervais, Rachael Harris, Dan Stevens, Rebel Wilson, Skyler Gisondo, Rami Malek, Patrick Gallagher, Mizuo Peck, Ben Kingsley, and Crystal the Monkey. In Secret of the Tomb, security guard Larry Daley must travel to London to return the tablet of Ahkmenrah, an Egyptian artifact which causes the exhibits to come to life, before the magic disappears.
Principal photography of Secret of the Tomb took place from January to May 2014 in London, England and British Columbia, Canada. The film premiered on December 11, 2014, at New York City 's Ziegfeld Theater and was released in the United States on December 19, 2014. Secret of the Tomb grossed over $363 million at the box office. This film was dedicated to the memory of Robin Williams, who died four months before the film 's release, and fellow Night at the Museum actor Mickey Rooney, who died before principal photography was finished.
In 1938 Egypt, a team of archaeologists discover the tomb of pharaoh Ahkmenrah, including a young Cecil Fredericks, finding the magical Tablet of Ahkmenrah. The locals warn the group that removing the tablet will end its magic.
In present day New York City, Larry Daley remains the night guard of the American Museum of Natural History. He and the exhibits, brought to life each night by the tablet, help re-open the Hayden Planetarium. A new wax Neanderthal resembling Larry named Laaa is introduced, identifying Larry as his father. Ahkmenrah shows Larry that the tablet is corroding, which later causes the exhibits to act erratically, causing mayhem at the planetarium 's reopening. Larry catches his son Nick throwing a house party, who plans on taking a gap year to sort out his life.
Larry reunites with Cecil, now in retirement, who realises the end of the tablet 's magic will cause the exhibits to become lifeless. Cecil explains Ahkmenrah 's parents, Merenkahre and Shepseheret, may be able to restore the tablet 's power, but are located in the British Museum. Larry convinces the museum 's curator, Dr. McPhee, to let him ship Ahkmenrah to London to restore the tablet, convinced that McPhee knows its secrets. Larry and Nick travel to the British Museum, bypassing the night guard Tilly. To Larry 's surprise, Theodore Roosevelt, Sacagawea, Attila the Hun, Jedediah, Octavius, Dexter the capuchin monkey, and Laaa have come as well. Laaa is left to stand guard while the others search the museum, the tablet bringing its own exhibits to life.
They are joined by a wax Sir Lancelot who helps them fight off the aggressive museum exhibits like a Xiangliu statue and a Triceratops skeleton. Jedediah and Octavius fall through a ventilation shaft, but are rescued from a Pompeii model by Dexter. The group find Ahkmenrah 's parents, learning the tablet 's power can be regenerated by moonlight, since it is empowered with the magic of Khonsu. Lancelot mistakes the tablet for the Holy Grail and steals it, leaving to find Camelot. Larry and Laaa are locked in the employee break room by Tilly but escape, Laaa remaining behind to distract Tilly, but they become attracted to each other.
Lancelot crashes a performance of the Camelot musical, starring Hugh Jackman and Alice Eve as King Arthur and Queen Guinevere, but Larry and the others chase him to the theatre roof, where the New York exhibits begin to die. Lancelot then sees that the quest was about them and gives the tablet back. The moonlight restores the tablet 's power, saving the exhibits. They decide that Ahkmenrah and the tablet should stay with his parents, even if it means the New York exhibits will no longer come to life. Back in New York, Larry spends some final moments with his friends before sunrise.
Three years later, Larry now works as a teacher, and a travelling British Museum exhibit comes to New York. Tilly becomes the new night guard, and gives the tablet to Dr. McPhee, showing him its power, and allowing the exhibits to awaken again. Outside, Larry watches them party inside.
On January 21, 2010, co-writer Thomas Lennon said to Access Hollywood, "I think it 's a really outstanding idea to do Night at the Museum 3, in fact. I wonder if someone 's not even already working on a script for that. I can not confirm that for a fact, but I can not deny it for a fact either... It might be in the works. '' In an October 2011 interview with The Hollywood Reporter, Stiller confirmed the sequel, however, he said that it was only in the "ideas stage ''. In February 2013 it was announced that the film, directed by Shawn Levy, would be released on December 25, 2014. On September 10, 2013, it was announced that shooting would start in February 2014.
On November 8, 2013, actor Dan Stevens was cast as Lancelot. On November 15, 2013, it was announced that Skyler Gisondo would be replacing Jake Cherry in the role of Nicky Daley. On December 18, 2013, it was announced that Stiller, Robin Williams, and Ricky Gervais would be returning for the sequel. On January 9, 2014, it was announced that Rebel Wilson would play a security guard in the British Museum. On January 14, 2014, the film 's release date was moved up from December 25, 2014, to December 19, 2014. On January 23, 2014, it was announced Ben Kingsley would play an Egyptian Pharaoh at the British Museum. Principal photography and production began on January 27, 2014. On May 6, 2014, it was announced that the film would be titled Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb. In May 2014, principal photography ended.
Alan Silvestri returned to score the final installment of the trilogy.
Varese Sarabande released a soundtrack album of the score on January 6, 2015.
All tracks written by Alan Silvestri.
The film premiered at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City on December 11, 2014. It was then released on December 19, 2014 in the United States.
Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb grossed $113.7 million in North America, and $249.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $363.2 million against a budget of $127 million.
In North America, early analysts were predicting a potential $25 -- $28 million opening. In North America, the film was released on December 19, 2014 across 3,785 theaters. It opened Friday, December 19, 2014 and earned $5.6 million on its opening day, placing at number three at the box office. The film underperformed expectations during its opening weekend, earning $17.1 million, which was relatively lower than the openings of the original film ($30.4 million) and its sequel ($54.1 million). The film debuted at number two at the box office behind The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies. According to 20th Century Fox, the movie 's audience was 51 % male, with 54 % of the audience under the age of 25. In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave the film an average grade of "B + '', on an A+ to F scale.
The film began its international rollout the same weekend as the North American premiere and earned $10.4 million from 27 markets in its opening weekend, debuting at # 3 behind at the box office behind The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies and Penguins of Madagascar. The film expanded to an additional 40 markets in its second week and grossed $31.2 million. It topped the box office outside North America in its fourth weekend with a total gross of $46.2 million, primarily because of China, where it opened at # 1 with $26 million. The other highest opening figures were from Mexico ($5.85 million), Brazil ($3.1 million), Malaysia ($3.07 million), the UK ($3 million), Australia ($2.8 million), Germany ($2.1 million) and Singapore ($2 million).
For the weekend of January 16, 2015, the film grossed $17.8 million, which includes a $3.9 million debut in South Korea.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film received a 48 % approval rating, based on 104 reviews, with an average score of 5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "While not without its moments, Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb is a less - than - inspired sendoff for the trilogy. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 47 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Scott Foundas of Variety gave the film a positive review, praising the visual effects and calling the production values "topnotch '', and admiring Guillermo Navarro 's work. He added, "A most enjoyable capper to director Shawn Levy and producer Chris Columbus ' cheerfully silly and sneakily smart family - entertainment juggernaut... offers little in the way of secrets of surprises, but should add much holiday cheer to Fox 's box - office coffers. '' Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave the film three stars out of five and said, "The third part in what absolutely no one is calling the Night at the Museum ' trilogy ' turns out to be a good - natured and entertainingly surreal panto fantasy. '' Glenn Kenny awarded the film 21⁄2 stars out of 4 praising the Indiana Jones themed - set while criticizing the performances of the cast and said, "As talent - packed as any Night at the Museum picture may be -- in this third installment... -- one does n't come to a movie of this sort expecting anybody 's best work. Or at least one certainly should n't, because it wo n't materialize. '' Stephanie Zacharek of The Village Voice gave the film a positive review, saying "The third installment, Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb may be the best, and even the generally wound - too - tight Ben Stiller -- once again playing a bemused Museum of Natural History guard -- is easy to tolerate. '' Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "Where the previous films felt frenetic and forced, this outing feels breezier, more enjoyable and less contrived. '' Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News gave the film three out of five stars, saying "There 's a serenity to museum visits, especially if it 's a place you know and love. Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb, amazingly, recaptures that feeling in big - studio franchise form. ''
Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic gave the film two out of five stars, saying "Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb is a rather lackluster affair, a cash grab that tries to aim a little higher but confuses sappy shortcuts with real emotion. '' Joe McGovern of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B, saying "It 's kind of fun, unembarrassingly, and not least of all because the people who made it look like they had a good time doing so. '' Tom Long of The Detroit News gave the film a B, saying "There are some key elements that make this Night at the Museum sequel work better than its predecessor. '' Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star - Ledger gave the film two out of four stars, saying "The exhibits in this Night at the Museum may still come to life nightly. But their latest movie stays stubbornly inert. '' Tom Russo of The Boston Globe gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "Seeing Ben Stiller, the late Robin Williams, and their magically roused gang together again, this time in London, is initially all about indulgent, nostalgic smiles rather than new wows. But then comes the movie 's exceptionally clever and fresh final act, which delivers genuine surprise along with many laughs. '' Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph gave the film three out of five stars, saying "The third Night at the Museum film starts strongly, with its heart in the past... It 's an exciting opening, and perhaps too exciting for the film 's own good. It 's hard not to be disappointed when the plot moves back to the present and settles into the time - honoured formula of digitised creatures running riot and famous people in fancy dress doing shtick. '' Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a negative review, saying "Despite relocating across the pond to the esteemed British Museum, the creaky Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb fails to capitalize on the comic potential provided by that change of venue. ''
Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club gave the film a C+, saying "Secret of the Tomb plays it as a source of corny jokes, pop - culture references, and father - son bonding moments. In other words, it 's exactly the kind of film that should n't be expected to engage with its assorted bizarre subtexts -- but what a movie it could be if it did. '' Sara Stewart of the New York Post gave the film two out of four stars, saying "For piquing kids ' interest in history and nature, you could do worse than this goofy Ben Stiller franchise. But its third installment is more meh than manic, too reliant on wide shots of the ragtag Museum of Natural History cohorts striding down corridors. You get the feeling returning director Shawn Levy is ready to hang it up. '' Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film one and a half stars out of five, saying "The dialogue is schmaltzy and often painfully unfunny. The special effects are often so 1980s - bad, one wonders if it was a deliberate choice, to make the creepy visuals of sculptures dancing and paintings moving less frightening to young viewers. Time and again, terrific actors sink in the equivalent of cinematic quicksand, helpless against the sucking sound of this movie. '' Drew Hunt of Slant Magazine gave the film one out of four stars, saying "None of the entries in the Night at the Museum series could ever pass for high art, but a wealth of comedic talent gave the first two installments a madcap energy that somewhat forgave their childish premises. Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb, the third and supposedly final edition in the franchise, is nothing more than an uncomfortably transparent contractual obligation. ''
Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb was released on Blu - ray and DVD on March 10, 2015. The film debuted in second place on the home media charts behind The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1.
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which is the largest mountain range in the world | List of longest mountain chains on Earth - wikipedia
The world 's longest above - water mountain range is the Andes, about 7,000 km (4,300 mi) long. The range stretches from north to south through seven countries in South America, along the west coast of the continent: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. Aconcagua is the highest peak, at about 6,962 m (22,841 ft).
This list does not include submarine mountain ranges. If submarine mountains are included, the longest is the global mid-ocean ridge system which extends for about 65,000 km (40,000 mi).
Mountain chains are typically formed by the process of plate tectonics. Tectonic plates slide very slowly over the Earth 's mantle, a lower place of rock that is heated from the Earth 's interior. Several huge sections of the earth 's crust are impelled by heat currents in the mantle, producing tremendous forces that can buckle the material at the edges of the plates to form mountains. Usually one plate is forced underneath the other, and the lower plate is slowly absorbed by the mantle. Where the two plates pass one another, heated rock from the mantle can burst through the crust to form volcanoes. The movement of the plates against one another can also cause earthquakes.
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what is the url address for internet explorer | Address bar - Wikipedia
In a web browser, the address bar (also location bar or URL bar) is a graphical control element that shows the current URL. The user can type a URL into the bar to navigate to a chosen website. In a file browser it serves the same purpose of navigation but through the file - system hierarchy. Many address bars offer features like autocomplete and a list of suggestions while the address is being typed in. This auto - completion feature bases its suggestions on the browser 's history. Some browsers have keyboard shortcuts to auto - complete an address. These are generally configured by the user on a case - by - case basis. Address bars have been a feature of web browsers since NCSA Mosaic.
For websites using a favicon (a small icon that represents the website), a small icon will generally be present within the address bar, or somewhere nearby. Favicons are specific to websites, thus a generic icon will be displayed if not specified. The address bar is also used, in some browsers, to show the security status of a web page. Various colors and padlock icons may appear if the page is encrypted, and / or to indicate if intended communication is trustworthy and secure.
Some browsers address bars can be used to detect web feeds that can be used to subscribe to pages. The detection of a feed is normally indicated by the RSS icon "". A variety of other icons may also be present in the address bar if included with a browser extension.
Web browsers often include a feature called Smart Bookmarks. In this feature, the user sets a command that allows for a function (such as searching, editing, or posting) of a website to be expedited. Then, a keyword or term associated with the command is typed into the address bar followed by entering the term afterwards or selecting the command from a list.
Quick searches can also be performed in some browsers by entering a shortcut and search terms in lieu of a URL. For example, by associating the shortcut "w '' with Wikipedia, "w cake '' can be entered into the address bar to navigate directly to the Wikipedia article for cake. This feature is available in Firefox, Opera and Google Chrome.
In Opera and Safari, the address bar can double as a progress bar that indicates how much of the contents of the page has been loaded.
In Google Chrome, the address bar (or "Omnibox '') doubles as a search plugin bar which pulls incremental returns for typed phrases from Google Suggest 's pre-emptive search. An add - on is also available for Firefox that duplicates this functionality, and newer versions have the capability built - in. This "Omnibox '' is also capable of, in addition to the quick search function listed above, interpreting any non-URL phrase typed into it as a search on the user 's search engine of choice.
The following sections compare address bar widgets for a few well - known web browsers.
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who sings lean with it rock with it | Lean Wit It, Rock Wit It - Wikipedia
"Lean wit It, Rock wit It '' is a song by Atlanta rap group Dem Franchize Boyz from their album On Top of Our Game. The recording features Peanut and Charlay and was produced by Maurice "Parlae '' Gleaton.
The song peaked at number 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 1 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart. Maurice "Parlae '' Gleaton produced the recording. The music video shows them snap dancing. The song is considered to be the turning point in Dem Franchize Boyz career as it brought them into mainstream hip hop and also wide spread the subgenre of snap music. Lyrics from the chorus of the song were sampled in the Twenty One Pilots song Holding On to You.
Korn and Dem Franchize Boyz did a mash - up of their respective hit singles at the time, "Coming Undone '' and "Lean Wit It, Rock Wit It '', titled "Coming Undone Wit It ''. The mashup was produced by Jermaine Dupri and Scott Spock from The Matrix, and was first released on AOL in April 2006. The mash - up has new parts by both groups exclusively for the song. A video for "Coming Undone Wit It '' was released on the DVD portion of Korn 's Chopped, Screwed, Live and Unglued. This is the official remix to "Coming Undone '' and "Lean Wit It, Rock Wit It ''.
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who are the 4 founding fathers of america | Founding Fathers of the United States - wikipedia
The Founding Fathers of the United States were those individuals of the Thirteen Colonies in North America who led the American Revolution against the authority of the British Crown in word and deed and contributed to the establishment of the United States of America.
Historian Richard B. Morris in 1973 identified the following seven figures as the key Founding Fathers: John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and George Washington. Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin were members of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay were authors of The Federalist Papers, advocating ratification of the Constitution. The constitutions drafted by Jay and Adams for their respective states of New York (1777) and Massachusetts (1780) were heavily relied upon when creating language for the US Constitution Jay, Adams and Franklin negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1783) that would end the American Revolutionary War. Washington was Commander - in - Chief of the Continental Army and was President of the Constitutional Convention. Washington, Jay and Franklin are considered the Founding Fathers of U.S. Intelligence by the CIA. All held additional important roles in the early government of the United States, with Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and Madison serving as President. Jay was the nation 's first Chief Justice. Four of these seven - Washington, Jay, Hamilton and Madison - were not signers of the Declaration of Independence.
The term Founding Fathers is sometimes used to refer to the Signers of the embossed version of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. It is not to be confused with the term Framers; the Framers are defined by the National Archives as those 55 individuals who were appointed to be delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention and took part in drafting the proposed Constitution of the United States. Of the 55 Framers, only 39 were signers of the Constitution. Two further groupings of Founding Fathers include: 1) those who signed the Continental Association, a trade ban and one of the colonists ' first collective volleys protesting British control and the Intolerable Acts in 1774 or 2) those who signed the Articles of Confederation, the first U.S. constitutional document.
The phrase "Founding Fathers '' is a twentieth - century appellation, coined by Warren G. Harding in 1916. In the 19th century, they were referred to as simply, the "Fathers ''.
The First Continental Congress met briefly in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1774, consisting of fifty - six delegates from twelve of the thirteen colonies (excluding Georgia) that became the United States of America. Among them was George Washington, who would soon be drawn out of military retirement to command the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Also in attendance was Patrick Henry, and John Adams, who like all delegates were elected by their respective colonial assemblies. Other delegates included Samuel Adams from Massachusetts, John Dickinson from Pennsylvania and New York 's John Jay. This congress in addition to formulating appeals to the British crown, established the Continental Association to administer boycott actions against Britain.
When the Second Continental Congress convened on May 10, 1775, it essentially reconstituted the First Congress. Many of the same 56 delegates who attended the first meeting participated in the second. New arrivals included Benjamin Franklin and Robert Morris of Pennsylvania, John Hancock of Massachusetts, and John Witherspoon of New Jersey. Hancock was elected Congress President two weeks into the session when Peyton Randolph was recalled to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses. Thomas Jefferson replaced Randolph in the Virginia congressional delegation. The second Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. Witherspoon was the only active clergyman to sign the Declaration. He also signed the Articles of Confederation and attended the New Jersey (1787) convention that ratified the Federal Constitution.
The newly founded country of the United States had to create a new government to replace the British Parliament. The U.S. adopted the Articles of Confederation, a declaration that established a national government with a one - house legislature. Its ratification by all thirteen colonies gave the second Congress a new name: the Congress of the Confederation, which met from 1781 to 1789. Later, the Constitutional Convention took place during the summer of 1787, in Philadelphia. Although the Convention was called to revise the Articles of Confederation, the intention from the outset for some including James Madison and Alexander Hamilton was to create a new frame of government rather than amending the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention. The result of the Convention was the United States Constitution.
The Founding Fathers represented a cross-section of 18th - century U.S. leadership. Almost all of them were well - educated men of means who were leaders in their communities. Many were also prominent in national affairs. Virtually every one had taken part in the American Revolution; at least 29 had served in the Continental Army, most of them in positions of command. Scholars have examined the collective biography of them as well as the signers of the Declaration and the Constitution.
Many of the Founding Fathers attended or held degrees from the colonial colleges, most notably Columbia, Princeton, Harvard, the College of William and Mary, Yale and University of Pennsylvania. Some had previously been home schooled or obtained early instruction from private tutors or academies. Others had studied abroad. Ironically, Benjamin Franklin who had little formal education himself would ultimately establish the University of Pennsylvania based on European models (1740); "Penn '' would have the first medical school (1765) in the thirteen colonies where another Founder, Benjamin Rush would eventually teach.
With a limited number of professional schools established in the U.S., Founders also sought advanced degrees from traditional institutions in England and Scotland such as the University of Edinburgh and University of St. Andrews.
Several like John Jay, James Wilson, John Williams and George Wythe were trained as lawyers through apprenticeships in the colonies while a few trained at the Inns of Court in London.
Franklin, Washington, John Williams and Henry Wisner had little formal education and were largely self - taught or learned through apprenticeship.
The Founding Fathers had extensive political experience. Many had been members of the Continental Congress. Nearly all of the 55 Constitutional Convention delegates had experience in colonial and state government, and the majority had held county and local offices.
Historian Caroline Robbins in 1977 examined the status of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence and concluded:
The Founding Fathers practiced a wide range of high and middle - status occupations, and many pursued more than one career simultaneously. They did not differ dramatically from the Loyalists, except they were generally younger and less senior in their professions. A few of them were wealthy or had financial resources that ranged from good to excellent, but there are other founders who were less than wealthy. On the whole they were less wealthy than the Loyalists.
Franklin T. Lambert (2003) has examined the religious affiliations and beliefs of the Founders. Of the 55 delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention, 28 were Anglicans (in the Church of England; or Episcopalian, after the American Revolutionary War was won), 21 were Protestants, and two were Roman Catholics (D. Carroll, and Fitzsimons). Among the Protestant delegates to the Constitutional Convention, eight were Presbyterians, seven were Congregationalists, two were Lutherans, two were Dutch Reformed, and two were Methodists.
A few prominent Founding Fathers were anti-clerical Christians such as Thomas Jefferson, who constructed the Jefferson Bible, and Benjamin Franklin.
Historian Gregg L. Frazer argues that the leading Founders (Adams, Jefferson, Franklin, Wilson, Morris, Madison, Hamilton, and Washington) were neither Christians nor Deists, but rather supporters of a hybrid "theistic rationalism ''.
The Faiths of the Founding Fathers is a book that discusses the religion held by the founding fathers, written in 2006 by historian of U.S. religion David L. Holmes.
One of the greatest contradictions of the Founding Fathers was their disunity with regard to slavery at a time that they were seeking liberty for themselves. In her study of Thomas Jefferson, historian Annette Gordon - Reed emphasizes this irony, "Others of the founders held slaves, but no other founder drafted the charter for freedom, '' In addition to Jefferson, George Washington, John Jay and many other of the Founding Fathers practiced slavery but were also conflicted by the institution which many saw as immoral and politically divisive. Benjamin Franklin owned slaves (though Franklin later became an abolitionist). John Jay would try unsuccessfully to abolish slavery as early as 1777 in the State of New York but was overruled (though he would later sign the Gradual Emancipation Act into law while Governor). Alexander Hamilton opposed slavery, as his experiences in life left him very familiar with slavery and its effect on slaves and on slaveholders, although he did negotiate slave transactions for his wife 's family, the Schuylers. John Adams, Samuel Adams, and Thomas Paine never owned slaves
Slaves and slavery are mentioned only indirectly in the 1787 Constitution. For example, Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 prescribes that "three fifths of all other Persons '' are to be counted for the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives and direct taxes. Additionally, in Article 4, Section 2, Clause 3, slaves are referred to as "persons held in service or labor ''. The Founding Fathers, however, did make important efforts to contain slavery. Many Northern states had adopted legislation to end or significantly reduce slavery during and after the American Revolution. In 1782 Virginia passed a manumission law that allowed slave owners to free their slaves by will or deed. As a result, thousands of slaves were manumitted in Virginia. Thomas Jefferson, in 1784, proposed to ban slavery in all the Western Territories, which failed to pass Congress by one vote. Partially following Jefferson 's plan, Congress did ban slavery in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, for lands north of the Ohio River.
The international slave trade was banned in all states except South Carolina, by 1800. Finally in 1807, President Jefferson called for and signed into law a Federally - enforced ban on the international slave trade throughout the U.S. and its territories. It became a federal crime to import or export a slave. However, the domestic slave trade was allowed, for expansion, or for diffusion of slavery into the Louisiana Territory.
In the winter and spring of 1786 -- 1787, twelve of the thirteen states chose a total of 74 delegates to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. Nineteen delegates chose not to accept election or attend the debates; for example, Patrick Henry of Virginia thought that state politics were far more interesting and important than national politics, though during the ratification controversy of 1787 -- 1788 he claimed, "I smelled a rat. '' Rhode Island did not send delegates because of its politicians ' suspicions of the Convention delegates ' motivations. As the colony was founded by Roger Williams as a sanctuary for Baptists, Rhode Island 's absence at the Convention in part explains the absence of Baptist affiliation among those who did attend. Of the 55 who did attend at some point, no more than 38 delegates showed up at one time.
Most of the Founding Fathers married and had children. Many of their spouses, like Eliza Schuyler Hamilton, Martha Washington, Abigail Adams, Sarah Livingston Jay, Dolley Madison, Mary White Morris and Catherine Alexander Duer were strong women and made significant contributions of their own to the fight for liberty.
Sherman fathered the largest family: 15 children by two wives. At least nine (Bassett, Brearly, Johnson, Mason, Paterson, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Sherman, Wilson, and Wythe) married more than once. Four (Baldwin, Gilman, Jenifer, and Alexander Martin) were lifelong bachelors. Many of the delegates also had children conceived illegitimately. George Washington, "The Father of our Country, '' had no biological descendants.
The National Archives and Records Administration also known as NARA, defines U.S. Founding Documents, or Charters of Freedom, as the Declaration of Independence (1776), The Constitution (1787) and the Bill of Rights (1791). These original instruments which represent the philosophy of the United States are housed in Washington, D.C. in the NARA Rotunda. The Library of Congress further identifies the Articles of Confederation, also preserved at NARA, as a primary U.S. document. The Articles of Confederation served as the first constitution of the United States until its replacement by the present Constitution on March 4, 1789.
Signatories of the Continental Association (CA), Declaration of Independence (DI), Articles of Confederation (AC), and the United States Constitution (USC)):
Subsequent events in the lives of the Founding Fathers after the adoption of the Constitution were characterized by success or failure, reflecting the abilities of these men as well as the vagaries of fate. Washington, Adams, Jefferson and Madison served in highest U.S. office of President. Jay would be elected to two terms as Governor of New York.
Seven (Fitzsimons, Gorham, Luther Martin, Mifflin, Robert Morris, Pierce, and Wilson) suffered serious financial reversals that left them in or near bankruptcy. Robert Morris spent three of the last years of his life imprisoned following bad land deals. Two, Blount and Dayton, were involved in possibly treasonous activities. Yet, as they had done before the convention, most of the group continued to render public service, particularly to the new government they had helped to create.
Many of the Founding Fathers were under 40 years old at the time of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776: James Armistead Lafayette was 15, Marquis de Lafayette was 18, Alexander Hamilton was 19, Aaron Burr was 20, Gouverneur Morris and Betsy Ross were 24. The oldest were Benjamin Franklin, 70 and Samuel Whittemore, 81.
Secretary Charles Thomson lived to the age of 94. Johnson died at 92. John Adams lived to the age of 90. A few -- Franklin, Jay, Jefferson, Madison, Hugh Williamson, and George Wythe -- lived into their eighties. Approximately 16 died in their seventies, 21 in their sixties, 8 in their fifties, and 5 in their forties. Three (Alexander Hamilton, Richard Dobbs Spaight and Button Gwinnett) were killed in duels.
Friends and political adversaries John Adams and Thomas Jefferson both died on the same day - July 4, 1826
The last remaining founders, also called the "Last of the Romans '', lived well into the nineteenth century.
The following men and women are also recognized by many as having been founders of the United States based upon their significant contributions to the formation of American nation and democracy.
Several Founding Fathers were instrumental in establishing schools and societal institutions that still exist today:
Articles and books by twenty - first century historians combined with the digitization of primary sources like handwritten letters continue to contribute to an encyclopedic body of knowledge about the Founding Fathers.
Ron Chernow won the Pulitzer Prize for his biography of George Washington. His bestselling book about Alexander Hamilton inspired the blockbuster musical of the same name.
Joseph J. Ellis - According to Ellis, the concept of the Founding Fathers of the U.S. emerged in the 1820s as the last survivors died out. Ellis says "the founders '', or "the fathers '', comprised an aggregate of semi-sacred figures whose particular accomplishments and singular achievements were decidedly less important than their sheer presence as a powerful but faceless symbol of past greatness. For the generation of national leaders coming of age in the 1820s and 1830s -- men like Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun -- "the founders '' represented a heroic but anonymous abstraction whose long shadow fell across all followers and whose legendary accomplishments defied comparison.
"We can win no laurels in a war for independence, '' Webster acknowledged in 1825. "Earlier and worthier hands have gathered them all. Nor are there places for us... (as) the founders of states. Our fathers have filled them. But there remains to us a great duty of defence and preservation. ''
Joanne B. Freeman Freeman 's area of expertise is the life and legacy of Alexander Hamilton as well as political culture of the revolutionary and early national eras. Freeman has documented the often opposing visions of the Founding Fathers as they tried to build a new framework for governance, "Regional distrust, personal animosity, accusation, suspicion, implication, and denouncement -- this was the tenor of national politics from the outset. ''
Annette Gordon - Reed is an American historian and Harvard Law School professor. She is noted for changing scholarship on Thomas Jefferson regarding his relationship with Sally Hemings and her children. She has studied the challenges facing the Founding Fathers particularly as it relates to their position and actions on slavery. She points out "the central dilemma at the heart of American democracy: the desire to create a society based on liberty and equality '' that yet does not extend those privileges to all. ''
Jack N. Rakove - Thomas Jefferson
Peter S. Onuf - Thomas Jefferson
Founders Online is a searchable database of over 178,000 documents authored by or addressed to George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams (and family), Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison.
The Founding Fathers were portrayed in the Tony Award winning musical 1776, a stage production about the debates over, and eventual adoption of, the Declaration of Independence; the popular performance was later turned into the 1972 film
More recently, several of the Founding Fathers - Hamilton, Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Laurens and Burr - were reimagined in Hamilton an acclaimed production about the life of Alexander Hamilton, with music, lyrics and book by Lin - Manuel Miranda. The show was inspired by the 2004 biography Alexander Hamilton by historian Ron Chernow. The rap musical won 11 Tony Awards.
In their 2015 children 's book, The Founding Fathers author Jonah Winter and illustrator Barry Blitt categorized 14 leading patriots into two teams based on their contributions to the formation of America - the Varsity Squad (Washington, Franklin, Jefferson, John Adams, Madison, Jay, and Hamilton) and the Junior Varsity Squad (Sam Adams, Hancock, Henry, Morris, Marshall, Rush, and Paine).
President of Pennsylvania (1785 -- 1788), Ambassador to France (1779 -- 1785)
the federalists one
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who were known as the gems of kannada literature | Kannada literature - wikipedia
Kannada literature (ಕನ್ನಡ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ) is the corpus of written forms of the Kannada language, a member of the Dravidian family spoken mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka and written in the Kannada script.
Attestations in literature span something like one and a half millennia, with some specific literary works surviving in rich manuscript traditions, extending from the 9th century to the present. The Kannada language is usually divided into three linguistic phases: Old (450 -- 1200 CE), Middle (1200 -- 1700 CE) and Modern (1700 -- present); and its literary characteristics are categorised as Jain, Veerashaiva and Vaishnava -- recognising the prominence of these three faiths in giving form to, and fostering, classical expression of the language, until the advent of the modern era. Although much of the literature prior to the 18th century was religious, some secular works were also committed to writing.
Starting with the Kavirajamarga (c. 850), and until the middle of the 12th century, literature in Kannada was almost exclusively composed by the Jains, who found eager patrons in the Chalukya, Ganga, Rashtrakuta, Hoysala and the Yadava kings. Although the Kavirajamarga, authored during the reign of King Amoghavarsha, is the oldest extant literary work in the language, it has been generally accepted by modern scholars that prose, verse and grammatical traditions must have existed earlier.
The Veerashaiva movement of the 12th century created new literature which flourished alongside the Jain works. With the waning of Jain influence during the 14th - century Vijayanagara empire, a new Vaishnava literature grew rapidly in the 15th century; the devotional movement of the itinerant Haridasa saints marked the high point of this era.
After the decline of the Vijayanagara empire in the 16th century, Kannada literature was supported by the various rulers, including the Wodeyars of the Kingdom of Mysore and the Nayakas of Keladi. In the 19th century, some literary forms, such as the prose narrative, the novel, and the short story, were borrowed from English literature. Modern Kannada literature is now widely known and recognised: during the last half century, Kannada language authors have received eight Jnanpith awards, 60 Sahitya Akademi awards and 9 Sahitya Akademi Fellowships in India.
In the early period and beginning of the medieval period, between the 9th and 13th centuries, writers were predominantly Jains and Lingayats. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, which they dominated until the 12th century, although a few works by Lingayats from that period have survived. Jain authors wrote about Tirthankaras and other aspects of religion. The Veerashaiva authors wrote about Shiva, his 25 forms, and the expositions of Shaivism. Lingayat poets belonging to the vachana sahitya tradition advanced the philosophy of Basava from the 12th century.
During the period between the 13th and 15th centuries, there was decline in Jain writings and an increase in the number of works from the Lingayat tradition; there were also contributions from Vaishnava writers. Thereafter, Lingayat and Vaishnava writers dominated Kannada literature. Vaishnava writers focused on the Hindu epics - the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata - as well as Vedanta and other subjects from the Puranic traditions. The devotional songs of the Haridasa poets, performed to music, were first noted in the 15th century. Writings on secular subjects remained popular throughout this period.
An important change during the Bhakti "devotion '' period starting in the 12th century was the decline of court literature and the rise in popularity of shorter genres such as the vachana and kirthane, forms that were more accessible to the common man. Writings eulogising kings, commanders and spiritual heroes waned, with a proportional increase in the use of local genres. Kannada literature moved closer to the spoken and sung folk traditions, with musicality being its hallmark, although some poets continued to use the ancient champu form of writing as late as the 17th century.
The champu Sanskritic metre (poems in verses of various metres interspersed with paragraphs of prose, also known as champu - kavya) was the most popular written form from the 9th century onwards, although it started to fall into disuse in the 12th century. Other Sanskritic metres used were the saptapadi (seven line verse), the ashtaka (eight line verse) and the shataka (hundred - line verse). There were numerous translations and adaptations of Sanskrit writings into Kannada and, to a lesser extent, from Kannada into Sanskrit. The medieval period saw the development of literary metres indigenous to the Kannada language. These included the tripadi (three - line verse, in use from the 7th century), one of the oldest native metres; the shatpadi (six - line verse, first mentioned by Nagavarma I in Chhandombudhi of c. 984 and in use from 1165), of which six types exist; the ragale (lyrical narrative compositions, in use from 1160); the sangatya (compositions meant to be sung with a musical instrument, in use from 1232) and the akkara which came to be adopted in some Telugu writings. There were rare interactions with Tamil literature, as well.
Though religious literature was prominent, literary genres including romance, fiction, erotica, satire, folk songs, fables and parables, musical treatises and musical compositions were popular. The topics of Kannada literature included grammar, philosophy, prosody, rhetoric, chronicles, biography, history, drama and cuisine, as well as dictionaries and encyclopedias. According to critic Joseph T. Shipley, over fifty works on scientific subjects including medicine, mathematics and astrology have been written in the Kannada language.
Kannada literature of this period was mainly written on palm leaves. However, more than 30,000 more durable inscriptions on stone (known as shilashasana) and copper plates (known as tamrashasana) have survived to inform modern students of the historical development of Kannada literature. The Shravanabelagola inscription of Nandisena (7th century), Kappe Arabhatta inscription (c. 700), and the Hummacha and Soraba inscriptions (c. 800) are good examples of poetry in tripadi metre, and the Jura (Jabalpur) inscription of King Krishna III (964) is regarded as an epigraphical landmark of classical Kannada composition, containing poetic diction in kanda metre, a form consisting of a group of stanzas or chapters.
Elegiac poetry on hundreds of veeragallu and maastigallu (hero stones) written by unknown poets in the kanda and the vritta (commentary) metre mourn the death of heroes who sacrificed their lives and the bravery of women who performed sati. According to the scholar T.V. Venkatachala Sastry, the book Karnataka Kavicharitre compiled by Kannada scholar R. Narasimhachar lists over one thousand anonymous pieces of Kannada literature that cover an array of topics under religious and secular categories. Some fifty Vachana poets are known only by the pen names (ankita) used in their poems. Most Jain writings included in the list are from the period 1200 -- 1450 CE, while Veerashaiva and Vaishnava writings are from later periods. Secular topics include mathematics, medicine, science of horses and elephants, architecture, geography and hydrology.
The pace of change towards more modern literary styles gained momentum in the early 19th century. Kannada writers were initially influenced by the modern literature of other languages, especially English. Modern English education and liberal democratic values inspired social changes, intertwined with the desire to retain the best of traditional ways. New genres including short stories, novels, literary criticism, and essays, were embraced as Kannada prose moved toward modernisation.
The reign of the imperial Rashtrakutas and their powerful feudatory, the Gangas, marks the beginning of the classical period of writings in the Kannada language under royal patronage, and the end of the age of Sanskrit epics.
There was an emphasis on the adoption of Sanskritic models while retaining elements of local literary traditions, a style that prevailed in Kannada literature throughout the classical period. Kavirajamarga, written during this period, is a treatise on the Kannada speaking people, their poetry and their language. A portion of the writing qualifies as a practical grammar. It describes defective and corrective examples (the "do 's and don't's '') of versification and native composition styles recognised by earlier poets (puratana kavis). These composition meters are the bedande, the chattana and the gadyakatha -- compositions written in various interspersed metres. In some contexts, the term puravcharyar, which may refer to previous grammarians or rhetoricians, have also been mentioned. Some historians attribute Kavirajamarga to the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I, but others believe that the book may have been inspired by the king and co-authored or authored in full by Srivijaya, a Kannada language theorist and court poet.
The earliest existing prose piece in old Kannada is Vaddaradhane ("Worship of Elders '', 9th century) by Shivakotiacharya. It contains 19 lengthy stories, some in the form of fables and parables, such as "The Sage and the Monkey ''. Inspired by the earlier Sanskrit writing Brihatkatha Kosha, it is about Jain tenets and describes issues of rebirth, karma, the plight of humans on earth, and social issues of the time such as education, trade and commerce, magic, superstition, and the condition of women in society.
The works of Jain writers Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna, collectively called the "three gems of Kannada literature '', heralded the age of classical Kannada in the 10th century. Pampa, who wrote Adipurana in 941, is regarded as one of the greatest Kannada writers. Written in champu style, Adipurana narrates the life history of the first Jain Thirtankar, Rishabhadeva. In this spiritual saga, Rishabhadeva 's soul moves through a series of births before attaining emancipation in a quest for the liberation of his soul from the cycle of life and death. Pampa 's other classic, Vikramarjuna Vijaya (or Pampa Bharata, 941), is loosely based on the Hindu epic the Mahabharata.
Sri Ponna, patronised by King Krishna III, wrote Santipurana (950), a biography of the 16th Jain Tirthankar Shantinatha. He earned the title Ubhaya Kavichakravathi ("supreme poet in two languages '') for his command of both Kannada and Sanskrit. Although Sri Ponna borrowed significantly from Kalidasa 's earlier works, his Santipurana is considered an important Jain purana.
From the late 10th century, Kannada literature made considerable progress under the patronage of the new overlords of the Deccan, the Western Chalukyas and their feudatories: the Hoysalas, the southern Kalachuris of Kalyanis, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and Silharas of Karad. The skill of Kannada poets was appreciated in distant lands. King Bhoja of Malwa in central India presented Nagavarma I, a writer of prosody and romance classics, with horses as a mark of his admiration.
Ranna was the court poet of the Western Chalukya kings Tailapa II and Satyashraya. He was also patronised by Attimabbe, a devout Jain woman. Ranna 's poetic writings reached their zenith with Sahasa Bhima Vijaya ("Victory of the bold Bhima '', also called Gada Yudda or "Battle of Clubs '', 982), which describes the conflict between Bhima and Duryodhana in his version of the Mahabharata epic, one of the earliest poetic elegies in the Kannada language. Unlike Pampa, who glorified Arjuna and Karna in his writing, Ranna eulogised his patron King Satyashraya and favourably compared him to Bhima, whom he crowned at the end of the Mahabharata war. His other well - known writing is the Ajitha purana (993), which recounts the life of the second Jain Tirthankar Ajitanatha. Ranna was bestowed the title Kavi Chakravathi ("Emperor among poets '') by his patron king.
Among grammarians, Nagavarma - II, Katakacharya (poet laureate) of the Chalukya king Jagadhekamalla II made significant contributions with his works in grammar, poetry, prosody, and vocabulary; these are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged. Among his other writings, the Kavyavalokana on grammar and rhetoric and the Karnataka Bhashabhushana (1145) on grammar are historically significant. However, the discovery of Vardhamana Puranam (1042), which has been ascribed by some scholars to Nagavarma II, has created uncertainty about his actual lifetime since it suggests that he may have lived a century earlier and been patronised by Jayasimha II.
In the late 12th century, the Hoysalas, a powerful hill tribe from the Malnad region in modern southern Karnataka, exploited the political uncertainty in the Deccan to gain dominance in the region south of the Krishna River in southern India. A new chronological era was adopted, imperial titles were claimed and Kannada literature flourished with such noted scholars as Janna, Harihara, Rudrabhatta, Raghavanka, Keshiraja and others. An important achievement during this period was the establishment of native metres in literature (the ragale, the tripadi, the sangatya and the shatpadi).
Two renowned philosophers who lived during this time, Ramanujacharya and Madhvacharya, influenced the culture of the region. The conversion of the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana in the early 12th century from Jainism to Vaishnavism was to later prove a setback to Jain literature. In the decades to follow, Jain writers faced competition from the Veerashaivas, to which they responded with rebuttals, and from the 15th century, from the writers of the Vaishnava cadre. These events changed the literary landscape of the Kannada - speaking region forever.
One of the earliest Veerashaiva writers who was not part of the Vachana literary tradition, poet Harihara (or Harisvara) came from a family of karnikas (accountants), and worked under the patronage of King Narasimha I. He wrote Girijakalyana in ten sections following the Kalidasa tradition, employing the old Jain champu style, with the story leading to the marriage of Shiva and Parvati. In a deviation from the norm, Harihara avoided glorifying saintly mortals. He is credited with more than 100 poems in ragale metre, called the Nambiyanana ragale (or Shivaganada ragale, 1160) praising the saint Nambiyana and Virupaksha (a form of Hindu god Shiva). For his poetic talent, he has earned the honorific utsava kavi ("poet of exuberance '').
Harihara 's nephew, Raghavanka, was the first to introduce the shatpadi metre into Kannada literature in his epic Harishchandra Kavya (1200), considered a classic despite occasionally violating strict rules of Kannada grammar. Drawing on his skill as a dramatist, Raghavanka 's story of King Harishchandra vividly describes the clash of personalities between sage Vishvamitra and sage Vashisht and between Harishchandra and Vishvamitra. It is believed that this interpretation of the story of Harishchandra is unique to Indian literature. The writing is an original and does not follow any established epic traditions. In addition to Hoysala patronage, Raghavanka was honoured by Kakatiya king Prataparudra I.
Rudrabhatta, a Smartha Brahmin (believer of monistic philosophy), was the earliest well - known Brahminical writer, under the patronage of Chandramouli, a minister of King Veera Ballala II. Based on the earlier work of Vishnu Purana, he wrote Jagannatha Vijaya (1180) in the champu style, relating the life of Lord Krishna leading up to his fight with the demon Banasura.
In 1209, the Jain scholar and army commander Janna wrote Yashodhara Charite, a unique set of stories dealing with perversion. In one of the stories, a king intended to perform a ritual sacrifice of two young boys to Mariamma, a local deity. After hearing the boys ' tale, the king is moved to release them and renounce the practice of human sacrifice. In honour of this work, Janna received the title Kavichakravarthi ("Emperor among poets '') from King Veera Ballala II. His other classic, Anathanatha Purana (1230), deals with the life of the 14th Tirthankar Ananthanatha.
The 14th century saw major upheavals in geo - politics of southern India with Muslim empires invading from the north. The Vijayanagara Empire stood as a bulwark against these invasions and created an atmosphere conducive to the development of the fine arts. In a golden age of Kannada literature, competition between Vaishnava and Veerashaiva writers was fierce and literary disputations between the two sects were common, especially in the court of King Deva Raya II. Acute rivalry led to "organised processions '' in honour of the classics written by poets of the respective sects. The king himself was no less a writer, the romantic stories Sobagina Sone (lit "The Drizzle of Beauty '') and Amaruka are assigned to him.
To this period belonged Kumara Vyasa (the pen name of Naranappa), a doyen of medieval epic poets and one of the most influential Vaishnava poets of the time. He was particularly known for his sophisticated use of metaphors and had even earned the title Rupaka Samrajya Chakravarti ("Emperor of the land of Metaphors ''). In 1430, he wrote the Gadugina Bharata, popularly known as Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari or Kumaravyasa Bharata in the Vyasa tradition. The work is a translation of the first ten chapters of the epic Mahabharata and emphasises the divinity and grace of the Lord Krishna, portraying all characters with the exception of Krishna to suffer from human foibles. An interesting aspect of the work is the sense of humour exhibited by the poet and his hero, Krishna. This work marked a transition of Kannada literature to a more modern genre and heralded a new age combining poetic perfection with religious inspiration. The remaining parvas (chapters) of Mahabharata were translated by Timmanna Kavi (1510) in the court of King Krishnadevaraya. The poet named his work Krishnaraya Bharata after his patron king.
Kumara Valmiki (1500) wrote the first complete brahminical adaptation of the epic Ramayana, called Torave Ramayana. According to the author, the epic he wrote merely narrated God Shiva 's conversation with his consort Parvati. This writing has remained popular for centuries and inspired folk theatre such as the Yakshagana, which has made use of its verses as a script for enacting episodes from the great epic. In Valmiki 's version of the epic, King Ravana is depicted as one of the suitors at Sita 's Swayamvara (lit. a ceremony of "choice of a husband ''). His failure to win the bride 's hand results in jealousy towards Rama, the eventual bridegroom. As the story progresses, Hanuman, for all his services to Rama, is exalted to the status of "the next creator ''. Towards the end of the story, during the war with Rama, Ravana realises that his adversary is none other than the God Vishnu and hastens to die at his hands to achieve salvation.
Chamarasa, a Veerashaiva poet, was a rival of Kumara Vyasa in the court of Devaraya II. His eulogy of the saint Allama Prabhu, titled Prabhulinga Lile (1430), was later translated into Telugu and Tamil at the behest of his patron king. In the story, the saint was considered an incarnation of Hindu God Ganapathi while Parvati took the form of a princess of Banavasi.
Interaction between Kannada and Telugu literatures, a trend which had begun in the Hoysala period, increased. Translations of classics from Kannada to Telugu and vice versa became popular. Well - known bilingual poets of this period were Bhima Kavi, Piduparti Somanatha and Nilakanthacharya. In fact, so well versed in Kannada were some Telugu poets, including Dhurjati, that they freely used many Kannada terms in their Telugu writings. It was because of this "familiarity '' with Kannada, that the notable writer Srinatha even called his Telugu, "Kannada ''. This process of interaction between the two languages continued into the 19th century in the form of translations by bilingual writers.
In the late 12th century, the Kalachuris successfully rebelled against their overlords, the Western Chalukyas, and annexed the capital Kalyani. During this turbulent period, a new religious faith called Veerashaivism (or Lingayatism) developed as a revolt against the existing social order of Hindu society. Some of the followers of this faith wrote literature called Vachana Sahitya ("Vachana literature '') or Sharana Sahitya ("literature of the devotees '') consisting of a unique and native form of poetry in free verse called Vachana. Basavanna (or Basava, 1134 -- 1196), the prime minister of Kalachuri King Bijjala II, is generally regarded as the inspiration for this movement. Devotees gathered to discuss their mystic experiences at a centre for religious discussion called Anubhava Mantapa ("hall of experience '') in Kalyani. Here, they expressed their devotion to God Shiva in simple vachana poems. These poems were spontaneous utterances of rhythmic, epigrammatical, satirical prose emphasising the worthlessness of riches, rituals and book learning, displaying a dramatic quality reminiscent of the dialogues of Plato.
Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, Devara Dasimayya, Channabasava, Siddharama (1150), and Kondaguli Kesiraja are the best known among numerous poets (called Vachanakaras) who wrote in this genre. Akka Mahadevi was prominent among the several women poets; in addition to her poetry, she is credited with two short writings, Mantrogopya and Yogangatrividhi. Siddharama is credited with writings in tripadi metre and 1,379 extant poems (though he has claimed authorship of 68,000 poems).
The Veerashaiva movement experienced a setback with the assassination of King Bijjala and eviction of the sharanas (devotees) from Kalyani; further growth of Vachana poetry was curtailed until the 15th century when another wave of writings began under the patronage of the rulers of Vijayanagara. Chieftain Nijaguna Shivayogi originated a new philosophy called Kaivalya, founded on the advaitha (monistic) philosophy of Adi Shankara, synthesised with an offshoot of the Veerashaiva faith. A prolific writer, Shivayogi composed devotional songs collectively known as the Kaivalya sahitya (or Tattva Padagalu, literally "songs of the pathway to emancipation ''). His songs were reflective, philosophical and concerned with Yoga. Shivayogi also wrote a highly respected scientific encyclopaedia called the Vivekachintamani; it was translated into Marathi language in 1604 and Sanskrit language in 1652 and again in the 18th century. The encyclopaedia includes entries on 1,500 topics and covers a wide range of subjects including poetics, dance and drama, musicology and erotics.
Other well - known poet saints of the Veerashaiva tradition include Muppina Sadakshari, a contemporary of Shivayogi, whose collection of songs are called the Subodhasara, Chidananda Avadhuta of the 17th century and Sarpabhushana Shivayogi of the 18th century. So vast is this body of literature that much of it still needs to be studied.
The Vaishnava Bhakti (devotional) movement involving well - known Haridasas (devotee saints) of that time made an indelible imprint on Kannada literature starting in the 15th century, inspiring a body of work called Haridasa Sahitya ("Haridasa literature ''). Influenced by the Veerashaivism of the 12th century, this movement touched the lives of millions with its strong current of devotion. The Haridasas conveyed the message of Vedantic philosopher Madhvacharya to the common man through simple Kannada language in the form of devaranamas and kirthanas (devotional songs in praise of god). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples including Naraharitirtha, Jayatirtha, Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vadirajatirtha, Purandara Dasa, and Kanaka Dasa. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, a prominent saint from distant Bengal, visited the region in 1510, further stimulating the devotional movement.
Purandara Dasa (1484 -- 1564), a wandering bard, is believed to have composed 475,000 songs in the Kannada and Sanskrit languages, though only about 1,000 songs are known today. Composed in various ragas, and often ending with a salutation to the Hindu deity Vittala, his compositions presented the essence of the Upanishads and the Puranas in simple yet expressive language. He also devised a system by which the common man could learn Carnatic music, and codified the musical composition forms svaravalis, alankaras ("figure of speech '') and geethams. Owing to such contributions, Purandara Dasa earned the honorific Karnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha ("Father of Carnatic Music '').
Kanaka Dasa (whose birth name was Thimmappa Nayaka, 1509 -- 1609) of Kaginele (in modern Haveri district) was an ascetic and spiritual seeker who authored important writings such as Mohanatarangini ("River of Delight ''), the story of the Hindu god Krishna in sangatya metre; Nrisimhastava, a work dealing with glory of god Narasimha; Nalacharita, the story of Nala, noted for its narration; and Hari Bhaktisara, a spontaneous writing on devotion in shatpadi metre. The latter writing, which deals with niti (morals), bhakti (devotion) and vairagya (renunciation) has become popular as a standard book of learning for children. Kanaka Dasa authored a unique allegorical poem titled Ramadhanya Charitre ("Story of Rama 's Chosen Grain ''), which exalts ragi over rice. Apart from these classics, about 240 songs written by the Kanaka Dasa are available today.
The Haridasa movement returned to prominence from the 17th through 19th centuries, producing as many as 300 poets in this genre; well - known among them are Vijaya Dasa (1682 -- 1755), Gopala Dasa (1721 -- 1769), Jagannatha Dasa (1728 -- 1809), Mahipathi Dasa (1750), Helavanakatte Giriamma and others. Over time, the movement 's devotional songs inspired a form of religious and didactic performing art of the Vaishnava people called the Harikatha ("Stories of Hari ''). Similar developments were seen among the followers of the Veerashaiva faith who popularised the Shivakatha ("Stories of Shiva '').
With the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Kingdom of Mysore (ಮೈಸೂರು ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ) (1565 -- 1947) and the kingdom of the Keladi Nayakas (1565 -- 1763) rose to power in the southern and western regions of modern Karnataka respectively. Production of literary texts covering various themes flourished in these courts. The Mysore court was adorned by eminent writers who authored encyclopaedias, epics, and religious commentaries, and composers and musicians. The Keladi court is better known for writings on Veerashaiva doctrine. The Mysore kings themselves were accomplished in the fine arts and made important contributions. A unique and native form of poetic literature with dramatic representation called Yakshagana gained popularity in the 18th century.
Geetha Gopala, a well - known treatise on music, is ascribed to King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1673 -- 1704), the earliest composer of the dynasty, who went by the honorific Sahitya Vidyanikasha Prastharam ("Expert in literature ''). Inspired by Jayadeva 's Geetha Govinda in Sanskrit, it was written in saptapadi metre. This is the first writing to propagate the Vaishnava faith in the Kannada language.
Also writing in this period was Sarvajna (lit. "The all knowing '') -- a mendicant and drifter Veerashaiva poet who left a deep imprint on Kannada speaking region and its people. His didactic Vachanas, penned in the tripadi metre, constitute some of Kannada 's most celebrated works. With the exception of some early poems, his works focus on his spiritual quest as a drifter. The pithy Vachanas contain his observations on the art of living, the purpose of life and the ways of the world. He was not patronised by royalty, nor did he write for fame; his main aim was to instruct people about morality.
The writing of Brahmin author Lakshmisa (or Lakshmisha), a well - known story - teller and a dramatist, is dated to the mid-16th or late 17th century. The Jaimini Bharata, his version of the epic Mahabharata written in shatpadi metre, is one of the most popular poems of the late medieval period. A collection of stories, the poem includes the tale of the Sita Parityaga ("Repudiation of Sita ''). The author successfully converted a religious story into a very human tale; it remains popular even in modern times.
The period also saw advances in dramatic works. Though there is evidence that theatre was known from the 12th century or earlier, modern Kannada theatre is traced to the rise of Yakshagana (a type of field play), which appeared in the 16th century. The golden age of Yakshagana compositions was tied to the rule of King Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II (1704 -- 1714). A polyglot, he authored 14 Yakshaganas in various languages, although all are written in the Kannada script. He is credited with the earliest Yakshaganas that included sangeeta (music), nataka (drama) and natya (dance).
Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar (1794 -- 1868), the ruler of the princely state of Mysore, was another prolific writer of the era. More than 40 writings are attributed to him, including a poetic romance called Saugandika Parinaya written in two versions, sangatya and a drama. His reign signalled the shift from classical genres to modern literature which was to be complemented by the influence of colonial period of India.
The development of modern Kannada literature can be traced to the early 19th century when Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and his court poets moved away from the ancient champu form of prose toward prose renderings of Sanskrit epics and plays. Kempu Narayana 's Mudramanjusha ("Seal Casket '', 1823) is the first modern novel written in Kannada.
Modern Kannada literature was cross-fertilized by the colonial period in India as well., with translations of Kannada works and dictionaries into European languages as well as other Indian languages, and vice versa, and the establishment of European style newspapers and periodicals in Kannada. In addition, in the 19th century, interaction with European technology, including new printing techniques accelerated the development of modern literature.
The first Kannada newspaper called Mangalore Samachara was published by Hermann Mögling in 1843; and the first Kannada periodical, Mysuru Vrittanta Bodhini was published by Bhashyam Bhashyacharya in Mysore around the same time. Hermann Mögling translated Kannada classics into a series called Bibliotheca Carnataca during 1848 -- 1853., while British officers Benjamin L. Rice and J.H. Fleet edited and published critical editions of literary classics, contemporary folk ballads and inscriptions. Following the rich tradition of dictionaries in Kannada since the 11th century, the first dictionaries expressing meanings of Kannada words in European languages were published in the 19th century, the most prominent of them being Ferdinand Kittel 's Kannada - English dictionary in 1894.
There was a push towards original works in prose narratives and a standardisation of prose during the late 19th century. Translations of works from English, Sanskrit and other Indian languages like Marathi and Bengali continued and accelerated. Lakshman Gadagkar 's Suryakantha (1892) and Gulvadi Venkata Rao 's Indira Bai (1899) signalled the move away from the highly stylised mores and aesthetics of prior Kannada works to modern prose, establishing the modern novel genre and fundamentally influencing the essay, literary criticism and drama genres.
At the dawn of the 20th century, B.M. Srikantaiah (' B.M. Sri '), regarded as the "Father of modern Kannada literature '', called for a new era of writing original works in modern Kannada while moving away from archaic Kannada forms. This paradigmatic shift spawned an age of prolificacy in Kannada literature and came to be dubbed the Navodaya (lit. ' A new rise ') period -- a period of awakening. B.M. Sri led the way with his English Geethagalu ("English Songs '') -- a collection of poems translated from English set the tone for more translations using a standardisation of a modern written idiom. Original and seminal works which drew greatly from native and folk traditions also emerged alongside the translations. Stalwarts like S.G. Narasimhachar, Panje Mangesha Rao and Hattiangadi Narayana Rao also contributed with celebrated efforts. Literary subjects now veered from discussing kings and gods to more humanistic and secular pursuits. Kannada writers experimented with several forms of western literature, the novel and the short story in particular. The novel found an early champion in Shivaram Karanth while another prominent writer, Masti Venkatesh Iyengar (' Masti '), laid the foundation for generations of story tellers to follow with his Kelavu Sanna Kathegalu ("A few Short Stories '', 1920) and Sanna Kathegalu ("Short Stories '', 1924).
The consolidation of modern drama was pioneered by T.P. Kailasam, with his Tollu Gatti ("The Hollow and the Solid '', 1918). Kailasam followed this with Tali Kattoke Cooline ("Wages for tying the Mangalsutra ''), a critique on the dowry system in marriage. His plays mainly focused on problems affecting middle class Brahmin families: the dowry system, religious persecution, woes in the extended family system and exploitation of women. Novels of the early 20th century promoted a nationalist consciousness in keeping with the political developments of the time. While Venkatachar and Galaganath translated Bankim Chandra and Harinarayana Apte respectively, Gulvadi Venkata Rao, Kerur Vasudevachar and M.S. Puttanna initiated the movement toward realistic novels with their works. Aluru Venkatarao 's Karnataka Gatha Vaibhava had a profound influence on the movement for Karnataka 's unification.
While the first quarter of the 20th century was a period of experiment and innovation, the succeeding quarter was one of creative achievement. This period saw the rise of acclaimed lyricists whose works combined native folk songs and the mystic poetry of the medieval vachanas and kirthanas with influences from modern English romantics. D.R. Bendre, with his collection of 27 poems including such masterpieces as Gari ("Wing '', 1932), Nadaleele (1938) and Sakhigeetha (1940), was perhaps the most outstanding Kannada lyricist of the period. His poems covered a wide range of themes including patriotism, love of nature, conjugal love, transcendental experiences and sympathy for the poor. Govinda Pai narrated the story of Christ 's crucifixion in his work Golgotha (1931). The success of this work encouraged Pai to follow with three panegyrics in 1947; Vaishakhi, Prabhasa and Dehali, narrated the last days of the Buddha, God Krishna and Gandhi respectively. His Hebberalu ("Thumb '', 1946) dramatises the story of Drona and Ekalavya, characters from the epic Mahabharata.
K.V. Puttappa (' Kuvempu '), who would subsequently become Kannada 's first Jnanpith awardee, demonstrated great talent in writing blank verse with his magnum opus Sri Ramayana Darshanam (1949). This work marks the beginning of modern Kannada epic poetry. The work, through the use of metaphors and similes, focuses on the concept that all living creatures will eventually evolve into perfect beings. Other important works of the period are Masti 's Navaratri and P.T. Narasimhachar 's Hanathe. D.V. Gundappa 's Mankuthimmana Kagga ("Dull Thimma 's Rigmarole '', 1943) harkened back to the wisdom poems of the late medieval poet Sarvajna. A celebrated writer of conjugal love poems, K.S. Narasimhaswamy won critical acclaim for Mysore Mallige ("Mysore Jasmine '', 1942), a description of the bliss of everyday marital life.
Growth in poetic drama was inspired by B.M. Sri 's Gadayuddha Natakam (1925), an adaptation of Ranna 's medieval epic. While Kuvempu and B.M. Sri were inspired by old Kannada, Masti and later P.T. Narasimhachar (' Pu. Ti. Na ') explored modern sensibilities in their Yashodhara (1938) and Ahalye (1940). The 1930s saw the emergence of Sriranga, who joined forces with Samsa and Kailasam to pen some of the most successful plays in Kannada. Samsa completed his trilogy about Ranadhira Kantirava, a Mysore king of yore, with his Vijayanarasimha (1936) and Mantrashakti (1938). Kailasam 's mastery over wit and stage rhetoric come to the fore in his Home Rule (1930) and Vaidyana Vyadi ("A Doctors Ailment '', 1940) while he explores his serious side in Bhahishkara (1929); with Soole ("Prostitute '', 1945), he unleashed his contempt for outdated quasi-religious mores. Societal ills were also examined in Bendre 's Nageya Hoge ("Fumes of Laughter '', 1936), and in Karanth 's Garbhagudi ("Sanctum '', 1932), which decried the exploitation of society in the name of religion.
The novel came of age during this period, with Karanth (Chomana Dudi, 1933), Masti (Subbanna, 1928) and Kuvempu ("Subbamma Heggadathi of Kanur '', 1936) leading the charge. Significantly, writers chose to carry on from where Puttanna, Gulvadi and Kerur had left off around the start of the 20th century rather than continue with popular translations in the style of Venkatachar and Galaganath. Aesthetic concerns replaced the didactic and a sense of form developed. Devudu Narasimha Shastri distinguished himself with his Antaranga (1931) and Mayura (1928); the former was a much acclaimed work which delved into the psychology of the protagonist, while the latter was a historical novel tracing the emergence of the Kadamba dynasty. Another high point of this period is Karanth 's Marali Mannige (1942), the saga of three generations of a family, reflecting the social, cultural and economic developments of over a hundred years.
Literary criticism, which had its beginnings in the first quarter - century, also made significant progress. B.M. Sri 's Kannada Sahitya Charitre (1947), Gundappa 's Sahitya Shakti (1950), Masti 's Adikavi Valmiki (1935), Bendre 's Sahitya Hagu Vimarshe ("Literature and Criticism '', 1932) and Krishna Shastry 's Samskrita Nataka (1937) are particularly notable. The essay, another form adopted from western literature, was richly served by AN Murthy Rao (Hagaluganasugalu, 1937), Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar 's (' Gorur ') humorous Halliya Chitragalu (1930) and Karanth 's Hucchu manassina Hattu mukhagalu (1948).
As the Navodaya period waxed, the Pragatishila (progressives) movement led by novelist A.N. Krishna Rao (' Anakru ') gained momentum in the early 1940s. This left - leaning school contended that literature must be an instrument of social revolution and considered the Navodaya to be the product of aesthetes, too puritanical to be of any social relevance. This movement drew both established and young writers into its fold and, while it produced no poetry or drama of special merit, its contributions to short story and novel forms were appreciable. Pragatishila was credited with broadening readers ' horizons; works produced during this period dealt extensively with subjects of everyday life, rural themes and the common man. The language was less inhibited and made generous use of colloquialism and slang. Anakru himself was a prolific writer of novels but the best works of this school are attributed to T.R. Subba Rao (' Ta Ra Su '), Basavaraju Kattimani and Niranjana. T.R. Subba Rao initially wrote short stories, although he later turned his talents to novels, which were popular. His early novels, Purushavatara and Munjavininda Munjavu, told the stories of the underprivileged, the downtrodden and the outcast. Best known among his novels -- some of whose plots are centred on his native Chitradurga -- are Masanada Hoovu ("Flower from a cemetery ''), a story about the plight of prostitutes, and historical novel Hamsa Gite ("Swan Song ''), a story about a dedicated musician of the late 18th century during annexation of Chitradurga by Tipu sultan.
Marked as its influence had been, the Pragatishila wave was already in decline by the close of the 1950s. Legendary writers of the previous era continued to produce notable works in the Navodaya style. In poetry, Bendre 's Naku Tanti ("Four Strings '', 1964) and Kuvempu 's Aniketana (1964) stand out. V.K. Gokak brought out the innate insufficiencies of the more advanced western cultures in Indilla Nale (1965). Navodaya - style novels continued to be successful with such noteworthy works as Karanth 's Mookajjiya Kanasugalu ("Mookajji 's visions '', 1968), where Karanth explored the origins of man 's faith in the mother goddess and the stages of evolution of civilisation. Kuvempu 's Malegallali Madumagalu ("The Bride of the Hills '', 1967) is about loving relationships that exist in every level of society.
Masti 's two classic novels of this era were Channabasavanayaka (1950), which describe the defeat of Bidanur 's chief Channabasava Nayaka (on Karnataka 's coast) by Haider Ali in the late 18th century, and Chickavirarajendra (1950), which describes the fall of the tiny kingdom of Coorg (ruled by Chikka Virarajendra) to the British East India Company. The common theme in both works is the despotism and tyranny of the incumbent native rulers resulting in the intervention of a foreign power appearing on the scene to restore order, but with its own imperialistic intentions.
S.L. Bhyrappa, a charismatic young writer, first came to attention in the 1960s with his first novel Dharmasri, although it was his Vamsavriksha ("Family Tree '', 1966) that put him in the spotlight as one of Kannada 's most popular novelists. It is a story of a respected scholar, Srinivasa Srotri, his family and their long - held values. The protagonist 's young and widowed daughter - in - law wishes to remarry, putting his family tradition at risk. Bhyrappa 's best novel of the period was Grihabhanga ("Breaking of a Home '', 1970), a story of a woman surviving under tragic circumstances. The characters in the story are rustic and often use vulgar language. His other important novel is Parva, a major work in Kannada fiction acclaimed as an admirable attempt at recreating life on the sub-continent during the time of the epic Mahabharata.
In the 1950s, even as the Pragatishila merged back into the Navodaya mainstream, a new modernist school of writing called Navya emerged. Though formally inaugurated by V.K. Gokak with his Navya Kavitegalu ("Modern Poems '', 1950), it was Gopalakrishna Adiga who best exemplified the ethos of the movement. Poetry and, later, the short story became the most effective vehicles of the movement. With the passing of the Gandhian era and its influences, a new era in which to express modern sensibilities had arrived. The Navya writers questioned the time - honoured standards of plot of the Navodaya; life was seen not as a pursuit of already existing values, but as an introspective search for them, occasionally narrated in stream of consciousness technique. Events and details were increasingly treated metaphorically and the short story grew closer to poetry. Gopalakrishna Adiga is considered the father of this form of expression with his Nadedu Banda Dari ("The Path Traversed '', 1952) where he sought inspiration from T.S. Eliot and W.H. Auden. His other well - known poems include Gondalapura ("Pandemonium '', 1954) and Bhoota (1959).
G.S. Shivarudrappa made his mark in the Navya period with Mumbai Jataka ("A Horoscope of Bombay '', 1966), which takes a closer look at urbanised society in Mumbai. A protégé of Kuvempu, Shivarudrappa 's fame came the peak of popularity of romantic poems with his Samagma ("Songs of Equanimity '', 1951), poems distinguished by an idealistic bent. He continued to write poems in the same vein, although in his later poems there is a gradual shift to social issues with a streak of admiration for god 's creation. His critical essay, Anuranana (1980), is about the Vachana poets of the 12th century, their tradition, style and influence on later poets.
K.S. Narasimhaswamy remained prominent through this era, writing such landmark poems as Silalate ("The Sculptured Creeper '', 1958) and Gadiyaradangadiya Munde ("Before the Clock Shop ''). Chandrashekhara Kambar, Chandrashekar Patil, P. Lankesh, and K.S. Nissar Ahmed are among the best - known later generation Navya poets.
Outstanding playwrights from this period are Girish Karnad, P. Lankesh, Chandrashekhara Kambara and Chandrashekar Patil. Karnad 's Tughlaq (1964) portrays violence caused by idealism gone astray. Considered an important creation in Kannada theatre, the play depicts the 14th - century Sultan of Delhi, Mohammad Tughlaq in contrasting styles, a tyrannical and whimsical ruler and at the same time, an idealist who sought the best for his subjects. Most plays written by Karnad have either history or mythology as their theme, with a focus on their relevance to modern society.
The most acclaimed novel of the era was Samaskara by U.R. Anantha Murthy (1965). The novel details the search for new values and identity by the protagonist, a Brahmin, who had sexual intercourse with the untouchable mistress of his heretic adversary. Another notable work is the Swarupa (1966) by Poornachandra Tejaswi. Anantha Murthy 's Prasne (1963) contains his best collection of short stories including Ghatashraddha, which describes the tragedy that befell a young pregnant widow, from the point of view of a boy. His collection Mouni (1973) includes the stories Navilugulu ("Peacocks '') and Clip Joint.
The Navya movement was not without its critics. The doubt, dilemmas and indecision in every turn of the plot resulted in increasingly sophisticated and complex narrations, which some readers found uninteresting. It was derided as an intellectual exercise of the middle class intelligentsia; in its extreme sophistication, it was thought to have lost its touch with realities of life. This led to a gradual waning of the Navya school as it was supplanted by emerging waves of Navyottara, Bandaya (protest) and Dalit schools.
From the early 1970s, a segment of writers including many "Navya '' writers started to write novels and stories that were anti - "Navya ''. This genre was called Navyottara and sought to fulfil a more socially responsible role. The best - known authors in this form of writing were Poornachandra Tejaswi and Devanur Mahadeva. In his preface to Abachurina Post Office, Tejaswi expressed a path breaking observation towards then prevailing literary movements. Tejaswi won the "most creative novel of the year '' for his Karvalo in 1980 and Chidambara Rahasya in 1985 from the Sahitya Akademi.
Modernisation and westernisation continue to inform sensibilities and spawn new literary techniques and genres. The most striking developments in recent times have been the rise of the prose form to a position of predominance -- a position earlier held by poetry -- and the prodigious growth in dramatic literature. More recently Bandaya (Rebellion) and Dalit literature, in some ways a throwback to the Pragatishila (Progressivism) days, have come to the fore. Mahadeva 's Marikondavaru ("Those who sold themselves '') and Mudala Seemeli Kole Gile Ityadi ("Murder in the Eastern Region '') are examples of this trend.
Kannada writers have been presented with 8 Jnanpith awards, 60 Sahitya Akademi awards and 9 Sahitya Akademi Fellowships in India, and numerous other national and international awards since India 's independence.
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what is the purpose of the department of labor | United States Department of Labor - wikipedia
The United States Department of Labor (DOL) is a cabinet - level department of the U.S. federal government responsible for occupational safety, wage and hour standards, unemployment insurance benefits, reemployment services, and some economic statistics; many U.S. states also have such departments. The department is headed by the U.S. Secretary of Labor.
The purpose of the Department of Labor is to foster, promote, and develop the wellbeing of the wage earners, job seekers, and retirees of the United States; improve working conditions; advance opportunities for profitable employment; and assure work - related benefits and rights. In carrying out this mission, the Department of Labor administers and enforces more than 180 federal laws and thousands of federal regulations. These mandates and the regulations that implement them cover many workplace activities for about 10 million employers and 125 million workers.
The Department 's headquarters is housed in the Frances Perkins Building, named in honor of Frances Perkins, the Secretary of Labor from 1933 to 1945.
The U.S. Congress first established a Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1884 with the Bureau of Labor Act, to collect information about labor and employment. This bureau was under the Department of the Interior. The Bureau started collecting economic data in 1884, and published their first report in 1886. Later, the Bureau of Labor became an independent Department of Labor but lacked executive rank. It became a bureau again within the Department of Commerce and Labor, which was established February 15, 1903. President William Howard Taft signed the March 4, 1913 (the last day of his presidency) bill, establishing the Department of Labor as a Cabinet - level Department. William B. Wilson was appointed as the first Secretary of Labor on March 5, 1913 by President Wilson. Secretary Wilson chaired the first meeting of the International Labour Organization in October 1919, even though the U.S. was not yet a member.
The Federal Employees ' Compensation Act, signed Sept. 7, 1916, provided benefits to workers who are injured or contract illnesses in the workplace. The act established an agency responsible for federal workers ' compensation, which was transferred to the Labor Department in the 1940s and is today known as the Office of Workers ' Compensation Programs.
Frances Perkins, the first female cabinet member, was appointed to be Secretary of Labor by President Roosevelt on March 4, 1933. Perkins served for 12 years, and in doing so made her the longest serving Secretary of Labor.
During the John F. Kennedy Administration, planning was undertaken to consolidate most of the department 's offices, then scattered around more than 20 locations. Construction on the "New Labor Building '' began in the mid ‐ 1960s and finished in 1975. It was named in honor of Perkins in 1980.
President Lyndon Johnson asked Congress to consider the idea of reuniting Commerce and Labor. He argued that the two departments had similar goals and that they would have more efficient channels of communication in a single department. However, Congress never acted on it.
In the 1970s, following the civil rights movement, the Labor Department under Secretary George P. Shultz made a concerted effort to promote racial diversity in unions.
In 1978, the Department of Labor created the Philip Arnow Award, intended to recognize outstanding career employees such as the eponymous Philip Arnow.
During 2010 a local of the American Federation of Government Employees stated their unhappiness that a longstanding flextime program reduced under the George W. Bush administration had not been restored under the Obama administration. Department officials said the program was modern and fair and that it was part of ongoing contract negotiations with the local. In August 2010, the Partnership for Public Service ranked the Department of Labor 23rd out of 31 large agencies in its annual "Best Places to Work in the Federal Government '' list. In December 2010, then - Department of Labor Secretary Hilda Solis was named the Chair of the U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness, of which Labor has been a member since its beginnings in 1987.
In July 2011, the Department was rocked by the resignation of Ray Jefferson, Assistant Secretary for VETS, in a contracting scandal.
On March 4, 2013, the Department began commemorating its centennial.
Tom Perez was appointed as Secretary of Labor on July 23, 2013. According to remarks by Perez at his swearing - in ceremony, "Boiled down to its essence, the Department of Labor is the department of opportunity. ''
In the latest Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (United States) (FOIA) requests, published in 2015 (using 2012 and 2013 data, the most recent years available), the Labor Department earned a D by scoring 63 out of a possible 100 points, i.e. did not earn a satisfactory overall grade.
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who holds the record for the heaviest deadlift | Deadlift - wikipedia
The deadlift is a weight training exercise in which a loaded barbell or bar is lifted off the ground to the level of the hips, then lowered to the ground. It is one of the three powerlifting exercises, along with the squat and bench press.
Deadlift refers to the lifting of dead (without momentum) weight, such as weights lying on the ground. It is one of the few standard weight training exercises in which all repetitions begin with dead weight. There are several positions one can approach when performing the deadlift, which include the conventional deadlift, squat and sumo - deadlift. In most other lifts there is an eccentric (lowering of the weight) phase followed by the concentric (lifting of the weight) phase. During these exercises, a small amount of energy is stored in the stretched muscles and tendons in the eccentric phase, if the lifter is not flexible beyond the range of motion. Although this exercise uses the hips and legs as the primary movers, it can just as easily be considered a back exercise.
Conventional deadlift: The deadlift can be broken down into three parts: The setup, the initial pull or drive, and the lockout.
Setup: When performing a deadlift, a lifter will set up in a position that eccentrically loads the gluteus maximus, minimus, biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus while the muscles of the lumbar contract isometrically in an effort to stabilize the spine.
Drive: The next section of the deadlift produces the highest amount of force. By pushing down through their heels while simultaneously pushing up and forward with their hips and maintaining depressed scapula and a long tense spine an individual can remain safe during this motion. This is considered the most difficult part of the entire movement due to the amount of work required to drive the bar off the ground initially.
Lockout: The finish is the most critical aspect of the motion. This requires being totally erect with a neutral spine and forceful hip extension to engage the muscles of the lumbar spine and abdomen in unison with the glutes.
Lowering the weight: Finishing a deadlift is simply performing these same steps in reverse order. As the muscles of the back and core must remain tight throughout the motion, one should simply hinge at the hips and knees to bring the weight down. Lowering their chest towards their knees while keeping the bar close is the safest way to ultimately complete the motion.
Common error when performing a deadlift are:
Deadlifts can be performed using dumbbells, barbells, or kettlebells with one hand or two hands & with one leg or two legs. Other variations are the side deadlift or suitcase deadlift, rack pulls, deadlift lockouts, deficit deadlift or deadlift from a box (pulling from the floor while standing on a built or improvised low platform).
Each of these variations is called for to address specific weaknesses in a lifter 's overall deadlift. For instance if the athlete has difficulty breaking contact at max. weight, deficit deadlifts are performed to strengthen the gluteus maximus and hamstrings due to the greater range of motion required by standing on the low platform or low box. On the other hand, if the lifter has no problem with breaking contact with the floor but has difficulty locking out, they should perform rack pulls to strengthen their upper back, posterior deltoids, and trapezius muscles while de-emphasizing the gluteus and hamstrings.
The archaic "dead weight lift '', or "dead weight lift with lifting bar '' involved a T - bar with weight loaded on it while the lifter stood on sturdy chairs or other such platforms. A remarkably heavy amount of weight could be lifted in this manner due to its short range of motion; the main limitations are in the grip. This lift is similar to the modern day rack pulls, where a heavy amount of weight is lifted deadlift style a short distance in a power cage or squat rack.
Typically, there are two grips used: overhand (pronated) or a mixed overhand - underhand (supinated) (sometimes called "offset, '' "staggered, '' "alternating '', or "mixed '') grip. Depending on forearm strength, the overhand grip may result in the bar potentially rolling about. Mixed grip is capable of neutralizing this through the "physics of reverse torsion. '' The mixed grip allows more weight to be held for this reason.
In order to prevent the bar from rolling out of the hands, some lifters have been known to use an Olympic weightlifting technique known as the hook grip. This is similar to an overhand grip, but the thumbs are inside, allowing the lifter to "hook '' onto them with the fingers. The hook grip can make it easier to hold heavier weights using less grip strength, and keeps both shoulders and elbows in a symmetrical position. While it theoretically takes much of the stress off of the joints which might be created by the twisting of a mixed grip it has the disadvantage of being extremely uncomfortable for the thumbs, something which those who advocate it says will pass once a lifter becomes accustomed to it. Another, but rarely used method is a combination of the mixed overhand - underhand grip and the hook grip, preferred by people who lift heavier weights than their grip can handle, but who do n't want to rely on lifting straps or other supportive gear.
Many powerlifters adopt the overhand grip for their lower weight sets and move to the mixed grip to lift larger weights so they can achieve their one rep max.
A neutral grip can be achieved by the use of a trap bar; which is a hexagonal shaped bar which the lifter stands inside whilst holding the two side handles.
The deadlift is a compound movement that works a variety of muscles groups:
The deadlift activates a large number of individual muscles:
There are numerous variations of the deadlift.
A deadlift suit is a special piece of power lifting assistance clothing. The suits are made from very tight material. The material tightens on the squat on the way down, storing energy, that gives an extra boost with the stored tension to lift up. Thus, records are recorded with and without the suit. The starting position with a suit is slightly different to maximize use, so training with a suit is different. Wrist wraps are sometimes used to provide support, not necessarily to increase lift, like a suit.
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who fired the rocket on the uss forrestal | 1967 USS Forrestal fire - wikipedia
On 29 July 1967, a fire broke out on board the aircraft carrier USS Forrestal after an electrical anomaly caused a Zuni rocket on a F - 4B Phantom to fire, striking an external fuel tank of an A-4 Skyhawk. The flammable jet fuel spilled across the flight deck, ignited, and triggered a chain - reaction of explosions that killed 134 sailors and injured 161. At the time, Forrestal was engaged in combat operations in the Gulf of Tonkin, during the Vietnam War. The ship survived, but with damage exceeding US $ 72 million, not including the damage to aircraft. Future United States Senator John McCain and future four - star admiral and U.S. Pacific Fleet Commander Ronald J. Zlatoper were among the survivors. Lt. Tom Treanore returned to the ship as its commander and retired an admiral.
Forrestal departed its home port in Norfolk, Virginia in early June 1967. After it completed required inspections for the upcoming West Pacific cruise, it sailed to Brazil for a show of force. It then traveled east around the Horn of Africa and visited Naval Air Station Cubi Point in the Philippine Islands before sailing to Yankee Station in the Gulf of Tonkin on 25 July.
After arrival at Yankee Station, aircraft from Attack Carrier Air Wing 17 flew approximately 150 missions against targets in North Vietnam over four days.
The ongoing naval bombing campaign during 1967 originating at Yankee Station represented by far the most intense and sustained air attack operation in the U.S. Navy 's history. The demand for general purpose bombs (e.g., "iron bombs '') greatly exceeding production. The inventory of bombs had dwindled throughout 1966 and become critically low by 1967. This was particularly true for the new 1000 - lb Mark 83, which the Navy favored for its power - to - size ratio. A carrier - launched A-4 Skyhawk, the Navy 's standard light attack / ground attack aircraft, could carry either a single 2000 - lb bomb, or two 1000 - lb bombs. This gave it the ability to strike two separate hardened targets in a single sortie, which was more effective in most circumstances.
The U.S. Air Force 's primary ground attack aircraft in Vietnam was the much heavier, land - based, F - 105 Thunderchief. It could simultaneously carry two 3000 - lb M118 bombs and four 750 - lb M117 bombs. The Air Force had a large supply of these bombs, and did not rely as heavily on the limited supply of 1000 - lb bombs as did the Navy.
In addition to bombs, the ground attack aircraft carried unguided 5.0 in (127.0 mm) Mk - 32 "Zuni '' rockets. These rockets were in wide use although they had a reputation for electrical difficulties and accidental firing. It was common for aircraft to launch with six or more rocket packs, each containing four rockets.
Based on lessons learned during Japanese attacks on vessels during World War II, most sailors on board ships after World War II received training in fighting shipboard fires. These lessons were gradually lost and by 1967, the U.S. Navy had reverted to the Japanese model at Midway and relied on specialized, highly trained damage control and fire - fighting teams.
The damage control team specializing in on - deck firefighting for Forrestal was Damage Control Team # 8, led by Chief Aviation Boatswain 's Mate Gerald Farrier. They had been shown films during training of Navy ordnance tests demonstrating how a 1000 - lb bomb could be directly exposed to a jet fuel fire for a full 10 minutes and still be extinguished and cooled without an explosive cook - off. However, these tests were conducted using the new Mark 83 1000 - lb bombs, which featured relatively stable Composition H6 explosive and thicker, heat - resistant cases, compared to their predecessors. Because it is relatively insensitive to heat, shock and electricity, Composition H6 is still used as of 2018 in many types of naval ordnance. It is also designed to deflagrate instead of detonate when it reaches its ignition point in a fire, either melting the case and producing no explosion at all, or, at most, a subsonic low order detonation at a fraction of its normal power.
On 28 July, the day before the accident, Forrestal was resupplied with ordnance by the ammunition ship USS Diamond Head. The load included sixteen 1000 - lb AN / M65A1 "fat boy '' bombs (so nicknamed because of their short, rotund shape), which Diamond Head had picked up from the Naval Base Subic Bay and were intended for the next day 's second bombing sortie. Some of the batch of AN - M65A1s Forrestal received were more than a decade old, having spent a portion of that exposed to the heat and humidity of Okinawa or Guam, eventually being improperly stored in open - air Quonset huts at a disused ammunition dump on the periphery of Subic Bay Naval Base. Unlike the thick - cased Mark 83 bombs filled with Composition H6, the AN / M65A1 bombs were thin - skinned and filled with Composition B, an older explosive with greater shock and heat sensitivity.
Composition B also had the dangerous tendency to become more powerful (up to 50 % by weight) and more sensitive if it was old or improperly stored. Forrestal 's ordnance handlers had never even seen an AN / M65A1 before, and to their shock, the bombs delivered from Diamond Head were in terrible condition; coated with "decades of accumulated rust and grime '' and still in their original packing crates (now moldy and rotten); some were stamped with production dates as early as 1953. Most dangerous of all, several bombs were seen to be leaking liquid paraffin phlegmatizing agent from their seams, an unmistakable sign that the bomb 's explosive filler had degenerated with excessive age, and exposure to heat and moisture.
According to Lieutenant R.R. "Rocky '' Pratt, a Naval Aviator attached to VA - 106, the concern felt by Forrestal 's ordnance handlers was striking, with many afraid to even handle the bombs; one officer wondered out loud if they would survive the shock of a catapult assisted launch without spontaneously detonating, and others suggested they immediately jettison them. Forrestal 's ordnance officers reported the situation up the chain of command to the ship 's commanding officer, Captain John Beling, and informed him the bombs were, in their assessment, an imminent danger to the ship and should be immediately jettisoned overboard.
Faced with this, but still needing 1000 - lb bombs for the next day 's missions, Beling demanded Diamond Head take the AN - M65A1s back in exchange for new Mark 83s, but was told by Diamond Head that they had none to give him. The AN - M65A1 bombs had been returned to service specifically because there were not enough Mark 83s to go around. According to one crew member on Diamond Head, when they had arrived at Subic Bay to pick up their load of ordnance for the carriers, the base personnel who had prepared the AN - M65A1 bombs for transfer assumed Diamond Head had been ordered to dump them at sea on the way back to Yankee Station. When notified that the bombs were actually destined for active service in the carrier fleet, the commanding officer of the naval ordnance detachment at Subic Bay was so shocked that he initially refused the transfer, believing a paperwork mistake had been made. At the risk of delaying Diamond Head 's departure, he refused to sign the transfer forms until receiving written orders from CINCPAC on the teleprinter, explicitly absolving his detachment of responsibility for the bombs ' terrible condition.
With orders to conduct strike missions over North Vietnam the next day, and with no replacement bombs available, Captain Beling reluctantly concluded that he had no choice but to accept the AN - M65A1 bombs in their current condition. In one concession to the demands of the ordnance handlers, Beling agreed to store all 16 bombs alone on deck in the "bomb farm '' area between the starboard rail and the carrier 's island until they were loaded for the next day 's missions. Standard procedure was to store them in the ship 's magazine with the rest of the air wing 's ordnance; had they been stored as standard, an accidental detonation could easily have destroyed the ship.
While preparing for the second sortie of the day, the aft portion of the flight deck was packed wing - to - wing with 12 A-4E Skyhawk, seven F - 4B Phantom II, and two Vigilante aircraft. A total of 27 aircraft were on deck, fully loaded with bombs, rockets, ammunition, and fuel. Several tons of bombs were stored on wooden pallets on deck in the bomb farm. A McDonnell Douglas F - 4B Phantom (No. 110, BuNo 153061), flown by LCDR James E. Bangert and LT (JG) Lawrence E. McKay from VF - 11, was positioned on the aft starboard corner of the deck, pointing about 45 degrees across the ship. It was armed with LAU - 10 underwing rocket pods, each containing four unguided 5.0 in (127.0 mm) Mk - 32 "Zuni '' rockets. The Zuni was protected from launching by a safety pin that was only to be removed prior to launch from the catapult.
At about 10: 51 (local time) on 29 July, an electrical power surge in the Phantom occurred during the switch from external to internal power. The electrical surge caused one of the four 5 - inch Mk - 32 Zuni unguided rockets in a pod on external stores station 2 (port inboard station) to fire. The rocket was later determined to be missing the rocket safety pin, allowing the rocket to launch. The rocket flew about 100 feet (30 m) across the flight deck, likely severing the arm of a crewman, and ruptured a 400 - US - gallon (1,500 l; 330 imp gal) wing - mounted external fuel tank on a Skyhawk from Attack Squadron 46 (VA - 46) awaiting launch.
The official Navy investigation identified the Skyhawk struck by the Zuni as aircraft No. 405, piloted by Lieutenant Commander (Lt. Cmdr.) Fred D. White. Lt. Cmdr. John McCain stated in his 1999 book Faith of My Fathers that the missile struck his aircraft, alongside White 's A-4 Skyhawk. "On that Saturday morning in July, as I sat in the cockpit of my A-4 preparing to take off, a rocket hit the fuel tank under my airplane. '' Later accounts relying on his book also state that the rocket struck his A-4 Skyhawk.
The Zuni rocket 's warhead safety mechanism prevented it from detonating. The rocket broke apart on impact with the external fuel tank. The highly flammable JP - 5 fuel spread on the deck under White 's and McCain 's A-4s, ignited by numerous fragments of burning rocket propellant, and causing an instantaneous conflagration. A sailor standing about 100 feet (30 m) forward was struck by a fragment of the Zuni or the exploding fuel tank. A fragment also punctured the centerline external fuel tank of A-4 # 310, positioned just aft of the jet blast deflector of catapult number 3. The resulting fire was fanned by 32 knots (59 km / h; 37 mph) winds and the exhaust of at least three jets. Fire quarters and then general quarters were sounded at 10: 52 and 10: 53. Condition ZEBRA was declared at 10: 59, requiring all hands to secure the ship for maximum survivability, including closing the fire - proof steel doors that separate the ship 's compartments.
The official report states that one Korean War - era 1000 - lb AN - M65 bomb fell from a A-4 Skyhawk to the deck; other reports say two. The bomb fell in a pool of burning fuel between White 's and McCain 's aircraft.
Damage Control Team No. 8, led by Chief Farrier, were the first responders to any incident on the flight deck. They immediately took action. Farrier, without taking the time to locate and put on protective clothing, immediately attempted to smother the bomb with a PKP fire extinguisher, attempting to delay the fuel fire from spreading and give the pilots time to escape their aircraft. Based on their training, the team believed they had a 10 - minute window to extinguish the fire before the bombs casing would melt resulting in a low - order explosion.
The pilots, preparing to launch, were strapped into their aircraft. When the fire started and quickly spread, they immediately attempted to escape their aircraft. McCain, pilot of A-4 Skyhawk side No. 416, next to White 's, was among the first to notice the flames, and escaped by scrambling down the nose of his A-4 and jumping off the refueling probe. Lt. Cmdr. Robert "Bo '' Browning, in a A-4E Skyhawk on the port side, escaped by crossing the flight deck and ducking under the tails of F - 4B Phantoms spotted along the starboard side. CVW - 17 operations officer, Lt. Cmdr. Herbert A. Hope of VA - 46, escaped by jumping out of the Skyhawk cockpit and rolling off the flight deck and into the starboard man - overboard net. He went to the hangar deck and took command of a firefighting team.
Despite Chief Farrier 's constant effort to cool the bomb that had fallen to the deck, the casing suddenly split open and the explosive began to burn brightly. The Chief, recognizing that a lethal cook - off was imminent, shouted for his firefighters to withdraw, but the bomb detonated -- one minute and 36 seconds after the start of the fire. The unstable Composition B in the old bombs enhanced the power of the explosions. Thirty - five personnel were in close proximity to the blast. Two fire control teams were virtually destroyed; Farrier and all but three of his men were killed instantly. Twenty - seven men were injured.
"I saw a dozen people running... into the fire, just before the bomb cooked off, '' Lt. Cmdr. Browning later said. McCain saw another pilot on fire, and turned to help him, when the first bomb detonated. McCain was knocked backwards 10 feet, struck by shrapnel and wounded. White managed to get out of his burning aircraft but was killed by the detonation of the first bomb. Not all of the pilots were able to get out of their aircraft in time. Lt Ken McMillen escaped. LT (JG) Don Dameworth and LT (JG) David Dollarhide were injured escaping their aircraft. Lt. Cmdrs Gerry Stark and Dennis Barton were missing. Two more of the unstable 1000 - lb bombs exploded 10 seconds after the first, and a fourth blew up 44 seconds after that. A total of 10 bombs exploded during the fire.
When he got back on deck, Browning recalled, "The port quarter of the flight deck where I was is no longer there. '' LT James J. Campbell recoiled for a few moments in stunned dismay as burning torches tumbled toward him, until their screams stirred him to action. Several men jumped or were blown into the ocean. Neighboring ships came alongside and pulled the men from the water.
The first bomb detonation destroyed White 's and McCain 's aircraft, blew a crater in the armored flight deck, and sprayed the deck and crew with bomb fragments and shrapnel from the destroyed aircraft. Burning fuel poured through the hole in the deck into berthing compartments below. In the tightly packed formation on the aft deck, every aircraft, all fully fueled and bomb - laden, was damaged. Nine seconds later a second bomb exploded. Bodies and debris were hurled as far as the bow of the ship. All seven F - 4s caught fire.
In less than five minutes, seven or eight 1000 - pound bombs, one 500 - pound bomb, one 750 - pound bomb, and several missile and rocket warheads heated by the fire exploded with varying degrees of violence. Several of the explosions of the 1000 - pound Korean War - era AN - M65 Composition B bombs were estimated to be as much as 50 % more powerful than a standard 1000 - lb bomb, due to the badly degraded Composition B. The ninth explosion was attributed to a sympathetic detonation between an AN - M65 and a newer 500 - lb M117 H6 bomb that were positioned next to each other. The other H6 - based bombs performed as designed and either burned on the deck or were jettisoned, but did not detonate under the heat of the fires. The ongoing detonations prevented fire suppression efforts during the first critical minutes of the disaster.
The explosions tore seven holes in the flight deck. About 40,000 US gallons (150,000 l; 33,000 imp gal) of burning jet fuel from ruptured aircraft tanks poured across the deck and through the holes in the deck into the aft hangar bay and berthing compartments. The explosions and fire killed fifty night crew personnel who were sleeping in berthing compartments below the aft portion of the flight deck. Forty - one additional crew members were killed in internal compartments in the aft portion of Forrestal.
Personnel from all over the ship rallied to fight the fires and control further damage. They pushed aircraft, missiles, rockets, bombs, and burning fragments over the side. Sailors manually jettisoned numerous 250 - and 500 - lb. bombs by rolling them along the deck and off the side. Sailors without training in firefighting and damage control took over for the depleted damage control teams. Unknowingly, inexperienced hose teams using seawater washed away the efforts of others attempting to smother the fire with foam.
The destroyer USS George K. MacKenzie (DD - 836) pulled men from the water and directed its fire hoses on the burning ship. Destroyer USS Rupertus maneuvered as close as 20 feet (6.1 m) to Forrestal for 90 minutes, directing her own on - board fire hoses at the burning flight and hangar deck on the starboard side, and at the port - side aft 5 - in. gun mount. Rear Admiral and Task Group commander Harvey P. Lanham, aboard Forrestal, called the actions of Rupertus commanding officer Cmdr Edwin Burke an "act of magnificent seamanship ''. At 11: 47 am, Forrestal reported the flight deck fire was under control. About 30 minutes later, they had put out the flight deck fires. Fire fighting crews continued to fight fires below deck for many more hours.
Undetonated bombs were continually found during the afternoon. LT (JG) Robert Cates, the carrier 's explosive ordnance demolition officer, recounted later how he had "noticed that there was a 500 - pound bomb and a 750 - pound bomb in the middle of the flight deck... that were still smoking. They had n't detonated or anything; they were just setting there smoking. So I went up and defused them and had them jettisoned. '' Another sailor volunteered to be lowered by line through a hole in the flight deck to defuse a live bomb that had dropped to the 03 level -- even though the compartment was still on fire and full of smoke. Later on, LT (JG) Cates had himself lowered into the compartment to attach a line to the bomb so it could hauled up to the deck and jettisoned.
Throughout the day, the ship 's medical staff worked in dangerous conditions to assist their comrades. The number of casualties quickly overwhelmed the ship 's medical teams, and the Forrestal was escorted by USS Henry W. Tucker to rendezvous with hospital ship USS Repose at 20: 54, allowing the crew to begin transferring the dead and wounded at 22: 53. Firefighter Milt Crutchley said, "The worst was going back into the burned - out areas later and finding your dead and wounded shipmates. '' He said it was extremely difficult to remove charred, blackened bodies locked in rigor mortis "while maintaining some sort of dignity for your fallen comrades. ''
At 5: 05, a muster of Forrestal crewmen -- both in the carrier and aboard other ships -- was begun. It took many hours to account for the ship 's crew. Wounded and dead had been transferred to other ships, and some men were missing, either burned beyond recognition or blown overboard. At 6: 44 pm, fires were still burning in the ship 's carpenter shop and in the aft compartments. At 8: 33 pm, the fires in the 02 and 03 levels were contained, but the areas were still too hot to enter. Fire fighting was greatly hampered because of smoke and heat. Crew members cut additional holes in the flight deck to help fight fires in the compartments below. At 12: 20 am, July 30, 14 hours after the fires had begun, all the fires were controlled. Forrestal crew members continued to put out hot spots, clear smoke, and cool hot steel on the 02 and 03 levels. The fires were declared out at 4: 00 am.
The fire left 134 men dead and 161 more injured. It was the worst loss of a life on a U.S. Navy ship since World War II. Of the 73 aircraft aboard the carrier, 21 were destroyed and 40 were damaged.
Twenty - one aircraft were stricken from naval inventory: seven F - 4B Phantom IIs, eleven A-4E Skyhawks, and three RA - 5C Vigilantes.
The ship 's chaplains held a memorial service in Hangar Bay One for the crewmen who had given their lives for their ship and their country. More than 2,000 Forrestal men attended.
On 31 July, Forrestal arrived at Naval Air Station Cubi Point in the Philippines, to undertake repairs sufficient to allow the ship to return to the United States. During welcoming ceremonies, a fire alarm signal alerted crews to a fire in mattresses within the burned - out compartments.
A special group, the Aircraft Carrier Safety Review Panel, was convened on August 15 in the Philippines. Due to the necessity of returning the ship to the United States for repair, the panel acted quickly to interview personnel on board the ship.
Investigators identified issues with stray voltage in the circuitry of the LAU - 10 rocket launchers and Zuni missiles. They also identified issues with the aging 1000 - lb "fat bombs '' carried for the strike, which were discovered to have dated from the Korean War in 1953.
The board of investigation stated, "Poor and outdated doctrinal and technical documentation of ordnance and aircraft equipment and procedures, evident at all levels of command, was a contributing cause of the accidental rocket firing. '' But the doctrine and procedures employed were not unique to the Forrestal. Other carriers had problems with the Zuni rockets.
The investigation found that safety regulations should have prevented the Zuni rocket from firing. A triple ejector rack (TER) electrical safety pin was designed to prevent any electrical signal from reaching the rockets before the aircraft was launched, but it was also known that high winds could sometimes catch the attached tags and blow them free. In addition to the pin, a "pigtail '' connected the electrical wiring of the missile to the rocket pod. US Navy regulations required the pigtail be connected only when the aircraft was attached to the catapult and ready to launch, but the ordnance officers found this slowed down the launch rate.
The Navy investigation found that four weeks before the fire, Forrestal 's Weapons Coordination Board, along with members of the Weapons Planning Board, held a meeting to discuss the issue attaching the pigtail at the catapult. Launches were sometimes delayed when a crew member had difficulty completing the connection. They agreed on a deviation from standard procedure. In a memorandum of the meeting, they agreed to "Allow ordnance personnel to connect pigtails ' in the pack ', prior to taxi, leaving only safety pin removal at the cat. '' The memo, written on 8 July 1967, was circulated to the ship 's operations officer. But the memo and the decision were never communicated to Captain Beling, the ship 's commanding officer, who was required to approve such decisions.
The official inquiry found that the ordnance crew acted immediately on the Weapons Coordination Board 's decision. They found that the pigtail was connected early, that the TER pin on the faulty Zuni missile was likely blown free, and that the missile fired when a power surge occurred as the pilot transferred his systems from external to internal power. Their report concluded that a ZUNI rocket on the portside TER - 7 on external stores station 2 of F - 4B # 100 of VF - 11, spotted on the extreme starboard quarter of the flight deck, struck A-4 # 405, piloted by Lt. Cmdr. Fred D. White, on the port side of the aft deck. The accidental firing was due to the simultaneous malfunction of three components: CA42282 pylon electrical disconnect, TER - 7 safety switch, and LAU - 10 / A shorting device. They concluded that the CA42282 pylon electrical disconnect had a design defect, and found that the TER - 7 safety pin was poorly designed, making it easy to confuse with ordnance pins used in the AERO - 7 Sparrow Launcher, which if used by mistake would not operate effectively.
When temporary repairs in the Philippines were completed, she departed on 11 August, arriving at Naval Station Mayport in Florida on 12 September to disembark the remaining aircraft and air group personnel stationed in Florida. Two days later, Forrestal returned to Norfolk to be welcomed home by over 3,000 family members and friends of the crew, gathered on Pier 12 and onboard Randolph, Forrestal 's host ship.
From 19 September 1967 to 8 April 1968, Forrestal underwent repairs in Norfolk Naval Shipyard, beginning with removal of the starboard deck - edge elevator, which was stuck in place. It had to be cut from the ship while being supported by the shipyard 's hammerhead crane. The carrier occupied drydock number 8 from 21 September 1967, until 10 February 1968, displacing USS John King, an oil tanker, and a minesweeper that were occupying the drydock. During the post-fire refit, 175 feet (53 m) of the flight deck was replaced, along with about 200 compartments on the 03, 02, 01 decks. The ship 's four aft 5 "/ 54 caliber Mark 42 guns were removed. The forward four guns had been removed prior to 1962. The repair cost about $72 million (equal to more than $528 million in 2017 dollars), and took nearly five months to complete.
Capt. John K. Beling, as an Admiral - selectee, received orders to report to Washington, DC, as the Director of Development Programs in Naval Operations, reporting to Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Thomas H. Moorer. On September 18, 1967, Captain Robert B. Baldwin assumed command of Forrestal. From 8 April to 15 April 1968, he sailed the ship down the Elizabeth River and out into the waters off the Virginia Capes for post-repair trials, the ship 's first time at sea in 207 days. While accomplishing trials, the ship also recorded its first arrested landing since the fire, when Commander Robert E. Ferguson, Commander, CVW - 17, landed on board.
The Naval investigation panel 's findings were released on October 18. They concluded Beling knew that the Zuni missiles had a history of problems, and he should have made more effort to confirm that the ordnance crew was following procedure in handling the ordnance. They ruled he was not responsible for the disaster, but he was nonetheless transferred to staff work, and never returned to active command.
Beling was assigned temporary duty on the staff of Admiral Ephraim P. Holmes, Commander - in - Chief of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet. Holmes disagreed with many portions of the Navy 's report into the Forrestal disaster, including the section clearing Beling. He had Beling assigned to his staff so he could issue a letter of reprimand. By holding Beling responsible he would effectively end his career. Holmes attached the reprimand to the final report, but when Admiral Moorer endorsed the report, he ordered Admiral Holmes to rescind and remove the reprimand.
The investigation panel recommended several changes to safety procedures aboard carriers. This included development of a remote - control fire - fighting system for the flight deck, development of more stable ordnance, improvement in survival equipment, and increased training in fire survival. The U.S. Navy implemented safety reviews for weapons systems brought on board ships for use or for transshipment. This evaluation is still carried out by the Weapon System Explosives Safety Review Board. The fire aboard Forrestal was the second of three serious fires to strike American carriers in the 1960s. A 1966 fire aboard USS Oriskany killed 44 and injured 138 and a 1969 fire aboard USS Enterprise (CVN - 65) killed 28 and injured 314. The greatest loss of life on a U.S. Navy ship since World War II was when USS Hobson (DD - 464) collided with USS Wasp (CV - 18) on 26 April 1952, breaking in half, killing 176.
A 1995 report, NASA Reference Publication 1374, incorrectly described the Forrestal fire as a result of electromagnetic interference. It states, "a Navy jet landing on the aircraft carrier U.S.S. Forrestal experienced the uncommanded release of munitions that struck a fully armed and fueled fighter on deck... This accident was caused by the landing aircraft being illuminated by carrier based radar, and the resulting EMI sent an unwanted signal to the weapons system. ''
This incorrect description has been cited as a cautionary tale on the importance of avoiding electromagnetic interference. The report itself lacks an accurate reference to the fire. While text contains a superscript pointing to item 12 in the references section, item 12 in the reference section is to "Von Achen, W.: The Apache Helicopter: An EMI Case History. Compliance Engineering, Fall, 1991. ''
Eighteen crewmen were buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Names of the dead are also listed on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial.
On July 29, 2017, the USS Forrestal Association commemorated the 50th anniversary of the incident. Members of the military, survivors of the disaster, and family members gathered to memorialize those lost in this incident. Active duty personnel presented American flags to represent each sailor who died.
The non-profit USS Forrestal Association was formed in 1990 to preserve the memory of those lost in the tragedy.
The Farrier Fire Fighting School Learning Site in Norfolk, Virginia is named after Chief Gerald W. Farrier, the commander of Damage Control Team 8, who was killed in the initial explosion. The school hosts an annual memorial remembering the sailors who lost their lives aboard the Forrestal.
The fire revealed that Forrestal lacked a heavy - duty, armored forklift needed to jettison aircraft, particularly heavier planes like the RA - 5C Vigilante, as well as heavy or damaged ordnance.
The United States Navy uses the Forrestal fire and the lessons learned from it when teaching damage control and ammunition safety. The flight - deck film of the flight operations, titled "Learn or Burn '', became mandatory viewing for firefighting trainees. All new Navy recruits are required to view a training video titled Trial by Fire: A Carrier Fights for Life, produced from footage of the fire and damage control efforts, both successful and unsuccessful.
Footage revealed that damage - control teams spraying firefighting foam on the deck to smother the burning fuel, which was the correct procedure, had their efforts negated by crewmen on the other side of the deck spraying seawater, which washed the foam away. The sea water worsened the situation by washing burning fuel through the holes in the flight deck and into the decks below. In response, a "wash down '' system, which floods the flight deck with foam or water, was incorporated into all carriers, with the first being installed aboard Franklin D. Roosevelt during her 1968 -- 1969 refit. Many other fire - safety improvements also stemmed from this incident.
Due to the first bomb blast, which killed nearly all of the trained firefighters on the ship, the remaining crew, who had no formal firefighting training, were forced to improvise. All current Navy recruits receive week - long training in compartment identification, fixed and portable extinguishers, battle dress, self - contained breathing apparatus and emergency escape breathing devices. Recruits are tested on their knowledge and skills by having to use portable extinguishers and charged hoses to fight fires, as well as demonstrating the ability to egress from compartments that are heated and filled with smoke.
The disaster was a major news story and was featured under the headline "Inferno at Sea '' on the cover of the 11 August 1967, issue of Life magazine.
The incident was featured on the first episode of the History Channel 's Shockwave.
This article contains content in the public domain originally published by the U.S. government.
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who is the oldest person living on earth | Oldest people - wikipedia
This is a list of tables of the oldest people in the world in ordinal ranks. To avoid including false or unconfirmed claims of extreme old age, names here are restricted to those people whose ages have been validated by an international body that specifically deals in longevity research, such as the Gerontology Research Group (GRG) or Guinness World Records (GWR), and others who have otherwise been reliably sourced.
According to this criterion, the longest human lifespan is that of Jeanne Calment of France (1875 -- 1997), who lived to the age of 122 years, 164 days. She met Vincent van Gogh when she was 12 or 13. She received news media attention in 1985, after turning 110. Subsequent investigation found documentation for Calment 's age, beyond any reasonable question, in the records of her native city, Arles, France. More evidence of Calment 's lifespan has been produced than for any other supercentenarian; her case serves as an archetype in the methodology for verifying the ages of the world 's oldest people.
As women live longer than men on average, combined records for both sexes are dominated by women. The longest undisputed lifespan for a man is that of Jiroemon Kimura of Japan (1897 -- 2013), who died at age 116 years, 54 days.
Since the death of 117 - year - old Emma Morano of Italy on 15 April 2017, 117 - year - old Violet Brown of Jamaica, born 10 March 1900, is the oldest living person in the world whose age has been documented.
Systematic verification of longevity has only been practiced in recent decades and only in certain parts of the world. Note: All ten oldest people ever are women.
Deceased Living † ^ denotes age at death, or, if living, age as of 31 August 2017
a ^ Mortensen was born in Denmark. b ^ Kristal was born in Poland, then a part of the Russian Empire.
Note: All ten oldest people are women.
a ^ Engle was born in Saratov Oblast, Russia, then Borgardt, Russian Empire.
This list is copied from the Gerontology Research Group 's list of the World 's Oldest Person Titleholders. As the oldest living person is usually a woman, a sequence of oldest women would be nearly redundant to this list. A sequence of oldest living men follows this sequence.
This list is copied from the Gerontology Research Group 's list of the World 's Oldest Man Titleholders.
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when did live from daryl's house start | Live from Daryl 's House - Wikipedia
Live from Daryl 's House (simply known as Daryl 's House, and often abbreviated as LFDH) is an online series that was first created in fall 2007. The show features singer - songwriter Daryl Hall performing with his band and various guest artists at his home in Millerton, New York. The show provides a performance space that is an alternative to live concerts and studio sessions for popular artists. This allows the artists to "... have fun and (be) creatively spontaneous ''. The majority of shows include a segment in which Hall and the guest artist prepare food from different cuisines for everyone to eat. The food comes from various local restaurants and the chefs of those establishments walk Hall and guest through the preparation of the food. Live From Daryl 's House expanded to broadcast TV but remained unchanged. Hall was quoted by Billboard.com as saying "it 's an Internet show that is being shown on television, so I 'm not adapting the show at all in any way to be a ' TV ' show. '' The show debuted in 95 markets on September 24, 2011, with back - to - back half - hour episodes featuring Train (Episode 33) and Fitz & the Tantrums (Episode 35). Starting with the 66th episode of Live From Daryl 's House, the shows are filmed at Hall 's club, Daryl 's House, in Pawling, New York.
The first web show was a solo production which featured Hall and his backing band playing "Everything Your Heart Desires ''. It was not until the second episode that the show introduced its guest star format. Hall 's long - time performing and songwriting partner John Oates (of the band Hall & Oates) was the first guest on the show with a Christmas episode entitled "Trimming the Tree ''.
Hall created Live from Daryl 's House as a refuge from live touring on the road. He stated in an interview with Rolling Stone magazine that he wanted to bring the world to him, for a change. Hall wanted the opportunity to collaborate with contemporary artists, and this is his vehicle in which to do so.
Live from Daryl 's House originally appeared on the program 's website in November 2007. The initial episode was completely funded by Hall. In subsequent shows, costs were defrayed by corporate sponsors like Uline. Although some of those sponsored episodes are no longer available for viewing on the archive section of LFDH 's website, they can still be found on YouTube and torrent trackers. In addition to corporate sponsorship, Hall routinely plugged local restaurants that provided catering for the shows. Often, the chef would teach Hall and the guest artist how to prepare at least one of the dishes that were served. When the program gained popularity, Hall 's production company Good Cop Bad Cop Productions signed two syndication deals (with Tribune being the most notable). In 2012, the Viacom - owned Palladia network took over the finances with help from a deal arranged by executive producer Jonathan Wolfson, who is also Hall & Oates 's manager.
As of December 2016, 82 episodes of Live From Daryl 's House have been filmed.
Daryl Hall and the Goo Goo Doll 's John Rzeznik know a little something about what it takes to be a lead singer in a rock band, and they put that experience to good use on a selection from the catalog of both groups on the 42nd edition of Live From Daryl 's House.
Live from Daryl 's House gained traction on Rural Media Group 's channels, and the Palladia network through a deal brokered by the show 's Executive Producer Jonathan Wolfson, Rick Krim (VH1), and Ben Zurier (Executive Vice President, Programming Strategy, VH1, VH1 Classic, Palladia). The show currently continues to air on, VH1, MTV Live (formerly Palladia) (Viacom Media Network), RFD - TV and Family Net (both of the Rural Media Group), and on the "Live from Daryl 's House '' Website. The show 's website continues to premier the latest episodes from the series, and holds an archive of some of the past episodes. In an announced agreement, 2014 will see the show continue to air on Viacom Media Network 's Palladia music channel and new episodes will appear on all previously mentioned outlets. The series has led to Daryl Hall touring a live version of the show with Sharon Jones and Allen Stone, amongst others.
From the inception of the show until the 64th episode, Live from Daryl 's House primarily took place at Daryl 's home in Millerton, New York. This home consisted of two Connecticut Valley Houses that were built between 1771 and 1781. These houses were disassembled in their original locations and shipped to Millerton, New York where they were reassembled back into their original structures and saved from degradation. The houses now sit as one on Daryl 's 250 acres of farmland, which is located 50 miles to the west on the New York / Connecticut border.
Episode 4 of the series was filmed at Daryl 's London Townhouse where he performs "Let 's Give Them Something to Talk About '' with K.T. Tunstall.
Episode 6 was filmed at the SXSW Austin, TX.
Episodes 28 and 29 were filmed in Jamaica.
Episode 40 was filmed at Todd Rundgren 's home in Hawaii.
Episode 69 (Sammy Hagar) was filmed at the Cabo Wabo -
Episode 64 was the last show to be filmed from Hall 's Millerton, New York, residence. In October 2013, Hall began leasing and renovating the Pawling building that once housed the Towne Crier nightclub in Pawling, New York. Having remodeled the venue to look like his old home, even naming it Daryl 's House, the 65th episode of Live From Daryl 's House was filmed at the new location.
Long known for his passion of restoring historical homes, Hall is producing another television show titled Daryl 's Restoration Over-Hall. This series will appear on DIY Network and is executive produced by Hall, Michael Morrissey and Jonathan Wolfson, as well. The show will focus on restoring Hall 's colonial - era home in Sherman, Connecticut.
The house band consists of Hall and a core of key members along with several guest musicians based on the genre of the guest star. Until his death in 2010, guitarist T - Bone Wolk was the musical director. After Wolk 's death, guitarist Paul Pesco was the musical director until early 2014. After this, Hall replaced Pesco as musical director with guitarist Shane Theriot.
From the first episode, Wolk 's house musicians were guitarist / keyboardist Eliot Lewis, drummer Shawn Pelton, percussionist Everett Bradley, and bassist Zev Katz, who frequently ended episodes with a "Moment of Zev. '' Through Pesco 's tenure and into Theriot 's, the band coalesced around Lewis, drummer Brian Dunne, bassist Klyde Jones, and percussionist Porter Carroll; Dunne, Jones, and Lewis played together in the Average White Band in the 2000s. A frequent guest throughout the series is saxophonist Charles DeChant.
In 2010, Live from Daryl 's House won the "Best Variety Series '' Webby from the Webby Awards Group. The series was also nominated for a Music Webby in the same year. The show won an MTV O Music Award in 2010 for "Best Performance Series ''. The show is running for The Webby Awards again. Voting ends on April 20, 2017.
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who sang the song never been to spain | Never been to Spain - Wikipedia
"Never Been to Spain '' is a song written by Hoyt Axton, originally released on his 1971 LP Joy to the World and later that year performed by Three Dog Night, with Cory Wells on lead vocal. It was featured on their 1971 album, Harmony. The song was produced by Richard Podolor. In the US, "Never Been to Spain '' peaked at # 5 on the Billboard chart, and # 18 on the U.S. adult contemporary chart in 1972. Outside of the US, "Never Been to Spain '' reached # 3 in Canada.
The lyrics consist of the narrator ruminating on places that he has never visited, but feels that he has some proxy experience of via the music or other features of those places, or from having gone to similar locations. In the final verse, he observes that while he has "never been to heaven '', he has "been to Oklahoma '', where he has been told he was born, thus implying a kinship between the two places. However, the singularity of this kinship is called into question when he then implies that he could just as easily have been born in Arizona.
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what was the united states first action after joining the war | First engagement of neutral United States in World war II before the attack on Pearl Harbor - wikipedia
Scholars have identified various events as being the first engagement of neutral United States in World War II before the attack on Pearl Harbor. They disagree on which events led to formal entry of the United States into the conflict.
The first American hostile action against Axis forces was on 10 April 1941, when the destroyer USS Niblack attacked a German U-boat that had just sunk a Dutch freighter. USS Niblack was picking up survivors of the freighter when it detected a U-boat preparing to attack. The Niblack attacked with depth charges and drove off the U-boat. There were no casualties on board USS Niblack or the U-boat. By coincidence, USS Niblack was later in the same convoy as USS Reuben James when that ship was sunk, and picked up survivors from USS Reuben James.
The first American hostile action against Axis forces that resulted in physical destruction was on 14 September 1941, when USCGC Northland destroyed a German weather station in northeast Greenland. The action was based on an agreement with Danish Ambassador to the United States Henrik Kauffmann in April 1941 to patrol the Danish island.
The first American - caused casualties occurred on 7 December 1941 when the USS Ward attacked and sank a Japanese midget submarine near the entrance to Pearl Harbor prior to the commencement of the Japanese air attack upon Hawaii later that day. As a result of the attack on Hawaii, America declared war on Japan on 8 December 1941. Germany and Italy declared war on the United States three days later.
The first planned offensive action by the United States in World War II came in January 1942 when the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise attacked Japanese bases in the Marshall Islands.
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what does the song man in a box mean | Man in the Box - wikipedia
"Man in the Box '' is a single by the American rock band Alice in Chains. It was released as a single in 1991 after being featured on the group 's debut full - length album Facelift (1990). The song was included on the compilation albums Nothing Safe: Best of the Box (1999), Music Bank (1999), Greatest Hits (2001), and The Essential Alice in Chains (2006).
In the liner notes of 1999 's Music Bank box set collection, guitarist Jerry Cantrell said of the song, "That whole beat and grind of that is when we started to find ourselves; it helped Alice become what it was. '' The song makes use of a talk box to create the guitar effect. The original Facelift track listing credited only vocalist Layne Staley and Jerry Cantrell with writing the song. All post-Facelift compilations credited the entire band. It is unclear as to why the songwriter credits were changed.
"Man in the Box '' is widely recognized for its distinctive "wordless opening melody, where Layne Staley 's peculiar, tensed - throat vocals are matched in unison with an effects - laden guitar '' followed by "portentous lines like: ' Feed my eyes, can you sew them shut? ', ' Jesus Christ, deny your maker ' and ' He who tries, will be wasted ' with Cantrell 's drier, less - urgent voice. '' along with harmonies provided by both Staley and Cantrell in the lines ' Wo n't you come and save me '.
In interview with Rolling Stone in 1992, Layne Staley explained the song:
I started writing about censorship. Around the same time, we went out for dinner with some Columbia Records people who were vegetarians. They told me how veal was made from calves raised in these small boxes, and that image stuck in my head. So I went home and wrote about government censorship and eating meat as seen through the eyes of a doomed calf.
Jerry Cantrell said of the song:
It 's basically about how government and media control the public 's perception of events in the world or whatever, and they build you into a box by feeding it to you in your home. And it 's about breaking out of that box and looking outside of that box that has been built for you.
In a recorded interview with MuchMusic USA, Staley stated that the lyrics are about censorship in the mass media, and "I was really really stoned when I wrote it, so it meant something else at the time '', he said laughing. He also made it a point to ensure that all fans knew the song was not about veal, Layne Staley loved to eat veal.
"Man in the Box '' was released as a single in 1991. "Man in the Box '' is widely considered to be one of the band 's signature songs, reaching number 18 on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart at the time of its release.
The song was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance in 1992.
The song was number 19 on VH1 's VH1 40 Greatest Metal Songs and its solo was rated the 77th greatest guitar solo by Guitar World. It was number 50 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the 90s in 2007.
Steve Huey of Allmusic called the song "an often overlooked but important building block in grunge 's ascent to dominance '' and "a meeting of metal theatrics and introspective hopelessness. ''
The MTV music video for the track was released in 1991 and was directed by Paul Rachman, who later directed the first version of the "Sea of Sorrow '' music video for the band and the 2006 feature documentary American Hardcore. The music video was nominated for Best Heavy Metal / Hard Rock Video at the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards. The video is available on the home video releases Live Facelift and Music Bank: The Videos. The video shows the band performing in what is supposedly a barn, where throughout the video, a mysterious man wearing a black hooded cloak is shown roaming around the barn. Then, after the unknown hooded figure is shown, he is shown again looking around inside a stable where many animals live where he suddenly discovers and shines his flashlight on a man (Layne Staley) that he finds sitting in the corner of the barnhouse. At the end of the video, the hooded man finally pulls his hood down off of his head, only to reveal that his eyelids were sewn together with stitches the whole time. This part of the video depicts on the line of the song, "Feed my eyes, now you 've sewn them shut ''. The music video was shot on 16mm film and transferred to tape using a FDL 60 telecine. At the time this was the only device that could sync sound to picture at film rates as low as 6FPS. This is how the surreal motion was obtained. The sepia look was done by Claudius Neal using a daVinci color corrector.
Layne Staley tattooed on his back the Jesus character depicted in the video with his eyes sewn shut.
At Alice in Chains ' last concert with Staley on July 3, 1996, they closed with "Man in the Box ''. Live performances of "Man in the Box '' can be found on the "Heaven Beside You '' and "Get Born Again '' singles and the live album Live. A performance of the song is also included on the home video release Live Facelift and is a staple of the band 's live show due to the song 's popularity.
Richard Cheese and Lounge Against the Machine covered "Man in the Box '' in a lounge style on their 2005 album Aperitif for Destruction. Platinum - selling recording artist David Cook covered the song during his 2009 Declaration Tour. Angie Aparo recorded a cover version for his album Weapons of Mass Construction. Apologetix parodied the song as "Man on the Cross '' on their 2013 album Hot Potato Soup. Metal artist Chris Senter released a parody titled "Cat in the Box '' in March 2015, featuring a music video by animator Joey Siler. Les Claypool 's bluegrass project Duo de Twang covered the song on their debut album Four Foot Shack.
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when is the union jack called the union jack | Union Jack - Wikipedia
The Union Jack, or Union Flag, is the national flag of the United Kingdom. The flag also has an official or semi-official status in some other Commonwealth realms: for example, it is a ceremonial flag in Canada by parliamentary resolution, and known there as the Royal Union Flag. Further, it is used as an official flag in some of the smaller British overseas territories. The Union Flag also appears in the canton (upper left - hand quarter) of the flags of several nations and territories that are former British possessions or dominions, as well as the state flag of Hawaii.
The claim that the term Union Jack properly refers only to naval usage has been disputed, following historical investigations by the Flag Institute in 2013.
The origins of the earlier flag of Great Britain date back to 1606. James VI of Scotland had inherited the English and Irish thrones in 1603 as James I, thereby uniting the crowns of England, Scotland, and Ireland in a personal union, although the three kingdoms remained separate states. On 12 April 1606, a new flag to represent this regal union between England and Scotland was specified in a royal decree, according to which the flag of England (a red cross on a white background, known as St George 's Cross), and the flag of Scotland (a white saltire on a blue background, known as the Saltire or St Andrew 's Cross), would be joined together, forming the flag of England and Scotland for maritime purposes. King James also began to refer to a "Kingdom of Great Britaine '', although the union remained a personal one.
The present design of the Union Flag dates from a Royal proclamation following the union of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. The flag combines aspects of three older national flags: the red cross of St George for the Kingdom of England, the white saltire of St Andrew for Scotland (which two were united in the first Union Flag), and the red saltire of St Patrick to represent Ireland.
Notably, the home country of Wales is not represented separately in the Union Flag, as the flag was designed after the invasion of Wales in 1282. Hence Wales as a home country today has no representation on the flag; it appears under the cross of St George, which represents the former Kingdom of England (which included Wales).
The terms Union Jack and Union Flag are both historically correct for describing the de facto national flag of the United Kingdom. Whether the term Union Jack applies only when used as a jack flag on a ship is a modern matter of debate.
According to the Parliament of the United Kingdom: "Until the early 17th century England and Scotland were two entirely independent kingdoms. This changed dramatically in 1603 on the death of Elizabeth I of England. Because the Queen died unmarried and childless, the English crown passed to the next available heir, her cousin James VI, King of Scotland. England and Scotland now shared the same monarch under what was known as a union of the crowns.
In 1606, James VI gave orders for a British flag to be created which bore the combined crosses of St. George and of St. Andrew. The result was the Union Jack.
According to the Flag Institute, a membership - run vexillological charity, "the national flag of the United Kingdom, the Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories is the Union Flag, which may also be called the Union Jack. '' The institute also notes:
it is often stated that the Union Flag should only be described as the Union Jack when flown in the bows of a warship, but this is a relatively recent idea. From early in its life the Admiralty itself frequently referred to the flag as the Union Jack, whatever its use, and in 1902 an Admiralty circular announced that Their Lordships had decided that either name could be used officially. In 1908, a government minister stated, in response to a parliamentary question, that "the Union Jack should be regarded as the National flag ''.
Notwithstanding Their Lordships ' circular of 1902, by 1913 the Admiralty described the "Union Flag '' and added in a foot note that ' A Jack is a Flag to be flown only on the "Jack '' Staff '.
However, the authoritative A Complete Guide to Heraldry published in 1909 by Arthur Charles Fox - Davies uses the term "Union Jack ''.
The term "Union Flag '' is used in King Charles I 's 1634 proclamation:
... none of Our Subjects, of any of Our Nations and Kingdoms shall from henceforth presume to carry the Union Flag in the Main top, or other part of any of their Ships (that is) St Georges cross and St Andrew 's Cross joined together upon pain of Our high displeasure, but that the same Union Flag be still reserved as an ornament proper for Our own Ships and Ships in our immediate Service and Pay, and none other. ''
and in King George III 's proclamation of 1 January 1801 concerning the arms and flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland:
And that the Union Flag shall be Azure, the Crosses Saltires of St. Andrew and St. Patrick Quarterly per Saltire, counterchanged Argent and Gules; the latter fimbriated of the Second, surmounted by the Cross of St. George of the Third, fimbriated as the Saltire:...
When the first flag representing Britain was introduced on the proclamation of King James I in 1606, it became known simply as the "British flag '' or the "flag of Britain ''. The royal proclamation gave no distinctive name to the new flag. The word "jack '' was in use before 1600 to describe the maritime bow flag. By 1627 a small Union Jack was commonly flown in this position. One theory goes that for some years it would have been called just the "Jack '', or "Jack flag '', or the "King 's Jack '', but by 1674, while formally referred to as "His Majesty 's Jack '', it was commonly called the "Union Jack '', and this was officially acknowledged.
Amongst the proclamations issued by King George III at the time of the Union of 1801 was a proclamation concerning flags at sea, which repeatedly referred to "Ensigns, Flags, Jacks, and Pendants '' and forbade merchant vessels from wearing "Our Jack, commonly called the Union Jack '' nor any pendants or colours used by the King 's ships. Reinforcing the distinction the King 's proclamation of the same day concerning the arms and flag of the United Kingdom (not colours at sea) called the new flag "the Union Flag ''.
The size and power of the Royal Navy internationally at the time could also explain why the flag was named the "Union Jack ''; considering the navy was so widely utilised and renowned by the United Kingdom and colonies, it is possible that the term jack occurred because of its regular use on all British ships using the jack staff (a flag pole attached to the bow of a ship). The term Union Jack possibly dates from Queen Anne 's time (r. 1702 -- 14), but its origin is uncertain. It may come from the ' jack - et ' of the English or Scottish soldiers, or from the name of James I who originated the first union in 1603. Even if the term "Union Jack '' does derive from the jack flag, after three centuries, it is now sanctioned by use and has appeared in official use, confirmed as the national flag by Parliament and remains the popular term.
Winston Churchill was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and he referred to the flag of the United Kingdom as the Union Jack. In March 1899 Churchill wrote to his mother from India about her plans to produce a new trans - Atlantic magazine, to be called The Anglo - Saxon Review. The drawing at the end of this letter was deliberately mischievous, teasing her for going down - market, and in the accompanying letter he wrote, "Your title ' The Anglo Saxon ' with its motto ' Blood is thicker than water ' only needs the Union Jack & the Star Spangled Banner crossed on the cover to be suited to one of Harmsworth 's (a leading British newspaper owner) cheap Imperialist productions. ''
More recently, Reed 's Nautical Almanac (1990 edition) unambiguously stated: "The Union Flag, frequently but incorrectly referred to as the Union Jack,... '' and later: "8. The Jack -- A small flag worn on a jackstaff on the stem of Naval Vessels. The Royal Navy wears the Union Flag... This is the only occasion when it correct to describe the flag as the Union Jack ''. However, this assertion does not appear in any Reed 's Nautical Almanac since 1993. In the 2016 Reeds Nautical Almanac the only entry where this might appear, section 5.21, covering Flag Etiquette, does not include this statement. Within the Almanac, neither the Union Flag or the Union Jack are included pictorially or mentioned by name.
For comparison with another anglophone country with a large navy: the Jack of the United States specifically refers to the flag flown from the jackstaff of a warship, auxiliary or other U.S. governmental entity.
The current flag 's design has been in use since 1801. Its original blazon, as decreed by George III of the United Kingdom on 1 January 1801, reads:
The Union Jack is normally twice as long as it is tall, a ratio of 1: 2. In the United Kingdom, land flags are normally a ratio of 3: 5; the Union Jack can also be made in this shape, but is 1: 2 for most purposes. In 2008, MP Andrew Rosindell proposed a Ten Minute Rule bill to standardise the design of the flag at 3: 5, but the bill did not proceed past the first reading.
Flags that have the Union Jack in the canton should always be 1: 2 to preserve the square fly area.
The three component crosses that make up the Union Flag are sized as follows:
The crosses and fimbriations retain their thickness relative to the flag 's height whether they are shown with a ratio of 3: 5 or 1: 2
The Admiralty in 1864 settled all official flags at proportions 1: 2, but the relative widths of the crosses remained unspecified, with the above conventions becoming standardised in the 20th century. In the 19th century, the Union flag was defined by the same blazon but could vary in its geometrical proportions,
The colour specifications for the colours Union Jack (royal) blue, Union Flag red and white are:
All HEX, CMYK and RGB specifications for the Pantone colours are taken from the official Pantone website on the webpages of the corresponding colours. Keep in mind that although the colour schemes are official, not all of the colours are completely congruent. This is due to different specifications for different types of media (for example, screen and print).
The flag does not have reflection symmetry due to the slight pinwheeling of the St Patrick 's and St Andrew 's crosses, technically the counterchange of saltires. Thus, there is a right side up. The original specification of the Union Flag in the Royal Proclamation of 1 January 1801 did not contain a drawn pattern or express which way the saltires should lie; they were simply "counterchanged '' and the red saltire fimbriated. Nevertheless, a convention was soon established which accords most closely with the description.
When statically displayed, the hoist is on the observer 's left. To fly the flag correctly, the white of St Andrew is above the red of St Patrick in the upper hoist canton (the quarter at the top nearest to the flag - pole). This is expressed by the phrases wide white top and broad side up.
The first drawn pattern for the flag was in a parallel proclamation on 1 January 1801, concerning civil naval ensigns, which drawing shows the red ensign (also to be used as a red jack by privateers). As it appears in the London Gazette, the broad stripe is where expected for three of the four quarters, but the upper left quarter shows the broad stripe below.
It is often stated that a flag upside down is a form of distress signal or even a deliberate insult. In the case of the Union Flag, the difference is subtle and is easily missed by the uninformed. It is often displayed upside down inadvertently -- even on commercially - made hand waving flags.
On 3 February 2009, the BBC reported that the flag had been inadvertently flown upside - down by the UK government at the signing of a trade agreement with Chinese premier Wen Jiabao. The error had been spotted by readers of the BBC news website who had contacted the BBC after seeing a photograph of the event.
In 1603, James VI of Scotland inherited the English and Irish thrones (as James I), thereby uniting the crowns of England, Scotland and Ireland (which remained separate states) in a personal union. On 12 April 1606, a new flag to represent this regal union between England and Scotland was specified in a royal decree, according to which the flag of England (a red cross on a white background, known as St George 's Cross), and the flag of Scotland (a white saltire on a blue background, known as the saltire or St Andrew 's Cross), would be joined together, forming the flag of Great Britain and first union flag:
By the King: Whereas, some differences hath arisen between Our subjects of South and North Britaine travelling by Seas, about the bearing of their Flagges: For the avoiding of all contentions hereafter. We have, with the advice of our Council, ordered: That from henceforth all our Subjects of this Isle and Kingdome of Great Britaine, and all our members thereof, shall beare in their main - toppe the Red Crosse, commonly called St George 's Crosse, and the White Crosse, commonly called St Andrew 's Crosse, joyned together according to the forme made by our heralds, and sent by Us to our Admerall to be published to our Subjects: and in their fore - toppe our Subjects of South Britaine shall weare the Red Crosse onely as they were wont, and our Subjects of North Britaine in their fore - toppe the White Crosse onely as they were accustomed.
This royal flag was, at first, to be used only at sea on civil and military ships of both England and Scotland, whereas land forces continued to use their respective national banners. In 1634, King Charles I restricted its use to the royal ships. After the Acts of Union 1707, the flag gained a regularised status as "the ensign armorial of the Kingdom of Great Britain '', the newly created state. It was then adopted by land forces as well, although the blue field used on land - based versions more closely resembled that of the blue of the flag of Scotland.
Various shades of blue have been used in the saltire over the years. The ground of the current Union Flag is a deep "navy '' blue (Pantone 280), which can be traced to the colour used for the Blue Ensign of the Royal Navy 's historic "Blue Squadron ''. (Dark shades of colour were used on maritime flags on the basis of durability.) In 2003 a committee of the Scottish Parliament recommended that the flag of Scotland use a lighter "royal '' blue, (Pantone 300). (The Office of the Lord Lyon does not detail specific shades of colour for use in heraldry.)
A thin white stripe, or fimbriation, separates the red cross from the blue field, in accordance with heraldry 's rule of tincture where colours (like red and blue) must be separated from each other by metals (like white, i.e. argent or silver). The blazon for the old union flag, to be compared with the current flag, is azure, the cross saltire of St Andrew argent surmounted by the Cross of St George gules, fimbriated of the second.
Wales had no explicit recognition in the Union Jack as it had been a part of the Kingdom of England since being annexed by Edward I of England in 1282 and its full integration by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 -- 1542, and was therefore represented by the flag of England.
The Kingdom of Ireland, which had existed as a personal union with England since 1541, was likewise unrepresented in the original versions of the Union Jack. However, the flag of the Protectorate from 1658 to 1660 was inescutcheoned with the arms of Ireland. These were removed at the Restoration, because Charles II disliked them.
The original flag appears in the canton of the Commissioners ' Ensign of the Northern Lighthouse Board. This is the only contemporary official representation of the pre-1801 Union Jack in the United Kingdom and can be seen flying from their George Street headquarters in Edinburgh.
This version of the Union Jack is also shown in the canton of the Grand Union Flag (also known as the Congress Flag, the First Navy Ensign, the Cambridge Flag and the Continental Colours), the first widely used flag of the United States, slowly phased out after 1777.
Lord Howe 's action, or the Glorious First of June, painted in 1795, shows a Union flying from HMS Queen Charlotte on the "Glorious First of June '' 1794. The actual flag, preserved in the National Maritime Museum, is a cruder approximation of the proper specifications; this was common in 18th and early 19th century flags.
The flag is also flown beside Customs House in Loftus Street, Sydney, to mark the approximate location at which Captain Phillip first raised the Union Jack, and claimed New South Wales in 1788. On the plaque it is referred to as the "Jack of Queen Anne ''.
The British Army 's flag is the Union Jack, but in 1938, a "British Army Non-Ceremonial Flag '' was devised, featuring a lion on crossed blades with the St Edward 's Crown on a red background. This is not the equivalent of the ensigns of the other armed services, but is used at recruiting and military or sporting events, when the army needs to be identified but the reverence and ceremony due to the regimental flags and the Union Jack would be inappropriate.
Various other designs for a common flag were drawn up following the union of the two Crowns in 1603, but were rarely, if ever, used. One version showed St George 's cross with St Andrew 's cross in the canton, and another version placed the two crosses side by side. A painted wooden ceiling boss from Linlithgow Palace, dated to about 1617, depicts the Scottish royal unicorn holding a flag where a blue Saltire surmounts the red cross of St. George.
In objecting to the design of Union Flag adopted in 1606, whereby the cross of Saint George surmounted that of Saint Andrew, a group of Scots took up the matter with John Erskine, 18th Earl of Mar, and were encouraged by him to send a letter of complaint to James VI, via the Privy Council of Scotland, which stated that the flag 's design "will breid some heit and miscontentment betwix your Majesties subjectis, and it is to be feirit that some inconvenientis sail fall oute betwix thame, for our seyfaring men can not be inducit to resave that flage as it is set down ''. Although documents accompanying this complaint which contained drafts for alternative designs have been lost, evidence exists, at least on paper, of an unofficial Scottish variant, whereby the Scottish cross was uppermost. There is reason to think that cloth flags of this design were employed during the 17th century for unofficial use on Scottish vessels at sea. This flag 's design is also described in the 1704 edition of The Present State of the Universe by John Beaumont, which contains as an appendix The Ensigns, Colours or Flags of the Ships at Sea: Belonging to The several Princes and States in the World.
On land, evidence confirming the use of this flag appears in the depiction of Edinburgh Castle by John Slezer, in his series of engravings entitled Theatrum Scotiae, c. 1693. Appearing in later editions of Theatrum Scotiae, the North East View of Edinburgh Castle engraving depicts the Scotch (to use the appropriate adjective of that period) version of the Union Flag flying from the Palace block of the Castle. On the North Prospect of the City of Edenburgh engraving, the flag is indistinct.
On 17 April 1707, just two weeks prior to the Acts of Union coming into effect, and with Sir Henry St George, Garter King of Arms, having presented several designs of flag to Queen Anne and her Privy Council for consideration, the flag for the soon to be unified Kingdom of Great Britain was chosen. At the suggestion of the Scots representatives, the designs for consideration included that version of Union Jack showing the Cross of Saint Andrew uppermost; identified as being the "Scotts union flagg as said to be used by the Scotts ''. However, the Queen and her Council approved Sir Henry 's original effort, numbered "one ''.
A manuscript compiled in 1785 by William Fox and in possession of the Flag Research Center includes a full plate showing "the scoth (sic) union '' flag. This could imply that there was still some use of a Scottish variant before the addition of the cross of St Patrick to the Union Flag in 1801.
The current and second Union Jack dates from 1 January 1801 with the Act of Union 1800, which merged the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The new design added a red saltire, the cross of Saint Patrick, for Ireland. This is counterchanged with the saltire of St Andrew, such that the white always follows the red clockwise. The arrangement has introduced a requirement to display the flag "the right way up ''; see specifications for flag use, below. As with the red cross, so too the red saltire is separated by a white fimbriation from the blue field. This fimbriation is repeated for symmetry on the white portion of the saltire, which thereby appears wider than the red portion. The fimbriation of the cross of St George separates its red from the red of the saltire.
Apart from the Union Jack, Saint Patrick 's cross has seldom been used to represent Ireland, and with little popular recognition or enthusiasm; it is usually considered to derive from the arms of the powerful FitzGerald family rather than any association with the saint.
When the Anglo - Irish Treaty was concluded on 6 December 1921 and the creation of the new Irish Free State was an imminent prospect, the question arose as to whether the cross of Saint Patrick should remain in the Union Jack. The New York Times reported that on 22 January 1922:
At the College of Arms it was stated that certain modifications were under consideration and that if any action were taken it would be done by the King in Council. No parliamentary action would be necessary. Heraldry experts say that alterations in arms are very expensive. Some years ago there was a demand from Irish quarters that the blue ground of the golden harp on the royal standard should be changed to green. It was then estimated that the alteration would cost at least £ 2,000,000. To remove all reference to Ireland from the present Union Jack and Royal Arms would be vastly more expensive.
There was some speculation on the matter in British dominions also, with one New Zealand paper reporting that:
... the removal of the cross of St. Patrick Cross after 120 years will transform the appearance of the flag. It will certainly become a flag under which great victories were won in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but to most minds the sentimental loss will be great. Probably it will be found that the deletion is not absolutely necessary. Other possible changes include the abolition of the title of the United Kingdom, and the removal of the harp from the Royal Standard and the Coat of Arms, and the substitution of the Ulster emblem.
However, the fact that it was likely that Northern Ireland would choose not to remain part of the Irish Free State after its foundation and remain in the United Kingdom, gave better grounds for keeping the cross of St. Patrick in the Union Jack. In this regard, Sir James Craig, the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland remarked in December 1921 that he and his government were "glad to think that our decision (to remain part of United Kingdom) will obviate the necessity of mutilating the Union Jack. '' Though remaining within the United Kingdom, the new government of Northern Ireland dispensed with the St Patrick 's Saltire in favour of a new flag derived from the coat - of - arm of the Burkes, Earls of Ulster, and quite similar to England 's St George 's Cross.
Ultimately, when the British home secretary was asked on 7 December 1922 (the day after the Irish Free State was established) whether the Garter King of Arms was to issue any regulations with reference to the Union Jack, the response was no and the flag has never been changed.
A Dáil question in 1961 mooted raising the removal of the cross of St Patrick with the British government; Frank Aiken, the Irish minister for external affairs, declined to "waste time on heraldic disputations ''.
In 2003, a private individual started a campaign -- dubbed "reflag '' or "Union Black '' -- to interpret the Union Flag in a racial context, and introduce black stripes in it. The proposal was universally met with opposition and was denounced by MSP Phil Gallie as "ridiculous tokenism (that) would do nothing to stamp out racism ''. The campaign is now defunct.
Since there is no uniquely Welsh element in the Union Jack, Wrexham 's Labour MP Ian Lucas proposed on 27 November 2007 in a House of Commons debate that the Union Flag be combined with the Welsh flag to reflect Wales ' status within the UK, and that the red dragon be added to the Union Flag 's red, white, and blue pattern. He said the Union Jack currently only represented the other three UK nations, and Minister for Culture, Creative Industries and Tourism Margaret Hodge conceded that Lucas had raised a valid point for debate. She said, "the Government is keen to make the Union Flag a positive symbol of Britishness reflecting the diversity of our country today and encouraging people to take pride in our flag. '' This development sparked design contests with entries from all over the world; some of the entries incorporated red dragons and even anime characters and leeks. The lack of any Welsh symbol or colours in the flag is due to Wales already being part of the Kingdom of England when the flag of Great Britain was created in 1606.
In the run - up to the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, various non-official suggestions were made for how the flag could be redesigned without the St Andrew 's Cross in the event that Scotland left the Union. However, as Scotland voted against independence the issue did not arise.
Since the UK referendum on membership of the European Union which resulted in a vote to leave, the Union Flag became a symbol of euroscepticism in Italy in August 2016 as hundreds of local businesses along the Italian riviera hoisted the flags as a protest against the implementation of the Services in the Internal Market Directive 2006.
In September 2016, anti-Brexit campaigners planned to fly 5,000 European Union flags on the last night of the BBC Proms, in response, Leave.EU co-founder Arron Banks announced he planned to fund and give away 10,000 Union Flags to concert - goers.
The Union Jack is used as a jack by commissioned warships and submarines of the Royal Navy, and by commissioned army and Royal Air Force vessels. When at anchor or alongside, it is flown from the jackstaff at the bow of the ship. When a ship is underway, the Union Jack is only flown from the jackstaff when the ship is dressed for a special occasion, such as the Queen 's official birthday.
The Union Jack is worn at the masthead of a ship to indicate the presence of the Sovereign or an Admiral of the Fleet. The Union Flag may also be flown from the yardarm to indicate that a court - martial is in progress, though these are now normally held at shore establishments.
No law has been passed making the Union Jack the national flag of the United Kingdom: it has become one through precedent. Its first recorded recognition as a national flag came in 1908, when it was stated in Parliament that "the Union Jack should be regarded as the National flag ''. A more categorical statement was made by Home Secretary Sir John Gilmour, in 1933 when he stated that "the Union Flag is the national flag and may properly be flown by any British subject on land. ''
Civilian use is permitted on land, but use of the unmodified flag at sea is restricted to military vessels. Unauthorised use of the flag in the 17th century to avoid paying harbour duties -- a privilege restricted to naval ships -- caused James 's successor, Charles I, to order that use of the flag on naval vessels be restricted to His Majesty 's ships "upon pain of Our high displeasure. '' It remains a criminal offence under the Merchant Shipping Act 1995 to display the Union Flag (other than the "pilot jack '' -- see below) from a British ship. Naval ships will fly the white ensign, merchant and private boats can fly the red ensign, others with special permission such as naval yacht clubs can fly the blue ensign. All of the coloured ensigns contain the union flag as part of the design.
The Court of the Lord Lyon, which has legal jurisdiction in heraldic matters in Scotland, confirms that the Union Jack "is the correct flag for all citizens and corporate bodies of the United Kingdom to fly to demonstrate their loyalty and their nationality. ''
In Australia, the current national flag gradually replaced the Union Flag. When it formally created the national flag in the Flags Act 1953, section 8 of that Act specified that "this Act does not affect the right or privilege of a person to fly the Union Jack. '' The Union Jack continued to be used for a period thereafter as a national flag. The current national flag of New Zealand was given official standing under the New Zealand Ensign Act in 1902, but similarly to Australia the Union Jack continued to be used in some contexts as a national flag.
On 5 February 2008, Conservative MP Andrew Rosindell introduced the ' Union Flag Bill ' as a private member 's bill under the 10 Minute Rule in the House of Commons. The Bill sought to formalise the position of the Union Flag as the national flag of the UK in law, to remove legal obstacles to its regular display and to officially recognise the name ' Union Jack ' as having equal status with ' Union Flag '. However the Bill did not receive its second reading by the end of that parliamentary session.
The Union Jack was introduced into South Africa in 1795, and except for the period 1803 - 06, it was an official flag until 1957.
When the Union of South Africa was established in 1910, the Union Jack was treated as its official flag.
The continued use of the Union Jack as national flag became an issue in the 1920s, when the government proposed to introduce a National Flag of the Union. A compromise was reached in which both flags were flown on official buildings. The Union Nationality and Flags Act 1927 provided that the flags of the Union were (a) the Union Jack, to denote the association with the other members of the British Commonwealth of Nations, and (b) the new National Flag. The Union Jack was to be flown alongside the National Flag at the Houses of Parliament, from the principal government buildings in the capitals, at Union ports, on government offices abroad, and at such other places as the government might determine. This dual arrangement was effective from 31 May 1928.
Instructions issued in 1931 confirmed the places where both flags were to be flown. In addition to those already mentioned, they were the Union Buildings (Pretoria), the head offices of the four provincial administrations, the supreme courts, certain magistrates ' courts, customs houses, and three buildings in Durban (the general post office, the railway station, and the local military district headquarters).
Under these arrangements, the Union Jack was subordinate to the National Flag. As the two flags had to be the same size, it meant that the Union Jack was made in the ratio 2: 3 rather than the usual 1: 2.
The flying of the Union Jack alongside the National Flag ended on 6 April 1957.
The predecessor of the Union Jack, the flag of Great Britain, came into use in what is now Canada at the time of the Scottish settlement of Nova Scotia in 1621. The Union Flag was also the official flag of the Dominion of Newfoundland and continued in use there after Newfoundland became a Canadian province. The province adopted its own flag in 1980, employing a design based on that of the Union Flag.
At the close of the Great Canadian Flag Debate in 1964, which resulted in the adoption of the Maple Leaf Flag as Canada 's national flag the following year, a resolution was passed by both houses of the Canadian parliament naming the Union Flag as the Royal Union Flag and designating it as the symbol of Canada 's membership of the Commonwealth and its allegiance to the Crown. The move was a concession given to conservatives, who preferred to keep the old flag, with its Union Flag in the canton. A federal directive says the Royal Union Flag is to be flown alongside the Maple Leaf Flag at federal government buildings, federally - operated airports and military bases, and at the masthead of Her Majesty 's Canadian ships within Canadian waters on three days of the year: Commonwealth Day, the Canadian monarch 's official birthday, and the anniversary of the enactment of the Statute of Westminster 1931. The flag is to be raised only where there is more than one flag pole, to ensure the flag of Canada is not removed. The directive is sometimes followed, sometimes not.
Although the most common ratio is 1: 2, other ratios exist. The Royal Navy 's flag code book, BR20 Flags of All Nations, states that both 1: 2 and 3: 5 versions are official. The 3: 5 version is most commonly used by the British Army and is sometimes known as the War flag. In this version the innermost points of the lower left and upper right diagonals of the St Patrick 's cross are cut off or truncated.
The Queen 's Harbour Master 's flag, like the Pilot Jack, is a 1: 2 flag that contains a white - bordered Union Flag that is longer than 1: 2. The jacks of ships flying variants of the Blue Ensign are square and have a square Union Flag in the canton. The Queen 's Colours of Army regiments are 36 by 43 inches (910 mm × 1,090 mm); on them, the bars of the cross and saltire are of equal width; so are their respective fimbriations, which are very narrow.
As stated above, the Union Jacks flown alongside the National Flag in South Africa between 1928 and 1957 were 2: 3 flags.
The Union Flag was found in the canton (upper left - hand quarter) of the flags of many colonies of Britain, while the field (background) of their flags was the colour of the naval ensign flown by the particular Royal Navy squadron that patrolled that region of the world. Nations and colonies that have used the Union Flag at some stage have included Aden, Barbados, Borneo, Burma, Canada, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), Cyprus, British East Africa (Kenya Colony), Gambia, Gold Coast (Ghana), Hong Kong, Jamaica, Lagos, Malta, Mauritius, Nigeria, Palestine, Penang (Malaysia), Rhodesia, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Somaliland, British India, Tanganyika, Trinidad, Uganda, the United States, and Weihaiwei. As former British Empire nations were granted independence, these and other versions of the Union Flag were decommissioned. The most recent decommissioning of the Union Flag came on 1 July 1997, when the former Dependent Territory of Hong Kong was handed over to the People 's Republic of China.
All administrative regions and territories of the United Kingdom fly the Union Jack in some form, with the exception of Gibraltar (other than the government ensign) and the Crown Dependencies. Outside the UK, the Union Jack is usually part of a special ensign in which it is placed in the upper left hand corner of a blue field, with a signifying crest in the bottom right.
Four former British colonies in Oceania which are now independent countries incorporate the Union Jack as part of their national flags: Australia, New Zealand and Tuvalu, which have retained the monarchy; and Fiji, which abolished the monarchy in 1987.
In former British colonies, the Union Jack was used semi-interchangeably with territorial flags for significant parts of their early history. This was the case in Canada until the introduction of the Maple Leaf Flag in 1965, but it is still used in the flags of a number of Canadian provinces such as British Columbia, Manitoba, and Ontario. Newfoundland and Labrador uses a modified version of the Union Flag, once the flag of the province.
Along with the national flag, many other Australian flags retain the use of the Union Jack, including the Royal Australian Navy Ensign (also known as the Australian White Ensign), the Royal Australian Air Force Ensign, the Australian Red Ensign (for use by merchant and private vessels), and the Australian Civil Aviation Ensign. The flags of all six Australian States retain the Union Jack in the canton, as do some regional flags such as the Upper and Lower Murray River Flags. The Vice-Regal flags of the State Governors also use the Union Jack.
The Basque Country 's flag, the Ikurriña, is also loosely based on the Union Jack, reflecting the significant commercial ties between Bilbao and Britain at the time the Ikurriña was designed in 1894. The Miskito people sometimes use a similar flag that also incorporates the Union Jack in its canton, due to long periods of contact in the Mosquito Coast.
The Union Jack was used by the United States in its first flag, the Grand Union Flag. This flag was of a similar design to the one used by the British East India Company. Hawaii, a state of the United States but located in the central Pacific, incorporates the Union Jack in its state flag. According to one story, the King of Hawaii asked the British mariner, George Vancouver, during a stop in Lahaina, what the piece of cloth flying from his ship was. Vancouver replied that it represented his king 's authority. The Hawaiian king then adopted and flew the flag as a symbol of his own royal authority not recognising its national derivation. Hawaii 's flag represents the only current use of the Union Jack in any American state flag.
Also in the United States, the Union Flag of 1606 is incorporated into the flag of Baton Rouge, the capital city of Louisiana. Baton Rouge was a British colony from the time of the Seven Years ' War until the end of the American Revolutionary War, when it was captured by Spanish and American forces. Symbols from the colonial powers France and Spain are also incorporated into the Baton Rouge flag. Taunton, Massachusetts, USA, has in recent years used a flag with the old style Union Flag. Likewise, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, has been known to fly a flag containing the King 's Colours since 1973.
The Union Jack also appeared on both the 1910 -- 1928 and 1928 -- 1994 flags of South Africa. The 1910 -- 1928 flag was a red ensign with the Union coat of arms in the fly. The 1928 -- 1994 flag, based on the Prinsenvlag and commonly known as the oranje - blanje - blou (orange - white - blue), contained the Union Jack as part of a central motif at par with the flags of the two Boer republics of the Orange Free State and Transvaal. To keep any one of the three flags from having precedence, the Union Jack is spread horizontally from the Orange Free State flag towards the hoist; closest to the hoist, it is in the superior position but since it is reversed it does not precede the other flags.
The coat of arms of the Chilean city of Coquimbo features the Union Jack, owing to its historical commercial links to Britain.
The Union Flag can be found in the canton of several of the ensigns flown by vessels and aircraft of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories. These are used in cases where it is illegal to fly the Union Flag, such as at sea from a ship other than a British warship. Normal practice for British ships is to fly the White ensign (Royal Navy), the Red ensign (Merchant and private boats) or the Blue ensign (government departments and public corporations). Similar ensigns are used by other countries (such as New Zealand and Australia) with the Union Flag in the canton. Other Commonwealth countries (such as India and Jamaica) may follow similar ensign etiquette as the UK, replacing the Union Flag with their own national flag.
The flag in a white border occasionally seen on merchant ships was sometimes referred to as the Pilot Jack. It can be traced back to 1823 when it was created as a signal flag, never intended as a civil jack. A book issued to British consuls in 1855 states that the white bordered Union Flag is to be hoisted for a pilot. Although there was some ambiguity regarding the legality of it being flown for any other purpose on civilian vessels, its use as an ensign or jack was established well in advance of the 1864 Act that designated the Red Ensign for merchant shipping. In 1970, the white - bordered Union Flag ceased to be the signal for a pilot, but references to it as national colours were not removed from the current Merchant Shipping Act and it was legally interpreted as a flag that could be flown on a merchant ship, as a jack if desired. This status was confirmed to an extent by the Merchant Shipping (Registration, etc.) Act 1993 and the consolidating Merchant Shipping Act 1995 which, in Section 4, Subsection 1, prohibits the use of any distinctive national colours or those used or resembling flags or pendants on Her Majesty 's Ships, "except the Red Ensign, the Union flag (commonly known as the Union Jack) with a white border '', and some other exceptions permitted elsewhere in the Acts. However, Section 2 regards the "British flag '', and states that "The flag which every British ship is entitled to fly is the Red Ensign (without any defacement or modification) and, subject to (a warrant from Her Majesty or from the Secretary of State, or an Order of Council from her Majesty regarding a defaced Red Ensign), no other colours. '' Many civil vessels continue to fly the white bordered Union Flag without official opposition, making it the de facto Civil Jack.
The Hudson 's Bay Company (HBC) was one of a few non-government institutions using the Union Jack in part of the flag. HBC rival North West Company had a similar flag as well. The HBC jack is no longer in use and replaced with a corporate flag featuring the company 's coat of arms.
The Union Jack is the third quarter of the 1939 coat of arms of Alabama, representing British sovereignty over the state prior to 1783. The version used is the modern flag, whereas the 1707 flag would have been used in colonial Alabama.
In July 2007, the British prime minister at the time, Gordon Brown, unveiled plans to have the Union Flag flown more often from government buildings. While consultation on new guidelines is under way, the decision to fly the flag may be made by each government department.
Previously the flag was generally only flown on public buildings on days marking the birthdays of members of the Royal Family, the wedding anniversary of the monarch, Commonwealth Day, Accession Day, Coronation Day, the Queen 's Official Birthday, Remembrance Sunday, and on the days of the State Opening and prorogation of Parliament. The Union Flag is flown at half mast from the announcement of the death of the Sovereign (save for Proclamation Day), or upon command of the Sovereign.
The current flag days where the Union Flag should be flown from government buildings throughout the UK are:
In addition, the Union Flag should be flown in the following areas on specified days:
On 30 November, (St Andrew 's Day), the Union Flag can be flown in Scotland only where a building has more than one flagpole -- on this day the Saltire will not be lowered to make way for the Union Flag if there is only one flagpole. This difference arose after Members of the Scottish Parliament complained that Scotland was the only country in the world that could not fly its national flag on its national day. However, on 23 April, St George 's Day, it is the Union Flag of the United Kingdom that is flown over United Kingdom 's government offices in England.
Non-government organisations may fly the Union Flag whenever they choose.
The Union Flag has no official status in the United Kingdom, and there are no national regulations concerning its use or prohibitions against flag desecration. In Northern Ireland, the Flags Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2000 provide for the flying of the flag on government buildings on certain occasions, when it is flown half mast, and how it is displayed with other flags.
The Flags and Heraldry Committee, an all - party parliamentary group lobbying for official standards, cooperated with the Flag Institute in 2010 to publish a set of recommended guidelines for the flag 's display and use as a symbol.
There is no specific way in which the Union Flag should be folded as there is with the United States Flag. It is usually folded rectilinearly, with the hoist on the outside, to be easily reattached to the pole.
Royal Navy Stores Duties Instructions, article 447, dated 26 February 1914, specified that flags condemned from further service use were to be torn up into small pieces and disposed of as rags (ADM 1 / 8369 / 56), not to be used for decoration or sold. The exception was flags that had flown in action: these could be framed and kept on board, or transferred to a "suitable place '', such as a museum (ADM 1 / 8567 / 245). Later disposal regulations were based on the U.S. model of destroying the flags.
In 2013 the Australian Flag Society announced a worldwide quest and a A $ 10,000 reward for information leading to the discovery of the Union Jack which was reportedly hoisted beneath the Eureka flag at the Battle of the Eureka Stockade.
As the de facto national flag of the United Kingdom, the Union Jack serves as a patriotic or nationalist symbol, and can also carry associations of militarism and imperialism.
Winston Churchill wrote about the use of the Union Jack as a symbol connected to British nationalism and imperialism. In March 1899 the young Churchill wrote to his mother from India about her plans to produce a new trans - Atlantic magazine, to be called The Anglo - Saxon Review. The drawing at the end of this letter was deliberately mischievous, teasing her for going down - market, and in the accompanying letter he wrote, ' Your title "The Anglo Saxon '' with its motto "Blood is thicker than water '' only needs the Union Jack & the Star Spangled Banner crossed on the cover to be suited to one of Harmsworth 's (a leading British newspaper owner) cheap Imperialist productions. '
The Union Flag has been a prominent symbol in the sphere of fashion since the British Invasion movement of the 1960s, in a similar manner to the American Stars and Stripes flag. A notable increase in popularity was seen in Cuba following the 2012 summer Olympics, with clothing, nail decoration, tattoos, and hairstyles in youths being observed featuring the pattern.
Commonly the Union Flag is used on computer software and Internet pages as an icon representing a choice of the English language where a choice among multiple languages may be presented to the user. The flag has been embroidered on various Reebok equipment as a mark of the brand 's British origin, and the Reebok Union Jack has been referred to as a brand icon. Many music artists have used the Union flag ranging from rock artists The Who, Sex Pistols, Freddie Mercury, Morrissey, Oasis, Iron Maiden, and Def Leppard, to the pop girl group the Spice Girls.
Battle scene from Ray Wenban 's The Revolt at Eureka.
A folk cartoon inspired by the 1854 Eureka Rebellion entitled Fall back with the Eureka Jack.
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when was the national anthem adopted by the government | Jana Gana Mana - Wikipedia
Jana Gana Mana is the national anthem of India. It is composed in Bengali by poet Rabindranath Tagore.. The composition consisting of the words and music of the first stanza of the late poet Rabindra Nath Tagore 's song known as "Jana Gana Mana '' is the National Anthem of India.
The first stanza of the song Bharata Bhagya Bidhata was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India as the National Anthem on 24 January 1950. A formal rendition of the national anthem takes approximately fifty - two seconds. A shortened version consisting of the first and last lines (and taking about 20 seconds to play) is also staged occasionally. It was first publicly sung on 27 December 1911 at the Calcutta (now, Kolkata) Session of the Indian National Congress. This is the first of five stanzas of Tagore 's Bengali song Bharot Bhagyo Bidhata.
The poem is written in a literary register of the Bengali language called sadhu bhasa. The song has been written almost entirely using nouns that also can function as verbs. Most of the nouns of the song are in use in all major languages in India. Therefore, the original song is quite clearly understandable, and in fact, remains almost unchanged in several widely different Indian languages. The transcription below reflects the Bengali pronunciation, in both the Bengali script and romanisation.
জনগণমন - অধিনায়ক জয় হে ভারতভাগ্যবিধাতা! পঞ্জাব সিন্ধু গুজরাট মরাঠা দ্রাবিড় উৎকল বঙ্গ বিন্ধ্য হিমাচল যমুনা গঙ্গা উচ্ছলজলধিতরঙ্গ তব শুভ নামে জাগে, তব শুভ আশিষ মাগে, গাহে তব জয়গাথা । জনগণমঙ্গলদায়ক জয় হে ভারতভাগ্যবিধাতা! জয় হে, জয় হে, জয় হে, জয় জয় জয় জয় হে ॥
Janagaṇamana - adhināẏaka jaẏa hē Bhāratabhāgyabidhātā! Pañjāba Sindhu Gujarāta Marāṭhā Drābiṛa Utkala Baṅga Bindhya Himācala Yamunā Gaṅgā Ucchalajaladhitaraṅga Taba śubha nāmē jāgē, Taba śubha āśiṣa māgē, Gāhē taba jaẏagāthā. Janagaṇamaṅgaladāẏaka jaẏa hē Bhāratabhāgyabidhātā! Jaẏa hē, jaẏa hē, jaẏa hē, jaẏa jaẏa jaẏa jaẏa hē.
जनगणमन अधिनायक जय हे, भारतभाग्यविधाता । पंजाब सिन्धु गुजरात मराठा, द्राविड़ उत्कल बंग । विंध्य हिमाचल यमुना गंगा, उच्छल जलधि तरंग । तव शुभ नामे जागे, तव शुभ आशिष मागे । गाहे तव जयगाथा । जनगणमंगलदायक जय हे, भारतभाग्यविधाता । जय हे, जय हे, जय हे, जय जय जय जय हे ॥
Jana - gana - mana - adhinayaka jaya he Bharata - bhagya - vidhata Panjaba - Sindhu - Gujarata - Maratha Dravida - Utkala - Banga Vindhya - Himachala - Yamuna - Ganga uchchala - jaladhi - taranga Tava Subha name jage, tave subha asisa mage, gahe tava jaya - gatha. Jana - gana - mangala - dayaka jaya he Bharata - bhagya - vidhata. Jaya he, Jaya he, Jaya he, jaya jaya jaya jaya he.
Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people, Dispenser of India 's destiny. Thy name rouses the hearts of Punjab, Sindh, Gujarat and Maratha, Of the Dravida and Odisha and Bengal; It echoes in the hills of the Vindhyas and Himalayas, mingles in the music of Yamuna and Ganges and is chanted by the waves of the Indian Sea. They pray for thy blessings and sing Thy praise. The saving of all people waits in thy hand, Thou dispenser of India 's destiny. Victory, Victory, Victory to Thee.
Jana Gana Mana was sung on 27 December 1911 at the Indian National Congress, Calcutta and again in January 1912 at the annual event of the Adi Brahmo Samaj. Though the Bengali song had been written in 1911, it was largely unknown except to the readers of the Adi Brahmo Samaj journal, Tattwabodhini Patrika, of which Tagore was the editor.
The National Anthem of India is played or sung on various occasions. Instructions have been issued from time to time about the correct versions of the Anthem, the occasions on which these are to be played or sung, and about the need for paying respect to the anthem by observance of proper decorum on such occasions. The substance of these instructions has been embodied in the information sheet issued by the government of India for general information and guidance. The approximate duration of the National Anthem of India is 52 seconds.
In Kerala, students belonging to the Jehovah 's Witnesses religious denomination were expelled by school authorities for their refusal to sing the national anthem on religious grounds, although they stood up respectfully when the anthem was sung. The Kerala High Court concluded that there was nothing in it which could offend anyone 's religious susceptibilities, and upheld their expulsion. On 11 August 1986, the Supreme Court reversed the High Court and ruled that the High Court had misdirected itself because the question is not whether a particular religious belief or practice appeals to our reason or sentiment but whether the belief is genuinely and conscientiously held as part of the profession or practice of a religion. "Our personal views and reactions are irrelevant '' The Supreme Court affirmed the principle that it is not for a secular judge to sit in judgment on the correctness of a religious belief.
Supreme Court observed in its ruling
"There is no provision of law which obliges anyone to sing the National Anthem nor is it disrespectful to the National Anthem if a person who stands up respectfully when the National Anthem is sung does not join the singing. Proper respect is shown to the National Anthem by standing up when the National Anthem is sung. It will not be right to say that disrespect is shown by not joining in the singing. Standing up respectfully when the National Anthem is sung but not singing oneself clearly does not either prevent the singing of the National Anthem or cause disturbance to an assembly engaged in such singing so as to constitute the offence mentioned in s. 3 of the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act ''.
On 30 November 2016, Supreme Court of India ordered National Anthem must be played before movies in theaters, in order to instill "committed patriotism and nationalism ''. On February 10, 2017, 2 Kashmiris were booked for not standing during anthem in Jammu Cinema, under provisions of the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971. This was the first arrest of its kind made by a state government in India.
The composition was first sung during a convention of the then loyalist Indian National Congress in Calcutta on 27 December 1911. It was sung on the second day of the convention, and the agenda of that day devoted itself to a loyal welcome of George V on his visit to India. The event was reported thus in the British Indian press:
"The Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore sang a song composed by him specially to welcome the Emperor. '' (Statesman, Dec. 28, 1911)
Many historians aver that the newspaper reports cited above were misguided. The confusion arose in British Indian press since a different song, "Badshah Humara '' written in Hindi by Rambhuj Chaudhary, was sung on the same occasion in praise of the monarch. The nationalist Indian press stated this difference of events clearly:
"The proceedings of the Congress party session started with a prayer in Bengali to praise God (song of benediction). This was followed by a resolution expressing loyalty to King George V. Then another song was sung welcoming King George V. '' (Amrita Bazar Patrika, Dec. 28, 1911)
Even the report of the annual session of the Indian National Congress of December 1911 stated this difference:
"On the first day of 28th annual session of the Congress, proceedings started after singing Vande Mataram. On the second day the work began after singing a patriotic song by Babu Ravindranath Tagore. Messages from well wishers were then read and a resolution was passed expressing loyalty to King George V. Afterwards the song composed for welcoming King George V and Queen Mary was sung. ''
On 10 November 1937 Tagore wrote a letter to Mr Pulin Bihari Sen about the controversy. That letter in Bengali can be found in Tagore 's biography Ravindrajivani, volume II page 339 by Prabhatkumar Mukherjee.
"A certain high official in His Majesty 's service, who was also my friend, had requested that I write a song of felicitation towards the Emperor. The request simply amazed me. It caused a great stir in my heart. In response to that great mental turmoil, I pronounced the victory in Jana Gana Mana of that Bhagya Bidhata (ed. God of Destiny) of India who has from age after age held steadfast the reins of India 's chariot through rise and fall, through the straight path and the curved. That Lord of Destiny, that Reader of the Collective Mind of India, that Perennial Guide, could never be George V, George VI, or any other George. Even my official friend understood this about the song. After all, even if his admiration for the crown was excessive, he was not lacking in simple common sense. ''
Again in his letter of 19 March 1939 Tagore writes:
"I should only insult myself if I cared to answer those who consider me capable of such unbounded stupidity as to sing in praise of George the Fourth or George the Fifth as the Eternal Charioteer leading the pilgrims on their journey through countless ages of the timeless history of mankind. '' (Purvasa, Phalgun, 1354, p. 738.)
Moreover, Tagore was hailed as a patriot who wrote other songs too apart from "Jana Gana Mana '' lionising the Indian independence movement. He renounced his knighthood in protest against the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. The Knighthood (i.e. the title of ' Sir ') was conferred on him by the same King George V after receiving the Nobel Prize in Literature for "Gitanjali '' from the government of Sweden. Two of Tagore 's more politically charged compositions, "Chitto Jetha Bhayshunyo '' ("Where the Mind is Without Fear '', Gitanjali Poem # 35) and "Ekla Chalo Re '' ("If They Answer Not to Thy Call, Walk Alone ''), gained mass appeal, with the latter favoured by Gandhi and Netaji.
Another controversy is that only those provinces that were under British rule, i.e. Punjab, Sindh, Gujarat, Maratha, Dravid (South India), Odisha and Bengal, were mentioned. None of the princely states -- Kashmir, Rajasthan, Hyderabad, Mysore or Kerala -- or the states in Northeast India, which are now integral parts of India were mentioned. But opponents of this proposition claim that Tagore mentioned only the border states of India to include complete India. Whether the princely states would form a part of a liberated Indian republic was a matter of debate even till Indian Independence. ' Dravida ' includes the people from the south (though Dravida specifically means Tamil and even then, the same consideration is not given for the south since there are many distinct people whereas in the north each of the distinct people are named) and ' Jolodhi ' (Stanza 1) is Sanskrit for "seas and oceans ''. Even North - East which was under British rule or holy rivers apart from Ganges and Yamuna are not mentioned to keep the song in its rhythm. India has 29 states, 7 union territories.
In 2005, there were calls to delete the word "Sindh '' and substitute it with the word Kashmir. The argument was that Sindh was no longer a part of India, having become part of Pakistan as a result of the Partition of 1947. Opponents of this proposal hold that the word "Sindh '' refers to the Indus and to Sindhi culture, and that Sindhi people are an integral part of India 's cultural fabric. The Supreme Court of India declined to change the national anthem and the wording remains unchanged.
On 17 December 2013, MLA of Assam, Phani bhushan Choudhury cited article of ' The Times of India ' published on 26 January 1950, stating that in the originally the word ' Kamarup ' was included in the song, but was later changed to ' Sindhu ' and claimed that Kamarup should be re-included. To this, the then minister Rockybul Hussain replied that the state government would initiate steps in this regard after response from the newspaper. The debate was further joined by the then minister Ardhendu Dey, mentioning ' Sanchayita ' (edited by Tagore himself) etc. where he said Kamrup was not mentioned.
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nhl record for shots on goal in a game | List of NHL records (individual) - wikipedia
This is a list of individual records recognized by the National Hockey League through the end of the 2016 -- 17 NHL season.
Won the Stanley Cup with the highest number of different teams
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the book the secret what is it about | The Secret (book) - wikipedia
The Secret is a best - selling 2006 self - help book by Rhonda Byrne, based on the earlier film of the same name. It is based on the pseudoscientific law of attraction which claims that thoughts can change the world directly. The book has sold 20 million copies worldwide and has been translated into 50 languages. It attracts much criticism and is frequently parodied.
The Secret was released as a film in March 2006, and later the same year as a book. The book is influenced by Wallace Wattles ' 1910 book The Science of Getting Rich, which Byrne received from her daughter during a time of personal trauma in 2004.
Byrne re-introduces a pseudo-scientific notion originally popularized by persons such as Madame Blavatsky and Norman Vincent Peale, which suggests that thinking about certain things will make them appear in one 's life. Byrne provides alleged examples of historical persons who have achieved this. Byrne cites a three - step process to achieve this: ask, believe, and receive. This is based on a quotation from the Bible 's Matthew 21: 22: "And all things, whatsoever ye shall ask in prayer, believing, ye shall receive. ''
Byrne highlights the importance of gratitude and visualization in achieving one 's desires, along with alleged examples. Later chapters describe how to improve one 's prosperity, relationships, and health, with more general thoughts about the universe.
The book has been translated into 50 languages and has sold over 20 million copies. Due partly to an appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, the book and film had grossed $300 million in sales by 2009. Byrne has subsequently released Secret merchandise and several related books.
The Secret received excellent customer reviews by the general public. It got 4.8 / 5 on Books - A-Million, 3.63 / 5 on Goodreads, 3 / 5 on Better World Books, 4.6 / 5 on Amazon, 4.45 / 5 on MouthShut.com, and 4.5 / 5 on iTunes.
US TV host Oprah Winfrey is a proponent of the book. On The Larry King Show she said that the message of The Secret is the message she 's been trying to share with the world on her show for the past 21 years. Author Rhonda Byrne was later invited to her show along people who vow by The Secret.
Elizabeth Scott states the pros and cons of the book in her Verywell review. The pros she points out are that it is empowering, that even if things seem bleak it reminds you that there is a lot that you can do to change your circumstances. It gives the reader research on optimism, visualization, and the power of perspective, while stating that The Secret encourages people to really visualize their goals clearly in order to attract what they want. The cons that Scott points out are that some people believe that it conflicts with their religious values, while others see it as a complementary approach. The book does spend considerable time on how to use the Law of Attraction to gain expensive material possessions, and without direct action; many people have asserted that having such a focus on external things and material wealth goes against the spiritual wisdom of the Law of Attraction. Other cons that Scott points out are the criticism of the idea that we create our own difficult circumstances in life, pointing out people born in extreme poverty, and that The Law of Attraction is not scientifically proven, but more of an anecdotally - observed phenomenon. '' Her final thoughts are: "Though there are some hiccups to it, I would say that this book can provide some excellent opportunities for stress relief, and a rough road map to a better life.
Valerie Frankel of Good Housekeeping wrote an article where she tries the principles of The Secret for four weeks. While she reached some of her goals, others had improved. Frankel 's final assessment is: "Counting my blessings has been uplifting, reminding me of what 's already great about my life. Visualization has forced me to pay attention to what I really desire. And laughing is never a bad idea. If you ignore The Secret 's far - too - simplistic maxims (no, you will not be doomed to a miserable life for thinking negative thoughts) and the hocus - pocus (the cosmos is n't going to deliver a new car; it 's busy), there 's actually some helpful advice in the book. But it 's nothing you do n't already know. ''
In 2009, Barbara Ehrenreich published Bright - Sided: How the Relentless Promotion of Positive Thinking Has Undermined America as a reaction to self - help books such as The Secret, claiming that they promote political complacency and a failure to engage with reality.
John G. Stackhouse, Jr. has provided historical context, locating Byrne 's book in the tradition of New Thought and popular religion, and concluding that "it is n't new, and it is n't a secret ''.
Byrne 's scientific claims, in particular concerning quantum physics, have been rejected by a range of authors including Christopher Chabris and Daniel Simons at The New York Times and Harvard physicist Lisa Randall. Mary Carmichael and Ben Radford, writing for the Center for Inquiry, have also pointed out that The Secret has no scientific foundation, stating that Byrne 's book represents: "a time - worn trick of mixing banal truisms with magical thinking and presenting it as some sort of hidden knowledge: basically, it 's the new New Thought. ''
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how far is it to port jervis new york | Port Jervis, New York - wikipedia
Port Jervis is a city located at the confluence of the Neversink and the Delaware rivers in western Orange County, New York, north of the Delaware Water Gap. Its population was 8,828 at the 2010 census. The communities of Deerpark, Huguenot, Sparrowbush, and Greenville are adjacent to Port Jervis. Matamoras, Pennsylvania is across the river and connected by bridge. Montague Township, New Jersey borders here.
It was part of early industrial history, a point for shipping coal to major markets to the southeast by canal and later by railroads. Its residents had long - distance passenger service by railroad until 1970. The restructuring of railroads resulted in a decline in the city 's business and economy.
In the 21st century, from late spring to early fall, many thousands of travelers and tourists pass through Port Jervis on their way to enjoying rafting, kayaking, canoeing and other activities in the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area and the Upper Delaware Scenic and Recreational River and the surrounding area.
Port Jervis is part of the Poughkeepsie -- Newburgh -- Middletown metropolitan area as well as the larger New York metropolitan area. In August 2008, Port Jervis was named one of "Ten Coolest Small Towns '' by Budget Travel magazine.
The first fully developed European settlement in the area was established by Dutch and English colonists c. 1690, and a land grant of 1,200 acres (490 ha) was formalized on October 14, 1697. The settlement was originally known as Mahackamack, after a Lenape word. It was raided and burned in 1779 during the American Revolutionary War, by British and Mohawk forces under the command of Mohawk leader Joseph Brant before the Battle of Minisink. Over the next two decades, residents rebuilt the settlement. They developed more roadways to better connect Mahackamack with the eastern parts of Orange County.
After the Delaware and Hudson Canal was opened in 1828, providing transportation of coal from northeastern Pennsylvania to New York and New England via the Hudson River, trade attracted money and further development to the area. A village was incorporated in 1853. It was renamed as Port Jervis in the mid-19th century, after John Bloomfield Jervis, chief engineer of the D&H Canal. Port Jervis grew steadily into the 1900s, and on July 26, 1907, it became a city.
The first rail line to run through Port Jervis was the New York & Erie Railroad, which in 1832 was chartered to run from Piermont, New York, on the Hudson River in Rockland County, to Lake Erie. Ground was broken in 1835, but construction was delayed by a nationwide financial panic, and did not start again until 1838. The line was completed in 1851, and the first passenger train -- with President Millard Fillmore and former United States Senator Daniel Webster on board -- came through the city on May 14. The railroad went through a number of name changes, becoming the Erie Railroad in 1897.
A second railroad, the Port Jervis and Monticello Railroad, later leased to the New York, Ontario and Western Railway (O&W), opened in 1868, running north out of the city, and eventually connecting to Kingston, New York, Weehawken, New Jersey and western connections.
Like the D&H Canal, the railroads brought new prosperity to Port Jervis in the form of increased trade and investment in the community from the outside. However, the competition by the railroad, which could deliver products faster, hastened the decline of the canal, which ceased operation in 1898. The railroads were the basis of the city 's economy for the coming decades. Port Jervis became Erie 's division center between Jersey City, New Jersey and Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, and by 1922, twenty passenger trains went through the city every day. More than 2,500 Erie RR employees made their homes there.
The railroads began to decline after the Great Depression. A shift in transportation accelerated after World War II with the federal subsidy of the Interstate Highway System and increased competition from trucking companies. One of the first Class I railroads to shut down was the O&W, in 1957, leaving Port Jervis totally reliant on the Erie. A few years later, in 1960, the Erie, also on a shaky financial footing, merged with Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad to become the Erie Lackawanna. Railroad restructuring continued and in 1976, the Erie Lackawana became part of Conrail, along with a number of other struggling railroads, such as the Penn Central. Since the breakup of Conrail, the trackage around Port Jervis has been controlled by Norfolk Southern. The decline of the railroads was an economic blow to Port Jervis. The city has struggled to find a new economic basis.
On June 2, 1892, Robert Lewis, an African American, was lynched, hanged on Main Street in Port Jervis by a mob after being accused of participation in an assault on a white woman. A grand jury indicted nine people in connection with the lynching. Some literary critics think this even may have inspired Stephen Crane 's 1898 novella The Monster; Crane lived in Port Jervis for a time.
In the mid-1920s some residents in the area formed a Ku Klux Klan chapter, in the period of the KKK 's early 20th - century revival. They burned crosses on Point Peter, the mountain peak that overlooks the city.
The city 's location at the confluence of the Delaware and Neversink rivers has made it subject to occasional flooding. There was flooding during the 1955 Hurricane Diane, and a flood - related rumor started a panic in the population. This incident was studied and a 1958 report issued by the National Research Council: "The Effects of a Threatening Rumor on a Disaster - Stricken Community ''.
In addition to the rivers having flooded during periods of heavy rainfall, at times ice jams have effectively dammed the Delaware, also causing flooding. In 1875 ice floes destroyed the bridge to Matamoras, Pennsylvania. In 1981 a large ice floe resulted in the highest water crest measured to date at the National Weather Service 's Matamoras river gauge 26.6 feet (8.1 m).
Port Jervis is located on the north bank of the Delaware River at the confluence where: 1) the Neversink River -- the Delaware 's largest tributary -- empties into the larger river. Port Jervis is connected by the Mid-Delaware Bridge across the Delaware to Matamoras, Pennsylvania.
From here the Delaware flows to the southwest, running parallel to Kittatinny Ridge until reaching the Delaware Water Gap. It heads southeast from there, continuing past New Hope, Pennsylvania and Lambertville, New Jersey; and the capital Trenton, New Jersey; to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and the Delaware Bay.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 2.7 square miles (7.0 km), of which, 2.5 square miles (6.5 km) is land and 0.2 square miles (0.52 km) (6.64 %) is water.
As of the census of 2000, there were 8,860 people, 3,533 households, and 2,158 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,500 / sq mi (1,300 / km). There were 3,851 housing units at an average density of 1,500 / sq mi (590 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 82.4 % White, 8.2 % African American, 0.59 % Native American, 0.64 % Asian, 0.02 % Pacific Islander, 2.19 % from other races, and 2.26 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.5 % of the population.
There were 3,533 households out of which 32.4 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.9 % were married couples living together, 15.6 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.9 % were non-families. 32.6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 15.1 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.15.
In the city, the population was spread out with 27.8 % under the age of 18, 8.4 % from 18 to 24, 28.3 % from 25 to 44, 20.3 % from 45 to 64, and 15.2 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 91.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.0 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $30,241, and the median income for a family was $35,481. Males had a median income of $31,851 versus $22,274 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,525. About 14.2 % of families and 15.7 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.5 % of those under age 18 and 10.3 % of those age 65 or over.
Port Jervis lies near the points where the states of New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania come together. South of the Laurel Grove Cemetery, under the viaduct for Interstate 84, are two monuments marking the boundaries between the three states.
The larger monument is a granite pillar inscribed "Witness Monument '' and dated 1882. It is not on any boundary itself, but instead is a witness for two boundary points. On the north side (New York), it references the corner boundary point between New York and Pennsylvania that is located in the center of the Delaware River 475 feet (145 m) due west of the Tri-State Rock. On the south side (New Jersey), it references the Tri-State Rock 27.5 feet (8.4 m) to the south.
The smaller monument, the Tri-States Monument, also known as the Tri-State Rock, actually marks only the northwest end of the New Jersey and New York land boundary but not the north end of the New Jersey and Pennsylvania boundary as it purports to do. The true north end of the New Jersey and New York boundary, as well as the true north end of the New Jersey and Pennsylvania boundary and thus the true tri-state point is located 47.25 feet (14.40 m) to the west, in the middle of the Delaware River in diving distance of the eastbound Interstate 84 overpass. The marker is a small granite block with inscribed lines marking the supposed boundaries of the three states and a bronze National Geodetic Survey marker at the purported but mistaken triple point. The current Tri-State Monument was erected in 1884 as a replacement for the original monument erected in 1774, which was important in resolving the New York - New Jersey Line War.
US 6, U.S. Route 209, New York State Route 42, and New York State Route 97 (the "Upper Delaware Scenic Byway '') pass through Port Jervis. Interstate 84 passes to the south.
Port Jervis is the last stop on the 95 - mile - long (153 km) Port Jervis Line, which is a commuter railroad service from Hoboken, New Jersey and New York City (via a Secaucus Transfer) that is contracted to NJ Transit by the Metro - North Railroad of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority. The track itself continues on to Binghamton and Buffalo, but passenger service west of Port Jervis was discontinued in November 1966.
Short Line provides bus service between Honesdale, Pennsylvania, Port Jervis, and the Port Authority Bus Terminal.
On July 4, 1953 WDLC at 1490 on the AM dial signed - on. Co-owned WDLC - FM (96.7) began operation in 1970, changing call letters to WTSX in 1984.
Notable current and former residents of Port Jervis include:
The E. Arthur Gray Post Office, on the NRHP
The Free Library, a Carnegie Library built in 1903
The largest working rail turntable in the U.S. is in Port Jervis
One of the many Victorian style houses in the city
Fort Decker (1793), the oldest building in the city
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who helped with the 2004 indian ocean tsunami | Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake - Wikipedia
The humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake of a magnitude of 9.3 was prompted by one of the worst natural disasters of modern times. On 26 December 2004, the earthquake, which struck off the northwest coast of the Indonesian island of Sumatra, generated a tsunami that wreaked havoc along much of the rim of the Indian ocean. Particularly hard - hit were the countries of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. About 230,000 people were killed, tens of thousands more were injured, and 1.7 million became homeless and displaced.
Asian expatriates, governments, humanitarian organisations and individuals around the world arrived, eager to offer aid and technical support. Such was the global scope of the disaster that the International Charter on Space and Major Disasters was activated in quick succession by the French Civil Protection Agency, the Indian space agency ISRO, and by UNOOSA on behalf of UNOPS, thus providing a wide variety of humanitarian satellite imagery to aid and rescue organisations. The World Bank initially estimated the amount of aid needed at US $5 billion. Although numerous countries provided help for relief and assistance, the UN criticised both the US and Europe for providing inadequate resources. By 1 January 2005 over US $1.8 billion (£ 1bn) had been pledged.
In wake of the disaster, Australia, India, Japan and the United States formed a coalition to coordinate aid efforts to streamline immediate assistance. However, at the Jakarta Summit on 6 January 2005, the coalition transferred responsibilities to the United Nations.
Throughout the entire period of the main response to the tsunami disaster -- from December 2004 for the next four or five years -- there was much debate about both the size and form of way that assistance was delivered. For example, just one day after the tsunami, on 27 December 2004, UN Undersecretary - General for Humanitarian Affairs Jan Egeland reportedly categorised the contributions of rich countries as "stingy ''. This was widely misinterpreted in the media as categorising the overall response to the tsunami whereas Mr Egeland later explained that at the time he had been making a general remark about overall global aid flows in recent years. Speaking at a press conference later Mr. Egeland said, "It has nothing to do with any particular country or the response to this emergency. We are in early days and the response has so far been overwhelmingly positive ''. The U.S. government, led by President George W. Bush and Secretary of State Colin Powell, added another US $20 million on 28 December to the original U.S pledge of US $15 million, bringing the total up to US $35 million (not including direct aid rendered by naval vessels dispatched to the region). Initially, the U.S. Navy dispatched P - 3C Orion patrol aircraft and an aircraft carrier to assist with relief operations.
On 31 December the US pledge was increased tenfold to US $350 million, with President Bush saying that that amount would probably increase further. President Bush also signed a decree ordering flags to be flown at half - mast during the first week of the new year.
During the early period of the response to the tsunami, concerns were voiced in various quarters that the international relief effort might falter if nations did not honour their initial pledges. On 3 January 2005, UN Secretary - General Kofi Annan urged donor nations to ensure that their pledges were fully honoured, pointing to previous cases where "we got lots of pledges, but we did not receive all the money ''.
On 5 January, as countries jockeyed to make large donations, Jan Egeland said, "I 'd rather see competitive compassion than no compassion '', adding that too many countries were making pledges without any guarantee that the funds would arrive. Following the earthquake the previous year in Iran in Bam which killed 26,000 people, Iranian officials claimed to have received just US $17.5 million of the US $1 billion originally pledged. In mid-March 2005, the Asian Development Bank reported that the provision of over US $4 billion in aid promised by governments was behind schedule. Sri Lanka criticised the nations and organisations that clamoured to pledge donations, "Not a penny had come through yet. We are doing the relief work with our government money. Sri Lanka is still waiting for the money pledged by the donors. Money pledged by the people has been pledged to the NGOs. ''
Sri Lanka 's Foreign Minister, Lakshman Kadirgamar, stated in a BBC interview, "A lot of aid what has been coming in latterly is I 'm afraid -- I 'm sorry to say -- not very useful. For instance there was a container full of teddy bears. They 're obviously given with good will, nobody says no to that. '' The patience of tsunami affected nations was being stretched: "Now the government had worked out a scheme that until 26 April everything that has come, everything that will be on the seas will be admitted tax free. After that, no! ''. Kadirgamar went on to say, "For instance we do not need rice, we are expecting a bumper harvest, anyone who sends rice is wasting their time and money. ''
Many commentators claim excessive and competitive donor responses threaten less dramatic but equally important relief efforts elsewhere. "While everyone opens up their coffers for these disasters, the ongoing toll from malaria, AIDS and tuberculosis is much larger than these one - time events '', said Enriqueta Bond, president of the US Burroughs Wellcome Fund. "We would do more good to invest in prevention and good public - health measures such as clean water ''. Tony Blair, the UK prime minister, also expressed concern that tsunami aid could detract from other pressing development needs. He pointed out that there was a disaster comparable to a "preventable tsunami every week in Africa '', where 10,000 people die daily from AIDS and malaria alone.
In the early stages, before the extent of the disaster was clear, Sri Lanka refused Israel 's offers of aid, objecting to the inclusion of 60 Israeli soldiers in the 150 - person mission planned by Israel 's army, to set up field hospitals, including internal medicine and paediatric clinics, an Israeli army spokesman reported to BBC. Later, the Israeli humanitarian organization sent a jumbo jet carrying 18.5 tonnes of supplies to Colombo, however, and a rescue - and - recovery team from the Jewish ultra-Orthodox organization ZAKA arrived in Colombo with equipment used for identifying bodies, as well as body bags. Corruption, bureaucracy and nationalism hampered the humanitarian response in Indonesia.
In Sri Lanka, only 30 % of those eligible affected by the tsunami as of 10 February had received any aid, and there are allegations of local officials giving aid only to their supporters, some of whom were not victims of the tsunami. The Sri Lankan government has set up a "Special Complaint Unit '' for citizens to record grievances.
The following table is a partial listing of cash commitments from various governments and nongovernmental organisations, taken from and other sources:
Note: Exchange rates were taken on 8 January 2005, when € 1 = US $1.30585; GBP 1 = US $1.87110; CAD 1 = US $0.811853; AUD 1 = US $0.757346; HKD 1 = US $0.1282; 1 INR = US $0.0228102; 1 CNY = 0.120831; 1 NOK = US $0.158526; 1 DKK = 0.175711; 1 SEK = US $0.144363; and 1 CHF = US $0.844131.
The table below examines the amounts pledged for humanitarian efforts in light of rough national economic power, which is arguably a more useful measure. There are a number of caveats that should be kept in mind while reading the table:
With all the caveats in mind, the following table lists some countries in order of nominal aid donated divided by GDP.
-- Another way of looking at the figures.
Hutchison Whampoa Limited and Li Ka Shing Foundation of Hong Kong announced on 28 December 2004 that they would donate HKD 24 million (US $3.08 million) for the relief fund. Performer Karen Joy Morris (aka. Karen Man Wai Mok) pledged to donate HKD 200 thousand (Ming Pao). Performers of EEG also pledged to donate a total sum of HKD 630 thousand. Sir Run Run Shaw has donated HKD 10 m.
Hong Kong Jockey Club has donated HKD 10 m, and will donate HKD 1 for each dollar it received from donors (target at a minimum HKD 10 m). MTR donated HKD 0.5 for each passenger trip on 2 January 2005, with a total sum at HKD 1 m. KCR donated all the fares collected in the four - hour extension of train services on 1 January 2005.
Hong Kong Red Cross has collected HKD 100 m (global target US $46 m / HKD 360 m). MSF has stopped collected donations for the tsunami, and requested donors to donate to its other programmes. World Vision Hong Kong has collected HKD 50 m.
A variety show TV programme on TVB and RTHK on 2 January 2005 has collected HKD 40 m (HKET).
Various NGOs, companies and individuals have set off to the affected countries to offer assistance.
The government of Hong Kong has sent 120 personnel to help Hong Kong residents and search for missing people. Police and medical teams are stand - by to offer assistance.
Update: At 3 December 2005, Red Cross Hong Kong has already collected HK $ 620M.
Japan, which is the world 's second largest donor of Official Development Assistance (known as ODA), is also dispatching Japan Self - Defense Forces vessels off Northern Sumatra to supply aid. Land, Air, and Maritime Forces were already ordered preparation.
Upon arrival, a co-ordination meeting was held onboard PNS Moawin between Sri Lanka Navy officials, Pakistan High Commissioner to Sri Lanka and Pakistan Navy Mission Commander Commodore Ehsan Saeed to discuss the modus operandi of the relief operat
The Singaporean humanitarian relief operation involves more than 1200 military and civil defence personnel -- of whom 900 are in Aceh, Indonesia. The humanitarian assistance provided by its military, medical and rescue teams is estimated to cost SGD 20M. Singapore has also offered to rebuild hospitals and clinics in Aceh.
The Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) has deployed three Endurance class landing platform dock ships -- RSS Endurance, RSS Persistence and RSS Endeavour -- off the coast of Meulaboh, one of the worst hit areas where all road access was cut off. Onboard these ships were medical and engineering teams and volunteers with NGOs. The ships were also loaded with medical supplies and heavy equipment to help clear roads and debris. It has also dispatched six Chinook helicopters and two Super Puma helicopters to Aceh, two Chinook helicopters and two Super Puma helicopters to Phuket, Thailand. C130s were also dispatched to ferry relief supplies to tsunami - hit areas.
Danish PM Anders Fogh Rasmussen said that Denmark will increase this amount if it is deemed necessary by the UN or emergency relief organisations.
The Greek people raised over € 15M (US $19.9 M) through private donations made during a TV charity marathon which included the auction of articles such as commemorative items from the Athens Olympic Games and the Euro 2004 event, as well as the fountain pen of the retreating President of the Hellenic Republic. The Greek Government added € 1M (US $1.3 M) to the initial amount.
The income of non-governmental organisations and multilateral organisations is derived from governments and individuals. For example, the African Union 's contribution is financed by its member states. The following "contributions '' may be viewed as either a diversion of funds originally earmarked for other purposes or increased donations to the contributing organisation.
ADRA has set up a crisis command center in Bangkok, Thailand to coordinate its network - wide response.
ADRA International is urgently soliciting emergency donations for this response. To rapidly respond to this disaster only monetary donations are being accepted at this time. Donations can be made to the Asia Tsunami Crisis Fund online or by calling 800 - 424 - ADRA (2372). See more information at.
All money raised by Lions is being distributed without any administration costs taken out.
World Vision is completing the final stage of its three - year Asia Tsunami Response (Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand). The US $346.5 million - organization 's largest relief effort - program encompassed emergency relief, community rehabilitation (including child - focused programs), livelihood recovery, and infrastructure rehabilitation. Gender, protection, conflict sensitivity, HIV / AIDS and advocacy were cross-cutting components of World Vision 's response.
A much more complete list of American corporate donations may be found at (3).
There were numerous large - scale fundraising events with hundreds of participants around the world.
Two of the nations most affected by the tsunami, India and Sri Lanka, are leading cricket - playing nations. The International Cricket Council has launched the World Cricket Tsunami Appeal to raise funds for the humanitarian effort. The highlight of this was a two - match One Day International series between a World XI and an Asian XI.
It has been reported on Cricinfo that the first of these matches raised A $8.4 million.
Other matches, such as those in late January 2005 between the New Zealand national team and a World XI also had fundraising as a primary aim.
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who sings the songs in bob's burgers | Bob 's Burgers - wikipedia
Bob 's Burgers is an American animated sitcom created by Loren Bouchard that premiered on Fox on January 9, 2011. The series centers on the Belchers -- parents Bob and Linda, and their children Tina, Gene, and Louise -- who run a hamburger restaurant. The show was conceived by Bouchard after he developed Home Movies. It is produced and distributed in association with 20th Century Fox Television.
While reviews for the first season were mixed, feedback for subsequent seasons have been much more positive. The series premiere, "Human Flesh '', drew in 9.38 million viewers, making it the highest - rated series premiere of the season, and finishing ninth in the ratings for the week it aired. Reruns began airing on Cartoon Network 's late night adult programming block Adult Swim on June 23, 2013, and began airing in syndication on local stations in September 2015.
A comic book series based on the show, published by Dynamite Entertainment, began in September 2014, and a soundtrack album was released on May 12, 2017.
In 2013, TV Guide ranked Bob 's Burgers as one of the top 60 Greatest TV Cartoons of All Time. The series has been nominated for several awards, including the Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program seven consecutive times, winning in 2014 and 2017.
On October 7, 2015, Fox renewed the series for the seventh and eighth production cycles. The eighth season is scheduled to premiere on October 1, 2017.
The show centers on the Belcher family -- Bob, Linda, and their children Tina, Gene, and Louise; who run a hamburger restaurant on Ocean Avenue in an unnamed seaside community (informally known as "Seymour 's Bay '' among the show 's writing staff). While series creator Loren Bouchard has said that the show 's location was an indeterminate Northeastern United States shore town (calling the setting a "semi-Springfield) '', some critics, particularly after the episode "It Snakes a Village '', have deduced that the unidentified setting appears to actually be southern New Jersey.
Bob 's Burgers is located in a green two - story building which features an apartment on the second floor where Bob and his family reside. The restaurant is sandwiched between two other commercial buildings, one of which houses "It 's Your Funeral Home and Crematorium '', whose owner Mort is a regular at the restaurant. One of the show 's running gags involves the other building, which is generally vacant during episodes but has been home to such businesses as "Uncle Marty 's Breast Pumps '', "Extra Moist Yoga '', "That 's A-Door - A-Bell Doorbells '', and "Tire - Rhea ''.
Success is not easy, as Bob must compete with several other eateries for business. His biggest rival is Jimmy Pesto 's Pizzeria, which is located right across the street. It reels in way more customers than Bob 's Burgers, creating tension between the two owners. Jimmy particularly enjoys humiliating Bob, an example being when he got a higher score on an arcade machine than Bob, who had rented the game, and taunted him by putting "BOB SUX '' as his initials. The hatred between Bob and Jimmy Pesto is full of humor as although they dislike each other very much, Bob 's daughter, Tina, shows obsessive interest toward Pesto 's son, Jimmy Jr. However, it is often unclear how Jimmy Jr. feels toward Tina, although he always tries to get her back when she strays... He approves of her erotic friend fiction, starring himself, in "Bad Tina '', but tends to forget they are dating because he is always occupied with activities, such as spending time with best friend and wrestling buddy, Zeke, and dancing by himself.
Bob 's restaurant also has seen its fair share of bad luck. For example, in the show 's opening, the property falls victim to a fire, an infestation of vermin, and a broken front window caused by a car knocking down a utility pole. In spite of all this, Bob does have a small but loyal group of regular customers, including the aforementioned Mort and Teddy, the local handyman.
The Belcher family runs a hamburger restaurant. Bob is the restaurant 's owner and husband to the fun - loving and happy - go - lucky Linda. Their three children are Tina, the oldest, Gene, the only boy, and Louise, the youngest. All three kids help out around the restaurant to some extent. Louise is somewhat of a precocious menace and an instigator of many of the debacles that face the Belcher family. Tina is awkward, but full of heart, and muddles her way through her pubescent experiences, such as leg waxing and strong fixations on neighborhood boys. Gene is the more light hearted goofball type and aspires to be a great musician. His musical numbers are often featured throughout the show, though Linda is very musical herself. One of her songs from Episode 5 Season 3, "An Indecent Thanksgiving Proposal, '' gained so much popularity that it was covered by the band The National. Of all the musical numbers throughout the first three seasons however, the show 's writers dub "Electric Love '' as the best musical number so far. This song is written by Gene and featured in the episode "Topsy '' from season 3.
There are various recurring characters in the series including Jimmy Pesto, Sr., Bob 's rival who owns a pizzeria across the street, and his sons Jimmy Jr. (Tina 's love interest) and hyperactive twins Andy and Ollie, who are friends of Louise. Other recurring characters include the aforementioned Mort and Teddy, as well as Linda 's eccentric sister Gayle, and the Belchers ' sometimes - meddling landlord, Calvin Fischoeder.
Creator Loren Bouchard said Bob 's Burgers came about because Fox 's animation brand centers mostly on family, but he also wanted to dabble in workplace comedy. The show has generally been viewed as a spiritual successor to King of the Hill, which carried less emphasis on shock comedy and focused more on character - driven humor; Bob 's Burgers executive producer Jim Dauterive worked on King of the Hill for nearly its entire run.
Before the show was aired, the team created a proof of concept so Fox Broadcasting Company knew what to expect if they bought the show. Jay Howell had his art featured in a test animation based on Bob forgetting about his and Linda 's wedding anniversary. The actual show has never used a word that needed to be censored by the network. The proof of concept eventually turned into the pilot episode. It had the same synopsis as the official pilot (aired in 2011) but had both cosmetic and substantial differences. These included:
The original pilot can be seen on the DVD release of the first season, released on April 17, 2012.
Bob 's Burgers first appeared on the development slate at Fox on August 6, 2009. On December 1, 2009, Fox ordered 13 episodes for the first season. On May 17, 2010, Fox placed the series on the primetime slate for the 2010 -- 11 television season. A special preview aired on Thanksgiving on November 25, 2010.
Creator Loren Bouchard serves as the executive producer, alongside developer Jim Dauterive. They have served as executive producers since the first season. Dan Fybel and Rich Rinaldi were promoted to executive producers during season 6.
The team of writers includes Loren Bouchard, Jim Dauterive, Scott Jacobson, Lizzie Molyneux, Wendy Molyneux, Holly Schlesinger, Nora Smith, Steven Davis, Kelvin Yu, Dan Fybel, Rich Rinaldi, Greg Thompson, and Jon Schroeder. Past writers on the show include Kit Boss, Aron Abrams and Mike Benner. H. Jon Benjamin, Rachel Hastings, Justin Hook, Dan Mintz, and Mike Olsen have also written or co-written episodes. After the writing has been completed, the voice actors read the script as written, but later are allowed to improvise lines. The editors and writer decide what improvised lines make the final cut.
Bob 's Burgers has five main cast members: H. Jon Benjamin as Bob Belcher, John Roberts as Linda Belcher, Dan Mintz as Tina Belcher, Eugene Mirman as Gene Belcher, and Kristen Schaal as Louise Belcher.
The components of a burger fall into place on a white screen, and Bob 's hands appear underneath to hold it. The other family members appear around him one at a time, beginning with Linda and ending with Louise. Linda puts her arm around Bob, Tina stands there expressionless, Gene plays a sound effect on his keyboard, and Louise poses for the camera. The restaurant then materializes behind them and the neighboring businesses slide into place, with a funeral parlor at screen left, and the street slides into view in front. A "Grand Opening '' banner is placed over the door, followed by a series of mishaps. First, the restaurant catches on fire. Then, vermin come running toward the restaurant as an exterminator pulls up in a van. Lastly, a car crashes into the utility pole next to the funeral home, which causes the pole to fall through the front window of the restaurant. A new banner is hung up after each event: "Grand Re-Opening, '' "Grand Re-Re - Opening, '' and finally "Grand Re-Re - Re-Opening. '' The camera then zooms in on the burger Bob is holding, and the view fades in to the start of the episode.
As with other Fox animated series such as Futurama, The Simpsons and American Dad!, the show employs the "changing element '' running gag in its opening credits. The gag present on Bob 's Burgers involves the store located to the right of the restaurant, which has a new, humorously named client in every episode (such as "Betty 's Machetes '' in "Purple Rain - Union ''). Additionally, beginning with Season 2, the pest control van in the sequence has the name of a different company on each episode; the van read "Rat 's all Folks! Exterminators '' on all episodes of Season 1. On certain episodes, an element is changed for a special night (a flash frame saying "HAPPY HALLOWEEN '' was shown during the title sequence of "Fort Night '').
In an article written by the writers of the show ranking the best 10 musical numbers of the first three seasons, it is explained by show creator and theme composer Loren Bouchard that the ukulele track heard in the theme is an edited version of the first recording he did as well as the first take in 2008. Bouchard explains that if the EQ is taken off the original track, there is noise audible from the nightclub below the apartment he was living in when he recorded the theme.
The credits sequence of Bob 's Burgers often features the Belcher family at work. The scene is the kitchen of Bob 's Burgers drawn with a black outline over a white background and the characters in full color, with the credits off to the right hand side. The sequence consists of Bob cooking a burger and Louise and Tina doing prep. Bob places the burger on the plate for Louise to give to Linda, who takes it from the window, and a few seconds later Gene walks through the kitchen wearing his burger costume.
Although the kitchen scene is still the main closing sequence the show uses, beginning in season two the producers began to use different elements from the show in the credits. Some examples:
Other times, the scene will play out as usual, but with something from the episode going on in the background, etc. For instance:
Every episode features one or more "Today 's Special '' burgers on a chalk board on the wall behind the counter. The name of the special is usually a play on words that indicates what comes on the burger (ex.: "It 's Fun to Eat at the rYe MCA Burger '': Comes with Rye, Mustard, Cheese, and Avocado). Other "Special '' burgers are also mentioned by the family without being written on their chalkboard. The joke is often that the play on words is overly complex or obscure.
The first season through the current season of the show are available on the iTunes Store for download. The first 6 seasons are available from Amazon Video. Seasons 1 - 7 are available on Hulu.
Bob 's Burgers initially received mixed reviews for season 1, with a Metacritic score of 54 out of 100. However, by season 2, the ratings had reached a score of 78 out of 100, proving a rise in popularity with praises about its "daffy comedic momentum '' and how it is "new and fresh. '' Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season a 58 % from the collective critic feedback, admitting while it has potential, it needs to find its "rhythm. '' The Washington Post described the show as "pointlessly vulgar and derivatively dull '', while Reuters stated that "It 's unwise -- and unnecessary -- to launch an animated sitcom on Fox that appears intent to ape the vulgarity quotient of Family Guy. '' USA Today stated that "Bob 's Burgers is n't very tasty '' describing the comedy as just "lop (ing) along, stumbling from one tasteless moment to the next '' The New York Times described the show as having "a lackadaisical vibe; its humor, no matter how anarchic, slides by in a deadpan monotone. ''
However, as the first season progressed and concluded and the second began, critics began giving the series praise. Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club has recalled, "... the show was amusing, yes, and there was certainly potential, but it took half a dozen episodes before it really began to meet that potential. '' Season 2 has a Metacritic score of 78 out 100. The first season is considered by many fans as very rough in comparison to the quality in later seasons.
Entertainment Weekly gave the show an A - grade in its review, remarking that "a comedy this well done is very rare indeed ''. Ai n't It Cool News called Bob 's Burgers "perhaps the funniest half - hour currently airing on broadcast TV. '' In its review, CNN called the show "wickedly funny '' and said there are "too many highlights to list here ''. Speaking about the show during its second season, The A.V. Club reviewer Rowan Kaiser said: "After an uneven start, Bob 's Burgers is becoming one of television 's best comedies! '' Since the debut of season two of the series, the show 's positive reception has increased.
The A.V. Club voted Bob 's Burgers as the 10th best TV show of 2012, the 3rd best show of 2013, the 20th best show of 2014, and the 35th best show of 2015.
After airing, the show became the highest - rated series premiere of the season and also finished 9th in the ratings for the week it aired. Despite this, the ratings went on a slide with ratings expert Bill Gorman of TV by the Numbers calling it a "toss up '' for renewal before the series was renewed for a second season which premiered on March 11, 2012.
Adult Swim acquired the rights to air Bob 's Burgers in 2013. Episodes air six nights a week, with a 1: 30 am airing on Sunday and 8: 30 pm airings Monday through Friday. An additional episode airs every Monday through Thursday at 9: 00 pm. Adult Swim currently has rights to all five seasons of Bob 's Burgers and recently began airing the season five episodes on Mondays.
20th Television began distributing Bob 's Burgers to local stations in 2015. The syndication package began airing on its affiliates on the weekend of September 19 -- 20, 2015, and two episodes air each weekend.
The series also premiered on September 26, 2016 on TBS and airs Mondays afternoons (along with Family Guy, American Dad!, and The Cleveland Show) and on Friday nights.
On January 6, 2011, some Fatburger locations were re-branded as Bob 's Burgers for the day as a promotion. It also offered limited - time offers, such as a free burger giveaway, and a special, "The Thanks a Brunch Burger '', on the menu until February 2011. There were also "Bob 's Burgers '' coupons offered for a free medium Fatburger special. Across the United States, 4 locations were re-branded as Bob 's Burgers, in California, New Jersey, Nevada, and Illinois. At least one restaurant location in California continues to use the Bob 's Burgers appellation into 2016.
In the Family Guy episode "Space Cadet '', the principal shows Peter and Lois a picture of Bob Belcher as a sign that Chris is doing poorly in his Advanced Art class. Peter mutters "I 'm very embarrassed '', and the principal replies "Yeah, well, someone should be. '' In "Boopa - dee Bappa - dee '', Louise is one of many characters Stewie is turned into by Peter using a remote control. Bob 's Burgers is also mentioned on "He 's Bla - ack! '', as one of the reasons why The Cleveland Show did not succeed.
The season 4 premiere episode of Archer features a crossover where the Belcher family is shown, but Bob is revealed to be Sterling Archer (also voiced by H. Jon Benjamin) in a fugue state. Archer has taken the place of Bob Belcher, with Bob inexplicably missing. The menu board touts the "Thomas Elphinstone Hambledurger, with Manning Coleslaw '', a play on amnesiac secret agent Tommy Hambledon, a character in a series of novels by Manning Coles.
"Homerland '', the season 25 premiere episode of The Simpsons, features a couch gag in which the Belcher family (skinned yellow according to the standard character coloring of the series) attend a 25th anniversary party in the Simpson family living room with the main characters of their fellow Animation Domination series. Bob made another cameo in the episode "The Girl Code '', where a picture of him is shown, and explaining that the restaurant was boycotted by short people due to an offensive Burger of the Day.
Bob makes a cameo appearance in the hour - long Simpsons - Family Guy crossover "The Simpsons Guy ''. He appears on the same airplane as Homer and Peter in a cutaway about them being a greater team than the Air Force. Peter remarks to Homer that they have to carry Bob, and then Peter points to Cleveland 's plane and says "We let that other guy try and look what happened. '' Cleveland, repeatedly saying "no '', crashes in flames. This is a reference to the poor ratings of Bob 's Burgers and the cancellation of The Cleveland Show.
In Aqua Teen Hunger Force a character previously known as Dr. Eugene Mirman (obviously played by himself) was renamed to Dr. Gene Belcher in the episode "Hospice ''. The character 's name was revealed on Aqua Teen Hunger Force 's creator, Dave Willis ' Twitter account two hours before the episode. The character had been introduced in 2006, which was 5 years before Bob 's Burgers aired.
Seattle rock band Sleater - Kinney collaborated with Bob 's Burgers and its crew for their 2015 single "A New Wave '', off of the album No Cities to Love. The resultant music video featured the band, animated in the cartoon 's style, performing for the Belcher children in Tina 's bedroom.
In 2016, The Bob 's Burgers Burger Book, edited by series creator Bouchard, was released. There are 75 burger recipes pulled from the fan - based blog "The Bob 's Burger Experiment '' based on the Specials of the Day that appear on the chalkboard menu in the show.
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musée de la mode et du textile paris | Musée de la mode et du textile - Wikipedia
The Musée de la mode et du textile (Museum of Fashion and Textiles) was a museum located in the Louvre at, 107, rue de Rivoli, in the 1st arrondissement of Paris, France. It is now a department of the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris. Works from the former museum are regularly displayed in temporary exhibitions.
The museum dates to 1905 when the Musée des Arts Décoratifs started collecting outstanding examples of silks, embroidery, printed cotton, costumes, lace, and tapestry. In 1948, another collection of fashion and textiles was begun by the Union Française des Arts du Costume on an initiative by costume historian François Boucher. In 1981, the two collections merged, and in 1986, they opened to the public in the Louvre as a separate entity.
The museum featured collections of over 81,000 works representing the history of costume from the French Regency period to the present (16,000 costumes and 35,000 fashion accessories), and textiles from the 7th century onwards (30,000 works), as well as examples of interior design, furniture, objets d'arts, wallpaper, tapestry, ceramic art, glassware, and toys from the Middle Ages to the present.
Important French fashion designers and textile artists whose works are held in the collection include Azzedine Alaïa, Pierre Balmain, André Courrèges, Christian Dior, Christian Lacroix, Jeanne Lanvin, Paul Poiret, Paco Rabanne, Yves Saint Laurent, Elsa Schiaparelli, Madeleine Vionnet, Sonia Delaunay, Raoul Dufy, and others.
Coordinates: 48 ° 51 ′ 47 '' N 2 ° 20 ′ 0 '' E / 48.86306 ° N 2.33333 ° E / 48.86306; 2.33333
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where is the lens of the eye located | Lens (anatomy) - wikipedia
The lens is a transparent, biconvex structure in the eye that, along with the cornea, helps to refract light to be focused on the retina. The lens, by changing shape, functions to change the focal distance of the eye so that it can focus on objects at various distances, thus allowing a sharp real image of the object of interest to be formed on the retina. This adjustment of the lens is known as accommodation (see also below). Accommodation is similar to the focusing of a photographic camera via movement of its lenses. The lens is more flat on its anterior side than on its posterior side.
The lens is also known as the aquula (Latin, a little stream, dim. of aqua, water) or crystalline lens. In humans, the refractive power of the lens in its natural environment is approximately 18 dioptres, roughly one - third of the eye 's total power.
The lens is part of the anterior segment of the human eye. In front of the lens is the iris, which regulates the amount of light entering into the eye. The lens is suspended in place by the suspensory ligament of the lens, a ring of fibrous tissue that attaches to the lens at its equator and connects it to the ciliary body. Posterior to the lens is the vitreous body, which, along with the aqueous humor on the anterior surface, bathes the lens. The lens has an ellipsoid, biconvex shape. The anterior surface is less curved than the posterior. In the adult, the lens is typically circa 10 mm in diameter and has an axial length of about 4 mm, though it is important to note that the size and shape can change due to accommodation and because the lens continues to grow throughout a person 's lifetime.
The lens has three main parts: the lens capsule, the lens epithelium, and the lens fibers. The lens capsule forms the outermost layer of the lens and the lens fibers form the bulk of the interior of the lens. The cells of the lens epithelium, located between the lens capsule and the outermost layer of lens fibers, are found only on the anterior side of the lens. The lens itself lacks nerves, blood vessels, or connective tissue.
The lens capsule is a smooth, transparent basement membrane that completely surrounds the lens. The capsule is elastic and is composed of collagen. It is synthesized by the lens epithelium and its main components are Type IV collagen and sulfated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). The capsule is very elastic and so allows the lens to assume a more globular shape when not under the tension of the zonular fibers, which connect the lens capsule to the ciliary body. The capsule varies from 2 to 28 micrometres in thickness, being thickest near the equator and thinnest near the posterior pole.
The lens epithelium, located in the anterior portion of the lens between the lens capsule and the lens fibers, is a simple cuboidal epithelium. The cells of the lens epithelium regulate most of the homeostatic functions of the lens. As ions, nutrients, and liquid enter the lens from the aqueous humor, Na / K - ATPase pumps in the lens epithelial cells pump ions out of the lens to maintain appropriate lens osmotic concentration and volume, with equatorially positioned lens epithelium cells contributing most to this current. The activity of the Na / K - ATPases keeps water and current flowing through the lens from the poles and exiting through the equatorial regions.
The cells of the lens epithelium also serve as the progenitors for new lens fibers. It constantly lays down fibers in the embryo, fetus, infant, and adult, and continues to lay down fibers for lifelong growth.
The lens fibers form the bulk of the lens. They are long, thin, transparent cells, firmly packed, with diameters typically 4 -- 7 micrometres and lengths of up to 12 mm long. The lens fibers stretch lengthwise from the posterior to the anterior poles and, when cut horizontally, are arranged in concentric layers rather like the layers of an onion. If cut along the equator, it appears as a honeycomb. The middle of each fiber lies on the equator. These tightly packed layers of lens fibers are referred to as laminae. The lens fibers are linked together via gap junctions and interdigitations of the cells that resemble "ball and socket '' forms.
The lens is split into regions depending on the age of the lens fibers of a particular layer. Moving outwards from the central, oldest layer, the lens is split into an embryonic nucleus, the fetal nucleus, the adult nucleus, and the outer cortex. New lens fibers, generated from the lens epithelium, are added to the outer cortex. Mature lens fibers have no organelles or nuclei.
Development of the human lens begins at the 4 mm embryonic stage. Unlike the rest of the eye, which is derived mostly from the neural ectoderm, the lens is derived from the surface ectoderm. The first stage of lens differentiation takes place when the optic vesicle, which is formed from outpocketings in the neural ectoderm, comes in proximity to the surface ectoderm. The optic vesicle induces nearby surface ectoderm to form the lens placode. At the 4 mm stage, the lens placode is a single monolayer of columnar cells.
As development progresses, the lens placode begins to deepen and invaginate. As the placode continues to deepen, the opening to the surface ectoderm constricts and the lens cells forms a structure known as the lens vesicle. By the 10 mm stage, the lens vesicle has completely separated from the surface ectoderm.
After the 10 mm stage, signals from the developing neural retina induces the cells closest to the posterior end of the lens vesicle begin to elongate toward the anterior end of the vesicle. These signals also induce the synthesis of crystallins. These elongating cells eventually fill in the lumen of the vesicle to form the primary fibers, which become the embryonic nucleus in the mature lens. The cells of the anterior portion of the lens vesicle give rise to the lens epithelium.
Additional secondary fibers are derived from lens epithelial cells located toward the equatorial region of the lens. These cells lengthen anteriorly and posteriorly to encircle the primary fibers. The new fibers grow longer than those of the primary layer, but as the lens gets larger, the ends of the newer fibers can not reach the posterior or anterior poles of the lens. The lens fibers that do not reach the poles form tight, interdigitating seams with neighboring fibers. These seams are readily visible and are termed sutures. The suture patterns become more complex as more layers of lens fibers are added to the outer portion of the lens.
The lens continues to grow after birth, with the new secondary fibers being added as outer layers. New lens fibers are generated from the equatorial cells of the lens epithelium, in a region referred to as the germinative zone. The lens epithelial cells elongate, lose contact with the capsule and epithelium, synthesize crystallin, and then finally lose their nuclei (enucleate) as they become mature lens fibers. From development through early adulthood, the addition of secondary lens fibers results in the lens growing more ellipsoid in shape; after about age 20, however, the lens grows rounder with time and the iris is very important for this development
Several proteins control the embryonic development of the lens: among these, primarily, PAX6, considered the master regulator gene of this organ. Other effectors of proper lens development include the Wnt signaling components BCL9 and Pygo2.
In many aquatic vertebrates, the lens is considerably thicker, almost spherical, to increase the refraction. This difference compensates for the smaller angle of refraction between the eye 's cornea and the watery medium, as they have similar refractive indices. Even among terrestrial animals, however, the lens of primates such as humans is unusually flat.
In reptiles and birds, the ciliary body touches the lens with a number of pads on its inner surface, in addition to the zonular fibres. These pads compress and release the lens to modify its shape while focusing on objects at different distances; the zonular fibres perform this function in mammals. In fish and amphibians, the lens is fixed in shape, and focusing is instead achieved by moving the lens forwards or backwards within the eye.
In cartilaginous fish, the zonular fibres are replaced by a membrane, including a small muscle at the underside of the lens. This muscle pulls the lens forward from its relaxed position when focusing on nearby objects. In teleosts, by contrast, a muscle projects from a vascular structure in the floor of the eye, called the falciform process, and serves to pull the lens backwards from the relaxed position to focus on distant objects. While amphibians move the lens forward, as do cartilaginous fish, the muscles involved are not homologous with those of either type of fish. In frogs, there are two muscles, one above and one below the lens, while other amphibians have only the lower muscle.
In the most primitive vertebrates, the lampreys and hagfish, the lens is not attached to the outer surface of the eyeball at all. There is no aqueous humor in these fish, and the vitreous body simply presses the lens against the surface of the cornea. To focus its eyes, a lamprey flattens the cornea using muscles outside of the eye and pushes the lens backwards.
The lens is flexible and its curvature is controlled by ciliary muscles through the zonules. By changing the curvature of the lens, one can focus the eye on objects at different distances from it. This process is called accommodation. At short focal distance the ciliary muscle contracts, zonule fibers loosen, and the lens thickens, resulting in a rounder shape and thus high refractive power. Changing focus to an object at a greater distance requires the relaxation of the lens and thus increasing the focal distance.
The refractive index of human lens varies from approximately 1.406 in the central layers down to 1.386 in less dense layers of the lens. This index gradient enhances the optical power of the lens.
Aquatic animals must rely entirely on their lens for both focusing and to provide almost the entire refractive power of the eye as the water - cornea interface does not have a large enough difference in indices of refraction to provide significant refractive power. As such, lenses in aquatic eyes tend to be much rounder and harder.
Crystallins are water - soluble proteins that compose over 90 % of the protein within the lens. The three main crystallin types found in the human eye are α -, β -, and γ - crystallins. Crystallins tend to form soluble, high - molecular weight aggregates that pack tightly in lens fibers, thus increasing the index of refraction of the lens while maintaining its transparency. β and γ crystallins are found primarily in the lens, while subunits of α - crystallin have been isolated from other parts of the eye and the body. α - crystallin proteins belong to a larger superfamily of molecular chaperone proteins, and so it is believed that the crystallin proteins were evolutionarily recruited from chaperone proteins for optical purposes. The chaperone functions of α - crystallin may also help maintain the lens proteins, which must last a human for his / her entire lifetime.
Another important factor in maintaining the transparency of the lens is the absence of light - scattering organelles such as the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria within the mature lens fibers. Lens fibers also have a very extensive cytoskeleton that maintains the precise shape and packing of the lens fibers; disruptions / mutations in certain cytoskeletal elements can lead to the loss of transparency.
The lens blocks most ultraviolet light in the wavelength range of 300 -- 400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the cornea. High intensity ultraviolet light can harm the retina, and artificial intraocular lenses are therefore manufactured to also block ultraviolet light. People lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) perceive ultraviolet light as whitish blue or whitish - violet.
The lens is metabolically active and requires nourishment in order to maintain its growth and transparency. Compared to other tissues in the eye, however, the lens has considerably lower energy demands.
By nine weeks into human development, the lens is surrounded and nourished by a net of vessels, the tunica vasculosa lentis, which is derived from the hyaloid artery. Beginning in the fourth month of development, the hyaloid artery and its related vasculature begin to atrophy and completely disappear by birth. In the postnatal eye, Cloquet 's canal marks the former location of the hyaloid artery.
After regression of the hyaloid artery, the lens receives all its nourishment from the aqueous humor. Nutrients diffuse in and waste diffuses out through a constant flow of fluid from the anterior / posterior poles of the lens and out of the equatorial regions, a dynamic that is maintained by the Na / K - ATPase) pumps located in the equatorially positioned cells of the lens epithelium.
Glucose is the primary energy source for the lens. As mature lens fibers do not have mitochondria, approximately 80 % of the glucose is metabolized via anaerobic metabolism. The remaining fraction of glucose is shunted primarily down the pentose phosphate pathway. The lack of aerobic respiration means that the lens consumes very little oxygen as well.
MRI scan of human eye showing lens.
Interior of anterior chamber of eye.
The crystalline lens, hardened and divided.
Section through the margin of the lens, showing the transition of the epithelium into the lens fibers.
The structures of the eye labeled
Another view of the eye and the structures of the eye labeled
This svg file was configured so that the rays, diaphragm and crystalline lens are easily modified
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where is the 2020 european championship being held | UEFA Euro 2020 - wikipedia
The 2020 UEFA European Football Championship, commonly referred to as UEFA Euro 2020 or simply Euro 2020, is scheduled to be the 16th UEFA European Championship, the quadrennial international men 's football championship of Europe organised by UEFA.
It is scheduled to be held in 12 cities in 12 European countries from 12 June to 12 July 2020. Portugal are the defending champions, winning the 2016 edition. For the first time, the video assistant referee (VAR) system will be used at the UEFA European Championship.
Former UEFA President Michel Platini said the tournament being hosted in several nations is a "romantic '' one - off event to celebrate the 60th "birthday '' of the European Championship competition. The winner will earn the right to participate in the 2021 FIFA Confederations Cup. Wembley Stadium in London is planned to host the semi-finals and final for the second time, having done so before at the 1996 tournament.
While some countries had already expressed an interest in bidding to host Euro 2020, then - UEFA President Michel Platini suggested at a press conference on 30 June 2012, a day before the UEFA Euro 2012 Final, that instead of having one host country (or joint hosting by multiple countries) Euro 2020 could be spread over "12 or 13 cities '' across the continent. At the time, UEFA already used a similar system for the UEFA European Under - 17 Football Championship 's "Elite Round '', where each of the seven groups is hosted by a different country.
On 6 December 2012, UEFA announced the 2020 Finals would be held in multiple cities across Europe to mark the 60th anniversary of the tournament. The selection of the host cities does not mean an automatic qualifying berth is awarded to the national team of that nation.
UEFA reasoned that the pan-European staging of the tournament was the logical decision at a time of financial difficulty across Europe. Reaction to UEFA 's plan was mixed across Europe. Critics have cited the expanded format (from 31 matches featuring 16 nations to 51 featuring 24) and its associated additional costs as the decisive factor for only one nation (Turkey) having put forward a serious bid.
The final list of bids was published by UEFA on 26 April 2014, with a decision on the hosts being made by the UEFA Executive Committee on 19 September 2014. There were two bids for the Finals Package (of which one was successful, marked with blue for semi-finals and final) and 19 bids for the Standard Package (of which 12 were initially successful, marked with green for quarter - finals and group stage, and yellow for round of 16 and group stage); Brussels, marked with red, were initially selected but removed from the list of venues by UEFA on 7 December 2017 and the planned games there were moved to Wembley.
There is no automatic qualifying berth, and all 55 UEFA national teams, including the 12 national teams whose countries are scheduled to stage matches, must compete in the qualifiers for the 24 places at the finals tournament. As the host cities were appointed by UEFA in September 2014, before the qualifiers of UEFA Euro 2020, it is possible for the national teams from the host cities to fail to qualify for the finals tournament.
The UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying draw will be held on 2 December 2018 at the Convention Centre Dublin in Dublin, Republic of Ireland.
The main qualifying process is now scheduled to begin in March 2019, instead of immediately in September 2018 following the 2018 FIFA World Cup, and is scheduled to end in November 2019. The format remains largely the same, although only 20 of the 24 spots for the finals tournament are to be decided from the main qualifying process, leaving four spots still to be decided. Following the admission of Kosovo to UEFA in May 2016, it was announced that the 55 members at the time would be drawn into ten groups after the completion of the UEFA Nations League (five groups of five teams and five groups of six teams, with the four participants of the UEFA Nations League Finals guaranteed to be drawn into groups of five teams), with the top two teams in each group qualifying. The qualifiers are scheduled to be played on double matchdays in March, June, September, October and November 2019.
With the creation of the UEFA Nations League starting in 2018, the 2018 -- 19 UEFA Nations League is to be linked with UEFA Euro qualifying, providing teams another chance to qualify for Euro 2020. Four teams from each division which have not already qualified for the Euro finals are to compete in the play - offs for each division, to be played in March 2020. The winners of the play - offs for each division, to be decided by two "one - off '' semi-finals (the best - ranked team vs. the fourth - best - ranked team, and the second - best - ranked team vs. the third - best - ranked team, played at home of higher ranked teams) and one "one - off '' final (with the venue drawn in advance between the two semi-finals winners), are scheduled to join the 20 teams which have already qualified for the Euro finals.
The venues were selected and announced by UEFA on 19 September 2014. However, the UEFA Executive Committee removed Brussels as a host city on 7 December 2017 due to delays with the building of the Eurostadium. The four matches (three group stage, one round of 16) initially scheduled to be held in Brussels were reallocated to London. Therefore, Wembley Stadium will host a total of seven matches, as London was already chosen to host the semi-finals and final of the tournament. On 7 December 2017, it was also announced that the opening match will take place at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, chosen ahead of Amsterdam, Glasgow, and Saint Petersburg.
Of the 12 selected cities and countries, 8 cities and 7 countries have never hosted a European Championship finals match before. Bilbao was not a venue when Spain hosted the 1964 European Nations ' Cup, and none of Azerbaijan, Denmark, Hungary, Romania, Republic of Ireland, Russia, or Scotland has hosted the tournament previously. Of the 12 selected stadia, only 2 have hosted a European Championship match before: the Stadio Olimpico (1968 and 1980) and the Johan Cruyff Arena (2000). The original Wembley stadium hosted games and the final in UEFA Euro 1996, but although on the same site, this is classified as a different stadium to the current Wembley Stadium.
Each city will host three group stage matches and one match in the round of 16 or quarter - finals. The match allocation for the 12 stadiums is as follows:
The host cities were divided into six pairings, established on the basis of sporting strength (assuming all host teams qualify), geographical considerations, and security / political constraints. The pairings were allocated to groups by means of a random draw on 7 December 2017. Each qualified host country will play a minimum of two matches at home. The group venue pairings is as follows:
The draw for the final tournament will be held on 1 December 2019. The 24 teams are drawn into six groups of four. The identity of the four play - off teams are not known at the time of the draw, and will be identified as play - off winners 1 to 4. The following principles will be applied:
UEFA announced the tournament schedule on 24 May 2018. The kick - off times of the group stage and round of 16 matches will be announced after the final draw.
Group winners, runners - up, and the best four third - placed teams advance to the round of 16.
Times are CEST (UTC + 2), as listed by UEFA. If the venue is located in a different time zone, the local time is also given.
If two or more teams are equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following tie - breaking criteria are applied:
To determine the four best third - placed teams from the group stage which advance to the round of 16, only the results of the third - placed teams against the top two placed teams in their group are taken into account, while results against the fourth - placed team are not included. As a result, two matches played by each third - placed team will count for the purposes of determining the ranking. This is different from UEFA Euro 2016, which counts all three group matches.
In the knockout phase, if a match is level at the end of normal playing time, extra time is played (two periods of 15 minutes each), where each team is allowed to make a fourth substitution. If still tied after extra time, the match is decided by a penalty shoot - out to determine the winners.
As with every tournament since UEFA Euro 1984, there is no third place play - off.
The specific match - ups involving the third - placed teams depended on which four third - placed teams qualified for the round of 16:
Times are CEST (UTC + 2), as listed by UEFA. If the venue is located in a different time zone, the local time is also given.
The prize money was finalised in February 2018. Each team receives a participation fee of € 9.25 million, with the winner able to earn a maximum of € 34M.
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the standard of care generally used in cases of negligence is the | Standard of care - wikipedia
In tort law, the standard of care is the only degree of prudence and caution required of an individual who is under a duty of care.
The requirements of the standard are closely dependent on circumstances. Whether the standard of care has been breached is determined by the trier of fact, and is usually phrased in terms of the reasonable person. It was famously described in Vaughn v. Menlove (1837) as whether the individual "proceed (ed) with such reasonable caution as a prudent man would have exercised under such circumstances ''.
In certain industries and professions, the standard of care is determined by the standard that would be exercised by the reasonably prudent manufacturer of a product, or the reasonably prudent professional in that line of work. Such a test (known as the "Bolam Test '') is used to determine whether a doctor is liable for medical malpractice. The standard of care is important because it determines the level of negligence required to state a valid cause of action. In the business world the standard of care taken can be described as Due Diligence or performing a Channel Check.
A standard of care is a medical or psychological treatment guideline, and can be general or specific. It specifies appropriate treatment based on scientific evidence and collaboration between medical and / or psychological professionals involved in the treatment of a given condition.
Some common examples:
1. Diagnostic and treatment process that a clinician should follow for a certain type of patient, illness, or clinical circumstance. Adjuvant chemotherapy for lung cancer is "a new standard of care, but not necessarily the only standard of care ''. (New England Journal of Medicine, 2004)
2. In legal terms, the level at which an ordinary, prudent professional with the same training and experience in good standing in a same or similar community would practice under the same or similar circumstances. An "average '' standard would not apply because in that case at least half of any group of practitioners would not qualify. The medical malpractice plaintiff must establish the appropriate standard of care and demonstrate that the standard of care has been breached, with expert testimony.
3. A physician also has a "duty to inform '' a patient of any material risks or fiduciary interests of the physician that might cause the patient to reconsider a procedure, and may be liable if injury occurs due to the undisclosed risk, and the patient can prove that if he had been informed he would not have gone through with the procedure, without benefit of hindsight. (Informed Consent Rule.) Full disclosure of all material risks incident to treatment must be fully disclosed, unless doing so would impair urgent treatment. As it relates to mental health professionals standard of care, the California Supreme Court, held that these professionals have "duty to protect '' individuals who are specifically threatened by a patient. (Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California, 17 Cal. 3d 425, 551 P. 2d 334, 131 Cal. Rptr. 14 (Cal. 1976)).
4. A recipient of pro bono (free) services (either legal or medical) is entitled to expect the same standard of care as a person who pays for the same services, to prevent an indigent person from being entitled to only substandard care.
Medical standards of care exist for many conditions, including diabetes, some cancers, and sexual abuse.
A special standard of care also applies to children, who, in a majority of jurisdictions, are held to the behavior that is reasonable for a child of similar age, experience, and intelligence under like circumstances. (Restatement (Second) of Torts § 283A; Cleveland Rolling - Mill Co. v. Corrigan, 46 Ohio St. 283, 20 N.E. 466 (1889).) In some cases it means that more may be required of a child of superior intelligence. (Compare Jones v. Fireman 's Insurance Co. of Newark, New Jersey, 240 So. 2d 780 (La. App. 1970) with Robinson v. Travis, 393 So. 2d 304 (La. App. 1980). An exception is for children engaged in "adult activity. '' Dellwo v. Pearson, 107 N.W. 2d 859 (Minn 1961) Nicholsen v. Brown, 232 Or. 426, 374 P. 2d 896 (1962) (automobile); Daniels v. Evans, 102 N.H. 407, 224 A. 2d 63 (1966) (motor scooter); Neumann. v. Shlansky, 58 Misc. 2d 128, 294 N.Y.S. 2d 628 (1968 (playing golf)) What constitutes an "adult standard '' may depend on local statute, and some have arbitrary age distinctions. Another exception is if the child is engaged in an "inherently dangerous activity. '' It is up to the trier of fact to decide if the activity is inherently dangerous. If they find that it is, the child must be held to an adult standard of care. Robinson v. Lindsay, 92 Wash. 2d 410, 598 P. 2d 2392 (1979) (snowmobile);
A person with a disability is held to the same standard of care that an ordinary reasonable person would observe if he suffered from that same disability. (Roberts v. State of Louisiana, 396 So. 2d 566 (1981) (blind postal employee)) However, courts do not recognize a person with a mental disability to be subject to any such special standard, and are held to the "reasonable prudent person '' standard, except when the onset of mental illness is unforeseeable and sudden (e.g., Breunig v. American Family Insurance Co., 45 Wis. 2d 536, 173 N.W. 2d 619 (1970) (sudden hallucinations while driving).) In some situations, this could work an injustice. Physical handicaps and infirmities, such as blindness, deafness, short stature, or a club foot, or the weaknesses of age or sex, are treated merely as part of the "circumstances '' under which a reasonable man must act.
A person engaged in a special and potentially dangerous activity must know or inquire of possible hazards or of any special duties and responsibilities inherent in that activity that might affect their ability to exercise reasonable prudent caution (cf, Delair v. McAdoo, 324 Pa. 392, 188 A. 181 (1936) (driving on worn tires).) Custom and practice of usage may be useful evidence for determining the usual standard, but not determinative of what a reasonable prudent person ought to be required to do or know (cf., Trimarco v. Klein, 58 N.Y. 2d 98 (1982) (showerdoor glass).) As Justice Holmes classic statement expresses it, "What usually is done may be evidence of what ought to be done, but what ought to be done is fixed by a standard of reasonable prudence, whether it is complied with or not. ''
A person of substandard intelligence is held under common law to the same standard of a reasonable prudent person, to encourage them to exert a decreased effort of responsibility to their community, in light of their handicap, and as a result of the practical difficulty of proving what reduced standard should apply (Vaughn v. Menlove, 3 Bing. (N.C.) 468, 432 Eng. Rep. 490 (1837).) Restatement (Second) of Torts, § 289 cmt. n (noting that the "reasonable person '' standard makes allowances for age and physical disability but not "attention, perception, memory, knowledge of other pertinent matters, intelligence, and judgment. Oliver Wendell Holmes, The Common Law, 108 (Little, Brown, & Co. 1881): "The standards of the law are standards of general application. The law takes no account of the infinite varieties of temperament, intellect, and education which make the internal character of a given act so different in different men. ''
An attorney is held to the standard that any reasonable attorney in possession of the same knowledge and skill that an ordinary member of his or her profession possesses, as long as he is acting with reasonable care and diligence, in good faith and honest belief that his advice and acts are well founded at the time. Here, mere errors in judgment are excusable (Best Judgment Rule) and can not be judged solely with the gift of hindsight without substantial injustice. He or she is required to exercise ordinary care and caution (diligence) in the use of that skill (Due Care Rule), and procedural and technical failures are held to be the most common breaches. (cf, Hodges v. Carter, 239 N.C. 517, 80 S.E. 2d 144 (1954). (failed service of process).)
In Cordas v. Peerless Taxi Company, 27 N.Y.S. 2d 198 (1941), Justice Carlin rainbowly held that a taxicab driver hijacked at gunpoint by a fleeing mugger in New York City may be excused from negligence for jumping out of the moving taxicab to save his own life, leaving the cab on an unguided trajectory towards bystanders. While some persons might choose to be singularly heroic, that standard is not one that is required for an ordinary prudent person. Such a person is held excused from liability, even if such failure might endanger others. An ordinary prudent person is not under any obligation to undertake a heroic duty at the risk of his own life. "The first duty in an emergency is to one 's own self, as long as that person did not contribute to or cause the emergency. '' (Emergency Doctrine.)
When a state criminal statute is violated in the course of performing an assertedly negligent act, under certain circumstances a court may adopt the statute as establishing a standard of care for tortious liability as well. This is negligence per se. It follows the reasoning that if a legislature reached findings of public interest in enacting the statute, these same considerations could arguably apply in cases of negligence. There is no negligence per se doctrine in federal law.
Four elements are deemed necessary for a statute to apply in a negligence case. First the person harmed must be a member of the class of persons which the law was intended to protect. Second, the danger or harm must be one that the law was intended to prevent. Thirdly, there must be some causal relationship established between the breach of the statute and the harm caused. Fourthly, the criminal statute must be concrete, specific and measurable enough to clearly establish a standard of breach. Courts are reluctant to create new torts out of criminal statutes. (See Restatement (Second) of Torts, sections 297, 288.)
However, there are five valid excuses that are available for a defendant to defeat a standard of negligence per se. (Restatement (Second) of Torts section 288.1 (2).) First, the defendant may not know of the breach due to incompetence. Secondly, he might either lack knowledge or reason to know of the breach or duty. Furthermore, for some explainable reason, he may be unable to comply, despite diligence. The breach may be due to a sudden emergency not of one 's own making. And lastly, in special situations it may be safer to not comply than to comply. In cases where these defenses are applied, negligence per se doctrine creates no more than a rebuttable presumption of negligence that shifts the burden of proof from the plaintiff to the defendant.
In balancing risks to establish a reasonable person 's standard of ordinary care, the calculus of negligence establishes that the probability of the harm potentially caused (P) must be balanced along with the gravity of the harm which could result (G), against the burden of conforming to a new and less dangerous course of action (B) along with the utility of maintaining the same course of action as it was (U). This is sometimes noted in shorthand as P + G v. B + U, deriving from a formulation expressed by Judge Learned Hand. (United States v. Carroll Towing Co., 159 F. 2d 169 (1947).)
In the Hospitailty industries, the standard of care is higher, as the Innkeeper is expect to seek out potential danger and prevent it. "Innkeeper / Common Carrier - very high degree of care - liable for slight negligence ''
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who said the streets will run with blood | Rivers of Blood speech - wikipedia
On 20 April 1968, British Member of Parliament Enoch Powell addressed a meeting of the Conservative Political Centre in Birmingham, UK. His speech strongly criticised Commonwealth immigration to the United Kingdom and the then - proposed Race Relations Bill, and became known as the "Rivers of Blood '' speech, although Powell always referred to it as "the Birmingham speech ''. The expression "rivers of blood '', which did not appear in the original speech, is an allusion to a line from Virgil 's Aeneid quoted by Powell ("As I look ahead, I am filled with foreboding; like the Roman, I seem to see the River Tiber foaming with much blood '').
The speech caused a political storm, making Powell one of the most talked about, and divisive, politicians in the country, and leading to his controversial dismissal from the Shadow Cabinet by Conservative Party leader Edward Heath. According to most accounts, the popularity of Powell 's perspective on immigration may have played a decisive contributory factor in the Conservatives ' surprise victory in the 1970 general election, and he became one of the most persistent rebels opposing the subsequent Heath government.
Powell, the Conservative MP for Wolverhampton South West, was addressing the general meeting of the West Midlands Area Conservative Political Centre. The Labour government 's Race Relations Bill 1968 was to have its second reading three days later, and the Conservative Opposition had tabled an amendment significantly weakening its provisions. The Bill was a successor to the Race Relations Act 1965.
The Birmingham - based television company ATV saw an advance copy of the speech on the Saturday morning, and its news editor ordered a television crew to go to the venue, where they filmed sections of the speech. Earlier in the week, Powell said to his friend Clement (Clem) Jones, a journalist and then editor at the Wolverhampton Express & Star, "I 'm going to make a speech at the weekend and it 's going to go up ' fizz ' like a rocket; but whereas all rockets fall to the earth, this one is going to stay up. ''
In preparing his speech, Powell had applied Clem Jones ' advice that to make hard - hitting political speeches and short - circuit interference from his party organisation, his best timing was on Saturday afternoons, after delivering embargoed copies the previous Thursday or Friday to selected editors and political journalists of Sunday newspapers; this tactic could ensure coverage of the speech over three days through Saturday evening bulletins then Sunday newspapers, so that the coverage would be picked up in Monday newspapers.
Powell recounted a conversation with one of his constituents, a middle - aged working man, a few weeks earlier. Powell said that the man told him: "If I had the money to go, I would n't stay in this country... I have three children, all of them been through grammar school and two of them married now, with family. I sha n't be satisfied till I have seen them all settled overseas. '' The man finished by saying to Powell: "In this country in 15 or 20 years ' time the black man will have the whip hand over the white man. ''
Powell went on:
Powell quoted a letter he received from a woman in Northumberland, about an elderly woman living on a Wolverhampton street where she was the only white resident. The elderly woman had lost her husband and her two sons in World War II and had rented out the rooms in her house. Once immigrants had moved into the street she was living in, her white lodgers left. Two black men had knocked on her door at 7: 00 am to use her telephone to call their employers, but she refused, as she would have done to any other stranger knocking at her door at such an hour, and was subsequently verbally abused.
The woman had asked her local authority for a rates reduction, but was told by a council officer to let out the rooms of her house. When the woman said the only tenants would be black, the council officer replied: "Racial prejudice wo n't get you anywhere in this country. ''
He advocated voluntary re-emigration by "generous grants and assistance '' and he mentioned that immigrants had asked him whether it was possible. Powell said that all citizens should be equal before the law, and that:
He argued that journalists who urged the government to pass anti-discrimination laws were "of the same kidney and sometimes on the same newspapers which year after year in the 1930s tried to blind this country to the rising peril which confronted it ''. Powell said that such legislation would be used to discriminate against the indigenous population and that it would be "to risk throwing a match on to gunpowder. '' Powell described what he perceived to be the evolving position of the indigenous population:
Powell warned that if the legislation proposed for the then - Race Relations Bill were to be passed it would bring about discrimination against the native population:
Powell was concerned about the current level of immigration and argued that it must be controlled:
Powell argued that he felt that although "many thousands '' of immigrants wanted to integrate, he felt that the majority did not, and that some had vested interests in fostering racial and religious differences "with a view to the exercise of actual domination, first over fellow - immigrants and then over the rest of the population ''. Powell 's peroration of the speech gave rise to its popular title. He quotes the Sibyl 's prophecy in the epic poem Aeneid, 6, 86 -- 87, of "wars, terrible wars, / and the Tiber foaming with much blood. ''
According to C. Howard Wheeldon, who was present at the meeting in which Powell gave the speech, "it is fascinating to note what little hostility emerged from the audience. To the best of my memory, only one person voiced any sign of annoyance. '' The day after the speech Powell went to Sunday Communion at his local church and when he emerged there was a crowd of journalists and a local plasterer (Sidney Miller) said to Powell: "Well done, sir. It needed to be said. '' Powell asked the assembled journalists: "Have I really caused such a furore? '' At midday Powell went on the BBC 's World This Weekend to defend his speech and he appeared later that day on ITN news.
Although the majority of the Parliamentary Labour Party did not wish to "stir up the Powell issue '', Labour MP Edward Leadbitter said he would refer the speech to the Director of Public Prosecutions. The Liberal Party leader Jeremy Thorpe spoke of a prima facie case against Powell for incitement. Lady Gaitskell called the speech "cowardly '' and the cricketer Sir Learie Constantine condemned it. Labour MP Tony Benn said:
The leading Conservatives in the Shadow Cabinet were outraged by the speech. Iain Macleod, Edward Boyle, Quintin Hogg and Robert Carr all threatened to resign from the front bench unless Powell was sacked. Margaret Thatcher thought that some of Powell 's speech was "strong meat '', and said to Heath when he telephoned her to inform her Powell was to be sacked: "I really thought that it was better to let things cool down for the present rather than heighten the crisis ''. The Conservative leader, Edward Heath, sacked Powell from his post as Shadow Defence Secretary, telling him on the telephone that Sunday evening (it was the last conversation they would have). Heath said of the speech in public that it was "racialist in tone and liable to exacerbate racial tensions ''. Conservative MPs on the right of the party -- Duncan Sandys, Gerald Nabarro, Teddy Taylor -- spoke against Powell 's sacking. On 22 April 1968, Heath went on Panorama, telling Robin Day: "I dismissed Mr Powell because I believed his speech was inflammatory and liable to damage race relations. I am determined to do everything I can to prevent racial problems developing into civil strife... I do n't believe the great majority of the British people share Mr Powell 's way of putting his views in his speech. ''
The Times newspaper declared it "an evil speech '', stating "This is the first time that a serious British politician has appealed to racial hatred in this direct way in our postwar history. '' The Times went on to record incidents of racial attacks in the immediate aftermath of Powell 's speech. One such incident, reported under the headline "Coloured family attacked '', took place on 30 April 1968 in Wolverhampton itself: it involved a slashing incident with 14 white youths chanting "Powell '' and "Why do n't you go back to your own country? '' at patrons of a West Indian christening party. One of the West Indian victims, Wade Crooks of Lower Villiers Street, was the child 's grandfather. He had to have eight stitches over his left eye. He was reported as saying, "I have been here since 1955 and nothing like this has happened before. I am shattered. '' An opinion poll commissioned by the BBC television programme Panorama in December 1968 found that eight per cent of immigrants believed that they had been treated worse by white people since Powell 's speech, 38 per cent would like to return to their country of origin if offered financial help, and 47 per cent supported immigration control, with 30 per cent opposed.
The speech generated much correspondence to newspapers, most markedly with the Express & Star in Wolverhampton itself, whose local sorting office over the following week received 40,000 postcards and 8,000 letters addressed to its local newspaper. Clem Jones recalled:
At the end of that week there were two simultaneous processions in Wolverhampton, one of Powell 's supporters and another of opponents, who each brought petitions to Clem Jones outside his office, the two columns being kept apart by police.
On 23 April 1968, the Race Relations Bill had its second reading in the House of Commons. Many MPs referred or alluded to Powell 's speech. For Labour, Paul Rose, Maurice Orbach, Reginald Paget, Dingle Foot, Ivor Richard, and David Ennals were all critical. Among the Conservatives, Quintin Hogg and Nigel Fisher were critical, while Hugh Fraser, Ronald Bell, Dudley Smith, and Harold Gurden were sympathetic. Powell was present for the debate but did not speak.
Earlier that day, 1,000 London dockers had gone on strike in protest of Powell 's sacking and marched from the East End to the Palace of Westminster carrying placards with sayings such as "we want Enoch Powell! '', "Enoch here, Enoch there, we want Enoch everywhere '', "Do n't knock Enoch '' and "Back Britain, not Black Britain ''. Three hundred of them went into the palace, 100 to lobby the MP for Stepney, Peter Shore, and 200 to lobby the MP for Poplar, Ian Mikardo. Shore and Mikardo were shouted down and some dockers kicked Mikardo. Lady Gaitskell shouted: "You will have your remedy at the next election. '' The dockers replied: "We wo n't forget. '' The organiser of the strike, Harry Pearman, headed a delegation to meet Powell and said after: "I have just met Enoch Powell and it made me feel proud to be an Englishman. He told me that he felt that if this matter was swept under the rug he would lift the rug and do the same again. We are representatives of the working man. We are not racialists. ''
On 24 April 600 dockers at St Katharine Docks voted to strike and numerous smaller factories across the country followed. Six hundred Smithfield meat porters struck and marched to Westminster and handed Powell a 92 - page petition supporting him. Powell advised against strike action and asked them to write to Harold Wilson, Heath or their MP. However, strikes continued, reaching Tilbury by 25 April and he allegedly received his 30,000 th letter supporting him, with 30 protesting against his speech. By 27 April, 4,500 dockers were on strike. On 28 April, 1,500 people marched to Downing Street chanting "Arrest Enoch Powell ''. Powell claimed to have received 43,000 letters and 700 telegrams supporting him by early May, with 800 letters and four telegrams against. On 2 May, the attorney - general, Sir Elwyn Jones, announced he would not prosecute Powell after consulting the director of public prosecutions.
The Gallup Organization took an opinion poll at the end of April and found that 74 per cent agreed with what Powell had said in his speech; 15 per cent disagreed. 69 per cent felt Heath was wrong to sack Powell and 20 per cent believed Heath was right. Before his speech Powell was favoured to replace Heath as Conservative leader by one per cent, with Reginald Maudling favoured by 20 per cent; after his speech 24 per cent favoured Powell and 18 per cent Maudling. 83 per cent now felt immigration should be restricted (75 per cent before the speech) and 65 per cent favoured anti-discrimination legislation.
Powell defended his speech on 4 May through an interview for the Birmingham Post: "What I would take ' racialist ' to mean is a person who believes in the inherent inferiority of one race of mankind to another, and who acts and speaks in that belief. So the answer to the question of whether I am a racialist is ' no ' -- unless, perhaps, it is to be a racialist in reverse. I regard many of the peoples in India as being superior in many respects -- intellectually, for example, and in other respects -- to Europeans. Perhaps that is over-correcting. ''
According to most accounts, the popularity of Powell 's perspective on race may have played a decisive contributory factor in the Conservatives ' surprise victory in the 1970 general election, although Powell became one of the most persistent rebels opposing the subsequent Heath government. In "exhaustive research '' on the election, the American pollster Douglas Schoen and University of Oxford academic R.W. Johnson believed it "beyond dispute '' that Powell had attracted 2.5 million votes to the Conservatives, but nationally the Conservative vote had increased by only 1.7 million since 1966. In his own constituency at that election -- his last in Wolverhampton -- his majority of 26,220 and a 64.3 per cent share of the vote were then the highest of his career.
Powell reflected on the speech in an interview in 1977 when the interviewer asked him "nine years after the speech, are we still in your view on a kind of funeral pyre?:
Yes, I 've been guilty I suppose of, I 've said this before, of under - estimating rather than over-estimating. And I was just looking back at the figures that I was then talking about in 1968 for the end of the century. Do you know my estimates which were regarded with such ridicule and denounced, behold the academics forgive me, they are less than the official estimate which the Franks reported at the beginning of this year are thought. So upon the whole I have leaned, perhaps it 's a fault, towards the under - estimation of the magnitude and of the danger.
And then asked him "what do you see as the likely prospect now? Still the "River Tiber foaming with blood ''?:
My prospect is that, politicians of all parties will say "Well Enoch Powell is right, we do n't say that in public but we know it in private, Enoch Powell is right and it will no doubt develop as he says. But it 's better for us to do nothing now, and let it happen perhaps after our time, than to seize the many poisonous nettles which we would have to seize if we were at this stage going to attempt to avert the outcome. '' So let it go on until a third of Central London, a third of Birmingham, Wolverhampton, are coloured, until the Civil War comes, let it go on. We wo n't be blamed, we 'll either have gone or we 'll slip out from under somehow.
Powell was mentioned in early versions of the song "Get Back '' by the Beatles.
On 5 August 1976, Eric Clapton provoked an uproar and lingering controversy when he spoke out against increasing immigration during a concert in Birmingham. Visibly intoxicated, Clapton voiced his support of the controversial speech, and announced on stage that Britain was in danger of becoming a "black colony ''. Among other things, Clapton said "Keep Britain white! '' which was at the time a National Front (NF) slogan.
In November 2010, the actor and comedian Sanjeev Bhaskar recalled the fear which the speech instilled in Britons of Indian origin: "At the end of the 1960s, Enoch Powell was quite a frightening figure to us. He was the one person who represented an enforced ticket out, so we always had suitcases that were ready and packed. My parents held the notion that we may have to leave. ''
Whilst a section of the white population appeared to warm to Powell over the speech, the author Mike Phillips recalls that it legitimised hostility, and even violence, towards black Britons like himself.
In his book The British Dream (2013), David Goodhart claims that Powell 's speech in effect "put back by more than a generation a robust debate about the successes and failures of immigration ''.
After Powell delivered the speech, there were attempts to locate the Wolverhampton constituent whom Powell described as being victimised by non-white residents. Despite combing the electoral register and other sources, the editor of the local Wolverhampton newspaper the Express & Star, Clem Jones (a close friend of Powell who broke off relations with him over the controversy) failed to identify the woman.
Shortly after Powell 's death, Kenneth Nock, a Wolverhampton solicitor, wrote to the Express and Star in April 1998 to claim that his firm had acted for the woman in question, but that he could not name her owing to rules concerning client confidentiality. In January 2007, the BBC Radio Four programme Document, followed by the Daily Mail, claimed to have uncovered the woman 's identity. They said she was Druscilla Cotterill (1907 -- 1978), the widow of Harry Cotterill, a battery quartermaster sergeant with the Royal Artillery who had been killed in World War II. (She was also the second cousin of Mark Cotterill, a figure in British far - right politics). She lived in Brighton Place in Wolverhampton, which by the 1960s was dominated by immigrant families. In order to increase her income, she rented rooms to lodgers, but did not wish to rent rooms to West Indians and stopped taking in any lodgers when the Race Relations Act 1968 banned racial discrimination in housing. She locked up the spare rooms and lived only in two rooms of the house. According to those who remember the period, the many children in the street regarded her as a figure of fun and taunted her.
In the United Kingdom, particularly in England, "Enoch (Powell) was right '' is a phrase of political rhetoric, inviting comparison of aspects of contemporary English society with the predictions made by Powell in the "Rivers of Blood '' speech. The phrase implies criticism of racial quotas, immigration and multiculturalism. Badges, T - shirts and other items bearing the slogan have been produced at different times in the United Kingdom. Powell gained support from both right - wing and traditionally left - leaning, working - class voters for his anti-immigration stance.
Powell gained the support of the far - right in Britain. Badges, T - shirts and fridge magnets emblazoned with the slogan "Enoch was right '' are regularly seen at far - right demonstrations, according to VICE News, and sample recordings of Powell speeches feature heavily in the music of the neo-Nazi hardcore band Of Wolves and Angels. Powell also has a presence on social media, with an Enoch Powell page on Facebook run by the far - right Traditional Britain Group amassed several thousands of likes, and similar pages which post "racist memes and Daily Mail stories '' have been equally successful, such as British nationalist and anti-immigration Britain First 's Facebook page.
In The Trial of Enoch Powell, a Channel 4 television broadcast in April 1998, on the thirtieth anniversary of his Rivers of Blood speech (and two months after his death), 64 % of the studio audience voted that Powell was not a racist. Some in the Church of England, of which Powell had been a member, took a different view. Upon Powell 's death, Barbados - born Wilfred Wood, then Bishop of Croydon, stated, "Enoch Powell gave a certificate of respectability to white racist views which otherwise decent people were ashamed to acknowledge ''.
In March 2016, German writer Michael Stürmer wrote a retrospective pro-Powell piece in Die Welt, opining that nobody else had been "punished so mercilessly '' by fellow party members and media for their viewpoints.
In an interview for Today shortly after her departure from office as Prime Minister in 1990, Margaret Thatcher said that Powell had "made a valid argument, if in sometimes regrettable terms. ''
Thirty years after the speech, Edward Heath said that Powell 's remarks on the "economic burden of immigration '' had been "not without prescience. ''
The Labour Party MP Michael Foot remarked to a reporter that it was "tragic '' that this "outstanding personality '' had been widely misunderstood as predicting actual bloodshed in Britain, when in fact he had used the Aeneid quotation merely to communicate his own sense of foreboding.
In November 2007, Nigel Hastilow resigned as Conservative candidate for Halesowen and Rowley Regis after he wrote an article in the Wolverhampton Express & Star that included the statement: "Enoch, once MP for Wolverhampton South - West, was sacked from the Conservative front bench and marginalised politically for his 1968 ' Rivers of Blood ' speech, warning that uncontrolled immigration would change Britain irrevocably. He was right and immigration has changed the face of Britain dramatically ''.
In January 2014, UK Independence Party leader Nigel Farage stated that "the basic principle '' of one passage of the speech which had been read to him was "right ''. In June of that year, in response to an Islamist plot to infiltrate schools in Birmingham, Conservative peer and former minister Norman Tebbit wrote in The Daily Telegraph "No one should have been surprised at what was going on in schools in Birmingham. It is precisely what I was talking about over 20 years ago and Enoch Powell was warning against long before that. We have imported far too many immigrants who have come here not to live in our society, but to replicate here the society of their homelands ''. Conservative MP Gerald Howarth said on the same issue "Clearly, the arrival of so many people of non-Christian faith has presented a challenge, as so many of us, including the late Enoch Powell, warned decades ago ''.
The speech is the subject of a play, What Shadows, written by Chris Hannan. The play was staged in Birmingham from 27 October to 12 November 2016, with Powell portrayed by Ian McDiarmid and Clem Jones by George Costigan.
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what does the murderer call macduff's son | Macduff 's son - wikipedia
Macduff 's son is a character in William Shakespeare 's tragedy Macbeth (1606). His name and age are not established in the text, however he is estimated to be 7 -- 10 years of age, and is often named as Andrew, for ease. He follows Shakespeare 's typical child character; cute and clever. While Lady Macduff and her children are mentioned in Holinshed 's Chronicles as the innocent victims of Macbeth 's cruelty, Shakespeare is completely responsible for developing Macduff 's son as a character.
The boy appears in only one scene (4.2), in which he briefly banters with his mother and is then murdered by Macbeth 's thugs. The scene 's purpose is twofold: it provides Shakespeare 's audience with a thrillingly horrific moment, and it underscores the depravity into which Macbeth has fallen. The brutal scene has often been cut in modern performance.
Andrew is viewed as a symbol of the youthful innocence Macbeth hates and fears, and the scene has been compared by one critic to the biblical Massacre of the Innocents. He is described as an "egg '' by his murderer, further emphasising on his youth before his imminent death.
In 4.2, Lady Macduff bewails her husband 's desertion of home and family, then falsely tells her son that his father is dead. The boy does not believe her and says that if his father were really dead, she 'd cry for him, and if she did n't then it would "be a good sign that I should quickly have a new father. '' Macbeth 's henchmen arrive, and, when they declare Macduff a traitor, the boy leaps forward to defend his absent father. One of the henchmen stabs the boy who cries to his mother as he dies, "Run away, I pray you! ''. This highlights the loyalty, affection and love which make up this character.
The on - stage slaughter of Macduff 's son was often cut in 19th century performances on the grounds of taste. The child was carried off - stage, and the murder left to the spectators ' imaginations. Very often, the entire scene was cut, not only on the grounds of taste, but, in an age of elaborate scenery and lengthy scene shifting, on time constraints and production costs in mounting a superfluous scene verbally summarised to good effect almost immediately in 4.3.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge commented:
This scene, dreadful as it is, is still a relief, because a variety, because domestic, and therefore soothing, as associated with the only real pleasures of life. The conversation between Lady Macduff and her child heightens the pathos, and is preparatory for the deep tragedy of their assassination. Shakspeare 's fondness for children is every where shown; -- in Prince Arthur, in King John; in the sweet scene in the Winter 's Tale between Hermione and her son; nay, even in honest Evans 's examination of Mrs. Page 's schoolboy. To the objection that Shakspeare wounds the moral sense by the unsubdued, undisguised description of the most hateful atrocity -- that he tears the feelings without mercy, and even outrages the eye itself with scenes of insupportable horror -- I, omitting Titus Andronicus, as not genuine, and excepting the scene of Gloster 's blinding in Lear, answer boldly in the name of Shakspeare, not guilty.
The murderer cries as he stabs the boy, "What, you egg!... Young fry of treachery! '' This hints at the reason Macbeth is so eager to have him killed. Macbeth, seeing that, as the Three Witches foretold, he is destined to be a King with no offspring to inherit the throne, is determined to kill the offspring of others, including Fleance and Macduff 's son.
The tension that exists between Fleance, Macduff 's son, and Macbeth would be made stronger by the existence of a child of Macbeth, should he be portrayed as having one -- whether his own natural son, or adopted. As Lady Macbeth says "I have given suck, and know / How tender ' tis to love the babe that milks me ''. Seeing Macbeth in a fatherly perspective produces a combination of both tender and ambitious fatherliness in him. All that Macbeth does to others ' sons in the play, then, is for his own heir. (Lady Macbeth, at least, has had a child, but no actual son of Macbeth is mentioned in the play -- the "babe '' may have been a girl, or died young, or -- more likely -- been a reference to his historical stepson Lulach, from Lady Macbeth 's previous marriage, Macbeth 's heir but not his own son.) Some productions show this tenderness by having Macbeth frequently pat Fleance on the head, or attempt to do so, but be denied it when Fleance withdraws to his father. This rivalry between groups of fathers and sons (Banquo and Fleance, Macduff and his son, Macbeth and his lack of a son) is seen as an important theme of the play.
One scholar views the scene as parallel to the Massacre of the Innocents, in which Herod had the children of Bethlehem killed to protect his throne. The boy 's innocent image is strengthened by his mother calling him "poor monkey '' and a "prattler ''.
Throughout the play, Macbeth is concerned with controlling the future. Since children are symbolic of the future, they represent his biggest threat. Macduff 's son, in his bold denunciation of the murderers, is a strong symbol of the danger Macbeth faces. Paradoxically, the more Macbeth tries to rid himself of the human emotions (compassion, love) that lead to children, the less capable he is of meeting this threat and controlling his future.
Orson Welles ' daughter, Christopher, played the role of Macduff 's son in her father 's controversial 1948 film adaptation of the play.
In PBS 's Great Performances Series ' TV movie of Macbeth with Patrick Stewart as Macbeth set in a nameless 20th - century militaristic society, Macduff 's son is played by Hugo Docking.
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george michael do you really want to hurt me | Do You Really Want to Hurt Me - wikipedia
"Do You Really Want to Hurt Me '' is a song written and recorded by the British new wave band Culture Club. Released as a single in September 1982 from the group 's platinum - selling debut album Kissing to Be Clever, it was the band 's first UK # 1 hit. In the United States, the single was released in November 1982 and also became a huge hit, reaching # 2 for three weeks.
"Do You Really Want to Hurt Me '' was the third single released in Europe by Culture Club and their debut release in the United States and Canada. The song was picked up by BBC Radio 2 and became a UK # 1 single for three weeks in October 1982. The song entered the American Pop chart the week ending December 4, 1982. It hit # 1 in Cash Box magazine and held at # 2 for three weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in March and April 1983 (kept from the # 1 spot by the massive success of Michael Jackson 's "Billie Jean ''). The single achieved sales of 900,000 US copies and also hit # 1 in Canada. It was also number one in Australia.
This was Culture Club 's first success, after their first two releases, "White Boy '' and "I 'm Afraid of Me '' charted in the UK at # 114 and # 100 respectively. According to Boy George, it was their last chance to get an album deal.
The song rose rapidly in the UK charts after the group 's first appearance on Top of the Pops, which resulted in George 's androgynous style of dress and sexual ambiguity making newspaper headlines. The group were only asked to appear on Top of the Pops the night before the show, after Shakin ' Stevens pulled out.
In a retrospective review, Allmusic journalist Jose F. Promis described "Do You Really Want to Hurt Me '' as "a simple masterpiece, resonating with an ache that harked back to the classic torch songs of yesteryear. ''
In 2007, Boy George said that the song was "not just about Culture Club 's drummer Jon Moss, my boyfriend at the time. It was about all the guys I dated at that time in my life. ''
The B - side was a dub version featuring Pappa Weasel in many countries and "You Know I 'm Not Crazy '' on the US release. On the 12 '' version of the record, the track "Love Is Cold (You Were Never No Good) '' was also included.
The song was remixed by DJs Quivver and Kinky Roland in 1998 for a Culture Club compilation called Greatest Moments and the single "I Just Wanna Be Loved ''. It was also remixed and presented on Culture Club 's 2002 box set along with the original demo version.
Re-released as a reggaeton remix in France, it was again a top 20 hit in the summer of 2005.
The video for the song, directed by Julien Temple, featured lead singer Boy George on trial in a courtroom, with flashbacks to a 1936 nightclub and a 1957 health club. The jury was in blackface making jazz hands gestures. One band member, Mikey Craig, was not in the video, and was replaced by his brother Greg.
Boy George wears a shirt with the Hebrew writing "Tarbut Agudda '' (תַּרְבּוּת אֲגֻדָּה), a literal translation of the individual words "culture '' and "association '' in a grammatically incorrect order.
A. "Do You Really Want to Hurt Me '' -- 4: 22 B. "Do You Really Want to Hurt Me '' (Dub Version) -- 3: 38 (Released at least in UK, Canada, Australia, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Portugal, Spain, Sweden) A. "Do You Really Want to Hurt Me '' -- 4: 23 B. "You Know I 'm Not Crazy '' -- 3: 35 (Released in USA, Mexico)
A1. "Do You Really Want to Hurt Me '' -- 4: 22 A2. "Do You Really Want to Hurt Me '' (Dub Version) -- 3: 38 B1. "Love Is Cold '' (non-album track) -- 4: 23 (Released at least in UK, Canada (different cover), USA, Australia, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands (different cover), Spain)
(Released as a remix version in France, to promote the compilation album Culture Club 2005 - Singles & Remixes, with new video)
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
The song was covered in 2005 by German band Blue Lagoon on its album Club Lagoon and became a hit in Europe.
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who was coyote and what was his role | Coyote (mythology) - wikipedia
Coyote is a mythological character common to many cultures of the indigenous peoples of North America, based on the coyote (Canis latrans) animal. This character is usually male and is generally anthropomorphic although he may have some coyote - like physical features such as fur, pointed ears, yellow eyes, a tail and claws. The myths and legends which include Coyote vary widely from culture to culture.
Coyote shares many traits with the mythological figure Raven. Coyote also is seen as inspiration to certain tribes.
The word "coyote '' was originally a Spanish corruption of the Nahuatl (Aztec) word for the animal, coyotl. Coyote mythlore is one of the most popular among Native American people.
Coyote has been compared to both the Scandinavian Loki, and also Prometheus, who shared with Coyote the trick of having stolen fire from the gods as a gift for mankind, and Anansi, a mythological culture hero from Western African mythology. In Eurasia, rather than a coyote, a fox is often featured as a trickster hero, ranging from kitsune (fox) tales in Japan to the Reynard cycle in Western Europe.
Claude Lévi - Strauss, French anthropologist proposed a structuralist theory that suggests that Coyote and Crow obtained mythic status because they are mediator animals between life and death.
Coyote is a figure in the following cultural areas of the Americas, as commonly defined by ethnographers:
Coyote is featured in the culture of the following groups who live in the area covered by the state of California: the Karuk, the Tongva of Southern California, the Ohlone mythology of Northern California, the Miwok mythology of Northern California, and the Pomo mythology of Northern California.
A creation myth of the Maidu of Northern California recounts that as the Creator God was fashioning various creatures out of clay, Coyote tried to do the same. But as he kept laughing, his efforts did not turn out well. Creator God told him that if he stopped laughing, he might do better. Coyote denied laughing. Thus, the first lie was told.
Coyote is seen in the cultural heritage of these people of the Great Plains area: the Ho - Chunk mythology (Ho - Chunk, Winnebago), and the Menominee. According to Crow tradition, Old Man Coyote impersonates the Creator.
Myths and stories of Coyote are also found in the cultures of the Plateau area: the Chinookan (including the Wishram people and the Multnomah), the Flathead, the Nez Perce, the Nlaka'pamux, the Syilx (Okanagan), the St'at'imc, the Tsilhqot'in, and the Yakama.
Coyote also appears in the traditions of the Tohono O'odham people of Arizona, as an associate of the culture - hero Montezuma.
He also appears in a legend of the White Mountain Apache, "Coyote fights a lump of pitch '' (a variant of the Tar - Baby theme), and in similar legends of the Zapotec and Popoluca of Mexico.
Coyote figures prominently in current efforts to educate young people about indigenous languages and cultures in North America. For example, the Secwepemc people of the Kamloops Indian Band in Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada, have designated their recently opened native elementary school the Sk'elep (Coyote) School of Excellence, while educational websites such as one co-sponsored by the Neskonlith Indian Band of Chase, British Columbia prominently feature stories about Sk'elep. the Mobooks include two collections of contemporary Coyote tales, Elderberry Flute Song and The Other Side of Nowhere, which place Coyote in a number of different hawk Nation.
Coyote also features as a character in the webcomic Gunnerkrigg Court, written by Tom Siddel, where he is portrayed with his trickster characteristics in full force and his status as a god and the implications not left forgotten. Coyote is also an important character in C. Robert Cargill 's Dreams and Shadows series, playing a focal role in the manipulation of the storyline. He is presented as a manitou.
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