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when was the first home pregnancy test invented | Pregnancy test - wikipedia
A pregnancy test attempts to determine whether a woman is pregnant. Markers that indicate are found in urine and blood, and pregnancy tests require sampling one of these substances. The first of these markers to be discovered, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), was discovered in 1930 to be produced by the syncytiotrophoblast cells of the fertilised ova (eggs). While hCG is a reliable marker of pregnancy, it can not be detected until after implantation: this results in false negatives if the test is performed during the very early stages of pregnancy. HCG can be detected via blood 8 days after fertilization of the egg, and in the urine 10 days after. Obstetric ultrasonography may also be used to detect pregnancy. Obstetric ultrasonography was first practiced in the 1960s; the first home test kit for hCG was invented in 1968. The kits went on the market in the United States and Europe in the mid-1970s.
The test for pregnancy which can give the quickest result after fertilisation is a rosette inhibition assay for early pregnancy factor (EPF). EPF can be detected in blood within 48 hours of fertilization. However, testing for EPF is expensive and time - consuming.
Most chemical tests for pregnancy look for the presence of the beta subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the blood or urine. hCG can be detected in urine or blood after implantation, which occurs six to twelve days after fertilization. Quantitative blood (serum beta) tests can detect hCG levels as low as 1 mIU / mL, while urine test strips have published detection thresholds of 10 mIU / mL to 100 mIU / mL, depending on the brand. Qualitative blood tests generally have a threshold of 25 mIU / mL, and so are less sensitive than some available home pregnancy tests. Most home pregnancy tests are based on lateral - flow technology.
With obstetric ultrasonography the gestational sac sometimes can be visualized as early as four and a half weeks of gestation (approximately two and a half weeks after ovulation) and the yolk sac at about five weeks ' gestation. The embryo can be observed and measured by about five and a half weeks. The heartbeat may be seen as early as six weeks, and is usually visible by seven weeks ' gestation.
A systematic review published in 1998 showed that home pregnancy test kits, when used by experienced technicians, are almost as accurate as professional laboratory testing (97.4 %). When used by consumers, however, the accuracy fell to 75 %: the review authors noted that many users misunderstood or failed to follow the instructions included in the kits. Improper usage may cause both false negatives and false positives.
False negative readings can occur when testing is done too early. Quantitative blood tests and the most sensitive urine tests usually begin to detect hCG shortly after implantation, which can occur anywhere from 6 to 12 days after ovulation. hCG levels continue to rise through the first 20 weeks of pregnancy, so the chances of false negative test results diminish with time (gestation age). Less sensitive urine tests and qualitative blood tests may not detect pregnancy until three or four days after implantation. Menstruation occurs on average 14 days after ovulation, so the likelihood of a false negative is low once a menstrual period is late.
Ovulation may not occur at a predictable time in the menstrual cycle, however. A number of factors may cause an unexpectedly early or late ovulation, even for women with a history of regular menstrual cycles. Using ovulation predictor kits (OPKs), or charting the fertility signs of cervical mucus or basal body temperature give a more accurate idea of when to test than day - counting alone.
The accuracy of a pregnancy test is most closely related to the day of ovulation, not of the act of intercourse or insemination that caused the pregnancy. It is normal for sperm to live up to five days in the fallopian tubes, waiting for ovulation to occur. It could take up to 12 further days for implantation to occur, meaning even the most sensitive pregnancy tests may give false negatives up to 17 days after the act that caused the pregnancy. Because some home pregnancy tests have high hCG detection thresholds (up to 100 mIU / mL), it may take an additional three or four days for hCG to rise to levels detectable by these tests -- meaning false negatives may occur up to three weeks after the act of intercourse or insemination that causes pregnancy.
False positive test results may occur for several reasons, including errors of test application, use of drugs containing the hCG molecule, and non-pregnant production of the hCG molecule. Urine tests can be falsely positive in those that are taking the medications: chlorpromazine, phenothiazines and methadone among others.
Spurious evaporation lines may appear on many home pregnancy tests if read after the suggested 3 -- 5 minute window or reaction time, independent of an actual pregnancy. False positives may also appear on tests used past their expiration date.
A woman who has been given an hCG injection as part of infertility treatment will test positive on pregnancy tests that assay hCG, regardless of her actual pregnancy status. However, some infertility drugs (e.g., clomid) do not contain the hCG hormone.
Some diseases of the liver, cancers, and other medical conditions may produce elevated hCG and thus cause a false positive pregnancy test. These include choriocarcinoma and other germ cell tumors, IgA deficiencies, heterophile antibodies, enterocystoplasties, gestational trophoblastic diseases (GTD), and gestational trophoblastic neoplasms.
Pregnancy tests may be used to determine the viability of a pregnancy. Serial quantitative blood tests may be done, usually 3 -- 4 days apart. Below an hCG level of 1,200 mIU / ml the hCG usually doubles every 48 -- 72 hours, though a rise of 50 -- 60 % is still considered normal. Between 1,200 and 6,000 mIU / ml serum the hCG usually takes 72 -- 90 hours to double, and above 6,000 mIU / ml, the hCG often takes more than four days to double. Failure to increase normally may indicate an increased risk of miscarriage or a possible ectopic pregnancy.
Ultrasound is also a common tool for determining viability. A lower than expected heart rate or missed development milestones may indicate a problem with the pregnancy. Diagnosis should not be made from a single ultrasound, however. Inaccurate estimations of fetal age and inaccuracies inherent in ultrasonic examination may cause a scan to be interpreted negatively. If results from the first ultrasound scan indicate a problem, repeating the scan 7 -- 10 days later is reasonable practice.
Records of attempts at pregnancy testing have been found as far back as the ancient Greek and ancient Egyptian cultures. The ancient Egyptians watered bags of wheat and barley with the urine of a possibly pregnant woman. Germination indicated pregnancy. The type of grain that sprouted was taken as an indicator of the fetus 's sex. Hippocrates suggested that a woman who had missed her period should drink a solution of honey in water at bedtime: resulting abdominal distention and cramps would indicate the presence of a pregnancy. Avicenna and many physicians after him in the Middle Ages performed uroscopy, a nonscientific method to evaluate urine.
Selmar Aschheim and Bernhard Zondek introduced testing based on the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in 1928. Early studies of hCG had concluded that it was produced by the pituitary gland. In the 1930s, Georgeanna Jones discovered that hCG was produced not by the pituitary gland, but by the placenta. This discovery was important in relying on hCG as an early marker of pregnancy. In the Aschheim and Zondek test, an infantile female mouse was injected subcutaneously with urine of the person to be tested, and the mouse later was killed and dissected. Presence of ovulation indicated that the urine contained hCG and meant that the person was pregnant. A similar test was developed using immature rabbits. Here, too, killing the animal to check her ovaries was necessary. An improvement arrived with the frog test, introduced by Lancelot Hogben, which still was used in the 1950s and allowed the frog to remain alive and be used repeatedly: a female frog was injected with serum or urine of the patient; if the frog produced eggs within the next 24 hours, the test was positive. This was called the Bufo test, named after the toad genus Bufo, which was originally used for the test. Other species of toads and frogs have been used later on.
Hormonal pregnancy tests such as Primodos and Duogynon were used in the 1960s and 1970s in the UK and Germany. These tests involved taking a dosed amount of hormones, and observing the response a few days later. A pregnant woman does not react, as she is producing the hormones in pregnancy; a woman not pregnant responds to the absence of the hormone by beginning a new menstrual cycle. While the test was (is) generally considered accurate, research advancements have replaced it with simpler techniques.
Immunologic pregnancy tests were introduced in 1960 when Wide and Gemzell presented a test based on in - vitro hemagglutination inhibition. This was a first step away from in - vivo pregnancy testing and initiated a series of improvements in pregnancy testing leading to the contemporary at - home testing. Direct measurement of antigens, such as hCG, was made possible after the invention of the radioimmunoassay in 1959. Radioimmunoassays require sophisticated apparatus and special radiation precautions and are expensive.
Organon International obtained the first patent on a home pregnancy test in 1969, two years after product designer Margaret Crane noticed that the laboratory testing procedure was relatively simple and made a prototype. The product became available in Canada in 1971, and the United States in 1977, after delays caused by concerns over sexual morality and the ability of women to perform test and cope with the results without a doctor.
Another home pregnancy testing kit was based on the work of Judith Vaitukaitis and Glenn Braunstein, who developed a sensitive hCG assay at the National Institutes of Health. That test went onto the market in 1978. In the 1970s, the discovery of monoclonal antibodies led to the development of the relatively simple and cheap immunoassays, such as agglutination - inhibition - based assays and sandwich ELISA, used in modern home pregnancy tests. Tests are now so cheap that they can be massed produced in a general publication and used for advertising.
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when was the last time a english team won the champions league | List of European Cup and UEFA Champions League finals - wikipedia
The UEFA Champions League is a seasonal association football competition established in 1955. The UEFA Champions League is open to the league champions of all UEFA (Union of European Football Associations) member associations (except Liechtenstein, which has no league competition), as well as to the clubs finishing from second to fourth position in the strongest leagues. Prior to the 1992 -- 93 season, the tournament was named the European Cup. Originally, only the champions of their respective national league and the defending champion of the competition were allowed to participate. However, this was changed in 1997 to allow the runners - up of the stronger leagues to compete as well. The defending champion of the competition did not automatically qualify until the rules were changed in 2005 to allow title holders Liverpool to enter the competition.
Teams that have won the UEFA Champions League three times in a row, or five times overall, receive a multiple - winner badge. Six teams have earned this privilege: Real Madrid, Ajax, Bayern Munich, Milan, Liverpool and Barcelona. Until 2009, clubs that had earned that badge were allowed to keep the European Champion Clubs ' Cup and a new one was commissioned; since 2009, the winning team each year has received a full - size replica of the trophy, while the original is retained by UEFA.
A total of 22 clubs have won the Champions League / European Cup. Real Madrid hold the record for the most victories, having won the competition 12 times, including the inaugural competition. They have also won the competition the most times in a row, winning it five times from 1956 to 1960. Juventus have been runners - up the most times, losing seven finals. Atlético Madrid is the only team to reach three finals without having won the trophy while Stade de Reims and Valencia have finished as runners - up twice without winning. Spain has provided the most champions, with 17 wins from two clubs. Italy have produced 12 winners from three clubs and England have produced 12 winners from five clubs. English teams were banned from the competition for five years following the Heysel disaster in 1985. The current champions are Real Madrid, who beat Juventus in the 2017 final.
* Club has won all three major UEFA competitions
A. The first final, played two days earlier, ended 1 -- 1 after extra time.
B. Score was 1 -- 1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Liverpool won the penalty shoot - out 4 -- 2.
C. Score was 0 -- 0 after 90 minutes and extra time. Steaua București won the penalty shoot - out 2 -- 0.
D. Score was 0 -- 0 after 90 minutes and extra time. PSV Eindhoven won the penalty shoot - out 6 -- 5.
E. Score was 0 -- 0 after 90 minutes and extra time. Red Star Belgrade won the penalty shoot - out 5 -- 3.
F. Score was 1 -- 1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Juventus won the penalty shoot - out 4 -- 2.
G. Score was 1 -- 1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Bayern Munich won the penalty shoot - out 5 -- 4.
H. Score was 0 -- 0 after 90 minutes and extra time. Milan won the penalty shoot - out 3 -- 2.
I. Score was 3 -- 3 after 90 minutes and extra time. Liverpool won the penalty shoot - out 3 -- 2.
J. Score was 1 -- 1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Manchester United won the penalty shoot - out 6 -- 5.
K. Score was 1 -- 1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Chelsea won the penalty shoot - out 4 -- 3.
L. Score was 1 -- 1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Real Madrid won the penalty shoot - out 5 -- 3.
General
Specific
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was tron the first movie to use cgi | Timeline of computer animation in film and television - wikipedia
This is a chronological list of films and television programs that have been recognised as being pioneering in their use of computer animation.
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mit sloan fellows program in innovation and global leadership | Sloan Fellows - wikipedia
The Sloan Fellows program is the world 's first mid-career master 's degree in general management and leadership initially supported by a grant from Alfred P. Sloan, the late CEO of General Motors, to his alma mater, MIT. The program was established in 1930. later, it was expanded to other leading two business schools of the Stanford Graduate School of Business, and the London Business School (LBS). Considered to be the most prestigious management training program, it targets experienced managers who have demonstrated success either within organizations or independently as entrepreneurs.
The Sloan Fellows Program was created at the MIT Sloan School of Management in 1930, by Alfred P. Sloan, Chairman of General Motors from 1937 to 1956, who envisioned the Sloan Fellowship as a means of developing the "ideal manager ''. The Sloan Fellows Program is the world 's first management and leadership education program for mid-career experienced managers.
In the following decades, the program was expanded to include the Sloan Master 's at Stanford Graduate School of Business (1957) and the Sloan Master 's at London Business School (1968). In 2013 Stanford changed the name of its Sloan Fellows Program to Stanford MSx (Master of Science in Management for Experienced Leaders), though participants in the program remain Stanford Sloan Fellows.
Sloan Fellows comprise a mix of company - and self - sponsored candidates. On all three schools, a significant degree of experience is required for admission. This is in keeping with Alfred P. Sloan 's conviction that experienced managers would benefit best from the program. Alumni describe the program as "transformational '', in keeping with the original vision of preparing successful managers for senior business leadership positions.
The Sloan Fellows program runs full - time over the course of 12 -- 14 months, depending on electives. London Business School and MIT Sloan offer an optional research project / thesis.
The program recognizes the importance of developing leadership as well as management competency in Sloan Fellows. As such, in addition to the standard MBA curriculum of management courses, the Sloan program contains a strong personal - development component designed to develop the leadership and strategic thinking capabilities of Sloan Fellows.
Admission to Sloan Fellow Program is highly selective and goes through several steps of selection. In MIT Sloan School of Management, the prospective applicant needs to first register interest in the program website and upload resume. After initial screening, a member of the admission committee calls the screened registered applicant for 30 minutes discussion. Number of screened and interviewed by telephone prospective applicants will be invited to visit the program in Cambridge, Massachusetts for class visit, sit with current students and meet the program officers. After this stage, the applicant to submit a formal application. The received applications are again screened and the selected files will be moved to the interview stage. The invited candidates will have to participate in a formal admission interview, usually held in MIT Sloan campus, or globally in selected places. Following the interview, the decisions letters of admission or rejection will be sent to the applicants. this process is repeated three times for three rounds of application deadlines.
The table below shows the main differences between the Sloan Fellows program and the traditional top MBA programs.
Although the program in any of the three schools are very similar in nature, there are some key difference among them. The table below summarizes the differences:
Sloan Fellows at MIT Sloan may opt for an MBA, Masters of Science in Management, or Masters of Science in Management of Technology. Sloan Fellows at London Business School and Stanford Graduate School of Business are both awarded a Master of Science degree.
Notable Sloan Fellows of the MIT Sloan School of Management include:
Notable Stanford MSx (Sloan Fellows) alumni include:
Notable London Business School (Sloan Fellows) alumni include:
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prize money for mixed doubles at us open | 2017 US Open (tennis) - wikipedia
The 2017 US Open was the 137th edition of tennis ' US Open and the fourth and final Grand Slam event of the year. It was held on outdoor hard courts at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in New York City. Experimental rules featured in qualifying for the main draw as well as in the junior, wheelchair and exhibition events.
Stan Wawrinka and Angelique Kerber were the previous year 's men 's and women 's singles champions. Neither managed to defend their title as Wawrinka withdrew before the start of the tournament due to a knee injury that ended his season, while Kerber lost in the first round to Naomi Osaka.
The men 's singles tournament concluded with Rafael Nadal defeating Kevin Anderson in the final, while the women 's singles tournament concluded with Sloane Stephens defeating Madison Keys in the final.
The 2017 US Open was the 137th edition of the tournament and took place at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows -- Corona Park of Queens in New York City, New York, United States. The tournament was held on 14 DecoTurf hard courts.
The tournament was an event run by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and was part of the 2017 ATP World Tour and the 2017 WTA Tour calendars under the Grand Slam category. The tournament consisted of both men 's and women 's singles and doubles draws as well as a mixed doubles event. There were also singles and doubles events for both boys and girls (players under 18), which were part of the Grade A category of tournaments.
The 2017 tournament saw the USTA try out two experimental rules. Firstly, the USTA introduced a shot clock to combat slow play and to address players going over the allotted time for warm ups and medical time outs. Secondly, coaching was allowed from the side of the court. Whilst a player was at the same end as their box they could verbally communicate, if they were at the opposite end then sign language would be allowed. This meant that coaching incidents involving Victoria Azarenka and Caroline Garcia at Wimbledon would have been allowed. The rules only applied in qualifying matches for the main draw, junior, wheelchair and legends matches.
The tournament was played on hard courts and took place over a series of 15 courts with DecoTurf surface, including the two existing main showcourts -- Arthur Ashe Stadium and the new Grandstand. Louis Armstrong Stadium, one of the main stadiums used in the previous tournament, was demolished after the 2016 tournament and was replaced for the 2017 edition by a temporary stadium located next to parking lot B near the construction of the previous Louis Armstrong Stadium site.
In the United States, the 2017 US Open will be the third year in a row under an 11 - year, $825 million contract with ESPN, in which the broadcaster holds exclusive rights to the entire tournament and the US Open Series. This means that the tournament is not available on broadcast television. This also makes ESPN the exclusive U.S. broadcaster for three of the four tennis majors. In Australia, SBS won the rights to broadcast the US Open with the free to air coverage starting from the quarter finals..
Below is a series of tables for each of the competitions showing the ranking points on offer for each event.
The total prize - money compensation for the 2017 US Open is $50.4 million, a 3.7 % increase on the same total last year. Of that total, a record $3.7 million goes to both the men 's and women 's singles champions, which is increased to 7.5 percent from last year. This made the US Open the most lucrative and highest paying tennis grand slam in the world, leapfrogging Wimbledon in total prize money fund. Prize money for the US Open qualifying tournament is also up 49.2 percent, to $2.9 million.
Seeds are based on the ATP and WTA rankings as of August 21, 2017. Rank and points before are as of August 28, 2017.
Rankings as of August 21, 2017.
Rankings as of August 21, 2017.
Rankings as of August 21, 2017.
The following players were given wildcards to the main draw based on internal selection and recent performances.
The qualifying competitions took place at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center on 22 -- 25 August 2017.
The following players were accepted directly into the main tournament, but withdrew with injuries, suspensions or for personal reasons.
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what is the meaning of ardaas in punjabi | Ardās - wikipedia
The Ardās (Punjabi: ਅਰਦਾਸ) is a set prayer in Sikhism. It is a part of worship service in a Gurdwara (Sikh temple), daily rituals such as the opening the Guru Granth Sahib for prakash (morning light) or closing it for sukhasan (night bedroom) in larger Gurdwaras, closing of congregational worship in smaller Gurdwaras, rites - of - passages such as with the naming of child or the cremation of a loved one, daily prayer by devout Sikhs and any significant Sikh ceremonies.
An Ardas consists of three parts. The first part recites the virtues of the ten Gurus of Sikhism from Guru Nanak to Guru Gobind Singh, starting with lines from Chandi di Var from the Dasam Granth. The second part recites the trials and triumphs of the Khalsa and petition. The third salutes the divine name. The first and the third part are set and can not be changed, while the second part may vary, be shortened and include a supplication such as seeking divine help or blessing in dealing with daily problems, but is usually in agreed form. While it is sung, the audience or the Sikh devotee typically stands, with hands clasped in the folded namaste gesture, many with bowed headed, with some typically saying "Waheguru '' after certain sections.
Ardas is attributed to Guru Gobind Singh, the founder of the Khalsa and the 10th Guru of Sikhism.
The root of the word Ardas is related to the Sanskrit word ard (अर्द) which means "request, ask, beg ''. It is also related to the Persian word arzdasht which means a written "petition made by an inferior to a superior ''.
The Ardās is usually always done standing up with folded hands and is commonly preceded by the eighth stanza of the fourth ashtapadi of the bani Sukhmani, beginning Tu Thakur Tum Peh Ardaas. It consists of three parts:
The end of the Ardaas (Nanak Nam Chardi Kala, Tere Bhane Sarbat Da Bala, "O Nanak, may the Nam (Holy) be ever in ascendance! in Thy will may the good of all prevail! '') is also set and may not be altered or omitted.
The "Ardās '' of Sikhism was first composed by Guru Gobind Singh. He fixed the first eight lines and the last section, and these are considered unalterable in Sikhism. The second section has been fluid, revised extensively and particularly by Tat Khalsa in the 20th century. The Sikh Rahit Maryada has published an approved version of the entire Ardas.
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main reason for establishment of volta river project | Akosombo dam - wikipedia
The Akosombo Dam, also known as the Volta Dam, is a hydroelectric dam on the Volta River in southeastern Ghana in the Akosombo gorge and part of the Volta River Authority. The construction of the dam flooded part of the Volta River Basin, and led to the subsequent creation of Lake Volta. Lake Volta is the largest man - made lake in the world by surface area. It covers 8,502 square kilometres (3,283 sq mi), which is 3.6 % of Ghana 's land area. With a volume of 148 cubic kilometers Lake Volta is the world 's third largest man - made lake by volume, the largest being Lake Kariba which is located between Zimbabwe and Zambia in Southern Africa and contains 185 cubic kilometers of water.
The primary purpose of the Akosombo Dam was to provide electricity for the aluminium industry. The Akosombo Dam was called "the largest single investment in the economic development plans of Ghana. '' Its original electrical output was 912 megawatts (1,223,000 hp), which was upgraded to 1,020 megawatts (1,370,000 hp) in a retrofit project that was completed in 2006.
The flooding that created the Lake Volta reservoir displaced many people and had a significant impact on the environment.
The dam was conceived in 1915 by geologist Albert Ernest Kitson, but no plans were drawn until the 1940s. The development of the Volta River Basin was proposed in 1949, but because funds were insufficient, the American company Volta Aluminum Company (Valco) loaned money to Ghana so that the dam could be constructed. Kwame Nkrumah adopted the Volta River hydropower project.
The final proposal outlined the building of an aluminum smelter at Tema, a dam constructed at Akosombo to power the smelter, and a network of power lines installed through southern Ghana. The aluminum smelter was expected to eventually provide the revenue necessary for establishing local bauxite mining and refining, which would allow aluminum production without importing foreign alumina. Development of the aluminum industry within Ghana was dependent upon the proposed hydroelectric power. The proposed project 's aluminum smelter was overseen by the American company, Kaiser Aluminum, and is operated by Valco. The smelter received its financial investment from Valco shareholders, with the support of the Export - Import Bank of Washington, DC. However, Valco did not invest without first requiring insurances from Ghana 's government, such as company exemptions from taxes on trade and discounted purchases of electricity. The estimated total cost of the project, in its entirety, was estimated at $258 million.
In May 1960, the Ghana government called for tenders for construction of the hydroelectric dam. In 1961, an Italian consortium, Impregilo which had just completed the Kariba Dam, won the contract. They carried out the dredging of the river bed and dewatering of the channel, and completed the dam a month earlier than scheduled despite flooding of the Volta River in 1963 which delayed work over three months. Between 1961 and 1966, 28 workers of Impregilo died during the construction of the dam. Memorials in Akosombo township and St. Barbara Catholic Church have been put up in their honor.
In 1961, the Volta River Authority (VRA) was established by Ghana 's Parliament through the passage of the Volta River Development Act. The VRA 's fundamental operations were structured by six Board members and Kwame Nkrumah as chairman. The VRA 's primary task is to manage the development of the Volta River Basin, which included the construction and supervision of the dam, the power station and the power transmission network. The VRA is responsible for the reservoir impounded by the dam, the fishing within the lake, lake transportation and communication, and the welfare of those surrounding the lake.
The dam was built between 1961 and 1965. Its development was undertaken by the Ghanaian government and funded 25 % by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development of the World Bank, the United States, and the United Kingdom.
The construction of the Akosombo dam resulted in the flooding of part of the Volta River Basin and its upstream fields, and in the creation of Lake Volta which covers 3.6 % of Ghana 's total land area. Lake Volta was formed between 1962 and 1966, and necessitated the relocation of about 80,000 people, who represented 1 % of the population. People of 700 villages were relocated into 52 resettlement villages two years prior to the lake 's completion; the resettlement program was under the direction of the VRA. Two percent of the resettlement population were riparian fishers and most were subsistence farmers. The Eastern Region of Ghana and the populations incorporated within its districts, were most subject to the project 's effects.
In the beginning of 2007, concerns were expressed over the electricity supply from the dam due to low water levels in the Lake Volta reservoir. Some sources said this was due to problems with drought that are a consequence of global warming. During the latter half of 2007, much of this concern was abated when heavy rain fell in the catchment area of Volta River. In 2010, the highest - ever water level was recorded at the dam. This necessitated the opening of the flood gates at a reservoir elevation of 84.45 m (277 ft), and for several weeks, water was spilled from the lake, causing some flooding downstream.
The dam is 660 m (2,170 ft) long and 114 m (374 ft), comprising a high rock - fill embankment dam. It has a base width of 366 m (1,201 ft) and a structural volume of 7,900,000 m (10,300,000 cu yd). The reservoir created by the dam, Lake Volta, has a capacity of 148 km (120,000,000 acre ⋅ ft) and a surface area of 8,502 km (3,283 sq mi). The lake is 400 km (250 mi) long. Maximum lake level is 84.73 m (278.0 ft) and minimum is 73.15 m (240.0 ft). On the east side of the dam are two adjacent spillways that can discharge about 34,000 m / s (1,200,000 cu ft / s) of water. Each spillway contains six 11.5 - metre (38 ft) - wide and 13.7 - metre (45 ft) - tall steel floodgates.
The dam 's power plant contains six 170 - megawatt (230,000 hp) Francis turbines. Each turbine is supplied with water via a 112 -- 116 - metre (367 -- 381 ft) long and 7.2 - metre (24 ft) diameter penstock with a maximum of 68.8 m (226 ft) of hydraulic head afforded.
The dam provides electricity to Ghana and its neighboring West African countries, including Togo and Benin. Initially 20 % of Akosombo Dam 's electric output (serving 70 % of national demand) was provided to Ghanaians in the form of electricity, the remaining 80 % was generated for the American - owned Volta Aluminum Company (VALCO). The Ghana Government was compelled, by contract, to pay for over 50 % of the cost of Akosombo 's construction, but the country was allowed only 20 % of the power generated. Some commentators are concerned that this is an example of neocolonialism. In recent years the production from the VALCO plant has declined with the vast majority of additional capacity in Akosombo used to service growing domestic demand.
The Akosombo Dam benefited some industrial and economic activities from the addition of lake transportation, increased fishing, new farming activities along the shoreline, and tourism. The power generated has provided for primary interests within Ghana, while also supplying power to the neighboring countries of Togo and Benin. Ghana 's industrial and economic expansion triggered a higher demand for power, beyond the Akosombo 's power plant capabilities. By 1981, a smaller dam was built at the town of Kpong, downstream from Akosombo and further upgrades to Akosombo have become necessary for maintaining hydropower output. Initially, the dam 's power production capabilities greatly overreached the actual demand; while, the demand since the dam 's inception has resulted in the doubling of hydropower production. Increasing demands for power exceed what can be provided by the current infrastructure. Power demands, along with unforeseen environmental trends, have resulted in rolling blackouts and major power outages. An overall trend of lower lake levels has been observed, sometimes below the requirement for operation of the Akosombo Dam.
In the time following the construction of the dam at Akosombo, there has been a steady decline in agricultural productivity along the lake and the associated tributaries. The land surrounding Lake Volta is not nearly as fertile as the formerly cultivated land residing underneath the lake, and heavy agricultural activity has since exhausted the already inadequate soils. Downstream agricultural systems are losing soil fertility without the periodic floodings that brought nutrients to the soil before the natural river flow was halted by the dam. The growth of commercially intensive agriculture has produced a rise in fertilizer run - off into the river. This, along with run - off from nearby cattle stocks and sewage pollution, has caused eutrophication of the river waters. The nutrient enrichment, in combination with the low water movement, has allowed for the invasion of aquatic weeds (Ceratophyllum). These weeds have become a formidable challenge to water navigation and transportation.
The presence of aquatic weed along the lake and within the tributaries has resulted in even greater detriment to local human health. The weeds provide the necessary habitat for black - fly, mosquitoes and snails, which are the vectors of water - borne illnesses such as bilharzia, river blindness and malaria. Since the installment of the dam, these diseases have increased remarkably. In particular, resettlement villages have shown an increase in disease prevalence since the establishment of Lake Volta, and a village 's likelihood of infection corresponds to its proximity to the lake. Children and fishermen have been especially hard hit by this rise of disease prevalence. Additionally, the degradation of aquatic habitat has resulted in the decline of shrimp and clam populations. The physical health of local communities has been diminished from this loss of shellfish populations, as they provided an essential source of dietary protein. Likewise, the rural and industrial economies have experienced the financial losses associated with the decimation of river aquaculture.
The loss of land experienced by the 80,000 people forcibly relocated meant the loss of their primary economic activities from fishing and agriculture, loss of their homes, loss of their family grave sites, loss of community stability, and the eventual loss of important social values. The resettlement program demonstrated the social complexities involved in establishing "socially cohesive and integrated '' communities. Insufficient planning resulted in the relocation of communities into areas that were not capable of providing for their former livelihoods and traditions. The loss of the naturally fertile soils beneath Lake Volta essentially led to the loss of traditional farming practices. The poor living conditions provided within the resettlement villages has been demonstrated by population reductions since resettlement. One resettlement village in particular experienced a greater than 50 % population reduction in the 23 years following relocation. Increased economic risks and experiences of poverty are associated with those communities most impacted by the Volta River 's development. The extensive human migration and degradation of natural resources within the Volta - basin area, are the products of poverty in conjunction with population pressure.
Increased human migration within the area has been driven by poverty and unfavorable resettlement conditions. This migration enabled the contraction of HIV and has since led to its heightened prevalence within Volta Basin communities. The districts of Manya Krobo and Yilo Krobo, which lie within the southwest portion of the Volta Basin, are predominantly indigenous communities that have attained a disproportionate prevalence of HIV. The situation underlines the strength of the local factors upon these districts. Commercial sex work was established in response to the thousands of male workers that were in the area for building the dam. Ten percent of the child - bearing females from these two districts migrated out of their districts during this time. In 1986, "90 % of AIDS victims in Ghana were women, and 96 % of them had recently lived outside the country ''.
The Akosombo Dam and other dams of the Volta River Hydro Development Project increased substantially the conditions for the spread of schistosomiasis.
Reservoir - induced seismicity has been recorded due to the crustal re-adjustments from the added weight of the water within Lake Volta. There is an eastward shift of the river 's mouth from the changes to the river 's delta zone and this has led to continuing coastal erosion. The changes in the river hydrology have altered the local heat budget which has caused microclimatic changes such as decreasing rain and higher mean monthly temperatures. All of these larger scale environmental impacts will all further compound the problems surrounding disruptions to local economic activities and associated, difficult human welfare conditions. A case study by the International Federation of Surveyors has indicated that the dam has had a significant impact on the shoreline erosion of the barrier separating the Keta Lagoon from the sea. Dr. Isaac Boateng has calculated the reduction of fluvial sediment as being from 71 million m3 / a to as little as 7 million m3 / a.
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what is the term for the amount of time it takes 50 of an element to decay | Radioactive decay - wikipedia
Radioactive decay (also known as nuclear decay, radioactivity or nuclear radiation) is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy (in terms of mass in its rest frame) by emitting radiation, such as an alpha particle, beta particle with neutrino or only a neutrino in the case of electron capture, or a gamma ray or electron in the case of internal conversion. A material containing such unstable nuclei is considered radioactive. Certain highly excited short - lived nuclear states can decay through neutron emission, or more rarely, proton emission.
Radioactive decay is a stochastic (i.e. random) process at the level of a singular quantum of single atoms, in that, according to quantum theory, it is impossible to predict when a particular atom will decay, regardless of how long the atom has existed. However, for a collection of atoms, the collection 's expected decay rate is characterized in terms of their measured decay constants or half - lives. This is the basis of radiometric dating. The half - lives of radioactive atoms have no known upper limit, spanning a time range of over 55 orders of magnitude, from nearly instantaneous to far longer than the age of the universe.
A radioactive nucleus with zero spin can have no defined orientation, and hence emits the total momentum of its decay products isotropically (all directions and without bias). If there are multiple particles produced during a single decay, as in beta decay, their relative angular distribution, or spin directions may not be isotropic. Decay products from a nucleus with spin may be distributed non-isotropically with respect to that spin direction, either because of an external influence such as an electromagnetic field, or because the nucleus was produced in a dynamic process that constrained the direction of its spin. Such a parent process could be a previous decay, or a nuclear reaction.
The decaying nucleus is called the parent radionuclide (or parent radioisotope), and the process produces at least one daughter nuclide. Except for gamma decay or internal conversion from a nuclear excited state, the decay is a nuclear transmutation resulting in a daughter containing a different number of protons or neutrons (or both). When the number of protons changes, an atom of a different chemical element is created.
The first decay processes to be discovered were alpha decay, beta decay, and gamma decay. Alpha decay occurs when the nucleus ejects an alpha particle (helium nucleus). This is the most common process of emitting nucleons, but highly excited nuclei can eject single nucleons, or in the case of cluster decay, specific light nuclei of other elements. Beta decay occurs in two ways: (i) beta - minus decay, when the nucleus emits an electron and an antineutrino in a process that changes a neutron to a proton, or (ii) beta - plus decay, when the nucleus emits a positron and a neutrino in a process that changes a proton to a neutron. Highly excited neutron - rich nuclei, formed as the product of other types of decay, occasionally lose energy by way of neutron emission, resulting in a change from one isotope to another of the same element. The nucleus may capture an orbiting electron, causing a proton to convert into a neutron in a process called electron capture. All of these processes result in a well - defined nuclear transmutation.
By contrast, there are radioactive decay processes that do not result in a nuclear transmutation. The energy of an excited nucleus may be emitted as a gamma ray in a process called gamma decay, or that energy may be lost when the nucleus interacts with an orbital electron causing its ejection from the atom, in a process called internal conversion.
Another type of radioactive decay results in products that vary, appearing as two or more "fragments '' of the original nucleus with a range of possible masses. This decay, called spontaneous fission, happens when a large unstable nucleus spontaneously splits into two (or occasionally three) smaller daughter nuclei, and generally leads to the emission of gamma rays, neutrons, or other particles from those products.
For a summary table showing the number of stable and radioactive nuclides in each category, see radionuclide. There are 28 naturally occurring chemical elements on Earth that are radioactive, consisting of 33 radionuclides (5 elements have 2 different radionuclides) that date before the time of formation of the solar system. These 33 are known as primordial nuclides. Well - known examples are uranium and thorium, but also included are naturally occurring long - lived radioisotopes, such as potassium - 40. Another 50 or so shorter - lived radionuclides, such as radium and radon, found on Earth, are the products of decay chains that began with the primordial nuclides, or are the product of ongoing cosmogenic processes, such as the production of carbon - 14 from nitrogen - 14 in the atmosphere by cosmic rays. Radionuclides may also be produced artificially in particle accelerators or nuclear reactors, resulting in 650 of these with half - lives of over an hour, and several thousand more with even shorter half - lives. (See here for a list of these sorted by half life.)
Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by the French scientist Henri Becquerel, while working with phosphorescent materials. These materials glow in the dark after exposure to light, and he suspected that the glow produced in cathode ray tubes by X-rays might be associated with phosphorescence. He wrapped a photographic plate in black paper and placed various phosphorescent salts on it. All results were negative until he used uranium salts. The uranium salts caused a blackening of the plate in spite of the plate being wrapped in black paper. These radiations were given the name "Becquerel Rays ''.
It soon became clear that the blackening of the plate had nothing to do with phosphorescence, as the blackening was also produced by non-phosphorescent salts of uranium and metallic uranium. It became clear from these experiments that there was a form of invisible radiation that could pass through paper and was causing the plate to react as if exposed to light.
At first, it seemed as though the new radiation was similar to the then recently discovered X-rays. Further research by Becquerel, Ernest Rutherford, Paul Villard, Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and others showed that this form of radioactivity was significantly more complicated. Rutherford was the first to realize that all such elements decay in accordance with the same mathematical exponential formula. Rutherford and his student Frederick Soddy were the first to realize that many decay processes resulted in the transmutation of one element to another. Subsequently, the radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy was formulated to describe the products of alpha and beta decay.
The early researchers also discovered that many other chemical elements, besides uranium, have radioactive isotopes. A systematic search for the total radioactivity in uranium ores also guided Pierre and Marie Curie to isolate two new elements: polonium and radium. Except for the radioactivity of radium, the chemical similarity of radium to barium made these two elements difficult to distinguish.
Marie and Pierre Curie 's study of radioactivity is an important factor in science and medicine. After their research on Becquerel 's rays led them to the discovery of both radium and polonium, they coined the term "radioactivity ''. Their research on the penetrating rays in uranium and the discovery of radium launched an era of using radium for the treatment of cancer. Their exploration of radium could be seen as the first peaceful use of nuclear energy and the start of modern nuclear medicine.
The dangers of ionizing radiation due to radioactivity and X-rays were not immediately recognized.
The discovery of x ‐ rays by Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895 led to widespread experimentation by scientists, physicians, and inventors. Many people began recounting stories of burns, hair loss and worse in technical journals as early as 1896. In February of that year, Professor Daniel and Dr. Dudley of Vanderbilt University performed an experiment involving X-raying Dudley 's head that resulted in his hair loss. A report by Dr. H.D. Hawks, of his suffering severe hand and chest burns in an X-ray demonstration, was the first of many other reports in Electrical Review.
Other experimenters, including Elihu Thomson and Nikola Tesla, also reported burns. Thomson deliberately exposed a finger to an X-ray tube over a period of time and suffered pain, swelling, and blistering. Other effects, including ultraviolet rays and ozone, were sometimes blamed for the damage, and many physicians still claimed that there were no effects from X-ray exposure at all.
Despite this, there were some early systematic hazard investigations, and as early as 1902 William Herbert Rollins wrote almost despairingly that his warnings about the dangers involved in the careless use of X-rays were not being heeded, either by industry or by his colleagues. By this time, Rollins had proved that X-rays could kill experimental animals, could cause a pregnant guinea pig to abort, and that they could kill a fetus. He also stressed that "animals vary in susceptibility to the external action of X-light '' and warned that these differences be considered when patients were treated by means of X-rays.
However, the biological effects of radiation due to radioactive substances were less easy to gauge. This gave the opportunity for many physicians and corporations to market radioactive substances as patent medicines. Examples were radium enema treatments, and radium - containing waters to be drunk as tonics. Marie Curie protested against this sort of treatment, warning that the effects of radiation on the human body were not well understood. Curie later died from aplastic anaemia, likely caused by exposure to ionizing radiation. By the 1930s, after a number of cases of bone necrosis and death of radium treatment enthusiasts, radium - containing medicinal products had been largely removed from the market (radioactive quackery).
Only a year after Röntgen 's discovery of X rays, the American engineer Wolfram Fuchs (1896) gave what is probably the first protection advice, but it was not until 1925 that the first International Congress of Radiology (ICR) was held and considered establishing international protection standards. The effects of radiation on genes, including the effect of cancer risk, were recognized much later. In 1927, Hermann Joseph Muller published research showing genetic effects and, in 1946, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his findings.
The second ICR was held in Stockholm in 1928 and proposed the adoption of the rontgen unit, and the ' International X-ray and Radium Protection Committee ' (IXRPC) was formed. Rolf Sievert was named Chairman, but a driving force was George Kaye of the British National Physical Laboratory. The committee met in 1931, 1934 and 1937.
After World War II, the increased range and quantity of radioactive substances being handled as a result of military and civil nuclear programmes led to large groups of occupational workers and the public being potentially exposed to harmful levels of ionising radiation. This was considered at the first post-war ICR convened in London in 1950, when the present International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) was born. Since then the ICRP has developed the present international system of radiation protection, covering all aspects of radiation hazard.
The International System of Units (SI) unit of radioactive activity is the becquerel (Bq), named in honor of the scientist Henri Becquerel. One Bq is defined as one transformation (or decay or disintegration) per second.
An older unit of radioactivity is the curie, Ci, which was originally defined as "the quantity or mass of radium emanation in equilibrium with one gram of radium (element) ''. Today, the curie is defined as 7010370000000000000 ♠ 3.7 × 10 disintegrations per second, so that 1 curie (Ci) = 7010370000000000000 ♠ 3.7 × 10 Bq. For radiological protection purposes, although the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission permits the use of the unit curie alongside SI units, the European Union European units of measurement directives required that its use for "public health... purposes '' be phased out by 31 December 1985.
The effects of ionizing radiation are often measured in units of gray for mechanical or sievert for damage to tissue.
Early researchers found that an electric or magnetic field could split radioactive emissions into three types of beams. The rays were given the names alpha, beta, and gamma, in increasing order of their ability to penetrate matter. Alpha decay is observed only in heavier elements of atomic number 52 (tellurium) and greater, with the exception of beryllium - 8 which decays to two alpha particles. The other two types of decay are produced by all of the elements. Lead, atomic number 82, is the heaviest element to have any isotopes stable (to the limit of measurement) to radioactive decay. Radioactive decay is seen in all isotopes of all elements of atomic number 83 (bismuth) or greater. Bismuth - 209, however, is only very slightly radioactive, with a half - life greater than the age of the universe; radioisotopes with extremely long half - lives are considered effectively stable for practical purposes.
In analysing the nature of the decay products, it was obvious from the direction of the electromagnetic forces applied to the radiations by external magnetic and electric fields that alpha particles carried a positive charge, beta particles carried a negative charge, and gamma rays were neutral. From the magnitude of deflection, it was clear that alpha particles were much more massive than beta particles. Passing alpha particles through a very thin glass window and trapping them in a discharge tube allowed researchers to study the emission spectrum of the captured particles, and ultimately proved that alpha particles are helium nuclei. Other experiments showed beta radiation, resulting from decay and cathode rays, were high - speed electrons. Likewise, gamma radiation and X-rays were found to be high - energy electromagnetic radiation.
The relationship between the types of decays also began to be examined: For example, gamma decay was almost always found to be associated with other types of decay, and occurred at about the same time, or afterwards. Gamma decay as a separate phenomenon, with its own half - life (now termed isomeric transition), was found in natural radioactivity to be a result of the gamma decay of excited metastable nuclear isomers, which were in turn created from other types of decay.
Although alpha, beta, and gamma radiations were most commonly found, other types of emission were eventually discovered. Shortly after the discovery of the positron in cosmic ray products, it was realized that the same process that operates in classical beta decay can also produce positrons (positron emission), along with neutrinos (classical beta decay produces antineutrinos). In a more common analogous process, called electron capture, some proton - rich nuclides were found to capture their own atomic electrons instead of emitting positrons, and subsequently these nuclides emit only a neutrino and a gamma ray from the excited nucleus (and often also Auger electrons and characteristic X-rays, as a result of the re-ordering of electrons to fill the place of the missing captured electron). These types of decay involve the nuclear capture of electrons or emission of electrons or positrons, and thus acts to move a nucleus toward the ratio of neutrons to protons that has the least energy for a given total number of nucleons. This consequently produces a more stable (lower energy) nucleus.
(A theoretical process of positron capture, analogous to electron capture, is possible in antimatter atoms, but has not been observed, as complex antimatter atoms beyond antihelium are not experimentally available. Such a decay would require antimatter atoms at least as complex as beryllium - 7, which is the lightest known isotope of normal matter to undergo decay by electron capture.)
Shortly after the discovery of the neutron in 1932, Enrico Fermi realized that certain rare beta - decay reactions immediately yield neutrons as a decay particle (neutron emission). Isolated proton emission was eventually observed in some elements. It was also found that some heavy elements may undergo spontaneous fission into products that vary in composition. In a phenomenon called cluster decay, specific combinations of neutrons and protons other than alpha particles (helium nuclei) were found to be spontaneously emitted from atoms.
Other types of radioactive decay were found to emit previously - seen particles, but via different mechanisms. An example is internal conversion, which results in an initial electron emission, and then often further characteristic X-rays and Auger electrons emissions, although the internal conversion process involves neither beta nor gamma decay. A neutrino is not emitted, and none of the electron (s) and photon (s) emitted originate in the nucleus, even though the energy to emit all of them does originate there. Internal conversion decay, like isomeric transition gamma decay and neutron emission, involves the release of energy by an excited nuclide, without the transmutation of one element into another.
Rare events that involve a combination of two beta - decay type events happening simultaneously are known (see below). Any decay process that does not violate the conservation of energy or momentum laws (and perhaps other particle conservation laws) is permitted to happen, although not all have been detected. An interesting example discussed in a final section, is bound state beta decay of rhenium - 187. In this process, beta electron - decay of the parent nuclide is not accompanied by beta electron emission, because the beta particle has been captured into the K - shell of the emitting atom. An antineutrino is emitted, as in all negative beta decays.
Radionuclides can undergo a number of different reactions. These are summarized in the following table. A nucleus with mass number A and atomic number Z is represented as (A, Z). The column "Daughter nucleus '' indicates the difference between the new nucleus and the original nucleus. Thus, (A − 1, Z) means that the mass number is one less than before, but the atomic number is the same as before.
If energy circumstances are favorable, a given radionuclide may undergo many competing types of decay, with some atoms decaying by one route, and others decaying by another. An example is copper - 64, which has 29 protons, and 35 neutrons, which decays with a half - life of about 12.7 hours. This isotope has one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron, so either the proton or the neutron can decay to the opposite particle. This particular nuclide (though not all nuclides in this situation) is almost equally likely to decay through positron emission (18 %), or through electron capture (43 %), as it does through electron emission (39 %). The excited energy states resulting from these decays which fail to end in a ground energy state, also produce later internal conversion and gamma decay in almost 0.5 % of the time.
More common in heavy nuclides is competition between alpha and beta decay. The daughter nuclides will then normally decay through beta or alpha, respectively, to end up in the same place.
Radioactive decay results in a reduction of summed rest mass, once the released energy (the disintegration energy) has escaped in some way. Although decay energy is sometimes defined as associated with the difference between the mass of the parent nuclide products and the mass of the decay products, this is true only of rest mass measurements, where some energy has been removed from the product system. This is true because the decay energy must always carry mass with it, wherever it appears (see mass in special relativity) according to the formula E = mc. The decay energy is initially released as the energy of emitted photons plus the kinetic energy of massive emitted particles (that is, particles that have rest mass). If these particles come to thermal equilibrium with their surroundings and photons are absorbed, then the decay energy is transformed to thermal energy, which retains its mass.
Decay energy therefore remains associated with a certain measure of mass of the decay system, called invariant mass, which does not change during the decay, even though the energy of decay is distributed among decay particles. The energy of photons, the kinetic energy of emitted particles, and, later, the thermal energy of the surrounding matter, all contribute to the invariant mass of the system. Thus, while the sum of the rest masses of the particles is not conserved in radioactive decay, the system mass and system invariant mass (and also the system total energy) is conserved throughout any decay process. This is a restatement of the equivalent laws of conservation of energy and conservation of mass.
The decay rate, or activity, of a radioactive substance is characterized by:
Constant quantities:
Although these are constants, they are associated with the statistical behavior of populations of atoms. In consequence, predictions using these constants are less accurate for minuscule samples of atoms.
In principle a half - life, a third - life, or even a (1 / √ 2) - life, can be used in exactly the same way as half - life; but the mean life and half - life t have been adopted as standard times associated with exponential decay.
Time - variable quantities:
These are related as follows:
where N is the initial amount of active substance -- substance that has the same percentage of unstable particles as when the substance was formed.
Radioactivity is one very frequently given example of exponential decay. The law describes the statistical behaviour of a large number of nuclides, rather than individual atoms. In the following formalism, the number of nuclides or the nuclide population N, is of course a discrete variable (a natural number) -- but for any physical sample N is so large that it can be treated as a continuous variable. Differential calculus is used to model the behaviour of nuclear decay.
The mathematics of radioactive decay depend on a key assumption that a nucleus of a radionuclide has no "memory '' or way of translating its history into its present behavior. A nucleus does not "age '' with the passage of time. Thus, the probability of its breaking down does not increase with time, but stays constant no matter how long the nucleus has existed. This constant probability may vary greatly between different types of nuclei, leading to the many different observed decay rates. However, whatever the probability is, it does not change. This is in marked contrast to complex objects which do show aging, such as automobiles and humans. These systems do have a chance of breakdown per unit of time, that increases from the moment they begin their existence.
Consider the case of a nuclide A that decays into another B by some process A → B (emission of other particles, like electron neutrinos ν and electrons e as in beta decay, are irrelevant in what follows). The decay of an unstable nucleus is entirely random in time so it is impossible to predict when a particular atom will decay. However, it is equally likely to decay at any instant in time. Therefore, given a sample of a particular radioisotope, the number of decay events − dN expected to occur in a small interval of time dt is proportional to the number of atoms present N, that is
Particular radionuclides decay at different rates, so each has its own decay constant λ. The expected decay − dN / N is proportional to an increment of time, dt:
− d N N = λ d t (\ displaystyle - (\ frac (\ mathrm (d) N) (N)) = \ lambda \ mathrm (d) t)
The negative sign indicates that N decreases as time increases, as the decay events follow one after another. The solution to this first - order differential equation is the function:
where N is the value of N at time t = 0, with the decay constant expressed as λ or 1 / τ
We have for all time t:
where N is the constant number of particles throughout the decay process, which is equal to the initial number of A nuclides since this is the initial substance.
If the number of non-decayed A nuclei is:
then the number of nuclei of B, i.e. the number of decayed A nuclei, is
The number of decays observed over a given interval obeys Poisson statistics. If the average number of decays is < N >, the probability of a given number of decays N is
Chain of two decays
Now consider the case of a chain of two decays: one nuclide A decaying into another B by one process, then B decaying into another C by a second process, i.e. A → B → C. The previous equation can not be applied to the decay chain, but can be generalized as follows. Since A decays into B, then B decays into C, the activity of A adds to the total number of B nuclides in the present sample, before those B nuclides decay and reduce the number of nuclides leading to the later sample. In other words, the number of second generation nuclei B increases as a result of the first generation nuclei decay of A, and decreases as a result of its own decay into the third generation nuclei C. The sum of these two terms gives the law for a decay chain for two nuclides:
The rate of change of N, that is dN / dt, is related to the changes in the amounts of A and B, N can increase as B is produced from A and decrease as B produces C.
Re-writing using the previous results:
d N B d t = − λ B N B + λ A N A 0 e − λ A t (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ mathrm (d) N_ (B)) (\ mathrm (d) t)) = - \ lambda _ (B) N_ (B) + \ lambda _ (A) N_ (A0) e ^ (- \ lambda _ (A) t))
The subscripts simply refer to the respective nuclides, i.e. N is the number of nuclides of type A, N is the initial number of nuclides of type A, λ is the decay constant for A - and similarly for nuclide B. Solving this equation for N gives:
In the case where B is a stable nuclide (λ = 0), this equation reduces to the previous solution:
as shown above for one decay. The solution can be found by the integration factor method, where the integrating factor is e. This case is perhaps the most useful, since it can derive both the one - decay equation (above) and the equation for multi-decay chains (below) more directly.
Chain of any number of decays
For the general case of any number of consecutive decays in a decay chain, i.e. A → A → A → A, where D is the number of decays and i is a dummy index (i =), each nuclide population can be found in terms of the previous population. In this case N = 0, N = 0,..., N = 0. Using the above result in a recursive form:
The general solution to the recursive problem is given by Bateman 's equations:
N D = N 1 (0) λ D ∑ i = 1 D λ i c i e − λ i t (\ displaystyle N_ (D) = (\ frac (N_ (1) (0)) (\ lambda _ (D))) \ sum _ (i = 1) ^ (D) \ lambda _ (i) c_ (i) e ^ (- \ lambda _ (i) t))
c i = ∏ j = 1, i ≠ j D λ j λ j − λ i (\ displaystyle c_ (i) = \ prod _ (j = 1, i \ neq j) ^ (D) (\ frac (\ lambda _ (j)) (\ lambda _ (j) - \ lambda _ (i))))
In all of the above examples, the initial nuclide decays into just one product. Consider the case of one initial nuclide that can decay into either of two products, that is A → B and A → C in parallel. For example, in a sample of potassium - 40, 89.3 % of the nuclei decay to calcium - 40 and 10.7 % to argon - 40. We have for all time t:
which is constant, since the total number of nuclides remains constant. Differentiating with respect to time:
defining the total decay constant λ in terms of the sum of partial decay constants λ and λ:
Notice that
Solving this equation for N:
where N is the initial number of nuclide A. When measuring the production of one nuclide, one can only observe the total decay constant λ. The decay constants λ and λ determine the probability for the decay to result in products B or C as follows:
because the fraction λ / λ of nuclei decay into B while the fraction λ / λ of nuclei decay into C.
The above equations can also be written using quantities related to the number of nuclide particles N in a sample;
where L = 7023602200000000000 ♠ 6.022 × 10 is Avogadro 's constant, A is the relative atomic mass number, and the amount of the substance is in moles.
For the one - decay solution A → B:
the equation indicates that the decay constant λ has units of t, and can thus also be represented as 1 / τ, where τ is a characteristic time of the process called the time constant.
In a radioactive decay process, this time constant is also the mean lifetime for decaying atoms. Each atom "lives '' for a finite amount of time before it decays, and it may be shown that this mean lifetime is the arithmetic mean of all the atoms ' lifetimes, and that it is τ, which again is related to the decay constant as follows:
This form is also true for two - decay processes simultaneously A → B + C, inserting the equivalent values of decay constants (as given above)
into the decay solution leads to:
A more commonly used parameter is the half - life. Given a sample of a particular radionuclide, the half - life is the time taken for half the radionuclide 's atoms to decay. For the case of one - decay nuclear reactions:
the half - life is related to the decay constant as follows: set N = N / 2 and t = T to obtain
This relationship between the half - life and the decay constant shows that highly radioactive substances are quickly spent, while those that radiate weakly endure longer. Half - lives of known radionuclides vary widely, from more than 10 years, such as for the very nearly stable nuclide Bi, to 10 seconds for highly unstable ones.
The factor of ln (2) in the above relations results from the fact that the concept of "half - life '' is merely a way of selecting a different base other than the natural base e for the lifetime expression. The time constant τ is the e - 1 - life, the time until only 1 / e remains, about 36.8 %, rather than the 50 % in the half - life of a radionuclide. Thus, τ is longer than t. The following equation can be shown to be valid:
Since radioactive decay is exponential with a constant probability, each process could as easily be described with a different constant time period that (for example) gave its "(1 / 3) - life '' (how long until only 1 / 3 is left) or "(1 / 10) - life '' (a time period until only 10 % is left), and so on. Thus, the choice of τ and t for marker - times, are only for convenience, and from convention. They reflect a fundamental principle only in so much as they show that the same proportion of a given radioactive substance will decay, during any time - period that one chooses.
Mathematically, the n life for the above situation would be found in the same way as above -- by setting N = N / n, t = T and substituting into the decay solution to obtain
A sample of C has a half - life of 5,730 years and a decay rate of 14 disintegration per minute (dpm) per gram of natural carbon.
If an artifact is found to have radioactivity of 4 dpm per gram of its present C, we can find the approximate age of the object using the above equation:
where: N N 0 = 4 / 14 ≈ 0.286, (\ displaystyle (\ frac (N) (N_ (0))) = 4 / 14 \ approx 0.286,)
The radioactive decay modes of electron capture and internal conversion are known to be slightly sensitive to chemical and environmental effects that change the electronic structure of the atom, which in turn affects the presence of 1s and 2s electrons that participate in the decay process. A small number of mostly light nuclides are affected. For example, chemical bonds can affect the rate of electron capture to a small degree (in general, less than 1 %) depending on the proximity of electrons to the nucleus. In Be, a difference of 0.9 % has been observed between half - lives in metallic and insulating environments. This relatively large effect is because beryllium is a small atom whose valence electrons are in 2s atomic orbitals, which are subject to electron capture in Be because (like all s atomic orbitals in all atoms) they naturally penetrate into the nucleus.
In 1992, Jung et al. of the Darmstadt Heavy - Ion Research group observed an accelerated β decay of Dy. Although neutral Dy is a stable isotope, the fully ionized Dy undergoes β decay into the K and L shells to Ho with a half - life of 47 days.
Rhenium - 187 is another spectacular example. Re normally beta decays to Os with a half - life of 41.6 × 10 years, but studies using fully ionised Re atoms (bare nuclei) have found that this can decrease to only 33 years. This is attributed to "bound - state β decay '' of the fully ionised atom -- the electron is emitted into the "K - shell '' (1s atomic orbital), which can not occur for neutral atoms in which all low - lying bound states are occupied.
A number of experiments have found that decay rates of other modes of artificial and naturally occurring radioisotopes are, to a high degree of precision, unaffected by external conditions such as temperature, pressure, the chemical environment, and electric, magnetic, or gravitational fields. Comparison of laboratory experiments over the last century, studies of the Oklo natural nuclear reactor (which exemplified the effects of thermal neutrons on nuclear decay), and astrophysical observations of the luminosity decays of distant supernovae (which occurred far away so the light has taken a great deal of time to reach us), for example, strongly indicate that unperturbed decay rates have been constant (at least to within the limitations of small experimental errors) as a function of time as well.
Recent results suggest the possibility that decay rates might have a weak dependence on environmental factors. It has been suggested that measurements of decay rates of silicon - 32, manganese - 54, and radium - 226 exhibit small seasonal variations (of the order of 0.1 %). However, such measurements are highly susceptible to systematic errors, and a subsequent paper has found no evidence for such correlations in seven other isotopes (Na, Ti, Ag, Sn, Ba, Am, Pu), and sets upper limits on the size of any such effects. The decay of radon - 222 was once reported to exhibit large 4 % peak - to - peak seasonal variations (see plot), which were proposed to be related to either solar flare activity or the distance from the Sun, but detailed analysis of the experiment 's design flaws, along with comparisons to other, much more stringent and systematically controlled, experiments refute this claim.
An unexpected series of experimental results for the rate of decay of heavy highly charged radioactive ions circulating in a storage ring has provoked theoretical activity in an effort to find a convincing explanation. The rates of weak decay of two radioactive species with half lives of about 40 s and 200 s are found to have a significant oscillatory modulation, with a period of about 7 s. The observed phenomenon is known as the GSI anomaly, as the storage ring is a facility at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt, Germany. As the decay process produces an electron neutrino, some of the proposed explanations for the observed rate oscillation invoke neutrino properties. Initial ideas related to flavour oscillation met with skepticism. A more recent proposal involves mass differences between neutrino mass eigenstates.
The neutrons and protons that constitute nuclei, as well as other particles that approach close enough to them, are governed by several interactions. The strong nuclear force, not observed at the familiar macroscopic scale, is the most powerful force over subatomic distances. The electrostatic force is almost always significant, and, in the case of beta decay, the weak nuclear force is also involved.
The combined effects of these forces produces a number of different phenomena in which energy may be released by rearrangement of particles in the nucleus, or else the change of one type of particle into others. These rearrangements and transformations may be hindered energetically, so that they do not occur immediately. In certain cases, random quantum vacuum fluctuations are theorized to promote relaxation to a lower energy state (the "decay '') in a phenomenon known as quantum tunneling. Radioactive decay half - life of nuclides has been measured over timescales of 55 orders of magnitude, from 2.3 × 10 seconds (for hydrogen - 7) to 6.9 × 10 seconds (for tellurium - 128). The limits of these timescales are set by the sensitivity of instrumentation only, and there are no known natural limits to how brief or long a decay half - life for radioactive decay of a radionuclide may be.
The decay process, like all hindered energy transformations, may be analogized by a snowfield on a mountain. While friction between the ice crystals may be supporting the snow 's weight, the system is inherently unstable with regard to a state of lower potential energy. A disturbance would thus facilitate the path to a state of greater entropy; the system will move towards the ground state, producing heat, and the total energy will be distributable over a larger number of quantum states thus resulting in an avalanche. The total energy does not change in this process, but, because of the second law of thermodynamics, avalanches have only been observed in one direction and that is toward the "ground state '' -- the state with the largest number of ways in which the available energy could be distributed.
Such a collapse (a gamma - ray decay event) requires a specific activation energy. For a snow avalanche, this energy comes as a disturbance from outside the system, although such disturbances can be arbitrarily small. In the case of an excited atomic nucleus decaying by gamma radiation in a spontaneous emission of electromagnetic radiation, the arbitrarily small disturbance comes from quantum vacuum fluctuations.
A radioactive nucleus (or any excited system in quantum mechanics) is unstable, and can, thus, spontaneously stabilize to a less - excited system. The resulting transformation alters the structure of the nucleus and results in the emission of either a photon or a high - velocity particle that has mass (such as an electron, alpha particle, or other type).
According to the Big Bang theory, stable isotopes of the lightest five elements (H, He, and traces of Li, Be, and B) were produced very shortly after the emergence of the universe, in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis. These lightest stable nuclides (including deuterium) survive to today, but any radioactive isotopes of the light elements produced in the Big Bang (such as tritium) have long since decayed. Isotopes of elements heavier than boron were not produced at all in the Big Bang, and these first five elements do not have any long - lived radioisotopes. Thus, all radioactive nuclei are, therefore, relatively young with respect to the birth of the universe, having formed later in various other types of nucleosynthesis in stars (in particular, supernovae), and also during ongoing interactions between stable isotopes and energetic particles. For example, carbon - 14, a radioactive nuclide with a half - life of only 5,730 years, is constantly produced in Earth 's upper atmosphere due to interactions between cosmic rays and nitrogen.
Nuclides that are produced by radioactive decay are called radiogenic nuclides, whether they themselves are stable or not. There exist stable radiogenic nuclides that were formed from short - lived extinct radionuclides in the early solar system. The extra presence of these stable radiogenic nuclides (such as Xe - 129 from primordial I - 129) against the background of primordial stable nuclides can be inferred by various means.
Radioactive decay has been put to use in the technique of radioisotopic labeling, which is used to track the passage of a chemical substance through a complex system (such as a living organism). A sample of the substance is synthesized with a high concentration of unstable atoms. The presence of the substance in one or another part of the system is determined by detecting the locations of decay events.
On the premise that radioactive decay is truly random (rather than merely chaotic), it has been used in hardware random - number generators. Because the process is not thought to vary significantly in mechanism over time, it is also a valuable tool in estimating the absolute ages of certain materials. For geological materials, the radioisotopes and some of their decay products become trapped when a rock solidifies, and can then later be used (subject to many well - known qualifications) to estimate the date of the solidification. These include checking the results of several simultaneous processes and their products against each other, within the same sample. In a similar fashion, and also subject to qualification, the rate of formation of carbon - 14 in various eras, the date of formation of organic matter within a certain period related to the isotope 's half - life may be estimated, because the carbon - 14 becomes trapped when the organic matter grows and incorporates the new carbon - 14 from the air. Thereafter, the amount of carbon - 14 in organic matter decreases according to decay processes that may also be independently cross-checked by other means (such as checking the carbon - 14 in individual tree rings, for example).
The Szilard -- Chalmers effect is defined as the breaking of a chemical bond between an atom and the molecule that the atom is part of, as a result of a nuclear reaction of the atom. The effect can be used to separate isotopes by chemical means. The discovery of this effect is due to L. Szilárd and T.A. Chalmers.
Radioactive primordial nuclides found in the Earth are residues from ancient supernova explosions that occurred before the formation of the solar system. They are the fraction of radionuclides that survived from that time, through the formation of the primordial solar nebula, through planet accretion, and up to the present time. The naturally occurring short - lived radiogenic radionuclides found in today 's rocks, are the daughters of those radioactive primordial nuclides. Another minor source of naturally occurring radioactive nuclides are cosmogenic nuclides, that are formed by cosmic ray bombardment of material in the Earth 's atmosphere or crust. The decay of the radionuclides in rocks of the Earth 's mantle and crust contribute significantly to Earth 's internal heat budget.
The daughter nuclide of a decay event may also be unstable (radioactive). In this case, it too will decay, producing radiation. The resulting second daughter nuclide may also be radioactive. This can lead to a sequence of several decay events called a decay chain (see this article for specific details of important natural decay chains). Eventually, a stable nuclide is produced.
An example is the natural decay chain of U:
Some radionuclides may have several different paths of decay. For example, approximately 36 % of bismuth - 212 decays, through alpha - emission, to thallium - 208 while approximately 64 % of bismuth - 212 decays, through beta - emission, to polonium - 212. Both thallium - 208 and polonium - 212 are radioactive daughter products of bismuth - 212, and both decay directly to stable lead - 208.
The trefoil symbol used to indicate ionising radiation.
2007 ISO radioactivity danger symbol intended for IAEA Category 1, 2 and 3 sources defined as dangerous sources capable of death or serious injury.
The dangerous goods transport classification sign for radioactive materials
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who is the winner of american got talent 2017 | America 's Got Talent (season 12) - wikipedia
Season twelve of the reality competition series America 's Got Talent was ordered on August 2, 2016 and premiered on NBC on Tuesday, May 30, 2017. Howie Mandel, Mel B, Heidi Klum and Simon Cowell returned as judges for their respective eighth, fifth, fifth and second seasons. Supermodel and businesswoman Tyra Banks replaced Nick Cannon, who hosted for eight seasons, making her the first female host of the show. The live shows returned to the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles beginning August 15, 2017.
The format of the show was the same as in season eleven, and Dunkin Donuts sponsors the show for a third consecutive season. A guest judge joined the panel for each episode of the Judge Cuts round: Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox and Seal.
Darci Lynne Farmer was named the winner on the season finale, September 20, 2017. She was the third ventriloquist, third child and third female to win a season of America 's Got Talent. 10 - year - old singer Angelica Hale placed second, and glow light dance troupe Light Balance came in third. Farmer won the show 's prize of $1 million and a headlining performance in Las Vegas.
On October 4, 2016, Simon Cowell signed a contract to remain as a judge through 2019.
Long - time host Nick Cannon announced, on February 13, 2017, that he would not return as host for season 12, soon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his 2017 Showtime comedy special, Stand Up, Do n't Shoot. Cannon was still under contract to host, and NBC executives did not initially accept his resignation, but they ultimately searched for a new host.
On March 12, 2017, NBC announced supermodel Tyra Banks as the host for this season.
The season had preliminary open call auditions in Chicago, Austin, Cleveland, Jacksonville, Philadelphia, Las Vegas, San Diego, New York City, Charleston, Memphis, and Los Angeles. As in years past, prospective contestants could also submit online auditions.
Judges ' auditions were taped in March at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Los Angeles. The premiere aired May 30, 2017.
The Golden Buzzer returned for its fourth consecutive season. Any act that received a golden buzzer during the preliminary auditions was sent directly to the live shows and did not compete in the Judge Cuts round. In the first episode of preliminary auditions, Mel B pressed the golden buzzer for 12 - year - old singing ventriloquist Darci Lynne Farmer. In subsequent episodes, Simon Cowell pressed it for 29 - year - old deaf singer Mandy Harvey, Howie Mandel chose 16 - year - old former blind singer Christian Guardino, Tyra Banks pressed it for Light Balance dance crew, and Heidi Klum chose 13 - year - old singer Angelina Green.
Each Judge Cuts act that received a golden buzzer advanced to the live shows without any voting by the judges. During the Judge Cuts round, guest judges Chris Hardwick pressed his golden buzzer for 9 - year old singer Angelica Hale, DJ Khaled pressed it for 21 - year old singer - songwriter and guitarist Chase Goehring, Laverne Cox pressed it for 9 - year old singer Celine Tam, and Seal pressed it for soul singer Johnny Manuel.
On June 11, 2017, contestant Brandon Rogers died in an automobile accident. Rogers was an American physician who specialized in family medicine. Earlier in 2017, after seeing YouTube videos of Rogers singing, Boyz II Men invited him to sing with them as a guest in three of their Las Vegas shows. His successful AGT audition aired on July 11, 2017, in his memory. He competed in the Judge Cuts round, but his performance in that round was not televised.
The Judge Cuts round began on Tuesday, July 18, 2017. Like the previous season, one guest judge joined the judges ' panel each show and was given one golden buzzer opportunity to send an act straight to the live shows. Twenty acts were shown each week and seven advanced, including the guest judge 's golden buzzer choice. Guest judges were not given a red buzzer to use. Any act that received all four red buzzers was immediately eliminated from the competition. The four guest judges were Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox, and Seal.
After the Judge Cuts, three wildcards were chosen from eliminated acts to perform in the live shows: Final Draft, Bello Nock and Oskar and Gaspar (who did not perform in the Judge Cuts round). All three of these acts were eliminated in the Quarterfinals.
Guest judge: Chris Hardwick
Date: July 18, 2017
Guest judge: DJ Khaled
Date: July 25, 2017
As of 2017, this is the only Judge Cuts episode in the show 's history in which an act with at least one "X '' buzzer was nevertheless promoted to the live shows. This was also the only Judge Cuts episode of the season in which an act received 4 red buzzers.
Guest judge: Laverne Cox
Date: August 1, 2017
This was the first Judge Cuts episode in which no acts received a red buzzer from any of the judges.
Guest judge: Seal
Date: August 8, 2017
The quarterfinals were broadcast live from the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles starting on August 15, 2017. They featured the nine golden buzzer acts, the 24 other acts promoted during the Judge Cuts round, and three wildcard acts chosen by the producers and judges. Twelve acts performed each week, with results announced the on following nights; each week seven acts were sent through to the semifinals. Puddles Pity Party and Mirror Image received an "X '' in the Quarterfinals. Demian Aditya received "X 's '' by Mel B and Cowell in the second Quarterfinals.
Guests: Grace VanderWaal, August 16
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Yoli Mayor was announced to have received more of America 's votes than Just Jerk, and she advanced to the semi-finals.
Guests: Circus 1903, August 23
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Eric Jones was announced to have received more of America 's votes than The Masqueraders, and he advanced to the semi-finals.
^ 2 Due to a technical issue, Light Balance 's performance was based on their dress rehearsal.
^ 3 Another technical issue occurred when the sealed box Aditya was in did n't fall as planned.
Guests: Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, and Jon Dorenbos, August 30
^ 1 Sara added another dog named Loki in her act. Loki performed throughout the rest of the competition.
The live semifinals started on September 5, 2017. They featured the 21 acts voted to the semifinals, plus the judges ' semifinal wildcard pick. Each week, eleven acts performed; five went through to the finals, and six were eliminated. No acts were buzzed.
Guests: The Clairvoyants
^ 1 Chase Goehring, DaNell Daymon & Greater Works, and Mike Yung were not initially announced as performing on week one of semifinals.
^ 1 Merrick Hanna and Mandy Harvey were switched to perform on Week 2 although they were on the Week 1 promo.
^ 2 Klum 's voting intention was not revealed.
The final performances took place on September 19, followed by the final results show on September 20, 2017. No acts were buzzed.
Guest performers in the finale included Kelly Clarkson, Shania Twain, James Arthur, Derek Hough and Terry Fator. Other celebrity appearances included Marlee Matlin.
The following chart describes the acts, appearances and segments presented during the finale.
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when is one obligated to compensate an injury party | Indemnity - wikipedia
Indemnity is when one party promises to compensate the loss occurred to the other party, due to the act of the promisor or any other party. On the other hand, a guarantee is when a person assures the other party that they will perform the promise or fulfill the obligation of the third party, in case they default.
An indemnity is an obligation by a person (indemnitor) to provide compensation for a particular loss suffered by another person (indemnitee).
Indemnities form the basis of many insurance contracts; for example, a car owner may purchase different kinds of insurance as an indemnity for various kinds of loss arising from operation of the car, such as damage to the car itself, or medical expenses following an accident. In an agency context, a principal may be obligated to indemnify their agent for liabilities incurred while carrying out responsibilities under the relationship. While the events giving rise to an indemnity may be specified by contract, the actions that must be taken to compensate the injured party are largely unpredictable, and the maximum compensation is often expressly limited.
Under section 4 of the Statute of Frauds (1677), a "guarantee '' (an undertaking of secondary liability; to answer for another 's default) must be evidenced in writing. No such formal requirement exists in respect of indemnities (involving the assumption of primary liability; to pay irrespective of another 's default) which are enforceable even if made orally. (Ref: Peel E: "Treitel, The Law of Contract '')
Under current English law, indemnities must be clearly and precisely worded in the contract in order to be enforceable. Under the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 s4, a consumer can not be made to unreasonably indemnify another for their breach of contract or negligence.
In England and Wales an "indemnity '' monetary award may form part of rescission during an action of restitutio in integrum. The property and funds are exchanged, but indemnity may be granted for costs necessarily incurred to the innocent party pursuant to the contract. The leading case is Whittington v Seale - Hayne, in which a contaminated farm was sold. The contract made the buyers renovate the real estate and, the contamination incurred medical expenses for their manager, who had fallen ill. Once the contract was rescinded, the buyer could be indemnified for the cost of renovation as this was necessary to the contract, but not the medical expenses as the contract did not require them to hire a manager. Were the sellers at fault, damages would clearly be available.
The distinction between indemnity and damages is subtle may be differentiated by considering the roots of the law of obligations: how can money be paid where the defendant is not at fault? The contract before rescission is voidable but not void, so, for a period of time, there is a legal contract. During that time, both parties have legal obligation. If the contract is to be voided ab initio the obligations performed must also be compensated. Therefore, the costs of indemnity arise from the (transient and performed) obligations of the claimant rather than a breach of obligation by the defendant.
An indemnity is distinct from a guarantee, which is the promise of a third party to honor the obligation of a party to a contract should that party be unable or unwilling to do so (usually a guarantee is limited to an obligation to pay a debt). This distinction between indemnity and guarantee was discussed as early as the eighteenth century in Birkmya v Darnell. In that case, concerned with a guarantee of payment for goods rather than payment of rent, the presiding judge explained that a guarantee effectively says "Let him have the goods; if he does not pay you, I will. ''
An indemnity is distinct from a warranty in that:
Many private contracts and Terms of Service in the United States require one party (indemnitor, typically a customer) to pay (indemnify) the other side 's costs for legal claims arising from the relationship. They are particularly common in online services.
The US government publishes special Terms of Service, which it has negotiated with many companies, to exclude indemnification for official US government work. US law "is violated by any indemnification agreement that, without statutory authorization, imposes on the United States an open - ended, potentially unrestricted liability. '' The Attorney General says federal agencies "should renegotiate the terms of service to revise or eliminate the indemnification clause or cancel the (government) 's enrollments in social media applications when their operators insist on such a clause. ''
Under US law, interpretation of indemnification clauses varies by state. For example, in California indemnification clauses do not cover certain risks unless the risks are listed in the contract, while in New York a brief clause, "X shall defend and indemnify Y for all claims arising from the Product '' does make X responsible for all claims against Y. Indemnity can be extremely costly, since X 's liability insurance typically does not cover claims against Y, but X still has to cover them.
In 2017, the Utah Supreme Court said that "By statute, a contractual provision requiring a purchaser of a product to indemnify a manufacturer is ' void and unenforceable ' in certain circumstances. UTAH CODE § 78B - 6 - 707. ''
In 2012 - 2014, a New Jersey woman had to pay a lawyer to get out of an indemnity payment for injury at a storage unit. When someone slipped on ice in 2012, while going to a unit, Public Storage sued in court to make the woman who rented the unit pay for the injury. She tried to ignore the case, so state court ruled she must pay. She then retained a lawyer and went to court. In 2014, the US District Court said this specific indemnity clause was unenforceable in New Jersey, because it covered Public Storage 's own negligence without explicitly saying so, contrary to New Jersey law (other states differ). A 2013 decision in New Jersey upheld a broad indemnity clause, since it was followed by another sentence, "indemnity agreement is intended to be as broad and inclusive as is permitted by the law of the State of New Jersey ''. The judge said, "It is true that a consumer, unfamiliar with the laws of New Jersey, would not be able to state with certainty how far the waiver extends ''.
In 2010, the Colorado Supreme Court required a flower shop to indemnify its shopping center for a customer who slipped on the icy parking lot, through no fault of the flower shop, because the tenant was there to visit that shop, and the shop 's lease had a broad indemnity clause.
In 1999, a Federal District Court in Wyoming did not require a customer to indemnify a white - water rafting company for injury to his wife, since the wording may have only applied to him and his children, and clauses can not be enforced in Wyoming to indemnify a company for its own negligence.
In 1979 the Minnesota Supreme Court ruled that a subcontractor must indemnify the builder for damages it caused, according to an indemnification clause in their purchase order.
In 1966 the California Supreme Court ruled that Hertz could not enforce its clause requiring renters to indemnify Hertz ' insurer.
When a contract is negotiable, the indemnitor negotiates to control these legal costs. It will not let the indemnified party (indemnitee) overspend, "An arrangement where the indemnitee makes decisions about how to defend and settle the claim while the indemnitor writes the checks presents a moral hazard. Knowing that its defense and settlement costs are being borne by the indemnitor, the indemnitee may be encouraged to engage a more expensive legal team or pursue a riskier defense strategy than it would otherwise. For this reason, most indemnitors are unwilling to indemnify against claims when they do not control the defense of the claim. ''
The American Bar Association has published advice on negotiations of construction contracts: that (1) owners try to get contractors to indemnify as much as possible, while (2) contractors (a) only indemnify for their own negligence and (b) "establish a right but not a duty for the contractor to defend under an indemnification claim. ''
An example of letting the indemnitor control costs is (in this case a contractor for a homeowners association - HOA), "Contractor shall indemnify, defend (by counsel reasonably acceptable to Association) and hold harmless the Association '' Companies and HOAs also use indemnity to protect directors, since few would serve as directors if their risks were not indemnified. Negotiation is important for both parties, "Just about all homeowner association management contracts have a provision which states that the HOA shall indemnify the manager under certain circumstances... There are several ways the indemnification clause can be drafted and both management and HOA must take into account what protects each the best ''
If indemnitors can negotiate a limit on liability in their contract, this limits the cost of a potential indemnity if they "make clear in the agreement that any limitations of liability (whether in the form of caps or exclusions of certain types of damages -- e.g., consequential) apply to the... indemnification. ''
When a contract is not negotiable (Adhesion contract), the wording often lets the indemnitee decide what to spend on legal costs and bill the indemnitor. Most clauses are quite broad. The following are examples of indemnity requirements from a range of businesses. The last one, Angie 's List, limits issues to the user 's fault, but decisions and costs are still controlled by the indemnitee (Angie 's List).
Indemnity insurance compensates the beneficiaries of the policies for their actual economic losses, up to the limiting amount of the insurance policy. It generally requires the insured to prove the amount of its loss before it can recover. Recovery is limited to the amount of the provable loss even if the face amount of the policy is higher. This is in contrast to, for example, life insurance, where the amount of the beneficiary 's economic loss is irrelevant. The death of the person whose life is insured for reasons not excluded from the policy obligate the insurer to pay the entire policy amount to the beneficiary.
Most business interruption insurance policies contain an Extended Period of Indemnity Endorsement, which extends coverage beyond the time that it takes to physically restore the property. This provision covers additional expenses that allow the business to return to prosperity and help the business restore revenues to pre-loss levels.
Slave owners suffered a loss whenever their slaves or indentured servants were granted their freedom. Slave owners might have been paid to cover their losses.
When the slaves of Zanzibar were freed in 1897, it was by compensation since the prevailing opinion was that the slave owners suffered the loss of an asset whenever a slave was freed.
In the 1860s in the United States, U.S. President Abraham Lincoln had requested many millions of dollars from Congress with which to compensate slave owners for the loss of their slaves. On July 9, 1868, Section IV of the Fourteenth Constitutional Amendment dismissed all of the claims that slave owners had been injured by the freeing of the slaves.
In 1807 -- 08, in Prussia, statesman Baron Heinrich vom Stein introduced a series of reforms, the principal of which was the abolition of serfdom with indemnification to territorial lords.
Haiti was required to pay an indemnity of 150,000,000 francs to France in order to atone for the loss suffered by the French slave owners.
In Peru, Antonio Salinas y Castañeda (1810 -- 1874), a wealthy Peruvian landowner and conservative politician, led the meeting of the main landowners of the country for an indemnity after slavery abolition and ruled the commission who promoted the immigration of Asians to replace former slaves as a workforce during Ramón Castilla government.
The nation that wins a war may insist on being paid compensations for the costs of the war, even after having been the instigator of the war.
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who provides the weather forecast for the bbc | BBC weather - wikipedia
BBC Weather is the BBC 's department in charge of preparing and broadcasting weather forecasts.
Forecast information is provided by MeteoGroup, who replaced the Met Office as the BBC 's provider of weather services in 2018.
The first BBC weather forecast was a shipping forecast, broadcast on the radio on behalf of the Met Office on 14 November 1922, and the first daily weather forecast was broadcast on 26 March 1923.
In 1936, the BBC experimented with the world 's first televised weather maps, which was brought into practice in 1949 after World War II. The map filled the entire screen, with an off - screen announcer reading the next day 's weather.
On 11 January 1954, the first in - vision weather forecast was broadcast, presented by George Cowling. In an in - vision the narrator stands in front of the map. At that point, the maps were drawn by hand in the London Weather Centre, before being couriered across London. The forecasts were presented by the same person who had composed them, and had relatively low accuracy. The London Weather Centre which opened in 1959 took the responsibility for the national radio weather broadcasts. Radio forecasters were chosen by a BBC audition from the forecasters at the London Weather Centre.
In 1962, the installation of a fax machine and an electronic computer in the Met Office led to more accurate and quicker forecasting.
Satellite photography was available from 1964, but was of a poor quality and was given on paper, with the coastline etched in felt - tip pen. This did not change until 1973 with the installation of a new computer, increasing processing power of the Weather Centre greatly, leading to forecasts twice as accurate as earlier ones.
As computational capability improved, so did graphics technology. Early hand - drawn maps gave way to magnetic symbols, which in turn gave way to bluescreen (CSO) computer - generated imagery technology, each of which allowed the presenter greater control over the information displayed.
Early magnetic symbols tended to adhere poorly to the maps, and occasional spelling errors (such as the presenter writing ' GOF ' instead of ' FOG ') marred some broadcasts, but allowed the presenter to show how weather would change over time. The symbols were designed to be ' self - explicit ', allowing the viewer to understand the map without a key or legend.
These were phased out in 1985 for computer graphics, although the basic design of symbols was kept the same. These forecasts were widely acclaimed for their simplicity, winning an award from the Royal Television Society in 1993.
On 2 October 2000, BBC Weather underwent a more significant change. Whilst there was not much change to the existing weather symbols new symbols giving information on pollen and sun levels were introduced. A new more detailed map of Britain was used based on satellite data.
Possibly, the most famous of the forecasters is the now semi-retired Michael Fish. Famous for his informal manner and eccentric dress sense (he once wore a blue and green blazer emblazoned with all the weather symbols), he was a viewer favourite despite an unfortunate comment before the Great Storm of 1987.
During a weather forecast some hours before the storm, Michael Fish started his forecast with the now infamous line "Earlier on today, apparently, a woman rang the BBC and said she heard there was a hurricane on the way. Well, if you 're watching, do n't worry, there is n't ''. Although he was factually correct, as it is impossible for a proper hurricane to reach the UK latitudes, and he was actually referring to a Florida hurricane (Floyd), and he went on to accurately forecast stormy conditions over the south of England, the statement has gone down in popular culture as one of the worst mistakes made so publicly.
The weather symbols were replaced in May 2005 after 29 years and 9 months on air by a controversial format as the forecast underwent another redesign, with the flat map replaced by a 3D globe, and weather conditions shown by coloured areas. Cloud cover is indicated by the brightness of the map, while rain and snow are indicated by animated blue and white areas respectively.
The graphics are provided by Weatherscape XT, which was developed by the commercial arm of the New Zealand Metservice.
The move polarised opinion; some saw it as more accurate and modern, while others disliked the brown colour chosen for the landmass and the presumed high cost of the graphics. The angling of the map, in order to show the curvature of the Earth, led to Scotland appearing little larger than Devon, and Shetland being almost invisible while exaggerating London and the South East. This led to many Scottish commentators accusing the BBC of having a London bias. As a result, the map was realigned, and the moving tour of the UK was lengthened.
The new look won a prestigious Silver Award at the Promax / BDA Awards in 2006. Criticism has continued, however, with some viewers complaining about the colour scheme, and of a lack of detail in the forecast about weather developments beyond 36 hours.
There have been continuous developments since May 2005. In 2006, a rippling effect was introduced to define seas and oceans.
On 23 August 2015, the BBC announced that the Met Office would lose its contract to provide weather forecasts, the BBC stating that it is legally obliged to ensure that licence fee payers get the best value for money. The BBC said that the on - air presenting team was not expected to change and it would still broadcast warnings from the Met Office National Severe Weather Warning Service and Shipping Forecast issued on behalf of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency.
A competitive tendering process followed, with MeteoGroup chosen as the new provider in August 2016.
Public feedback in January 2018 regarding the subsequent updates and changes to the BBC Website and associated weather applications for mobile devices were generally critical.
On 6 February 2018, the BBC began using the MeteoGroup graphics.
The redesign includes:
Many weather watchers were highly critical of the new design, with widespread criticism voiced across the media. Many used the comments section of the blog written by Michael Burnett, the BBC Executive responsible to voice their complaints.
The blog entry dated 22nd January 2018 was originally aimed at positively promoting the changes, but this appeared to have the opposite effect when the blog post generated well over 1000 mostly critical comments in under 10 days.
The comments include references to the changes as "the opposite of improvements '', "utterly laughable '', "completely cluttered and confusing '' as well as "woefully inaccurate ''. In response, the BBC appears to have removed the links to Michael Burnetts blog from both the main BBC homepage and the BBC weather homepage, a move that was also criticised openly among many of those commenting.
National forecasters still provide forecasts for local news programmes.
The BBC Weather website provides outlook weather forecasts for UK and international locations using animated symbols and a format similar in design to that used for the televised broadcasts. The website launched in 1997.
The website also runs frequent special features about seasonal sports, white Christmas, nature, and meteorological science. It also has world weather, UK outlook, and weather news.
On 20 May 2013, the BBC released the BBC Weather App for both iOS devices (although initially not optimised for iPad) and Android devices (via the Google Play Store). Both versions were designed by Media Applications Technologies, and their data source was the Met Office.
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where did the money comes from needed to build the boulder dam | Hoover dam - wikipedia
Hoover Dam, originally known as Boulder Dam from 1933 to 1947, when it was officially renamed Hoover Dam by a joint resolution of Congress, is a concrete arch - gravity dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the U.S. states of Nevada and Arizona. It was constructed between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression and was dedicated on September 30, 1935, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Its construction was the result of a massive effort involving thousands of workers, and cost over one hundred lives. The dam was named after President Herbert Hoover.
Since about 1900, the Black Canyon and nearby Boulder Canyon had been investigated for their potential to support a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power. In 1928, Congress authorized the project. The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies, Inc., which began construction on the dam in early 1931. Such a large concrete structure had never been built before, and some of the techniques were unproven. The torrid summer weather and lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties. Nevertheless, Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on March 1, 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule.
Hoover Dam impounds Lake Mead, the largest reservoir in the United States by volume (when it is full). The dam is located near Boulder City, Nevada, a municipality originally constructed for workers on the construction project, about 30 mi (48 km) southeast of Las Vegas, Nevada. The dam 's generators provide power for public and private utilities in Nevada, Arizona, and California. Hoover Dam is a major tourist attraction; nearly a million people tour the dam each year. The heavily traveled U.S. Route 93 (US 93) ran along the dam 's crest until October 2010, when the Hoover Dam Bypass opened.
As the United States developed the Southwest, the Colorado River was seen as a potential source of irrigation water. An initial attempt at diverting the river for irrigation purposes occurred in the late 1890s, when land speculator William Beatty built the Alamo Canal just north of the Mexican border; the canal dipped into Mexico before running to a desolate area Beatty named the Imperial Valley. Though water from the Imperial Canal allowed for the widespread settlement of the valley, the canal proved expensive to maintain. After a catastrophic breach that caused the Colorado River to fill the Salton Sea, the Southern Pacific Railroad spent $3 million in 1906 -- 07 to stabilize the waterway, an amount it hoped vainly would be reimbursed by the Federal Government. Even after the waterway was stabilized, it proved unsatisfactory because of constant disputes with landowners on the Mexican side of the border.
As the technology of electric power transmission improved, the Lower Colorado was considered for its hydroelectric - power potential. In 1902, the Edison Electric Company of Los Angeles surveyed the river in the hope of building a 40 - foot (12 m) rock dam which could generate 10,000 horsepower (7,500 kW). However, at the time, the limit of transmission of electric power was 80 miles (130 km), and there were few customers (mostly mines) within that limit. Edison allowed land options it held on the river to lapse -- including an option for what became the site of Hoover Dam.
In the following years, the Bureau of Reclamation (BOR), known as the Reclamation Service at the time, also considered the Lower Colorado as the site for a dam. Service chief Arthur Powell Davis proposed using dynamite to collapse the walls of Boulder Canyon, 20 miles (32 km) north of the eventual dam site, into the river. The river would carry off the smaller pieces of debris, and a dam would be built incorporating the remaining rubble. In 1922, after considering it for several years, the Reclamation Service finally rejected the proposal, citing doubts about the unproven technique and questions as to whether it would in fact save money.
In 1922, the Reclamation Service presented a report calling for the development of a dam on the Colorado River for flood control and electric power generation. The report was principally authored by Davis, and was called the Fall - Davis report after Interior Secretary Albert Fall. The Fall - Davis report cited use of the Colorado River as a federal concern, because the river 's basin covered several states, and the river eventually entered Mexico. Though the Fall - Davis report called for a dam "at or near Boulder Canyon '', the Reclamation Service (which was renamed the Bureau of Reclamation the following year) found that canyon unsuitable. One potential site at Boulder Canyon was bisected by a geologic fault; two others were so narrow there was no space for a construction camp at the bottom of the canyon or for a spillway. The Service investigated Black Canyon and found it ideal; a railway could be laid from the railhead in Las Vegas to the top of the dam site. Despite the site change, the dam project was referred to as the "Boulder Canyon Project ''.
With little guidance on water allocation from the Supreme Court, proponents of the dam feared endless litigation. A Colorado attorney proposed that the seven states which fell within the river 's basin (California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, Colorado and Wyoming) form an interstate compact, with the approval of Congress. Such compacts were authorized by Article I of the United States Constitution but had never been concluded among more than two states. In 1922, representatives of seven states met with then - Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover. Initial talks produced no result, but when the Supreme Court handed down the Wyoming v. Colorado decision undermining the claims of the upstream states, they became anxious to reach an agreement. The resulting Colorado River Compact was signed on November 24, 1922.
Legislation to authorize the dam was introduced repeatedly by two California Republicans, Representative Phil Swing and Senator Hiram Johnson, but representatives from other parts of the country considered the project as hugely expensive and one that would mostly benefit California. The 1927 Mississippi flood made Midwestern and Southern congressmen and senators more sympathetic toward the dam project. On March 12, 1928, the failure of the St. Francis Dam, constructed by the city of Los Angeles, caused a disastrous flood that killed up to 600 people. As that dam was a curved - gravity type, similar in design to the arch - gravity as was proposed for the Black Canyon dam, opponents claimed that the Black Canyon dam 's safety could not be guaranteed. Congress authorized a board of engineers to review plans for the proposed dam. The Colorado River Board found the project feasible, but warned that should the dam fail, every downstream Colorado River community would be destroyed, and that the river might change course and empty into the Salton Sea. The Board cautioned: "To avoid such possibilities, the proposed dam should be constructed on conservative if not ultra-conservative lines. ''
On December 21, 1928 President Coolidge signed the bill authorizing the dam. The Boulder Canyon Project Act appropriated $165 million for the Hoover Dam along with the downstream Imperial Dam and All - American Canal, a replacement for Beatty 's canal entirely on the U.S. side of the border. It also permitted the compact to go into effect when at least six of the seven states approved it. This occurred on March 6, 1929 with Utah 's ratification; Arizona did not approve it until 1944.
Even before Congress approved the Boulder Canyon Project, the Bureau of Reclamation was considering what kind of dam should be used. Officials eventually decided on a massive concrete arch - gravity dam, the design of which was overseen by the Bureau 's chief design engineer John L. Savage. The monolithic dam would be thick at the bottom and thin near the top, and would present a convex face towards the water above the dam. The curving arch of the dam would transmit the water 's force into the abutments, in this case the rock walls of the canyon. The wedge - shaped dam would be 660 ft (200 m) thick at the bottom, narrowing to 45 ft (14 m) at the top, leaving room for a highway connecting Nevada and Arizona.
On January 10, 1931, the Bureau made the bid documents available to interested parties, at five dollars a copy. The government was to provide the materials; but the contractor was to prepare the site and build the dam. The dam was described in minute detail, covering 100 pages of text and 76 drawings. A $2 million bid bond was to accompany each bid; the winner would have to post a $5 million performance bond. The contractor had seven years to build the dam, or penalties would ensue.
The Wattis Brothers, heads of the Utah Construction Company, were interested in bidding on the project, but lacked the money for the performance bond. They lacked sufficient resources even in combination with their longtime partners, Morrison - Knudsen, which employed the nation 's leading dam builder, Frank Crowe. They formed a joint venture to bid for the project with Pacific Bridge Company of Portland, Oregon; Henry J. Kaiser & W.A. Bechtel Company of San Francisco; MacDonald & Kahn Ltd. of Los Angeles; and the J.F. Shea Company of Portland, Oregon. The joint venture was called Six Companies, Inc. as Bechtel and Kaiser were considered one company for purposes of 6 in the name. The name was descriptive and was an inside joke among the San Franciscans in the bid, where "Six Companies '' was also a Chinese benevolent association in the city. There were three valid bids, and Six Companies ' bid of $48,890,955 was the lowest, within $24,000 of the confidential government estimate of what the dam would cost to build, and five million dollars less than the next - lowest bid.
The city of Las Vegas had lobbied hard to be the headquarters for the dam construction, closing its many speakeasies when the decision maker, Secretary of the Interior Ray Wilbur came to town. Instead, Wilbur announced in early 1930 that a model city was to be built in the desert near the dam site. This town became known as Boulder City, Nevada. Construction of a rail line joining Las Vegas and the dam site began in September 1930.
Soon after the dam was authorized, increasing numbers of unemployed people converged on southern Nevada. Las Vegas, then a small city of some 5,000, saw between 10,000 and 20,000 unemployed descend on it. A government camp was established for surveyors and other personnel near the dam site; this soon became surrounded by a squatters ' camp. Known as McKeeversville, the camp was home to men hoping for work on the project, together with their families. Another camp, on the flats along the Colorado River, was officially called Williamsville, but was known to its inhabitants as "Ragtown ''. When construction began, Six Companies hired large numbers of workers, with more than 3,000 on the payroll by 1932 and with employment peaking at 5,251 in July 1934. "Mongolian '' (Chinese) labor was prevented by the construction contract, while the number of blacks employed by Six Companies never exceeded thirty, mostly lowest - pay - scale laborers in a segregated crew, who were issued separate water buckets.
As part of the contract, Six Companies, Inc. was to build Boulder City to house the workers. The original timetable called for Boulder City to be built before the dam project began, but President Hoover ordered work on the dam to begin in March 1931 rather than in October. The company built bunkhouses, attached to the canyon wall, to house 480 single men at what became known as River Camp. Workers with families were left to provide their own accommodations until Boulder City could be completed, and many lived in Ragtown. The site of Hoover Dam endures extremely hot weather, and the summer of 1931 was especially torrid, with the daytime high averaging 119.9 ° F (48.8 ° C). Sixteen workers and other riverbank residents died of heat prostration between June 25 and July 26, 1931.
The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or "Wobblies ''), though much - reduced from their heyday as militant labor organizers in the early years of the century, hoped to unionize the Six Companies workers by capitalizing on their discontent. They sent eleven organizers, several of whom were arrested by Las Vegas police. On August 7, 1931, the company cut wages for all tunnel workers. Although the workers sent away the organizers, not wanting to be associated with the "Wobblies '', they formed a committee to represent them with the company. The committee drew up a list of demands that evening and presented them to Crowe the following morning. He was noncommittal. The workers hoped that Crowe, the general superintendent of the job, would be sympathetic; instead he gave a scathing interview to a newspaper, describing the workers as "malcontents ''.
On the morning of the 9th, Crowe met with the committee and told them that management refused their demands, was stopping all work, and was laying off the entire work force, except for a few office workers and carpenters. The workers were given until 5 p.m. to vacate the premises. Concerned that a violent confrontation was imminent, most workers took their paychecks and left for Las Vegas to await developments. Two days later, the remainder were talked into leaving by law enforcement. On August 13, the company began hiring workers again, and two days later, the strike was called off. While the workers received none of their demands, the company guaranteed there would be no further reductions in wages. Living conditions began to improve as the first residents moved into Boulder City in late 1931.
A second labor action took place in July 1935, as construction on the dam wound down. When a Six Companies manager altered working times to force workers to take lunch on their own time, workers responded with a strike. Emboldened by Crowe 's reversal of the lunch decree, workers raised their demands to include a $1 - per - day raise. The company agreed to ask the Federal government to supplement the pay, but no money was forthcoming from Washington. The strike ended.
Before the dam could be built, the Colorado River needed to be diverted away from the construction site. To accomplish this, four diversion tunnels were driven through the canyon walls, two on the Nevada side and two on the Arizona side. These tunnels were 56 ft (17 m) in diameter. Their combined length was nearly 16,000 ft, or more than 3 miles (5 km). The contract required these tunnels to be completed by October 1, 1933, with a $3,000 - per - day fine to be assessed for any delay. To meet the deadline, Six Companies had to complete work by early 1933, since only in late fall and winter was the water level in the river low enough to safely divert.
Tunneling began at the lower portals of the Nevada tunnels in May 1931. Shortly afterward, work began on two similar tunnels in the Arizona canyon wall. In March 1932, work began on lining the tunnels with concrete. First the base, or invert, was poured. Gantry cranes, running on rails through the entire length of each tunnel were used to place the concrete. The sidewalls were poured next. Movable sections of steel forms were used for the sidewalls. Finally, using pneumatic guns, the overheads were filled in. The concrete lining is 3 feet (1 m) thick, reducing the finished tunnel diameter to 50 ft (15 m). The river was diverted into the two Arizona tunnels on November 13, 1932; the Nevada tunnels were kept in reserve for high water. This was done by exploding a temporary cofferdam protecting the Arizona tunnels while at the same time dumping rubble into the river until its natural course was blocked.
Following the completion of the dam, the entrances to the two outer diversion tunnels were sealed at the opening and halfway through the tunnels with large concrete plugs. The downstream halves of the tunnels following the inner plugs are now the main bodies of the spillway tunnels. The inner diversion tunnels were plugged at approximately one - third of their length, beyond which they now carry steel pipes connecting the intake towers to the power plant and outlet works. The inner tunnels ' outlets are equipped with gates that can be closed to drain the tunnels for maintenance.
To protect the construction site from the Colorado River and to facilitate the river 's diversion, two cofferdams were constructed. Work on the upper cofferdam began in September 1932, even though the river had not yet been diverted. The cofferdams were designed to protect against the possibility of the river flooding a site at which two thousand men might be at work, and their specifications were covered in the bid documents in nearly as much detail as the dam itself. The upper cofferdam was 96 ft (29 m) high, and 750 feet (230 m) thick at its base, thicker than the dam itself. It contained 650,000 cubic yards (500,000 m) of material.
When the cofferdams were in place and the construction site was drained of water, excavation for the dam foundation began. For the dam to rest on solid rock, it was necessary to remove accumulated erosion soils and other loose materials in the riverbed until sound bedrock was reached. Work on the foundation excavations was completed in June 1933. During this excavation, approximately 1,500,000 cu yd (1,100,000 m) of material was removed. Since the dam was an arch - gravity type, the side - walls of the canyon would bear the force of the impounded lake. Therefore, the side - walls were excavated too, to reach virgin rock as weathered rock might provide pathways for water seepage.
The men who removed this rock were called "high scalers ''. While suspended from the top of the canyon with ropes, the high - scalers climbed down the canyon walls and removed the loose rock with jackhammers and dynamite. Falling objects were the most common cause of death on the dam site; the high scalers ' work thus helped ensure worker safety. One high scaler was able to save life in a more direct manner: when a government inspector lost his grip on a safety line and began tumbling down a slope towards almost certain death, a high scaler was able to intercept him and pull him into the air. The construction site had, even then, become a magnet for tourists; the high scalers were prime attractions and showed off for the watchers. The high scalers received considerable media attention, with one worker dubbed the "Human Pendulum '' for swinging co-workers (and, at other times, cases of dynamite) across the canyon. To protect themselves against falling objects, some high scalers took cloth hats and dipped them in tar, allowing them to harden. When workers wearing such headgear were struck hard enough to inflict broken jaws, they sustained no skull damage, Six Companies ordered thousands of what initially were called "hard boiled hats '' (later "hard hats '') and strongly encouraged their use.
The cleared, underlying rock foundation of the dam site was reinforced with grout, called a grout curtain. Holes were driven into the walls and base of the canyon, as deep as 150 feet (46 m) into the rock, and any cavities encountered were to be filled with grout. This was done to stabilize the rock, to prevent water from seeping past the dam through the canyon rock, and to limit "uplift '' -- upward pressure from water seeping under the dam. The workers were under severe time constraints due to the beginning of the concrete pour, and when they encountered hot springs or cavities too large to readily fill, they moved on without resolving the problem. A total of 58 of the 393 holes were incompletely filled. After the dam was completed and the lake began to fill, large numbers of significant leaks into the dam caused the Bureau of Reclamation to look into the situation. It found that the work had been incompletely done, and was based on less than a full understanding of the canyon 's geology. New holes were drilled from inspection galleries inside the dam into the surrounding bedrock. It took nine years (1938 -- 47) under relative secrecy to complete the supplemental grout curtain.
The first concrete was poured into the dam on June 6, 1933, 18 months ahead of schedule. Since concrete heats and contracts as it cures, the potential for uneven cooling and contraction of the concrete posed a serious problem. Bureau of Reclamation engineers calculated that if the dam was built in a single continuous pour, the concrete would take 125 years to cool, and the resulting stresses would cause the dam to crack and crumble. Instead, the ground where the dam would rise was marked with rectangles, and concrete blocks in columns were poured, some as large as 50 ft square (15 m) and 5 feet (1.5 m) high. Each five - foot form contained a series of 1 - inch (25 mm) steel pipes; cool riverwater would be poured through the pipes, followed by ice - cold water from a refrigeration plant. When an individual block had cured and had stopped contracting, the pipes were filled with grout. Grout was also used to fill the hairline spaces between columns, which were grooved to increase the strength of the joins.
The concrete was delivered in huge steel buckets 7 feet high (2.1 m) and almost 7 feet in diameter; Crowe was awarded two patents for their design. These buckets, which weighed 20 short tons (18 t) when full, were filled at two massive concrete plants on the Nevada side, and were delivered to the site in special railcars. The buckets were then suspended from aerial cableways, which were used to deliver the bucket to a specific column. As the required grade of aggregate in the concrete differed depending on placement in the dam (from pea - sized gravel to 9 - inch or 23 cm stones), it was vital that the bucket be maneuvered to the proper column. When the bottom of the bucket opened up, disgorging 8 cu yd (6.1 m) of concrete, a team of men worked it throughout the form. Although there are myths that men were caught in the pour and are entombed in the dam to this day, each bucket only deepened the concrete in a form by an inch, and Six Companies engineers would not have permitted a flaw caused by the presence of a human body.
A total of 3,250,000 cubic yards (2,480,000 m) of concrete was used in the dam before concrete pouring ceased on May 29, 1935. In addition, 1,110,000 cu yd (850,000 m) were used in the power plant and other works. More than 582 miles (937 km) of cooling pipes were placed within the concrete. Overall, there is enough concrete in the dam to pave a two - lane highway from San Francisco to New York. Concrete cores were removed from the dam for testing in 1995; they showed that "Hoover Dam 's concrete has continued to slowly gain strength '' and the dam is composed of a "durable concrete having a compressive strength exceeding the range typically found in normal mass concrete ''. Hoover Dam concrete is not subject to alkali -- silica reaction (ASR) as the Hoover Dam builders happened to use nonreactive aggregate, unlike that at downstream Parker Dam, where ASR has caused measurable deterioration.
With most work finished on the dam itself (the powerhouse remained uncompleted), a formal dedication ceremony was arranged for September 30, 1935, to coincide with a western tour being made by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The morning of the dedication, it was moved forward three hours from 2 p.m. Pacific time to 11 a.m.; this was done because Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes had reserved a radio slot for the President for 2 p.m. but officials did not realize until the day of the ceremony that the slot was for 2 p.m. Eastern Time. Despite the change in the ceremony time, and temperatures of 102 ° F (39 ° C), 10,000 people were present for the President 's speech, in which he avoided mentioning the name of former President Hoover, who was not invited to the ceremony. To mark the occasion, a three - cent stamp was issued by the United States Post Office Department -- bearing the name "Boulder Dam '', the official name of the dam between 1933 and 1947. After the ceremony, Roosevelt made the first visit by any American president to Las Vegas.
Most work had been completed by the dedication, and Six Companies negotiated with the government through late 1935, and early 1936, to settle all claims and arrange for the formal transfer of the dam to the Federal Government. The parties came to an agreement and on March 1, 1936, Secretary Ickes formally accepted the dam on behalf of the government. Six Companies was not required to complete work on one item, a concrete plug for one of the bypass tunnels, as the tunnel had to be used to take in irrigation water until the powerhouse went into operation.
There were 112 deaths associated with the construction of the dam. The first was J.G. Tierney, a surveyor who drowned on December 20, 1922, while looking for an ideal spot for the dam. The last death on the project 's official fatality list occurred on December 20, 1935, when an "electrician 's helper '', Patrick Tierney, the son of J.G. Tierney, fell from an intake tower. Included in the fatality list are three workers, one in 1932 and two in 1933, who committed suicide onsite. Ninety - six of the deaths occurred during construction at the site. Of the 112 fatalities, 91 were Six Companies employees, three were BOR employees, and one was a visitor to the site, with the remainder employees of various contractors not part of Six Companies.
Not included in the official number of fatalities were deaths that were recorded as pneumonia. Workers alleged that this diagnosis was a cover for death from carbon monoxide poisoning (brought on by the use of gasoline - fueled vehicles in the diversion tunnels), and a classification used by Six Companies to avoid paying compensation claims. The site 's diversion tunnels frequently reached 140 ° F (60 ° C), enveloped in thick plumes of vehicle exhaust gases. A total of 42 workers were recorded as having died from pneumonia; none were listed as having died from carbon monoxide poisoning. No deaths of non-workers from pneumonia were recorded in Boulder City during the construction period.
The initial plans for the facade of the dam, the power plant, the outlet tunnels and ornaments clashed with the modern look of an arch dam. The Bureau of Reclamation, more concerned with the dam 's functionality, adorned it with a Gothic - inspired balustrade and eagle statues. This initial design was criticized by many as being too plain and unremarkable for a project of such immense scale, so Los Angeles - based architect Gordon B. Kaufmann, then the supervising architect to the Bureau of Reclamation, was brought in to redesign the exteriors. Kaufmann greatly streamlined the design, and applied an elegant Art Deco style to the entire project. He designed sculptured turrets rising seamlessly from the dam face and clock faces on the intake towers set for the time in Nevada and Arizona -- both states are in different time zones, but since Arizona does not observe Daylight Saving Time, the clocks display the same time for more than half the year.
At Kaufmann 's request, Denver artist Allen Tupper True was hired to handle the design and decoration of the walls and floors of the new dam. True 's design scheme incorporated motifs of the Navajo and Pueblo tribes of the region. Although some initially were opposed to these designs, True was given the go - ahead and was officially appointed consulting artist. With the assistance of the National Laboratory of Anthropology, True researched authentic decorative motifs from Indian sand paintings, textiles, baskets and ceramics. The images and colors are based on Native American visions of rain, lightning, water, clouds, and local animals -- lizards, serpents, birds -- and on the Southwestern landscape of stepped mesas. In these works, which are integrated into the walkways and interior halls of the dam, True also reflected on the machinery of the operation, making the symbolic patterns appear both ancient and modern.
With the agreement of Kaufmann and the engineers, True also devised an innovative color - coding for the pipes and machinery, which was implemented throughout all BOR projects. True 's consulting artist job lasted through 1942; it was extended so he could complete design work for the Parker, Shasta and Grand Coulee dams and power plants. True 's work on the Hoover Dam was humorously referred to in a poem published in The New Yorker, part of which read, "lose the spark, and justify the dream; but also worthy of remark will be the color scheme ''.
Complementing Kaufmann and True 's work, the Norwegian - born, naturalized American sculptor Oskar J.W. Hansen designed many of the sculptures on and around the dam. His works include the monument of dedication plaza, a plaque to memorialize the workers killed and the bas - reliefs on the elevator towers. In his words, Hansen wanted his work to express "the immutable calm of intellectual resolution, and the enormous power of trained physical strength, equally enthroned in placid triumph of scientific accomplishment '', because "(t) he building of Hoover Dam belongs to the sagas of the daring. '' Hansen 's dedication plaza, on the Nevada abutment, contains a sculpture of two winged figures flanking a flagpole.
Surrounding the base of the monument is a terrazzo floor embedded with a "star map ''. The map depicts the Northern Hemisphere sky at the moment of President Roosevelt 's dedication of the dam. This is intended to help future astronomers, if necessary, calculate the exact date of dedication. The 30 - foot - high (9.1 m) bronze figures, dubbed "Winged Figures of the Republic '', were each formed in a continuous pour. To put such large bronzes into place without marring the highly polished bronze surface, they were placed on ice and guided into position as the ice melted. Hansen 's bas - relief on the Nevada elevator tower depicts the benefits of the dam: flood control, navigation, irrigation, water storage, and power. The bas - relief on the Arizona elevator depicts, in his words, "the visages of those Indian tribes who have inhabited mountains and plains from ages distant. ''
Excavation for the powerhouse was carried out simultaneously with the excavation for the dam foundation and abutments. A U-shaped structure located at the downstream toe of the dam, its excavation was completed in late 1933 with the first concrete placed in November 1933. Filling of Lake Mead began February 1, 1935, even before the last of the concrete was poured that May. The powerhouse was one of the projects uncompleted at the time of the formal dedication on September 30, 1935 -- a crew of 500 men remained to finish it and other structures. To make the powerhouse roof bombproof, it was constructed of layers of concrete, rock, and steel with a total thickness of about 3.5 feet (1.1 m), topped with layers of sand and tar.
In the latter half of 1936, water levels in Lake Mead were high enough to permit power generation, and the first three Allis Chalmers built Francis turbine - generators, all on the Nevada side, began operating. In March 1937, one more Nevada generator went online and the first Arizona generator by August. By September 1939, four more generators were operating, and the dam 's power plant became the largest hydroelectricity facility in the world. The final generator was not placed in service until 1961, bringing the maximum generating capacity to 1,345 megawatts at the time. Original plans called for 16 large generators, eight on each side of the river, but two smaller generators were installed instead of one large one on the Arizona side for a total of 17. The smaller generators were used to serve smaller communities at a time when the output of each generator was dedicated to a single municipality, before the dam 's total power output was placed on the grid and made arbitrarily distributable. The present contracts for the sale of electricity expire in 2017.
Before water from Lake Mead reaches the turbines, it enters the intake towers and then four gradually narrowing penstocks which funnel the water down towards the powerhouse. The intakes provide a maximum hydraulic head (water pressure) of 590 ft (180 m) as the water reaches a speed of about 85 mph (140 km / h). The entire flow of the Colorado River passes through the turbines. The spillways and outlet works (jet - flow gates) are rarely used. The jet - flow gates, located in concrete structures 180 feet (55 m) above the river, and also at the outlets of the inner diversion tunnels at river level, may be used to divert water around the dam in emergency or flood conditions, but have never done so, and in practice are only used to drain water from the penstocks for maintenance. Following an uprating project from 1986 to 1993, the total gross power rating for the plant, including two 2.4 megawatt Pelton turbine - generators that power Hoover Dam 's own operations is a maximum capacity of 2080 megawatts. The annual generation of Hoover Dam varies. The maximum net generation was 10.348 TWh in 1984, and the minimum since 1940 was 2.648 TWh in 1956. The average power generated was 4.2 TWh / year for 1947 -- 2008. In 2015, the dam generated 3.6 TWh.
The amount of electricity generated by Hoover Dam has been decreasing along with the falling water level in Lake Mead due to the prolonged drought in the 2010s and high demand for the Colorado River 's water. Lake Mead fell to a new record low elevation of 1,071.61 feet (326.63 m) on July 1, 2016 before beginning to rebound slowly. Under its original design, the dam will no longer be able to generate power once the water level falls below 1,050 feet (320 m), which could occur as early as 2017. To lower the minimum power pool elevation from 1,050 to 950 feet (320 to 290 m), five wide - head turbines, designed to work efficiently with less flow, are being installed and will be fully online by 2017. Due to the low water levels, by 2014 it was providing power only during periods of peak demand.
Control of water was the primary concern in the building of the dam. Power generation has allowed the dam project to be self - sustaining: proceeds from the sale of power repaid the 50 - year construction loan, and those revenues also finance the multimillion - dollar yearly maintenance budget. Power is generated in step with and only with the release of water in response to downstream water demands.
Lake Mead and downstream releases from the dam also provide water for both municipal and irrigation uses. Water released from the Hoover Dam eventually reaches several canals. The Colorado River Aqueduct and Central Arizona Project branch off Lake Havasu while the All - American Canal is supplied by the Imperial Dam. In total, water from the Lake Mead serves 18 million people in Arizona, Nevada and California and supplies the irrigation of over 1,000,000 acres (400,000 ha) of land.
Electricity from the dam 's powerhouse was originally sold pursuant to a fifty - year contract, authorized by Congress in 1934, which ran from 1937 to 1987. In 1984, Congress passed a new statute which set power allocations from the dam from 1987 to 2017. The powerhouse was run under the original authorization by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and Southern California Edison; in 1987, the Bureau of Reclamation assumed control. In 2011, Congress enacted legislation extending the current contracts until 2067, after setting aside 5 % of Hoover Dam 's power for sale to Native American tribes, electric cooperatives, and other entities. The new arrangement will begin on October 1, 2017. The Bureau of Reclamation reports that the energy generated under the contracts ending in 2017 is allocated as follows:
Tourists gather around one of the generators in the Nevada wing of the powerhouse to hear its operation explained, September 1940
A worker stands by the 30 ft (9.1 m) diameter Nevada penstock before its junction with another penstock that delivers water to a turbine
The dam is protected against over-topping by two spillways. The spillway entrances are located behind each dam abutment, running roughly parallel to the canyon walls. The spillway entrance arrangement forms a classic side - flow weir with each spillway containing four 100 - foot - long (30 m) and 16 - foot - wide (4.9 m) steel - drum gates. Each gate weighs 5,000,000 pounds (2,300,000 kg) and can be operated manually or automatically. Gates are raised and lowered depending on water levels in the reservoir and flood conditions. The gates could not entirely prevent water from entering the spillways but could maintain an extra 16 ft (4.9 m) of lake level. Water flowing over the spillways falls dramatically into 600 - foot - long (180 m), 50 - foot - wide (15 m) spillway tunnels before connecting to the outer diversion tunnels, and reentering the main river channel below the dam. This complex spillway entrance arrangement combined with the approximate 700 - foot (210 m) elevation drop from the top of the reservoir to the river below was a difficult engineering problem and posed numerous design challenges. Each spillway 's capacity of 200,000 cu ft / s (5,700 m / s) was empirically verified in post-construction tests in 1941.
The large spillway tunnels have only been used twice, for testing in 1941 and because of flooding in 1983. During both times, when inspecting the tunnels after the spillways were used, engineers found major damage to the concrete linings and underlying rock. The 1941 damage was attributed to a slight misalignment of the tunnel invert (or base), which caused cavitation, a phenomenon in fast - flowing liquids in which vapor bubbles collapse with explosive force. In response to this finding, the tunnels were patched with special heavy - duty concrete and the surface of the concrete was polished mirror - smooth. The spillways were modified in 1947 by adding flip buckets, which both slow the water and decrease the spillway 's effective capacity, in an attempt to eliminate conditions thought to have contributed to the 1941 damage. The 1983 damage, also due to cavitation, led to the installation of aerators in the spillways. Tests at Grand Coulee Dam showed that the technique worked, in principle.
There are two lanes for automobile traffic across the top of the dam, which formerly served as the Colorado River crossing for U.S. Route 93. In the wake of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, authorities expressed security concerns and the Hoover Dam Bypass project was expedited. Pending the completion of the bypass, restricted traffic was permitted over Hoover Dam. Some types of vehicles were inspected prior to crossing the dam while semi-trailer trucks, buses carrying luggage, and enclosed - box trucks over 40 ft (12 m) long were not allowed on the dam at all, and were diverted to U.S. Route 95 or Nevada State Routes 163 / 68. The four - lane Hoover Dam Bypass opened on October 19, 2010. It includes a composite steel and concrete arch bridge, the Mike O'Callaghan -- Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge, 1,500 ft (460 m) downstream from the dam. With the opening of the bypass, through traffic is no longer allowed across Hoover Dam; dam visitors are allowed to use the existing roadway to approach from the Nevada side and cross to parking lots and other facilities on the Arizona side.
Hoover Dam opened for tours in 1937 after its completion, but following Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, it was closed to the public when the United States entered World War II, during which only authorized traffic, in convoys, was permitted. After the war, it reopened September 2, 1945, and by 1953, annual attendance had risen to 448,081. The dam closed on November 25, 1963 and March 31, 1969, days of mourning in remembrance of Presidents Kennedy and Eisenhower. In 1995, a new visitors ' center was built, and the following year, visits exceeded one million for the first time. The dam closed again to the public on September 11, 2001; modified tours were resumed in December and a new "Discovery Tour '' was added the following year. Today, nearly a million people per year take the tours of the dam offered by the Bureau of Reclamation. Increased security concerns by the government have led to most of the interior structure being inaccessible to tourists. As a result, few of True 's decorations can now be seen by visitors.
The changes in water flow and use caused by Hoover Dam 's construction and operation have had a large impact on the Colorado River Delta. The construction of the dam has been implicated in causing the decline of this estuarine ecosystem. For six years after the construction of the dam, while Lake Mead filled, virtually no water reached the mouth of the river. The delta 's estuary, which once had a freshwater - saltwater mixing zone stretching 40 miles (64 km) south of the river 's mouth, was turned into an inverse estuary where the level of salinity was higher close to the river 's mouth.
The Colorado River had experienced natural flooding before the construction of the Hoover Dam. The dam eliminated the natural flooding, which threatened many species adapted to the flooding, including both plants and animals. The construction of the dam devastated the populations of native fish in the river downstream from the dam. Four species of fish native to the Colorado River, the Bonytail chub, Colorado pikeminnow, Humpback chub, and Razorback sucker, are listed as endangered.
During the years of lobbying leading up to the passage of legislation authorizing the dam in 1928, the press generally referred to the dam as "Boulder Dam '' or as "Boulder Canyon Dam '', even though the proposed site had shifted to Black Canyon. The Boulder Canyon Project Act of 1928 (BCPA) never mentioned a proposed name or title for the dam. The BCPA merely allows the government to "construct, operate, and maintain a dam and incidental works in the main stream of the Colorado River at Black Canyon or Boulder Canyon ''.
When Secretary Wilbur spoke at the ceremony starting the building of the railway between Las Vegas and the dam site on September 17, 1930, he named the dam "Hoover Dam '', citing a tradition of naming dams after Presidents, though none had been so honored during their terms of office. Wilbur justified his choice on the ground that Hoover was "the great engineer whose vision and persistence... has done so much to make (the dam) possible ''. One writer complained in response that "the Great Engineer had quickly drained, ditched, and dammed the country. ''
After Hoover 's election defeat in 1932 and the accession of the Roosevelt administration, Secretary Ickes ordered on May 13, 1933, that the dam be referred to as "Boulder Dam ''. Ickes stated that Wilbur had been imprudent in naming the dam after a sitting president, that Congress had never ratified his choice, and that it had long been referred to as Boulder Dam. Unknown to the general public, Attorney General Homer Cummings informed Ickes that Congress had indeed used the name "Hoover Dam '' in five different bills appropriating money for construction of the dam. The official status this conferred to the name "Hoover Dam '' had been noted on the floor of the House of Representatives by Congressman Edward T. Taylor of Colorado on December 12, 1930, but was likewise ignored by Ickes.
When Ickes spoke at the dedication ceremony on September 30, 1935, he was determined, as he recorded in his diary, "to try to nail down for good and all the name Boulder Dam. '' At one point in the speech, he spoke the words "Boulder Dam '' five times within thirty seconds. Further, he suggested that if the dam were to be named after any one person, it should be for California Senator Hiram Johnson, a lead sponsor of the authorizing legislation. Roosevelt also referred to the dam as Boulder Dam, and the Republican - leaning Los Angeles Times, which at the time of Ickes ' name change had run an editorial cartoon showing Ickes ineffectively chipping away at an enormous sign "HOOVER DAM, '' reran it showing Roosevelt reinforcing Ickes, but having no greater success.
In the following years, the name "Boulder Dam '' failed to fully take hold, with many Americans using both names interchangeably and mapmakers divided as to which name should be printed. Memories of the Great Depression faded, and Hoover to some extent rehabilitated himself through good works during and after World War II. In 1947, a bill passed both Houses of Congress unanimously restoring the name "Hoover Dam. '' Ickes, who was by then a private citizen, opposed the change, stating, "I did n't know Hoover was that small a man to take credit for something he had nothing to do with. ''
Hoover Dam was recognized as a National Civil Engineering Landmark in 1984. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1981, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1985, cited for its engineering innovations.
Other sources
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how do you qualify for a save in major league baseball | Save (Baseball) - wikipedia
In baseball, a save (abbreviated SV or S) is credited to a pitcher who finishes a game for the winning team under certain prescribed circumstances, described below. The number of saves, or percentage of save opportunities successfully converted, is an oft - cited statistic of relief pitchers, particularly those in the closer role. It became an official Major League Baseball (MLB) statistic in 1969. Mariano Rivera is MLB 's all - time leader in regular season saves with 652.
The term save was being used as far back as 1952. Executives Jim Toomey of the St. Louis Cardinals, Allan Roth of the Los Angeles Dodgers and Irv Kaze of the Pittsburgh Pirates awarded saves to pitchers who finished winning games but were not credited with the win, regardless of the margin of victory. The statistic went largely unnoticed.
A formula with more criteria for saves was invented in 1960 by baseball writer Jerome Holtzman. He felt that the existing statistics at the time, earned run average (ERA) and win -- loss record (W-L), did not sufficiently measure a reliever 's effectiveness. ERA does not account for inherited runners a reliever allows to score, and W-L record does not account for relievers protecting leads. Elroy Face of the Pittsburgh Pirates was 18 -- 1 in 1959; however, Holtzman wrote that in 10 of the 18 wins, Face allowed the tying or lead run but got the win when the Pirates offense regained the lead. Holtzman felt that Face was more effective the previous year when he was 5 -- 2. When Holtzman presented the idea to J.G. Taylor Spink, publisher of The Sporting News, "(Spink) gave (Holtzman) a $100 bonus. Maybe it was $200. '' Holtzman recorded the unofficial save statistic in The Sporting News weekly for nine years before it became official in 1969. In conjunction with publishing the statistic, The Sporting News in 1960 also introduced the Fireman of the Year Award, which was awarded based on a combination of saves and wins.
The save became an official MLB statistic in 1969. It was MLB 's first new major statistic since the run batted in was added in 1920. Bill Singer is credited with recording the first official save when he pitched three shutout innings in relief of Don Drysdale in the Los Angeles Dodgers ' 3 -- 2 Opening Day victory over the Cincinnati Reds at Crosley Field on April 7 of that year.
In baseball statistics, the term save is used to indicate the successful maintenance of a lead by a relief pitcher, usually the closer, until the end of the game. A save is a statistic credited to a relief pitcher, as set forth in Rule 10.19 of the Official Rules of Major League Baseball. That rule states the official scorer shall credit a pitcher with a save when such pitcher meets all four of the following conditions:
If a relief pitcher satisfies all of the criteria for a save, except he does not finish the game, he will often be credited with a hold (which is not an officially recognized statistic by Major League Baseball).
A blown save (abbreviated BSV, BS or B) is charged to a pitcher who enters a game in a situation which permits him to earn a save (a save situation or save opportunity), but who instead allows the tying run to score. Note that if the tying run was scored by a runner who was already on base when the new pitcher entered the game, that new pitcher will be charged with a blown save even though the run will not be charged to the new pitcher, but rather to the pitcher who allowed that runner to reach base. If the reliever allows the tying or leading run, but the reliever 's team wins the game, the reliever wins the game. Due to this definition, a pitcher can not blow multiple saves in a game unless he has multiple save opportunities, a situation only possible when a pitcher temporarily switches defensive positions. The blown save was introduced by the Rolaids Relief Man Award in 1988. A pitcher who enters the game in a save situation and does not finish the game -- but his team still leading -- is not charged with a save opportunity. Save percentage is the ratio of saves to save opportunities.
In 1974, tougher criteria were adopted for saves where the tying run had to be on base or at the plate when the reliever entered to qualify for a save (unless he pitched three innings). This addressed saves such as Ron Taylor 's in a 20 -- 6 New York Mets win over the Atlanta Braves. The rule was relaxed in 1975 to credit a save when a reliever pitches at least one inning with no more than a three - run lead, or comes in with runners on base but the tying run on deck. In 2000, Rolaids started recording a tough save when a pitcher enters a save situation with the potential tying run already on base, but still earns the save.
As Francisco Rodríguez pursued the single - season saves record in 2008, Baseball Prospectus member Joe Sheehan, Sports Illustrated writer Tom Verducci, and The New York Sun writer Tim Marchman wrote that Rodríguez 's save total was enhanced by the number of opportunities his team presented, allowing him to amass one particular statistic. They thought that Rodríguez on his record - breaking march was less effective than in prior years. Sheehan offered that saves did not account for a pitcher 's proficiency at preventing runs nor did it reflect leads that were not preserved.
Bradford Doolittle of The Kansas City Star wrote, "(The closer) is the only example in sports of a statistic creating a job. '' He decried the best relievers pitching fewer innings starting in the 1980s with their workload being reduced from two - to one - inning outings while less efficient pitchers were pitching those innings instead. ESPN.com columnist Jim Caple has argued that the save statistic has turned the closer position into "the most overrated position in sports ''. Caple and others contend that using one 's best reliever in situations such as a three - run lead in the ninth -- when a team will almost certainly win even with a lesser pitcher -- is foolish, and that using a closer in the traditional fireman role exemplified by pitchers such as Goose Gossage is far wiser. (A "fireman '' situation is men on base in a tied or close game, hence a reliever ending such a threat is "putting out the fire. '')
Firemen frequently pitched two - or three - inning outings to earn saves. The modern closer, reduced to a one - inning role, is available to pitch more save opportunities. In the past, a reliever pitching three innings one game would be unavailable to pitch the next game. Gossage had more saves of at least two innings than saves where he pitched one inning or less. "The times I did a one - inning save, I felt guilty about it. It 's like it was too easy '', said Gossage. ESPN.com wrote that saves have not been determined to be "a special, repeatable skill -- rather than simply a function of opportunities ''. It also noted that blown saves are "non-qualitative '', pointing out that the two career leaders in blown saves -- Gossage (112) and Rollie Fingers (109) -- were both inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame. Fran Zimniuch in Fireman: The Evolution of the Closer in Baseball wrote, "But you have to be a great relief pitcher to blow that many saves. Clearly, (Gossage) saved many, many more than he did not save. '' More than half of Gossage 's and Fingers ' blown saves came in tough save situations, where the tying run was on base when the pitcher entered. In nearly half of their blown tough saves, they entered the game in the sixth or seventh inning. Multiple - inning outings provide more chances for a reliever to blow a save. The pitchers need to get out of the initial situation and pitch additional innings with more chances to lose the lead. A study by the Baseball Hall of Fame found modern closers were put into fewer tough save situations compared to past relievers. The modern closer also earned significantly more "easy saves '', defined as saves starting the ninth inning with more than a one - run lead. The study offered "praise to the combatants who faced more danger for more innings. ''
Nate Silver of FiveThirtyEight has suggested the "goose egg, '' a new statistic that he considers to be a better evaluation of relief performance than the save. A reliever earns a goose egg for each scoreless inning pitched (no earned or unearned runs, no inherited runners score) in the seventh inning or later, where when he starts the inning: the score is tied, his team holds a lead of no more than two runs, or the tying run is on base or at the plate. Should the reliever be charged with an earned run in a goose egg situation, he will be credited with a "broken egg '', the counterpart of the blown save, unless he finishes the game. The statistic is named for Gossage, who is the all - time leader in goose eggs but recorded relatively few saves compared to modern closers.
On September 3, 2002, the Texas Rangers won 7 - 1 over the Baltimore Orioles as Joaquín Benoit pitched a seven - inning save, the longest save since it became an official statistic in 1969. Benoit relieved Todd Van Poppel (who entered the game in the first inning after starter Aaron Myette was ejected for throwing at Melvin Mora) at the start of the third inning, and finished the game while allowing just one hit. The official scorer credited the win to Van Poppel and not Benoit, a decision that was also supported by Texas manager Jerry Narron.
On August 22, 2007, Wes Littleton earned a save with the largest winning margin ever, pitching the last three innings of a 30 -- 3 Texas Rangers win over the Baltimore Orioles. Littleton entered the game with a 14 -- 3 lead, and the final 27 - run differential broke the previous record for a save by eight runs. The New York Times noted that "there are the preposterous saves, of which Littleton 's now stands out as No. 1. ''
On October 29, 2014, Madison Bumgarner of San Francisco Giants recorded the longest save in World Series history, pitching five scoreless innings of relief in a Game 7 3 - 2 victory over the Kansas City Royals.
The statistic was formally introduced in 1969, although research has identified saves earned prior to that point.
Listed are the Major League Baseball players with the most saves in their career.
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what are three small dials on a watch face | Clock face - wikipedia
A clock face or dial is the part of an analog clock (or watch) that displays the time through the use of a fixed - numbered dial or dials and moving hands. In its most basic form, recognized throughout the world, the periphery of the dial is numbered 1 through 12 indicating the hours in a 12 - hour cycle, and a short hour hand makes two revolutions in a day. A long minute hand makes one revolution every hour. The face may also include a second hand which makes one revolution per minute. The term is less commonly used for the time display on digital clocks and watches.
A second type of clock face is the 24 - hour analog dial, widely used in military and other organizations that use 24 - hour time. This is similar to the 12 - hour dial above, except it has hours numbered 1 -- 24 around the outside, and the hour hand makes only one revolution per day. Some special - purpose clocks, such as timers and sporting event clocks, are designed for measuring periods less than one hour. Clocks can indicate the hour with Roman numerals or Hindu -- Arabic numerals, or with non-numeric indicator marks. The two numbering systems have also been used in combination, with the prior indicating the hour and the later the minute. Longcase clocks (grandfather clocks) typically use Roman numerals for the hours. Clocks using only Arabic numerals first began to appear in the mid-18th century.
The periphery of a clock 's face, where the numbers and other graduations appear, is often called the chapter ring.
The clock face is so familiar that the numbers are often omitted and replaced with undifferentiated hour marks, particularly in the case of watches. Occasionally markings of any sort are dispensed with, and the time is read by the angles of the hands. The face of the Movado "Museum Watch '' is known for a single dot at the 12 o'clock position.
Most modern clocks have the numbers 1 through 12 printed at equally spaced intervals around the periphery of the face with the 12 at the top, indicating the hour, and on many models, sixty dots or lines evenly spaced in a ring around the outside of the dial, indicating minutes and seconds. The time is read by observing the placement of several "hands '' which emanate from the centre of the dial:
All the hands continuously rotate around the dial in a ' clockwise ' direction -- in the direction of increasing numbers.
Clocks existed before clock faces. The first mechanical clocks, built in 13th - century Europe, were striking clocks: their purpose was to ring bells upon the canonical hours, to call the public to prayer. These were erected as tower clocks in public places, to ensure that the bells were audible. Soon after these first mechanical clocks were in place people realized that their wheels could be used to drive an indicator on a dial on the outside of the tower, where it could be widely seen.
Before the late 14th century, a fixed hand (often a carving literally shaped like a hand) indicated the hour by pointing to numbers on a rotating dial; after this time the current convention of a rotating hand on a fixed dial was adopted. Minute hands (so named because they indicated the small or minute divisions of the hour) only came into regular use around 1690, after the invention of the pendulum and anchor escapement increased the precision of time - telling enough to justify it. St John the Evangelist, Groombridge, Kent, has a fine example of a clock with only an hour hand. In some precision clocks a third hand, which rotated once a minute, was added in a separate subdial. This was called the ' second - minute ' hand (because it measured the secondary minute divisions of the hour), which was shortened to ' second ' hand. The convention of the hands moving clockwise evolved in imitation of the sundial. In the Northern hemisphere, where the clock face originated, the shadow of the gnomon on a horizontal sundial moves clockwise during the day. This was also why noon or 12 o'clock was conventionally located at the top of the dial.
During the French Revolution in 1793, in connection with its Republican calendar, France attempted to introduce a decimal time system. This had 10 decimal hours in the day, 100 decimal minutes per hour, and 100 decimal seconds per minute. Therefore, the decimal hour was more than twice as long (144 min) as the present hour, the decimal minute was slightly longer than the present minute (86 seconds) and the decimal second was slightly shorter (0.86 sec) than the present second. Clocks were manufactured with this alternate face, usually combined with traditional hour markings. However, it did n't catch on, and France discontinued the mandatory use of decimal time on 7 April 1795, although some French cities used decimal time until 1801.
Until the last quarter of the 17th century, hour markings were etched into metal faces and the recesses filled with black wax. Subsequently, higher contrast and improved readability was achieved with white enamel plaques painted with black numbers. Initially, the numbers were printed on small, individual plaques mounted on a brass substructure. This was not a stylistic decision, rather enamel production technology had not yet achieved the ability to create large pieces of enamel. The "13 - piece face '' was an early attempt to create an entirely white enamel face. As the name suggests, it was composed of 13 enamel plaques: 12 numbered wedges fitted around a circle. The first single - piece enamel faces, not unlike those in production today, began to appear c. 1735.
It is customary for modern advertisements to display clocks and watches at 10: 10 or thereabouts, as this V - shaped arrangement roughly makes a smile, imitates a human figure with raised arms, and also leaves the watch company 's logo unobscured by the hands.
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robin schulz - sun goes down feat. jasmine thompson (official video) | Sun Goes Down (Robin Schulz song) - wikipedia
"Sun Goes Down '' is a song by German DJ and record producer Robin Schulz. It features the vocals from British singer Jasmine Thompson. The song was released in Germany as a digital download on 24 October 2014. The song peaked at number two on the German Singles Chart.
It served as the official song of the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup.
The song 's composition consists of a piano, and a saxophone drop, accompanied by Schulz 's beats, and Thompson 's vocals. At the beginning of the song, the vocals and the drop, a loud, horn - like sound effect is played.
The accompanying music video for "Sun Goes Down '' was made in September 2014 by director Lilja and shows various protagonists in different places all over Europe. The video is a collage of intimate everyday moments that could n't be more different. However, one thing that they all share is the moment in which time seems to stand still and let the world take a deep breath.
Filmed in four locations around Europe, the video features actress and model Milla Puolakanaho in Turku, Finland, a group of friends around cinematographer Karol Łakomiec and singer Kasia Zielińska on a rooftop in Warsaw, Poland, terra - cotta artist Dino Daddiego in the old town of Sassi di Matera, Italy, as well as both artists of the song, Robin Schulz and Jasmine Thompson in London, England. The gathering of Jasmine Thompson and her friends was shot in Burgess Park in Southwark, the DJ set with Robin Schulz was shot during a regular gig of his at the club EGG LDN.
The aerials were filmed by Markus Gelhard of Zebraworkz on location in Turku and Matera.
The total length of the video is two minutes and fifty - four seconds. The video was released on 1 October 2014 on Robin Schulz 's YouTube channel and has received more than 280 million views as of November 2017.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who gave the first working definition of an element | Chemical element - wikipedia
A chemical element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei (that is, the same atomic number, or Z). 118 elements are identified, of which the first 94 occur naturally on Earth with the remaining 24 being synthetic elements. There are 80 elements that have at least one stable isotope and 38 that have exclusively radionuclides, which decay over time into other elements. Iron is the most abundant element (by mass) making up Earth, while oxygen is the most common element in the Earth 's crust.
Chemical elements constitute all of the ordinary matter of the universe. However astronomical observations suggest that ordinary observable matter makes up only about 15 % of the matter in the universe: the remainder is dark matter; the composition of this is unknown, but it is not composed of chemical elements. The two lightest elements, hydrogen and helium, were mostly formed in the Big Bang and are the most common elements in the universe. The next three elements (lithium, beryllium and boron) were formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation, and are thus rarer than heavier elements. Formation of elements with from 6 to 26 protons occurred and continues to occur in main sequence stars via stellar nucleosynthesis. The high abundance of oxygen, silicon, and iron on Earth reflects their common production in such stars. Elements with greater than 26 protons are formed by supernova nucleosynthesis in supernovae, which, when they explode, blast these elements as supernova remnants far into space, where they may become incorporated into planets when they are formed.
The term "element '' is used for atoms with a given number of protons (regardless of whether or not they are ionized or chemically bonded, e.g. hydrogen in water) as well as for a pure chemical substance consisting of a single element (e.g. hydrogen gas). For the second meaning, the terms "elementary substance '' and "simple substance '' have been suggested, but they have not gained much acceptance in English chemical literature, whereas in some other languages their equivalent is widely used (e.g. French corps simple, Russian простое вещество). A single element can form multiple substances differing in their structure; they are called allotropes of the element.
When different elements are chemically combined, with the atoms held together by chemical bonds, they form chemical compounds. Only a minority of elements are found uncombined as relatively pure minerals. Among the more common of such native elements are copper, silver, gold, carbon (as coal, graphite, or diamonds), and sulfur. All but a few of the most inert elements, such as noble gases and noble metals, are usually found on Earth in chemically combined form, as chemical compounds. While about 32 of the chemical elements occur on Earth in native uncombined forms, most of these occur as mixtures. For example, atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, and native solid elements occur in alloys, such as that of iron and nickel.
The history of the discovery and use of the elements began with primitive human societies that found native elements like carbon, sulfur, copper and gold. Later civilizations extracted elemental copper, tin, lead and iron from their ores by smelting, using charcoal. Alchemists and chemists subsequently identified many more; almost all of the naturally occurring elements were known by 1900.
The properties of the chemical elements are summarized in the periodic table, which organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows ("periods '') in which the columns ("groups '') share recurring ("periodic '') physical and chemical properties. Save for unstable radioactive elements with short half - lives, all of the elements are available industrially, most of them in low degrees of impurities.
The lightest chemical elements are hydrogen and helium, both created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the first 20 minutes of the universe in a ratio of around 3: 1 by mass (or 12: 1 by number of atoms), along with tiny traces of the next two elements, lithium and beryllium. Almost all other elements found in nature were made by various natural methods of nucleosynthesis. On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are naturally produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes, such as cosmic ray spallation. New atoms are also naturally produced on Earth as radiogenic daughter isotopes of ongoing radioactive decay processes such as alpha decay, beta decay, spontaneous fission, cluster decay, and other rarer modes of decay.
Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, those with atomic numbers 1 through 82 each have at least one stable isotope (except for technetium, element 43 and promethium, element 61, which have no stable isotopes). Isotopes considered stable are those for which no radioactive decay has yet been observed. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that radioactive decay of all isotopes can be detected. Some of these elements, notably bismuth (atomic number 83), thorium (atomic number 90), and uranium (atomic number 92), have one or more isotopes with half - lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy metals before the formation of our Solar System. At over 1.9 × 10 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe, bismuth - 209 (atomic number 83) has the longest known alpha decay half - life of any naturally occurring element, and is almost always considered on par with the 80 stable elements. The very heaviest elements (those beyond plutonium, element 94) undergo radioactive decay with half - lives so short that they are not found in nature and must be synthesized.
As of 2010, there are 118 known elements (in this context, "known '' means observed well enough, even from just a few decay products, to have been differentiated from other elements). Of these 118 elements, 94 occur naturally on Earth. Six of these occur in extreme trace quantities: technetium, atomic number 43; promethium, number 61; astatine, number 85; francium, number 87; neptunium, number 93; and plutonium, number 94. These 94 elements have been detected in the universe at large, in the spectra of stars and also supernovae, where short - lived radioactive elements are newly being made. The first 94 elements have been detected directly on Earth as primordial nuclides present from the formation of the solar system, or as naturally occurring fission or transmutation products of uranium and thorium.
The remaining 24 heavier elements, not found today either on Earth or in astronomical spectra, have been produced artificially: these are all radioactive, with very short half - lives; if any atoms of these elements were present at the formation of Earth, they are extremely likely, to the point of certainty, to have already decayed, and if present in novae, have been in quantities too small to have been noted. Technetium was the first purportedly non-naturally occurring element synthesized, in 1937, although trace amounts of technetium have since been found in nature (and also the element may have been discovered naturally in 1925). This pattern of artificial production and later natural discovery has been repeated with several other radioactive naturally occurring rare elements.
List of the elements are available by name, atomic number, density, melting point, boiling point and by symbol, as well as ionization energies of the elements. The nuclides of stable and radioactive elements are also available as a list of nuclides, sorted by length of half - life for those that are unstable. One of the most convenient, and certainly the most traditional presentation of the elements, is in the form of the periodic table, which groups together elements with similar chemical properties (and usually also similar electronic structures).
The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom, and defines the element. For example, all carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their atomic nucleus; so the atomic number of carbon is 6. Carbon atoms may have different numbers of neutrons; atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes of the element.
The number of protons in the atomic nucleus also determines its electric charge, which in turn determines the number of electrons of the atom in its non-ionized state. The electrons are placed into atomic orbitals that determine the atom 's various chemical properties. The number of neutrons in a nucleus usually has very little effect on an element 's chemical properties (except in the case of hydrogen and deuterium). Thus, all carbon isotopes have nearly identical chemical properties because they all have six protons and six electrons, even though carbon atoms may, for example, have 6 or 8 neutrons. That is why the atomic number, rather than mass number or atomic weight, is considered the identifying characteristic of a chemical element.
The symbol for atomic number is Z.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (that is, with the same number of protons in their atomic nucleus), but having different numbers of neutrons. Thus, for example, there are three main isotopes of carbon. All carbon atoms have 6 protons in the nucleus, but they can have either 6, 7, or 8 neutrons. Since the mass numbers of these are 12, 13 and 14 respectively, the three isotopes of carbon are known as carbon - 12, carbon - 13, and carbon - 14, often abbreviated to C, C, and C. Carbon in everyday life and in chemistry is a mixture of C (about 98.9 %), C (about 1.1 %) and about 1 atom per trillion of C.
Most (66 of 94) naturally occurring elements have more than one stable isotope. Except for the isotopes of hydrogen (which differ greatly from each other in relative mass -- enough to cause chemical effects), the isotopes of a given element are chemically nearly indistinguishable.
All of the elements have some isotopes that are radioactive (radioisotopes), although not all of these radioisotopes occur naturally. The radioisotopes typically decay into other elements upon radiating an alpha or beta particle. If an element has isotopes that are not radioactive, these are termed "stable '' isotopes. All of the known stable isotopes occur naturally (see primordial isotope). The many radioisotopes that are not found in nature have been characterized after being artificially made. Certain elements have no stable isotopes and are composed only of radioactive isotopes: specifically the elements without any stable isotopes are technetium (atomic number 43), promethium (atomic number 61), and all observed elements with atomic numbers greater than 82.
Of the 80 elements with at least one stable isotope, 26 have only one single stable isotope. The mean number of stable isotopes for the 80 stable elements is 3.1 stable isotopes per element. The largest number of stable isotopes that occur for a single element is 10 (for tin, element 50).
The mass number of an element, A, is the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus. Different isotopes of a given element are distinguished by their mass numbers, which are conventionally written as a superscript on the left hand side of the atomic symbol (e.g. U). The mass number is always a whole number and has units of "nucleons ''. For example, magnesium - 24 (24 is the mass number) is an atom with 24 nucleons (12 protons and 12 neutrons).
Whereas the mass number simply counts the total number of neutrons and protons and is thus a natural (or whole) number, the atomic mass of a single atom is a real number giving the mass of a particular isotope (or "nuclide '') of the element, expressed in atomic mass units (u). In general, the mass number of a given nuclide differs in value slightly from its atomic mass, since the mass of each proton and neutron is not exactly 1 u; since the electrons contribute a lesser share to the atomic mass as neutron number exceeds proton number; and (finally) because of the nuclear binding energy. For example, the atomic mass of chlorine - 35 to five significant digits is 34.969 u and that of chlorine - 37 is 36.966 u. However, the atomic mass in u of each isotope is quite close to its simple mass number (always within 1 %). The only isotope whose atomic mass is exactly a natural number is C, which by definition has a mass of exactly 12, because u is defined as 1 / 12 of the mass of a free neutral carbon - 12 atom in the ground state.
The standard atomic weight (commonly called "atomic weight '') of an element is the average of the atomic masses of all the chemical element 's isotopes as found in a particular environment, weighted by isotopic abundance, relative to the atomic mass unit (u). This number may be a fraction that is not close to a whole number. For example, the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.453 u, which differs greatly from a whole number as it is an average of about 76 % chlorine - 35 and 24 % chlorine - 37. Whenever a relative atomic mass value differs by more than 1 % from a whole number, it is due to this averaging effect, as significant amounts of more than one isotope are naturally present in a sample of that element.
Chemists and nuclear scientists have different definitions of a pure element. In chemistry, a pure element means a substance whose atoms all (or in practice almost all) have the same atomic number, or number of protons. Nuclear scientists, however, define a pure element as one that consists of only one stable isotope.
For example, a copper wire is 99.99 % chemically pure if 99.99 % of its atoms are copper, with 29 protons each. However it is not isotopically pure since ordinary copper consists of two stable isotopes, 69 % Cu and 31 % Cu, with different numbers of neutrons. However, a pure gold ingot would be both chemically and isotopically pure, since ordinary gold consists only of one isotope, Au.
Atoms of chemically pure elements may bond to each other chemically in more than one way, allowing the pure element to exist in multiple chemical structures (spatial arrangements of atoms), known as allotropes, which differ in their properties. For example, carbon can be found as diamond, which has a tetrahedral structure around each carbon atom; graphite, which has layers of carbon atoms with a hexagonal structure stacked on top of each other; graphene, which is a single layer of graphite that is very strong; fullerenes, which have nearly spherical shapes; and carbon nanotubes, which are tubes with a hexagonal structure (even these may differ from each other in electrical properties). The ability of an element to exist in one of many structural forms is known as ' allotropy '.
The standard state, also known as reference state, of an element is defined as its thermodynamically most stable state at a pressure of 1 bar and a given temperature (typically at 298.15 K). In thermochemistry, an element is defined to have an enthalpy of formation of zero in its standard state. For example, the reference state for carbon is graphite, because the structure of graphite is more stable than that of the other allotropes.
Several kinds of descriptive categorizations can be applied broadly to the elements, including consideration of their general physical and chemical properties, their states of matter under familiar conditions, their melting and boiling points, their densities, their crystal structures as solids, and their origins.
Several terms are commonly used to characterize the general physical and chemical properties of the chemical elements. A first distinction is between metals, which readily conduct electricity, nonmetals, which do not, and a small group, (the metalloids), having intermediate properties and often behaving as semiconductors.
A more refined classification is often shown in colored presentations of the periodic table. This system restricts the terms "metal '' and "nonmetal '' to only certain of the more broadly defined metals and nonmetals, adding additional terms for certain sets of the more broadly viewed metals and nonmetals. The version of this classification used in the periodic tables presented here includes: actinides, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, lanthanides, transition metals, post-transition metals, metalloids, polyatomic nonmetals, diatomic nonmetals, and noble gases. In this system, the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and transition metals, as well as the lanthanides and the actinides, are special groups of the metals viewed in a broader sense. Similarly, the polyatomic nonmetals, diatomic nonmetals and the noble gases are nonmetals viewed in the broader sense. In some presentations, the halogens are not distinguished, with astatine identified as a metalloid and the others identified as nonmetals.
Another commonly used basic distinction among the elements is their state of matter (phase), whether solid, liquid, or gas, at a selected standard temperature and pressure (STP). Most of the elements are solids at conventional temperatures and atmospheric pressure, while several are gases. Only bromine and mercury are liquids at 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit) and normal atmospheric pressure; caesium and gallium are solids at that temperature, but melt at 28.4 ° C (83.2 ° F) and 29.8 ° C (85.6 ° F), respectively.
Melting and boiling points, typically expressed in degrees Celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere, are commonly used in characterizing the various elements. While known for most elements, either or both of these measurements is still undetermined for some of the radioactive elements available in only tiny quantities. Since helium remains a liquid even at absolute zero at atmospheric pressure, it has only a boiling point, and not a melting point, in conventional presentations.
The density at a selected standard temperature and pressure (STP) is frequently used in characterizing the elements. Density is often expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g / cm). Since several elements are gases at commonly encountered temperatures, their densities are usually stated for their gaseous forms; when liquefied or solidified, the gaseous elements have densities similar to those of the other elements.
When an element has allotropes with different densities, one representative allotrope is typically selected in summary presentations, while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided. For example, the three familiar allotropes of carbon (amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond) have densities of 1.8 -- 2.1, 2.267, and 3.515 g / cm, respectively.
The elements studied to date as solid samples have eight kinds of crystal structures: cubic, body - centered cubic, face - centered cubic, hexagonal, monoclinic, orthorhombic, rhombohedral, and tetragonal. For some of the synthetically produced transuranic elements, available samples have been too small to determine crystal structures.
Chemical elements may also be categorized by their origin on Earth, with the first 94 considered naturally occurring, while those with atomic numbers beyond 94 have only been produced artificially as the synthetic products of man - made nuclear reactions.
Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 84 are considered primordial and either stable or weakly radioactive. The remaining 10 naturally occurring elements possess half lives too short for them to have been present at the beginning of the Solar System, and are therefore considered transient elements. (Plutonium is usually also considered a transient element because primordial plutonium has by now decayed to almost undetectable traces.) Of these 10 transient elements, 5 (polonium, radon, radium, actinium, and protactinium) are relatively common decay products of thorium, uranium, and plutonium. The remaining 6 transient elements (technetium, promethium, astatine, francium, neptunium, and plutonium) occur only rarely, as products of rare decay modes or nuclear reaction processes involving uranium or other heavy elements.
Elements with atomic numbers 1 through 40 are all stable, while those with atomic numbers 41 through 82 (except technetium and promethium) are metastable. The half - lives of these metastable "theoretical radionuclides '' are so long (at least 100 million times longer than the estimated age of the universe) that their radioactive decay has yet to be detected by experiment. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that their radioactive decay can be detected. Three of these elements, bismuth (element 83), thorium (element 90), and uranium (element 92) have one or more isotopes with half - lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy elements before the formation of our solar system. For example, at over 1.9 × 10 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe, bismuth - 209 has the longest known alpha decay half - life of any naturally occurring element. The very heaviest 24 elements (those beyond plutonium, element 94) undergo radioactive decay with short half - lives and can not be produced as daughters of longer - lived elements, and thus they do not occur in nature at all.
The properties of the chemical elements are often summarized using the periodic table, which powerfully and elegantly organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows ("periods '') in which the columns ("groups '') share recurring ("periodic '') physical and chemical properties. The current standard table contains 118 confirmed elements as of 10 April 2010.
Although earlier precursors to this presentation exist, its invention is generally credited to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, who intended the table to illustrate recurring trends in the properties of the elements. The layout of the table has been refined and extended over time as new elements have been discovered and new theoretical models have been developed to explain chemical behavior.
Use of the periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry, providing an extremely useful framework to classify, systematize and compare all the many different forms of chemical behavior. The table has also found wide application in physics, geology, biology, materials science, engineering, agriculture, medicine, nutrition, environmental health, and astronomy. Its principles are especially important in chemical engineering.
The various chemical elements are formally identified by their unique atomic numbers, by their accepted names, and by their symbols.
The known elements have atomic numbers from 1 through 118, conventionally presented as Arabic numerals. Since the elements can be uniquely sequenced by atomic number, conventionally from lowest to highest (as in a periodic table), sets of elements are sometimes specified by such notation as "through '', "beyond '', or "from... through '', as in "through iron '', "beyond uranium '', or "from lanthanum through lutetium ''. The terms "light '' and "heavy '' are sometimes also used informally to indicate relative atomic numbers (not densities), as in "lighter than carbon '' or "heavier than lead '', although technically the weight or mass of atoms of an element (their atomic weights or atomic masses) do not always increase monotonically with their atomic numbers.
The naming of various substances now known as elements precedes the atomic theory of matter, as names were given locally by various cultures to various minerals, metals, compounds, alloys, mixtures, and other materials, although at the time it was not known which chemicals were elements and which compounds. As they were identified as elements, the existing names for anciently - known elements (e.g., gold, mercury, iron) were kept in most countries. National differences emerged over the names of elements either for convenience, linguistic niceties, or nationalism. For a few illustrative examples: German speakers use "Wasserstoff '' (water substance) for "hydrogen '', "Sauerstoff '' (acid substance) for "oxygen '' and "Stickstoff '' (smothering substance) for "nitrogen '', while English and some romance languages use "sodium '' for "natrium '' and "potassium '' for "kalium '', and the French, Italians, Greeks, Portuguese and Poles prefer "azote / azot / azoto '' (from roots meaning "no life '') for "nitrogen ''.
For purposes of international communication and trade, the official names of the chemical elements both ancient and more recently recognized are decided by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which has decided on a sort of international English language, drawing on traditional English names even when an element 's chemical symbol is based on a Latin or other traditional word, for example adopting "gold '' rather than "aurum '' as the name for the 79th element (Au). IUPAC prefers the British spellings "aluminium '' and "caesium '' over the U.S. spellings "aluminum '' and "cesium '', and the U.S. "sulfur '' over the British "sulphur ''. However, elements that are practical to sell in bulk in many countries often still have locally used national names, and countries whose national language does not use the Latin alphabet are likely to use the IUPAC element names.
According to IUPAC, chemical elements are not proper nouns in English; consequently, the full name of an element is not routinely capitalized in English, even if derived from a proper noun, as in californium and einsteinium. Isotope names of chemical elements are also uncapitalized if written out, e.g., carbon - 12 or uranium - 235. Chemical element symbols (such as Cf for californium and Es for einsteinium), are always capitalized (see below).
In the second half of the twentieth century, physics laboratories became able to produce nuclei of chemical elements with half - lives too short for an appreciable amount of them to exist at any time. These are also named by IUPAC, which generally adopts the name chosen by the discoverer. This practice can lead to the controversial question of which research group actually discovered an element, a question that delayed the naming of elements with atomic number of 104 and higher for a considerable amount of time. (See element naming controversy).
Precursors of such controversies involved the nationalistic namings of elements in the late 19th century. For example, lutetium was named in reference to Paris, France. The Germans were reluctant to relinquish naming rights to the French, often calling it cassiopeium. Similarly, the British discoverer of niobium originally named it columbium, in reference to the New World. It was used extensively as such by American publications prior to the international standardization (in 1950).
Before chemistry became a science, alchemists had designed arcane symbols for both metals and common compounds. These were however used as abbreviations in diagrams or procedures; there was no concept of atoms combining to form molecules. With his advances in the atomic theory of matter, John Dalton devised his own simpler symbols, based on circles, to depict molecules.
The current system of chemical notation was invented by Berzelius. In this typographical system, chemical symbols are not mere abbreviations -- though each consists of letters of the Latin alphabet. They are intended as universal symbols for people of all languages and alphabets.
The first of these symbols were intended to be fully universal. Since Latin was the common language of science at that time, they were abbreviations based on the Latin names of metals. Cu comes from Cuprum, Fe comes from Ferrum, Ag from Argentum. The symbols were not followed by a period (full stop) as with abbreviations. Later chemical elements were also assigned unique chemical symbols, based on the name of the element, but not necessarily in English. For example, sodium has the chemical symbol ' Na ' after the Latin natrium. The same applies to "W '' (wolfram) for tungsten, "Fe '' (ferrum) for iron, "Hg '' (hydrargyrum) for mercury, "Sn '' (stannum) for tin, "K '' (kalium) for potassium, "Au '' (aurum) for gold, "Ag '' (argentum) for silver, "Pb '' (plumbum) for lead, "Cu '' (cuprum) for copper, and "Sb '' (stibium) for antimony.
Chemical symbols are understood internationally when element names might require translation. There have sometimes been differences in the past. For example, Germans in the past have used "J '' (for the alternate name Jod) for iodine, but now use "I '' and "Iod ''.
The first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized, as in the preceding examples, and the subsequent letters, if any, are always lower case (small letters). Thus, the symbols for californium and einsteinium are Cf and Es.
There are also symbols in chemical equations for groups of chemical elements, for example in comparative formulas. These are often a single capital letter, and the letters are reserved and not used for names of specific elements. For example, an "X '' indicates a variable group (usually a halogen) in a class of compounds, while "R '' is a radical, meaning a compound structure such as a hydrocarbon chain. The letter "Q '' is reserved for "heat '' in a chemical reaction. "Y '' is also often used as a general chemical symbol, although it is also the symbol of yttrium. "Z '' is also frequently used as a general variable group. "E '' is used in organic chemistry to denote an electron - withdrawing group or an electrophile; similarly "Nu '' denotes a nucleophile. "L '' is used to represent a general ligand in inorganic and organometallic chemistry. "M '' is also often used in place of a general metal.
At least two additional, two - letter generic chemical symbols are also in informal usage, "Ln '' for any lanthanide element and "An '' for any actinide element. "Rg '' was formerly used for any rare gas element, but the group of rare gases has now been renamed noble gases and the symbol "Rg '' has now been assigned to the element roentgenium.
Isotopes are distinguished by the atomic mass number (total protons and neutrons) for a particular isotope of an element, with this number combined with the pertinent element 's symbol. IUPAC prefers that isotope symbols be written in superscript notation when practical, for example C and U. However, other notations, such as carbon - 12 and uranium - 235, or C - 12 and U-235, are also used.
As a special case, the three naturally occurring isotopes of the element hydrogen are often specified as H for H (protium), D for H (deuterium), and T for H (tritium). This convention is easier to use in chemical equations, replacing the need to write out the mass number for each atom. For example, the formula for heavy water may be written D O instead of H O.
Only about 4 % of the total mass of the universe is made of atoms or ions, and thus represented by chemical elements. This fraction is about 15 % of the total matter, with the remainder of the matter (85 %) being dark matter. The nature of dark matter is unknown, but it is not composed of atoms of chemical elements because it contains no protons, neutrons, or electrons. (The remaining non-matter part of the mass of the universe is composed of the even more mysterious dark energy).
The universe 's 94 naturally occurring chemical elements are thought to have been produced by at least four cosmic processes. Most of the hydrogen and helium in the universe was produced primordially in the first few minutes of the Big Bang. Three recurrently occurring later processes are thought to have produced the remaining elements. Stellar nucleosynthesis, an ongoing process, produces all elements from carbon through iron in atomic number, but little lithium, beryllium, or boron. Elements heavier in atomic number than iron, as heavy as uranium and plutonium, are produced by explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovas and other cataclysmic cosmic events. Cosmic ray spallation (fragmentation) of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen is important to the production of lithium, beryllium and boron.
During the early phases of the Big Bang, nucleosynthesis of hydrogen nuclei resulted in the production of hydrogen - 1 (protium, H) and helium - 4 (He), as well as a smaller amount of deuterium (H) and very minuscule amounts (on the order of 10) of lithium and beryllium. Even smaller amounts of boron may have been produced in the Big Bang, since it has been observed in some very old stars, while carbon has not. It is generally agreed that no heavier elements than boron were produced in the Big Bang. As a result, the primordial abundance of atoms (or ions) consisted of roughly 75 % H, 25 % He, and 0.01 % deuterium, with only tiny traces of lithium, beryllium, and perhaps boron. Subsequent enrichment of galactic halos occurred due to stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova nucleosynthesis. However, the element abundance in intergalactic space can still closely resemble primordial conditions, unless it has been enriched by some means.
On Earth (and elsewhere), trace amounts of various elements continue to be produced from other elements as products of nuclear transmutation processes. These include some produced by cosmic rays or other nuclear reactions (see cosmogenic and nucleogenic nuclides), and others produced as decay products of long - lived primordial nuclides. For example, trace (but detectable) amounts of carbon - 14 (C) are continually produced in the atmosphere by cosmic rays impacting nitrogen atoms, and argon - 40 (Ar) is continually produced by the decay of primordially occurring but unstable potassium - 40 (K). Also, three primordially occurring but radioactive actinides, thorium, uranium, and plutonium, decay through a series of recurrently produced but unstable radioactive elements such as radium and radon, which are transiently present in any sample of these metals or their ores or compounds. Three other radioactive elements, technetium, promethium, and neptunium, occur only incidentally in natural materials, produced as individual atoms by nuclear fission of the nuclei of various heavy elements or in other rare nuclear processes.
Human technology has produced various additional elements beyond these first 94, with those through atomic number 118 now known.
The following graph (note log scale) shows the abundance of elements in our Solar System. The table shows the twelve most common elements in our galaxy (estimated spectroscopically), as measured in parts per million, by mass. Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture. As physical laws and processes appear common throughout the visible universe, however, scientist expect that these galaxies evolved elements in similar abundance.
The abundance of elements in the Solar System is in keeping with their origin from nucleosynthesis in the Big Bang and a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, but the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by the breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays). Beginning with carbon, elements are produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable). In general, such elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovas. Iron - 56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel - 56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy - absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with their atomic number.
The abundance of the chemical elements on Earth varies from air to crust to ocean, and in various types of life. The abundance of elements in Earth 's crust differs from that in the Solar system (as seen in the Sun and heavy planets like Jupiter) mainly in selective loss of the very lightest elements (hydrogen and helium) and also volatile neon, carbon (as hydrocarbons), nitrogen and sulfur, as a result of solar heating in the early formation of the solar system. Oxygen, the most abundant Earth element by mass, is retained on Earth by combination with silicon. Aluminum at 8 % by mass is more common in the Earth 's crust than in the universe and solar system, but the composition of the far more bulky mantle, which has magnesium and iron in place of aluminum (which occurs there only at 2 % of mass) more closely mirrors the elemental composition of the solar system, save for the noted loss of volatile elements to space, and loss of iron which has migrated to the Earth 's core.
The composition of the human body, by contrast, more closely follows the composition of seawater -- save that the human body has additional stores of carbon and nitrogen necessary to form the proteins and nucleic acids, together with phosphorus in the nucleic acids and energy transfer molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) that occurs in the cells of all living organisms. Certain kinds of organisms require particular additional elements, for example the magnesium in chlorophyll in green plants, the calcium in mollusc shells, or the iron in the hemoglobin in vertebrate animals ' red blood cells.
The concept of an "element '' as an undivisible substance has developed through three major historical phases: Classical definitions (such as those of the ancient Greeks), chemical definitions, and atomic definitions.
Ancient philosophy posited a set of classical elements to explain observed patterns in nature. These elements originally referred to earth, water, air and fire rather than the chemical elements of modern science.
The term ' elements ' (stoicheia) was first used by the Greek philosopher Plato in about 360 BCE in his dialogue Timaeus, which includes a discussion of the composition of inorganic and organic bodies and is a speculative treatise on chemistry. Plato believed the elements introduced a century earlier by Empedocles were composed of small polyhedral forms: tetrahedron (fire), octahedron (air), icosahedron (water), and cube (earth).
Aristotle, c. 350 BCE, also used the term stoicheia and added a fifth element called aether, which formed the heavens. Aristotle defined an element as:
Element -- one of those bodies into which other bodies can decompose, and that itself is not capable of being divided into other.
In 1661, Robert Boyle proposed his theory of corpuscularism which favoured the analysis of matter as constituted by irreducible units of matter (atoms) and, choosing to side with neither Aristotle 's view of the four elements nor Paracelsus ' view of three fundamental elements, left open the question of the number of elements. The first modern list of chemical elements was given in Antoine Lavoisier 's 1789 Elements of Chemistry, which contained thirty - three elements, including light and caloric. By 1818, Jöns Jakob Berzelius had determined atomic weights for forty - five of the forty - nine then - accepted elements. Dmitri Mendeleev had sixty - six elements in his periodic table of 1869.
From Boyle until the early 20th century, an element was defined as a pure substance that could not be decomposed into any simpler substance. Put another way, a chemical element can not be transformed into other chemical elements by chemical processes. Elements during this time were generally distinguished by their atomic weights, a property measurable with fair accuracy by available analytical techniques.
The 1913 discovery by English physicist Henry Moseley that the nuclear charge is the physical basis for an atom 's atomic number, further refined when the nature of protons and neutrons became appreciated, eventually led to the current definition of an element based on atomic number (number of protons per atomic nucleus). The use of atomic numbers, rather than atomic weights, to distinguish elements has greater predictive value (since these numbers are integers), and also resolves some ambiguities in the chemistry - based view due to varying properties of isotopes and allotropes within the same element. Currently, IUPAC defines an element to exist if it has isotopes with a lifetime longer than the 10 seconds it takes the nucleus to form an electronic cloud.
By 1914, seventy - two elements were known, all naturally occurring. The remaining naturally occurring elements were discovered or isolated in subsequent decades, and various additional elements have also been produced synthetically, with much of that work pioneered by Glenn T. Seaborg. In 1955, element 101 was discovered and named mendelevium in honor of D.I. Mendeleev, the first to arrange the elements in a periodic manner. Most recently, the synthesis of element 118 was reported in October 2006, and the synthesis of element 117 was reported in April 2010.
Ten materials familiar to various prehistoric cultures are now known to be chemical elements: Carbon, copper, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, sulfur, tin, and zinc. Three additional materials now accepted as elements, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, were recognized as distinct substances prior to 1500 AD. Phosphorus, cobalt, and platinum were isolated before 1750.
Most of the remaining naturally occurring chemical elements were identified and characterized by 1900, including:
Elements isolated or produced since 1900 include:
The first transuranium element (element with atomic number greater than 92) discovered was neptunium in 1940. Since 1999 claims for the discovery of new elements have been considered by the IUPAC / IUPAP Joint Working Party. As of January 2016, all 118 elements have been confirmed as discovered by IUPAC. The discovery of element 112 was acknowledged in 2009, and the name copernicium and the atomic symbol Cn were suggested for it. The name and symbol were officially endorsed by IUPAC on 19 February 2010. The heaviest element that is believed to have been synthesized to date is element 118, oganesson, on 9 October 2006, by the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna, Russia. Tennessine, element 117 was the latest element claimed to be discovered, in 2009. On 28 November 2016, scientists at the IUPAC officially recognized the names for four of the newest chemical elements, with atomic numbers 113, 115, 117, and 118.
The following sortable table shows the 118 known chemical elements.
Notes
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generally the most important treatment for a liquid chemical burn is to | Blister - wikipedia
A blister is a small pocket of body fluid (lymph, serum, plasma, blood, or pus) within the upper layers of the skin, typically caused by forceful rubbing (friction), burning, freezing, chemical exposure or infection. Most blisters are filled with a clear fluid, either serum or plasma. However, blisters can be filled with blood (known as "blood blisters '') or with pus (if they become infected).
The word "blister '' entered English in the 14th century. It came from the Middle Dutch "bluyster '' and was a modification of the Old French "blostre '', which meant a leprous nodule -- a rise in the skin due to leprosy. In dermatology today, the words vesicle and bulla refer to blisters of smaller or greater size, respectively.
To heal properly, a blister should not be popped unless medically necessary. If popped, the excess skin should not be removed because the skin underneath needs that top layer to heal properly.
A blister may form when the skin has been damaged by friction or rubbing, heat, cold or chemical exposure. Fluid collects between the epidermis -- the upper layer of the skin -- and the layers below. This fluid cushions the tissue underneath, protecting it from further damage and allowing it to heal.
Intense rubbing can cause a blister, as can any friction on the skin if continued long enough. This kind of blister is most common after walking long distances or by wearing old or poorly fitting shoes. Blisters are most common on the hands and feet, as these extremities are susceptible while walking, running, or performing repetitive motions, such as joystick manipulation whilst playing certain video games, digging with a shovel, playing guitar, etc. Blisters form more easily on moist skin than on dry or soaked skin, and are more common in warm conditions. Less - aggressive rubbing over long periods of time may cause calluses to form rather than a blister. Both blisters and calluses can lead to more serious complications, such as foot ulceration and infection, particularly when sensation or circulation is impaired, as in the case of diabetes, neuropathy or peripheral artery disease (PAD).
This type of blistering is one of the tools used to determine the degree of burns sustained. First and second degree burns may result in blistered skin; however, it is characteristic of second degree burns to blister immediately, whereas first degree burns can have blisters after a couple of days. Blisters can also form on the hands and feet as a result of tissue damage incurred by frostbite.
Sometimes, the skin will blister when it comes into contact with a cosmetic, detergent, solvent, or other chemical such as nickel sulfate, Balsam of Peru, or urushiol (poison ivy, poison oak, poison sumac). This is known as contact dermatitis. Blisters can also develop as a result of an allergic reaction to an insect bite or sting. Some chemical warfare agents, known as blister agents or vesicants, cause large, painful blisters wherever they contact skin; an example is mustard gas.
A blood blister usually forms when a minute blood vessel close to the surface of the skin ruptures (breaks), and blood leaks into a tear between the layers of skin. This can happen if the skin is crushed, pinched or aggressively squeezed.
There are also a number of medical conditions that cause blisters. The most common are chickenpox, herpes, impetigo, and a form of eczema called dyshidrosis. Other, much rarer conditions that cause blisters include:
Friction blisters are caused by excess shear stress between the surface of the skin and the body. The strata of skin around the Stratum spinosum are most susceptible to shear. As the Stratum spinosum tears away from the connecting tissues below, plasma from the cells diffuses out. This plasma solution helps new cells divide and grow into new connective tissues and epidermal layers.
The clear fluid will be reabsorbed as new cells develop and the swollen appearance will subside. Painful blisters located on hands (palmar surface) and feet (plantar surface) are due to tissue shearing deeper in the epidermis, near nerve endings. Lower tissues are more susceptible to infection.
Friction blisters, caused by rubbing against the skin, can be prevented by reducing the friction to a level where blisters will not form. This can be accomplished in a variety of ways.
Blisters on the feet can be prevented by wearing comfortable, well - fitting shoes and clean socks. Inherently ill - fitting or stiffer shoes, such as high heels and dress shoes, present a larger risk of blistering. Blisters are more likely to develop on skin that is moist, so socks that manage moisture or frequent sock changes will aid those with particularly sweaty feet. While exercising or playing sports, special sports socks can help keep feet drier and reduce the chance of blisters. Before going for a long walk, it is also important to ensure that shoes or hiking boots have been properly broken in.
Even before a "hot '' or irritated area on the foot is felt, taping a protective layer of padding or a friction - reducing interface between the affected area and the footwear can prevent the formation of a blister. Bandages, moleskin and tapes generally must be applied to the foot daily, and most have a very high coefficient of friction (COF), but a friction - management patch applied to the shoe will remain in place much longer, throughout many changes of socks and insoles. This type of intervention may be used with footwear that is worn daily, with specialty shoes and boots like hockey skates, ice skates, inline skates, ski boots and cleats, or even with orthotic braces and splints. For periods of sustained use such as hiking and trail running, especially where water ingress or moisture build up in the shoe or boot can occur, moisture wicking liner socks can provide the required friction protection.
To avoid friction blisters on the hands, gloves should be worn when using tools such as a shovel or pickaxe, doing manual work such as gardening, or using sports equipment like golf clubs or baseball bats. Oars used for competitive rowing are known for causing frequent blisters on the hands of oarsmen. Weightlifters are also prone to blisters as are gymnasts from the friction developed by the rubbing against the bars. To further reduce the occurrence one can tape the hands, and there are also a number of products on the market that claim to reduce the occurrence of blisters. These are all intended to be worn as a liner underneath a glove. The majority of these offerings simply add padding and create a layer that reduces the coefficient of friction between the skin and the glove.
A lubricant, typically talcum powder, can be used to reduce friction between skin and apparel in the short term. People put talcum powder inside gloves or shoes for this purpose, although this type of lubricant will increase the friction in the long term, as it absorbs moisture. Increased friction makes blisters more likely.
Sunscreen and protective clothing should also be used during the hottest part of the day to avoid blisters from sunburn. Avoiding sunlight during midday is the best way to avoid blisters from sunburn. Protective gloves should be worn when handling detergents, cleaning products, solvents and other chemicals.
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what season did derek die in grey's | Derek Shepherd - Wikipedia
Derek Christopher Shepherd, M.D., also referred to as "McDreamy '', is a fictional surgeon from the ABC medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, portrayed by actor Patrick Dempsey. He made his first appearance during "A Hard Day 's Night '', which was broadcast on March 27, 2005. Derek was married to Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh) for 12 years, before their divorce in 2006. Before his death in 2015, Derek was happily married to his longtime girlfriend Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). The couple are often referred to as "Mer & Der '' and they have three children together. Shepherd was formerly the Chief of Surgery at Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, but abruptly resigned as chief in season 7 following the shooting. For his portrayal of Shepherd, Dempsey was nominated in 2006 and 2007 Golden Globe for the Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series Drama for the role, and the 2006 SAG Award for the Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Drama Series award.
Derek arrives at Seattle Grace Hospital as the new Head of Neurosurgery from New York City. He is a Bowdoin College graduate and attended Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons alongside his childhood best friend Mark Sloan and ex-wife Addison Montgomery and Private Practice characters Naomi Bennett and Sam Bennett. Derek was a student of Dr. Richard Webber and was enticed to come with an "offer he could n't refuse '' -- the position of Chief of Surgery, which he eventually turned down. He specializes in highly complex tumors and conditions of the brain and spine and came to Seattle Grace with a reputation for taking on "lost causes '' and "impossible '' cases that most of his peers would turn down. As an attending he is both well - liked and feared -- well - liked by patients and his scrub nurses for his compassion and gentlemanly bedside manner and feared by interns and residents who are intimidated by his reputation and high standards. He is passionate about his job and has been known to expel staff or remove interns and residents (or at least threaten them) from his service for being disrespectful about patients or if he deems their attitude to be detrimental to his patient 's well - being.
Derek first meets Meredith Grey at a bar, and soon finds out that she is an intern at Seattle Grace. They begin to have feelings for one another and it causes some awkwardness at work, particularly after her supervising resident Dr. Miranda Bailey discovers their relationship. Meredith 's housemates and fellow interns George O'Malley and Izzie Stevens both antagonized her for some time as they felt she was using her relationship with Derek to further her career. He generally tolerated them despite his dislike of sharing his living space with the interns who worked under him. While most of his family members accepted Meredith, his sister, Nancy, particularly disliked her and repeatedly called her "the slutty intern ''; as of season nine she still refuses to speak to Meredith or acknowledge her as her sister - in - law. His mother Carolyn approved as she felt Meredith 's gray perspective of life complemented Derek 's tendency to see everything in black and white.
Derek 's background was generally a mystery for the first season and source of speculation amongst his colleagues due to his sudden departure from an established and highly respected practice in New York. In the season one finale, his past eventually catches up with him when his estranged wife Addison moves to Seattle and is offered a position by Dr. Webber. Shortly thereafter, his childhood best friend Mark joins Seattle Grace as the new head of plastic surgery. Derek and Addison attempt to repair their marriage but attempts were futile. Since their divorce they have remained on amicable terms, with Addison even admonishing Meredith for breaking up with Derek in season three. In the Private Practice episode "Ex-Life '' Derek finally tells Addison that his mother never liked her in the first place. He admits to Meredith that Addison cheating on him with Mark was partly his fault as an absentee husband. Addison eventually leaves Seattle for a private practice in Los Angeles, spawning the spin - off Private Practice. In the season eight episode "If / Then '', Meredith dreams of an alternate universe where her mother never had Alzheimer 's; Derek and Addison are still married but their strained relationship and Shepherd 's disillusionment causes his career to stagnate, earning him the nicknames "Bad Shepherd '' and "McDreary ''.
When Derek is offered the Chief of Surgery position for the second time, he persuades the board to keep Dr. Webber on the staff. During the merger of Seattle Grace with Mercy West their relationship sours when Derek disagreed with Richard 's handling of the merger and Richard begins to display uncharacteristic behavior, not unnoticed by his fellow surgeons. Derek learns from Meredith that Richard has since resumed drinking and feels forced to have him removed as Chief of Surgery. With mixed feelings, Derek offers him an ultimatum: go into rehab and possibly pick up where he left off after, or quit completely.
In seasons three and four, Meredith and Derek 's relationship becomes rocky and they each take time to date other people. Derek 's plans to propose were ruined by a series of unfortunate events in season five. In the season finale, they decide to give their planned wedding to Alex and Izzie. Due to their tight schedule, they instead informally marry and Derek writes down their "promises '' on a post-it note. They legalize their marriage in season seven in order to adopt Zola, a young African orphan treated for spina bifida. They briefly separate after Meredith tampers with their Alzheimer 's trial, jeopardizing her career and tarnishing Derek 's reputation. Zola is taken away from Meredith after a social worker finds out she and Derek are living separately. In later seasons, Derek often griped about how his subsequent interns and residents -- mainly Lexie Grey, Shane Ross and Heather Brooks -- did not quite measure up to Meredith. The social worker comes back and announces they are the official parents of Zola. As Meredith nears the end of her fifth year of residency, she and Derek are torn between staying at Seattle Grace Mercy West or leaving for Boston where Derek would work at Harvard while Meredith would be at the Brigham and Women 's Hospital.
Following his rescue from the plane crash that killed Mark and Lexie, Derek learns that he may only regain 80 percent of his hand 's function. He comes to terms with the fact that his career as a surgeon may be over and is grateful that he is alive. When Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez), head of orthopedic surgery, tells him a more risky surgery could give him back full function of his hand or reduce its function if it goes wrong, he agrees, accepting the possibility of never again holding a scalpel. Derek recovers well and Callie clears him to return to work, but it is still weeks later that he feels ready to operate. Derek, Callie and fellow resident Jackson Avery decide to do nerve transplant for his hand. Meredith, newly pregnant with their second child, goes behind his back and calls his sisters so they can donate a nerve to him. Lizzie (Neve Campbell), Derek 's younger sister, agrees to donate a nerve and the surgery is a success.
Derek and Meredith 's marriage is strained after he accepted an invitation from the President to participate in the Brain - Mapping Initiative. He went back on his promise to her that he would not add to his current workload in order to devote time to their two young children and allow her the chance to establish her career as a full - fledged attending. Eventually he was offered a position at the National Institutes of Health in Washington, D.C., but Meredith puts her foot down and refuses to leave her hometown and uproot their young family. His youngest sister Amelia (Caterina Scorsone) takes over his position at Grey Sloan. Meanwhile, he and Meredith fight bitterly on and off over whether they should move. After a bad argument, he accepts the job in the heat of the moment and leaves for Washington. While there, he and Meredith talk things out over the phone and come to a mutual conclusion that they both did not want to end their marriage. He tells her that just being with her, raising their children and operating on patients was more satisfying than "saving the world ''.
In season 11, Derek is involved in a fatal car accident while driving to the airport for his final trip to Washington. He is able to hear and process auditory input, but unable to speak. He is recognized by Winnie, one of the victims of a crash he assisted in earlier, who tells the surgeons that their patient 's name is Derek and that he is a surgeon as well. The hospital he was taken to was understaffed and his head injury was not detected quickly enough by the interns on duty that night. Although the neurosurgeon on call is paged multiple times, he takes too long to arrive and Derek is declared brain dead. Police arrive at Meredith 's door and take her to see Derek, where she consents to removing him from life support. At the time of his death, Meredith was pregnant with their third child. She gives birth to a daughter whom she names Ellis after her mother.
Derek was mentioned or referenced to a number of times in season 12 as the other characters struggle to cope with his sudden death. In the episode "My Next Life '', Meredith had a flashback of their first ever surgery together when a patient named Katie Bryce was admitted to the hospital with a brain aneurysm. Amelia took his death especially hard as he was the sibling she was closest to. At the end of the season, prior to her wedding to Derek 's long - time colleague Owen Hunt, Amelia goes on a nervous rant about how Derek was supposed to be the one to give her away, him having given away their three other sisters at their weddings.
When Patrick Dempsey auditioned for the role of Derek Shepherd, he was afraid that he was not going to get the part. Creator Shonda Rhimes ' first reaction was: "The very first time I met him, I was absolutely sure that he was my guy. Reading the lines of Derek Shepherd, Patrick had a vulnerable charm that I just fell for. And he had amazing chemistry with Ellen Pompeo. '' Rhimes admitted that Dempsey 's dyslexia threw her at first, particularly at the first few table readings: "I did not know about Patrick 's dyslexia in the beginning. I actually thought that he did n't like the scripts from the way he approached the readings. When I found out, I completely understood his hesitation. Now that we all know, if he is struggling with a word, the other actors are quick to step up and help him out. Everyone is very respectful. '' Isaiah Washington also auditioned for the part and when he did not get it, he said his reaction was like "I 'd been kicked in the stomach by 14 mules. '' Washington was, however, later cast as Preston Burke. Rob Lowe was also considered to portray Shepherd but turned the role down. Some of the character 's medical cases were inspired by real - life patients of Steve Giannotta, Chair of Neurological Surgery at the University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, whom Rhimes had consulted in writing for Shepherd 's storylines and patients.
In January 2014, Dempsey signed a two - year contract to remain on Grey 's Anatomy (then in its tenth season) that would ensure his presence for potential 11th and 12th seasons. However, in April 2015, Dempsey 's character was killed off while his contract was not over yet. Dempsey explained: "it just sort of evolved. It 's just kind of happened. It really was something that was kind of surprising that unfolded, and it just naturally came to be. Which was pretty good. I like the way it has all played out. '' In August 2015, Rhimes commented:
The character was later written to be a graduate of Bowdoin College, a liberal arts college in Brunswick, Maine, after an alumnus led a petition signed by over 450 students to "adopt '' the character as an alumnus. Dempsey is from Lewiston, about 18 miles (29 km) away from Brunswick, and was awarded an honorary doctorate by Bowdoin in 2013.
Rhimes describes Shepherd as typical "Prince Charming ''. He was planned to be a doctor who does n't really care about anything, who lives in his "own '' universe and has a big sex appeal. A man who is charming, devilishly handsome and the type of guy every girl dreams of, and a man that often makes the wrong decisions, and is often known as a jerk or the ultimate heartbreaker. Rhimes planned to have this kind of character from the beginning, because he was the kind of guy whom girls fall in love with and a character whose storylines could easily be changed. USA Today writer Robert Bianco said: "Derek could, at times, seem like two people, warm and funny one minute, cold and self - involved the next. Dempsey 's gift was in making those two sides seem like part of the same person, while keeping us rooting for that person as a whole. ''
With the show concluding its second season, Robert Bianco of USA Today said that Emmy voters could consider him because of the "seemingly effortless way he humanizes Derek 's ' dreamy ' appeal with ego and vanity ''. In the third season, Alan Sepinwall of The Star - Ledger wrote that "the attempt to give the moral high ground back to McDreamy was bad. Dude, whatever happened in New York ceased to count in any kind of grievance tally once you agreed to take Addison back and give things another try. You 're the dick who cheated on her, you 're the one who knew that she found the panties, and still you act like her getting back together with Mark justifies what you did? Wow. I did n't think it was possible for me to dislike anyone on this show more than Meredith, but congratulations, big guy. ''
Debbie Chang of BuddyTV noted the character 's immaturity in the fourth season, saying: "The only character who did not make me love him was Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey). How this character is still Shonda 's golden child is beyond me. Yes, we get it. He 's tormented by his love for Meredith, but that does not give him the right to lash out at her when his clinical trial patients are dying. If things do n't go absolutely the way he wants them to, then he refuses to cooperate. How immature can this man possibly be? No amount of heavily styled hair or blue - blue - blue eyes is going to make me warm up to him unless he admits to being the needy, desperate one in the relationship. ''
Entertainment Weekly placed Shepherd in its list of the "30 Great TV Doctors and Nurses ''. The character was also listed in Wetpaint 's "10 Hottest Male Doctors on TV '' and in BuzzFeed 's "16 Hottest Doctors On Television ''. His relationship with Meredith was included in TV Guide 's list of "The Best TV Couples of All Time ''.
Victor Balta of Today listed Shepherd and Sloan 's friendship in its "TV 's best bromances ''. He called them "the most exciting couple on Grey 's, '' explaining "they 've demonstrated an easy chemistry that makes for some of the great comic relief around Seattle Grace Hospital with their banter, sage wisdom on each other 's lives, and locker room - style teasing. '' Their bromance was furthermore included in lists by About.com, BuddyTV, Cosmopolitan, Wetpaint. However, following the announcement of Dane 's upcoming departure from the show, Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald felt he and Derek "never clicked like you 'd expect friends would. Any scene they had together ranged from uncomfortable to forced. ''
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how many seats does each party currently have in uk | United Kingdom general election, 2015 - Wikipedia
David Cameron Conservative
David Cameron Conservative
The United Kingdom general election of 2015 was held on 7 May 2015 to elect 650 members to the House of Commons. It was the first general election at the end of a fixed - term Parliament. Local elections took place in most areas on the same day.
Polls and commentators had predicted the outcome would be too close to call and would result in a second hung parliament similar to the 2010 election. Opinion polls were eventually proven to have underestimated the Conservative vote as they unexpectedly won an outright majority, which bore resemblance to their victory at the 1992 general election. Having governed in coalition with the Liberal Democrats since 2010, the Conservatives won 330 seats and 36.9 % of the vote, this time winning a working majority of twelve seats.
The British Polling Council began an inquiry into the substantial variance between opinion polls and the actual result. Forming the first Conservative majority government since 1992, David Cameron became the first Prime Minister to continue in office immediately after a term of at least four years with a larger popular vote share since 1900, and the only Prime Minister other than Margaret Thatcher to continue in office immediately after a term of at least four years with a greater number of seats. The Labour Party, led by Ed Miliband, saw a small increase in its share of the vote to 30.4 %, but incurred a net loss of seats to return 232 MPs. This was their lowest seat tally since the 1987 general election. Senior Labour Shadow Cabinet members, notably Ed Balls, Douglas Alexander, and Scottish Labour leader Jim Murphy, were defeated.
The Scottish National Party, enjoying a surge in support since the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, recorded a number of huge swings of over 30 % (including a record - breaking swing of 39.3 % achieved in Glasgow North East) from Labour, as it won 56 of the 59 Scottish seats to become the third - largest party in the Commons. The Liberal Democrats, led by outgoing Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg, had their worst result since their formation in 1988, holding just eight out of their previous 57 seats with Cabinet ministers Vince Cable, Ed Davey and Danny Alexander losing their seats. UKIP came third in terms of votes with 12.6 %, but only won one seat, with party leader Nigel Farage failing to win the seat of South Thanet. The Green Party won its highest - ever share of the vote with 3.8 %, and retained the Brighton Pavilion seat with an increased majority, though did not win any additional seats. Labour 's Miliband (as national leader) and Murphy (as Scottish leader) both resigned, as did Clegg. Farage claimed that his resignation was rejected by his party, and he remained in post.
In Northern Ireland, the Ulster Unionist Party returned to the Commons with two MPs after a five - year absence, while the Alliance Party lost its only seat despite an increase in total vote share.
The Conservative Party majority meant that Cameron was able to fulfil a manifesto commitment to renegotiate British membership of the European Union. That renegotiation was followed by a referendum in June 2016, which resulted in the British electorate voting to withdraw from the European Union by 52 % to 48 % and led to the resignation of Cameron as Prime Minister. The new Prime Minister, Theresa May, called in April 2017 for a snap general election with the stated aim of securing a majority for Brexit negotiations; it received parliamentary approval the following day, and was arranged for Thursday 8 June 2017.
The Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 (as amended by the Electoral Registration and Administration Act 2013) led to the dissolution of the 55th Parliament on 30 March 2015 and the scheduling of the election on 7 May, the House of Commons not having voted for an earlier date. There were local elections on the same day in most of England, with the exception of Greater London. No other elections were scheduled to take place in Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland, apart from any local by - elections.
All British, Irish and Commonwealth citizens over the age of 18 on the date of the election were permitted to vote. In general elections, voting takes place in all parliamentary constituencies of the United Kingdom to elect members of parliament (MPs) to seats in the House of Commons, the dominant (historically termed the lower) house of Parliament. Each parliamentary constituency of the United Kingdom elects one MP to the House of Commons using the "first - past - the - post '' system. If one party obtains a majority of seats, then that party is entitled to form the Government. If the election results in no single party having a majority, then there is a hung parliament. In this case, the options for forming the Government are either a minority government or a coalition government.
Although the Conservative Party planned the number of parliamentary seats to be reduced from 650 to 600, through the Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies under the Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011, the review of constituencies and reduction in seats was delayed by the Electoral Registration and Administration Act 2013 amending the 2011 Act. The next boundary review is now set to take place in 2018; thus the 2015 general election was contested using the same constituencies and boundaries as in 2010. Of the 650 constituencies, 533 are in England, 59 in Scotland, 40 in Wales and 18 in Northern Ireland.
In addition, the 2011 Act mandated a referendum in 2011 on changing from the current "first - past - the - post '' system to an alternative vote (instant - runoff) system for elections to the Commons. The Conservative -- Liberal Democrat coalition agreement committed the coalition government to such a referendum. The referendum was held in May 2011 and resulted in the retention of the existing voting system. Before the previous general election the Liberal Democrats had pledged to change the voting system, and the Labour Party pledged to have a referendum about any such change. The Conservatives, however, promised to keep the first - past - the - post system, but to reduce the number of constituencies by 10 %. Liberal Democrat plans were to reduce the number of MPs to 500, and for them to be elected using a proportional system.
Ministers increased the amount of money that parties and candidates were allowed to spend on the election by 23 %, a move decided against Electoral Commission advice. The election saw the first cap on spending by parties in individual constituencies during the 100 days before Parliament 's dissolution on 30 March: £ 30,700, plus a per - voter allowance of 9p in county constituencies and 6p in borough seats. An additional voter allowance of more than £ 8,700 is available after the dissolution of Parliament. UK political parties spent £ 31.1 m in the 2010 general election, of which the Conservative Party spent 53 %, the Labour Party spent 25 % and the Liberal Democrats 15 %.
This was the first UK general election to use individual rather than household voter registration.
An election is called following the dissolution of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The 2015 general election was the first to be held under the provisions of the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011. Prior to this, the power to dissolve Parliament was a royal prerogative, exercised by the sovereign on the advice of the prime minister. Under the provisions of the Septennial Act 1716, as amended by the Parliament Act 1911, an election had to be announced on or before the fifth anniversary of the beginning of the previous parliament, barring exceptional circumstances. No sovereign had refused a request for dissolution since the beginning of the 20th century, and the practice had evolved that a prime minister would typically call a general election to be held at a tactically convenient time within the final two years of a Parliament 's lifespan, to maximise the chance of an electoral victory for his or her party.
Prior to the 2010 general election, the Labour Party and the Liberal Democrats pledged to introduce fixed - term elections. As part of the Conservative -- Liberal Democrat coalition agreement, the Cameron ministry agreed to support legislation for fixed - term Parliaments, with the date of the next general election being 7 May 2015. This resulted in the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011, which removed the prime minister 's power to advise the monarch to call an early election. The Act only permits an early dissolution if Parliament votes for one by a two - thirds supermajority, or if a vote of no confidence is passed by a majority and no new government is subsequently formed within 14 days. However, the prime minister had the power, by order made by Statutory Instrument under section 1 (5) of the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011, to fix the polling day to be up to two months later than 7 May 2015. Such a Statutory Instrument must be approved by each House of Parliament. Under section 14 of the Electoral Registration and Administration Act 2013, the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 was amended to extend the period between the dissolution of Parliament and the following general election polling day from 17 to 25 working days. This had the effect of moving forward the date of the dissolution of the Parliament to 30 March 2015.
The key dates were:
While at the previous election there had been a record 148 MPs not standing for re-election, the 2015 election saw 90 MPs standing down. These comprised 38 Conservative, 37 Labour, 10 Liberal Democrat, 3 Independent, 1 Sinn Féin and 1 Plaid Cymru MP. The highest profile members of parliament leaving were: Gordon Brown, a former Prime Minister, Leader of the Labour Party (both 2007 -- 2010) and Chancellor of the Exchequer (1997 -- 2007); and William Hague, the outgoing First Secretary of State and Leader of the House of Commons and former Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (2010 -- 2014), Leader of the Conservative Party and Leader of the Opposition (both 1997 -- 2001). Alongside Brown and Hague, 17 former cabinet ministers stood down at the election, including Stephen Dorrell, Jack Straw, Alistair Darling, David Blunkett, Sir Malcolm Rifkind and Dame Tessa Jowell. The highest profile Liberal Democrat to stand down was former leader Sir Menzies Campbell, while the longest - serving MP (the "Father of the House '') Sir Peter Tapsell also retired, having served from 1959 to 1964 and then continuously since the 1966 general election.
As of 9 April 2015, the deadline for standing for the general election, the Electoral Commission 's Register of Political Parties included 428 political parties registered in Great Britain, and 36 in Northern Ireland. Candidates who did not belong to a registered party could use an "independent '' label, or no label at all.
The Conservative Party and the Labour Party had been the two biggest parties since 1922, and had supplied all UK prime ministers since 1935. Polls predicted that these parties would together receive between 65 % and 75 % of votes, and would together win between 80 % and 85 % of seats; and that, as such, the leader of one of those parties would be the prime minister after the election. The Liberal Democrats had been the third party in the UK for many years; but as described by various commentators, other parties had risen relative to the Liberal Democrats since the 2010 election. The Economist described a "familiar two - and - a-half - party system '' (Conservatives, Labour, and the Liberal Democrats) that "appears to be breaking down '' with the rise of the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP), the Greens and the Scottish National Party (SNP). Newsnight and The Economist described the country as moving into a six - party system, with the Liberal Democrats, SNP, UKIP and Greens all being significant. Ofcom, in their role regulating election coverage in the UK, ruled that, for the general election and local elections in May 2015, the major parties in Great Britain were the Conservatives, Labour and Liberal Democrats, with UKIP a major party in England and Wales, the SNP a major party in Scotland, and Plaid Cymru (PC) in Wales, and that the Greens were not a major party. The BBC 's guidelines were similar but excluded UKIP from the category of "larger parties '' in Great Britain, and instead stated that UKIP should be given "appropriate levels of coverage in output to which the largest parties contribute and, on some occasions, similar levels of coverage ''. Seven parties (Conservative, Labour, Liberal Democrat, UKIP, SNP, PC and Green) participated in the election leadership debates.
The main Great Britain - based parties -- several parties operate in Northern Ireland only, which has a mainly separate political culture -- are listed below in order of seats being contested:
Dozens of other minor parties stood in Great Britain. The Trade Unionist and Socialist Coalition, founded as an electoral alliance of socialist parties in 2010, had 135 candidates and was the only other party to have more than 40 candidates. Respect came into the election with one MP (George Galloway), who was elected at the 2012 Bradford West by - election, but stood just four candidates. The British National Party, which finished fifth with 1.9 % of the vote for its 338 candidates at the 2010 general election, stood only eight candidates following a collapse in support. 753 other candidates stood at the general election, including all independents, Northern Ireland - based party candidates, and candidates from other parties.
The main parties in Northern Ireland (which had 18 constituencies) described by Ofcom, the BBC and others, in alphabetical order, were:
Smaller parties in Northern Ireland included Traditional Unionist Voice (standing in seven seats) and the Green Party in Northern Ireland (standing in five seats). In 2015 TUV and the Greens each held one seat in the Legislative Assembly. The North Down seat was retained by independent Sylvia Hermon. The Northern Ireland Conservatives and UKIP fielded candidates, whereas Labour and the Liberal Democrats do not contest elections in Northern Ireland.
Coalitions have been rare in the United Kingdom, because the first - past - the - post system has usually led to one party winning an overall majority in the Commons. However, with the outgoing Government being a coalition and with opinion polls not showing a large or consistent lead for any one party, there was much discussion about possible post-election coalitions or other arrangements, such as confidence and supply agreements.
Some UK political parties that only stand in part of the country have reciprocal relationships with parties standing in other parts of the country. These include:
On 17 March 2015 the Democratic Unionist Party and the Ulster Unionist Party agreed an election pact, whereby the DUP would not stand candidates in Fermanagh and South Tyrone (where Michelle Gildernew, the Sinn Féin candidate, won by only four votes in 2010) and in Newry and Armagh. In return the UUP would stand aside in Belfast East and Belfast North. The SDLP rejected a similar pact suggested by Sinn Féin to try to ensure that an agreed nationalist would win that constituency. The DUP also called on voters in Scotland to support whichever pro-Union candidate was best placed to beat the SNP.
The deadline for parties and individuals to file candidate nomination papers to the acting returning officer (and the deadline for candidates to withdraw) was 4 p.m. on 9 April 2015. The total number of candidates was 3,971; the second - highest number in history, slightly down from the record 4,150 candidates at the last election in 2010.
There were a record number of female candidates standing in terms of both absolute numbers and percentage of candidates: 1,020 (26.1 %) in 2015, up from 854 (21.1 %) in 2010. The proportion of female candidates for major parties ranged from 41 % of Alliance Party candidates to 12 % of UKIP candidates. According to UCL 's Parliamentary Candidates UK project the major parties had the following percentages of black and ethnic minority candidates: the Conservatives 11 %, the Liberal Democrats 10 %, Labour 9 %, UKIP 6 %, the Greens 4 %. The average age of the candidates for the seven major parties was 45.
The youngest candidates were all aged 18: Solomon Curtis (Labour, Wealden); Niamh McCarthy (Independent, Liverpool Wavertree); Michael Burrows (UKIP, Inverclyde); Declan Lloyd (Labour, South East Cornwall); and Laura - Jane Rossington (Communist Party, Plymouth Sutton and Devonport). The oldest candidate was Doris Osen, 84, of the Elderly Persons ' Independent Party (EPIC), who was standing in Ilford North. Other candidates aged over 80 included three long - serving Labour MPs standing for re-election: Sir Gerald Kaufman (aged 84; Manchester Gorton), Dennis Skinner (aged 83; Bolsover) and David Winnick (aged 81; Walsall North).
A number of candidates -- including two for Labour and two for UKIP -- were suspended from their respective parties after nominations were closed. Independent candidate Ronnie Carroll died after nominations were closed.
Hung Parliaments have been unusual in post-War British political history, but with the outgoing Government a coalition and opinion polls not showing a large or consistent lead for any one party, it was widely expected and predicted throughout the election campaign that no party would gain an overall majority, which could have led to a new coalition or other arrangements such as confidence and supply agreements. This was also associated with a rise in multi-party politics, with increased support for UKIP, the SNP and the Greens.
The question of what the different parties would do in the event of a hung result dominated much of the campaign. Smaller parties focused on the power this would bring them in negotiations; Labour and the Conservatives both insisted that they were working towards winning a majority government, while they were also reported to be preparing for the possibility of a second election in the year. In practice, Labour were prepared to make a "broad '' offer to the Liberal Democrats in the event of a hung Parliament. Most predictions saw Labour as having more potential support in Parliament than the Conservatives, with several parties, notably the SNP, having committed to keeping out a Conservative government.
Conservative campaigning sought to highlight what they described as the dangers of a minority Labour administration supported by the SNP. This proved effective at dominating the agenda of the campaign and at motivating voters to support them. The Conservative victory was "widely put down to the success of the anti-Labour / SNP warnings '', according to a BBC article and others. Labour, in reaction, produced ever stronger denials that they would co-operate with the SNP after the election.
The Labour, Conservative and Liberal Democrat parties rejected the idea of a coalition with the SNP. This was particularly notable for Labour, to whom the SNP had previously offered support: their manifesto stated that "the SNP will never put the Tories into power. Instead, if there is an anti-Tory majority after the election, we will offer to work with other parties to keep the Tories out. '' SNP leader Nicola Sturgeon later confirmed in the Scottish leaders ' debate on STV that she was prepared to "help make Ed Miliband prime minister. '' However, on 26 April, Miliband ruled out a confidence and supply arrangement with the SNP too. Miliband 's comments suggested to many that he was working towards forming a minority government.
The Liberal Democrats said that they would talk first to whichever party won the most seats. They later campaigned on being a stabilising influence should either the Conservatives or Labour fall short of a majority, with the slogan "We will bring a heart to a Conservative Government and a brain to a Labour one. ''
Both Labour and the Liberal Democrats ruled out coalitions with UKIP. Ruth Davidson, leader of the Scottish Conservatives, asked about a deal with UKIP in the Scottish leaders ' debate, replied, "No deals with UKIP. '' She continued that her preference and the Prime Minister 's preference in a hung Parliament was for a minority Conservative government. UKIP say they could support a minority Conservative government through a confidence and supply arrangement in return for a referendum on EU membership before Christmas 2015. They also spoke of the DUP joining UKIP in this arrangement. UKIP and DUP said they would work together in Parliament. The DUP welcomed the possibility of a hung Parliament and the influence that this would bring them. The party 's deputy leader, Nigel Dodds, said the party could work with the Conservatives or Labour, but that the party is "not interested in a full - blown coalition government ''. Their leader, Peter Robinson, said that the DUP would talk first to whichever party wins the most seats. The DUP said they wanted, for their support, a commitment to 2 % defence spending, a referendum on EU membership, and a reversal of the under - occupation penalty. They opposed the SNP being involved in government. The UUP also indicated that they would not work with the SNP if it wanted another independence referendum in Scotland.
The Green Party of England & Wales, Plaid Cymru and the Scottish National Party all ruled out working with the Conservatives, and agreed to work together "wherever possible '' to counter austerity. Each would also make it a condition of any agreement with Labour that Trident nuclear weapons was not replaced; the Green Party of England and Wales stated that "austerity is a red line. '' Both Plaid Cymru and the Green Party stated a preference for a confidence and supply arrangement with Labour, rather than a coalition. The leader of the SDLP, Alasdair McDonnell, said, "We will be the left - of - centre backbone of a Labour administration '', and that, "the SDLP will categorically refuse to support David Cameron and the Conservative Party ''. Sinn Féin reiterated their abstentionist stance. In the event, the Conservatives did secure an overall majority, rendering much of the speculation and positioning moot.
The deficit, who was responsible for it and plans to deal with it were a major theme of the campaign. While some smaller parties opposed austerity, the Conservatives, Labour, Liberal Democrats and UKIP all supported some further cuts, albeit to different extents.
Conservative campaigning sought to blame the deficit on the previous Labour government. Labour, in return, sought to establish their fiscal responsibility. With the Conservatives also making several spending commitments (e.g. on the NHS), commentators talked of the two main parties ' "political crossdressing '', each trying to campaign on the other 's traditional territory.
The first series of televised leaders ' debates in the United Kingdom was held in the previous election. After much debate and various proposals, a seven - way debate with the leaders of Labour, the Conservatives, Liberal Democrats, UKIP, Greens, SNP and Plaid Cymru was held. with a series of other debates involving some of the parties.
The campaign was notable for the absence of party posters on roadside hoardings. It was suggested that 2015 saw "the death of the campaign poster ''.
Various newspapers, organisations and individuals endorsed parties or individual candidates for the election.
Throughout the 55th parliament of the United Kingdom, first and second place in the polls without exception alternated between the Conservatives and Labour. Labour took a lead in the polls in the second half of 2010, driven in part by a collapse in Liberal Democrat support. This lead rose up to approximately 10 points over the Conservative Party during 2012, whose ratings dipped alongside an increase in UKIP support. UKIP passed the Liberal Democrats as the third-most popular party at the start of 2013. Following this, Labour 's lead over the Conservatives began to fall as UKIP gained support from them as well, and by the end of the year Labour were polling at 39 %, compared to 33 % for the Conservative Party and 11 % for UKIP.
UKIP received 26.6 % of the vote at the European elections in 2014, and though their support in the polls for Westminster never reached this level, it did rise up to over 15 % through that year. 2014 was also marked by the Scottish independence referendum. Despite the ' No ' vote winning, support for the Scottish National Party rose quickly after the referendum, and had reached 43 % in Scotland by the end of the year, up 23 points from the 2010 general election, largely at the expense of Labour (− 16 points in Scotland) and the Liberal Democrats (− 13 points). In Wales, where polls were less frequent, the 2012 -- 2014 period saw a smaller decline in Labour 's lead over the second - placed Conservative Party, from 28 points to 17. These votes went mainly to UKIP (+ 8 points) and Plaid Cymru (+ 2 points). The rise of UKIP and SNP, alongside the smaller increases for Plaid Cymru and the Green Party (from around 2 % to 6 %) saw the combined support of the Conservative and Labour party fall to a record low of around 65 %. Within this the decline came predominantly from Labour, whose lead fell to under 2 points by the end of 2014. Meanwhile, the Liberal Democrat vote, which had held at about 10 % since late 2010, declined further to about 8 %.
Early 2015 saw the Labour lead continue to fall, disappearing by the start of March. Polling during the election campaign itself remained relatively static, with the Labour and Conservative parties both polling between 33 -- 34 % and neither able to establish a consistent lead. Support for the Green Party and UKIP showed slight drops of around 1 -- 2 points each, while Liberal Democrat support rose up to around 9 %. In Scotland, support for the SNP continued to grow with polling figures in late March reaching 54 %, with the Labour vote continuing to decline accordingly, while Labour retained their (reduced) lead in Wales, polling at 39 % by the end of the campaign, to 26 % for the Conservatives, 13 % for Plaid Cymru, 12 % for UKIP and 6 % for the Liberal Democrats. The final polls showed a mixture of Conservative leads, Labour leads and ties with both between 31 -- 36 %, UKIP on 11 -- 16 %, the Lib Dems on 8 -- 10 %, the Greens on 4 -- 6 %, and the SNP on 4 -- 5 % of the national vote.
In addition to the national polls, Lord Ashcroft funded from May 2014 a series of polls in marginal constituencies, and constituencies where minor parties were expected to be significant challengers. Among other results, Lord Ashcroft 's polls suggested that the growth in SNP support would translate into more than 50 seats; that there was little overall pattern in Labour and Conservative Party marginals; that the Green Party MP Caroline Lucas would retain her seat; that both Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg and UKIP leader Nigel Farage would face very close races to be elected in their own constituencies; and that Liberal Democrat MPs would enjoy an incumbency effect that would lose fewer MPs than their national polling implied. As with other smaller parties, their proportion of MPs remained likely to be considerably lower than that of total, national votes cast. Several polling companies included Ashcroft 's polls in their election predictions, though several of the political parties disputed his findings.
The first - past - the - post system used in UK general elections means that the number of seats won is not closely related to vote share. Thus, several approaches were used to convert polling data and other information into seat predictions. The table below lists some of the predictions. ElectionForecast was used by Newsnight and FiveThirtyEight. May2015.com is a project run by the New Statesman magazine.
Seat predictions draw from nationwide polling, polling in the constituent nations of Britain and may additionally incorporate constituency level polling, particularly the Ashcroft polls. Approaches may or may not use uniform national swing (UNS). Approaches may just use current polling, i.e. a "nowcast '' (e.g. Electoral Calculus, May2015.com and The Guardian), or add in a predictive element about how polling shifts based on historical data (e.g. ElectionForecast and Elections Etc.). An alternative approach is to use the wisdom of the crowd and base a prediction on betting activity: the Sporting Index column below covers bets on the number of seats each party will win with the midpoint between asking and selling price, while FirstPastThePost.net aggregates the betting predictions in each individual constituency. Some predictions cover Northern Ireland, with its distinct political culture, while others do not. Parties are sorted by current number of seats in the House of Commons:
as of 12 April 2015
as of 3 April 2015
as of 12 April 2015
(including 18 NI seats)
(including 18 NI seats)
(including 18 NI seats & Respect 1)
Respect 0.5 UUP 0.9 Speaker 1 Sinn Féin 4.5 Independent Unionist 1
Other predictions were published. An election forecasting conference on 27 March 2015 yielded 11 forecasts of the result in Great Britain (including some included in the table above). Averaging the conference predictions gives Labour 283 seats, Conservatives 279, Liberal Democrats 23, UKIP 3, SNP 41, Plaid Cymru 3 and Greens 1. In that situation, no two parties (excluding a Lab - Con coalition) would have been able to form a majority without the support of a third. On 27 April, Rory Scott of the bookmaker Paddy Power predicted Conservatives 284, Labour 272, SNP 50, UKIP 3, and Greens 1. LucidTalk for the Belfast Telegraph predicted for Northern Ireland: DUP 9, Sinn Féin 5, SDLP 3, Sylvia Hermon 1, with the only seat change being the DUP gaining Belfast East from Alliance.
Percentage shares of votes, as predicted in the first week of May:
Seats predicted on 7 May:
A surprising exit poll, collected by Ipsos MORI and GfK on behalf of the BBC, ITN and Sky News, was published at 10 pm at the end of voting:
This predicted the Conservatives to be 10 seats short of an absolute majority, although with the 5 predicted Sinn Féin MPs not taking their seats, it was likely to be enough to govern. (In the event, Michelle Gildernew lost her seat, reducing the number of Sinn Féin MPs to 4.)
The exit poll was markedly different from the pre-election opinion polls, which had been fairly consistent; this led many pundits and MPs to speculate that the exit poll was inaccurate, and that the final result would have the two main parties closer to each other. Former Liberal Democrat leader Paddy Ashdown vowed to "eat his hat '' and former Labour "spin doctor '' Alastair Campbell promised to "eat his kilt '' if the exit poll, which predicted huge losses for their respective parties, was right.
As it turned out, the results were even more favourable to the Conservatives than the poll predicted, with the Conservatives obtaining 330 seats, an absolute majority. Ashdown and Campbell were presented with hat - and kilt - shaped cakes (labelled "eat me '') on BBC Question Time on 8 May.
With the eventual outcome in terms of both votes and seats varying substantially from the bulk of opinion polls released in the final months before the election, the polling industry received criticism for their inability to predict what was a surprisingly clear Conservative victory. Several theories have been put forward to explain the inaccuracy of the pollsters. One theory was that there had simply been a very late swing to the Conservatives, with the polling company Survation claiming that 13 % of voters made up their minds in the final days and 17 % on the day of the election. The company also claimed that a poll they carried out a day before the election gave the Conservatives 37 % and Labour 31 %, though they said they did not release the poll (commissioned by the Daily Mirror) on the concern that it was too much of an outlier with other poll results.
However, it was reported that pollsters had in fact picked up a late swing to Labour immediately prior to polling day, not the Conservatives. It was reported after the election that private pollsters working for the two largest parties actually gathered more accurate results, with Labour 's pollster James Morris claiming that the issue was largely to do with surveying technique. Morris claimed that telephone polls that immediately asked for voting intentions tended to get a high "Do n't know '' or anti-government reaction, whereas longer telephone conversations conducted by private polls that collected other information such as views on the leaders ' performances placed voters in a much better mode to give their true voting intentions. Another theory was the issue of ' shy Tories ' not wanting to openly declare their intention to vote Conservative to pollsters. A final theory, put forward after the election, was the ' Lazy Labour ' factor, which claimed that Labour voters tend to not vote on polling day whereas Conservative voters have a much higher turnout.
The British Polling Council announced an inquiry into the substantial variance between the opinion polls and the actual election result. The inquiry published preliminary findings in January 2016, concluding that "the ways in which polling samples are constructed was the primary cause of the polling miss ''. Their final report was published in March 2016.
The British Election Study team have suggested that weighting error appears to be the cause.
Votes, of total, by party
MPs, of total, by party
After all 650 constituencies had been declared, the results were:
The following table shows final election results as reported by BBC News and The Guardian.
One result of the 2015 general election was that a different political party won the popular vote in each of the countries of the United Kingdom. This was reflected in terms of MPs elected: The Conservatives won in England with 319 MPs out of 533 constituencies, the SNP won in Scotland with 56 out of 59, Labour won in Wales with 25 out of 40, and the Democratic Unionist Party won in Northern Ireland with 8 out of 18.
Turn out
Conservatives
Labour
UKIP
Liberal Democrat
Green
SNP / Plaid Cymru / Mebyon Kernow / Sinn Féin
Despite most opinion polls predicting that the Conservatives and Labour were neck and neck, the Conservatives secured a surprise victory after having won a clear lead over their rivals and incumbent Prime Minister David Cameron was able to form a majority single - party government with a working majority of 12 (in practice increased to 15 due to Sinn Féin 's 4 MPs ' abstention). Thus the result bore resemblance to 1992. The Conservatives gained 38 seats while losing 10, all to Labour, with Employment Minister Esther McVey the most senior Conservative to lose her seat. Cameron became the first Prime Minister since Lord Salisbury in 1900 to increase his popular vote share after a full term, and is sometimes credited as being the only Prime Minister other than Margaret Thatcher (in 1983) to be re-elected with a greater number of seats for his party after a ' full term '.
The Labour Party polled below expectations and won 30.4 % of the vote and 232 seats, 24 fewer than their previous result in 2010, even though in 222 constituencies there was a Conservative to Labour swing, as against 151 constituencies where there was a Labour to Conservative swing. Their net loss of seats were mainly a result of their resounding defeat in Scotland, where the Scottish National Party took 40 of their 41 seats, unseating key Labour politicians such as shadow Foreign Secretary Douglas Alexander and Scottish Labour leader Jim Murphy. Labour also lost a further nine seats to the Conservatives to record their lowest share of the seats since the 1987 general election. Ed Miliband subsequently tendered his resignation as Labour leader.
The Scottish National Party had a stunning election, rising from just 6 seats to 56 -- winning all but 3 of the constituencies in Scotland and securing 50 % of the popular vote in Scotland. They recorded a number of record breaking swings of over 30 % including the new record of 39.3 % in Glasgow North East. They also won the seat of former Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, overturning a majority of 23,009 to win by a majority of 9,974 votes and saw Mhairi Black, then a 20 - year - old student, defeat Labour 's Shadow Foreign Secretary Douglas Alexander with a swing of 26.9 %.
The Liberal Democrats, who had been in government as coalition partners, suffered the worst defeat they or the previous Liberal Party had suffered since the 1970 general election. Winning just eight seats, the Liberal Democrats lost their position as the UK 's third party and found themselves tied in fourth place with the Democratic Unionist Party of Northern Ireland in the House of Commons, with Nick Clegg being one of the few MPs from his party to retain his seat. The Liberal Democrats gained no seats, and lost 49: 27 to the Conservatives, 12 to Labour and 10 to the SNP.
The United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) were only able to hold one of their two seats and gain no new ones, despite increasing their vote share to 12.9 % (which was third in terms of votes.) Party leader Nigel Farage, having failed to win the constituency of South Thanet, tendered his resignation, though this was rejected by his party 's executive council and he stayed on as leader.
In Northern Ireland, the Ulster Unionist Party returned to the Commons with two MPs after a five - year absence, gaining one seat from the Democratic Unionist Party and one from Sinn Féin, while Alliance lost its only Commons seat to the DUP despite an increase in total vote share.
Polling after the election suggested the following demographic breakdown:
The election led to an increase in the number of female MPs, to 191 (29 % of the total, including 99 Labour; 68 Conservative; 20 SNP; 4 other) from 147 (23 % of the total, including 87 Labour; 47 Conservative; 7 Liberal Democrat; 1 SNP; 5 other). As before the election, the region with the largest proportion of women MPs was North East England.
111 seats changed hands compared to the result in 2010 plus three by - election gains reverted to the party that won the seat at the last general election in 2010.
On 8 May, three party leaders announced their resignations within an hour of each other: Ed Miliband (Labour) and Nick Clegg (Liberal Democrat) resigned due to their parties ' worse - than - expected results in the election, although both had been re-elected to their seats in Parliament. Nigel Farage (UKIP) offered his resignation because he had failed to be elected as MP for Thanet South, but said he might re-stand in the resulting leadership election. However, on 11 May, the UKIP executive rejected his resignation on the grounds that the election campaign had been "a great success '', and Farage agreed to continue as party leader.
Alan Sugar, a Labour peer in the House of Lords, also announced his resignation from the Labour Party for running what he perceived to be an anti-business campaign.
In response to Labour 's poor performance in Scotland, Scottish Labour leader Jim Murphy initially resisted calls for his resignation by other senior party members. Despite surviving a no - confidence vote by 17 -- 14 from the party 's national executive, Murphy announced he would step down as leader on or by 16 May.
Financial markets reacted positively to the result, with the pound sterling rising against the Euro and US dollar when the exit poll was published, and the FTSE 100 stock market index rising 2.3 % on 8 May. The BBC reported: "Bank shares saw some of the biggest gains, on hopes that the sector will not see any further rises in levies. Shares in Lloyds Banking Group rose 5.75 % while Barclays was 3.7 % higher '', adding, "Energy firms also saw their share prices rise, as Labour had wanted a price freeze and more powers for the energy regulator. British Gas owner Centrica rose 8.1 % and SSE shares were up 5.3 % ''. BBC economics editor Robert Peston noted: "To state the obvious, investors love the Tories ' general election victory. There are a few reasons. One (no surprise here) is that Labour 's threat of breaking up banks and imposing energy price caps has been lifted. Second is that investors have been discounting days and weeks of wrangling after polling day over who would form the government -- and so they are semi-euphoric that we already know who 's in charge. Third, many investors tend to be economically Conservative and instinctively Conservative. ''
The disparity between the numbers of votes and the number of seats obtained by the smaller parties gave rise to increased calls for replacement of the ' first - past - the - post ' voting system with a more proportional system. For example, UKIP had 3.9 million votes per seat, whereas SNP had just 26,000 votes per seat, about 150 times greater representation for each vote cast. It is worth noting, however, that UKIP stood in 10 times as many seats as the SNP. Noting that UKIP 's 13 % share of the overall votes cast had resulted in the election of just one MP, Nigel Farage argued that the UK 's voting system needed reforming, saying, "Personally, I think the first - past - the - post system is bankrupt ''.
Re-elected Green Party MP Caroline Lucas agreed, saying "The political system in this country is broken (...) It 's ever clearer tonight that the time for electoral reform is long overdue, and it 's only proportional representation that will deliver a Parliament that is truly legitimate and better reflects the people it is meant to represent. ''
Following the election, The Daily Telegraph detailed changes to Wikipedia pages made from computers with IP addresses inside Parliament raising suspicion that "MPs or their political parties deliberately hid information from the public online to make candidates appear more electable to voters '' and a deliberate attempt to hide embarrassing information from the electorate.
On 21 December 2015, the UK Information Commissioner 's Office fined the Telegraph Media Group £ 30,000 for sending ' hundreds of thousands of emails on the day of the general election urging readers to vote Conservative... in a letter from Daily Telegraph editor Chris Evans, attached to the paper 's usual morning e-bulletin '. The ICO concluded that subscribers had not expressed their consent to receive this kind of direct marketing.
Four electors from Orkney and Shetland lodged an election petition on 29 May 2015 attempting to unseat Alistair Carmichael and force a by - election over what became known as ' Frenchgate '. The issue centred around the leaking of a memo from the Scotland Office about comments allegedly made by the French ambassador Sylvie Bermann about Nicola Sturgeon, claiming that Sturgeon had privately stated she would "rather see David Cameron remain as PM '', in contrast to her publicly stated opposition to a Conservative government. The veracity of the memo was quickly denied by the French ambassador, French consul general and Sturgeon. At the time of the leak, Carmichael denied all knowledge of the leaking of the memo in a television interview with Channel 4 News. but after the election Carmichael accepted the contents of the memo were incorrect, admitted that he had lied, and that he had authorised the leaking of the inaccurate memo to the media after a Cabinet Office enquiry identified Carmichael 's role in the leak. On 9 December, an Election Court decided that although he had told a "blatant lie '' in a TV interview, it had not been proven beyond reasonable doubt that he had committed an "illegal practice '' under the Representation of the People Act and he was allowed to retain his seat.
At national party level, the Electoral Commission fined the three largest parties for breaches of spending regulations, levying the highest fines since its foundation: £ 20,000 for Labour in October 2016, £ 20,000 for the Liberal Democrats in December 2016, and £ 70,000 for the Conservative Party in March 2017.
The higher fine for the Conservatives reflected both the extent of the wrongdoing (which extended to the 2014 parliamentary by - elections in Clacton, Newark and Rochester and Strood) and ' the unreasonable uncooperative conduct by the Party '. The Commission also found that the Party Treasurer, Simon Day, may not have fulfilled his obligations under the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000 and referred him for investigation to the Metropolitan Police Service.
At constituency level, related alleged breaches of spending regulations led to ' unprecedented ' police investigations for possible criminal conduct of between 20 and 30 Conservative Party MPs. However, on 9 May 2017, the Crown Prosecution service decided not to prosecute the vast majority of suspects, saying that ' in order to bring a charge, it must be proved that a suspect knew the return was inaccurate and acted dishonestly in signing the declaration. Although there is evidence to suggest the returns may have been inaccurate, there is insufficient evidence to prove to the criminal standard that any candidate or agent was dishonest. ' However, on 2 June 2017, charges were brought under the Representation of the People Act 1983 against Craig Mackinlay, who was elected Conservative MP for South Thanet in 2015, his agent Nathan Gray, and a party activist, Marion Little. Appearing at Westminster Magistrates ' Court on 4 July 2017, the three pleased not guilty and were released on unconditional bail pending an appearance at Southwark Crown Court on 1 August 2017. The investigation of Party Treasurer Simon Day remained ongoing.
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who's the author of alice in wonderland | Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland - wikipedia
Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland (commonly shortened to Alice in Wonderland) is an 1865 fantasy novel written by English mathematician Charles Lutwidge Dodgson under the pseudonym Lewis Carroll. It tells of a girl named Alice falling through a rabbit hole into a fantasy world populated by peculiar, anthropomorphic creatures. The tale plays with logic, giving the story lasting popularity with adults as well as with children. It is considered to be one of the best examples of the literary nonsense genre. Its narrative course and structure, characters and imagery have been enormously influential in both popular culture and literature, especially in the fantasy genre.
Alice was published in 1865, three years after Charles Lutwidge Dodgson and the Reverend Robinson Duckworth rowed a boat up the Isis on 4 July 1862 (this popular date of the "golden afternoon '' might be a confusion or even another Alice - tale, for that particular day was cool, cloudy, and rainy) with the three young daughters of Henry Liddell (the Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University and Dean of Christ Church): Lorina Charlotte Liddell (aged 13, born 1849, "Prima '' in the book 's prefatory verse); Alice Pleasance Liddell (aged 10, born 1852, "Secunda '' in the prefatory verse); Edith Mary Liddell (aged 8, born 1853, "Tertia '' in the prefatory verse).
The journey began at Folly Bridge in Oxford and ended 3 miles (5 km) north - west in the village of Godstow. During the trip, Dodgson told the girls a story that featured a bored little girl named Alice who goes looking for an adventure. The girls loved it, and Alice Liddell asked Dodgson to write it down for her. He began writing the manuscript of the story the next day, although that earliest version no longer exists. The girls and Dodgson took another boat trip a month later when he elaborated the plot to the story of Alice, and in November he began working on the manuscript in earnest.
To add the finishing touches, he researched natural history for the animals presented in the book, and then had the book examined by other children -- particularly the children of George MacDonald. It was also MacDonald, and Henry Kingsley, who encouraged him to publish the story. Carroll added his own illustrations but approached John Tenniel to illustrate the book for publication, telling him that the story had been well liked by children.
On 26 November 1864, he gave Alice the handwritten manuscript of Alice 's Adventures Under Ground, with illustrations by Dodgson himself, dedicating it as "A Christmas Gift to a Dear Child in Memory of a Summer 's Day ''. Some, including Martin Gardner, speculate that there was an earlier version that was destroyed later by Dodgson when he wrote a more elaborate copy by hand.
But before Alice received her copy, Dodgson was already preparing it for publication and expanding the 15,500 - word original to 27,500 words, most notably adding the episodes about the Cheshire Cat and the Mad Tea - Party.
Chapter One -- Down the Rabbit Hole: Alice is feeling bored and drowsy while sitting on the riverbank with her older sister, who is reading a book with no pictures or conversations. She then notices a White Rabbit wearing a waistcoat and pocket watch, talking to itself as it runs past. She follows it down a rabbit hole, but suddenly falls a long way to a curious hall with many locked doors of all sizes. She finds a small key to a door too small for her to fit through, but through it she sees an attractive garden. She then discovers a bottle on a table labelled "DRINK ME '', the contents of which cause her to shrink too small to reach the key, which she has left on the table. She eats a cake with "EAT ME '' written on it in currants as the chapter closes.
Chapter Two -- The Pool of Tears: Chapter Two opens with Alice growing to such a tremendous size that her head hits the ceiling. Alice is unhappy and, as she cries, her tears flood the hallway. After shrinking down again due to a fan she had picked up, Alice swims through her own tears and meets a Mouse, who is swimming as well. She tries to make small talk with him in elementary French (thinking he may be a French mouse) but her opening gambit "Où est ma chatte? '' ("Where is my cat? '') offends the mouse and he tries to escape her.
Chapter Three -- The Caucus Race and a Long Tale: The sea of tears becomes crowded with other animals and birds that have been swept away by the rising waters. Alice and the other animals convene on the bank and the question among them is how to get dry again. The Mouse gives them a very dry lecture on William the Conqueror. A Dodo decides that the best thing to dry them off would be a Caucus - Race, which consists of everyone running in a circle with no clear winner. Alice eventually frightens all the animals away, unwittingly, by talking about her (moderately ferocious) cat.
Chapter Four -- The Rabbit Sends a Little Bill: The White Rabbit appears again in search of the Duchess 's gloves and fan. Mistaking her for his maidservant, Mary Ann, he orders Alice to go into the house and retrieve them, but once she gets inside she starts growing. The horrified Rabbit orders his gardener, Bill the Lizard, to climb on the roof and go down the chimney. Outside, Alice hears the voices of animals that have gathered to gawk at her giant arm. The crowd hurls pebbles at her, which turn into little cakes. Alice eats them, and they make her smaller again. Upon leaving the house, she comes upon a puppy, with whom she plays for a while before finding a mushroom with a hookah - smoking blue Caterpillar.
Chapter Five -- Advice from a Caterpillar: The Caterpillar questions Alice and she admits to her current identity crisis, compounded by her inability to remember a poem. Before crawling away, the caterpillar tells Alice that one side of the mushroom will make her taller and the other side will make her shorter. She breaks off two pieces from the mushroom. One side makes her shrink smaller than ever, while another causes her neck to grow high into the trees, where a pigeon mistakes her for a serpent. With some effort, Alice brings herself back to her normal height. She stumbles upon a small estate and uses the mushroom to reach a more appropriate height.
Chapter Six -- Pig and Pepper: A Fish - Footman has an invitation for the Duchess of the house, which he delivers to a Frog - Footman. Alice observes this transaction and, after a perplexing conversation with the frog, lets herself into the house. The Duchess 's Cook is throwing dishes and making a soup that has too much pepper, which causes Alice, the Duchess, and her baby (but not the cook or grinning Cheshire Cat) to sneeze violently. Alice is given the baby by the Duchess and to her surprise, the baby turns into a pig. The Cheshire Cat appears in a tree, directing her to the March Hare 's house. He disappears, but his grin remains behind to float on its own in the air, prompting Alice to remark that she has often seen a cat without a grin but never a grin without a cat.
Chapter Seven -- A Mad Tea - Party: Alice becomes a guest at a "mad '' tea party along with the March Hare, the Hatter, and a very tired Dormouse who falls asleep frequently, only to be violently woken up moments later by the March Hare and the Hatter. The characters give Alice many riddles and stories, including the famous "Why is a raven like a writing desk? ''. The Hatter reveals that they have tea all day because Time has punished him by eternally standing still at 6 pm (tea time). Alice becomes insulted and tired of being bombarded with riddles and she leaves, claiming that it was the stupidest tea party that she had ever been to. She makes her way back to the hallway and, using the pieces of mushroom, manages to get the key, unlock the door and enter the garden.
Chapter Eight -- The Queen 's Croquet Ground: Alice comes upon three living playing cards painting the white roses on a rose tree red because The Queen of Hearts hates white roses. A procession of more cards, kings and queens and even the White Rabbit enters the garden. Alice then meets the King and Queen. The Queen, a figure difficult to please, introduces her trademark phrase "Off with her head! '', which she utters at the slightest dissatisfaction with a subject. Alice is invited (or some might say ordered) to play a game of croquet with the Queen and the rest of her subjects, but the game quickly descends into chaos. Live flamingos are used as mallets and hedgehogs as balls, and Alice once again meets the Cheshire Cat. The Queen of Hearts then orders the Cat to be beheaded, only to have her executioner complain that this is impossible since the head is all that can be seen of him. Because the cat belongs to the Duchess, the Queen is prompted to release the Duchess from prison to resolve the matter.
Chapter Nine -- The Mock Turtle 's Story: The Duchess is brought to the croquet ground at Alice 's request. She ruminates on finding morals in everything around her. The Queen of Hearts dismisses her with the threat of execution and she introduces Alice to the Gryphon, who takes her to the Mock Turtle. The Mock Turtle is very sad, even though he has no sorrow. He tries to tell his story about how he used to be a real turtle in school, which the Gryphon interrupts so that they can play a game.
Chapter Ten -- Lobster Quadrille: The Mock Turtle and the Gryphon dance to the Lobster Quadrille, while Alice recites (rather incorrectly) "' Tis the Voice of the Lobster ''. The Mock Turtle sings them "Beautiful Soup '' during which the Gryphon drags Alice away for an impending trial.
Chapter Eleven -- Who Stole the Tarts?: Alice attends a trial in which the Knave of Hearts is accused of stealing the Queen 's tarts. The jury is composed of various animals, including Bill the Lizard; the White Rabbit is the court 's trumpeter; and the judge is the King of Hearts. During the proceedings, Alice finds that she is steadily growing larger. The dormouse scolds Alice and tells her she has no right to grow at such a rapid pace and take up all the air. Alice scoffs and calls the dormouse 's accusation ridiculous because everyone grows and she can not help it. Meanwhile, witnesses at the trial include the Hatter, who displeases and frustrates the King through his indirect answers to the questioning, and the Duchess 's cook.
Chapter Twelve -- Alice 's Evidence: Alice is then called up as a witness. She accidentally knocks over the jury box with the animals inside, and the King orders the animals to be placed back into their seats before the trial continues. The King and Queen order Alice to be gone, citing Rule 42 ("All persons more than a mile high must leave the court ''), but Alice disputes their judgement and refuses to leave. She argues with the King and Queen of Hearts over the ridiculous proceedings, eventually refusing to hold her tongue. The Queen shouts her familiar "Off with her head! '' but Alice is unafraid, calling them out as just a pack of cards, just as they start to swarm over her. Alice 's sister wakes her up from a dream, brushing what turns out to be some leaves, and not a shower of playing cards, from Alice 's face. Alice leaves her sister on the bank to imagine all the curious happenings for herself.
The following is a list of main characters in Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland.
In The Annotated Alice, Martin Gardner provides background information for the characters. The members of the boating party that first heard Carroll 's tale show up in Chapter 3 ("A Caucus - Race and a Long Tale ''):
Carroll wrote multiple poems and songs for Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland, including:
Some of the book 's adventures may have been based on or influenced by people, situations, and buildings in Oxford and at Christ Church. For example, the "Rabbit Hole '' might have been inspired by the actual stairs in the back of the main hall in Christ Church. A carving of a griffon and rabbit may have provided inspiration for the tale, as seen in Ripon Cathedral, where Carroll 's father was a canon.
Carroll was a mathematician at Christ Church, and it has been suggested that there are many references and mathematical concepts in both this story and Through the Looking - Glass; examples include:
There have been attempts to reinterpret Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland as having a coded submersive layer of meaning, as is common in other examples of children 's literature (such as the gold standard reading of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900)). For example, literary scholar Melanie Bayley asserted in the magazine New Scientist that Dodgson wrote Alice in Wonderland in its final form as a scathing satire on new modern mathematics that were emerging in the mid-19th century. However, such views are not widely held.
Several people (e.g., Martin Gardner and Selwyn Goodacre,) have suggested that Dodgson had an interest in the French language, choosing to make references and puns about it in the story. It is most likely that these are references to French lessons -- a common feature of a Victorian middle - class girl 's upbringing. For example, in the second chapter, Alice posits that the mouse may be French. She therefore chooses to speak the first sentence of her French lesson - book to it: "Où est ma chatte? '' ("Where is my cat? ''). In Henri Bué 's French translation, Alice posits that the mouse may be Italian and speaks Italian to it.
Pat 's "Digging for apples '' could be a cross-language pun, as pomme de terre (literally; "apple of the earth '') means potato and pomme means apple, which little English girls studying French would easily guess.
In the second chapter, Alice initially addresses the mouse as "O Mouse '', based on her memory of the noun declensions "in her brother 's Latin Grammar, ' A mouse -- of a mouse -- to a mouse -- a mouse -- O mouse! ' '' These words correspond to the first five of Latin 's six cases, in a traditional order established by medieval grammarians: mus (nominative), muris (genitive), muri (dative), murem (accusative), (O) mus (vocative). The sixth case mure (ablative) is absent from Alice 's recitation.
In the eighth chapter, three cards are painting the roses red on a rose tree, because they had accidentally planted a white - rose tree that The Queen of Hearts hates. Red roses symbolised the English House of Lancaster, while white roses were the symbol for their rival, the House of York. This scene is an allusion to the Wars of the Roses.
Carina Garland notes how the world is "expressed via representations of food and appetite '', naming Alice 's frequent desire for consumption (of both food and words) her "Curious Appetites ''. Often, the idea of eating coincides to make gruesome images. After the riddle "Why is a raven like a writing - desk? '', the Hatter claims that Alice might as well say, "I see what I eat... I eat what I see '' and so the riddle 's solution, put forward by Boe Birns, could be that "A raven eats worms; a writing desk is worm - eaten ''; this idea of food encapsulates the idea of life feeding on life, for the worm is being eaten and then becomes the eater -- a horrific image of mortality.
Nina Auerbach discusses how the novel revolves around eating and drinking, which "motivates much of (Alice 's) behaviour '', for the story is essentially about things "entering and leaving her mouth ''. The animals of Wonderland are of particular interest, for Alice 's relation to them shifts constantly because, as Lovell - Smith states, Alice 's size - changes continually reposition her in the food chain, serving as a way to make her acutely aware of the "eat or be eaten '' attitude that permeates Wonderland.
The manuscript was illustrated by Dodgson himself who added 37 illustrations -- printed in a facsimile edition in 1887. John Tenniel provided 42 wood engraved illustrations for the published version of the book. The first print run was destroyed (or sold to the United States) at Carroll 's request because he was dissatisfied with the quality. The book was reprinted and published in 1866.
Neither Dodgson 's nor John Tenniel 's illustrations of Alice portray the real Alice Liddell, who had dark hair and a short fringe as in the Charles Robinson illustration pictured above.
Alice has provided a challenge for other illustrators, including those of 1907 by Charles Pears and the full series of colour plates and line - drawings by Harry Rountree published in the (inter-War) Children 's Press (Glasgow) edition. Other significant illustrators include: Arthur Rackham (1907), Charles Robinson (1907) Willy Pogany (1929), Mervyn Peake (1946), Ralph Steadman (1967), Salvador Dalí (1969), Graham Overden (1969), Max Ernst (1970), Peter Blake (1970), Tove Jansson (1977), Anthony Browne (1988), Helen Oxenbury (1999), Lisbeth Zwerger (1999), DeLoss McGraw (2001), Robert Ingpen (2009) and Yayoi Kusama (2012).
The book Alice in Wonderland failed to be named in an 1888 poll of the most popular children 's stories. Generally, it received poor reviews, with reviewers giving more credit to Tenniel 's illustrations than to Carroll 's story. At the release of Through the Looking - Glass, the first Alice tale gained in popularity and, by the end of the 19th century, Sir Walter Besant wrote that Alice in Wonderland "was a book of that extremely rare kind which will belong to all the generations to come until the language becomes obsolete ''.
Dodgson 's tale was published in 1865 as Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland by "Lewis Carroll '' with illustrations by John Tenniel. The first print run of 2,000 was held back because Tenniel objected to the print quality. A new edition was quickly printed, released in December of the same year but carrying an 1866 date. The text blocks of the original edition were removed from the binding and sold with Dodgson 's permission to the New York publishing house of D. Appleton & Company. The binding for the Appleton Alice was virtually identical to the 1866 Macmillan Alice, except for the publisher 's name at the foot of the spine. The title page of the Appleton Alice was an insert cancelling the original Macmillan title page of 1865, and bearing the New York publisher 's imprint and the date 1866.
The entire print run sold out quickly. Alice was a publishing sensation, beloved by children and adults alike. Among its first avid readers were Queen Victoria and the young Oscar Wilde. The book has never been out of print. Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland has been translated into at least 174 languages. There have now been over a hundred English - language editions of the book, as well as countless adaptations in other media, especially theatre and film.
The book is commonly referred to by the abbreviated title Alice in Wonderland, which has been popularised by the numerous stage, film, and television adaptations of the story produced over the years. Some printings of this title contain both Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland and its sequel Through the Looking - Glass, and What Alice Found There.
The following list is a timeline of major publication events related to Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland:
The book has inspired numerous film and television adaptations which have multiplied as the original work is now in the public domain in all jurisdictions. The following list is of direct adaptations of Adventures in Wonderland (sometimes merging it with Through the Looking - Glass), not other sequels or works otherwise inspired by the works (such as Tim Burton 's 2010 film Alice in Wonderland):
The book has also inspired numerous comic book adaptations:
As the book and its sequel are Carroll 's most widely recognised works, they have also inspired numerous live performances, including ballets, musicals, operas, plays, and traditional English pantomimes. These works range from fairly faithful adaptations to those that use the story as a basis for new works. Additionally, over the years, many notable people in the performing arts have been involved in Alice productions.
Alice has inspired numerous songs and albums, including:
The book has inspired several parodies, including:
Several radio adaptations have been aired, including:
Alice and the rest of Wonderland continue to inspire or influence many other works of art to this day, sometimes indirectly via the 1951 Disney movie, for example. The character of the plucky yet proper Alice has proven immensely popular and inspired similar heroines in literature and pop culture, many also named Alice in homage.
The cover illustration, by E. Gertrude Thomson
The White Rabbit by John Tenniel, coloured
Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland, John Tenniel, 1865
Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland by Arthur Rackham
Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland by Gertrude Kay
An illustration by Karl Beutel
The Pool of Tears by Arthur Rackham
The Pool of Tears by Milo Winter
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where does the best matcha tea come from | Matcha - wikipedia
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Matcha (抹茶, Japanese pronunciation pronounced (mat. tɕa), English / ˈmætʃə /) is finely ground powder of specially grown and processed green tea leaves. It is special in two aspects of farming and processing: the green tea plants for matcha are shade - grown for about three weeks before harvest and the stems and veins are removed in processing. During shaded growth, the plant Camellia sinensis produces more theanine and caffeine. The powdered form of matcha is consumed differently from tea leaves or tea bags, and is dissolved in a liquid, typically water or milk.
The traditional Japanese tea ceremony centers on the preparation, serving, and drinking of matcha as hot tea and embodies a meditative spiritual style. In modern times, matcha also has come to be used to flavor and dye foods such as mochi and soba noodles, green tea ice cream, matcha lattes, and a variety of Japanese wagashi confectionery. Often, the former is referred to as ceremonial - grade matcha, meaning that the matcha powder is good enough for tea ceremony. The latter is referred to as culinary - grade matcha, but there is no standard industry definition or requirements for either.
Blends of matcha are given poetic names known as chamei ("tea names '') either by the producing plantation, shop, or creator of the blend, or, by the grand master of a particular tea tradition. When a blend is named by the grand master of a tea ceremony lineage, it becomes known as the master 's konomi, or a Butcher block of Leaf.
In China during the Tang Dynasty (618 -- 907), tea leaves were steamed and formed into tea bricks for storage and trade. The tea was prepared by roasting and pulverizing the tea, and decocting the resulting tea powder in hot water, then adding salt. During the Song Dynasty (960 -- 1279), the method of making powdered tea from steam - prepared dried tea leaves, and preparing the beverage by whipping the tea powder and hot water together in a bowl became popular.
Preparation and consumption of powdered tea was formed into a ritual by Chan or Zen Buddhists. The earliest extant Chan monastic code, entitled Chanyuan Qinggui (Rules of Purity for the Chan Monastery, 1103), describes in detail the etiquette for tea ceremonies.
Zen Buddhism and the Chinese methods of preparing powdered tea were brought to Japan in 1191 by the monk Eisai. Although powdered tea has not been popular in China for some time, now there is a global resurgence in Matcha tea consumption, including in China. In Japan it continued to be an important item at Zen monasteries, and became highly appreciated by others in the upper echelons of society during the fourteenth through sixteenth centuries.
Matcha is made from shade - grown tea leaves that also are used to make gyokuro. The preparation of matcha starts several weeks before harvest and may last up to 20 days, when the tea bushes are covered to prevent direct sunlight. This slows down growth, stimulates an increase in chlorophyll levels, turns the leaves a darker shade of green, and causes the production of amino acids, in particular theanine. Only the finest tea buds are hand - picked. After harvesting, if the leaves are rolled up before drying as in the production of sencha, the result will be gyokuro (jade dew) tea. If the leaves are laid out flat to dry, however, they will crumble somewhat and become known as tencha (碾茶). Then, tencha may be de-veined, de-stemmed, and stone - ground to the fine, bright green, talc - like powder known as matcha.
Grinding the leaves is a slow process, because the mill stones must not get too warm, lest the aroma of the leaves is altered. It may take up to one hour to grind 30 grams of matcha
The flavour of matcha is dominated by its amino acids. The highest grades of matcha have more intense sweetness and deeper flavour than the standard or coarser grades of tea harvested later in the year.
Matcha can be categorised into three grades:
In general, matcha is expensive compared to other forms of tea, although its price depends on its quality. Grades of matcha are defined by many factors.
Where leaves destined for tencha are picked on the tea bush (Camellia sinensis) is vital.
The very top should have developing leaves that are soft and supple. This gives a finer texture to higher grades of matcha. More - developed leaves are harder, giving lower grades a sandy texture. The better flavour is a result of the plant sending the majority of its nutrients to the growing leaves.
Traditionally, sencha leaves are dried outside in the shade and never are exposed to direct sunlight, however, now drying mostly has moved indoors. Quality matcha is vibrantly green also as a result of this treatment.
Without the correct equipment and technique, matcha can become "burnt '' and suffer degraded quality. Typically in Japan matcha is stone - ground to a fine powder through the use of specially designed granite stone mills.
Oxidation is also a factor in determining grade. Matcha exposed to oxygen may easily become compromised. Oxidized matcha has a distinctive hay - like smell and a dull brownish - green colour.
There are two main ways of preparing matcha: thick (濃 茶, koicha) and thin (薄茶, usucha).
Prior to use, the matcha often is forced through a sieve in order to break up clumps. There are special sieves available for this purpose, which usually are stainless steel and combine a fine wire mesh sieve and a temporary storage container. A special wooden spatula is used to force the tea through the sieve, or a small, smooth stone may be placed on top of the sieve and the device shaken gently.
If the sieved matcha is to be served at a Japanese tea ceremony, then it will be placed into a small tea caddy known as a chaki. Otherwise, it can be scooped directly from the sieve into a tea bowl.
About two to four grams of matcha is placed into the bowl, traditionally using a bamboo scoop called a chashaku, and then about 60 - 80 ml of hot (70 -- 85 ° C or 158 -- 185 ° F, not boiling,) water is added. The mixture is then whisked to a uniform consistency, using a bamboo whisk known as a chasen. There must be no lumps left in the liquid, and no ground tea should remain on the sides of the bowl. Because matcha may be bitter, it is traditionally served with a small wagashi sweet (intended to be consumed before drinking), but without added milk or sugar. It usually is considered that 40 g of matcha will provide for 20 bowls of usucha or 10 bowls of koicha:
Usucha, or thin tea, is prepared with approximately 1.75 grams (amounting to 1.5 heaping chashaku scoop, or about half a teaspoon) of matcha and approximately 75 ml (2.5 oz) of hot water per serving, which can be whisked to produce froth or not, according to the drinker 's preference (or to the traditions of the particular school of tea). Usucha creates a lighter and slightly more bitter tea.
Koicha, or thick tea, requires significantly more matcha (usually about doubling the powder and halving the water): approximately 3.75 grams (amounting to 3 heaping chashaku scoops, or about one teaspoon) of matcha and approximately 40 ml (1.3 oz) of hot water per serving, or as many as six teaspoons to 3 / 4 cup of water. Because the resulting mixture is significantly thicker (about like liquid honey), blending it requires a slower, stirring motion that does not produce foam. Koicha normally is made with more expensive matcha from older tea trees (exceeding thirty years) and, thus, produces a milder and sweeter tea than usucha; it is served almost exclusively as part of Japanese tea ceremonies.
It is used in castella, manjū, and monaka; as a topping for shaved ice (kakigori); mixed with milk and sugar as a drink; and mixed with salt and used to flavour tempura in a mixture known as matcha - jio. It is also used as flavouring in many Western - style chocolates, candy, and desserts, such as cakes and pastries (including Swiss rolls and cheesecake), cookies, pudding, mousse, and green tea ice cream. The Japanese snack Pocky has a matcha - flavoured version. Matcha may also be mixed into other forms of tea. For example, it is added to genmaicha to form what is called matcha - iri genmaicha (literally, roasted brown rice and green tea with added matcha).
The use of matcha in modern drinks has also spread to North American cafés, such as Starbucks, which introduced "Green Tea Lattes '' and other matcha - flavoured drinks after matcha became successful in their Japanese store locations. As in Japan, it has become integrated into lattes, iced drinks, milkshakes, and smoothies. A number of cafes have introduced lattes and iced drinks using matcha powder. It has also been incorporated into alcoholic beverages such as liqueurs and even matcha green tea beers.
Matcha ice cream
Matcha cake
Matcha cupcake with pistachio
Cha - Soba sushi roll
The equipment required for the making of matcha are:
On July 18, 2006, the Japanese gov't's Language Division of the Cultural Affairs Agency made the official statement to us that, "M-A-T-C-H-A is not based on any officially state recognized romanisation system. '' They elaborated that M-A-C-C-H-A would be a spelling that they would prefer, if given the choice between M-A-T-C-H-A and M-A-C-C-H-A.
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what happened to the jacobite clans after the battle of culloden | Battle of Culloden - wikipedia
The Battle of Culloden (/ kəˈlɒdən /; Scottish Gaelic: Blàr Chùil Lodair) was the final confrontation of the Jacobite rising of 1745. On 16 April 1746, the Jacobite forces of Charles Edward Stuart were decisively defeated by loyalist troops commanded by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, near Inverness in the Scottish Highlands.
Queen Anne, the last monarch of the House of Stuart, died in 1714, with no living children. Under the terms of the Act of Settlement 1701, she was succeeded by her second cousin George I of the House of Hanover, who was a descendant of the Stuarts through his maternal grandmother, Elizabeth, a daughter of James VI and I. The Hanoverian victory at Culloden halted the Jacobite intent to overthrow the House of Hanover and restore the House of Stuart to the British throne; Charles Stuart never again tried to challenge Hanoverian power in Great Britain. The conflict was the last pitched battle fought on British soil.
Charles Stuart 's Jacobite army consisted largely of Catholics and Scottish Episcopalians -- mainly Scots but with a small detachment of Englishmen from the Manchester Regiment. The Jacobites were supported and supplied by the Kingdom of France from Irish and Scots units in French service. A composite battalion of infantry ("Irish Picquets ''), comprising detachments from each of the regiments of the Irish Brigade plus one squadron of Irish in the French army, served at the battle alongside the regiment of Royal Scots (Royal Écossais) raised the previous year to support the Stuart claim. The British Government (Hanoverian loyalist) forces were mostly Protestants -- English, along with a significant number of Scottish Lowlanders and Highlanders, a battalion of Ulstermen, and some Hessians from Germany, and Austrians. The quick and bloody battle on Culloden Moor was over in less than an hour, when after an unsuccessful Highland charge against the government lines, the Jacobites were routed and driven from the field.
Between 1,500 and 2,000 Jacobites were killed or wounded in the brief battle. In contrast, only about 300 government soldiers were killed or wounded.
The battle and its aftermath continue to arouse strong feelings: the University of Glasgow awarded the Duke of Cumberland an honorary doctorate, but many modern commentators allege that the aftermath of the battle and subsequent crackdown on Jacobitism were brutal, and earned Cumberland the sobriquet "Butcher ''. Efforts were subsequently made to further integrate the comparatively wild Scottish Highlands into the Kingdom of Great Britain; civil penalties were introduced to weaken Gaelic culture and undermine the Scottish clan system.
Charles Edward Stuart, known as "Bonnie Prince Charlie '' or the "Young Pretender '', arrived in Scotland in 1745 to incite a rebellion of Stuart sympathizers against the House of Hanover. He successfully raised forces, mainly of Scottish Highland clansmen, and slipped past the Hanoverian stationed in Scotland and defeated a force of militiamen at the Battle of Prestonpans. The city of Edinburgh was occupied, but the castle held out and most of the Scottish population remained hostile to the rebels; others, while sympathetic, were reluctant to lend overt support to a movement whose chances were unproven. The British Government recalled forces from the war with France in Flanders to deal with the rebellion.
After a lengthy wait, Charles persuaded his generals that English Jacobites would stage an uprising in support of his cause. He was convinced that France would launch an invasion of England as well. His army of around 5,000 invaded England on 8 November 1745. They advanced through Carlisle and Manchester to Derby and a position where they appeared to threaten London. It is often alleged that King George II made plans to decamp to Hanover, but there is no evidence for this and the King is on record as stating that he would lead the troops against the rebels himself if they approached London. (George had experience at the head of an army: in 1743 he had led his soldiers to victory at the Battle of Dettingen, becoming the last British monarch to lead troops into battle.) The Jacobites met only token resistance. There was, however, little support from English Jacobites, and the French invasion fleet was still being assembled. The armies of Field Marshal George Wade and of William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, were approaching. In addition to the militia, London was defended by nearly 6,000 infantry, 700 horse and 33 artillery pieces and the Jacobites received false reports of a third army closing on them. The Jacobite general, Lord George Murray, and the Council of War insisted on returning to join their growing force in Scotland. On 6 December 1745, they withdrew, with Charles Edward Stuart leaving command to Murray.
On the long march back to Scotland, the Highland Army wore out its boots and demanded all the boots and shoes of the townspeople of Dumfries, as well as money and hospitality. The Jacobites reached Glasgow on 25 December. There they reprovisioned, having threatened to sack the city, and were joined by a few thousand additional men. They then defeated the forces of General Henry Hawley at the Battle of Falkirk Muir. The Duke of Cumberland arrived in Edinburgh on 30 January to take over command of the government army from General Hawley. He then marched north along the coast, with the army being supplied by sea. Six weeks were spent at Aberdeen training.
The King 's forces continued to pressure Charles. He retired north, losing men and failing to take Stirling Castle or Fort William. But he invested Fort Augustus and Fort George in Inverness - shire in early April. Charles then took command again, and insisted on fighting a defensive action.
Hugh Rose of Kilravock entertained Charles and the Duke of Cumberland respectively on 14 and 15 April 1746, before the Battle of Culloden. Charles ' manners and deportment were described by his host as most engaging. Having walked out with Rose, before sitting down he watched trees being planted. He remarked, "How happy, Sir, you must feel, to be thus peaceably employed in adorning your mansion, whilst all the country round is in such commotion. '' Kilravock was a firm supporter of the house of Hanover, but his adherence was not solicited, nor were his preferences alluded to. The next day, the Duke of Cumberland called at the castle gate, and when Kilravock went to receive him, he bluffly observed, "So you had my cousin Charles here yesterday. '' Kilravock replied, "What am I to do, I am Scots '', to which Cumberland replied, "You did perfectly right. ''
The bulk of the Jacobite army was made up of Highlanders and most of its strength was volunteers. These men made up the gentlemen (officers), cavalry and Lowland units, and as such did much of the fighting during the campaign. The clans which supported the Jacobite cause tended to be Roman Catholic and Scottish Episcopalian, while clans which tended to be Presbyterian sided more with the British Government. Nearly three - quarters of the Jacobite army was composed of Highland clansmen who were either Roman Catholic or Episcopalian. The Highlanders served in the clan regiments which were recruited largely from the Highlands of Scotland.
One of the fundamental problems with the Jacobite army was the lack of trained officers. The lack of professionalism and training was readily apparent; even the colonels of the Macdonald regiments of Clanranald and Keppoch considered their men to be uncontrollable. A typical clan regiment was made up of a small minority of gentlemen (tacksmen) who would bear the "clan name '', and under them the common soldiers or "clansmen '' who bore a mixed bag of names. The clan gentlemen formed the front ranks of the unit and were more heavily armed than their impoverished tenants who made up the bulk of the regiment. Because they served in the front ranks, the gentlemen suffered higher proportional casualties than the common clansman. The gentlemen of the Appin Regiment suffered one quarter of those killed, and one third of those wounded from their regiment. The Jacobites started the campaign poorly armed. At the Battle of Prestonpans, some only had swords, Lochaber axes, pitchforks and scythes. Although popular imagination pictures the common highlander as being equipped with a broadsword, targe and pistol, it was only officers or gentlemen who were equipped in this way. Further illustrating this point, following the conclusion of the battle, Cumberland reported that there were 2,320 firelocks recovered from the battlefield, but only 190 broadswords. From this, it can be determined that of the roughly 1,000 Jacobites killed at Culloden, no more than one fifth carried a sword. As the campaign progressed, the Jacobites improved their equipment considerably. For instance, 1,500 -- 1,600 stack of arms were landed in October. In consequence, by the time of the Battle of Culloden, the Jacobite army was equipped with 0.69 in (17.5 mm) calibre French and Spanish firelocks.
During the latter stage of the campaign, the Jacobites were reinforced with units of French regulars. These units, like Fitzjames 's Horse, and the Irish Picquets, were drawn from the Irish Brigade (Irish units in French service). Another unit was the Royal Écossais, which was a Scottish unit in French service. The majority of these troops were Irish born. Lists of prisoners at Marshalsea, Berwick and prison interviews conducted by Captain Eyre show some of these men to be English born, claiming to have been press - ganged or seized as prisoners on British ships. Fitzjames 's Horse was the only Jacobite cavalry unit to fight the whole battle on horseback. Around 500 Irish Picquets in the French army fought in the battle, some of whom were thought to have been press - ganged from 6th (Guise 's) Foot taken at Fort Augustus. The Royal Écossais also contained deserters, and the commander, Drummond, attempted to raise a second battalion after the unit had arrived in Scotland. The Jacobite artillery has been generally regarded as being ineffective in the battle. Some modern accounts claim that the Jacobite artillery suffered from having cannon with different calibres of shot. In fact, all but one of the Jacobite cannon were 3 - pounders.
The Kingdom of Great Britain government army at the Battle of Culloden was made up of infantry, cavalry, and artillery. Of the army 's 16 infantry battalions present, four were Scottish units and one was Irish. The officers of the infantry were from the upper classes and aristocracy, while the rank and file were made up of poor agricultural workers. On the outbreak of the Jacobite rising, extra incentives were given to lure recruits to fill the ranks of depleted units. For instance, on 6 September 1745, every recruit who joined the Guards before 24 September was given £ 6, and those who joined in the last days of the month were given £ 4. Regiments were named after their colonel. In theory, an infantry regiment would comprise up to ten companies of up to 70 men. They would then be 815 strong, including officers. However, regiments were rarely anywhere near this large, and at the Battle of Culloden, the regiments were not much larger than about 400 men.
The government cavalry arrived in Scotland in January 1746. They were not combat experienced, having spent the preceding years on anti-smuggling duties. A standard cavalryman had a Land Service pistol and a carbine. However, the main weapon used by the British cavalry was a sword with a 35 - inch blade.
The Royal Artillery vastly out - performed their Jacobite counterparts during the Battle of Culloden. However, up until this point in the campaign, the government artillery had performed dismally. The main weapon of the artillery was the 3 - pounder. This weapon had a range of 500 yards (460 m) and fired two kinds of shot: round iron and canister. The other weapon used was the Coehorn mortar. These had a calibre of 4 ⁄ inches (11 cm).
On 30 January, the Duke of Cumberland arrived in Scotland to take command of the government forces after the previous failures by Cope and Hawley. Cumberland decided to wait out the winter, and moved his troops northwards to Aberdeen. Around this time, the army was increased by 5,000 Hessian troops. The Hessian force, led by Prince Frederick of Hesse, took up position to the south to cut off any path of retreat for the Jacobites. The weather had improved to such an extent by 8 April that Cumberland again resumed the campaign. The government army reached Cullen on 11 April, where it was joined by six battalions and two cavalry regiments. Days later, the government army approached the River Spey, which was guarded by a Jacobite force of 2,000, made up of the Jacobite cavalry, the Lowland regiments and over half of the army 's French regulars. The Jacobites quickly turned and fled, first towards Elgin and then to Nairn. By 14 April, the Jacobites had evacuated Nairn, and Cumberland camped his army at Balblair just west of the town.
The Jacobite forces of about 5,400 left their base at Inverness, leaving most of their supplies, and assembled 5 miles (8 km) to the east near Drummossie, around 12 miles (19 km) before Nairn. Charles Edward Stuart had decided to personally command his forces and took the advice of his adjutant general, Secretary O'Sullivan, who chose to stage a defensive action at Drummossie Moor, a stretch of open moorland enclosed between the walled Culloden enclosures to the North and the walls of Culloden Park to the South. Lord George Murray "did not like the ground '' and with other senior officers pointed out the unsuitability of the rough moorland terrain which was highly advantageous to the Duke with the marshy and uneven ground making the famed Highland charge somewhat more difficult while remaining open to Cumberland 's powerful artillery. They had argued for a guerrilla campaign, but Charles Edward Stuart refused to change his mind.
On 15 April, the government army celebrated Cumberland 's twenty - fifth birthday by issuing two gallons of brandy to each regiment. At Murray 's suggestion, the Jacobites tried that evening to repeat the success of Prestonpans by carrying out a night attack on the government encampment. Murray proposed that they set off at dusk and march to Nairn. Murray planned to have the right wing of the first line attack Cumberland 's rear, while Perth with the left wing would attack the government 's front. In support of Perth, Charles Edward Stuart would bring up the second line. The Jacobite force however started out well after dark at about 20: 00. Murray led the force cross country with the intention of avoiding government outposts. This however led to very slow going in the dark. Murray 's one time aide - de-camp, James Chevalier de Johnstone later wrote, "this march across country in a dark night which did not allow us to follow any track, and accompanied with confusion and disorder ''. By the time the leading troop had reached Culraick, still 2 miles (3.2 km) from where Murray 's wing was to cross the River Nairn and encircle the town, there was only one hour left before dawn. After a heated council with other officers, Murray concluded that there was not enough time to mount a surprise attack and that the offensive should be aborted. O'Sullivan went to inform Charles Edward Stuart of the change of plan, but missed him in the dark. Meanwhile, instead of retracing his path back, Murray led his men left, down the Inverness road. In the darkness, while Murray led one - third of the Jacobite forces back to camp, the other two - thirds continued towards their original objective, unaware of the change in plan. One account of that night even records that Perth and Drummond made contact with government troops before realising the rest of the Jacobite force had turned home. Not long after the exhausted Jacobite forces had made it back to Culloden, reports came of the advancing government troops. By then, many Jacobite soldiers had dispersed in search of food, while others were asleep in ditches and outbuildings.
However, military historian Jeremy Black has contended that even though the Jacobite force had become disordered and lost the element of surprise the night attack remained viable, and that if the Jacobites had advanced the conditions would have made government morale vulnerable and disrupted their fire discipline.
Early on a rainy 16 April, the well - rested government army struck camp and at about 05: 00 set off towards the moorland around Culloden and Drummossie. Jacobite pickets first sighted the government advance guard at about 08: 00, when the advancing army came within 4 miles (6.4 km) of Drummossie. Cumberland 's informers alerted him that the Jacobite army was forming up about 1 mile (1.6 km) from Culloden House -- upon Culloden Moor. At about 11: 00 the two armies were within sight of one another with about 2 miles (3.2 km) of open moorland between them. As the government forces steadily advanced across the moor, the driving rain and sleet blew from the north - east into the faces of the exhausted Jacobite army.
The Jacobite army was originally arrayed between the corners of Culloden and Culwhiniac parks (from left to right): the three Macdonald battalions; a small one of Chisholms; another small one of Macleans and Maclachlans; Lady Mackintosh and Monaltrie 's regiments; Lord Lovat 's Regiment; Ardsheal 's Appin Stewarts; Lochiel 's Regiment; and three battalions of the Atholl Brigade. Murray who commanded the right wing, however became aware of the Leanach enclosure that lay ahead of him, a wall that would become an obstacle in the event of a Jacobite advance. Without any consultation he then moved the brigade down the moor and formed into three columns. It seems probable that Murray intended to shift the axis of the Jacobite advance to a more northerly direction, thus having the right wing clear the Leanach enclosure and possibly taking advantage of the downward slope of the moor to the north.
However, the Duke of Perth seems to have misinterpreted Murray 's actions as only a general advance, and the Macdonalds on the far left simply ignored him. The result was the skewing of the Jacobite front line, with the (left wing) Macdonalds still rooted on the Culloden Parks wall and the (right wing) Atholl Brigade halfway down the Culwhiniac Parks wall. In consequence, large gaps immediately appeared in the severely over-stretched Jacobite lines. A shocked Sullivan had no choice but to position the meagre ' second line ' to fill the gaps. This second line was (left to right): the Irish Picquets; the Duke of Perth 's Regiment; Glenbuchat 's; Lord Kilmarnock 's Footguards; John Roy Stuart 's Regiment; two battalions of Lord Ogilvy 's Regiment; the Royal Écossais; two battalions of Lord Lewis Gordon 's Regiment. Farther back were cavalry units. On the left were: Lord Strathallan 's Horse Bagot 's Hussars and possibly Balmerino 's Lifeguards. On the right were Lord Elcho 's Lifeguards and Fitzjames 's Horse. And in the centre was Charles Edward Stuart 's tiny escort made up of Fitzjames 's Horse and Lifeguards. When Sullivan 's redeployment was completed Perth 's and Glenbuchat 's regiments were standing on the extreme left wing and John Roy Stuart 's was standing beside Ardsheal 's.
Cumberland brought forward the 13th and 62nd to extend his first and second lines. At the same time, two squadrons of Kingston 's Horse were brought forward to cover the right flank. These were then joined by two troops of Cobham 's 10th Dragoons. While this was taking place, Hawley began making his way through the Culwhiniac Parks intending to outflank the Jacobite right wing. Anticipating this, the two battalions of Lord Lewis Gordon 's regiment had lined the wall. However, since the government dragoons stayed out of range, and the Jacobites were partly in dead ground they moved back and formed up on a re-entrant at Culchunaig, facing south and covering the army 's rear. Once Hawley had led the dragoons through the Parks he deployed them in two lines beneath the Jacobite guarded re-entrant. By this time the Jacobites were guarding the re-entrant from above with four battalions of Lord Lewis Gordon 's and Lord Ogilvy 's regiments, and the combined squadron of Fitzjames 's Horse and Elcho 's Lifeguards. Unable to see behind the Jacobites above him, Hawley had his men stand and face the enemy.
Over the next twenty minutes, Cumberland 's superior artillery battered the Jacobite lines, while Charles, moved for safety out of sight of his own forces, waited for the government forces to move. Inexplicably, he left his forces arrayed under government fire for over half an hour. Although the marshy terrain minimized casualties, the morale of the Jacobites began to suffer. Several clan leaders, angry at the lack of action, pressured Charles to issue the order to charge. The Clan Chattan was first of the Jacobite army to receive this order, but an area of boggy ground in front of them forced them to veer right so that they obstructed the following regiments and the attack was pushed towards the wall. The Jacobites advanced on the left flank of the government troops, but were subjected to volleys of musket fire and the artillery which had switched from roundshot to grapeshot.
Despite this many Jacobites reached the government lines and, for the first time, a battle was decided by a direct clash between charging highlanders and formed redcoats equipped with muskets and socket bayonets. The brunt of the Jacobite impact was taken by just two government regiments -- Barrell 's 4th Foot and Dejean 's 37th Foot. Barrell 's regiment lost 17 and suffered 108 wounded, out of a total of 373 officers and men. Dejean 's lost 14 and had 68 wounded, with this unit 's left wing taking a disproportionately higher number of casualties. Barrell 's regiment temporarily lost one of its two colours. Major - General Huske, who was in command of the government 's second line, quickly organised the counter attack. Huske ordered forward all of Lord Sempill 's Fourth Brigade which had a combined total of 1,078 men (Sempill 's 25th Foot, Conway 's 59th Foot, and Wolfe 's 8th Foot). Also sent forward to plug the gap was Bligh 's 20th Foot, which took up position between Sempill 's 25th and Dejean 's 37th. Huske 's counter formed a five battalion strong horseshoe - shaped formation which trapped the Jacobite right wing on three sides.
Poor Barrell 's regiment were sorely pressed by those desperadoes and outflanked. One stand of their colours was taken; Collonel Riches hand cutt off in their defence... We marched up to the enemy, and our left, outflanking them, wheeled in upon them; the whole then gave them 5 or 6 fires with vast execution, while their front had nothing left to oppose us, but their pistolls and broadswords; and fire from their center and rear, (as, by this time, they were 20 or 30 deep) was vastly more fatal to themselves, than us.
Located on the Jacobite extreme left wing were the Macdonald regiments. Popular legend has it that these regiments refused to charge when ordered to do so, due to the perceived insult of being placed on the left wing. Even so, due to the skewing of the Jacobite front lines, the left wing had a further 200 metres (660 ft) of much boggier ground to cover than the right. When the Macdonalds charged, their progress was much slower than that of the rest of the Jacobite forces. Standing on the right of these regiments were the much smaller units of Chisholms and the combined unit of Macleans and Maclachlans. Every officer in the Chisholm unit was killed or wounded and Col. Lachlan Maclachlan, who led the combined unit of Macleans and Maclachlans, was gruesomely killed by a cannon shot. As the Macdonalds suffered casualties they began to give way. Immediately Cumberland then pressed the advantage, ordering two troops of Cobham 's 10th Dragoons to ride them down. The boggy ground however impeded the cavalry and they turned to engage the Irish Picquets whom Sullivan had brought up in an attempt to stabilise the deteriorating Jacobite left flank.
With the collapse of the left wing, Murray brought up the Royal Écossais and Kilmarnock 's Footguards who were still at this time unengaged. However, by the time they had been brought into position, the Jacobite army was in rout. The Royal Écossais exchanged musket fire with Campbell 's 21st and commenced an orderly retreat, moving along the Culwhiniac enclosure in order to shield themselves from artillery fire. Immediately the half battalion of Highland militia commanded by Captain Colin Campbell of Ballimore which had stood inside the enclosure ambushed the Royal Écossais. Hawley had previously left this Highland unit behind the enclosure, with orders to avoid contact with the Jacobites, to limit any chance of a friendly fire incident. In the encounter Campbell of Ballimore was killed along with five of his men. The result was that the Royal Écossais and Kilmarnock 's Footguards were forced out into the open moor and were rushed at by three squadrons of Kerr 's 11th Dragoons. The fleeing Jacobites must have put up a fight for Kerr 's 11th recorded at least 16 horses killed during the entirety of the battle. The Irish picquets bravely covered the Highlanders ' retreat from the battlefield and prevented a massacre. This action cost half of the 100 casualties suffered in the battle. The Royal Écossais appear to have retired from the field in two wings. One part of the regiment surrendered upon the field after suffering 50 killed or wounded, but their colours were not taken and a large number retired from the field with the Jacobite Lowland regiments.
This stand by the Royal Écossais may have given Charles Edward Stuart the time to make his escape. At the time when the Macdonald regiments were crumbling and fleeing the field, Stuart seems to have been rallying Perth 's and Glenbuchat 's regiments when O'Sullivan rode up to Captain Shea who commanded Stuart 's bodyguard: "Yu see all is going to pot. Yu can be of no great succor, so before a general deroute wch will soon be, Seize upon the Prince & take him off... ''. Shea then led Stuart from the field along with Perth 's and Glenbuchat 's regiments. From this point on the fleeing Jacobite forces were split into two groups: the Lowland regiments retired in order southwards, making their way to Ruthven Barracks; the Highland regiments however were cut off by the government cavalry, and forced to retreat down the road to Inverness. The result was that they were a perfect target for the government dragoons. Major - general Humphrey Bland led the charge against the fleeing Highlanders, giving "Quarter to None but about Fifty French Officers and Soldiers He picked up in his Pursuit ''.
Jacobite casualties are estimated at 1,500 -- 2,000 killed or wounded. As to prisoners, Lord Cumberland 's official list of prisoners taken includes 154 Jacobites and 222 "French '' prisoners (men from the ' foreign units ' in the French service). Added to the official list of those apprehended were 172 of the Earl of Cromartie 's men, captured after a brief engagement the day before near Littleferry.
In striking contrast to the Jacobite losses, the government losses were 50 dead and 259 wounded. However, a large proportion of those recorded as wounded are likely to have died of their wounds. (For example, only 29 out of 104 wounded from Barrell 's 4th Foot survived to claim pensions. All 6 of the artillerymen recorded as wounded died.) Moreover, recent geophysical studies on the government burial pit suggest the figure for deaths may have been nearer 300.
The only government casualty of high rank was Lord Robert Kerr, the son of William Kerr, 3rd Marquess of Lothian.
As the first of the fleeing Highlanders approached Inverness they were met by a battalion of Frasers led by the Master of Lovat. Tradition states that the Master of Lovat immediately about - turned his men and marched down the road back towards Inverness, with pipes playing and colours flying. There are however varying traditions as to what happened at the bridge which spans the River Ness. One tradition is that the Master of Lovat intended to hold the bridge until he was persuaded against it. Another is that the bridge was seized by a party of Argyll Militia who were involved in a skirmish when blocking the crossing of retreating Jacobites. While it is almost certain there was a skirmish upon the bridge, it has been proposed that the Master of Lovat shrewdly switched sides and turned upon the fleeing Jacobites. Such an act would explain his remarkable rise in fortune in the years that followed.
Following the battle, the Jacobites ' Lowland units headed south, towards Corrybrough and made their way to Ruthven Barracks, while their Highland units headed north, towards Inverness and on through to Fort Augustus. There they were joined by Barisdale 's Macdonalds and a small battalion of MacGregors. The roughly 1,500 men who assembled at Ruthven Barracks received orders from Charles Edward Stuart to the effect that all was lost and to "shift for himself as best he could ''. Similar orders must have been received by the Highland units at Fort Augustus. By 18 April the Jacobite army was disbanded. Officers and men of the units in the French service made for Inverness, where they surrendered as prisoners of war on 19 April. The rest of the army broke up, with men heading for home or attempting to escape abroad.
Some ranking Jacobites made their way to Loch nan Uamh, where Charles Edward Stuart had first landed at the outset of the campaign in 1745. Here on 30 April they were met by the two French frigates -- the Mars and Bellone. Two days later the French warships were spotted and attacked by the smaller Royal Navy sloops -- the Greyhound, Baltimore, and Terror. The result was the last real battle in the campaign. During the six hours in which the ferocious sea - battle raged the Jacobites recovered cargo on the beach which had been landed by the French ships. In all £ 35,000 of gold was recovered along with supplies. Invigorated by the vast amounts of loot and visible proof that the French had not deserted them, the group of Highland chiefs decided to prolong the campaign. On 8 May, nearby at Murlaggan, Lochiel, Lochgarry, Clanranald and Barisdale all agreed to rendezvous at Invermallie on 18 May. The plan was that there they would be joined by what remained of Keppoch 's men and Cluny Macpherson 's regiment (which did not take part in the battle at Culloden). However, things did not go as planned. After about a month of relative inactivity, Cumberland moved his regulars into the Highlands. On 17 May three battalions of regulars and eight Highland companies reoccupied Fort Augustus. The same day the Macphersons surrendered. On the day of the planned rendezvous, Clanranald never appeared and Lochgarry and Barisdale only showed up with about 300 combined (most of whom immediately dispersed in search of food). Lochiel, who commanded possibly the strongest Jacobite unit at Culloden, was only able to muster about 300. The following morning Lochiel was alerted that a body of Highlanders was approaching. Assuming they were Barisdale 's Macdonalds, Locheil waited until they were identified as Loudoun 's by the "red crosses in their bonnets ''. Locheil 's men dispersed without fighting. The following week the Government launched punitive expeditions into the Highlands which continued throughout the summer.
Following his flight from the battle, Charles Edward Stuart made his way towards the Hebrides with some supporters. By 20 April, Stuart had reached Arisaig on the west coast of Scotland. After spending a few days with his close associates, Stuart sailed for the island of Benbecula in the Outer Hebrides. From there he travelled to Scalpay, off the east coast of Harris, and from there made his way to Stornoway. For five months Stuart criss - crossed the Hebrides, constantly pursued by government supporters and under threat from local lairds who were tempted to betray him for the £ 30,000 upon his head. During this time he met Flora Macdonald, who famously aided him in a narrow escape to Skye. Finally, on 19 September, Stuart reached Borrodale on Loch nan Uamh in Arisaig, where his party boarded two small French ships, which ferried them to France. He never returned to Scotland.
The morning following the Battle of Culloden, Cumberland issued a written order reminding his men that "the public orders of the rebels yesterday was to give us no quarter ''. Cumberland alluded to the belief that such orders had been found upon the bodies of fallen Jacobites. In the days and weeks that followed, versions of the alleged orders were published in the Newcastle Journal and the Gentleman 's Journal. Today only one copy of the alleged order to "give no quarter '' exists. It is however considered to be nothing but a poor attempt at forgery, for it is neither written nor signed by Murray, and it appears on the bottom half of a copy of a declaration published in 1745. In any event, Cumberland 's order was not carried out for two days, after which contemporary accounts report then that for the next two days the moor was searched and all those wounded were put to death. On the other hand, the orders issued by Lord George Murray for the conduct of the aborted night attack in the early hours of 16 April suggest that it would have been every bit as merciless. The instructions were to use only swords, dirks and bayonets, to overturn tents, and subsequently to locate "a swelling or bulge in the fallen tent, there to strike and push vigorously ''. In total, over 20,000 head of livestock, sheep, and goats were driven off and sold at Fort Augustus, where the soldiers split the profits.
While in Inverness, Cumberland emptied the gaols that were full of people imprisoned by Jacobite supporters, replacing them with Jacobites themselves. Prisoners were taken south to England to stand trial for high treason. Many were held on hulks on the Thames or in Tilbury Fort, and executions took place in Carlisle, York and Kennington Common. The common Jacobite supporters fared better than the ranking individuals. In total, 120 common men were executed, one third of them being deserters from the British Army. The common prisoners drew lots amongst themselves and only one out of twenty actually came to trial. Although most of those who did stand trial were sentenced to death, almost all of these had their sentences commuted to penal transportation to the British colonies for life by the Traitors Transported Act 1746 (20 Geo. II, c. 46). In all, 936 men were thus transported, and 222 more were banished. Even so, 905 prisoners were actually released under the Act of Indemnity which was passed in June 1747. Another 382 obtained their freedom by being exchanged for prisoners of war who were held by France. Of the total 3,471 prisoners recorded nothing is known of the fate of 648. The high ranking "rebel lords '' were executed on Tower Hill in London.
Following up on the military success won by their forces, the British Government enacted laws further to integrate Scotland -- specifically the Scottish Highlands -- with the rest of Britain. Members of the Episcopal clergy were required to give oaths of allegiance to the reigning Hanoverian dynasty. The Heritable Jurisdictions (Scotland) Act 1746 ended the hereditary right of landowners to govern justice upon their estates through barony courts. Previous to this act, feudal lords (which included clan chiefs) had considerable judicial and military power over their followers -- such as the oft quoted power of "pit and gallows ''. Lords who were loyal to the Government were greatly compensated for the loss of these traditional powers, for example the Duke of Argyll was given £ 21,000. Those lords and clan chiefs who had supported the Jacobite rebellion were stripped of their estates and these were then sold and the profits were used to further trade and agriculture in Scotland. The forfeited estates were managed by factors. Anti-clothing measures were taken against the highland dress by an Act of Parliament in 1746. The result was that the wearing of tartan was banned except as a uniform for officers and soldiers in the British Army and later landed men and their sons.
Today, a visitor centre is located near the site of the battle. This centre was first opened in December 2007, with the intention of preserving the battlefield in a condition similar to how it was on 16 April 1746. One difference is that it currently is covered in shrubs and heather; during the 18th century, however, the area was used as common grazing ground, mainly for tenants of the Culloden estate. Those visiting can walk the site by way of footpaths on the ground and can also enjoy a view from above on a raised platform. Possibly the most recognisable feature of the battlefield today is the 20 feet (6.1 m) tall memorial cairn, erected by Duncan Forbes in 1881. In the same year Forbes also erected headstones to mark the mass graves of the clans. The thatched roofed farmhouse of Leanach which stands today dates from about 1760; however, it stands on the same location as the turf - walled cottage that probably served as a field hospital for government troops following the battle. A stone, known as "The English Stone '', is situated west of the Old Leanach cottage and is said to mark the burial place of the government dead. West of this site lies another stone, erected by Forbes, marking the place where the body of Alexander McGillivray of Dunmaglass was found after the battle. A stone lies on the eastern side of the battlefield that is supposed to mark the spot where Cumberland directed the battle. The battlefield has been inventoried and protected by Historic Scotland under the Historic Environment (Amendment) Act 2011.
Since 2001, the site of the battle has undergone topographic, geophysical, and metal detector surveys in addition to archaeological excavations. Interesting finds have been made in the areas where the fiercest fighting occurred on the government left wing, particularly where Barrell 's and Dejean 's regiments stood. For example, pistol balls and pieces of shattered muskets have been uncovered here which indicate close quarters fighting, as pistols were only used at close range and the musket pieces appear to have been smashed by pistol / musket balls or heavy broadswords. Finds of musket balls appear to mirror the lines of men who stood and fought. Some balls appear to have been dropped without being fired, some missed their targets, and others are distorted from hitting human bodies. In some cases it may be possible to identify whether the Jacobites or government soldiers fired certain rounds, because the Jacobite forces are known to have used a large quantity of French muskets which fired a slightly smaller calibre shot than that of the British Army 's Brown Bess. Analysis of the finds confirms that the Jacobites used muskets in greater numbers than has traditionally been thought. Not far from where the hand - to - hand fighting took place, fragments of mortar shells have been found. Though Forbes 's headstones mark the graves of the Jacobites, the location of the graves of about sixty government soldiers is unknown. The recent discovery of a 1752 silver Thaler, from the Duchy of Mecklenburg - Schwerin, may however lead archaeologists to these graves. A geophysical survey, directly beneath the spot where the coin was found, seems to indicate the existence of a large rectangular burial pit. It is thought possible that the coin was dropped by a soldier who once served on the continent, while he visited the graves of his fallen comrades. The National Trust of Scotland is currently attempting to restore Culloden Moor, as closely as possible, to the state it was in during the Battle of Culloden Moor. They are also attempting to expand the land under its care to ensure the full battlefield is protected under the NTS. Another goal is to restore Leannach Cottage and allow visitors to once again tour the interior.
Charles Edward Stuart Colonel John William Sullivan
Artillery.
Captain - General: HRH Duke of Cumberland Commander - in - Chief North Britain: Lieutenant - General Henry Hawley
See the following reference for source of tables
See following reference for source of table
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who are the actors in the devils rejects | The Devil 's Rejects - wikipedia
The Devil 's Rejects is a 2005 American horror film written and directed by Rob Zombie, and the sequel to his 2003 film House of 1000 Corpses. The film is centered on the run of three members of the psychopathic antagonist family from the previous film, now seen as antiheroic protagonists, with Sid Haig, Bill Moseley, and Zombie 's wife Sheri Moon Zombie reprising their roles, with Leslie Easterbrook replacing Karen Black as the matriarch.
The film was released on July 22, 2005, to minor commercial success and mixed but more positive reviews over its predecessor. At the time of release and in the years since, the film has garnered a cult following. This is the final film of Matthew McGrory before his death the same year; the film 's DVD release is dedicated to his "loving memory ''.
On May 18, 1978, Texas Sheriff John Quincey Wydell and a large posse of State Troopers issue a Search and Destroy mission on the Firefly family for over 75 homicides and disappearances over the past several years. The family arm themselves and fire on the officers. Rufus is killed and Mother Firefly (Leslie Easterbrook) is taken into custody, while Otis and Baby escape. They steal a car, and after killing the driver, they go to Kahiki Palms, a run - down motel.
While at the motel, Otis and Baby take a band called Banjo and Sullivan hostage in their room, and Otis shoots the roadie when he returns. Meanwhile, Baby 's father, Captain Spaulding, decides to rendezvous with Baby and Otis. En route, his truck runs out of gas and he assaults a woman before stealing her car. Back at the motel, Otis rapes Roy 's wife Gloria and demands Adam and Roy come with him on an errand.
Otis drives his two prisoners to a place where he buried weapons. While walking to the location, the two prisoners attack Otis, but he bludgeons Roy and cuts Adam 's face off. Back at the motel, Adam 's wife Wendy tries to escape out the bathroom window. When Gloria attempts to rebel, Baby kills her. Wendy runs out of the motel, but is caught by Captain Spaulding, who knocks her unconscious. Otis returns, and all three leave the motel together in the band 's van.
The motel maid comes to clean the room, and discovers the murder scene. The maid enters the bathroom, where she sees "The Devil 's Rejects '' written on the wall in blood, and is startled by Wendy, who is accidentally killed when she runs out to the highway to seek help while she was in shocked. Wydell calls a pair of amoral bounty hunters -- the "Unholy Two '' -- Rondo and Billy Ray, to help him find the Fireflys. While investigating, they discover an associate of Spaulding 's named Charlie Altamont. Wydell begins to lose sanity when Mother Firefly reveals that she murdered his brother. After having a dream in which his brother asks him to avenge his death, Wydell stabs Mother Firefly to death. The surviving Fireflys gather at a brothel owned by Charlie, where he offers them shelter from the police.
After he leaves the brothel, Wydell threatens Charlie to give up the Fireflys. With the help of the "Unholy Two '', the sheriff takes the family back to the Firefly house where he tortures them, using similar methods they used on their own victims. He nails Otis ' hands to his chair, and staples crime scene photographs to Otis 's and Baby 's stomachs, then beats and shocks Captain Spaulding and Otis with a cattle prod, and taunts Baby about the death of her mother.
Wydell sets the house on fire and leaves Otis and Spaulding to burn, but lets Baby loose outside so he can hunt her for sport. Charlie returns to save the Firefly family, but is killed by Wydell. Baby gets shot in the calf of her left leg, brutally horse - whipped, and then strangled by Wydell. Tiny suddenly arrives and intervenes, killing Wydell, and saving the Firefly family. Otis, Baby, and Spaulding escape in Charlie 's 1972 Cadillac Eldorado, leaving behind Tiny, who walks back into the burning house. The trio drives, badly injured and seemingly humbled by their experience with a clearer understanding of the torment and anguish that they had put their past vicitims through. As Otis drives down the road with Baby and Spaulding asleep in the back seat he notices a police barricade ahead of them. Realizing that they will not make it out alive, he wakes baby and Spaulding, hands them each a gun and they speed towards police barricade. As they speed down the road, they fire on the police officers who then return fire and all three are shot to death by the police.
When Rob Zombie wrote House of 1000 Corpses, he had a "vague idea for a story '' about the brother of the sheriff that the Firefly clan killed coming back for revenge. After Lions Gate Entertainment made back all of their money on the first day of Corpses ' theatrical release, they wanted Zombie to make another film and he started to seriously think about a new story. With Rejects, Zombie has said that he wanted to make it "more horrific '' and the characters less cartoonish than in Corpses, and that he wanted "to make something that was almost like a violent western. Sort of like a road movie. '' The film was set in the mid-late 1970s. He has also cited films like The Wild Bunch, Bonnie and Clyde and Badlands as influences on Rejects. When he approached William Forsythe about doing the film, he told the actor that the inspiration for how to portray his character came from actors like Lee Marvin and Robert Shaw. Sheri Moon Zombie does not see the film as a sequel: "It 's more like some of the characters from House of 1000 Corpses came on over, and now they 're the Devil 's Rejects. ''
Zombie hired Phil Parmet, who had shot the documentary Harlan County, USA, because he wanted to adopt a hand - held camera / documentary look. Principal photography was emotionally draining for some of the actors. Sheri Moon Zombie remembers a scene she had to do with Forsythe that required her to cry. The scene took two to three hours to film and affected her so much that she did not come into work for two days afterward.
Rejects went through the MPAA eight times earning an NC - 17 rating every time until the last one. According to Zombie, the censors had a problem with the overall tone of the film. Specifically, censors did not like the motel scene between Bill Moseley and Priscilla Barnes, forcing Zombie to cut two minutes of it for the theatrical release. However, this footage was restored in the DVD version.
Rob Zombie, who is a musician, decided to go with more southern rock to create the mood of the film. The soundtrack itself was notable as being one of the first to be released on DualDisc, with the DVD side featuring a making - of featurette for the film and a photo gallery.
The Devil 's Rejects was released on July 22, 2005, in 1,757 theaters and grossed USD $7.1 million on its opening weekend, recouping its roughly $7 million budget. It grossed $17 million in North America and $2.3 million internationally for a total of $19.4 million.
The film had mixed reviews with a 53 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with the consensus "Zombie has improved as a filmmaker since House of 1000 Corpses and will please fans of the genre, but beware -- the horror is nasty, relentless and sadistic ''; and a 53 metascore on Metacritic. Prominent critic Roger Ebert enjoyed the film and gave it three out of a possible four stars. He wrote, "There is actually some good writing and acting going on here, if you can step back from the (violent) material enough to see it ''. Later, in his review for The Hills Have Eyes, Ebert referenced The Devil 's Rejects, writing, "I received some appalled feedback when I praised Rob Zombie 's The Devil 's Rejects, but I admired two things about it (that were absent from The Hills Have Eyes): (1) It desired to entertain and not merely to sicken, and (2) its depraved killers were individuals with personalities, histories and motives ''. In his review for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave The Devil 's Rejects three out of four stars and wrote, "Let 's hear it for the Southern - fried soundtrack, from Buck Owens ' ' Satan 's Got to Get Along Without Me ' to Lynyrd Skynyrd 's ' Free Bird ', playing over the blood - soaked finale, which manages to wed The Wild Bunch to Thelma & Louise ''. Richard Roeper gave the film "thumbs up '' for being successful at its goal to be the "sickest, the most twisted, the most deranged movie '' at that point of the year (2005).
In her review for The New York Times, Dana Stevens wrote that the film "is a trompe - l'œil experiment in deliberately retro film - making. It looks sensational, but there is a curious emptiness at its core ''. Entertainment Weekly gave the film a "C + '' rating and wrote, "Zombie 's characters are, to put it mildly, undeveloped ''. Robert K. Elder, of the Chicago Tribune, disliked the film, writing "(D) espite decades of soaking in bloody classics such as the original Texas Chainsaw Massacre and I Spit on Your Grave, Zombie did n't absorb any of the underlying social tension or heart in those films. He 's no collage artist of influences, like Quentin Tarantino, crafting his movie from childhood influences. Rejects plays more like a junkyard of homages, strewn together and lost among inept cops, gaping plot holes and buzzard - ready dialog ''.
Horror author Stephen King voted The Devil 's Rejects the 9th best film of 2005 and wrote, "No redeeming social merit, perfect ' 70s C - grade picture cheesy glow; this must be what Quentin Tarantino meant when he did those silly Kill Bill pictures ''.
James Berardinelli was very negative giving The Devil 's Rejects half a star (out of a possible four stars) and called it a "vile, reprehensible movie, '' saying the action was "more formula than plot. '' He described the dialogue as "a pastiche (at least I think that 's the intention) of the kind of bloodthirsty, overripe lines found '' in a genre of films from the 1970s about "outcasts who defy society by destroying it. '' He was extremely critical of the acting, directing, and the production values, with an ending that was "a cataclysmic misfire '', and overall was not "engaging cinema. ''
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where does the us ambassador live in london | Winfield house - wikipedia
Winfield House is a mansion set in 12 acres (4.9 ha) of grounds in Regent 's Park, the second largest private garden in central London, after that of Buckingham Palace. Since 1955, it has been the official residence of the United States Ambassador to the Court of St. James 's. It is Grade II listed as an "exceptional ambassador 's residence and as a notable Neo-Georgian town house containing numerous features of note. ''
The first house on the site was Hertford Villa, the largest of the eight originally built in the park as part of John Nash 's development scheme. The actual house was designed by Decimus Burton for the notorious Regency rake, Francis Seymour - Conway, 3rd Marquess of Hertford, who used it for orgies. Later the Georgian villa was known as St Dunstan 's, because of the distinctive clock that hung in front of it, purchased by the art collecting Marquess when material from St Dunstan - in - the - West was auctioned off in 1829 -- 30 prior to the church 's demolition.
Later occupants included newspaper proprietor Lord Rothermere and the American financier Otto Hermann Kahn. Kahn lent it during World War I to a new charity for blinded servicemen, which took the name of St Dunstan 's. Later, Rothemere returned the clock to the new St. Dunstan 's in the Strand to mark the Silver Jubilee of King George V.
The villa was damaged by fire in 1936 and was subsequently purchased by the American heiress Barbara Hutton, who demolished it.
In 1936, Hutton had a mansion built in the Neo-Georgian style, designed by Leonard Rome Guthrie of the English architectural practice Wimperis, Simpson and Guthrie. It was at first known by the name of its predecessor, but Lord Fraser of Lonsdale, head of the charity, approached Hutton, explaining that the similarity in the name and location of her house and his organisation (still with an office in Regent 's Park) caused confusion, and asking that she give up the historical name. She agreed to the request and chose a new name, derived from her grandfather Frank Winfield Woolworth, who had an estate, Winfield Hall, in Glen Cove, New York. (In 2012 the charity changed its name to Blind Veterans UK.)
Hutton 's only child, Lance Reventlow, was born in Winfield House.
During World War II, the house was used by a Royal Air Force 906 barrage balloon unit and as an officer 's club. It was visited during the war by film actor Cary Grant, who was married to the owner at the time.
After the war, Hutton sold the house to the American government for one dollar. In the early 1950s, the building was used as the London officers ' club for the U.S. Third Air Force.
After extensive alterations, Winfield House became the ambassador 's official residence in 1955. The previous residence at 14 Prince 's Gate having been deemed inadequately secure.
The first ambassador in residence was Winthrop Aldrich; others include Walter Annenberg, Anne Armstrong, and John Hay Whitney. The house has been visited by Queen Elizabeth II, several U.S. presidents and many distinguished guests.
The house is listed on the U.S. Secretary of State 's Register of Culturally Significant Property, which denotes properties owned by the U.S. State Department with particular cultural or historical significance.
The interiors have undergone extensive alterations at several points, including 1969 by William Haines, decorator and former silent film star.
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when did the cowboys become america's team | America 's Team - wikipedia
The term America 's Team '' is a nickname that refers to the National Football League (NFL) 's Dallas Cowboys. The nickname originated with the team 's 1978 highlight film, where the narrator (John Facenda) opens with the following introduction:
They appear on television so often that their faces are as familiar to the public as presidents and movie stars. They are the Dallas Cowboys, "America 's Team. ''
The term is recognized and often used by media outlets, including ESPN, Yahoo!, HBO, and Sports Illustrated.
Bob Ryan, now Vice President and editor - in - chief of NFL Films, coined this for the Cowboys while preparing and editing the team 's 1978 season highlight film. He was quoted as saying:
I wanted to come up with a different twist on their team highlight film. I noticed then, and had noticed earlier, that wherever the Cowboys played, you saw people in the stands with Cowboys jerseys and hats and pennants. Plus, they were always the national game on television.
Ryan told the NFL Network for their Top Ten Nicknames show:
I saw all these fans in away stadiums. Hey, they 're the most popular team in the country. How can I use that? Why do n't we call them "America 's Team ''?
During the Cowboys ' first game of the 1979 season, a nationally televised game against the St. Louis Cardinals (Dallas won 22 - 21), the television announcer for CBS introduced the Cowboys as America 's Team and the name just stuck.
Dallas ' Hall of Fame coach Tom Landry originally did not approve of the appellation of America 's Team. He felt that it would give opposing teams extra incentive to play harder. Eventually he gave in and actually came to like the name. The nickname was coined at the height of Landry 's then - NFL record 20 consecutive winning season streak, during which Dallas appeared in 12 conference championship games (counting the 1966 - 67 league championships) and five Super Bowls, and was exemplified on the field by the iconic Hall of Fame quarterback Roger Staubach, but the team 's popularity has continued over the decades during periods of both mediocrity and dynastic success.
In 2003, NFL Films released a DVD collection chronicling the Dallas Cowboys franchise entitled The Dallas Cowboys: The Complete History of America 's Team 1960 - 2003. In 2008, NFL Films would release an updated DVD of The History of the Dallas Cowboys.
The popularity of the Cowboys as America 's Team has been supported by such NFL records as "Team with Most Consecutive Sold Out Games '', a streak of 160 home and away games (including playoffs) that began on December 23, 1990, at Philadelphia 's Veterans Stadium and came to an end on December 24, 1999, in a Christmas Eve game against the New Orleans Saints in the Louisiana Superdome. Other examples are the NFL games featuring the Cowboys that result in record - breaking ratings at the time of broadcast, such as 7 of the 8 Super Bowl games featuring the Cowboys and the NFC Championship Game between the Cowboys and 49ers, the only non-Super Bowl NFL game to be ranked in the Top 45 Primetime Telecasts of All Time. Dallas is the only NFL team that distributes its own merchandise, which remains among the league 's top selling even during losing seasons. As of 2012 the Cowboys were the most valuable American sports franchise at $2.1 billion. Among the many Cowboys innovations that have contributed to their distinct reputation are their professional, overtly beautiful, all female cheerleader squad, nicknamed "America 's Sweethearts '', that has since been copied around the NFL but still stands out as singularly iconic, and has been the subject of multiple movies, has made numerous national television appearances, routinely tours with the USO, makes other appearances around the world, and has been featured in its own long running reality show on CMT.
In 2012 an ESPN poll found that the Cowboys are the most popular NFL team, a result consistently echoed in annual Harris polling.
Franchises with long successful histories and large nationwide fan bases are occasionally referred to as America 's Team.
The Atlanta Braves laid claim to the name due to their games being broadcast on cable television systems nationwide on WTBS, building a fan base in areas of the United States far removed from a Major League Baseball team. A 1982 issue of Sports Illustrated had referred to the Braves as "America 's Team II ''.
As a jab against the Cowboys before Super Bowl XXVII, Buffalo Bills coach Marv Levy proclaimed his team to be America 's Team because they would be "wearing red, white, and blue ''. The Cowboys, which wear white, silver, and blue, went on to defeat the Bills 52 - 17.
Pittsburgh Steelers owner Art Rooney dismissed the suggestion that the Steelers were "America 's Team. '' "' We did n't want that, ' Rooney said. ' We 're Pittsburgh 's team. We feel strongly about that. ' ''
In an ESPN.com article titled, "The Great Debate: ' America 's Team ', '' four sports writers stated their case as to why three other teams besides the Cowboys could lay claim to the nickname of America 's Team.
Following their win in Super Bowl XLIV, a few media writers referred to the New Orleans Saints as "America 's Team '', as their successful bid to win the Super Bowl was seen by many to represent the city 's resurgence after the devastation of Hurricane Katrina ("for one game, the Saints are America 's Team '').
After several "Cinderella '' runs in the NCAA tournament, the Gonzaga Bulldogs men 's basketball team has been called "America 's Team '' as well.
During their ArenaBowl XXII championship run in 2008, Philadelphia Soul owner Ron Jaworski referred to the Soul as "America 's Team '' of the Arena Football League.
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which episode of bizaardvark is lilly singh in | Bizaardvark - wikipedia
Bizaardvark is an American sitcom created by Kyle Stegina and Josh Lehrman that premiered on Disney Channel on June 24, 2016. The series stars Madison Hu, Olivia Rodrigo, Jake Paul, DeVore Ledridge, and Ethan Wacker. In addition to the series ' regular episodes, the series has also aired shorts under the title of Bizaardvark Shorts.
Frankie and Paige are two teenage best friends who post funny songs and comedic videos on the Internet. After hitting 10,000 subscribers on their Vuuugle channel Bizaardvark (a portmanteau of the words "bizarre '' and "aardvark ''), they are accepted into the Vuuugle studios, where they make their videos while also having to share them with other "Vuuuglers ''.
The series was created by Kyle Stegina and Josh Lehrman, who were discovered by the Disney Channel Storytellers program. They serve as the series ' co-executive producers. Eric Friedman serves as the executive producer and its showrunner. Marc Warren, who previously supervised Disney Channel Storytellers, was the executive producer on the pilot. The series started shooting in early 2016. On December 15, 2016, Disney Channel renewed the series for a second season. The second season premiered on June 23, 2017. On July 22, 2017, it was announced that Jake Paul would be leaving both Bizaardvark and Disney Channel.
The series premiered in both the United States and Canada following the premiere of Adventures in Babysitting on Disney Channel and Disney Channel Canada, respectively, on June 24, 2016.
All episodes of Bizaardvark are available for digital purchase on Amazon and iTunes.
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when did in god we trust first appear on coins | In God We Trust - wikipedia
"In God We Trust '' is the official motto of the United States. It was adopted as the nation 's motto in 1956 as an alternative or replacement to the unofficial motto of E pluribus unum, which was adopted when the Great Seal of the United States was created and adopted in 1782.
"In God We Trust '' first appeared on the Two - cent piece in 1864 and has appeared on paper currency since 1957. A law passed in a Joint Resolution by the 84th Congress (P.L. 84 - 140) and approved by President Dwight Eisenhower on July 30, 1956, declared "In God We Trust '' must appear on American currency. This phrase was first used on paper money in 1957, when it appeared on the one - dollar silver certificate. The first paper currency bearing the phrase entered circulation on October 1, 1957. The 84th Congress later passed legislation (P.L. 84 - 851), also signed by President Eisenhower on July 30, 1956, declaring the phrase to be the national motto.
Some groups and people have expressed objections to its use, citing its religious reference that violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. These groups believe the phrase should be removed from currency and public property.
It is also the motto of the U.S. state of Florida. Its Spanish equivalent, En Dios Confiamos, is the motto of the Republic of Nicaragua.
The phrase appears to have originated in "The Star - Spangled Banner '', written by Francis Scott Key during the War of 1812. The fourth stanza includes the phrase, "And this be our motto: ' In God is our Trust. ' '' This version of the motto made an early appearance on the twenty dollar interest bearing notes issued in 1864 along with the motto "God and our Right ''.
The Reverend M.R. Watkinson, in a letter dated November 13, 1861, petitioned the Treasury Department to add a statement recognizing "Almighty God in some form in our coins '' in order to "relieve us from the ignominy of heathenism ''. At least part of the motivation was to declare that God was on the Union side of the Civil War. Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase acted on this proposal and directed the then - Philadelphia Director of the Mint, James Pollock, to begin drawing up possible designs that would include the religious phrase. Chase chose his favorite designs and presented a proposal to Congress for the new designs in late 1863.
As Chase was preparing his recommendation to Congress, it was found that the Act of Congress dated January 18, 1837 prescribed the mottoes and devices that should be placed upon the coins of the United States. This meant that the mint could make no changes without the enactment of additional legislation by the Congress. Such legislation was introduced and passed on April 22, 1864, allowing the Secretary of the Treasury to authorize the inclusion of the phrase on one - cent and two - cent coins.
An Act of Congress passed on March 3, 1865, allowed the Mint Director, with the Secretary 's approval, to place the motto on all gold and silver coins that "shall admit the inscription thereon ''. In 1873, Congress passed the Coinage Act, granting that the Secretary of the Treasury "may cause the motto IN GOD WE TRUST to be inscribed on such coins as shall admit of such motto ''.
The use of "In God We Trust '' has been interrupted. The motto disappeared from the five - cent coin in 1883, and did not reappear until production of the Jefferson nickel began in 1938. However, at least two other coins minted in every year in the interim still bore the motto, including the Morgan dollar and the Seated Liberty half dollar. In 1908, Congress made it mandatory that the phrase be printed on all coins upon which it had previously appeared. This decision was motivated after a public outcry following the release of a $20 coin which did not bear the motto. The motto has been in continuous use on the one - cent coin since 1909, and on the ten - cent coin since 1916. It also has appeared on all gold coins and silver dollar coins, half - dollar coins, and quarter - dollar coins struck since July 1, 1908. Since 1938, all US coins have borne the motto.
During the Cold War era, the government of the United States sought to distinguish itself from the Soviet Union, which promoted state atheism and thus implemented antireligious legislation. The 84th Congress passed a joint resolution "declaring IN GOD WE TRUST the national motto of the United States ''. The law was signed by President Eisenhower on July 30, 1956. The United States Code at 36 U.S.C. § 302, now states: "' In God we trust ' is the national motto. ''
The same day, the President signed into law a requirement that "In God We Trust '' be printed on all U.S. currency and coins. On paper currency, it first appeared on the silver certificate in 1957, followed by other certificates. Federal Reserve Notes and United States Notes were circulated with the motto starting from 1964 to 1966, depending on the denomination. (Of these, only Federal Reserve Notes are still circulated.)
Representative Charles Edward Bennett of Florida cited the Cold War when he introduced the bill in the House, saying "In these days when imperialistic and materialistic communism seeks to attack and destroy freedom, we should continually look for ways to strengthen the foundations of our freedom ''.
In 2006, on the 50th anniversary of its adoption, the Senate reaffirmed "In God We Trust '' as the official national motto of the United States of America. In 2011 the House of Representatives passed an additional resolution reaffirming "In God We Trust '' as the official motto of the United States, in a 396 -- 9 vote. According to a 2003 joint poll by USA Today, CNN, and Gallup, 90 % of Americans support the inscription "In God We Trust '' on U.S. coins.
The phrase has been incorporated in many hymns and religio - patriotic songs. During the American Civil War, the 125th Pennsylvania Infantry for the Union Army assumed the motto "In God we trust '' in early August 1862.
In Judaism and Christianity, the official motto "In God We Trust '' resounds with several verses from the Bible, including Psalm 118: 8, Psalm 40: 3, Psalm 73: 28, and Proverbs 29: 25. In Islam the word for the concept of reliance on God is called Tawakkul; the phrase "In God We Trust '' is found in two places of the Koran, in Surah 10 Yunus, as well as Surah 7 Al - A'raf, although several other verses reinforce this concept. Melkote Ramaswamy, a Hindu American scholar, writes that the presence of the phrase "In God We Trust '' on American currency is a reminder that "there is God everywhere, whether we are conscious or not. ''
After the September 11 attacks in 2001, many public schools across the United States posted "In God We Trust '' framed posters in their "libraries, cafeterias and classrooms ''. The American Family Association supplied several 11 - by - 14 - inch posters to school systems and vowed to defend any legal challenges to the displaying of the posters.
As of April 1, 2016 the following U.S. states currently offer an "In God We Trust '' license plate as a speciality plate for an additional normal vehicle registration processing which vary from state to state: Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Florida, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
Florida (Which also offers a speciality plate) and Georgia which both display the county of issuance on their License Plate offer the option of "In God We Trust '' in place of the County Name.
Advocates of separation of church and state have questioned the legality of this motto, asserting that it is a violation of the United States Constitution, prohibiting the government from passing any law respecting the establishment of religion. Religious accommodationists state that this entrenched practice has not historically presented any constitutional difficulty, is not coercive, and does not prefer one religious denomination over another.
"In God We Trust '' as a national motto and on U.S. currency has been the subject of numerous unsuccessful lawsuits. The motto was first challenged in Aronow v. United States in 1970, but the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled: "It is quite obvious that the national motto and the slogan on coinage and currency ' In God We Trust ' has nothing whatsoever to do with the establishment of religion. Its use is of patriotic or ceremonial character and bears no true resemblance to a governmental sponsorship of a religious exercise. '' In Lynch v. Donnelly (1984), the Supreme Court wrote that acts of "ceremonial deism '' are "protected from Establishment Clause scrutiny chiefly because they have lost through rote repetition any significant religious content ''. In Zorach v. Clauson (1952), the Supreme Court also wrote that the nation 's "institutions presuppose a Supreme Being '' and that government recognition of God does not constitute the establishment of a state church as the Constitution 's authors intended to prohibit.
Aside from constitutional objections, President Theodore Roosevelt took issue with using the motto on coinage as he considered using God 's name on money to be sacrilege.
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who plays claire on days of our lives | Olivia Rose Keegan - wikipedia
Olivia Rose Keegan (born November 22, 1999) is an American singer and actress. She is known for portraying the role of Claire Brady on NBC 's soap opera Days of Our Lives.
Keegan was born in San Francisco, California. Her family consists of her parents and older sister, Jessica Keegan.
Keegan is signed with Artistic Endeavors. In 2011, Keegan moved to Los Angeles to pursue an acting career, and after a month of moving, she booked two movies Decoding Annie Parker as the young Joan and Ashley (film) as the lead role of Gabby. From 2012 - 2014 she worked on a number of movies: Picture. Perfect., Hand of God, and Amnesiac, and guest - starred on several TV shows: Modern Family, Sam & Cat, Enlisted (TV series), Growing Up Fisher. In 2014, she did a commercial for T.J. Maxx.
In 2015, she guest - starred in an episode of The Thundermans and starred in a family film called "Salvation Street '' as the lead role of Brianna. In the same year, she booked a recurring role of Claire Brady on the soap opera show Days of Our Lives as Shawn - Douglas Brady and Belle Brady 's teenage daughter and first appeared on November 25, 2015. In April 2016, she released her self - titled EP which featured 6 songs on iTunes which are "Littles, '' "Sunny Day, '' "Lone Star, '' "I 've Got an Angel, '' "This Time, '' and "When Time Was On Our Side. As of 2016, Olivia has signed a contract with Days of Our Lives. On March 20, 2018, she released a new song ' Queen Is A King ' on Youtube.
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who developed the first printing press in 1430 | Johannes Gutenberg - wikipedia
Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg (/ joʊˈhɑːnɪs ˈɡuːtənˌbɜːrɡ, - ˈhænɪs - / yoh - HA (H) N - iss GOO - tən - burg; c. 1400 -- February 3, 1468) was a German blacksmith, goldsmith, printer, and publisher who introduced printing to Europe with the printing press. His introduction of mechanical movable type printing to Europe started the Printing Revolution and is regarded as a milestone of the second millennium, ushering in the modern period of human history. It played a key role in the development of the Renaissance, Reformation, the Age of Enlightenment, and the scientific revolution and laid the material basis for the modern knowledge - based economy and the spread of learning to the masses.
Gutenberg in 1439 was the first European to use movable type. Among his many contributions to printing are: the invention of a process for mass - producing movable type; the use of oil - based ink for printing books; adjustable molds; mechanical movable type; and the use of a wooden printing press similar to the agricultural screw presses of the period. His truly epochal invention was the combination of these elements into a practical system that allowed the mass production of printed books and was economically viable for printers and readers alike. Gutenberg 's method for making type is traditionally considered to have included a type metal alloy and a hand mould for casting type. The alloy was a mixture of lead, tin, and antimony that melted at a relatively low temperature for faster and more economical casting, cast well, and created a durable type.
In Renaissance Europe, the arrival of mechanical movable type printing introduced the era of mass communication which permanently altered the structure of society. The relatively unrestricted circulation of information -- including revolutionary ideas -- transcended borders, captured the masses in the Reformation and threatened the power of political and religious authorities; the sharp increase in literacy broke the monopoly of the literate elite on education and learning and bolstered the emerging middle class. Across Europe, the increasing cultural self - awareness of its people led to the rise of proto - nationalism, accelerated by the flowering of the European vernacular languages to the detriment of Latin 's status as lingua franca. In the 19th century, the replacement of the hand - operated Gutenberg - style press by steam - powered rotary presses allowed printing on an industrial scale, while Western - style printing was adopted all over the world, becoming practically the sole medium for modern bulk printing.
The use of movable type was a marked improvement on the handwritten manuscript, which was the existing method of book production in Europe, and upon woodblock printing, and revolutionized European book - making. Gutenberg 's printing technology spread rapidly throughout Europe and later the world.
His major work, the Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42 - line Bible), has been acclaimed for its high aesthetic and technical quality.
Gutenberg was born in the German city of Mainz, the youngest son of the upper - class merchant Friele Gensfleisch zur Laden, and his second wife, Else Wyrich, who was the daughter of a shopkeeper. It is assumed that he was baptized in the area close to his birthplace of St. Christoph. According to some accounts, Friele was a goldsmith for the bishop at Mainz, but most likely, he was involved in the cloth trade. Gutenberg 's year of birth is not precisely known, but it was sometime between the years of 1394 and 1404. In the 1890s the city of Mainz declared his official and symbolic date of birth to be June 24, 1400.
John Lienhard, technology historian, says "Most of Gutenberg 's early life is a mystery. His father worked with the ecclesiastic mint. Gutenberg grew up knowing the trade of goldsmithing. '' This is supported by historian Heinrich Wallau, who adds, "In the 14th and 15th centuries his (ancestors) claimed a hereditary position as... retainers of the household of the master of the archiepiscopal mint. In this capacity they doubtless acquired considerable knowledge and technical skill in metal working. They supplied the mint with the metal to be coined, changed the various species of coins, and had a seat at the assizes in forgery cases. ''
Wallau adds, "His surname was derived from the house inhabited by his father and his paternal ancestors ' zu Laden, zu Gutenberg '. The house of Gänsfleisch was one of the patrician families of the town, tracing its lineage back to the thirteenth century. '' Patricians (the wealthy and political elite) in Mainz were often named after houses they owned. Around 1427, the name zu Gutenberg, after the family house in Mainz, is documented to have been used for the first time.
In 1411, there was an uprising in Mainz against the patricians, and more than a hundred families were forced to leave. As a result, the Gutenbergs are thought to have moved to Eltville am Rhein (Alta Villa), where his mother had an inherited estate. According to historian Heinrich Wallau, "All that is known of his youth is that he was not in Mainz in 1430. It is presumed that he migrated for political reasons to Strasbourg, where the family probably had connections. '' He is assumed to have studied at the University of Erfurt, where there is a record of the enrolment of a student called Johannes de Altavilla in 1418 -- Altavilla is the Latin form of Eltville am Rhein.
Nothing is now known of Gutenberg 's life for the next fifteen years, but in March 1434, a letter by him indicates that he was living in Strasbourg, where he had some relatives on his mother 's side. He also appears to have been a goldsmith member enrolled in the Strasbourg militia. In 1437, there is evidence that he was instructing a wealthy tradesman on polishing gems, but where he had acquired this knowledge is unknown. In 1436 / 37 his name also comes up in court in connection with a broken promise of marriage to a woman from Strasbourg, Ennelin. Whether the marriage actually took place is not recorded. Following his father 's death in 1419, he is mentioned in the inheritance proceedings.
Around 1439, Gutenberg was involved in a financial misadventure making polished metal mirrors (which were believed to capture holy light from religious relics) for sale to pilgrims to Aachen: in 1439 the city was planning to exhibit its collection of relics from Emperor Charlemagne but the event was delayed by one year due to a severe flood and the capital already spent could not be repaid. When the question of satisfying the investors came up, Gutenberg is said to have promised to share a "secret ''. It has been widely speculated that this secret may have been the idea of printing with movable type. Also around 1439 -- 40, the Dutch Laurens Janszoon Coster came up with the idea of printing. Legend has it that the idea came to him "like a ray of light ''.
Until at least 1444 Gutenberg lived in Strasbourg, most likely in the St. Arbogast parish. It was in Strasbourg in 1440 that he is said to have perfected and unveiled the secret of printing based on his research, mysteriously entitled Aventur und Kunst (enterprise and art). It is not clear what work he was engaged in, or whether some early trials with printing from movable type may have been conducted there. After this, there is a gap of four years in the record. In 1448, he was back in Mainz, where he took out a loan from his brother - in - law Arnold Gelthus, quite possibly for a printing press or related paraphernalia. By this date, Gutenberg may have been familiar with intaglio printing; it is claimed that he had worked on copper engravings with an artist known as the Master of Playing Cards.
Future pope Pius II in a letter to Cardinal Carvajal, March 1455
By 1450, the press was in operation, and a German poem had been printed, possibly the first item to be printed there. Gutenberg was able to convince the wealthy moneylender Johann Fust for a loan of 800 guilders. Peter Schöffer, who became Fust 's son - in - law, also joined the enterprise. Schöffer had worked as a scribe in Paris and is believed to have designed some of the first typefaces.
Gutenberg 's workshop was set up at Hof Humbrecht, a property belonging to a distant relative. It is not clear when Gutenberg conceived the Bible project, but for this he borrowed another 800 guilders from Fust, and work commenced in 1452. At the same time, the press was also printing other, more lucrative texts (possibly Latin grammars). There is also some speculation that there may have been two presses, one for the pedestrian texts, and one for the Bible. One of the profit - making enterprises of the new press was the printing of thousands of indulgences for the church, documented from 1454 to 1455.
In 1455 Gutenberg completed his 42 - line Bible, known as the Gutenberg Bible. About 180 copies were printed, most on paper and some on vellum.
Some time in 1456, there was a dispute between Gutenberg and Fust, and Fust demanded his money back, accusing Gutenberg of misusing the funds. Meanwhile the expenses of the Bible project had proliferated, and Gutenberg 's debt now exceeded 20,000 guilders. Fust sued at the archbishop 's court. A November 1455 legal document records that there was a partnership for a "project of the books, '' the funds for which Gutenberg had used for other purposes, according to Fust. The court decided in favor of Fust, giving him control over the Bible printing workshop and half of all printed Bibles.
Thus Gutenberg was effectively bankrupt, but it appears he retained (or re-started) a small printing shop, and participated in the printing of a Bible in the town of Bamberg around 1459, for which he seems at least to have supplied the type. But since his printed books never carry his name or a date, it is difficult to be certain, and there is consequently a considerable scholarly debate on this subject. It is also possible that the large Catholicon dictionary, 300 copies of 754 pages, printed in Mainz in 1460, was executed in his workshop.
Meanwhile, the Fust -- Schöffer shop was the first in Europe to bring out a book with the printer 's name and date, the Mainz Psalter of August 1457, and while proudly proclaiming the mechanical process by which it had been produced, it made no mention of Gutenberg.
In 1462, during the devastating Mainz Diocesan Feud, Mainz was sacked by archbishop Adolph von Nassau, and Gutenberg was exiled. An old man by now, he moved to Eltville where he may have initiated and supervised a new printing press belonging to the brothers Bechtermünze.
In January 1465, Gutenberg 's achievements were recognized and he was given the title Hofmann (gentleman of the court) by von Nassau. This honor included a stipend, an annual court outfit, as well as 2,180 litres of grain and 2,000 litres of wine tax - free. It is believed he may have moved back to Mainz around this time, but this is not certain.
Gutenberg died in 1468 and was buried in the Franciscan church at Mainz, his contributions largely unknown. This church and the cemetery were later destroyed, and Gutenberg 's grave is now lost.
In 1504, he was mentioned as the inventor of typography in a book by Professor Ivo Wittig. It was not until 1567 that the first portrait of Gutenberg, almost certainly an imaginary reconstruction, appeared in Heinrich Pantaleon 's biography of famous Germans.
Between 1450 and 1455, Gutenberg printed several texts, some of which remain unidentified; his texts did not bear the printer 's name or date, so attribution is possible only from typographical evidence and external references. Certainly several church documents including a papal letter and two indulgences were printed, one of which was issued in Mainz. In view of the value of printing in quantity, seven editions in two styles were ordered, resulting in several thousand copies being printed. Some printed editions of Ars Minor, a schoolbook on Latin grammar by Aelius Donatus may have been printed by Gutenberg; these have been dated either 1451 -- 52 or 1455.
In 1455, Gutenberg completed copies of a beautifully executed folio Bible (Biblia Sacra), with 42 lines on each page. Copies sold for 30 florins each, which was roughly three years ' wages for an average clerk. Nonetheless, it was significantly cheaper than a manuscript Bible that could take a single scribe over a year to prepare. After printing, some copies were rubricated or hand - illuminated in the same elegant way as manuscript Bibles from the same period.
48 substantially complete copies are known to survive, including two at the British Library that can be viewed and compared online. The text lacks modern features such as pagination, indentations, and paragraph breaks.
An undated 36 - line edition of the Bible was printed, probably in Bamberg in 1458 -- 60, possibly by Gutenberg. A large part of it was shown to have been set from a copy of Gutenberg 's Bible, thus disproving earlier speculation that it was the earlier of the two.
Gutenberg 's early printing process, and what tests he printed with movable type, are not known in great detail. His later Bibles were printed in such a way as to have required large quantities of type, some estimates suggesting as many as 100,000 individual sorts. Setting each page would take, perhaps, half a day, and considering all the work in loading the press, inking the type, pulling the impressions, hanging up the sheets, distributing the type, etc., it is thought that the Gutenberg -- Fust shop might have employed as many as 25 craftsmen.
Gutenberg 's technique of making movable type remains unclear. In the following decades, punches and copper matrices became standardized in the rapidly disseminating printing presses across Europe. Whether Gutenberg used this sophisticated technique or a somewhat primitive version has been the subject of considerable debate.
In the standard process of making type, a hard metal punch (made by punchcutting, with the letter carved back to front) is hammered into a softer copper bar, creating a matrix. This is then placed into a hand - held mould and a piece of type, or "sort '', is cast by filling the mould with molten type - metal; this cools almost at once, and the resulting piece of type can be removed from the mould. The matrix can be reused to create hundreds, or thousands, of identical sorts so that the same character appearing anywhere within the book will appear very uniform, giving rise, over time, to the development of distinct styles of typefaces or fonts. After casting, the sorts are arranged into type cases, and used to make up pages which are inked and printed, a procedure which can be repeated hundreds, or thousands, of times. The sorts can be reused in any combination, earning the process the name of "movable type ''. (For details, see Typography.)
The invention of the making of types with punch, matrix and mold has been widely attributed to Gutenberg. However, recent evidence suggests that Gutenberg 's process was somewhat different. If he used the punch and matrix approach, all his letters should have been nearly identical, with some variation due to miscasting and inking. However, the type used in Gutenberg 's earliest work shows other variations.
In 2001, the physicist Blaise Agüera y Arcas and Princeton librarian Paul Needham, used digital scans of a Papal bull in the Scheide Library, Princeton, to carefully compare the same letters (types) appearing in different parts of the printed text. The irregularities in Gutenberg 's type, particularly in simple characters such as the hyphen, suggested that the variations could not have come either from ink smear or from wear and damage on the pieces of metal on the types themselves. Although some identical types are clearly used on other pages, other variations, subjected to detailed image analysis, suggested that they could not have been produced from the same matrix. Transmitted light pictures of the page also appeared to reveal substructures in the type that could not arise from traditional punchcutting techniques. They hypothesized that the method involved impressing simple shapes to create alphabets in "cuneiform '' style in a matrix made of some soft material, perhaps sand. Casting the type would destroy the mould, and the matrix would need to be recreated to make each additional sort. This could explain the variations in the type, as well as the substructures observed in the printed images.
Thus, they speculated that "the decisive factor for the birth of typography '', the use of reusable moulds for casting type, was a more progressive process than was previously thought. They suggested that the additional step of using the punch to create a mould that could be reused many times was not taken until twenty years later, in the 1470s. Others have not accepted some or all of their suggestions, and have interpreted the evidence in other ways, and the truth of the matter remains uncertain.
A 1568 history by Hadrianus Junius of Holland claims that the basic idea of the movable type came to Gutenberg from Laurens Janszoon Coster via Fust, who was apprenticed to Coster in the 1430s and may have brought some of his equipment from Haarlem to Mainz. While Coster appears to have experimented with moulds and castable metal type, there is no evidence that he had actually printed anything with this technology. He was an inventor and a goldsmith. However, there is one indirect supporter of the claim that Coster might be the inventor. The author of the Cologne Chronicle of 1499 quotes Ulrich Zell, the first printer of Cologne, that printing was performed in Mainz in 1450, but that some type of printing of lower quality had previously occurred in the Netherlands. However, the chronicle does not mention the name of Coster, while it actually credits Gutenberg as the "first inventor of printing '' in the very same passage (fol. 312). The first securely dated book by Dutch printers is from 1471, and the Coster connection is today regarded as a mere legend.
The 19th - century printer and typefounder Fournier Le Jeune suggested that Gutenberg was not using type cast with a reusable matrix, but wooden types that were carved individually. A similar suggestion was made by Nash in 2004. This remains possible, albeit entirely unproven.
It has also been questioned whether Gutenberg used movable types at all. In 2004, Italian professor Bruno Fabbiani claimed that examination of the 42 - line Bible revealed an overlapping of letters, suggesting that Gutenberg did not in fact use movable type (individual cast characters) but rather used whole plates made from a system somewhat like a modern typewriter, whereby the letters were stamped successively into the plate and then printed. However, most specialists regard the occasional overlapping of type as caused by paper movement over pieces of type of slightly unequal height.
American writer Mark Twain (1835 − 1910)
Although Gutenberg was financially unsuccessful in his lifetime, the printing technologies spread quickly, and news and books began to travel across Europe much faster than before. It fed the growing Renaissance, and since it greatly facilitated scientific publishing, it was a major catalyst for the later scientific revolution.
The capital of printing in Europe shifted to Venice, where visionary printers like Aldus Manutius ensured widespread availability of the major Greek and Latin texts. The claims of an Italian origin for movable type have also focused on this rapid rise of Italy in movable - type printing. This may perhaps be explained by the prior eminence of Italy in the paper and printing trade. Additionally, Italy 's economy was growing rapidly at the time, facilitating the spread of literacy. Christopher Columbus had a geographical book (printed by movable types) bought by his father. That book is in a Spanish museum. Finally, the city of Mainz was sacked in 1462, driving many (including a number of printers and punch cutters) into exile.
Printing was also a factor in the Reformation. Martin Luther 's 95 Theses were printed and circulated widely; subsequently he issued broadsheets outlining his anti-indulgences position (certificates of indulgences were one of the first items Gutenberg had printed). The broadsheet contributed to development of the newspaper.
In the decades after Gutenberg, many conservative patrons looked down on cheap printed books; books produced by hand were considered more desirable.
Today there is a large antique market for the earliest printed objects. Books printed prior to 1500 are known as incunabula.
There are many statues of Gutenberg in Germany, including the famous one by Bertel Thorvaldsen (1837) in Mainz, home to the eponymous Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz and the Gutenberg Museum on the history of early printing. The latter publishes the Gutenberg - Jahrbuch, the leading periodical in the field.
Project Gutenberg, the oldest digital library, commemorates Gutenberg 's name.
In 1952, the United States Postal Service issued a five hundredth anniversary stamp commemorating Johannes Gutenberg invention of the movable - type printing press.
In 1961 the Canadian philosopher and scholar Marshall McLuhan entitled his pioneering study in the fields of print culture, cultural studies, and media ecology, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man.
Regarded as one of the most influential people in human history, Gutenberg remains a towering figure in the popular image. In 1999, the A&E Network ranked Gutenberg the No. 1 most influential person of the second millennium on their "Biographies of the Millennium '' countdown. In 1997, Time -- Life magazine picked Gutenberg 's invention as the most important of the second millennium.
In space, he is commemorated in the name of the asteroid 777 Gutemberga.
Two operas based on Gutenberg are G, Being the Confession and Last Testament of Johannes Gensfleisch, also known as Gutenberg, Master Printer, formerly of Strasbourg and Mainz, from 2001 with music by Gavin Bryars; and La Nuit de Gutenberg, with music by Philippe Manoury, premiered in 2011 in Strasbourg.
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jane porter in the legend of tarzan 2016 | The Legend of Tarzan (film) - wikipedia
The Legend of Tarzan is a 2016 American adventure film based on the fictional character created by Edgar Rice Burroughs. Directed by David Yates, with a screenplay by Adam Cozad and Craig Brewer, the film stars Alexander Skarsgård as the title character, with Samuel L. Jackson, Margot Robbie, Djimon Hounsou, Jim Broadbent and Christoph Waltz in supporting roles. Principal photography began on June 21, 2014, at Warner Bros. Leavesden Studios in the United Kingdom and wrapped four months later on October 3.
The film premiered at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles on June 29, 2016, and was theatrically released in the United States on July 1, 2016, in 2D, 3D, IMAX and IMAX 3D. The film grossed over $356 million against a budget of $180 million and received mixed reviews from critics.
As a result of the Berlin Conference, the Congo Basin is claimed by King Leopold II of the Belgians, who rules the Congo Free State in personal union with the Kingdom of Belgium. The country is on the verge of bankruptcy, Leopold having borrowed huge amounts of money to finance the construction of railways and other infrastructure projects. He sends his envoy Léon Rom (Christoph Waltz) to secure the fabled diamonds of Opar. Rom 's expedition is ambushed and massacred. A tribal leader, Chief Mbonga (Djimon Hounsou), offers Rom the diamonds in exchange for an old enemy: Tarzan.
The man once called "Tarzan '', John Clayton III (Alexander Skarsgård), has left Africa behind and settled down in London with his American - born wife, Jane Porter (Margot Robbie), taking up his birth name and ancestral family residence as Lord Greystoke. In the eight years since returning from Africa, John 's story as Tarzan has become legendary among the Victorian public, although John himself wishes to leave the past behind him. Through the British Prime Minister (Jim Broadbent), John is invited by King Leopold to visit Boma and report on the development of the Congo by Belgium, though Greystoke declines. An American envoy, George Washington Williams (Samuel L. Jackson), privately reveals his suspicions that Leopold is enslaving the Congolese population to recoup his debts. Williams persuades John to accept the invitation in order to prove his suspicions. Jane is disappointed when John says that she should not come, as he thinks the trip would be too dangerous, remembering how both his parents died as a result of the jungle 's brutality following their shipwreck there -- his mother of disease and his father later killed by the Mangani apes -- leaving the baby John to be raised as Tarzan by his Mangani "mother '' Kala and "brother '' Akut. However, Jane reminds him that she grew up in Africa as well, and misses her home and friends there. John relents, and allows Jane to accompany him.
John, Jane, and Williams take the trip to the Congo. There, the trio encounters a tribal village and villagers who knew John and Jane during their previous stay in the jungle. Jane explains to Williams that her husband was once considered an evil spirit by the African tribes, including that of Chief Mbonga. Jane recalls how, when she was younger, she and her father lived in the tribal village helping to care for local children. There she met Tarzan who was made feral and physically enhanced by his life with the apes. The naked ape man saved Jane 's life by shielding her from a vicious mangani attack, suffering severe injuries in the process. Jane took the injured Tarzan home, nursed him back to health, and the two fell in love. That night, as the tribe sleeps, Rom and his mercenaries raid the village and kidnap John and Jane and kill the tribe 's leader. They then escape to a nearby steamboat with Jane and several of the tribe 's members, but Williams is able to rescue John before he can be taken to the boat.
With the aid of the tribe 's warriors, John and Williams intercept a Belgian military train carrying captured slaves, providing Williams with the evidence he needs to expose King Leopold. They also discover that Rom intends to use the diamonds to pay for a massive army to subdue the Congo, and allow Belgium to mine its wealth for Leopold 's benefit. As John and Williams continue onward, John encounters the adult Akut, who is now leader of the apes. Aware that Akut considers him a deserter, John prepares to fight Akut, though he soon loses. That night, as John recovers, Williams recalls the massacres of Native Americans during the Indian Wars, comparing to those of Rom and Leopold.
On Rom 's steamboat, Jane dines with Rom, before escaping and swimming to shore. Jane stumbles into a group of mangani apes, where she is rescued by Rom, whose men then shoot and kill many of the apes. John saves the remaining group, reconciling with Akut, before pursuing Rom. He is cornered by Mbonga and his tribe, where it is revealed that John once killed Mbonga 's only son for previously killing Kala. A defeated Mbonga tearfully accuses John of lacking honor, as his son was just a young boy when John killed him. John spares Mbonga, just as Akut and the manganis arrive to subdue the tribe. Rom takes Jane and the diamonds to Boma, where he plans to take control of the army. John, Williams and Akut trigger a massive stampede of wildebeest through Boma, destroying the town and distracting the soldiers, allowing John to rescue Jane. As Rom attempts to escape by boat, Williams sinks it with a machine gun as John swims aboard. Rom incapacitates John by strangling him and then tying him by the neck to the ship 's railing, before trying to escape again. John then summons crocodiles with a mating call to devour Rom, before escaping the destroyed vessel himself.
Williams returns to England and presents the Prime Minister with evidence exposing the slave trade in the African Congo. One year later, John and Jane have remained in Africa and settled in Jane 's father 's old house. John returns to his rightful place among the great apes as Tarzan and finally actualizes his dream of having a child with Jane.
An updated version of Tarzan had been in the works since at least 2003, with John August writing. However, by 2008, it was reported that a different version, co-written by Stephen Sommers and Stuart Beatle, that was said to resemble the Pirates of the Caribbean series, was in development. By 2011, Craig Brewer, who also rewrote a version of the script, was set to direct the film, although this did not come to pass. Instead, David Yates was chosen to direct in 2012. Other directors in the running included Susanna White and Gary Ross. In April 2013, it was reported that the production was temporarily suspended due to budgetary concerns.
For a while, producer Jerry Weintraub (no relation to the 50s and 60s Tarzan producer Sy Weintraub) wanted swimmer Michael Phelps to play the title role, feeling that he was the heir apparent to Johnny Weissmuller, the actor who had famously played Tarzan, and who was also a prominent competitive swimmer. Weintraub changed his mind after watching Phelps host Saturday Night Live, reportedly deciding against the decision after watching the episode for only two minutes. Other early contenders for the role included Henry Cavill, Tom Hardy, and Charlie Hunnam. On November 14, 2012, Alexander Skarsgård was cast in the title role, the choice of director Yates, while Samuel L. Jackson was being eyed to play Williams in the film. Yates found Skarsgård to be the perfect Tarzan. He liked that he was born in Sweden but had found a career in America, so "he has this wonderful quality of not quite belonging to one or the other '', he said. On March 6, 2013, it was reported that Yates wanted Jessica Chastain to play the female lead role, Jane Porter. On September 26, 2013, Christoph Waltz was in talks to play the villain in the film; he was later cast, as Captain Rom.
The studio eyed Margot Robbie and Emma Stone to play the female lead character, Jane Porter. Emma Watson (who worked with Yates on the last four Harry Potter films), Sarah Bolger, Georgina Haig, Lucy Hale, Lyndsy Fonseca, Eleanor Tomlinson, Gabriella Wilde, Lucy Boynton and Cressida Bonas were all considered for the part. On January 18, 2014, Robbie was confirmed to play the female lead, Jane, in the film, opposite Skarsgård, beating Stone for the role. On June 4, Djimon Hounsou was set to play Chief Mbonga in the film. On June 17, Osy Ikhile was added to the cast to play a supporting role, but the character was not then named. Casper Crump was cast to play Captain Kerchover. The release of the first trailer in December 2015 revealed that Jim Broadbent was also part of the cast.
Principal photography on the film commenced on June 30, 2014, at Warner Bros. Studios in Leavesden, Hertfordshire, England. Filming had begun on the day an announcement was made for the expansion of the studio. Filming wrapped the same year on October 3. Filming took place for a total of 70 days. According to The Wall Street Journal, shooting the film in Africa would have made the budget even higher.
Making Africa seem authentic was especially important to the filmmakers, since the film was shot in England, except for six weeks in Gabon, filming background by helicopter without the cast. A working waterfall and a 100 - foot - long collapsible pier were assembled at Warner Bros. ' Leavesden studios. Seven versions of the African jungle were constructed to show different scenery throughout the filming. Plants from Holland were mixed with trees sculpted by the art department. Kedleston Hall stood in for the Greystoke Manor, and a cedar tree on the grounds of Highclere Castle served as the setting for an early pivotal scene between Tarzan and Jane.
The film 's score was composed by Rupert Gregson - Williams. The soundtrack was released on June 16, 2016 by WaterTower Music and on CD on June 24, 2016. Tony Clarke, Thomas Farnon, and Tom Howe are credited for additional music. Hozier provided a single, Better Love, which is played at the film 's end credits.
All music composed by Rupert Gregson - Williams, except where noted.
The film was released on July 1, 2016 by Warner Bros., in traditional formats as well as 3D and IMAX 3D.
The film was released in October 11, 2016, in traditional formats, Blu - ray, DVD and 4K Blu - ray.
The Legend of Tarzan grossed $126.6 million in the United States and Canada and $230.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $356.7 million. Deadline financial analysts state that the film lost the studio an estimated $40 million (though the studio, itself, asserts the film broke even). Given its $180 million production budget, it would have had to have earned at least $400 million to break even and justify a sequel.
In the United States and Canada, The Legend of Tarzan opened alongside The BFG and The Purge: Election Year, and was projected to gross to $25 -- 33 million in its opening weekend. It opened Friday, July 1, 2016 across 3,561 theaters and 6,700 screens, and grossed $14 million on its opening day, including $1.4 million in IMAX showings. This includes $2.6 million it made from Thursday night previews. In its opening weekend, buoyed by positive word of mouth, the film grossed a better - than - expected $38.5 million, of which IMAX contributed $3.9 million, and $45.6 million over its four - day Independence Day holiday frame, finishing second place at the box office behind Finding Dory, but first among new releases. However, despite its opening numbers, Deadline.com called the film a "dud '', due to its lofty budget.
Internationally, The Legend of Tarzan received a scattered release pattern, in order to take advantage of the competitive landscape surrounding the 2016 European Championship. It is likely that a recoup of the film 's hefty production budget will be dependent on international audiences and returns. Jeff Goldstein, Warner 's executive vice president of domestic distribution, told The New York Times, "This property has always really been about the international opportunity. '' The film opened across 19 markets on the same weekend it debuted in North America, including major territories like Russia and South Korea. In its opening weekend, it grossed $19.3 million on about 6,700 screens, and an IMAX total of $1.2 million from 122 IMAX theaters. In Russia and the CIS, it opened with $3.1 million, debuting in first place at the box office. However, it was the lowest No. 1 opening for a film since April, while in South Korea it debuted at No. 2, with $4 million. In the latter market, it faced significant competition from local films Familyhood and The Hunt, both of which performed strongly. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it came in second place with $4.7 million, including previews, debuting behind the animated The Secret Life of Pets, and in Australia with $3.2 million, behind Finding Dory. Elsewhere, Asia had No. 1 openings in India, Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia. The studio also reported No. 1 debuts in Mexico ($4.6 million), Brazil ($3.4 million), Spain ($1.8 million), Italy ($1.6 million), the majority of Eastern European markets, and Puerto Rico. Germany ($2 million), the UAE ($1.6 million), and Japan ($1.5 million) had similar opening figures.
In China -- the film 's second biggest market -- the film was granted a rare release date in the month of July, a peculiar move since July is typically the month when Chinese regulators ban foreign films (including Hollywood films) in order to protect and promote their own local films. It opened on Tuesday, July 19, and made $7 million on its opening day. It went on to deliver a six - day opening of around $27 million and a three - day weekend opening of $12 million. Although the opening number was regarded strong, it came in second place, behind Skiptrace, which occupied a market share in excess of 56 %, in comparion to The Legend of Tarzan 's 16 %.
In terms of total earnings, its biggest markets outside of the United States are China ($45.1 million), Mexico ($13.7 million) and the U.K. and Ireland ($11.9 million).
The Legend of Tarzan received generally mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 36 % based on 222 reviews with an average rating of 5.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The Legend of Tarzan has more on its mind than many movies starring the classic character, but that is n't enough to make up for its generic plot or sluggish pace. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 44 out of 100 based on 41 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Manohla Dargis of The New York Times gave the film a positive review, stating "What makes it more enjoyable than a lot of recycled stories of this type is that the filmmakers have given Tarzan a thoughtful, imperfect makeover. '' In his review, Peter Travers of Rolling Stone stated "At least it 's watchable. In summer, baby, that 's high praise. ''
Peter Debruge of Variety gave the film a negative review, stating "A talky and mostly turgid attempt by British director David Yates to build on the epic vision he brought to the final four Harry Potter movies via another beloved literary hero. '' Jordan Hoffman of The Guardian criticized the film for its story and writing, stating "Committed performances are n't enough to save this film from uncomfortable colonial optics, uninspiring CGI and tedious plotlines. ''
IMDb named The Legend of Tarzan as one of its Top 10 Movies of 2016, as in being among the "most consistently popular with IMDb users this past year, '' by noting:
IndieWire named The Legend of Tarzan as the 24th most romantic film released so far in the 21st Century, calling it an "underrated old - fashioned romantic adventure. ''
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when was the charter of rights and freedoms established in canada | Canadian Charter of rights and Freedoms - wikipedia
Provincial and territorial executive councils
Constitution
The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (French: La Charte canadienne des droits et libertés), in Canada often simply the Charter, is a bill of rights entrenched in the Constitution of Canada. It forms the first part of the Constitution Act, 1982. The Charter guarantees certain political rights to Canadian citizens and civil rights of everyone in Canada from the policies and actions of all areas and levels of the government. It is designed to unify Canadians around a set of principles that embody those rights. The Charter was signed into law by Queen Elizabeth II of Canada on April 17, 1982, along with the rest of the Act.
The Charter was preceded by the Canadian Bill of Rights, which was enacted in 1960. However, the Bill of Rights is only a federal statute, rather than a constitutional document. As a federal statute, it can be amended through the ordinary legislative process and has no application to provincial laws. The Supreme Court of Canada also narrowly interpreted the Bill of Rights and the Court was reluctant to declare laws inoperative. The relative ineffectiveness of the Canadian Bill of Rights motivated many to improve rights protections in Canada. The movement for human rights and freedoms that emerged after World War II also wanted to entrench the principles enunciated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The British Parliament formally enacted the Charter as a part of the Canada Act 1982 at the request of the Parliament of Canada in 1982, the result of the efforts of the government of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau.
One of the most notable effects of the adoption of the Charter was to greatly expand the scope of judicial review, because the Charter is more explicit with respect to the guarantee of rights and the role of judges in enforcing them than was the Bill of Rights. The courts, when confronted with violations of Charter rights, have struck down unconstitutional federal and provincial statutes and regulations or parts of statutes and regulations, as they did when Canadian case law was primarily concerned with resolving issues of federalism. The Charter, however, granted new powers to the courts to enforce remedies that are more creative and to exclude more evidence in trials. These powers are greater than what was typical under the common law and under a system of government that, influenced by Canada 's parent country the United Kingdom, was based upon Parliamentary supremacy. As a result, the Charter has attracted both broad support from a majority of the Canadian electorate and criticisms by opponents of increased judicial power. The Charter only applies to government laws and actions (including the laws and actions of federal, provincial, and municipal governments and public school boards), and sometimes to the common law, not to private activity.
Under the Charter, people physically present in Canada have numerous civil and political rights. Most of the rights can be exercised by any legal person (the Charter does not define the corporation as a "legal person ''), but a few of the rights belong exclusively to natural persons, or (as in sections 3 and 6) only to citizens of Canada. The rights are enforceable by the courts through section 24 of the Charter, which allows courts discretion to award remedies to those whose rights have been denied. This section also allows courts to exclude evidence in trials if the evidence was acquired in a way that conflicts with the Charter and might damage the reputation of the justice system. Section 32 confirms that the Charter is binding on the federal government, the territories under its authority, and the provincial governments. The rights and freedoms enshrined in 34 sections of the Charter include:
Precluding all the freedoms and forming the basis of the Charter, the very first section, known as limitations clause, allows governments to justify certain infringements of Charter rights. Every case in which a court discovers a violation of the Charter would therefore require a section 1 analysis to determine if the law can still be upheld. Infringements are upheld if the purpose for the government action is to achieve what would be recognized as an urgent or important objective in a free society, and if the infringement can be "demonstrably justified. '' Section 1 has thus been used to uphold laws against objectionable conduct such as hate speech (e.g., in R. v. Keegstra) and obscenity (e.g., in R. v. Butler). Section 1 also confirms that the rights listed in the Charter are guaranteed.
In addition, some of these rights are also subjected to the notwithstanding clause (section 33). The notwithstanding clause authorizes governments to temporarily override the rights and freedoms in sections 2 and 7 -- 15 for up to five years, subject to renewal. The Canadian federal government has never invoked it, and some have speculated that its use would be politically costly. In the past, the notwithstanding clause was invoked routinely by the province of Quebec (which did not support the enactment of the Charter but is subject to it nonetheless). The provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta have also invoked the notwithstanding clause, to end a strike and to protect an exclusively heterosexual definition of marriage, respectively. (Note that Alberta 's use of the notwithstanding clause is of no force or effect, since the definition of marriage is federal not provincial jurisdiction.) The territory of Yukon also passed legislation once that invoked the notwithstanding clause, but the legislation was never proclaimed in force.
Generally, the right to participate in political activities and the right to a democratic form of government are protected:
Rights of people in dealing with the justice system and law enforcement are protected, namely:
Generally, people have the right to use either the English or French language in communications with Canada 's federal government and certain provincial governments. Specifically, the language laws in the Charter include:
Various provisions help to clarify how the Charter works in practice. These include,
Finally, Section 34: states that Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, containing the first 34 sections of the Act, may be collectively referred to as the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms ''.
Many of the rights and freedoms that are protected under the Charter, including the rights to freedom of speech, habeas corpus and the presumption of innocence, have their roots in a set of Canadian laws and legal precedents sometimes known as the Implied Bill of Rights. Many of these rights were also included in the Canadian Bill of Rights, which the Canadian Parliament enacted in 1960. However, the Canadian Bill of Rights had a number of shortcomings. Unlike the Charter, it was an ordinary Act of Parliament, which could be amended by a simple majority of Parliament, and it was applicable only to the federal government. The courts also chose to interpret the Bill of Rights conservatively, only on rare occasions applying it to find a contrary law inoperative. The Bill of Rights did not contain all of the rights that are now included in the Charter, omitting, for instance, the right to vote and freedom of movement within Canada.
The centennial of Canadian Confederation in 1967 aroused greater interest within the government in constitutional reform. Said reforms would include improving safeguards of rights, as well as patriation of the Constitution, meaning the British Parliament would no longer have to approve constitutional amendments. Subsequently, Attorney General Pierre Trudeau appointed law professor Barry Strayer to research a potential bill of rights. While writing his report, Strayer consulted with a number of notable legal scholars, including Walter Tarnopolsky. Strayer 's report advocated a number of ideas that were later incorporated into the Charter, including protection for language rights. Strayer also advocated excluding economic rights. Finally, he recommended allowing for limits on rights. Such limits are included in the Charter 's limitation and notwithstanding clauses. In 1968, Strayer was made the Director of the Constitutional Law Division of the Privy Council Office and in 1974, he became Assistant Deputy Minister of Justice. During those years, Strayer played a role in writing the bill that was ultimately adopted.
Meanwhile, Trudeau, who had become Liberal leader and prime minister in 1968, still very much wanted a constitutional bill of rights. The federal government and the provinces discussed creating one during negotiations for patriation, which resulted in the Victoria Charter in 1971. This never came to be implemented. However, Trudeau continued with his efforts to patriate the Constitution, and promised constitutional change during the 1980 Quebec referendum. He would succeed in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act 1982. This enacted the Constitution Act, 1982.
The inclusion of a charter of rights in the Constitution Act was a much - debated issue. Trudeau spoke on television in October 1980, and announced his intention to constitutionalize a bill of rights that would include fundamental freedoms, democratic guarantees, freedom of movement, legal rights, equality and language rights. He did not want a notwithstanding clause. While his proposal gained popular support, provincial leaders opposed the potential limits on their powers. The federal Progressive Conservative opposition feared liberal bias among judges, should courts be called upon to enforce rights. Additionally, the British Parliament cited their right to uphold Canada 's old form of government. At a suggestion of the Conservatives, Trudeau 's government thus agreed to a committee of Senators and MPs to further examine the bill of rights as well as the patriation plan. During this time, 90 hours were spent on the bill of rights alone, all filmed for television, while civil rights experts and advocacy groups put forward their perceptions on the Charter 's flaws and omissions and how to remedy them. As Canada had a parliamentary system of government, and as judges were perceived not to have enforced rights well in the past, it was questioned whether the courts should be named as the enforcers of the Charter, as Trudeau wanted. Conservatives argued that elected politicians should be trusted instead. It was eventually decided that the responsibility should go to the courts. At the urging of civil libertarians, judges could even now exclude evidence in trials if acquired in breach of Charter rights in certain circumstances, something the Charter was not originally going to provide for. As the process continued, more features were added to the Charter, including equality rights for people with disabilities, more sex equality guarantees and recognition of Canada 's multiculturalism. The limitations clause was also reworded to focus less on the importance of parliamentary government and more on justifiability of limits in free societies; the latter logic was more in line with rights developments around the world after World War II.
In its decision in the Patriation Reference (1981), the Supreme Court of Canada had ruled there was a tradition that some provincial approval should be sought for constitutional reform. As the provinces still had doubts about the Charter 's merits, Trudeau was forced to accept the notwithstanding clause to allow governments to opt out of certain obligations. The notwithstanding clause was accepted as part of a deal called the Kitchen Accord, negotiated by the federal Attorney General Jean Chrétien, Ontario 's justice minister Roy McMurtry and Saskatchewan 's justice minister Roy Romanow. Pressure from provincial governments (which in Canada have jurisdiction over property) and from the country 's left wing, especially the New Democratic Party, also prevented Trudeau from including any rights protecting private property.
Nevertheless, Quebec did not support the Charter (or the Canada Act 1982), with "conflicting interpretations '' as to why. The opposition could have owed to the Parti Québécois leadership being allegedly uncooperative, because it was more committed to gaining sovereignty for Quebec. It could have owed to Quebec leaders being excluded from the negotiation of the Kitchen Accord, which they saw as being too centralist. It could have owed to provincial leaders ' objections to the Accord 's provisions relating to the process of future constitutional amendment. They also opposed the inclusion of mobility rights and minority language education rights. The Charter is still applicable in Quebec because all provinces are bound by the Constitution. However, Quebec 's opposition to the 1982 patriation package has led to two failed attempts to amend the Constitution (the Meech Lake Accord and Charlottetown Accord) which were designed primarily to obtain Quebec 's political approval of the Canadian constitutional order.
While the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms was adopted in 1982, it was not until 1985 that the main provisions regarding equality rights (section 15) came into effect. The delay was meant to give the federal and provincial governments an opportunity to review pre-existing statutes and strike potentially unconstitutional inequalities.
The typography of the physical document pictured here, and still distributed today, was typeset by Ottawa 's David Berman intentionally in Carl Dair 's Cartier typeface: at the time the most prominent Canadian typeface, having been commissioned by the Governor - General as a celebration of Canada 's centenary in 1967.
The Charter has been amended since its enactment. Section 25 was amended in 1983 to explicitly recognize more rights regarding Aboriginal land claims, and section 16.1 was added in 1993. There have also been a number of unsuccessful attempts to amend the Charter, including the failed Charlottetown Accord of 1992. The Charlottetown Accord would have specifically required the Charter to be interpreted in a manner respectful of Quebec 's distinct society, and would have added further statements to the Constitution Act, 1867 regarding racial and sexual equality and collective rights, and about minority language communities. Though the Accord was negotiated among many interest groups, the resulting provisions were so vague that Trudeau, then out of office, feared they would actually conflict with and undermine the Charter 's individual rights. He felt judicial review of the rights might be undermined if courts had to favour the policies of provincial governments, as governments would be given responsibility over linguistic minorities. Trudeau thus played a prominent role in leading the popular opposition to the Accord.
The task of interpreting and enforcing the Charter falls to the courts, with the Supreme Court of Canada being the ultimate authority on the matter.
With the Charter 's supremacy confirmed by section 52 of the Constitution Act, 1982, the courts continued their practice of striking down unconstitutional statutes or parts of statutes as they had with earlier case law regarding federalism. However, under section 24 of the Charter, courts also gained new powers to enforce creative remedies and exclude more evidence in trials. Courts have since made many important decisions, including R. v. Morgentaler (1988), which struck down Canada 's abortion law, and Vriend v. Alberta (1998), in which the Supreme Court found the province 's exclusion of homosexuals from protection against discrimination violated section 15. In the latter case, the Court then read the protection into the law.
Courts may receive Charter questions in a number of ways. Rights claimants could be prosecuted under a criminal law that they argue is unconstitutional. Others may feel government services and policies are not being dispensed in accordance with the Charter, and apply to lower - level courts for injunctions against the government (as was the case in Doucet - Boudreau v. Nova Scotia (Minister of Education)). A government may also raise questions of rights by submitting reference questions to higher - level courts; for example, Prime Minister Paul Martin 's government approached the Supreme Court with Charter questions as well as federalism concerns in the case Re Same - Sex Marriage (2004). Provinces may also do this with their superior courts. The government of Prince Edward Island initiated the Provincial Judges Reference by asking its provincial Supreme Court a question on judicial independence under section 11.
In several important cases, judges developed various tests and precedents for interpreting specific provisions of the Charter. These include the Oakes test for section 1, set out in the case R. v. Oakes (1986), and the (now defunct) Law test for section 15, developed in Law v. Canada (1999). Since Re B.C. Motor Vehicle Act (1985), various approaches to defining and expanding the scope of fundamental justice (the Canadian name for natural justice or due process) under section 7 have been adopted. (For more information, see the articles on each Charter section).
In general, courts have embraced a purposive interpretation of Charter rights. This means that since early cases like Hunter v. Southam (1984) and R. v. Big M Drug Mart (1985), they have concentrated not on the traditional, limited understanding of what each right meant when the Charter was adopted in 1982, but rather on changing the scope of rights as appropriate to fit their broader purpose. This is tied to the generous interpretation of rights, as the purpose of the Charter provisions is assumed to be to increase rights and freedoms of people in a variety of circumstances, at the expense of the government powers. Constitutional scholar Peter Hogg has approved of the generous approach in some cases, although for others he argues the purpose of the provisions was not to achieve a set of rights as broad as courts have imagined. Indeed, this approach has not been without its critics. Alberta politician Ted Morton and political scientist Rainer Knopff have been very critical of this phenomenon. Although they feel the basis for the approach, the living tree doctrine (the classical name for generous interpretations of the Canadian Constitution), is sound, they argue Charter case law has been more radical. When the living tree doctrine is applied right, the authors claim, "The elm remained an elm; it grew new branches but did not transform itself into an oak or a willow. '' The doctrine can be used, for example, so a right is upheld even when a government threatens to violate it with new technology, as long as the essential right remains the same; but the authors claim that the courts have used the doctrine to "create new rights. '' As an example, the authors note that the Charter right against self - incrimination has been extended to cover scenarios in the justice system that had previously been unregulated by self - incrimination rights in other Canadian laws.
Another general approach to interpreting Charter rights is to consider international legal precedents with countries that have specific rights protections, such as the United States Bill of Rights (an influence on aspects of the Charter) and the Constitution of South Africa. However, international precedent is only of guiding value, and is not binding. For example, the Supreme Court has referred to the Charter and the American Bill of Rights as being "born to different countries in different ages and in different circumstances. ''
Public interest groups frequently intervene in cases to make arguments on how to interpret the Charter. Some examples are the British Columbia Civil Liberties Association, Canadian Civil Liberties Association, the Canadian Mental Health Association, the Canadian Labour Congress, the Women 's Legal Education and Action Fund (LEAF), and REAL Women of Canada. The purpose of such interventions is to assist the court and to attempt to influence the court to render a decision favourable to the legal interests of the group.
A further approach to the Charter, taken by the courts, is the dialogue principle, which involves greater participation by elected governments. This approach involves governments drafting legislation in response to court rulings and courts acknowledging the effort if the new legislation is challenged.
Some Canadian Members of Parliament saw the movement to entrench a charter as contrary to the British model of Parliamentary supremacy. Others would say that the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) has now limited British parliamentary power to a greater degree than the Canadian Charter limited the power of the Canadian Parliament and provincial legislatures. Hogg has speculated that the British adopted the Human Rights Act 1998, which allows the ECHR to be enforced directly in domestic courts, partly because they were inspired by the similar Canadian Charter.
The Canadian Charter bears a number of similarities to the European Convention, specifically in relation to the limitations clauses contained in the European document. Because of this similarity with European human rights law, the Supreme Court of Canada turns not only to the Constitution of the United States case law in interpreting the Charter, but also to European Court of Human Rights cases.
The core distinction between the United States Bill of Rights and Canadian Charter is the existence of the limitations and notwithstanding clauses. Canadian courts have consequently interpreted each right more expansively. However, due to the limitations clause, where a violation of a right exists, the law will not necessarily grant protection of that right. In contrast, rights under the US Bill of Rights are absolute and so a violation will not be found until there has been sufficient encroachment on those rights. The sum effect is that both constitutions provide comparable protection of many rights. Fundamental justice (in section 7 of the Canadian Charter) is therefore interpreted to include more legal protections than due process, which is its US equivalent. Freedom of expression in section 2 also has a more wide - ranging scope than the First Amendment to the United States Constitution 's freedom of speech. In RWDSU v. Dolphin Delivery Ltd. (1986), the Canadian Supreme Court considered picketing of the kind the US First Amendment did not permit, as it was disruptive conduct (though there was some speech involved that the First Amendment might otherwise protect). The Supreme Court, however, ruled the picketing, including the disruptive conduct, were fully protected under section 2 of the Charter. The Court then relied on section 1 to find the injunction against the picketing was just. The limitations clause has also allowed governments to enact laws that would be considered unconstitutional in the US. The Supreme Court of Canada has upheld some of Quebec 's limits on the use of English on signs and has upheld publication bans that prohibit media from mentioning the names of juvenile criminals.
Section 28 of the Charter performs a function similar to that of the unratified Equal Rights Amendment in the US. While that proposed amendment had many critics, there was no comparable opposition to the Charter 's section 28. Still, Canadian feminists had to stage large protests to demonstrate support for the inclusion of the section which had not been part of the original draft of the charter.
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights has several parallels with the Canadian Charter, but in some cases the Covenant goes further with regard to rights in its text. For example, a right to legal aid has been read into section 10 of the Charter (the right to counsel), but the Covenant explicitly guarantees the accused need not pay "if he does not have sufficient means. ''
The Canadian Charter has little to say, explicitly at least, about economic and social rights. On this point, it stands in marked contrast with the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms and with the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. There are some who feel economic rights ought to be read into section 7 rights to security of the person and section 15 equality rights to make the Charter similar to the Covenant. The rationale is that economic rights can relate to a decent standard of living and can help the civil rights flourish in a livable environment. Canadian courts, however, have been hesitant in this area, stating that economic rights are political questions and adding that as positive rights, economic rights are of questionable legitimacy.
The Charter itself influenced the Bill of Rights in the Constitution of South Africa. The limitations clause under section 36 of the South African law has been compared to section 1 of that Charter.
Jamaica 's Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms was also influenced, in part, by the Canadian charter.
The Charter was intended to be a source for Canadian values and national unity. As Professor Alan Cairns noted, "The initial federal government premise was on developing a pan-Canadian identity. '' Trudeau himself later wrote in his Memoirs that "Canada itself '' could now be defined as a "society where all people are equal and where they share some fundamental values based upon freedom '', and that all Canadians could identify with the values of liberty and equality.
The Charter 's unifying purpose was particularly important to the mobility and language rights. According to author Rand Dyck, some scholars believe section 23, with its minority language education rights, "was the only part of the Charter with which Pierre Trudeau was truly concerned ''. Through the mobility and language rights, French Canadians, who have been at the centre of unity debates, are able to travel throughout all Canada and receive government and educational services in their own language. Hence, they are not confined to Quebec (the only province where they form the majority and where most of their population is based), which would polarize the country along regional lines. The Charter was also supposed to standardize previously diverse laws throughout the country and gear them towards a single principle of liberty.
Former premier of Ontario Bob Rae has stated that the Charter "functions as a symbol for all Canadians '' in practice because it represents the core value of freedom. Academic Peter Russell has been more skeptical of the Charter 's value in this field. Cairns, who feels the Charter is the most important constitutional document to many Canadians, and that the Charter was meant to shape the Canadian identity, has also expressed concern that groups within society see certain provisions as belonging to them alone rather than to all Canadians. It has also been noted that issues like abortion and pornography, raised by the Charter, tend to be controversial. Still, opinion polls in 2002 showed Canadians felt the Charter significantly represented Canada, although many were unaware of the document 's actual contents.
The only values mentioned by the Charter 's preamble are recognition for the supremacy of God and the rule of law, but these have been controversial and of minor legal consequence. In 1999, MP Svend Robinson brought forward a failed proposal before the Canadian House of Commons that would have amended the Charter by removing the mention of God, as he felt it did not reflect Canada 's diversity.
Section 27 also recognizes a value of multiculturalism. In 2002, polls found 86 % of Canadians approved of this section.
While the Charter has enjoyed a great deal of popularity, with 82 % of Canadians describing it as a good thing in opinion polls in 1987 and 1999, the document has also been subject to published criticisms from both sides of the political spectrum. One left - wing critic is Professor Michael Mandel, who wrote that in comparison to politicians, judges do not have to be as sensitive to the will of the electorate, nor do they have to make sure their decisions are easily understandable to the average Canadian citizen. This, in Mandel 's view, limits democracy. Mandel has also asserted that the Charter makes Canada more like the United States, especially by serving corporate rights and individual rights rather than group rights and social rights. He has argued that there are several things that should be included in the Charter, such as a right to health care and a basic right to free education. Hence, the perceived Americanization of Canadian politics is seen as coming at the expense of values more important for Canadians. The union movement has been disappointed in the reluctance of the courts to use the Charter to support various forms of union activity, such as the "right to strike ''.
Right - wing critics Morton and Knopff have raised several concerns about the Charter, notably by alleging that the federal government has used it to limit provincial powers by allying with various rights claimants and interest groups. In their book The Charter Revolution & the Court Party, Morton and Knopff express their suspicions of this alliance in detail, accusing the Trudeau and Chrétien governments of funding litigious groups. For example, these governments used the Court Challenges Program to support minority language educational rights claims. Morton and Knopff also assert that crown counsel has intentionally lost cases in which the government was taken to court for allegedly violating rights, particularly gay rights and women 's rights.
Political scientist Rand Dyck, in observing these criticisms, notes that while judges have had their scope of review widened, they have still upheld most laws challenged on Charter grounds. With regard to litigious interest groups, Dyck points out that "the record is not as clear as Morton and Knopff imply. All such groups have experienced wins and losses. ''
The political philosopher Charles Blattberg has criticized the Charter for contributing to the fragmentation of the country, at both the individual and group levels. In encouraging discourse based upon rights, the Charter is said to inject an adversarial spirit into Canadian politics, making it difficult to realize the common good. Blattberg also claims that the Charter undercuts the Canadian political community since it is ultimately a cosmopolitan document. Finally, he argues that people would be more motivated to uphold individual liberties if they were expressed with terms that are much "thicker '' (less abstract) than rights.
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why is the family on the detour on the run | The Detour (TV series) - wikipedia
The Detour is an American comedy television series created by Jason Jones and Samantha Bee about a family vacation road trip. The series premiered on TBS on April 11, 2016. The show was renewed for a second season on April 6, 2016, five days prior to the series premiere. The second season premiered on February 21, 2017. On April 25, 2017, TBS renewed the series for a third season.
The series follows Nate Parker, Jr. (Jason Jones), his wife Robin Randall (Natalie Zea), and their kids Delilah (Ashley Gerasimovich) and Jared (Liam Carroll) as they drive from their home in Syracuse, New York, to Florida for a family vacation. The trip experiences several dramatic delays such as car trouble, run - ins with law enforcement, unforeseen medical mishaps, and intervening locals. Additionally, it is revealed that Nate caused some professional trouble before leaving Syracuse and has ulterior motives for the Florida trip, fueling flashbacks and a framing device involving several law - enforcement agencies and an interrogation into his unspecified crimes.
Season 2, the family settles in New York City as Nate finds a new career but more trouble as pieces of Robin 's past begin to resurface including her relationship with her father, wanted felon J.R. Randall (James Cromwell). The framing device is once again present, with the couple now under interrogation by the United States Postal Inspection Service as an attempt to get at J.R., led by the overzealous (and very pregnant) Agent Edie (Laura Benanti).
Season 3 sees the family flee to Alaska. The framing remains but with Nate and Robin discussing their case with their lawyer, Joe Delicious (Max Casella).
TBS ordered the pilot, written by Jason Jones and Samantha Bee in October 2014. The show is based on the real life couple 's own experience with family vacations.
It was picked up for ten episodes in February 2015. On April 6, 2016, the show was renewed for a second season before the premiere.
In Canada, The Detour premiered on April 21, 2016 on The Comedy Network. In Latin America it premiered on June 9, 2016 on TBS Latin America. It premiered on Comedy Central India on October 5, 2016.
It is available in Australia on streaming service Stan as of January 2018.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 78 % based on 23 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Sometimes raunchy, but often honest and endearing, The Detour brings the laughs as the story tries to find its way. '' On Metacritic, the first season holds a score of 69 out of 100, based on 19 critics.
On Rotten Tomatoes, season two has an approval rating of 100 % based on 5 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9 / 10. On Metacritic, the Season has a weighted average score 77 out of 100, based on 4 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
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when is the world cup going to be in the usa | United States 2022 FIFA World Cup bid - wikipedia
The United States Soccer Federation submitted a bid with the hope of hosting the 2022 FIFA World Cup. U.S. Soccer first said in February 2007 that it would put forth a bid for the 2018 World Cup. On January 28, 2009, U.S. Soccer announced that it would submit bids for both the 2018 and 2022 Cups. In October 2010 it withdrew from the 2018 bid process to focus on winning the 2022 edition. On December 2, 2010, it was announced that Qatar would be the host of the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Bill Clinton remarked "The FIFA people were in a mood to give it to people who did n't have it. I think they wanted to make soccer a world sport. ''
David Downs, president of Univision Sports, was executive director of the bid. The United States previously hosted the FIFA World Cup in 1994, as well as the FIFA Women 's World Cup in 1999 and 2003.
The American bid was being organized by USA Bid Committee, Inc.
The executive director of the bid was David Downs, CEO of Univision sports. Other members include U.S. Soccer President Sunil Gulati, Major League Soccer Commissioner Don Garber, Phil Murphy, the former national finance chair for the Democratic National Committee, former U.S. Secretary of State Dr. Henry Kissinger, New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, Clinton adviser Douglas Band, film director Spike Lee, former boxer Oscar De La Hoya, and Washington Post publisher Katharine Weymouth.
In April 2009, the U.S. identified 70 stadiums in 50 communities as possible venues for the tournament, with 58 confirming their interest. The list of stadia was trimmed two months later to 38 existing venues, one scheduled for completion in 2010, and one proposed venue. On August 20, 2009 the list was further trimmed down to 32 stadiums in 27 cities. On January 12, 2010 the USA Bid Committee narrowed the 27 cities down to 18 as the official host cities for the United States ' Bid for the 2018 or 2022 World Cup.
Those 18 cities were: Atlanta, Baltimore, Boston, Dallas, Denver, Houston, Indianapolis, Kansas City, Los Angeles, Miami, Nashville, New York City, Philadelphia, Phoenix, San Diego, Seattle, Tampa and Washington, D.C. The 18 stadiums selected host NFL or NCAA American football games, with a capacity over 65,000 spectators. No soccer - specific stadium was selected, since none in the country has capacity for more than 30,000 spectators.
Super Bowl XI, Super Bowl XIV, Super Bowl XVII, Super Bowl XXI, and Super Bowl XXVII Hosts Three BCS National Championship Games May be replaced by Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park
Super Bowl I and Super Bowl VII host 1959 World Series May be replaced by Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park
2010 NBA All - Star Game venue Super Bowl XLV in 2011 Wrestlemania 32 in 2016
New York Jets †
Super Bowl XXXV and Super Bowl XLIII hosts
The following venues were considered as possible candidate venues but were not chosen to be included in the final bid.
The following stadiums were eliminated in an earlier cut in August 2009
The following stadiums were eliminated at the first cut in June, 2009:
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what are the structural components of dna and rna | Nucleic acid structure - wikipedia
Nucleic acid structure refers to the structure of nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. Chemically speaking, DNA and RNA are very similar. Nucleic acid structure is often divided into four different levels: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary.
Primary structure consists of a linear sequence of nucleotides that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. It is this linear sequence of nucleotides that make up the Primary structure of DNA or RNA. Nucleotides consist of 3 components:
The nitrogen bases adenine and guanine are purine in structure and form a glycosidic bond between their 9 nitrogen and the 1 ' - OH group of the deoxyribose. Cytosine, thymine and uracil are pyrimidines, hence the glycosidic bonds forms between their 1 nitrogen and the 1 ' - OH of the deoxyribose. For both the purine and pyrimidine bases, the phosphate group forms a bond with the deoxyribose sugar through an ester bond between one of its negatively charged oxygen groups and the 5 ' - OH of the sugar. The polarity in DNA and RNA is derived from the oxygen and nitrogen atoms in the backbone. Nucleic acids are formed when nucleotides come together through phosphodiester linkages between the 5 ' and 3 ' carbon atoms. A Nucleic acid sequence is the order of nucleotides within a DNA (GACT) or RNA (GACU) molecule that is determined by a series of letters. Sequences are presented from the 5 ' to 3 ' end and determine the covalent structure of the entire molecule. Sequences can be complementary to another sequence in that the base on each position is complementary as well as in the reverse order. An example of a complementary sequence to AGCT is TCGA. DNA is double - stranded containing both a sense strand and an antisense strand. Therefore, the complementary sequence will be to the sense strand.
There are three potential metal binding groups on nucleic acids: phosphate, sugar and base moieties. Solid - state structure of complexes with alkali metal ions have been reviewed.
Secondary structure is the set of interactions between bases, i.e., which parts of strands are bound to each other. In DNA double helix, the two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds. The nucleotides on one strand base pairs with the nucleotide on the other strand. The secondary structure is responsible for the shape that the nucleic acid assumes. The bases in the DNA are classified as purines and pyrimidines. The purines are adenine and guanine. Purines consist of a double ring structure, a six membered and a five membered ring containing nitrogen. The pyrimidines are cytosine and thymine. It has a single ringed structure, a six membered ring containing nitrogen. A purine base always pairs with a pyrimidine base (guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C) and adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T) or uracil (U)). DNA 's secondary structure is predominantly determined by base - pairing of the two polynucleotide strands wrapped around each other to form a double helix. Although the two strands are aligned by hydrogen bonds in base pairs, the stronger forces holding the two strands together are stacking interactions between the bases. These stacking interactions are stabilized by Van der Waals forces and hydrophobic interactions, and show a large amount of local structural variability. There are also two grooves in the double helix, which are called major groove and minor groove based on their relative size.
The secondary structure of RNA consists of a single polynucleotide. Base pairing in RNA occurs when RNA folds between complementarity regions. Both single - and double - stranded regions are often found in RNA molecules. The antiparallel strands form a helical shape. The four basic elements in the secondary structure of RNA are helices, loops, bulges, and junctions. Stem - loop or hairpin loop is the most common element of RNA secondary structure. Stem - loop is formed when the RNA chains fold back on themselves to form a double helical tract called the stem, the unpaired nucleotides forms single stranded region called the loop. Secondary structure of RNA can be predicted by experimental data on the secondary structure elements, helices, loops and bulges. Bulges and internal loops are formed by separation of the double helical tract on either one strand (bulge) or on both strands (internal loops) by unpaired nucleotides. A tetraloop is a four - base pairs hairpin RNA structure. There are three common families of tetraloop in ribosomal RNA: UNCG, GNRA, and CUUG (N is one of the four nucleotides and R is a purine). UNCG is the most stable tetraloop. Pseudoknot is a RNA secondary structure first identified in turnip yellow mosaic virus. Pseudoknots are formed when nucleotides from the hairpin loop pairs with a single stranded region outside of the hairpin to form a helical segment. H - type fold pseudoknots are best characterized. In H - type fold, nucleotides in the hairpin loop pairs with the bases outside the hairpin stem forming second stem and loop. This causes formation of pseudoknots with two stems and two loops. Pseudoknots are functional elements in RNA structure having diverse function and found in most classes of RNA. DotKnot - PW method is used for comparative pseudoknots prediction. The main points in the DotKnot - PW method is scoring the similarities found in stems, secondary elements and H - type pseudoknots.
Tertiary structure refers to the locations of the atoms in three - dimensional space, taking into consideration geometrical and steric constraints. It is a higher order than the secondary structure, in which large - scale folding in a linear polymer occurs and the entire chain is folded into a specific 3 - dimensional shape. There are 4 areas in which the structural forms of DNA can differ.
The tertiary arrangement of DNA 's double helix in space includes B - DNA, A-DNA and Z - DNA.
B - DNA is the most common form of DNA in vivo and is a more narrow, elongated helix than A-DNA. Its wide major groove makes it more accessible to proteins. On the other hand, it has a narrow minor groove. B - DNA 's favored conformations occur at high water concentrations; the hydration of the minor groove appears to favor B - DNA. B - DNA base pairs are nearly perpendicular to the helix axis. The sugar pucker which determines the shape of the a-helix, whether the helix will exist in the A-form or in the B - form, occurs at the C2 ' - endo.
A-DNA, is a form of the DNA duplex observed under dehydrating conditions. It is shorter and wider than B - DNA. RNA adopts this double helical form, and RNA - DNA duplexes are mostly A-form, but B - form RNA - DNA duplexes have been observed. In localized single strand dinucleotide contexts, RNA can also adopt the B - form without pairing to DNA. A-DNA has a deep, narrow major groove which does not make it easily accessible to proteins. On the other hand, its wide, shallow minor groove makes it accessible to proteins but with lower information content than the major groove. Its favored conformation is at low water concentrations. A-DNAs base pairs are tilted relative to the helix axis, and are displaced from the axis. The sugar pucker occurs at the C3 ' - endo and in RNA 2 ' - OH inhibits C2 ' - endo conformation. Long considered little more than a laboratory artifice, A-DNA is now known to have several biological functions.
Z - DNA is a relatively rare left - handed double - helix. Given the proper sequence and superhelical tension, it can be formed in vivo but its function is unclear. It has a more narrow, more elongated helix than A or B. Z - DNA 's major groove is not really a groove, and it has a narrow minor groove. The most favored conformation occurs when there are high salt concentrations. There are some base substitutions but they require an alternating purine - pyrimidine sequence. The N2 - amino of G H - bonds to 5 ' PO, which explains the slow exchange of protons and the need for the G purine. Z - DNA base pairs are nearly perpendicular to the helix axis. Z - DNA does not contain single base - pairs but rather a GpC repeat with P-P distances varying for GpC and CpG. On the GpC stack there is good base overlap, whereas on the CpG stack there is less overlap. Z - DNA 's zigzag backbone is due to the C sugar conformation compensating for G glycosidic bond conformation. The conformation of G is syn, C2 ' - endo and for C it is anti, C3 ' - endo.
A linear DNA molecule having free ends can rotate, to adjust to changes of various dynamic processes in the cell, by changing how many times the two chains of its double helix twist around each other. Some DNA molecules are circular and are topologically constrained. More recently circular RNA was descirbed as well to be a natural pervasive class of nucleic acids, expressed in many organisms (see circRNA).
A covalently closed, circular DNA (also known as cccDNA) is topologically constrained as the number of times the chains coiled around one other can not change. This cccDNA can be supercoiled, which is the tertiary structure of DNA. Supercoiling is characterized by the linking number, twist and writhe. The linking number (Lk) for circular DNA is defined as the number of times one strand would have to pass through the other strand to completely separate the two strands. The linking number for circular DNA can only be changed by breaking of a covalent bond in one of the two strands. Always an integer, the linking number of a cccDNA is the sum of two components: twists (Tw) and writhes (Wr).
Twists are the number of times the two strands of DNA are twisted around each other. Writhes are number of times the DNA helix crosses over itself. DNA in cells is negatively supercoiled and has the tendency to unwind. Hence the separation of strands is easier in negatively supercoiled DNA than in relaxed DNA. The two components of supercoiled DNA are solenoid and plectonemic. The plectonemic supercoil is found in prokaryotes, while the solenoidal supercoiling is mostly seen in eukaryotes.
The quaternary structure of nucleic acids is similar to that of protein quaternary structure. Although some of the concepts are not exactly the same, the quaternary structure refers to a higher - level of organization of nucleic acids. Moreover, it refers to interactions of the nucleic acids with other molecules. The most commonly seen form of higher - level organization of nucleic acids is seen in the form of chromatin which leads to its interactions with the small proteins histones. Also, the quaternary structure refers to the interactions between separate RNA units in the ribosome or spliceosome.
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who is the president if the united states | United States presidential line of succession - wikipedia
The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which persons may become or act as President of the United States if the incumbent president becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns, or is removed from office (by impeachment by the House of Representatives and subsequent conviction by the Senate). The line of succession is set by the United States Constitution and the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 as subsequently amended to include newly created cabinet offices. The succession follows the order of vice president, Speaker of the House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the Senate, and then the heads of federal executive departments who form the Cabinet of the United States. The Cabinet currently has fifteen members, beginning with the Secretary of State, and followed by the rest in the order of their positions ' creation. Those heads of department who are ineligible to act as president are also ineligible to succeed the president by succession, for example most commonly if they are not a natural - born U.S. citizen.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency, and in 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission raised a number of other issues with the current line of succession.
The current presidential order of succession is as follows:
Cabinet officers are in line according to the chronological order of their department 's creation or the department of which their department is the successor (the Department of Defense being successor to the Department of War, and the Department of Health and Human Services being successor to the Department of Health, Education and Welfare).
To be eligible to serve as president, a person must be a natural - born U.S. citizen, at least 35 years of age, and a resident within the United States for at least 14 years. These eligibility requirements are specified both in the U.S. Constitution, Article II, Section 1, Clause 5, and in the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 (3 U.S.C. § 19 (e)).
Acting officers may be eligible. In 2009, the Continuity of Government Commission, a private non-partisan think tank, reported,
The language in the current Presidential Succession Act is less clear than that of the 1886 Act with respect to Senate confirmation. The 1886 Act refers to "such officers as shall have been appointed by the advice and consent of the Senate to the office therein named... '' The current act merely refers to "officers appointed, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. '' Read literally, this means that the current act allows for acting secretaries to be in the line of succession as long as they are confirmed by the Senate for a post (even for example, the second or third in command within a department). It is common for a second in command to become acting secretary when the secretary leaves office. Though there is some dispute over this provision, the language clearly permits acting secretaries to be placed in the line of succession. (We have spoken to acting secretaries who told us they had been placed in the line of succession.)
Two months after succeeding Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Harry S. Truman proposed that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate be granted priority in the line of succession over the Cabinet so as to ensure the president would not be able to appoint his successor to the presidency.
The Secretary of State and the other Cabinet officials are appointed by the president, while the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate are elected officials. The Speaker is chosen by the U.S. House of Representatives, and every Speaker has been a member of that body for the duration of their term as Speaker, though this is not technically a requirement; the President pro tempore is chosen by the U.S. Senate and customarily the Senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service fills this position. The Congress approved this change and inserted the Speaker and President pro tempore in line, ahead of the members of the Cabinet in the order in which their positions were established.
In his speech supporting the changes, Truman noted that the House of Representatives is more likely to be in political agreement with the president and vice president than the Senate. The succession of a Republican to a Democratic presidency would further complicate an already unstable political situation. However, the changes to the succession, when signed into law, placed Republican House Speaker Joseph W. Martin first in the line of succession after the vice president.
Some of Truman 's critics said that his ordering of the Speaker before the President pro tempore was motivated by his dislike of the then - current holder of the latter rank, Senator Kenneth McKellar. Further motivation may have been provided by Truman 's preference for House Speaker Sam Rayburn to be next in the line of succession, rather than Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.
The line of succession is mentioned in three places in the Constitution:
Article II, Section 1 of the United States Constitution provides that:
In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President... until the disability be removed, or a President elected.
This originally left open the question whether "the same '' refers to "the said office '' or only "the powers and duties of the said office. '' Some historians, including Edward Corwin and John D. Feerick, have argued that the framers ' intention was that the vice president would remain vice president while executing the powers and duties of the presidency; however, there is also much evidence to the contrary, the most compelling of which is Article I, section 3, of the Constitution itself, the relevant text of which reads:
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse (sic) their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.
This text appears to answer the hypothetical question of whether the office or merely the powers of the presidency devolved upon the vice president on his succession. Thus, the 25th Amendment merely restates and reaffirms the validity of existing precedent, apart from adding new protocols for presidential disability. Not everyone agreed with this interpretation when it was first actually tested, and it was left to Vice President John Tyler, the first presidential successor in U.S. history, to establish the precedent that was respected in the absence of the 25th Amendment.
Upon the death of President William Henry Harrison in 1841 and after a brief hesitation, Tyler took the position that he was the President and not merely Acting President upon taking the presidential oath of office. However, some contemporaries -- including John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and other members of Congress Whig party leaders and even Tyler 's own cabinet -- believed that he was only acting as president and did not have the office itself.
Nonetheless, Tyler adhered to his position, even returning, unopened, mail addressed to the "Acting President of the United States '' sent by his detractors. Tyler 's view ultimately prevailed when the Senate voted to accept the title "President, '' and this precedent was followed thereafter. The question was finally resolved by Section 1 of the 25th Amendment, which specifies that "In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President. '' The amendment does not specify whether officers other than the vice president can become president rather than acting president in the same set of circumstances. The Presidential Succession Act refers only to other officers acting as president rather than becoming president.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1792 was the first succession law passed by Congress. The act was contentious because the Federalists did not want the then Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, who had become the leader of the Democratic - Republicans, to follow the vice president in the succession. There were also separation of powers concerns over including the Chief Justice of the United States in the line. The compromise they worked out established the President pro tempore of the Senate as next in line after the vice president, followed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
In either case, these officers were to "act as President of the United States until the disability be removed or a president be elected. '' The Act called for a special election to be held in November of the year in which dual vacancies occurred (unless the vacancies occurred after the first Wednesday in October, in which case the election would occur the following year; or unless the vacancies occurred within the last year of the presidential term, in which case the next election would take place as regularly scheduled). The people elected president and vice president in such a special election would have served a full four - year term beginning on March 4 of the next year, but no such election ever took place.
In 1881, after the death of President Garfield, and in 1885, after the death of Vice President Hendricks, there had been no President pro tempore in office, and as the new House of Representatives had yet to convene, no Speaker either, leaving no one at all in the line of succession after the vice president. When Congress convened in December 1885, President Cleveland asked for a revision of the 1792 act, which was passed in 1886. Congress replaced the President pro tempore and Speaker with officers of the president 's Cabinet, with the Secretary of State first in line. In the first 100 years of the United States, six former Secretaries of State had gone on to be elected president, while only two congressional leaders had advanced to that office. As a result, changing the order of the line of succession seemed reasonable.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1947, signed into law by President Harry S. Truman, added the Speaker of the House and President pro tempore back in the line, but switched the two from the 1792 order. It remains the sequence used today. Since the reorganization of the military in 1947 had merged the War Department (which governed the Army) with the Department of the Navy into the Department of Defense, the Secretary of Defense took the place in the order of succession previously held by the Secretary of War. The office of Secretary of the Navy, which had existed as a Cabinet - level position since 1798, had become subordinate to the Secretary of Defense in the military reorganization, and so was dropped from the line of succession in the 1947 Succession Act.
Until 1971, the Postmaster General, the head of the Post Office Department, was a member of the Cabinet, initially the last in the presidential line of succession before new officers were added. Once the Post Office Department was re-organized into the United States Postal Service, a special agency independent of the executive branch, the Postmaster General ceased to be a member of the Cabinet and was thus removed from the line of succession.
The United States Department of Homeland Security was created in 2002. On March 9, 2006, pursuant to the renewal of the Patriot Act as Pub. L. 109 -- 177, the Secretary of Homeland Security was added to the line of succession. The order of Cabinet members in the line has always been the same as the order in which their respective departments were established. Despite custom, many in Congress had wanted the Secretary to be placed at number eight on the list -- below the Attorney General, above the Secretary of the Interior, and in the position held by the Secretary of the Navy prior to the creation of the Secretary of Defense -- because the Secretary, already in charge of disaster relief and security, would presumably be more prepared to take over the presidency than some of the other Cabinet secretaries. Despite this, the 2006 law explicitly specifies that the "Secretary of Homeland Security '' follows the "Secretary of Veterans Affairs '' in the succession, effectively at the end of the list.
While nine vice presidents have succeeded to the office upon the death or resignation of the president, and two vice presidents have temporarily served as acting president, no other officer has ever been called upon to act as president. On March 4, 1849, President Zachary Taylor 's term began, but he declined to be sworn in on a Sunday, citing religious beliefs, and the vice president was not sworn either. As the last President pro tempore of the Senate, David Rice Atchison was thought by some to be next in line after the vice president, and his tombstone claims that he was US President for the day. However, Atchison took no oath of office to the presidency either, and his term as Senate President pro tempore had by then expired.
In 1865, when Andrew Johnson assumed the presidency on the death of Abraham Lincoln, the office of vice president became vacant. At that time, the Senate President pro tempore was next in line to the presidency. In 1868, Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives and subjected to trial in the Senate, and if he had been convicted and thereby removed from office, Senate President pro tempore Benjamin Wade would have become Acting President. This posed a conflict of interest, as Wade 's "guilty '' vote could have been decisive in removing Johnson from office and giving himself presidential powers and duties. Johnson was acquitted by a one - vote margin.
In his book The Shadow Presidents, which he published in 1979, Michael Medved describes a situation that arose prior to the 1916 election, when the First World War was raging in Europe. In view of the contemporary international turmoil, President Woodrow Wilson thought that if he lost the election it would be better for his opponent to begin his administration straight away, instead of waiting through the lame duck period, which at that time had a duration of almost four months. President Wilson and his aides formed a plan to exploit the rule of succession so that his rival Charles Evans Hughes could take over the presidency as soon as the result of the election was clear. The plan was that Wilson would appoint Hughes to the post of Secretary of State. Wilson and his Vice President Thomas R. Marshall would then resign, and as the Secretary of State was at that time designated next in line of succession, Hughes would become president immediately. As it happened, President Wilson won re-election, so the plan was never put into action.
Since the 25th Amendment 's ratification, its Second Section, which addresses vice presidential succession as noted above, has been invoked twice.
During the 1973 vice presidential vacancy, House Speaker Carl Albert was first in line. As the Watergate scandal made President Nixon 's removal or resignation possible, Albert would have become acting president and -- under Title 3, Section 19 (c) of the U.S. Code -- would have been able to "act as President until the expiration of the then current Presidential term '' on January 20, 1977. Albert openly questioned whether it was appropriate for him, a Democrat, to assume the powers and duties of the presidency when there was a public mandate for the presidency to be held by a Republican. Albert announced that should he need to assume the presidential powers and duties, he would do so only as a caretaker. However, with the nomination and confirmation of Gerald Ford to the vice presidency, which marked the first time the Second Section of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked, these series of events were never tested. Albert again became first - in - line during the first four months of Ford 's presidency, before the confirmation of Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, which marked the second time Section 2 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked.
In 1981, when President Ronald Reagan was shot, Vice President George H.W. Bush was traveling in Texas. Secretary of State Alexander Haig responded to a reporter 's question regarding who was running the government by stating:
Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the President, the Vice President and the Secretary of State in that order, and should the President decide he wants to transfer the helm to the Vice President, he will do so. He has not done that. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending return of the Vice President and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course.
A bitter dispute ensued over the meaning of Haig 's remarks. Most people believed that Haig was referring to the line of succession and erroneously claimed to have temporary presidential authority, due to his implied reference to the Constitution. Haig and his supporters, noting his familiarity with the line of succession from his time as White House Chief of Staff during Richard Nixon 's resignation, said he only meant that he was the highest - ranking officer of the executive branch of the Federal government of the United States on - site, managing things temporarily until the U.S. Vice President returned to Washington.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency. James Madison, one of the authors of the Constitution, raised similar constitutional questions about the Presidential Succession Act of 1792 in a 1792 letter to Edmund Pendleton. Two of these issues can be summarized:
In 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission suggested that the current law has "at least seven significant issues... that warrant attention '', specifically:
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list of english words of old norse origin | List of English words of Old Norse origin - wikipedia
Words of Old Norse origin have entered the English language, primarily from the contact between Old Norse and Old English during colonisation of eastern and northern England between the mid 9th to the 11th centuries (see also Danelaw). Many of these words are part of English core vocabulary, such as egg or knife. There are hundreds of such words, and the list below does not aim at completeness.
To be distinguished from loanwords which date back to the Old English period are modern Old Norse loans originating in the context of Old Norse philology, such as kenning (1871), and loans from modern Icelandic (such as geyser, 1781). Yet another (rare) class are loans from Old Norse into Old French, which via Anglo - Norman were then indirectly loaned into Middle English; an example is flâneur, via French from the Old Norse verb flana "to wander aimlessly ''.
You - ' thou '
your - ' thy '
Italian giulivo (rare) is itself from Old French. Late Latin * gaudivu is not attested (no cognate in any Romance language) and (d) can not turn into (l) in such a context. The word first appears in Geoffrey Gaimar 's Estoire des Engleis, a works much influenced by Scandinavian sagas.
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who wrote 20 000 leagues under the sea | Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea - wikipedia
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea: A Tour of the Underwater World (French: Vingt mille lieues sous les mers: Tour du monde sous - marin, "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas: A Tour of the Underwater World '') is a classic science fiction adventure novel by French writer Jules Verne published in 1870.
The novel was originally serialized from March 1869 through June 1870 in Pierre - Jules Hetzel 's periodical, the Magasin d'Éducation et de Récréation. The deluxe illustrated edition, published by Hetzel in November 1871, included 111 illustrations by Alphonse de Neuville and Édouard Riou. The book was highly acclaimed when it was released and still is; it is regarded as one of the premiere adventure novels and one of Verne 's greatest works, along with Around the World in Eighty Days and Journey to the Center of the Earth. The description of Nemo 's ship, the Nautilus, was considered ahead of its time, as it accurately describes features on submarines, which at the time were very primitive vessels.
The title refers to the distance traveled while under the sea and not to a depth, as 20,000 leagues is over six times the diameter, and nearly twice the circumference of the Earth. The greatest depth mentioned in the book is four leagues. The book uses metric leagues, which are four kilometres each. A literal translation of the French title would end in the plural "seas '', thus implying the "seven seas '' through which the characters of the novel travel; however, the early English translations of the title used "sea '', meaning the ocean in general.
During the year 1866, ships of several nations spot a mysterious sea monster, which some suggest to be a giant narwhal. The United States government assembles an expedition in New York City to find and destroy the monster. Professor Pierre Aronnax, a French marine biologist and narrator of the story, who happens to be in New York at the time, receives a last - minute invitation to join the expedition which he accepts. Canadian whaler and master harpoonist Ned Land and Aronnax 's faithful servant Conseil are also brought aboard.
The expedition departs Brooklyn aboard the United States Navy frigate Abraham Lincoln and travels south around Cape Horn into the Pacific Ocean. The ship finds the monster after a long search and then attacks the beast, which damages the ship 's rudder. The three protagonists are then hurled into the water and grasp hold of the "hide '' of the creature, which they find, to their surprise, to be a submarine very far ahead of its era. They are quickly captured and brought inside the vessel, where they meet its enigmatic creator and commander, Captain Nemo.
The rest of the story follows the adventures of the protagonists aboard the creature -- the submarine, the Nautilus -- which was built in secrecy and now roams the seas free from any land - based government. Captain Nemo 's motivation is implied to be both a scientific thirst for knowledge and a desire for revenge upon (and self - imposed exile from) civilization. Nemo explains that his submarine is electrically powered and can perform advanced marine biology research; he also tells his new passengers that although he appreciates conversing with such an expert as Aronnax, maintaining the secrecy of his existence requires never letting them leave. Aronnax and Conseil are enthralled by the undersea adventures, but Ned Land can only think of escape.
They visit many places under the ocean, some real - world and others fictional. The travelers witness the real corals of the Red Sea, the wrecks of the battle of Vigo Bay, the Antarctic ice shelves, the Transatlantic telegraph cable and the legendary submerged land of Atlantis. The travelers also use diving suits to hunt sharks and other marine life with air - guns and have an underwater funeral for a crew member who died when an accident occurred under mysterious conditions inside the Nautilus. When the Nautilus returns to the Atlantic Ocean, a pack of "poulpes '' (usually translated as a giant squid, although in French "poulpe '' means "octopus '') attacks the vessel and kills a crew member.
Throughout the story Captain Nemo is suggested to have exiled himself from the world after an encounter with the forces that occupied his country that had devastating effects on his family. Not long after the incident of the poulpes, Nemo suddenly changes his behavior toward Aronnax, avoiding him. Aronnax no longer feels the same and begins to sympathize with Ned Land. Near the end of the book, the Nautilus is attacked by a warship of some nation that had made Nemo suffer. Filled with hatred and revenge, Nemo ignores Aronnax 's pleas for mercy. Nemo -- nicknamed "angel of hatred '' by Aronnax -- destroys the ship, ramming it just below the waterline, and consequently sinking it into the bottom of the sea, much to Aronnax 's horror, as he watches the ship plunge into the abyss. Nemo bows before the pictures of his wife and children and is plunged into deep depression after this encounter. For several days after this, the protagonists ' situation changes. No one seems to be on board any longer and the Nautilus moves about randomly. Ned Land is even more depressed, Conseil fears for Ned 's life, and Aronnax, horrified at what Nemo had done to the ship, can no longer stand the situation either. One evening, Ned Land announces an opportunity to escape. Although Aronnax wants to leave Nemo, whom he now holds in horror, he still wishes to see him for the last time. But he knows that Nemo would never let him escape, so he has to avoid meeting him. Before the escape, however, he sees him one last time (although secretly), and hears him say "Almighty God! Enough! Enough! ''. Aronnax immediately goes to his companions and they are ready to escape. But while they loosen the dinghy, they discover that the Nautilus has wandered into the Moskenstraumen, more commonly known as the "Maelstrom ''. They manage to escape and find refuge on a nearby island off the coast of Norway, but the fate of the Nautilus is unknown.
Captain Nemo 's name is an allusion to Homer 's Odyssey, a Greek epic poem. In The Odyssey, Odysseus meets the monstrous cyclops Polyphemus during the course of his wanderings. Polyphemus asks Odysseus his name, and Odysseus replies that his name is "Utis '' (ουτις), which translates as "No - man '' or "No - body ''. In the Latin translation of the Odyssey, this pseudonym is rendered as "Nemo '', which in Latin also translates as "No - man '' or "No - body ''. Similarly to Nemo, Odysseus must wander the seas in exile (though only for 10 years) and is tormented by the deaths of his ship 's crew.
Jules Verne several times mentions Commander Matthew Fontaine Maury, "Captain Maury '' in Verne 's book, a real - life oceanographer who explored the winds, seas, currents, and collected samples of the bottom of the seas and charted all oceans. Verne would have known of Matthew Maury 's international fame and perhaps Maury 's French ancestry.
References are made to other such Frenchmen as Jean - François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse, a famous explorer who was lost while circumnavigating the globe; Dumont D'Urville, the explorer who found the remains of Lapérouse 's ship; and Ferdinand Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal and the nephew of the sole survivor of Lapérouse 's expedition. The Nautilus seems to follow the footsteps of these men: she visits the waters where Lapérouse was lost; she sails to Antarctic waters and becomes stranded there, just like D'Urville's ship, the Astrolabe; and she passes through an underwater tunnel from the Red Sea into the Mediterranean.
The most famous part of the novel, the battle against a school of giant squid, begins when a crewman opens the hatch of the boat and gets caught by one of the monsters. As the tentacle that has grabbed him pulls him away, he yells "Help! '' in French. At the beginning of the next chapter, concerning the battle, Aronnax states, "To convey such sights, one would take the pen of our most famous poet, Victor Hugo, author of The Toilers of the Sea. '' The Toilers of the Sea also contains an episode where a worker fights a giant octopus, wherein the octopus symbolizes the Industrial Revolution. It is probable that Verne borrowed the symbol, but used it to allude to the Revolutions of 1848 as well, in that the first man to stand against the "monster '' and the first to be defeated by it is a Frenchman.
In several parts of the book, Captain Nemo is depicted as a champion of the world 's underdogs and downtrodden. In one passage, Captain Nemo is mentioned as providing some help to Greeks rebelling against Ottoman rule during the Cretan Revolt of 1866 -- 1869, proving to Arronax that he had not completely severed all relations with mankind outside the Nautilus after all. In another passage, Nemo takes pity on a poor Indian pearl diver who must do his diving without the sophisticated diving suit available to the submarine 's crew, and who is doomed to die young due to the cumulative effect of diving on his lungs. Nemo approaches him underwater and gives him a whole pouch full of pearls, more than he could have acquired in years of his dangerous work. Nemo remarks that the diver as an inhabitant of British Colonial India, "is an inhabitant of an oppressed country ''.
Verne took the name "Nautilus '' from one of the earliest successful submarines, built in 1800 by Robert Fulton, who later invented the first commercially successful steamboat. Fulton 's submarine was named after the paper nautilus because it had a sail. Three years before writing his novel, Jules Verne also studied a model of the newly developed French Navy submarine Plongeur at the 1867 Exposition Universelle, which inspired him for his definition of the Nautilus.
The breathing apparatus used by Nautilus divers is depicted as an untethered version of underwater breathing apparatus designed by Benoit Rouquayrol and Auguste Denayrouze in 1865. They designed a diving set with a backpack spherical air tank that supplied air through the first known demand regulator. The diver still walked on the seabed and did not swim. This set was called an aérophore (Greek for "air - carrier ''). Air pressure tanks made with the technology of the time could only hold 30 atmospheres, and the diver had to be surface supplied; the tank was for bailout. The durations of 6 to 8 hours on a tankful without external supply recorded for the Rouquayrol set in the book are greatly exaggerated.
No less significant, though more rarely commented on, is the very bold political vision, which was revolutionary for its time, represented by the character of Captain Nemo. As revealed in the later Verne book The Mysterious Island, Captain Nemo is a descendant of Tipu Sultan, a Muslim ruler of Mysore who resisted the expansionism of the British East India Company. Nemo took to the underwater life after the suppression of the Indian Mutiny of 1857, in which his close family members were killed by the British. This change was made at the request of Verne 's publisher, Pierre - Jules Hetzel, who is known to be responsible for many serious changes in Verne 's books. In the original text the mysterious captain was a Polish nobleman, avenging his family who were killed by the Russians in retaliation for the captain 's taking part in the Polish January Uprising of 1863. As France was at the time allied with the Russian Empire, the target for Nemo 's wrath was changed to France 's old enemy, the British Empire, to avoid political trouble. Professor Pierre Aronnax does not suspect Nemo 's origins, as these were explained only later, in Verne 's next book. What remained in the book from the initial concept is a portrait of Tadeusz Kościuszko, a Polish national hero, leader of the uprising against Russia in 1794, with an inscription in Latin: "Finis Poloniae! '' ("The end of Poland! '').
Margaret Drabble argues that Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea anticipated the ecology movement and shaped the French avant - garde.
Theodore L. Thomas in 1961 said that "there is not a single bit of valid speculation '' in the novel and that "none of its predictions has come true ''. He described the depictions of the diving gear, scenes, and the Nautilus as "pretty bad, behind the times even for 1869... In none of these technical situation did Verne take advantage of knowledge readily available to him at the time ''. Thomas said, however, that despite poor science, plot, and characterization, "Put them all together with the magic of Verne 's story - telling ability, and something flames up. A story emerges that sweeps incredulity before it ''.
Jules Verne 's wrote a sequel to this book: L'Île mystérieuse (The Mysterious Island, 1874), which concludes the stories begun by Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea and In Search of the Castaways. While The Mysterious Island seems to give more information about Nemo (or Prince Dakkar), it is muddied by the presence of several irreconcilable chronological contradictions between the two books and even within The Mysterious Island.
Verne returned to the theme of an outlaw submarine captain in his much later Facing the Flag. That book 's main villain, Ker Karraje, is a completely unscrupulous pirate acting purely and simply for gain, completely devoid of all the saving graces which gave Nemo -- for all that he, too, was capable of ruthless killings -- some nobility of character.
Like Nemo, Ker Karraje plays "host '' to unwilling French guests -- but unlike Nemo, who manages to elude all pursuers, Karraje 's career of outlawry is decisively ended by the combination of an international task force and the rebellion of his French captives. Though also widely published and translated, it never attained the lasting popularity of Twenty Thousand Leagues.
More similar to the original Nemo, though with a less finely worked - out character, is Robur in Robur the Conqueror -- a dark and flamboyant outlaw rebel using an aircraft instead of a submarine -- and its sequel Master of the World.
The novel was first translated into English in 1873 by Reverend Lewis Page Mercier. Mercier cut nearly a quarter of Verne 's original text and made hundreds of translation errors, sometimes dramatically changing the meaning of Verne 's original intent (including uniformly mistranslating French scaphandre -- properly "diving apparatus '' -- as "cork - jacket '', following a long - obsolete meaning as "a type of lifejacket ''). Some of these mistranslations have been done for political reasons, such as Nemo 's identity and the nationality of the two warships he sinks, or the portraits of freedom fighters on the wall of his cabin which originally included Daniel O'Connell. Nonetheless, it became the standard English translation for more than a hundred years, while other translations continued to draw from it and its mistakes (especially the mistranslation of the title; the French title actually means Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas).
In the Argyle Press / Hurst and Company 1892 Arlington Edition, the translation and editing mistakes attributed to Mercier are missing. Scaphandre is correctly translated as "diving apparatus '' and not as "cork - jackets ''. Although the book cover gives the title as Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, the title page titles the book Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas; Or, The Marvelous and Exciting Adventures of Pierre Arronax, Conseil His Servant, and Ned Land a Canadian Harpooner.
A modern translation was produced in 1966 by Walter James Miller and published by Washington Square Press. Many of Mercier 's changes were addressed in the translator 's preface, and most of Verne 's text was restored.
In the 1960s, Anthony Bonner published a translation of the novel for Bantam Classics. A specially written introduction by Ray Bradbury, comparing Captain Nemo and Captain Ahab of Moby - Dick, was also included.
Many of Mercier 's errors were again corrected in a from - the - ground - up re-examination of the sources and an entirely new translation by Walter James Miller and Frederick Paul Walter, published in 1993 by Naval Institute Press in a "completely restored and annotated edition ''. It was based on Walter 's own 1991 public - domain translation, which is available from a number of sources, notably a recent edition with the title Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Seas (ISBN 978 - 1 - 904808 - 28 - 2). In 2010 Walter released a fully revised, newly researched translation with the title 20,000 Leagues Under the Seas -- part of an omnibus of five of his Verne translations titled Amazing Journeys: Five Visionary Classics and published by State University of New York Press.
In 1998 William Butcher issued a new, annotated translation from the French original, published by Oxford University Press, ISBN 0 - 19 - 953927 - 8, with the title Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Seas. He includes detailed notes, an extensive bibliography, appendices and a wide - ranging introduction studying the novel from a literary perspective. In particular, his original research on the two manuscripts studies the radical changes to the plot and to the character of Nemo forced on Verne by the first publisher, Jules Hetzel.
The national origin of Captain Nemo was changed in most movie realizations; in nearly all picture - based works following the book Nemo was made into a European. However, he was represented as an Indian by Omar Sharif in the 1973 European miniseries The Mysterious Island. Nemo is also depicted as Indian in a silent film version of the story released in 1916 and later in both the graphic novel and the movie The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen. In Walt Disney 's 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954), a live - action Technicolor film version of the novel, Captain Nemo is a European, bitter because his wife and son were tortured to death by those in power in the fictional prison camp of Rura Penthe, in an effort to get Nemo to reveal his scientific secrets. This is Nemo 's motivation for sinking warships in the film. Also, Nemo 's submarine is confined to a set circular section of the Pacific Ocean, unlike the original Nautilus. He is played in this version by the British actor James Mason, with an English accent. No mention is made of any Indians in the film.
Finally, Nemo was depicted as Indian in a Soviet 3 - episode TV film Captain Nemo (1975), which also includes some plot details from the "Mysterious Island '', Jules Verne 's sequel to the novel.
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when does the fortnite story mode come out | Fortnite - wikipedia
Fortnite is a co-op sandbox survival game developed by Epic Games and People Can Fly, the former also publishing the game. The game was released as a paid early access title for Microsoft Windows, macOS, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on July 25, 2017, with a full free - to - play release expected in 2018.
Fortnite is set in contemporary Earth, where the sudden appearance of a worldwide storm causes 98 % of the world 's population to disappear, and zombie - like creatures rise to attack the remainder. Considered by Epic as a cross between Minecraft and Left 4 Dead, Fortnite has up to four players cooperating on various missions on randomly - generated maps to collect resources, build fortifications around defensive objectives that are meant to help fight the storm and protect survivors, and construct weapons and traps to engage in combat with waves of these creatures that attempt to destroy the objectives. Players gain rewards through these missions to improve their hero characters, support teams, and arsenal of weapon and trap schematics to be able to take on more difficult missions. The game is supported through microtransactions to purchase in - game currency that can be used towards these upgrades.
A standalone mode, Fortnite Battle Royale, based on the battle royale game genre, was released for the same platforms in September 2017.
One day, 98 % of Earth 's population suddenly disappeared, and the remaining population found the skies covered in dense clouds, creating chaotic storms that dropped husks, humanoid zombie - like creatures, that attacked the living. The survivors found ways to construct "storm shields '', a field that cleared the storm clouds from immediately overhead and reduced the attacks from husks, and used these to set up survivor bases across the globe. The player is a commander of one of these bases, charged with going out of the storm shield to find resources, survivors, and other allies to help expand their storm shield and find a way to return Earth to its normal state.
Currently, Fortnite provides two distinct modes: a player - versus - environment "Save the World '', and a player - versus - player "Battle Royale ''. The latter mode was added after Fortnite 's initial early access launch, and later offered as a separate free - to - play mode on September 26, 2017, that does not require the base game to play.
The "Save the World '' mode is described as a co-op sandbox survival game and is about exploration, scavenging items, crafting weapons, building fortified structures, and fighting waves of encroaching monsters. Tim Sweeney, Epic 's founder, described the game as "Minecraft meets Left 4 Dead ''. The game cycles between managing one 's resources at a safe home base, and then going out on missions to complete quests as to collect resources and obtain rewards to advance the game 's story.
In the meta - game, the player has an inventory of weapon and trap schematics, hero characters, defender characters, and support characters, along with collected resources. Schematics are used to construct weapons and traps when on the field. Hero characters represent characters from one of four classes that the player can use while on a mission, as well as used to undertake resource - gathering missions making them unavailable to use until they return from the mission. Defender characters can be summoned to help with defense but only if there are less than four players on a mission. Support characters are used to form various non-playable squads that provide passive bonuses to the player 's attack strength, building speed, armor, and health, with additional benefits if the player can match certain characterization attributes within a squad. The player can spend different types of experience points and resources earned as mission rewards, from loot boxes (represented as llama pinatas), or other sources to level up and evolve schematics and characters. For weapons and traps, this generally boosts their effectiveness as well as unlocking additional attribute bonuses, while leveling up hero characters will unlock special skills the character has while in the field. Schematics and characters are generally assigned a rarity, which determines how much they can be leveled and evolved. A player 's inventory of schematics and characters is limited, but players can opt to slot anyone they do not need into a collection book to gain rewards when certain collection sets are completed; use one or more of these schematics or characters to transform them into a new random item, or simply retire them to gain back experience points and other resources to free up the inventory slots.
The player also can spend skill points, earned by completing missions, and technology points, earned over time, to unlock new skills and technologies in the game 's skill and technologies trees. These can improve a player 's base attributes, attributes that are shared with the other players while on missions, unlock higher levels of evolution for schematics and characters, open up new squad positions, or unlock general skills that players can use in the field. Collectively, the player 's progress on these skill and technology trees, their squad composition, and their selected hero character make up the player 's current "power level '' which relates to what difficulty of missions the player should take and the game 's matchmaking services. Also, players can review their current story progress and quests, which can include daily, side, and event quests, which when completed provide in - game currency or resources.
Mission is currently divided between four world locations, some available only after progressing far enough in the story, and special locations for timed events and for the Survive the Storm mode. Within a location are several possible mission areas that show the type of mission, the terrain it takes place on, its difficulty rating relative to the player 's current power level, and whether the mission is currently under special "storm '' conditions that throw random effects, like buffed husks or mini-bosses, into the mission but have potentially better rewards if completed. The player optionally can select a special site that automatically matches them with players at a similar power level and story progression on a random mission for added rewards.
Most missions take place on procedurally - generated landscapes. Most missions are based on locating site (s) representing the objectives on the map, build up fortifications around those locations, and then face off against several waves of husks that will try to destroy the objectives. During completion of these missions, players are generally given a "storm forecast '' to know where husks will spawn in as to enhance fortification in that direction, though this direction can change in more difficult missions. Other missions are time - limited, requiring the players to locate and help a number of survivors, build out several radar towers, or clear out various encampment of husks scattered around the map before time runs out. These missions encourage the players to explore the map and farm for resources (either by searching objects or destroying them with an axe) used to build the fortifications, weapons, ammunition, and traps needed to defend or attack the husks. Players also frequently need to seek out bluglo, a special resource that does not carry over between maps to activate certain mission objectives. Some missions are considered a loss if the objective is destroyed or time runs out, while other missions allow the players to rework their fortifications and start their defense again if the objective is destroyed. Maps will frequently have optional objectives that are discovered through exploration, such as human survivors that need help. Completing these successfully earn immediate in - game rewards such as resources, weapons, and traps. Missions themselves may provide bonus objectives, such as by completing the mission within a certain in - game period, using a limited number of fortification pieces, or saving more survivors than the minimum necessary, which affects the qualify of rewards the players receive after the successful completion of the main mission.
During missions, players can make their fortifications from one of three base materials (wood, brick, and metal), and in a number of configurations, including floors / ceilings, walls, stairs, and ramps; players have the ability to edit these for more configurations, such as adding a door or window to a wall. Each fortification part can be upgraded with more resources of the same type to improve their durability, and when they are damaged, can be repaired by spending additional resources. Traps, which have a limited number of activation before they fall apart, can be placed on floors, walls, and ceilings, and arranged in means to make them more lethal or effective against husks. Traps may also include beneficial resources for players, such as healing pads, defender posts, and launch pads. Similarly, players can use a range of weapons but these have limited durability that drops as they are used or as a penalty if the player should be downed by husks and need to respawn without the help of allies. Players can construct new weapons, ammo, and traps from gathered resources, or find these from searching containers across the map. During missions, the game progresses through an accelerated day - night cycle; during the day, the husks are more passive and do not generally pose immediate threats, while during the night, bands of husks may spawn in and will aggressively seek out players.
One unique mission type is Storm Shield Defense missions. In each of the four world locations, the player is allocated a map that remains persistent, representing the site where their base 's storm shield generator is placed, and in the storm mode, the player must return to this map to expand the storm shield, requiring them to add a new objective to defend successfully to continue the story. At any time, the player can enter this map without starting the defense mission, and use their carried - over resources to build out the fortification and traps, or add resources to a special storage area for this map.
Fortnite is also able to offer themed - events with a unique progression line, new locations, and rewards based on those themes. The first such event was its Halloween event, "Fortnitemares '', that offered Halloween - themed heroes, characters, weapons, and traps (usable outside of the event) by completing numerous objectives.
Fortnite 's "Battle Royale '' mode follows similar gameplay mechanics as other battle royale games, particularly PlayerUnknown 's Battlegrounds. This mode supports up to 100 players, either individuals or up to four - man squads, attempting to be the last man or team standing as they hunt other players and avoid being killed themselves. Players all start with no equipment outside of a pickaxe for resource gathering and parachute onto the map. Once they land, they can scavenge for weapons, armor, and resources, the latter which can be used to make structures in the same manner as the "Save the World '' mode. Over time, a "storm '' surrounds the area and makes it so that the "safe '' area of the map shrinks down in size. Once the "safe '' area has shrunk to the smaller circle on the map (a thin, white circle), it will generate, at a random location, a smaller circle within. Those caught outside the area take damage and potentially die if they remain outside it too long. There are also random air drops of resources, weapons, and items that may require players to construct floors and ramps to access, with varying randomized items determined by rarity. Players can use real money to purchase in - game currency, which can be used to purchase cosmetic items.
During The Game Awards 2017 on December 7, 2017, Epic announced and released a time - limited 50 - versus - 50 mode for Battle Royale, the first of several planned game modes. In this, players are randomly assigned to one of two teams, and play until only members of one team remain, with all other Battle Royale mechanics otherwise in place. The mode encourages players on a team to work together to scavenge resources in anticipation of the smaller safe areas, and then to build up forts when the safe area is small enough, protecting their own fortifications while trying to damage the other teams ' and finish off the remaining players.
Fortnite was first revealed at the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards (VGA), with Epic 's former design director Cliff Bleszinski introducing a trailer for the game. Donald Mustard, creative lead at Epic, said in 2017 that this announcement was "three weeks after we came up with the idea, before we even made the game ''. The title, which started out as an internal game jam project, represents a departure from the company 's previous work. As Bleszinski explained during the Spike event, Epic wanted to "switch things up a little bit and do something different and fun '' with Fortnite, describing it as "a world where you explore, you scavenge, you build and ultimately you survive. '' In an interview with Engadget, he also echoed these statements, claiming that the game would be different from the Gears of War series: "There 's no dudebros in it... Not that there 's anything wrong with that, right? But creatively for the team, Gears has been amazing for us. But it 's fun to kind of stretch our wings and do something that 's a little different from the usual. '' Epic Games Vice President of Publishing Mike Fischer said in 2015 that Epic recognized that they "announced this game too soon '', and that its lengthy development was due to "very good reasons ''.
As the game was at its very preliminary stages at the VGA reveal, the goal of this reveal was to seek public interest in the title and potential publishing partners as to decide on the game 's release platforms and timeframe. During the July 2012 San Diego Comic Con, Epic announced that Fortnite would be an exclusive personal computer title, and the first one to be developed by Epic using their new Unreal 4 game engine, with a planned release in 2013. The game 's development was originally started in the Unreal 3 engine, but as they progressed, they had seen the opportunity to work in several of the new feature sets and scripting language offered by Unreal 4 for Fortnite, while still running on most personal computers at that time. They further opted for personal computer exclusivity to avoid the difficulty of having to go through console certification, and as they planned to be constantly monitoring and tweaking the game, acting as a dungeon master, the personal computer approach would allow them to do this without restrictions normally set by console manfuctures. Bleszinski later clarified that they would not rule out release on other platforms as they developed the title.
Fortnite 's development was spread among several of Epic 's satellite studios, and was also co-developed by the Polish studio People Can Fly, which had worked with Epic previously on earlier games, and had been fully acquired by Epic sometime in 2012. People Can Fly were briefly renamed Epic Games Poland in 2013 as to align with Epic 's other studios. By March 2014, there were about 90 developers working on the game. People Can Fly later returned to being an independent studio and their own name in 2015, but continued to help Epic with Fortnite 's development.
During Fortnite 's development, Epic had seen the game industry shifting to games as a service model. To help with this transition, the company brought in Tencent who had several games operating under this model. As part of this agreement, Tencent bought a significant share of ownership in Epic Games through stock acquisition around June 2012. The shifting of Epic 's approach through Tencent led to the departure of some high - level staff later that year, including Bleszinski. Fortnite was seen as the spearhead for Epic 's games - as - a-service model as they collaborated with Tencent. This caused some road bumps in the development of Fortnite, according to Mustard. Fortnite 's development was also slowed as it was used as the testing ground for the new features of the Unreal 4 engine.
By November 2013, Epic confirmed that Fortnite would not release that year, nor offered a target released date, through affirmed the game was still in development by several of its studios. Fortnite was a feature in the May 2014 issue of Game Informer, revealing that the title would be released as a free - to - play game.
By 2014, Fortnite was at a "pretty functional prototype '' with most of the Unreal 4 engine elements smoothed out, according to Mustard. Epic anticipated it would still take about three more years to complete, not only in polishing and balancing the game, but setting in place the necessary backend elements for the games - as - a-service model. To help support development and get player feedback, Epic used two closed alpha test periods. The game 's first closed alpha, called Online Test 1, ran from December 2 to 19, 2014, while Online Test 2 ran from March 24 to April 14, 2015. Epic said the first alpha was designed to help it "make sure all of our basic systems are working '' and establish "a baseline for how people play in order to make Fortnite better. '' After being demoed at WWDC 2015 on Mac, Fortnite entered closed beta testing in the fall of 2015. Approximately 50,000 players participated in these periods.
Fortnite was being developed alongside Paragon, which Epic announced on November 2015. As Paragon seemed to take Epic 's focus, leaving little news about Fortnite, CEO Tim Sweeney said in March 2016 that they were still committed to Fortnite once Paragon was launched and established, given that much of the work on Fortnite would take time to get the right balance for gameplay. "We figure we should start with one major successful launch and do one at a time. Fortnite will be next. ''
By July 2017, Epic Games announced that Fortnite was now set for a 2018 release across Windows, macOS, and the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One consoles. Leading up to this free - to - play release, the game was offered as a paid early access period starting on July 25, 2017 for all platforms; those that purchases access would be given a "Founders '' status in - game with additional perks that would extend into the free - to - play game. The lengthy period since the game 's alpha phases was ascribed to developing Fortnite as a games - as - a-service model, according to creative lead Donald Mustard. While the game was in a playable state for the two years prior, Epic wanted to be able to develop ongoing content to players to keep them interested in the title, such as planning timed events with unique rewards, following in the approach used by games like League of Legends and Warframe. At the time of the start of early access, Epic announced that Gearbox Software will help distribute the game on physical media once it is released.
In their initial prototypes of the game, Epic had used more creepier and darker designs for the husks and other enemies. Bleszinski said that they found this to create an "exhaustive environment '' that was too grim, and designed to take the design in a more cartoonish approach, while still remaining creepy, so that players would enjoy spending time in the game 's world, nor try to compete with games like DayZ. They used works from Pixar, Tim Burton, and Looney Tunes as inspiration for the designs.
Fortnite uses procedural generation to build out the maps for each mission. The game also includes an "AI director '' that monitors how players are progressing, and alters the challenges of the monsters it sends out to the players based on that progression, easing off if players are having greater difficulty in surviving. At one point, the game had a team - based player versus player mode, where each side attempted to build up a base around a central target while trying to attack the opponent 's target after breaking through their base. This did not make it into the final game.
Epic currently has cross-platform play between PC and PS4 and has stated plans to allow separate Fortnite cross-platform support for Xbox One and personal computer users, but cross-platform play between all three platforms has not been announced. However, for a few hours during one day in September 2017, players found they could cross-play between all three platforms. Epic later corrected this, calling it a "configuration error ''.
In March 2017, PlayerUnknown 's Battlegrounds was released on personal computers in early access, and quickly became a popular and successful game, becoming the defining example of the battle royale genre. According to Mustard, the Epic team "loved Battle Royale games like (Battlegrounds) '', and explored how they could make a similar mode within Fortnite 's engine. They kept this mode in a separate development team from the main player versus environment modes for experimentation and as to not throw off the balance in the main game.
The Battle Royale mode for Fortnite was announced in early September 2017 for release to early access users on September 26, 2017. However, within a week, Epic changed plans and decided to offer this mode as a standalone free - to - play game for Windows, macOS, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One platforms to be released on September 26, 2017; those that had purchased early access to Fortnite in anticipation of this mode were offered refunds. This release, which beat out Battlegrounds to consoles, caused some concern with Battlegrounds developer Bluehole, as they had been working closely with Epic for Unreal engine support in Battlegrounds, and were worried that Fortnite may be able to include planned features to their Battle royale mode before they could release those in Battlegrounds.
With the popularity of Fortnite: Battle Royale by the start of 2018, Epic split off a separate development team to focus on improvements for that mode. Epic said that their attention to Fortnite was causing some of their other games to see lower player populations, leading them to reduce development efforts on these games, particularly Paragon. By the end of January 2018, Epic announced it was shutting down Paragon by April of that year, providing refunds to all players. Players on a Fortnite - dedicated Reddit forum had expressed concerns that a similar fate could befall the Save the World mode of Fortnite, as externally, the Save the World mode has not received the same attention in providing updates and improvements compared to the Battle Royale mode since that mode 's release.
On July 26, 2017, it was announced that Fortnite had sold over 500,000 digital pre-order copies. On August 18, 2017, Epic confirmed that Fortnite had surpassed over a million players. The game 's free - to - play battle royale mode obtained over 10 million players two weeks after its release.
Eurogamer ranked the game 32nd on their list of the "Top 50 Games of 2017 ''. It was also nominated for "Best Co-op Game '' in PC Gamer 's 2017 Game of the Year Awards, and for "Best Spectator Game '' in IGN 's Best of 2017 Awards.
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who played little beaver in smokey and the bandit | Smokey and the Bandit - wikipedia
Smokey and the Bandit is a 1977 American action comedy film starring Burt Reynolds, Sally Field, Jackie Gleason, Jerry Reed, Pat McCormick, Paul Williams and Mike Henry. The film was the directorial debut of stuntman Hal Needham. It inspired several other trucking films, including two sequels, Smokey and the Bandit II and Smokey and the Bandit Part 3.
There was also a series of 1994 television films (Bandit Goes Country, Bandit Bandit, Beauty and the Bandit, and Bandit 's Silver Angel) from original director / writer Hal Needham that were loosely based on the earlier version, with actor Brian Bloom playing Bandit. The three original films introduced two generations of the Pontiac Trans Am, and the Dodge Stealth in the television movie. Smokey and the Bandit was the second - highest - grossing film of 1977 behind Star Wars.
Wealthy Texan Big Enos Burdette and his son Little Enos seek a truck driver willing to bootleg Coors beer to Georgia for their refreshment. At the time, Coors was regarded as one of the finest beers in the United States, but it could not be legally sold east of the Mississippi River. Truck drivers who had taken the bet previously had been caught and arrested by "Smokey '' (CB slang for highway patrol officers, referring to the Smokey Bear -- type hats worn in some states).
The Burdettes find legendary trucker Bo "Bandit '' Darville competing in a truck rodeo at Lakewood Fairgrounds in Atlanta; they offer him $80,000 to haul 400 cases of Coors beer from Texarkana, Texas back to Atlanta in 28 hours; Big Enos has sponsored a driver running in the Southern Classic stockcar race and "when he wins I want to celebrate in style. '' Bandit accepts the bet and recruits his partner Cledus "Snowman '' Snow to drive the truck, while Bandit drives the "blocker '', a black Pontiac Trans Am bought on an advance from the Burdettes, to divert attention away from the truck and its illegal cargo.
The trip to Texas is mostly uneventful except for at least one pursuing Arkansas State Trooper whom Bandit evades with ease. They reach Texarkana an hour ahead of schedule, load their truck with the beer and head back toward Atlanta. Immediately upon starting the second leg of the run, Bandit picks up runaway bride Carrie, whom he eventually nicknames "Frog '' because she is "kinda cute like a frog, '' she is "always hoppin ' around, '' and because he "wants to jump '' her. But in so doing, Bandit makes himself a target of Texas Sheriff Buford T. Justice, a career lawman whose handsome but slow - witted son Junior was to have been Carrie 's bridegroom. Ignoring his own jurisdiction, Sheriff Justice, with Junior in tow, chases Bandit all the way to Georgia, even as various mishaps cause his cruiser to disintegrate around them.
The remainder of the film is one lengthy high - speed chase, as Bandit 's antics attract more and more attention from local and state police across Dixie while Snowman barrels on toward Atlanta with the contraband beer. Bandit and Snowman are helped along the way via CB radio by many colorful characters, including an undertaker with his hearse driver and their funeral procession, an elderly lady, a drive - in waitress and all her customers, a convoy of trucks, and even a madam who runs a brothel out of her RV. Neither Sheriff Justice nor any other police officers have any knowledge of Snowman 's illegal manifest.
The chase intensifies as Bandit and Snowman get closer to Atlanta; moments after crossing back into Georgia, Bandit comes to the rescue when Snowman is pulled over by a Georgia State Patrol motorcycle patrolman, and state and local police step up their pursuit with more cruisers, larger roadblocks, and even a police helicopter to track Bandit 's movements. Discouraged by the unexpected mounting attention, and with just four miles left to go, Bandit is about to give up, but Snowman refuses to listen and takes the lead, smashing through the police roadblock at the entrance to the fairgrounds. They arrive back at Lakewood Speedway (while the Southern Classic race is being run) with only 10 minutes to spare, but instead of taking the payoff, Frog and Bandit accept a double - or - nothing offer from Little Enos -- a challenge to run up to Boston and bring back clam chowder in 18 hours. They quickly escape in one of Big Enos ' Cadillac convertibles as Georgia State Patrol cruisers flood the racetrack to confiscate the Trans Am and truck, passing Sheriff Justice 's badly damaged police car by the side of the road. Bandit first directs Sheriff Justice to Big and Little Enos, but then in a gesture of respect, reveals his true location and invites Justice to give chase, leaving Junior behind.
Director Hal Needham originally planned the film as a low - budget B movie with a production cost of $1 million, with Jerry Reed as the Bandit. It was not until Needham 's friend Burt Reynolds read the script, and said he would star, that the film was aimed at a more mainstream release; Reed would now portray Bandit 's friend Snowman (Reed would eventually play the Bandit in Smokey and the Bandit Part 3). At that time Reynolds was the top box office star in the world. In the original script Carrie was called Kate while Big Enos and Little Enos were called Kyle and Dickey. Bandit 's car was a second generation Ford Mustang and the prize for completing the run was a new truck rather than $80,000.
Burt Reynolds revealed in his autobiography that Needham had written the first draft script on legal pads. Upon showing it to his friend, Reynolds told Needham that it was the worst script he had ever read but that he would still make the movie. Most of the dialogue was improvised on set.
Universal Studios bankrolled Smokey and the Bandit for $5.3 million, figuring it was a good risk. Just two days before production was to begin, Universal sent a "hatchet man '' to Atlanta to inform Needham that the budget was being trimmed by $1 million. With Reynolds ' salary at $1 million, Needham was left with only $3.3 million to make the film. Needham and assistant director David Hamburger spent 30 hours revising the shooting schedule.
"Buford T. Justice '' was the name of a real Florida Highway Patrolman known to Reynolds ' father, who was once Police Chief of Riviera Beach, Florida. His father was also the inspiration for the word "sumbitch '' used in the film, a variation of the phrase "son - of - a-bitch '' that, according to Reynolds, he uttered quite often.
Jackie Gleason was given free rein to ad - lib dialogue and make suggestions. It was his idea to have Junior alongside him throughout. In particular, the scene where Sheriff Justice unknowingly encounters the Bandit in the "choke and puke '' (a roadside diner) was not in the original story, but rather was Gleason 's idea.
Before Gleason was cast in the film, Richard Boone was originally considered for the role of Buford T. Justice.
Sally Field only accepted the part after her agent advised her that she needed a big movie role on her resume. Reynolds actively pushed for her casting after Universal initially resisted, claiming Field was not attractive enough. Field enjoyed making the film, but remembers that virtually the entire project was improvised.
Reportedly, Needham had great difficulty getting any studios or producers to take his project seriously, as in the film industry, he was better known as a stuntman. He managed to obtain studio attention after his friend Reynolds agreed to portray the Bandit in the film.
The movie was primarily filmed in Georgia in the cities of McDonough, Jonesboro and Lithonia. The scenes set in Texarkana were filmed in Jonesboro and the surrounding area, and many of the chase scenes were filmed in the surrounding areas on Highway 54 between Fayetteville and Jonesboro for a majority of the driving scenes, Mundy 's Mill Road, Main Street in Jonesboro, Georgia State Route 400, I - 85 (Pleasant Hill exit), and in McDonough. However, the scene where they drive through the Shell gas station was filmed in Ojai, California on the corner of Ojai and El Paseo. Much of the surrounding scene comes from that immediate vicinity. The scene featuring the racetrack was filmed at Lakewood Speedway at the old Lakewood Fairgrounds on the south side of Atlanta. The roller coaster seen in the movie was the Greyhound. It had not been used for some time and was repainted for the film. It was destroyed in Smokey and the Bandit II and a flashback scene in Part 3.
The film 's theme song, "East Bound and Down '', was written virtually overnight by Jerry Reed. He gave Needham a preview of the song, and when initially he got no reaction from the director, offered to rewrite the song. Needham, however, liked the song so much he assured Jerry not to change a word. It became one of Reed 's biggest hits and his signature song.
The area around Helen, Georgia was also used for some locations. The scene where Buford T. Justice 's car has the door knocked off by a passing semi truck was shot on Georgia State Route 75, 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Helen. The tow truck driver was a local garage owner, Berlin Wike.
The film features the custom clothing and costuming of Niver Western Wear of Fort Worth, Texas. Niver provided much of the western attire worn in the film, as well as the custom - made sheriff 's uniforms (waist size 64 inches) that Jackie Gleason wore throughout the film.
Reynolds and Sally Field began dating during the filming of Smokey and the Bandit.
While made to take advantage of the ongoing 1970s CB radio fad, the film added to the craze.
Though the film Moonrunners (1975) is the precursor to the television series The Dukes of Hazzard (1979 - 1985), from the same creator and with many identical settings and concepts, the popularity of Smokey and the Bandit and similar films helped get the Dukes series on the air. Three actors from the main cast of The Dukes of Hazzard appear in small uncredited roles in Smokey and the Bandit: Ben Jones, John Schneider and Sonny Shroyer (who played a police officer in both). In return, Reynolds portrayed the Dukes character Boss Hogg (originally portrayed by Sorrell Booke) in the film adaptation The Dukes of Hazzard (2005). Reynolds is also referenced by name in several early episodes of the series.
Needham saw an advertisement for the soon - to - be-released 1977 Pontiac Trans Am and knew right away that would be the Bandit 's car, or, as Needham referred to it, a character in the movie. He contacted Pontiac and an agreement was made that four 1977 Trans Ams and two Pontiac LeMans 4 - door sedans would be provided for the movie. The Trans Ams were actually 1976 - model cars with 1977 front ends. (From 1970 to 1976, both the Firebird / Trans Am and Chevrolet Camaro had two round headlights, and in 1977, the Firebird / Trans Am was changed to four rectangular headlights, while the Camaro remained unchanged.) The decals were also changed to 1977 - style units, as evidenced by the engine size callouts on the hood scoop being in liters rather than cubic inches, as had been the case in 1976. The hood scoop on these cars says "6.6 LITRE '', which in 1977 would have denoted an Oldsmobile 403 - equipped car or a non W - 72, 180 hp version of the 400 Pontiac engine. All four of the cars were badly damaged during production, one of which was all but destroyed during the jump over the dismantled bridge. The Trans Am used for the dismantled bridge jump was equipped with a booster rocket, the same type that was used by Evel Knievel during his failed Snake River Canyon jump. Needham served as the driver for the stunt (standing in for Reynolds) while Lada St. Edmund was in the same car (standing in for Sally Field during the jump). By the movie 's ending, the final surviving Trans Am and LeMans were both barely running and the other cars had become parts donors to keep them running. The Burdettes ' car is a 1974 Cadillac Eldorado convertible painted in a "Candy Red '' color scheme, and is seen briefly at the beginning of the movie and as Bandit, Snowman, Fred, and Frog make their escape in the final scene.
The film also made use of three Kenworth W900A short - frame semi trucks, which Jerry Reed can be seen driving, each equipped with 38 - inch sleepers. Two units were 1974 models as evidenced by standard silver Kenworth emblems on the truck grille, and one unit was a 1973 model as evidenced by the gold - painted Kenworth emblem on the truck 's grille signifying Kenworth 's 50 years in business. The paint code for each truck was coffee brown with gold trims, and the 48 - foot (15 m) mural trailer used was manufactured by Hobbs Trailers in Texas with a non-operational Thermo King Refrigeration unit. This is obvious, because there is no fuel tank on the underside of the trailer to power the refrigeration unit, and the unit is never heard running.
In 1977, Coors was unavailable for sale east of Oklahoma. A 1974 Time magazine article explains why Coors was so coveted that one would be willing to pay the Bandit such a high price to transport it. Coors Banquet Beer had a brief renaissance as certain people sought it out for its lack of stabilizers and preservatives. The article says that future Vice President Gerald Ford hid it in his luggage after a trip to Colorado in order to take it back to Washington. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had a steady supply airlifted to Washington by the Air Force. The article also mentions Frederick Amon, who smuggled it from Colorado to North Carolina and sold it for four times the retail price. The lack of additives and preservatives meant that Coors had the potential for spoiling in a week if it were not kept cold throughout its transportation and in storage at its destination. This explains the 28 - hour deadline.
The theme music, "East Bound and Down '', was sung and co-written by Reed (credited under his birth name, Jerry Hubbard) and Dick Feller. It became Reed 's signature song and is found on multiple albums, including Country Legends and his live album Jerry Reed: Live Still. In 1991 it was arranged for orchestra by Crafton Beck and recorded by Erich Kunzel and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra for their album Down on the Farm. Several other groups, such as US rock band Tonic, have also covered it. Reed also penned and performed the song for the opening credits, entitled "The Legend '', which tells of some of The Bandit 's escapades prior to the events of the film, and the ballad "The Bandit '', which features in several versions in the movie and on the soundtrack. Reed 's hit notwithstanding, Bill Justis is the first name on the credits for the soundtrack as he composed and arranged original music throughout the film. Musicians such as Beegie Adair and George Tidwell played on the soundtrack as part of long careers in music. Legendary five - string banjo player Bobby Thompson is also heard prominently towards the end of "East Bound and Down. '' The soundtrack album was released in 1977 on vinyl, cassette and 8 - track through MCA Records.
Smokey and the Bandit was a sleeper hit. The film premiered at Radio City Music Hall in New York City where it performed badly. It then opened in just the South of the United States over the Memorial Day weekend and grossed $2,689,851 in 386 theatres. By the end of June it had played in major Southern markets including Charlotte, Atlanta, Jacksonville, New Orleans, Memphis, Dallas and Oklahoma City grossing $11.9 million. It opened in other Northern states at the end of July.
With an original budget of $5.3 million (cut to $4.3 million two days before initial production), the film eventually grossed $126,737,428 in North America, making it the second - highest - grossing movie of 1977. The worldwide gross is estimated at over $300 million.
Film critic Leonard Maltin gave the film a good rating (3 stars out of a possible 4) and characterized it as "About as subtle as The Three Stooges, but a classic compared to the sequels and countless rip - offs which followed. ''
Gene Siskel, in his review in the Chicago Tribune, gave the film two stars and complained that the film failed to tell the audience when the clock started on the beer run, thus removing suspense throughout the film concerning how long remained to them. He also claimed that Bandit is never made aware of Frog 's leaving Junior at the altar, which is why the Bandit continually asks why a Texas sheriff is chasing him. However, this is inaccurate: within seconds of Bandit picking her up, Frog tells him "there is a wedding in search of a bride '', and goes on to explain her ill - advised romance with Junior, as Bandit holds up the CB mic for Snowman to hear.
The film 's editors, Walter Hannemann and Angelo Ross, were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Film Editing. It currently holds a 79 % "Fresh '' rating on review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 28 reviews.
Burt Reynolds rated the film as the one he most enjoyed and had the most fun making in his career.
Legendary film maker Alfred Hitchcock stated that the movie was one of his favorites.
Upon meeting Burt Reynolds, Billy Bob Thornton told him that the picture was not considered as such in the south, and was considered more of a documentary.
Smokey and the Bandit was released in the United Kingdom on August 28, 1977 and was a sizeable success there, garnering positive reviews.
American Film Institute Lists
After the debut of the film the Trans Am became wildly popular with sales almost doubling in two years of the film 's release, to the delight of General Motors; in fact, it outsold its Camaro counterpart for the first time ever. Reynolds was given the 1977 vehicle used during promotion of the film as a gift, though the car itself never actually appeared in the film. Because of the popularity of the movie and the sales success of the Trans Am, then President of Pontiac Alex Mair promised to supply Reynolds with a Trans Am each year. Owing to his financial difficulties, in 2014 Reynolds put his vast collection of artwork and memorabilia up for auction, including the Trans Am. High estimates for the car were up to $80,000, but that was dwarfed by the actual sale price of $450,000. Also up for auction was a go - kart replica of the car, which sold for nearly $14,000. In 2016, Trans Am Depot, a Florida - based automobile customization company, announced that it would build 77 Trans Ams that would be modeled after the car that Reynolds drove in the 1977 original, despite Pontiac having been discontinued by GM in 2009. These new models were built off the Camaro platform (the very same one that the real Firebird and Trans Am used), came with Pontiac arrowhead, flaming bird and Bandit logos, as well as instrument panels, center consoles and hood scoops emulating their 1977 counterparts, and were signed by Reynolds. Some differences included the use of a supercharged 454 - cid (7.4 - liter) Chevrolet - sourced engine that put out 840 HP, and four round headlights, which appeared on the 1967 - 69 Firebirds / Trans Ams only; the actual 1977 - 81 models had rectangular headlights.
The diablo sandwich ordered by Sheriff Justice in the Arkansas barbecue restaurant scene has entered popular culture as a minor reference to the film. While no authoritative source identifies the composition of the sandwich, there are several possibilities. A segment of the CMT program Reel Eats used a sloppy joe - style recipe consisting of seasoned ground beef, corn and sour cream. Another proposal, based more closely on images from the film and the shooting location of the scene (at an Old Hickory House restaurant in Georgia), is pulled pork and hot sauce on a hamburger bun.
First run in 2007 to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the movie, The Bandit Run was the brainchild of Dave Hall, owner of Restore A Muscle Car. A group of Trans Am owners and fans of the movie take part in an annual road trip from Texarkana to Jonesboro, Georgia, recreating the route taken by the characters in the film.
The Bandit Run quickly caught on and has become a fixture, most recently celebrating the 40th anniversary of the movie with a special screening of the film attended by Burt Reynolds and a recreation of the jump undertaken by Bandit and Frog across a river.
In 2014, petroleum company Mobil 1 produced television commercials, featuring NASCAR star Tony Stewart, closely based on the film. Called Smoke is the Bandit playing on Stewart 's nickname, the commercials featured him as the Bandit opposite Darrell Waltrip who played Snowman and Jeff Hammond as Buford T. Justice. The story replaced the Coors beer with Mobil 1 products. The adverts poked fun at the film and even featured a Pontiac Trans Am and a cover version of the song East Bound and Down. The commercials were produced after Stewart mentioned that the movie was one of his favorites.
When Smokey and the Bandit first aired on American network television in the early 1980s, censors were faced with the challenge of toning down the raw language of the original film. For this purpose, they overdubbed dialogue deemed offensive, which was (and remains, to an extent) common practice. The most noted change made for network broadcast was the replacing of Buford 's often - spoken phrase "sumbitch '' (a contraction of "son of a bitch ''; usually in reference to the Bandit) with the phrase "scum bum ''. This phrase achieved a level of popularity with children, and the 2007 Hot Wheels release of the 1970s Firebird Trans Am has "scum bum '' emblazoned on its tail. The TV prints of the first two Bandit films are still shown regularly on television, although a few TV stations aired the unedited version in recent years as some of the phraseology (i.e. "(son of a) bitch '', "ass '', etc.) became more acceptable on TV.
The original actors mostly redubbed their own lines for the television version, except for Gleason. Actor Henry Corden, who voiced Fred Flintstone after original performer Alan Reed died, was used to replace a considerable amount of Sheriff Justice 's dialogue. This is fitting, as Fred Flintstone was a parody of / homage to Gleason 's character Ralph Kramden and The Flintstones was a parody of / homage to The Honeymooners.
In the UK, the heavily dubbed version was shown for a number of years, particularly by the BBC. However, in more recent years, the original version has been shown (on ITV, a commercial channel), usually with the stronger language edited out, often quite awkwardly and noticeably.
The theatrical release itself had a few lines deleted, including a creative edit in which Sheriff Justice tells a state trooper to "fuck off. '' His expletive is obscured when a passing big rig sounds its horn. At the time, using the ' F ' word would immediately require an R rating and this clever self - censorship allowed the film to avoid this rating and reach a much larger audience. However, the scene and the obscured expletive was played for comedy value and written as such, with the passing truck being the gag of the scene more than a way to avoid the censors.
In 2006, a DVD re-release was issued of Smokey and the Bandit featuring a digitally - remastered audio track with 5.1 Dolby - compatible surround sound. It should be noted however that many of the film 's original sounds were replaced. For instance, the diesel engine start and run up sequence in the opening sequence of the film was completely dubbed over with a totally new sound. A few other examples of "sound effect replacement '' occur when Bandit takes off after managing to get a reluctant Cledus involved in the bet, and after he comes to a screeching halt on a roadway moments before picking up Carrie. Some of the original sound effects (such as Cledus ' dog Fred 's barking) and music (such as the final chase to the Southern Classic) were removed and not replaced. (Note: earlier DVD releases and the 40th Anniversary Blu - ray of the film have the original soundtrack intact.)
Major portions of the audio ' background ' have been modified with different engine sounds or tire squeals from the original film. The updated version of the film features sounds inaccurate for what would be produced by the Trans Am or the numerous other Pontiac vehicles in the film. The original film had correct sounds that were usually recorded live as the action took place.
Some TV versions also feature a longer version of the scene where Cledus wades into the pond after Fred.
A series of television movies aired in 1994. The car featured was a Dodge Stealth.
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which of the following is an example of a cheniere | Chenier - wikipedia
Chenier or Chénier is a sandy or shelly beach ridge that is part of a strand plain, called a "chenier plain, '' consisting of cheniers separated by intervening mud - flat deposits with marsh and swamp vegetation. Cheniers are typically 1 to 6 m high, tens of km long, hundreds of metres wide, and often wooded. Chenier plains can be tens of km wide. Cheniers and associated chenier plains are associated with shorelines characterized by generally low wave energy, low gradient, muddy shorelines, and abundant sediment supply. The name is derived from the French word for wood, "chêne, '' meaning oak, which grows on chenier ridges within southwest Louisiana.
Cheniers made primarily of shells of the Colorado Delta clam are found in the tidal flats of the Colorado River Delta in northeastern Baja California, Mexico, as well as in Essex, England. In Essex, Ground - truthing data demonstrate that the radar profiles accurately delineate the subsurface stratigraphy and sedimentary structure of the cheniers. Interpretation of the radar stratigraphy taken from the radar reflection profiles allows various deposits to be identified. These have resulted from overwashing, overtopping, sedimentation across the whole of a seaward dipping beachface or berm ridge welding onto the upper beachface. Each chenier is characterised by a different spatial arrangement of these four basic depositional units.
The Louisiana Chenier Plain, extending roughly from Sabine Lake to Vermilion Bay along the Gulf Coast, serves critical ecosystem functions, particularly as a wildlife habitat and stopover for migrating birds. As the region was settled, the cheniers were developed preferentially, owing to protection from flooding afforded by the higher elevation. Examples of communities situated on such ridges in the Chenier Plain include Grand Chenier in Cameron Parish, Pecan Island in Vermilion Parish and the former settlement of Cheniere Caminada adjacent to Grand Isle, south of New Orleans. The ridges, however, offer insufficient protection from storm surges, thus Cheniere Caminada was completely destroyed by a hurricane in 1893, and Pecan Island and Grand Chenier have been devastated by several powerful storms, including Hurricane Audrey, Hurricane Rita, and Hurricane Ike.
Kirby explains how sediment deposition through the null point hypothesis leads to the creation of chenier. Sediment fines are suspended and reworked aerially offshore leaving behind lag deposits of mainly bivalve and gastropod shells separated out from the finer substrate beneath, waves and currents then heap these deposits to form chenier ridges throughout the tidal zone which tend to be forced up the foreshore profile but also along the foreshore.
The chenier plain in Miranda is one of the most significant Holocene coastal strand plains in the world and an important stopover point in the godwit flightpath. (1)
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who is the best starcraft 2 player of all time | Professional StarCraft competition - Wikipedia
The real time strategy (RTS) computer game StarCraft had an active professional competition circuit, particularly in South Korea. The two major game channels in South Korea, Ongamenet and MBCGame, each ran a Starleague (Ongamenet Starleague, MBCgame Starleague), viewed by millions of fans.
Starting in about 2002, pro-gamers started to become organized into teams, sponsored by large South Korean companies like Samsung, SK Telecom and KT. StarCraft is also the most popular computer game competition during the annual World Cyber Games thanks to its Korean fanbase, and it is overall one of the world 's largest computer and video game competitions in terms of prize money, global coverage and participants.
Over US $4,000,000 in prize money has been awarded in total, the vast majority of which comes from tournaments in South Korea. For several years after the release of StarCraft II, competitive StarCraft: Brood War was no longer televised. However, in early 2015, the game returned to Ongamenet 's televised lineup.
Throughout the establishment of the Starcraft II pro-scene, the GSL and WCS formats became the main avenues for top tier individual competition, with WCS "points '' replacing Elo scores for assigning yearly rankings. Proleague was limited to a team - based format, with the most recent version being the SK Telecom Proleague, consisting of the 8 Kespa teams of South Korea competing. As of 2015, the World Championship Series (WCS) was the main format for the Starcraft II 1v1 pro-scene. The top - 16 ranked players qualify for the ultimate end of year tournament at Blizzcon, with the winner being crowned world champion.
There have been several commercial attempts to bring televised professional StarCraft matches to audiences outside South Korea. GOM TV hired Nick "Tasteless '' Plott, an American who previously cast StarCraft at the WCG and other international events, to provide English commentary for the 2008 GOM TV Star Invitational and the 2008 Averatec - Intel Classic tournaments. According to GOM TV statistics, over 1 million viewers watched the GOM TV Star Invitational matches with English commentary. Many StarCraft fans outside South Korea download video files of the pro games to watch on their computer. This has spawned a small community wherein StarCraft fans post the files to video sharing sites such as YouTube, but with their own English commentaries dubbed alongside the original Korean commentary. Notable English - speaking YouTube commentators include Day9, KlazartSC, Diggity, Moletrap, NukeTheStars, and Rise.
The Collegiate Starleague is a seasonal intercollegiate league that is modeled after Korea 's ProLeague. It was founded in 2009 by students at Princeton University. Its fourth season (Fall 2010) marks a shift from StarCraft: Brood War to StarCraft II: Wings of Liberty, and includes the participation of over 100 North American colleges including Harvard University, Yale University, Cornell University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rutgers University, and Case Western Reserve University. Notable contributors and players include Sean "Day (9) '' Plott, Kevin "QXC '' Riley, and Andre "Gretorp '' Hengchua.
The Korean professional scene was divided into 8 teams, 6 of which were sponsored by corporations, and the remaining team by the Korean Air Force. All teams dissolved or transitioned to StarCraft II in 2012.
A cheating scandal in the sport came to light in South Korea on April 13, 2010, when it was found that popular StarCraft players were intentionally losing games.
As professional gaming has a legal status in South Korea, the consequences of these actions was severe: 11 players were banned from all professional StarCraft competition for life, and faced civil and criminal lawsuits. All eleven players had all prizes and rewards revoked (e.g. Player of the Year Reward, Proleague Player Reward, Weekly / Monthly MVP Reward)
As of 9 June 2010, eleven Players have been banned from progaming as a result of the scandal: sAviOr, Hwasin, go. go, Type - b, Luxury, YellOw (ArnC) *, DarkElf, UpMaGiC, Justin, By. 1st and ShinHwA. In October 2010, sentences were declared.
* Note: not to be confused with Hong "YellOw '' Jin Ho, who played for KT Rolster -- the involved player 's full name is Park "Yellow (ArnC) '' Myung Soo, who played for Hite SPARKYZ.
The suspended sentences mean the players can avoid prison if no wrongdoing is committed within the time period.
Despite the release of StarCraft II: Wings of Liberty, KeSPA, OGN and MBC Game decided to stick with Brood War for its competitions. KeSPA and OGN eventually came into talks with Blizzard and GomTV for broadcasting rights of StarCraft II. After discussions and negotiations were complete, it was announced that the SK Planet Proleague season would be a hybrid tournament featuring both Brood War and StarCraft II.
Brood War professional competition was eventually phased out entirely in Proleagues, although fan interest in the game continues. Brood War tournaments with cash prizes continue to be run. Since 2014, two years after professional StarCraft competition abolished, OGN restored StarCraft competition and has held it for two seasons.
Known as the "Emperor of Terran '', or sometimes just "The Emperor '', Boxer 's highly creative play has made him a popular StarCraft player. He is also one of, if not the most, successful as he is the first (of two) StarCraft player to win the World Cyber Games (WCG) twice. He has also won the Ongamenet Starleague (OSL) twice (only 8 other players have achieved that). He is the first of three players to win two consecutive OSLs. He holds the record for being number 1 in KeSPA 's rankings for 17 consecutive months. Boxer made a comeback in 2005, winning second place in the So1 OSL 2005, but had to retire from professional gaming to join the Korean military service, which is mandatory for all Korean males. On 3 October 2006 he played his rival (NC)... Yellow in "Superfight '', which he won 3 -- 2. One of the most popular fights with (NC) Yellow was Boxer 's Famous SCV rush, where he sent his SCV 's and a couple of marines and won in five minutes. His total record of televised matches before he joined the Korean Air Force was 500 wins and 338 losses. Recently, Boxer became one of the first members of the Korean Air Force pro-gaming team ACE (an acronym of Air Force Challenges E-sports), where he continued playing as a pro-gamer. He made the GomTV 2 MBC Game Starleague in 2007, but was eliminated in the group stages. When his air force contract expired on December 24, 2008, he rejoined his former team SK Telecom T1, appearing actively in Pro League in July 2009. In October 2010 he switched over to StarCraft 2 and competed in GomTV GSL 2. In November 2010 he officially retired from his KeSPA pro-gamer status to only focus on SC2 and have the opportunity to form a new SC2 - team sponsored by Intel.
The "Genius Terran '' (also known as "Tornado Terran '') started his pro-gaming career by beating ChRh (Choi In Kyu) on the "Amateur vs Pro '' TV show. Statistically, he 's the best player in history, having won the most starleague championships (6). He has a consistent and dominating style, backed up with excellent macro. Once believed to also have the best micro among all StarCraft players (e.g. Nada 's Vultures), in fact, Nada 's infantry army was considered unbeatable for a long time. He has been on the team IS, KTF and now the Wemade FOX, formerly Pantech EX, formerly known as Toona SG. Nada has won 3 OSLs, 3 MSLs, and the first KT - KTF invitational tournament. After a resurgent OSL victory in late 2006, NaDa became the first player to have won the OSL 3 times, winning the "Golden Mouse ''. He recently qualified for his tenth MSL, but failed to qualify for the next OSL. Nada managed to reach the final sixteen in both the 2008 MSL and OSL, but was stifled of another attempt at a trophy by Hwasin and Jangbi respectively. As of December 2008 he is ranked 18 in KeSPA. As of June 2009, Nada has fallen to rank 31 in the KeSPA ranking system, making it the first time that he 's been out of the top 30 since March 2002.
In October 2010 after his contract ended, he retired from playing StarCraft: Brood War professionally instead NaDa is currently pursuing a professional gaming career in StarCraft 2: Wings of Liberty. NaDa joined the StarCraft II team, Complexity Gaming, but announced his retirement in June 2012 due to financial difficulty, current poor state of health pending military issues, and various family issues.
The next on line of successful Terran players after Boxer and Nada, iloveoov 's macro is even better than Nada 's, leading to him being jokingly known as the "Cheater Terran '' due to his ability to create large armies in a short span of time. He is also known as "Monster '' because of his dominance over his opponents. He has won the MBCGame Starleague (MSL) three times in succession, an amazing feat, and in November 2004 finally won the OSL, cementing his place as one of the strongest players of the game. He won his 2nd OSL title in March 2006, defeating JulyZerg in the 1st ShinHan Bank tournament. iloveoov has now retired from professional gaming and is currently a coach for the SKT1 squad with Kingdom. However, in November 2008, he declared to come back to the squad and works as playing - coach in SKT. His first coming back game was held 17 November. He played against Kim Myung Un (Zerg) and lost, himself using Valiath (Valkyrie + Goliath).
He has an interesting relationship with Boxer (who was on the same SK Telecom T1 team with him), as he sees Boxer as a kind of "older brother '' or mentor (Boxer brought iloveoov to the professional scene after seeing his talent in amateur leagues), and as a result, was somewhat regretful for beating him (3 -- 2) in the finals of the EVER OSL in November 2004. He also won the WCG in 2006, beating Julyzerg 2 -- 1 in the finals.
Nicknamed "The Little Monster '', "God - Young - Ho '', and "Ultimate Weapon '', Flash arrived in the gaming scene by famously defeating Bisu in a Starleague game by "cheesing '' his opponent. He was heavily criticized by StarCraft fans as a "cheap '' player, but he dispelled all accusations by dominating the StarCraft gaming scene. He propelled his team KTF (now KT Rolster) into Proleague victories and championships by winning the 2010 Proleague. Flash is involved in one of the most intense and famous rivalries with Jaedong. Flash holds a variety of world records such as longest TvT winning streak, longest TvP winning streak, youngest Starleague winner, youngest Golden Mouse winner, highest KeSPA rank of all time, and the highest overall Elo, TvP, TvZ and TvT ranks of all time. He has been in 3 consecutive dual starleague finals, winning 4 golds within the past year. He recently defeated Kal (Goojila) in the 2010 World Cyber Games, eventually becoming the world champion. He also came back in 2017 and won the ASL season 2, defeating sea in a series of 3 - 1. He had to beat Jaedong in the semi-finals and it went to the 5th game, which he eventually won 3 - 2.
Hong Jin Ho known as "Storm Zerg '' was an early rival to Lim Yo - Hwan (Boxer), losing several starleague finals to him. Hong is known for his aggressive and harass - style play, and for his rivalry with BoxeR.
Hong is famous for never having won first place in major StarCraft tournaments despite his strong performance. Hong managed to finish second place six times in the events, never once attaining a major championship, which earned him the title "King of Silver. '' While there are some tournaments in which he finished first, these records was invalidated when the KeSPA announced to accept only OSL and MSL records. His notable victories include first place in the 2003 ITV 5th Starleague, the Snickers All - Star league in 2005 and the first BlizzCon invitational tournament.
Hong suffered his last major defeat against Han "Casy '' Dong - wook in the semi-finals of the Shinhan Bank Season 1 OSL in 2006, and claimed 3rd place. Due to poor performance in the following OSL, Hong had fallen into a slump from which he has not recovered. Hong reached the round of 32 in the GOMTV Averatech Classic, but was eliminated by oDin (Joo Young - Dal). He is now in the Korean Air Force since November 2008, and has enlisted in the StarCraft team Air Force ACE.
After being a member of KAF ACE, Hong is recovering his form slowly but steadily. The trigger was an old - fashioned ' storm - like ' victory against Bisu (Shield) on 20 June 2009 in Shinhan Bank ProLeague 08 - 09, after 735 days of silence. He could not qualify for either OSL nor MSL since Shinhan Bank OSL season 2 in 2006, but in the end of Shinhan Bank ProLeague 09 - 10 season, Hong ended the season securing a 3 - game winning streak, including a dramatic victory against Jaedong.
Hong officially announced his retirement from professional gaming on his website on 16 June 2011. At his retirement ceremony, BoxeR jokingly handed him an empty StarCraft 2 box. BoxeR said that the box was empty, but the account was at the Slayers clan house and if Hong ever considered transitioning into StarCraft 2, he knew where to go.
As of August 2011 he is appearing in a reality series entitled "Project A '' on GOMtv. The series follows Hong as he attempts to qualify for the GOMTV Global StarCraft II League and relaunch his progaming career in StarCraft 2. The series premiered on 12 August 2011
sAviOr (previously known as IPXZerg) has won three MSLs and one OSL, and reached five consecutive MSL finals during the height of his dominance. Nicknamed "Maestro '' for his incredible play, timing, and game sense, he is often viewed as the most successful and fearsome Zerg of all time, having defeated BoxeR, iloveoov, NaDa, Midas, Nal_rA and many other top players. He is well known for his perfect defiler usage, particularly in the ZvT matchup. sAviOr made the semifinals of the 2007 September -- November GOM TV MSL but was surprisingly eliminated by Terran player Mind 2 -- 3. Soon after, he was eliminated 1 -- 2 by Bisu in the 2007 Ever OSL quarterfinals. sAviOr is currently in a competitive slump, having been eliminated from the first round of both the most recent OSL and MSL. However, he has since qualified for the next upcoming MSL and is currently ranked 53rd in the February 2010 KeSPA ranking. On April 13, 2010, he was implicated in a cheating scandal involving several Korean pro gamers, illegal betting websites, and allegations of games being deliberately lost. As the investigation continued, Savior eventually admitted his guilt on May 20, and was forced into retirement by KeSPA.
Known as the "Lord of Destruction '', and the "Tyrant '', Jaedong was Team 8 's ace player, and gained fame from taking down many top players when he first entered the scene, earning the nickname "Legend Killer ''. He is known for his incredible micro of mutalisks, his trademark unit. His ZvT and ZvZ are among the best the progaming scene has ever witnessed, and he is currently regarded as the best Zerg player, if not the best player overall. He walked the Royal Road by qualifying for the OSL for the first time and defeating Stork in the EVER OSL finals 3 -- 1. Soon thereafter, he proved that his ZvP matchup was not weak by defeating Bisu in the GOMTV MSL S4 group stages. Since his OSL win, Jaedong 's ZvP has statistically been his second strongest matchup (71.25 %) Jaedong has also won the MSL season 4 by defeating Siz) Kal 3 -- 1 in March, 2008, further proving himself as the top Zerg on the scene. Jaedong set a new record for the highest ZvZ streak by winning 12 games straight, only losing to Oversky in the Proleague. As of June 2009, he is 72 -- 19 (79.12 %) in ZvZ, and considering that ZvZ is thought to be one of the most volatile and luck based matchups, this is a very impressive feat. In July 2008, he was defeated in the Arena MSL 2008 Finals 0 -- 3 by his teammate Park Ji - Su (ForGG), but he was able to bounce back from his loss and defeat his rival Flash 3 -- 0 in the TG Sambo Intel Classic finals. He has won his second OSL title against Fantasy in the Batoo OSL 2009. In the Summer 2009 StarCraft season, he was the only player to make the quarterfinals of every Starleague: GOMTV Avertec Classic, OSL, and MSL. He also carried his team through the Shinhan Bank 08 - 09 Proleague and brought them a second - place finish. On August 22, 2009 he once again proved that he is one of the best StarCraft players in the scene by winning the Bacchus OSL (his third OSL title) and thus winning the Golden Mouse. Jaedong was ranked 1st in the February 2010 KeSPA rankings. Jaedong has also been a very popular person outside of StarCraft having done commercials for various Korean companies and attending several international competitions such as the World Cyber Games 2 years in a row (2008 -- 2009) and is the WCG champion for 2009, after beating his fellow Korean, Stork in the finals. He is well known for his intense and focused demeanor during play and his tendency to excel under pressure.
In 2012, Jaedong left Team 8 and joined North American based organisation Evil Geniuses on a one - year contract, in order to compete in the first SC2 Proleague season.
JulyZerg (or simply "July ''), the "God of War '', was credited with revitalizing what had been stagnant Zerg play, and of leading the way for a kind of "Zerg renaissance '' with his highly dynamic and aggressive style, incorporating a strong understanding of his opponent 's weaknesses and immaculate unit control. He is the first Zerg player to win an OSL; having accomplished this feat in 2004, and he also won the second KT - KTF Premiere League. In July 2005 he won a second OSL, something that to that date only four other players have accomplished, and after a long slump managed to win the Ever OSL 2008, making him the second player and first zerg to win 3 OSL titles and claiming the Golden Mouse trophy. July is known for being closer to the amateur community than the typical professional player, having played in amateur leagues such as the WGTour Speed Ladder in the past, and was one of the players on the Asian team for the friendly Blizzard Invitational Tournament held in early 2005. JulyZerg is currently playing StarCraft II on the pro team ST, but is serving in the military until 2014.
Reach, nicknamed "MAN - TOSS '' (due to his muscular build and brute strategies) or "Hero Protoss '', is the Protoss player who has been most consistent in the long term, beating Boxer in an OSL final near the height of his dominance, and generally placing well in tournaments. He is generally known for his standard / solid / safe style of play, with flawless macro and use of Psi Storm (the latter of which earned him the other nickname "Mudang Protoss '', meaning shaman Protoss in Korean, owing to the uncanny accuracy of his Psionic Storm use), although he has been leaning away from this slightly in recent times due to changes in the playing style of the other races. Reach is known for his PvP and PvT skills, with his PvZ being inconsistently brilliant. Park was the captain of the KTF progaming team. Reach has been absent from the Starleagues and KeSPA rankings for 18 months but has recently returned to StarCraft pro-gaming tournaments, qualifying for the 2007 Season 1 OSL. Reach has slumped since his return and is currently enlisted with Yellow in Air Force ACE. Currently, Reach has shown some return to form with impressive victories in the ProLeague. Since his retirement from professional Brood War he became coach of the Najin Corporation League of Legends teams.
The ' Dreaming Protoss ' is often considered to be a Protoss version of Boxer due to his highly creative and daring play. He frequently hides his buildings in other parts of the map and pioneered and standardized several notable Protoss strategies such as fast expanding and using corsairs and reavers in tandem against Zerg. He won an OSL and MSL in the same season and does exceptionally well in team tournaments, playing for KTF. He has won the Blizzard WorldWide Invitational tournament during early 2006. He has recently recovered from a severe slump; and qualified for ShinHan Bank 2 OSL and made it to the Pringles MSL finals by defeating Kingdom, but lost 3 -- 1 to sAviOr. He also made it to the Semi-Finals of the subsequent Pringles 2 MSL, only to lose again at the hands of sAviOr. Nal_rA has now retired from progaming and is currently a broadcaster for OnGameNet. In 2009, it was announced that Nal_rA would retire from commentating and that he would pursue a career in teaching at Seoul Institute Of The Arts.
Bisu (meaning "assassin 's dagger '' in Korean), nicknamed "Ninja Toss '' for his creative Dark Templar use, plays at the highest level of progaming. He had moderate success in Shinhan OSL 2 where he made it to the sweet 16 playoff round. Bisu rose to prominence when he unexpectedly defeated sAviOr 3 -- 0 in the March 2007 GOM MSL final at the height of Savior 's dominance. Bisu is also known as the "Revolutionist '' for his strong PvZ, and changing how Protoss players play the matchup. He also recently won the July 2007 GOM MSL 2 by defeating Stork 3 -- 2. Bisu is the first Protoss player to reach the 1st spot in KeSPA history. Bisu lost 1 -- 3 to Mind in the finals of the September GOM MSL 3 and was eliminated by Stork in the semifinals of the EVER OSL. Bisu was eliminated in the group stages of GOM MSL 4, losing most notably to Jaedong. However, he made it to the semifinals of the Bacchus OSL, but was eliminated by Flash. Bisu recently regained his dominant form by defeating free in ClubDay MSL semifinal, and defeated Jangbi in final to win his 3rd MSL title, the first and only Protoss to achieve this feat. For the first time in StarCraft progaming history, two opponents faced in a final back to back, once again, Bisu defeated Jangbi 3 -- 1 in the GOM Averatec - Intel Classic Season 2 tournament. Inexplicably, his performance in OSL did not yield him any championships which is the only knock on his career so far. Bisu is known for his amazing plays against zerg having popularized the forge fast expand and the Bisu build. He is currently ranked 2nd in the August 2009 Kespa rankings and is considered to be the best protoss in history. His team SKT1 also won their second proleague grand finals with Bisu being the ace player of their team having won the most matches for them and having the best win - loss ratio in the entire tournament. Unfortunately, he has been slumping for a long time and has one of the lowest Elo ratings among the top players of each race.
Stork, nicknamed ' The Faultless Supreme Commander ' for his all - round ability against all (vs protoss 60.8 %, vs zerg 53.9 %, vs terran 66 %), is one of the highest pro-gamers, ' Taek - Bang - LeeSSang '. His debut was 2004, and now he is the oldest progamer in active. He was focused when he won CYON 2004 challenge league, and got 4th rank of EVER starleague 2005. However he could n't get contentable grade. After his frustration, he did n't give up, and finally he made victory of Samsung KHAN in 2007, 2008. At that time, he became the finalist of EVER starleague 2007 and 2007 Bacchus starleague, but he was lost by Flash, and Jaedong. His career was wonderful, but only second place, and it made him called as ' Kong - Line (successor of Yellow, Hong Jin - Ho) '. However, finally he got the win at Incruit starleague and he was the legend of fall (This is the Legend of protoss who won the starleague at fall. First is Park Jung - suk (DAUM OSL 2002), and continued by Oh Yeong - jong (So1 OSL 2005), Song Byung - Gu (Incruit OSL 2008), and Hu Young - Moo (Jin - air OSL 2011)). In 2008, he also won the WCG2007 Grand - Final, against Sha Junchun, China). In 2009, he became the finalist of many contest such as WCG, IEF. And because of this career, he got the other nickname, ' Song Sun - sin (compound of Song (Last name) and Lee Sun - sin (the greatest general of Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592)). He continues to go through to round of 16 of OSL for 17th and 13th in a row (2007 DAUM (3rd) - EVER (2nd) - 2008 bacchus (2nd) - EVER (round of 16) - Incruit (1st) - 2009 Batoo (round of 8) - bacchus (round of 16) - EVER (round of 8) - 2010 Korean Air S1 (round of 16) - Korean Air S2 (3rd) - 2011 Bacchus (2nd) - Jin air (round of 16) - 2012 OSL (con)). He made lots of record - the most fanalist among Protoss of Private starleague (5th), the most participant for round of 16 (27th), the most successive victory against terran (12th), the first reverse - all - kill (got 4 victories in one game) among protoss, etc. NOW, He is the captain and also ACE of Samsung Khan.
The two most prestigious and lucrative series of tournaments were the Ongamenet Starleague and MBCgame Starleague.
The following winners are all listed from oldest to most recent. Note that many of the Starleagues are named after the corporate sponsor for that year and that the other finalists are given in descending order of their finish. P / T / Z after a player 's name indicates whether they played Protoss, Terran or Zerg respectively. The players are from South Korea except when noted.
2003:
2004 SKY:
2005 SKY:
2006 SKY:
2007 Shinhan Bank:
2008 Shinhan Bank: (There is no Season1 or 2.)
2008 -- 2009 Shinhan Bank (Introduced Winners ' League into format):
2009 -- 2010 Shinhan Bank:
2010 -- 2011 Shinhan Bank:
2011 - 2012 SK Planet:
Winners of the KBK:
Winners of the OGN King Of Kings tournament:
Winners of the MBC Winner 's Championship:
Winners of the KT - KTF Premiere League:
Winners of BlizzCon:
Winner of the CKCG (China - Korea Cyber Games)
Winner of the Snickers All - Star league:
Winners of WEF (World e-sports Festival):
Winners of Blizzard Worldwide Invitational:
Winner of IEF (International e-sports Festival):
Winner of the Shinhan Masters tournament:
Winner of GOM Star Invitational:
Winner of GOM Averatec - Intel Classic:
Winner of GOM Averatec - Intel Classic Special Match:
The act of watching StarCraft games as a spectator sport at area bars became known as barcraft and expanded to bars internationally. With the success and popularity of Barcrafts, bars calling themselves "eSports Bars '' have arisen. These bars are similar to the traditional sports bars, but instead of broadcasting sports like football and soccer, they broadcast a variety of eSports games instead and serve specialty gaming themed drinks.
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which is the most common use of opt-in e-mail marketing | Email marketing - Wikipedia
Email marketing is the act of sending a commercial message, typically to a group of people, using email. In its broadest sense, every email sent to a potential or current customer could be considered email marketing. It usually involves using email to send advertisements, request business, or solicit sales or donations, and is meant to build loyalty, trust, or brand awareness. Marketing emails can be sent to a purchased lead list or a current customer database. The term usually refers to sending email messages with the purpose of enhancing a merchant 's relationship with current or previous customers, encouraging customer loyalty and repeat business, acquiring new customers or convincing current customers to purchase something immediately, and sharing third - party ads.
Email marketing has evolved rapidly alongside the technological growth of the 21st century. Prior to this growth, when emails were novelties to the majority of customers, email marketing was not as effective. In 1978, Gary Thuerk of Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) sent out the first mass email to approximately 400 potential clients via the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET). This email resulted in $13 million worth of sales in DEC products, and highlighted the potential of marketing through mass emails. However, as email marketing developed as an effective means of direct communication, users began blocking out content from emails with filters and blocking programs. In order to effectively communicate a message through email, marketers had to develop a way of pushing content through to the end user, without being cut out by automatic filters and spam removing software. This resulted in the birth of triggered marketing emails, which are sent to specific users based on their tracked online browsing patterns.
Historically, it has been difficult to measure the effectiveness of marketing campaigns because target markets can not be adequately defined. Email marketing carries the benefit of allowing marketers to identify returns on investment and measure and improve efficiency. Email marketing allows marketers to see feedback from users in real time, and to monitor how effective their campaign is in achieving market penetration, revealing a communication channel 's scope. At the same time, however, it also means that the more personal nature of certain advertising methods, such as television advertisements, can not be captured.
Email marketing can be carried out through different types of emails:
Transactional emails are usually triggered based on a customer 's action with a company. To be qualified as transactional or relationship messages, these communications ' primary purpose must be "to facilitate, complete, or confirm a commercial transaction that the recipient has previously agreed to enter into with the sender '' along with a few other narrow definitions of transactional messaging. Triggered transactional messages include dropped basket messages, password reset emails, purchase or order confirmation emails, order status emails, reorder emails, and email receipts.
The primary purpose of a transactional email is to convey information regarding the action that triggered it. But, due to their high open rates (51.3 % compared to 36.6 % for email newsletters), transactional emails are an opportunity to introduce or extend the email relationship with customers or subscribers; to anticipate and answer questions; or to cross-sell or up - sell products or services.
Many email newsletter software vendors offer transactional email support, which gives companies the ability to include promotional messages within the body of transactional emails. There are also software vendors that offer specialized transactional email marketing services, which include providing targeted and personalized transactional email messages and running specific marketing campaigns (such as customer referral programs).
Direct email involves sending an email solely to communicate a promotional message (for example, a special offer or a product catalog). Companies usually collect a list of customer or prospect email addresses to send direct promotional messages to, or they rent a list of email addresses from service companies. Safe mail marketing is also used.
Email marketing develops large amounts of traffic through smartphones and tablets. Marketers are researching ways to advertise to more users and to make them view advertising for longer. However, the rate of delivery is still relatively low due to better filtering - out of advertising and users having multiple email accounts for different purposes. Because emails are generated according to the tracked behavior of consumers, it is possible to send advertising which is based on the recipient 's behavior. Because of this, modern email marketing is perceived more often as a pull strategy rather than a push strategy.
There are both advantages and disadvantages to using email marketing in comparison to traditional advertising mail.
Email marketing is popular with companies for several reasons:
As of mid-2016 email deliverability is still an issue for legitimate marketers. According to the report, legitimate email servers averaged a delivery rate of 73 % in the U.S.; six percent were filtered as spam, and 22 % were missing. This lags behind other countries: Australia delivers at 90 %, Canada at 89 %, Britain at 88 %, France at 84 %, Germany at 80 % and Brazil at 79 %.
Additionally, consumers receive on average circa 90 emails per day.
Companies considering the use of an email marketing program must make sure that their program does not violate spam laws such as the United States ' Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography and Marketing Act (CAN - SPAM), the European Privacy and Electronic Communications Regulations 2003, or their Internet service provider 's acceptable use policy.
Opt - in email advertising, or permission marketing, is a method of advertising via email whereby the recipient of the advertisement has consented to receive it. This method is one of several developed by marketers to eliminate the disadvantages of email marketing.
Opt - in email marketing may evolve into a technology that uses a handshake protocol between the sender and receiver. This system is intended to eventually result in a high degree of satisfaction between consumers and marketers. If opt - in email advertising is used, the material that is emailed to consumers will be "anticipated ''. It is assumed that the recipient wants to receive it, which makes it unlike unsolicited advertisements sent to the consumer. Ideally, opt - in email advertisements will be more personal and relevant to the consumer than untargeted advertisements.
A common example of permission marketing is a newsletter sent to an advertising firm 's customers. Such newsletters inform customers of upcoming events or promotions, or new products. In this type of advertising, a company that wants to send a newsletter to their customers may ask them at the point of purchase if they would like to receive the newsletter.
With a foundation of opted - in contact information stored in their database, marketers can send out promotional materials automatically using autoresponders -- known as drip marketing. They can also segment their promotions to specific market segments.
The Australian Spam Act 2003 is enforced by the Australian Communications and Media Authority, widely known as "ACMA ''. The act defines the term unsolicited electronic messages, states how unsubscribe functions must work for commercial messages, and gives other key information. Fines range with 3 fines of AU $110,000 being issued to Virgin Blue Airlines (2011), Tiger Airways Holdings Limited (2012) and Cellar master Wines Pty Limited (2013).
The "Canada Anti-Spam Law '' (CASL) went into effect on July 1, 2014. CASL requires an explicit or implicit opt - in from users, and the maximum fines for noncompliance are CA $ 1 million for individuals and $10 million for businesses.
In 2002 the European Union (EU) introduced the Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications. Article 13 of the Directive prohibits the use of personal email addresses for marketing purposes. The Directive establishes the opt - in regime, where unsolicited emails may be sent only with prior agreement of the recipient; this does not apply to business email addresses.
The directive has since been incorporated into the laws of member states. In the UK it is covered under the Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003 and applies to all organizations that send out marketing by some form of electronic communication.
The CAN - SPAM Act of 2003 was passed by Congress as a direct response of the growing number of complaints over spam e-mails. Congress determined that the US government was showing an increased interest in the regulation of commercial electronic mail nationally, that those who send commercial e-mails should not mislead recipients over the source or content of them, and that all recipients of such emails have a right to decline them. The act authorizes a US $16,000 penalty per violation for spamming each individual recipient. However, it does not ban spam emailing outright, but imposes laws on using deceptive marketing methods through headings which are "materially false or misleading ''. In addition there are conditions which email marketers must meet in terms of their format, their content and labeling. As a result, many commercial email marketers within the United States utilize a service or special software to ensure compliance with the act. A variety of older systems exist that do not ensure compliance with the act. To comply with the act 's regulation of commercial email, services also typically require users to authenticate their return address and include a valid physical address, provide a one - click unsubscribe feature, and prohibit importing lists of purchased addresses that may not have given valid permission.
In addition to satisfying legal requirements, email service providers (ESPs) began to help customers establish and manage their own email marketing campaigns. The service providers supply email templates and general best practices, as well as methods for handling subscriptions and cancellations automatically. Some ESPs will provide insight and assistance with deliverability issues for major email providers. They also provide statistics pertaining to the number of messages received and opened, and whether the recipients clicked on any links within the messages.
The CAN - SPAM Act was updated with some new regulations including a no - fee provision for opting out, further definition of "sender '', post office or private mail boxes count as a "valid physical postal address '' and definition of "person ''. These new provisions went into effect on July 7, 2008.
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who becomes governor of the lieutenant governor dies | Lieutenant Governor of California - wikipedia
The Lieutenant Governor of California is a statewide constitutional officer and vice-executive of the State of California. The lieutenant governor is elected to serve a four - year term and can serve a maximum of two terms. In addition to basically ceremonial roles, serving as acting governor in the absence of the Governor, and as President of the California State Senate, the lieutenant governor either sits on, or appoints representatives to, many of California 's regulatory commissions and executive agencies.
California is one of eighteen states where the governor and lieutenant governor do not run as running mates on the same ticket: in California the governor and lieutenant governor are elected separately, although both are up for election in the same year every four years. As a result, California has frequently had a governor and a lieutenant governor of different parties.
California has had 41 lieutenant governors and five acting lieutenant governors since achieving statehood in 1850. The current lieutenant governor is Gavin Newsom, who was sworn into office on January 10, 2011.
The California Constitution provides that all the powers of the governor fall to the lieutenant governor whenever the governor is not in the State of California, with the lieutenant governor often signing or vetoing legislation, or making political appointments, whenever the governor leaves the state.
In practice, there is a gentlemen 's agreement for the Lieutenant Governor not to perform more than perfunctory duties while the Governor is away from the state. This agreement was violated when Mike Curb was in office, as he signed several executive orders at odds with the administration of Jerry Brown, when Brown was out of the state. Court rulings have upheld the lieutenant governor 's right to perform the duties and assume all of the prerogatives of governor while the governor is out of the state.
The lieutenant governor is also the President of the California State Senate.
The Lieutenant Governor sits on the Board of Regents of the University of California, California State University Board of Trustees, Ocean Protection Council, California Emergency Council, and State Lands Commission. The Lieutenant Governor of California chairs the Commission for Economic Development which is responsible for fostering economic growth in California by developing and implementing strategies for attracting new business to the state, increasing state exports, creating new jobs, and stimulating industries statewide.
Many California projects created through gubernatorial executive orders, or through the initiative process, include a role for the Lieutenant Governor. For example, the Lieutenant Governor serves on the Agriculture - Water Transition Task Force (created by Governor Gray Davis), and five of the twenty - nine members of the oversight committee of the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine are appointed by the Lieutenant Governor.
Some academics and scholars such as Roger E. Noll and Bruce Cain in Constitutional Reform in California have criticized constitutional offices like the Lieutenant Governor because of their low visibility among the electorate that can make it difficult for the electorate to hold constitutional officers like the Lieutenant Governor responsible for their actions. Although the Lieutenant Governor of California 's powers and responsibilities are clearly lesser than those of the Governor, the ability to make appointments to, and decisions on, the boards of executive agencies does allow the Lieutenant Governor to make policy decisions that, due to their separate election, might well conflict with the agenda of the Governor. Thus, it is argued, California might benefit if the Governor and the Lieutenant Governor ran on the same ticket. The Lieutenant Governor would then be more likely to help the Governor -- who is subject to a greater degree of voter scrutiny -- to implement his or her policies, but that is unlikely.
In 2003, although Lt. Governor Cruz Bustamante and Governor Gray Davis were both Democrats, they reportedly had an icy relationship and had not spoken in months before the 2003 California recall election approached. Bustamante 's decision to run in the recall election was controversial, as many supporters of Governor Davis had urged prominent Democrats not to run, in an attempt to undermine the legitimacy of the event.
Despite being the second highest - ranking office in California, the Lieutenant Governor has no real responsibility or power to represent the governor on issues such as trade negotiations or a legislative agenda (i.e. in contrast to its powerful counterpart in Texas), so the job has been jokingly defined by political insiders as "get up, read the paper, see if the governor is dead, if not, go back to sleep. '' Despite its prestige, it has not been a strong springboard to higher political office; Gray Davis was the only Democrat in state history and the only state politician in the last eight decades to be elected governor after holding the post. Furthermore, the Lieutenant Governor 's office budget has suffered considerable cutbacks in recent times; the proposed annual budget for July 2011 will be slightly over $1 million and include three staffers, while from 1995 to 1999 the office had an $1.3 million annual budget with a staff of 17. By contrast the Attorney General of California oversees 5,300 employees, including 1,110 state attorneys, and its 2010 budget was over $700 million.
Political party affiliation:
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who sang take another piece of my heart | Piece of My Heart - wikipedia
"Piece of My Heart '' is a romantic love song written by Jerry Ragovoy and Bert Berns and originally recorded by Erma Franklin in 1967. The song came to greater mainstream attention when Big Brother and the Holding Company (featuring Janis Joplin on lead vocals) covered the song in 1968 and had a much bigger hit with it. The song has since been remade by several singers, including Dusty Springfield on her 1968 album Dusty... Definitely, Bryan Ferry on his solo debut album These Foolish Things in 1973 and hit versions by Faith Hill in 1994 and by Melissa Etheridge in 2005.
In 2004 the Big Brother and the Holding Company version of this song was ranked Number 353 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The song is also included among The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll.
The original version of "Piece of My Heart '' was recorded by Aretha Franklin 's older sister Erma in 1967 for producer Bert Berns ' Shout label. The song reached number 10 on the R&B charts in the US, and also peaked at number sixty - two on the U.S. Pop Singles chart. In the UK, the single was re-released in 1992, due to a successful Levi 's jeans commercial ("Cinderella '' AKA "Night and Day '' directed by Tarsem Singh), when it peaked inside the UK Singles Chart at number nine.
The song became a bigger pop hit when recorded by Big Brother and the Holding Company in 1968, with lead singer Janis Joplin. The song was taken from the group 's album Cheap Thrills, recorded in 1968 and released on Columbia Records. This rendition made it to number twelve on the U.S. pop chart. The song 's instrumentation was arranged by Sam Andrew, who also performed three distorted, loud guitar solos giving the song a psychedelic touch.
Franklin said in an interview that when she first heard Joplin 's version on the radio, she did n't recognize it because of the vocal arrangement. Noted cultural writer Ellen Willis wrote of the difference: "When Franklin sings it, it is a challenge: no matter what you do to me, I will not let you destroy my ability to be human, to love. Joplin seems rather to be saying, surely if I keep taking this, if I keep setting an example of love and forgiveness, surely he has to understand, change, give me back what I have given ''. In such a way, Joplin used blues conventions not to transcend pain, but "to scream it out of existence ''.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Country artist Faith Hill included the song on her debut album, Take Me as I Am (1993). It was a number one hit for her in 1994. Hill 's version took on a more passive tone coupled with traditional country instrumentation. Prior to recording the track, Hill had never heard Janis Joplin 's rendition. Hill 's producers refused to allow her to listen to the Joplin version until she had completed her own recording.
Hill re-recorded the track for the soundtrack to the TV series King of the Hill, released in 1998. This edgier version can also be found on the 1998 international pressing of her third album, Faith (re-titled "Love Will Always Win '' outside the U.S.) and 2001 international greatest hits album There You 'll Be. Her original version was included in her 2007 greatest hits album The Hits.
A live medley of this song with Janis Joplin and the Full Tilt Boogie Band 's 1971 song "Cry Baby '' became a hit duet for American rock singer Melissa Etheridge and English soul singer Joss Stone when it was released to iTunes Store after they performed it at the 47th Grammy Awards on February 13, 2005, in tribute to Joplin. The lively event reached number thirty - two on the Billboard Hot 100 and number two on the Hot Digital Tracks in April 2005. The performance also signaled Etheridge 's first public return from her battle with breast cancer; appearing with her head bald from the effects of chemotherapy. Etheridge also recorded a solo version of "Piece of My Heart '' on her 2005 greatest hits album Greatest Hits: The Road Less Traveled.
The most recent remake of "Piece of My Heart '' to chart was by English soul singer Beverley Knight in 2006.
On her 2005 Affirmation Tour, Beverley performed the song to great critical acclaim and her fans along with Ronnie Wood, which encouraged her to make a studio recording of the song. Piece of My Heart was the lead single from her 2006 best - of compilation Voice - The Best of Beverley Knight. It peaked inside the top ten of the UK radio airplay chart. The physical single was released on March 13, 2006. Due to a change in the UK chart rules which allowed singles to chart purely on downloads a week before their physical release, "Piece of My Heart '' entered the UK chart at number ninety - three, becoming one of the first singles to do so. It ranked at number sixteen after its physical commercial release. It was her first single to be released as a DVD. It is her longest - running single to date on the UK Singles Chart, spending eleven weeks inside the top seventy - five. It was her thirteenth top forty entry and her seventh top twenty hit on the UK Singles Chart.
Other Versions
The song appeared on "Home, '' the debut album of Delaney & Bonnie, released in 1969, with Bonnie Bramlett on lead vocals and backing musicians including Booker T. & the MGs.
It was also released by Sammy Hagar on his "Standing Hampton '' album, along with a picture disc of the single.
The song was featured in an episode of Parenthood (2010 TV series) offering some music history in the process. Guest star CeeLo Green and band were portrayed recording 2 versions as part of a tribute to co-composer Ragovoy who had recently died. The musicians returned to the studio (owned by 2 of the show 's main characters) because Green said he realized he was n't doing the song justice by trying the emulate Janis Joplin 's arrangement, and choosing to record a more soulful rendition in the style of Erma Franklin.
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when did the top of the triangle restaurant close | List of revolving restaurants - wikipedia
The following is a list of revolving restaurants. A revolving restaurant is usually a tower restaurant (an eating space) designed to rest atop a broad circular revolving platform that operates as a large turntable. The building remains stationary and the diners are carried on the revolving floor.
A new revolving restaurant will open soon at Westin Jakarta, replacing Empire Grill Menara Kuningan, which closed in 2010.
Le Kuklos, Leysin
The Piz Gloria
There are now no remaining functional revolving restaurants in the UK.
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who wrote the song i'm so lonesome i could cry | I 'm So Lonesome I Could Cry - wikipedia
"I 'm So Lonesome I Could Cry '' is a song written and recorded by American country music singer - songwriter Hank Williams in 1949. Williams wrote the song originally intending that the words be spoken, rather than sung, as he had done on several of his Luke the Drifter recordings. The song about loneliness was largely inspired by his troubled relationship with wife Audrey Sheppard. With evocative lyrics, such as the opening lines "Hear that lonesome whip - poor - will / He sounds too blue to fly, '' the song has been covered by a wide range of musicians. During his Aloha from Hawaii TV - special, Elvis Presley introduced it by saying, "I 'd like to sing a song that 's... probably the saddest song I 've ever heard. ''
According to Colin Escott 's 2004 book Hank Williams: A Biography, Williams was inspired to write the song when he found it on a schedule of upcoming MGM releases. The song was recorded on August 30, 1949 at Herzog Studio in Cincinnati, Ohio. Williams is backed by members of the Pleasant Valley Boys - Zeke Turner (lead guitar), Jerry Byrd (steel guitar), and Louis Innis (rhythm guitar) - as well as Tommy Jackson (fiddle) and Ernie Newton (bass). As Escott observes, the plaintive despair in Williams ' voice on the recording is echoed by the backing of the musicians:
Remarkably, the song was released as the B - side to the blues "My Bucket 's Got a Hole in It '' because up - tempo numbers were deemed more appropriate for the jukebox trade than melancholy ballads. The single reached # 4 on the country chart in 1949. The song has become closely identified with Williams ' legend and musical legacy and has been widely praised. In the 2003 documentary The Road to Nashville, singer k.d. lang states, "I think ' I 'm So Lonesome I Could Cry ' is one of the most classic American songs ever written, truly. Beautiful song. '' In his autobiography, Bob Dylan recalls, "Even at a young age, I identified with him. I did n't have to experience anything that Hank did to know what he was singing about. I 'd never heard a robin weep, but could imagine it and it made me sad. '' In its online biography of the singer, Rolling Stone notes, "In tracks like ' I 'm So Lonesome I Could Cry ' Williams expressed intense, personal emotions with country 's traditional plainspoken directness, a then - revolutionary approach that has come to define the genre through the works of subsequent artists from George Jones and Willie Nelson to Gram Parsons and Dwight Yoakam. '' Rolling Stone ranked it # 111 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, the oldest song on the list, and # 3 on its 100 Greatest Country Songs of All Time.
Williams ' version ranked # 29 in CMT 's 100 Greatest Songs in Country Music in 2003.
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he legislative system is given powers granted to it by the constitution in | Powers of the United States Congress - wikipedia
Powers of the United States Congress are implemented by the United States Constitution, defined by rulings of the Supreme Court, and by its own efforts and by other factors such as history and custom. It is the chief legislative body of the United States. Some powers are explicitly defined by the Constitution and are called enumerated powers; others have been assumed to exist and are called implied powers.
Article I of the Constitution sets forth most of the powers of Congress, which include numerous explicit powers enumerated in Section 8. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution.
Congress has authority over financial and budgetary matters, through the enumerated power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States. The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, extended power of taxation to include income taxes. The Constitution also grants Congress exclusively the power to appropriate funds. This power of the purse is one of Congress ' primary checks on the executive branch. Other powers granted to Congress include the authority to borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally both Senate and House have equal legislative authority although only the House may originate revenue bills and, by tradition, appropriation bills.
The Constitution also gives Congress an important role in national defense, including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces, and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress 's Constitutionally - defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812, the Mexican -- American War, the Spanish -- American War, World War I, and World War II, although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get Congressional assent. Presidents have initiated war without Congressional war declarations; Truman called the Korean War a "police action '' and the Vietnam War lasted over a decade without a declaration of war. In 1970, Time magazine noted: "All told, it has been calculated, U.S. presidents have ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times '' before 1970. In 1993, one writer noted "Congress 's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution, '' and that the "real erosion (of Congressional authority to declare war) began after World War II. '' President George H.W. Bush claimed he could begin Operation Desert Storm and launch a "deliberate, unhurried, post -- Cold War decision to start a war '' without Congressional approval. Critics charge that President George W. Bush largely initiated the Iraq War with little debate in Congress or consultation with Congress, despite a Congressional vote on military force authorization. Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation 's history.
Congress also has the power to establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. '' Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union.
One of the foremost non-legislative functions of the Congress is the power to investigate and to oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress ' subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Valerie Plame Wilson episode sometimes known as the Plame affair, some critics, including Representative Henry A. Waxman, charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. Other critics charge Congress was lax in its oversight duties regarding presidential actions such as warrantless wiretapping, although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of decisions by President George W. Bush involving such matters.
Congress also has the exclusive impeachment power, allowing impeachment, trial, and removal of the President, federal judges and other federal officers.
Among the powers specifically given to Congress in Article I Section 8, are the following:
1.To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;
2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States;
3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Native American tribes;
4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;
5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;
6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States;
7. To establish post offices and post roads;
8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;
9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;
10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations;
11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;
12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;
13. To provide and maintain a navy;
14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces;
15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions;
16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;
17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles (16 km) square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings.
Other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of all citizens regardless of race, including voting rights, due process, and equal protection under the law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress.
Congress also has implied powers, which derive from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution and permit Congress "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. '' Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause, the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v Maryland, have effectively widened the scope of Congress ' legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section 8.
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how many assist did wilt chamberlain have in his 100 point game | Wilt Chamberlain 's 100 - point game - wikipedia
Wilt Chamberlain set the single - game scoring record in the National Basketball Association (NBA) by scoring 100 points for the Philadelphia Warriors in a 169 -- 147 win over the New York Knicks on March 2, 1962, at Hershey Sports Arena in Hershey, Pennsylvania. It is widely considered one of the greatest records in basketball. Chamberlain set five other league records that game including most free throws made, a notable achievement, as he was regarded as a poor free throw shooter. The teams broke the record for most combined points in a game (316). That season, Chamberlain averaged a record 50.4 points per game, and he had broken the NBA single - game scoring record (71) earlier in the season in December with 78 points. The third - year center had already set season scoring records in his first two seasons. In the fourth quarter, the Knicks began fouling other players to keep the ball away from Chamberlain, and they also became deliberate on offense to reduce the number of possessions for Philadelphia. The Warriors countered by committing fouls of their own to get the ball back.
The game was not televised, and no video footage of the game has been recovered; there are only audio recordings of the game 's fourth quarter. The NBA was not yet a major sports league and struggled to compete against college basketball. The attendance at this game was around half of capacity, and no members of the New York press were at the game.
Chamberlain was in his third season in the NBA, having set season scoring records in each of his first two seasons with 37.6 and then 38.4 points per game. Frank McGuire, the Warriors ' new coach, started the season vowing to get the ball to Chamberlain "two - thirds of the time. '' Sports Illustrated wrote that McGuire 's "eventual effect may be to measurably change the character of professional basketball from the brawling, hustling, cigar - in - the - face and eye - on - the - till game it has been for decades to the major league sport which it longs and deserves to be. '' He was determined to play Chamberlain every minute of every game; the 7 - foot - 1 - inch (2.16 m) and 260 - pound (120 kg) center had missed only eight minutes and 33 seconds that season due to disqualification in a game from technical fouls. In three earlier games that week, Chamberlain had scored 67, 65, and 61 points respectively, giving him an already - record 15 times scoring 60 or more points in his career. He was closing in on 4,000 points for the season, needing 237 more; no other player had ever scored 3,000 points at that point. On December 8, 1961, in a triple overtime game versus the Los Angeles Lakers, he set a new NBA record by scoring 78 points, breaking the record of 71 previously set by Elgin Baylor. Legendary Laker broadcaster Chick Hearn often told the story that after the game, he asked Baylor if it bothered him that Chamberlain had an extra 15 minutes to break the record. According to Hearn, Baylor said he was n't concerned because "someday that guy is going to score 100 ''. Rival center Bill Russell predicted, "(Chamberlain) has the size, strength, and stamina to score one hundred some night. '' In a high school game in 1955, Chamberlain had scored 90 points in a 123 -- 21 victory. The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote, "Chamberlain might have hit 100 if he had played the entire 32 minutes. ''
Before Chamberlain, the most dominant big man in the NBA was 6 - foot - 10 - inch (2.08 m) George Mikan. In November 1950, the Fort Wayne Pistons held the ball for minutes at a time without shooting to limit the impact of the Minneapolis Lakers ' Mikan. The Pistons attempted 13 shots in the game, and won 19 -- 18. NBA President Maurice Podoloff said, "In our game, with the number of stars we have, we of necessity run up big scores. '' In the 1950 -- 51 season, teams averaged just above 80 points per game. The NBA introduced the 24 - second shot clock in 1954, and league scoring and attendance increased. By the 1961 -- 62 season, teams were averaging 119 points each game. Chamberlain that season was one of 37 black players in the league, the NBA having started integration of blacks in 1950. With their emergence, the NBA game was stylistically being played faster and above the rim. Many of the league 's great players were black, and blacks believed they were limited by a league quota of four black players per team. Critics suggested that basketball was becoming uninteresting with taller players dominating. Warriors teammate Joe Ruklick thought that "the attitude (among white players in the NBA) was, in my opinion, ' (Chamberlain) is a freak who will come and go. There will never be a black guy doing this again. ' '' Chamberlain, nicknamed Dipper, was revolutionizing the sport with his slam dunks, nicknamed the Dipper Dunk. Traditionalists considered dunking poor sportsmanship, and their occurrence was rare. As the league 's second tallest player, Chamberlain began dunking more regularly. He was still more of a finesse player, preferring fadeaway shots and finger rolls. He rarely dunked forcefully. Teammate Paul Arizin believed Chamberlain did not want to be perceived as great merely from being tall.
There was little advance excitement about the pending Warriors - Knicks game that Friday. Only five games remained in the regular season, with the Warriors (46 -- 29) in second place -- eleven games behind the Boston Celtics -- and the Knicks in last place. Chamberlain had spent the night before the game in New York City, partying all night with a female companion before dropping her off at her home at 6 am With no sleep and suffering from a hangover, he boarded the train to Philadelphia at 8 am, met several friends at the Philadelphia train station, and had a long lunch with them, thus almost missing the team bus to Hershey. The other players were similarly bored. Warriors player York Larese said: "The biggest thrill in my life was to see that. There was nothing exciting about the Knicks playing the Warriors in Hershey. Chocolate was more exciting. '' The game was played at Hershey Sports Arena, an old drafty gym originally built for ice hockey. The league occasionally played games in remote towns to attract new fans. This was the Warriors ' third "home '' game of the season in Hershey, which was 85 miles (137 km) from Philadelphia. The Warriors ' Tom Meschery called the arena "god - forsaken place... The town of Hershey was built around a huge chocolate factory; everything there became permeated with the smell of chocolate. It was practically impossible to stay indoors; people felt sick. I was just dreaming to leave the place as fast as I could. ''
On a cold, rainy Friday night, only 4,124 spectators paid to see the game, more to see players from the Philadelphia Eagles, the local American football team, play an exhibition basketball game against their colleagues from the Baltimore Colts before the NBA game started. The arena 's capacity was over 8,000, and Warriors owner Eddie Gottlieb was infamous for exaggerating attendance numbers. Warriors home attendance had dropped from 7,000 in Chamberlain 's rookie season to less than 5,000 in this, his third, season. College basketball had started offering doubleheaders during the Great Depression to provide customers value for their money. Fans had grown accustomed to watching two games, so doubleheaders in the NBA became common.
The National Basketball Association was still struggling in its 16th season, not yet a major sports league and less established than college basketball. The league was hardly national, with only one team, the Los Angeles Lakers, west of St. Louis. The NBA received low television ratings, and this game was not televised. The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) considered not renewing the league 's television contract. No members from the New York press were present as reporters were in Florida covering spring training for the New York Yankees and the expansion New York Mets. With few in the media present, the Warriors ' publicist was tasked this night with being the stringer for the Associated Press (AP), United Press International (UPI), and The Philadelphia Inquirer. Only two photographers were at the game.
The Knicks were shorthanded with their starting center, Phil Jordon, out sick. Jordon 's illness was officially reported as influenza but it was widely suspected he was simply hung over. Jordon, in an early - season game, had played Chamberlain even, scoring 33 points to the Warriors center 's 34. The Knicks instead started 6 - foot - 10 - inch (2.08 m), 220 - pound (100 kg), second - year player Darrall Imhoff, a strong defensive player in college who led the California Golden Bears to the NCAA championship in 1959 and won a gold medal in the 1960 Summer Olympics. New York also had 6 - foot - 9 - inch (2.06 m), 210 - pound (95 kg), backup center Cleveland Buckner, a better shooter than a defender who Chamberlain overpowered for an NBA record 28 points in one quarter two days earlier.
According to McGuire, the game did not start with any game plan to get Chamberlain 100 points. After a few minutes, the Warriors led 19 -- 3, and their star center had already scored 13 points and made his first five shots. At the end of the first quarter, the Knicks trailed 42 -- 26, and in his typical style, Chamberlain had already scored 23 points, making all nine of his free throws. Free throws were the weakest part of his game, making barely more than half in his first seasons. He had started shooting free throws underhanded that season per McGuire 's suggestion. Chamberlain at that point was thinking more about a free throw shooting record than scoring a lot of points; the NBA record was 24 free throws made in a game. Imhoff was soon benched because of foul trouble. After one foul, he snapped at the referee, "Well, why do n't you just give the guy a hundred now and we 'll all go home! '' Neither referee had ever been a lead official before, and Imhoff privately wished a stronger lead was working the game. By halftime, the Warriors had lost some of their edge, but still led 79 -- 68. Chamberlain 's point total stood at 41. The Warriors felt little excitement, as he had scored 60 or more points on 15 previous occasions. "I often came into the locker room with 30 or 35 points, therefore, 41 points was not a big deal '', Chamberlain later explained. During halftime, the Warriors ' Guy Rodgers said, "Let 's get the ball to Dip. Let 's see how many he can get. '' McGuire agreed.
This simple tactic proved unstoppable. Soon, he had surpassed the 50 - point barrier, causing arena speaker Dave Zinkoff to fire up the previously sleepy crowd. Chamberlain also kept his cool despite getting perpetually triple and quadruple - teamed by the Knicks, who did not shy away from hard fouls to distract the center. McGuire was irate and demanded that the referees call more fouls, but Chamberlain could not be stopped. He scored another 28 points to lift his Warriors to a commanding 125 -- 106 lead by the end of the third quarter. His own total stood at 69, nine shy of his previous scoring record. The Knicks ' third center, Dave Budd, who alternated with the foul - troubled Imhoff at pivot, later stated that resistance was futile: "You could n't play (Chamberlain) conventionally because he was so big. The only thing you could attempt to do was either front him, and in that case they 'd try to lob it in to him, or beat him down the floor and set up where he wanted to get and force him out a couple of extra steps. The guy weighed 300 or 270 (pounds), so that was n't easy, either. '' Chamberlain now realized he could break his own 73 - point scoring record (for a regulation 48 - minute game) or his record 78 points, set in triple overtime.
Dave Zinkoff, the public address announcer, began announcing Chamberlain 's point total after each of his baskets. With ten minutes to play in the game, Warriors forward Tom Meschery sensed the team concept breaking down. The team 's offense had shifted to getting Chamberlain the ball and then stopping and watching instead of cutting and moving without the ball. Chamberlain needed 25 points with eight minutes remaining to reach 100, a rate equivalent to 150 points in a full game. He scored his 79th point with 7: 51 left, breaking his own record and sending the crowd into a frenzy. The 4,124 spectators screamed, "Give it to Wilt! Give it to Wilt! '' After he reached 80, the crowd yelled for 100. Chamberlain thought, "Man, these people are tough. I 'm tired. I 've got 80 points and no one has ever scored 80. '' The Warriors continued giving Chamberlain the ball. Warrior Al Attles later explained, "We wanted that Wilt got the record, because we all liked him. '' Attles himself led by example, passing up on an easy layup so that Chamberlain could score points 88 and 89, five minutes before the end.
With six minutes remaining, the Knicks began intentionally fouling any Warrior except Chamberlain, keeping the ball out of the center 's hands. New York also began moving the ball slowly and using as much of the shot clock as possible to leave fewer opportunities for Chamberlain to score. Effectively, they played the opposite of what a normal club would do if they faced a deficit, willingly giving up many easy points instead of making attempts to rally back. Meschery said the Warriors lobbed the ball in from the sideline across the floor directly to Chamberlain, who would use his size and strength to get the ball. Chamberlain was the only Warrior to make a field goal in almost four minutes before Meschery made a jump shot at 4: 15. Philadelphia began quickly fouling New York with around four minutes left, reciprocating the intentional foul strategy. Warriors coach Frank McGuire at one point pulled out his entire starting five, save Chamberlain, and replaced them with bench players. The intention was to foul the Knicks, get the ball back after free throws and give Chamberlain the ball. Thus each team spent the last minutes fouling each other. The Warriors ended with 25 personal fouls, and the Knicks with 32, and lost Imhoff and Willie Naulls with six fouls.
With 2: 12 left, Chamberlain had 94 points, and he scored on a fadeaway for his 96th point. His next basket at 1: 19 came off a lob pass from York Larese for a powerful dunk that was rare for Chamberlain. Gary M. Pomerantz in his book Wilt, 1962: The Night of 100 Points and the Dawn of a New Era wrote that Chamberlain 's usual "Dipper Dunk '' was "a considerably less emphatic basket stuff, like a rock that barely ripples the pond. '' With less than a minute left in the game, Chamberlain set up in the post. Ruklick passed to Rodgers, who passed to Chamberlain close to the basket, but he missed the shot. Ted Luckenbill rebounded and passed it back to Chamberlain, who missed again. Luckenbill again rebounded and this time passed to Ruklick, who eschewed an easy layup and instead lobbed a high pass to Chamberlain. With 46 seconds left, Chamberlain got free from the five Knicks, jumped high and put the ball into the basket to hit the century mark. Eyewitness accounts of the historic basket differ as to whether Chamberlain merely laid the ball in or actually stuffed the ball through the hoop for an alley - oop slam dunk. In any event, the arena exploded in a frenzy and over 200 spectators stormed the floor, wanting to touch the hero of the night. Ruklick immediately ran to the scorer 's table to ensure that he was officially credited with the assist.
For years, the belief was that the final 46 seconds of the game were not played after Chamberlain scored his 100th point due to the celebration on the court; Chamberlain himself was quoted as having made that claim. However, recordings from the WCAU radio broadcast include announcer Bill Campbell resuming his play - by - play call after Chamberlain 's 100th point and calling the game to its conclusion. A copy of the radio broadcast of the game was only uncovered in 1988. WCAU 's original game tape had been recorded over by one of its engineers, a standard practice in those days. However, a Philadelphian had recorded with a Dictaphone part of Campbell 's coverage in the fourth quarter, but only the Warriors possessions. Two years later, a reel - to - reel tape of Campbell 's entire fourth quarter call surfaced; Jim Trelease, then a college student at the University of Massachusetts, had recorded a 3 am re-broadcast of the fourth quarter of the game. The NBA merged the reel - to - reel with the Dictaphone tape, which also included a short postgame show. German sports journalist Gunter Bork specified that the interruption resulting from Chamberlain 's 100th point lasted for nine minutes, after which play continued.
Over the years, Harvey Pollack, who at the time was in charge of publicity and statistics for the Warriors, has given conflicting statements on the question. In a 1992 book, he was twice quoted as saying that the game ended with 46 seconds remaining. But in a 2002 interview quoted by Chamberlain biographer Robert Cherry, Pollack said that the last 46 seconds were played, and that Chamberlain just stood in the middle circle, waiting for the game to end and not wanting to touch the ball, as "100 sounded better than 102 ''. The game 's official box score notes that Warrior Joe Ruklick missed two free throws after the break. Ruklick said he planned to miss the second free throw in hopes that Chamberlain might rebound it and get 102 points.
The radio postgame show reported the Warriors defeating the Knicks 169 -- 150. However, the official scorer 's report recorded the game as 169 -- 147, a discrepancy that has never been explained. Chamberlain made 36 of 63 field - goals and 28 of 32 free throws, the latter a far better rate than his roughly 50 % career average. In two earlier games at Hershey that season, Chamberlain had made a combined 27 of 38 free throws, 71 percent. The basket rims at the arena were aged, flimsy, and forgiving. Balls would bounce off of typical firm rims, whereas balls near the rim in Hershey were apt to get a good roll and fall in. Playing all 48 minutes of the game, Chamberlain set NBA records for field goals attempted (63) and made (36), free throws made (28), most points in a quarter (31), and half (59). He averaged 73 points in four games that week, exceeding 60 in all of them.
Rodgers finished with a game - high 20 assists and later said: "It was the easiest game ever for me to get assists, all I had to do was pass it to Wilt. '' Attles was a defensive specialist who rarely scored, yet went 8 -- 8 from the field and hit his single free throw. He later lamented, "In the game where I literally could n't miss, Wilt had to go out and score 100. ''
The Warriors and Knicks combined for a record 316 points. Philadelphia fell short of the Boston Celtics ' then - record of 173 points in a game. It was not uncommon for late - season NBA games to feature little defense. Celtics guard Bob Cousy said that the level of play in the NBA decreased as the season progressed, and "defenses are out of gas '' by the end of the season.
The following night, Chamberlain got permission to travel back to New York with three Knicks players. According to Cherry, Chamberlain drifted in and out of sleep and got a kick overhearing the New York players talk about the "S.O.B. who scored 100 points on us ''. On March 4, the Warriors played the Knicks again in Madison Square Garden, and Imhoff got a standing ovation for "holding '' Chamberlain to 58 points.
The record was not highly anticipated like the four - minute mile had been. In Philadelphia, there was little fanfare in The Philadelphia Inquirer or The Philadelphia Bulletin, which both had a box on the front page announcing the achievement with a story in the sports section. Philadelphia Daily News had no mention on its cover. The Bulletin wrote, "Thus was fulfilled a prophecy made the first time the magnificent 7'1 '' scoring star of the Warriors played a game in the National Basketball Association three years ago. '' New York City papers ran stories from the news agencies. The New York Times and The New York Herald Tribune ran the AP story on pages 14 and 11, respectively. The New York Daily News ran the UPI story on page 26. The New York Post gave prominent back - page coverage to Chamberlain 's feat on Sunday. The New York Daily News on Sunday wrote, "Basketball is not prospering because most normal sized American youngsters or adults can not identify themselves with the freakish stars... You just ca n't sell a seven - foot basket stuffing monster to even the most gullible adolescent. '' In his prime, Chamberlain was such a dominant scorer that his feat was mostly taken for granted. Warriors player Al Attles said that after Chamberlain 's previous record 78 - point game, "It was only a matter of time until he reached 100, you could wait for it. '' Warriors coach Frank McGuire initially thought the same thing, then said, "I always thought it was inevitable that he would do it. But when he did, I stopped and thought about it. I could n't believe it. ''
Chamberlain thanked his teammates. "It would n't even have been close to possible without them. They wanted me to get it as much I did. '' He added, "They had to do more than just give up open shots. They had to avoid fouls and pass me the ball in traffic. '' Knicks ' player Richie Guerin felt the Warriors broke a code of honor in sports by embarrassing an opponent and setting a record outside the normal flow of the game. Although effusive in his praise of Chamberlain, Guerin nonetheless estimated that if the game had played out normally, Chamberlain would have finished 15 to 20 points shy of 100. Chamberlain countered he could have scored 140 if the Knicks "had played straight - up basketball. '' New York coach Eddie Donovan suggested, "The game was a farce. They would foul us and we would foul them. '' The Knicks ' Naulls stated, "The game was not a fluke... I thought it was absolutely authentic. '' Imhoff said Zinkoff 's announcements did not help the Knicks ' cause.
Johnny Kerr of the Syracuse Nationals marveled, "How about this: He 's the world 's worst free - throw shooter and he 's 28 out of 32! '' Cousy figured the game must have gone out of control, just as when Cousy had 29 assists when the Celtics scored 173 points against Minneapolis. Boston coach Red Auerbach laughed, "He 's playing against nobody. '' Bill Russell smiled and said, "The Big Fella finally did it. '' In a conversation with Naulls after the game, Chamberlain predicted he would win his NBA championships but still be known for his individualism, versus Russell who was credited for making his team -- the Boston Celtics -- great. Two days after the historic feat, Chamberlain made a guest appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show.
Chamberlain finished the season with a record of 50.4 points per game. He scored a record 4,029 points, more than the division - winning Warriors in 1947 -- 48 scored as a team. He played in a record 3,882 minutes -- including every minute of 79 (a record) of 80 games. He averaged 48.5 minutes per game. An NBA game is 48 minutes, but Chamberlain played in 10 overtime periods in seven games. He was second in the league in field goal percentage at. 506 and made 61 percent of his free throws, a career high. The Warriors finished the season with a 49 -- 31 record. They lost in the conference finals of the playoffs to the Celtics, losing the seventh game 109 -- 107. The closest Chamberlain came again to 100 was 73 and 72 points the next season, when he also averaged 44.8 points. The NBA in 1964 widened the lane from 12 feet (3.7 m) to 16 feet (4.9 m) to limit Chamberlain, and he averaged 36.9 that season.
The anniversary of the game was not widely commemorated until its silver anniversary in 1987. By that time, the NBA had grown to be a popular sports league with average attendance of 13,000 fans per game and star players like Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, and Michael Jordan. The Warriors ' PR director Harvey Pollack said an impossible 40,000 people claimed to have seen the game, and some even testified it took place in Madison Square Garden. Chamberlain later stated it was one of his favorite games, but not the favorite: that title belonged to the match in which he grabbed an NBA record 55 rebounds against perennial rival Bill Russell. He did not want to feed the criticism that he was more interested in personal stardom than winning. Although Chamberlain won two NBA championships and was the NBA 's all - time leading scorer and rebounder when he retired, he was mostly remembered as the man who had single - handedly scored 100 points in a game. Chamberlain publicly embraced the 100 - point game in his final years. On a radio show commemorating the game 's 31st anniversary in 1993, he said, "As time goes by, I feel more a part of that 100 - point game. '' He explained that growing up on the streets, he would have been derisively labelled a gunner, a glory - hound, for attempting 63 shots. "You take that many shots on the playground, and no one ever wants you on their team again. '' He said he took shots he normally would not, noting that in contests which he considered to be better he scored 50 to 60 points on around 75 percent shooting, as opposed to his 57 percent shooting in the 100 - point game. He was proud that people who knew nothing about basketball would point out the game to their kids when they saw him. "I know that it has been my tag. I am definitely proud of it. But it was definitely a team effort. You had to see some of the things my teammates did to get me the ball... It was almost like a circus out there for a while. ''
Two other participants were profoundly affected. Firstly, Knicks center Darrall Imhoff was branded as the player who let Chamberlain score 100 on him, although he only played 20 of 48 minutes and was not on the court when it happened. On the other hand, the game immortalized little - used Warriors reserve player Joe Ruklick as the man who gave Chamberlain the 100 - point assist. Decades later, The New York Times interviewed Ruklick and found out that he refers to himself as "a walking footnote '' of one of basketball 's greatest moments. The game also produced the famous picture of Chamberlain sitting on a bench, holding up a paper with a scribbled "100 ''. The photograph was actually a matter of improvisation: when Warriors PR manager Harvey Pollack entered the Warriors locker room, he took a paper and scribbled the number on it, and Associated Press photographer Paul Vathis who was there at the game (not for professional reasons, but rather because he wanted to give his son a treat) took the now - famous photo. Cherry calls it the "ultimate picture '' of Wilt Chamberlain.
Chamberlain 's 100 points is widely considered one of basketball 's greatest records. Decades after his record, many NBA teams did not even average 100 points as fewer field goals per game were being attempted. The closest any player has gotten to 100 points was the Los Angeles Lakers ' Kobe Bryant, who scored 81 in a 122 -- 104 win over the Toronto Raptors on January 22, 2006. Whereas Chamberlain was fed repeatedly by teammates for inside shots in a blowout win, Bryant created his own shot -- mostly from the outside -- in a game which the Lakers trailed at halftime by 14 and did not pull away until the fourth quarter. Chamberlain, playing in an era when the games were paced faster and scoring opportunities were more plentiful, accounted for 59 percent of his team 's points, compared to Bryant scoring 66 percent of the Lakers ' 122 points. Bryant afterwards said Chamberlain 's record was "unthinkable... It 's pretty exhausting to think about it. '' David Thompson broke Chamberlain 's record for points in a quarter by scoring 32 in the first quarter of his 73 - point game. Adrian Dantley tied the record of 28 free throws made in a regular season game on January 4, 1984, but through the 2010 -- 11 season, all of Chamberlain 's other records set that day still stand. Twenty years after the Warriors and Knicks combined for 316 points, the San Antonio Spurs defeated the Milwaukee Bucks 171 -- 166 in triple overtime on March 6, 1982, for a total of 337 points. That record was broken more quickly as the Detroit Pistons defeated the Denver Nuggets 186 -- 184 (also in triple overtime) on December 13, 1983, for 370 points.
Pomerantz wrote in his 2005 book that the lack of videotape of the 100 - point game "only added to its mystique. '' For a while, NBA Commissioner David Stern 's office phone would play Campbell 's call of the 100 - point basket to callers on hold: "He made it! He made it! He made it! A Dipper Dunk! '' Kerry Ryman, who was 14 years old when he attended the game, claimed to have left the arena with the basketball that Chamberlain used to score his famous basket. The ball was auctioned by Leland 's Auction in 2000 for $551,844, which was the then - third highest sports memorabilia auction price. After controversy over the ball 's authenticity, the sale was suspended. The ball was relisted months later and sold for only $67,791. Attles contends that Chamberlain gave him the actual 100 - point ball. In 2014, Josh Pastner, then head coach of the Memphis Tigers, stated that his father, who was a ballboy for the Warriors, had taped the game starting in the second quarter. Pastner 's father had been attempting to locate the footage among his many boxes, but he also conceded that the footage might be lost.
In 1961 -- 62, the NBA 's three highest scoring averages were by black players (Chamberlain, Baylor, Walt Bellamy). Oscar Robertson, a Hall of Famer, believes the NBA would have lost its small television contract and not survived without the emergence of black superstars. "People heard about Wilt scoring a 100, averaging 50 a night, and they wanted to see the guy do it... I believe Wilt Chamberlain single - handedly saved the league. '' Naulls wrote, "Wilt had rung the bell of freedom loud and clear, shouting, ' Let my people be free to express themselves. ' For we were and will be for all time those who withstood the humiliation of racial quotas even to the point of the NBA 's facing extinction because of retarded expression and stagnating growth. ''
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where is albania located on the world map | Albania - Wikipedia
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Albania (/ ælˈbeɪniə, ɔː l - / (listen), a (w) l - BAY - nee - ə; Albanian: Shqipëri / Shqipëria; Gheg Albanian: Shqipni / Shqipnia or Shqypni / Shqypnia), officially the Republic of Albania (Albanian: Republika e Shqipërisë, pronounced (ɾɛpuˈblika ɛ ʃcipəˈɾiːsə)), is a country in Southern and Southeastern Europe. It spans 28,748 square kilometres (11,100 square miles) and had a total population of 3 million people as of 2016. Albania is a unitary parliamentary constitutional republic with the capital in Tirana, the country 's most populous city and main economic and commercial centre, followed by Durrës. The country 's other major cities include Vlorë, Sarandë, Shkodër, Berat, Korçë, Gjirokastër and Fier.
Albania occupies the southwestern portion of the Balkan Peninsula, bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east, and Greece to the south and southeast. The country features notable diversity with the landscape ranging from the Albanian Alps in the north, Korab Mountains in the east, Ceraunian Mountains in the south and Skanderbeg Mountains in the center. It has a coastline on the northern shore of the Mediterranean Sea; the Adriatic Sea to the west and the Ionian Sea to the southwest, forming the Albanian Riviera. Albania is less than 72 km (45 mi) from Italy across the Strait of Otranto which connects the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea.
During the classical times, Albania was inhabited by various ancient Illyrian, Thracian and Greek tribes, as well as several Greek colonies established inside the Illyrian coast. In the third century BC, the region was annexed by Rome and became part of the Roman provinces of Dalmatia, Macedonia and Moesia Superior. The unified Principality of Arbër emerged in 1190, established by archon Progon in the Krujë, within the Byzantine Empire. In the late thirteenth century, Charles of Anjou conquered the Albanian territories from the Byzantines and established the medieval Kingdom of Albania, extending from Durrës along the coast to Butrint in the south. Falling in the mid-fifteenth century under Ottoman dominion, the modern nation state of Albania emerged in 1912 following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and Balkan Wars. The modern Kingdom of Albania was invaded by Italy in 1939, which formed Greater Albania, before becoming a Nazi German protectorate in 1943. The following year, a socialist People 's Republic emerged under the leadership of Enver Hoxha and the Party of Labour. The country experienced widespread social and political transformations in the communist era, as well as isolation from much of the international community. In the aftermath of the Revolutions of 1991, the Socialist Republic was dissolved and the fourth Republic of Albania was established.
Albania is a democratic and developing country with an upper - middle income economy. The service sector dominates the country 's economy, followed by the industrial and agriculture sector. Following the collapse of communism in 1990, Albania went through a process of transition from a centralized economy to a market - based economy. Albania has a high Human Development Index and is ranked thirty - seventh in the world for life expectancy. It provides universal health care and free primary and secondary education to its citizens. Albania is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, UNESCO, NATO, WTO, CoE, OSCE and OIC. It is also an official candidate for membership in the European Union. Furthermore, Albania is one of the founding members of the Energy Community, including the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, and Union for the Mediterranean.
The term Albania is the medieval Latin name of the country. It may be derived from the Illyrian tribe of Albani (Albanian: Albanët) recorded by Ptolemy, the geographer and astronomer from Alexandria, who drafted a map in 150 AD, which shows the city of Albanopolis located northeast of the city of Durrës. The term may have a continuation in the name of a medieval settlement called Albanon or Arbanon, although it is not certain that this was the same place. In his history written in the 10th century, the byzantine historian Michael Attaliates was the first to refer to Albanoi as having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople in 1043 and to the Arbanitai as subjects of the Duke of Dyrrachium. During the Middle Ages, the Albanians called their country (Arbëri or Arbëni) and referred to themselves as (Arbëreshë or Arbëneshë).
Nowaday, Albanians call their country Shqipëri or Shqipëria. As early as the 17th century the placename (Albanian: Shqipëria) and the ethnic demonym (Shqiptarë) gradually replaced (Arbëria and Arbëresh). The two terms are popularly interpreted as "Land of the Eagles '' and "Children of the Eagles ''.
The first traces of human presence in Albania, dating to the Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic eras, were found in the village of Xarrë, near Sarandë and Mount Dajt near Tiranë. The objects found in a cave near Xarrë include flint and jasper objects and fossilized animal bones, while those found at Mount Dajt comprise bone and stone tools similar to those of the Aurignacian culture. The Paleolithic finds of Albania show great similarities with objects of the same era found at Crvena Stijena in Montenegro and north - western Greece.
Several Bronze Age artefacts from tumulus burials have been unearthed in central and southern Albania that show close connection with sites in south - western Macedonia and Lefkada, Greece. Archaeologists have come to the conclusion that these regions were inhabited from the middle of the third millennium BC by Indo - European people who spoke a Proto - Greek language. A part of this population later moved to Mycenae around 1600 BC and founded the Mycenaean civilisation there. Another population group, the Illirii, probably the southernmost Illyrian tribe of that time that lived on the border of Albania and Montenegro, possibly neighbored the Greek tribes.
In ancient times, the territory of modern Albania was mainly inhabited by a number of Illyrian tribes. This territory was known as Illyria, corresponding roughly to the area east of the Adriatic sea to the mouth of the Vjosë river in the south. The first account of the Illyrian groups comes from Periplus of the Euxine Sea, an ancient Greek text written in the middle of the 4th century BC. The south was inhabited by the Greek tribe of the Chaonians, whose capital was at Phoenice, while numerous colonies, such as Apollonia, Epidamnos and Amantia, were established by Greek city - states on the coast by the 7th century BC.
One of the most powerful tribes that ruled over modern Albania was the Ardiaei. The Ardiaean Kingdom reached its greatest extent under Agron, son of Pleuratus II. Agron extended his rule over other neighboring tribes as well. After Agron 's death in 230 BC, his wife Teuta inherited the Ardiaean kingdom. Teuta 's forces extended their operations further southward into the Ionian Sea. In 229 BC, Rome declared war on Illyria for extensively plundering Roman ships. The war ended in Illyrian defeat in 227 BC. Teuta was eventually succeeded by Gentius in 181 BC. Gentius clashed with the Romans in 168 BC, initiating the Third Illyrian War. The conflict resulted in Roman victory and the end of Illyrian independence by 167 BC. After his defeat, the Roman split the region into three administrative divisions.
During the medieval period, the area what is now known as Albania, remained under Byzantine control until the Slavs began to overrun the country from the 7th century. Later it was captured by the Bulgarian Empire in the 9th century. After the weakening of the Byzantine Empire and the Bulgarian Empire in the 13th century, some of the territory of modern Albania was captured by the Serbian Principality. In general, the invaders destroyed or weakened Roman and Byzantine cultural centers in the lands, that would become Albania.
The territorial nucleus of the Albanian state formed in the Middle Ages, as the Principality of Arbër and the Kingdom of Albania. The Principality of Arbër or Albanon (Arbër or Arbëria), was the first Albanian entiy during the Middle Ages, it was established by archon Progon (Progoni i Krujës) in the region of Krujë, in 1190. Progon, was succeeded by his sons Gjin and Dhimitri, the latter which attained the height of the realm. After the death of Dhimiter, the last of the Progon family, the principality came under the Greek Gregory Kamonas Lord of Krujë, and later Golem. The Principality was dissolved in 1255. Pipa and Repishti conclude that Arbanon was the first sketch of an "Albanian state '', and that it retained semi-autonomous status as the western extremity of an empire (under the Doukai of Epirus or the Laskarids of Nicaea).
The Kingdom of Albania (Mbretëria e Arbërisë) was established by Charles of Anjou (Karli Anzhu) in the Albanian territory. In 1271, he conquered from the Despotate of Epirus. One year later in February 1272, he took the title of King of Albania. The kingdom extended from the region of Dyrrhachium (modern Durrës), south along the coast to Butrint. After the creation of the kingdom, a catholic political structure was a basis for the papal plans of spreading Catholicism in the Balkans. This plan found also the support of Helen of Anjou, a cousin of Charles of Anjou, who was at that time ruling territories in North Albania. Around 30 catholic churches and monasteries were built during her rule in North Albania and also in Serbia. From 1331 to 1355, the Serbian Empire wrestled control over Albania. After the dissolution of the Serbian Empire, several Albanian principalities were created, and among the most powerful were the Balsha, Thopia, Kastrioti, Muzaka and Arianiti. In the first half of the 14th century, the Ottoman Empire invaded most of Albania. In 1444, the Albanian principalities were united under George Castrioti Skanderbeg (Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu), who became the national hero of the Albanian medieval history.
At the dawn of the establishment of the Ottoman Empire in southeastern Europe, the geopolitical landscape was marked by scattered kingdoms of small principalities. The Ottomans erected their garrisons throughout southern Albania in 1415 and occupied most of the country in 1431. However, in 1443 a great and longstanding revolt broke out under the lead of the Albanian national hero George Castrioti Skanderbeg (Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu), which lasted until 1479, many times defeating major Ottoman armies led by the sultans Murad II and Mehmed II. Skanderbeg united initially the Albanian princes, and later on established a centralized authority over most of the non-conquered territories, becoming the ruling Lord of Albania. He also tried relentlessly but rather unsuccessfully to create a European coalition against the Ottomans. He thwarted every attempt by the Turks to regain Albania, which they envisioned as a springboard for the invasion of Italy and western Europe. His unequal fight against the mightiest power of the time, won the esteem of Europe as well as some support in the form of money and military aid from Naples, Venice, Ragusa and the Papacy. With the arrival of the Ottomans, Islam was introduced in the country as a third religion. This conversion caused a massive emigration of Albanians to other Christian European countries, especially the Arbëreshë of Italy. Along with the Bosniaks, Muslim Albanians occupied an outstanding position in the Ottoman Empire, and were the main pillars of Ottoman Porte 's policy in the Balkans.
Enjoying this privileged position in the empire, Muslim Albanians held various high administrative positions, with over two dozen Grand Viziers of Albanian origin, such as Gen. Köprülü Mehmed Pasha, who commanded the Ottoman forces during the Ottoman - Persian Wars; Gen. Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed, who led the Ottoman armies during the Austro - Turkish War; and later Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt.
During the 15th century, when the Ottomans were gaining a firm foothold in the region, Albanian towns were organised into four principal sanjaks. The government fostered trade by settling a sizeable Jewish colony of refugees fleeing persecution in Spain (at the end of the 15th century). The city of Vlorë saw passing through its ports imported merchandise from Europe such as velvets, cotton goods, mohairs, carpets, spices, and leather from Bursa and Constantinople. Some citizens of Vlorë even had business associates throughout Europe.
Albanians could also be found throughout the empire in Iraq, Egypt, Algeria and across the Maghreb, as vital military and administrative retainers. This was partly due to the Devşirme system. The process of Islamization was an incremental one, commencing from the arrival of the Ottomans in the 14th century (to this day, a minority of Albanians are Catholic or Orthodox Christians, though the vast majority became Muslim). Timar holders, the bedrock of early Ottoman control in southeast Europe, were not necessarily converts to Islam, and occasionally rebelled; the most famous of these rebels is Skanderbeg (his figure would rise up later on, in the 19th century, as a central component of the Albanian national identity). The most significant impact on the Albanians was the gradual Islamisation process of a large majority of the population, although it became widespread only in the 17th century.
Mainly Catholics converted in the 17th century, while the Orthodox Albanians followed suit mainly in the following century. Initially confined to the main city centres of Elbasan and Shkodër, by this period the countryside was also embracing the new religion. The motives for conversion according to some scholars were diverse, depending on the context. The lack of source material does not help when investigating such issues. Albania remained under Ottoman control as part of the Rumelia province until 1912, when independent Albania was declared.
The National Renaissance (Rilindja Kombëtare) began in the 1870s and lasted until 1912, when the Albanians declared their independence. The League of Prizren (League for the Defense of the Rights of the Albanian Nation) (Lidhja e Prizrenit) was formed on June 1878, in the old town of Prizren, Kosovo Vilayet. At first the Ottoman authorities supported the League, whose initial position was based on the religious solidarity of Muslim landlords and people connected with the Ottoman administration. The Ottomans favoured and protected the Muslim solidarity, and called for defense of Muslim lands, including present - day Bosnia and Herzegovina. This was the reason for naming the league ' The Committee of the Real Muslims ' (Komiteti i Myslimanëve të Vërtetë). The League issued a decree known as Kararname. Its text contained a proclamation that the people from northern Albania, Epirus and Bosnia '' are willing to defend the ' territorial integrity ' of the Ottoman Empire by all possible means against the troops of the Bulgarian, Serbian and Montenegrin Kingdoms. However, it was signed by 47 Muslim deputies of the League on June 18, 1878. Around 300 Muslims participated in the assembly, including delegates from Bosnia and mutasarrif (sanjakbey) of the Sanjak of Prizren as representatives of the central authorities, and no delegates from Scutari Vilayet.
The Ottomans cancelled their support when the League, under the influence of Abdyl Bey Frashëri, became focused on working toward the Albanian autonomy and requested merging of four Ottoman vilayets, which includes Kosovo, Scutari, Monastir and Ioannina into a new vilayet of the Ottoman Empire, the Albanian Vilayet. The League used military force to prevent the annexing areas of Plav and Gusinje assigned to Montenegro by the Congress of Berlin. After several successful battles with Montenegrin troops such as in Novsice, under the pressure of the great powers, the League of Prizren was forced to retreat from their contested regions of Plav and Gusinje and later on, the league was defeated by the Ottoman army sent by the Sultan. The Albanian uprising of 1912, the Ottoman defeat in the Balkan Wars and the advance of Montenegrin, Serbian and Greek forces into territories claimed as Albanian, led to the proclamation of independence by Ismail Qemali in southern Vlorë, on November 28, 1912.
At the All - Albanian Congress in southern Vlorë on 28 November 1912, the participants constituted the Assembly of Vlorë. The assembly of eighty - three leaders, declared the nation as an independent country and set up a provisional government. The Provisional Government was established on the second session of the assembly on 4 December 1912. Furthermore, it was a government of ten members led by Ismail Qemali, until his resignation on 22 January 1914. However the Assembly also established the Senate (Pleqësi), with an advisory role to the government, consisting of 18 members of the Assembly.
The independence of Albania was recognized by the Conference of London on 29 July 1913. The drawing of the borders of the newly established Principality of Albania ignored the demographic realities of the time. The International Commission of Control was established on 15 October 1913 to take care of the administration of newly established Albania, until its own political institutions were in order. Its headquarters were in Vlorë. The International Gendarmerie was established as the first law enforcement agency of the Principality of Albania. In November, the first gendarmerie members arrived in the country. Prince of Albania Wilhelm of Wied (Princ Vilhelm Vidi) was selected as the first prince of the principality. On 7 March, he arrived in the provisional capital of Durrës and started to organise his government, appointing Turhan Pasha Përmeti to form the first Albanian cabinet.
In November 1913, the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered the throne of Albania to the Ottoman war Minister of Albanian origin, Ahmed Izzet Pasha. The pro-Ottoman peasants believed that, the new regime of the Principality of Albania was a tool of the six Christian Great Powers and local landowners, that owned half of the arable land.
In February 1914, the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was proclaimed in Gjirokastër by the local Greek population against incorporation to Albania. This initiative was short lived and in 1921, the southern provinces were finally incorporated to the Albanian Principality. Meanwhile, the revolt of Albanian peasants against the new Albanian regime erupted under the leadership of the group of Muslim clerics gathered around Essad Pasha Toptani, who proclaimed himself the savior of Albania and Islam. In order to gain support of the Mirdita Catholic volunteers from the northern part of Albania, Prince Wied appointed their leader, Prênk Bibë Doda, to be the foreign minister of the Principality of Albania. In May and June 1914, the International Gendarmerie was joined by Isa Boletini and his men, mostly from Kosovo, and northern Mirdita Catholics, were defeated by the rebels who captured most of Central Albania by the end of August 1914. The regime of Prince Wied collapsed and later he left the country on 3 September 1914.
The short - lived principality (1914 -- 1925) was succeeded by the first Albanian Republic (1925 -- 1928). In 1925 the four - member Regency was abolished and Ahmed Zogu was elected president of the newly declared republic. Tirana was endorsed officially as the country 's permanent capital. Zogu led an authoritarian and conservative regime, the primary aim of which was the maintenance of stability and order. Zogu was forced to adopt a policy of cooperation with Italy. A pact had been signed between Italy and Albania on 20 January 1925 whereby Italy gained a monopoly on shipping and trade concessions.
The Albanian republic was eventually replaced by another monarchy in 1928. In order to extend his direct control throughout the entire country, Zogu placed great emphasis on the construction of roads. Every male Albanian over the age of 16 years was legally bound to give ten days of free labor each year to the state. King Zogu remained a conservative, but initiated reforms. For example, in an attempt at social modernization, the custom of adding one 's region to one 's name was dropped. Zogu also made donations of land to international organisations for the building of schools and hospitals. The armed forces were trained and supervised by Italian instructors. As a counterweight, Zogu kept British officers in the Gendarmerie despite strong Italian pressure to remove them. The kingdom was supported by the fascist regime in Italy and the two countries maintained close relations until Italy 's sudden invasion of the country in 1939. Albania was occupied by Fascist Italy and then by Nazi Germany during World War II.
After being militarily occupied by Italy, from 1939 until 1943 the Albanian Kingdom was a protectorate and a dependency of Italy governed by the Italian King Victor Emmanuel III and his government. After the Axis ' invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, territories of Yugoslavia with substantial Albanian population were annexed to Albania: most of Kosovo, as well as Western Macedonia, the town of Tutin in Central Serbia and a strip of Eastern Montenegro. In November 1941, the small Albanian Communist groups established an Albanian Communist Party in Tirana of 130 members under the leadership of Enver Hoxha and an eleven - man Central Committee. The party at first had little mass appeal, and even its youth organization netted few recruits.
After the capitulation of Italy in 1943, Nazi Germany occupied Albania too. The nationalist Balli Kombetar, which had fought against Italy, formed a "neutral '' government in Tirana, and side by side with the Germans fought against the communist - led National Liberation Movement of Albania. The Center for Relief to Civilian Populations (Geneva) reported that Albania was one of the most devastated countries in Europe. 60,000 houses were destroyed and about 10 % of the population was left homeless. The communist partisans had regrouped and gained control of much of southern Albania in January 1944. However, they were subject to German attacks driving them out of certain areas. In the Congress of Përmet, the NLF formed an Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation to act as Albania 's administration and legislature. By the last year in World War II Albania fell into a civil war - like state between the communists and nationalists. The communist partisans however defeated the last Balli Kombëtar forces in southern Albania by mid-summer 1944. Before the end of November, the main German troops had withdrawn from Tirana, and the communists took control by attacking it. The partisans entirely liberated Albania from German occupation on 29 November 1944. A provisional government, which the communists had formed at Berat in October, administered Albania with Enver Hoxha as prime minister.
By the end of the second World War, the main military and political force of the nation, the Communist party sent forces to northern Albania against the nationalists to eliminate its rivals. They faced open resistance in Nikaj - Mërtur, Dukagjin and Kelmend led by Prek Cali. On 15 January 1945, a clash took place between partisans of the first Brigade and nationalist forces at the Tamara Bridge, resulting in the defeat of the nationalist forces. About 150 Kelmendi people were killed or tortured. This event was the starting point of many other issues which took place during Enver Hoxha 's dictatorship. Class struggle was strictly applied, human freedom and human rights were denied. The Kelmend region was almost isolated by both the border and by a lack of roads for another 20 years, the institution of agricultural cooperatives brought about economic decline. Many Kelmendi people fled, some were executed trying to cross the border.
After the liberation of Albania from the Nazi occupation, the country became a Communist state. Afterwards, the People 's Republic of Albania (renamed "People 's Socialist Republic of Albania '' in 1976) was founded, which was led by Enver Hoxha and the Labour Party of Albania. The socialist reconstruction of Albania was launched immediately after the annulling of the monarchy and the establishment of a People 's Republic. In 1947, Albania 's first railway line was completed, with the second one being completed eight months later. New land reform laws were passed granting ownership of the land to the workers and peasants who tilled it. Agriculture became cooperative, and production increased significantly, leading to Albania 's becoming agriculturally self - sufficient. By 1955, illiteracy was eliminated among Albania 's adult population.
During this period, Albania became industrialized and saw rapid economic growth, as well as unprecedented progress in the areas of education and health care. The average annual increase in Albania 's national income was 29 % higher than the world average and 56 % higher than the European average.. The nation incurred large debts, first with Yugoslavia until 1948, then the Soviet Union until 1961, and China from the middle of the 1950s. The communist constitution did not allow taxes on individuals; instead, taxes were imposed on cooperatives and other organizations, with much the same effect. Religious freedoms were severely curtailed during the communist regime, with all forms of worship being outlawed. In August 1945, the Agrarian Reform Law meant that large swaths of property owned by religious groups (mostly Islamic waqfs) were nationalized, along with the estates of monasteries and dioceses. Many believers, along with the ulema and many priests, were arrested and executed. In 1949, a new Decree on Religious Communities required that all their activities be sanctioned by the state alone.
After hundreds of mosques and dozens of Islamic libraries, containing priceless manuscripts, were destroyed, Enver Hoxha proclaimed Albania the "World 's first atheist state '' in 1967. The churches had not been spared either, and many were converted into cultural centers for young people. A 1967 law banned all "fascist, religious, warmongerish, antisocialist activity and propaganda ''. Preaching religion carried a three to ten - year prison sentence. Nonetheless, many Albanians continued to practice their beliefs secretly. The Hoxha dictatorship 's anti-religious policy attained its most fundamental legal and political expression a decade later: "The state recognizes no religion, '' states Albania 's 1976 constitution, "and supports and carries out atheistic propaganda in order to implant a scientific materialistic world outlook in people. '' Enver Hoxha 's political successor, Ramiz Alia oversaw the dismemberment of the "Hoxhaist '' state during the collapse of the Eastern Bloc in the late 1980s.
After the revolution of 1989, reforms were made by the communist government in 1990. Subsequently, the People 's Republic was dissolved and the 4th Albanian Republic was founded on 29 April 1991. The communists retained a stronghold in the Parliament, after popular support in the first multi-party elections in 1991. In March 1992, amid liberalization policies resulting in economic collapse and social unrest, a new coalition led by the new Democratic Party took power after victory in the parliamentary elections of 1992.
In the following years, much of the accumulated wealth of the country was invested in Ponzi pyramid banking schemes, which were widely supported by the government. The schemes swept up somewhere between one sixth and one third of the Albanian population. Despite the International Monetary Fund (IMF) warnings in late 1996, President Sali Berisha defended the schemes as large investment firms, leading more people to redirect their remittances and sell their homes and cattle for cash to deposit in the schemes. The schemes began to collapse in late 1996, leading many of the investors to join initially peaceful protests against the government, requesting their money back. The protests turned violent in February 1997 as government forces responded with fire. In March, the Police and Republican Guard deserted, leaving their armories open. These were promptly emptied by militias and criminal gangs. The resulting crisis caused a wave of evacuations of foreign nationals and of refugees.
The crisis led Prime Minister Aleksandër Meksi to resign on 11 March 1997, followed by President Sali Berisha in July in the wake of the June General Election. In April 1997, Operation Alba, a UN peacekeeping force led by Italy, entered the country with two goals: to assist with the evacuation of expatriates and to secure the ground for international organizations. The main international organization involved was the Western European Union 's Multinational Albanian Police element (MAPE), which worked with the government to restructure the judicial system and the Albanian Police. The Socialist Party had won the previously mentioned parliamentary elections in June 1997, and a degree of political stabilization followed. In 1999, the country was affected by the Kosovo War, which caused a great number of ethnic Albanians from Kosovo to seek refuge in Albania, although most ultimately returned to Kosovo.
On 23 June 2013, the eighth parliamentary elections took place, won by Edi Rama of the Socialist Party. During his tenure as 33rd Prime Minister, Albania has implemented numerous reforms focused on the modernizing the economy and democratizing of state institutions like the judiciary and law enforcement. Additionally, unemployment has been steadily reduced to the 4th lowest unemployment rate in the Balkans.
After the collapse of the Eastern Bloc, Albania started to develop closer ties with Western Europe. At the 2008 Bucharest summit, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) invited Albania to join the alliance. In April 2014 Albania became a full member of NATO. Albania was among the first southeastern European countries to join the Partnership for peace programme. Albania applied to join the European Union, becoming an official candidate for accession to the European Union in June 2014. Although Albania received candidate status for the European Union membership in 2014 (based on its 2009 application), the European Union has twice rejected full membership. The European Parliament warned the Government leaders in early 2017 that the 2017 parliamentary elections in June must be free and fair before negotiations could begin to admit the country into the union.
Albania occupies the southwestern portion of the Balkan Peninsula. It is located in Southeastern and Southern Europe, with Montenegro bordering to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south. The Adriatic and Ionian Seas make up the entire west border of Albania. It lies mostly between latitudes 42 ° and 39 ° N, and longitudes 21 ° and 19 ° E. The territory covers 28,748 square kilometres (11,100 square miles), making it the 145th largest country in the world. Albania 's coastline length is 476 km (296 mi) and extends along the Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea.
Albania 's northernmost point is Vërmosh at 42 ° 35 ' 34 '' northern latitude; the southernmost is Konispol at 39 ° 40 ' 0 '' northern latitude; the westernmost point is Sazan Island at 19 ° 16 ' 50 '' eastern longitude; and the easternmost point is Vërnik at 21 ° 1 ' 26 '' eastern longitude. The highest point is Mount Korab standing at 2,764 metres (9,068 ft) above sea level, and the lowest is the Mediterranean Sea. The distance from east to west is 148 kilometres (92 mi), from north to south 340 kilometres (211 mi).
Despite its small size, Albania is dominated by mountainous or high terrain, with a wide variety of natural features including valleys, plains, canyons and caves. Topographically, the mountains run the length of the country from north to south; the Albanian Alps in the north, Sharr Mountains in the northeast, Skanderbeg Mountains in the center, Korab Mountains in the east, Pindus Mountains in the southeast and the Ceraunian Mountains in the southwest along the Albanian Riviera.
The hydrographic network of Albania includes several of the largest and most ancient bodies of fresh water in Southern Europe. Lake Shkodër is the largest lake, situated in the northwest with a surface which can vary between 370 km (140 sq mi) and 530 km (200 sq mi), out of which one third belongs to Albania and the rest to Montenegro. It is the largest lake in Southern Europe. Lake Ohrid in the southeast is shared with Macedonia and is one of the most ancient lakes in the world. Lake Prespa at the border triangle with Macedonia and Greece is one the highest tectonic lakes within the Balkan Peninsula at an elevation of 853 metres (2,799 ft). Albania has a dense network of about 152 rivers and streams, forming at least 8 large rivers, which flow from east to west towards the Adriatic Sea. Among which are included Drin, Vjosë, Shkumbin, Osum, Mat, Erzen, Fan and Seman.
Although a small country, Albania is distinguished by a high biodiversity. Due to its climatic, hydrological and geological conditions, it is host to 30 % of the entire flora and 42 % of fauna of Europe. In terms of phytogeography, Albania straddles the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. The country falls within four terrestrial ecoregions of the Palearctic ecozone, including the Illyrian deciduous forests, Balkan mixed forests, Pindus Mountains mixed forests, and Dinaric Alpine mixed forests. The country 's biodiversity is conserved in 14 national parks, 1 marine park, 4 ramsar sites, 1 biosphere reserve, 45 important plant areas, 16 important bird areas and 786 protected areas of various caterogies.
About 10,000 square kilometres (3,861 square miles) of the country 's territory are forested and very rich in flora. About 3,000 different species of plants can be found, many of which are used for medicinal purposes. The coastal regions and lowlands have typical Mediterranean macchia vegetation, whereas oak forests and vegetation are found at higher elevations. Vast forests of pine, beech and fir are found on higher mountains such as in the Albanian Alps and Korab Mountains. Alpine grasslands grow at elevations above 1,800 metres (5,900 feet).
The forests of the country are home to a wide range of mammals. Wolves, red foxes, bears, wild boars and chamois are the primary predatory mammals. Lynx, wildcats, pine martens and polecats are rare, but survive in various forests throughout the country. There are around 760 vertebrate species found so far in Albania. Among them there are over 350 bird species, 330 fish species and 80 mammal species. There are some 91 globally threatened species found within the country, among them the dalmatian pelican, pygmy cormorant and european sea sturgeon. The rocky coastal regions in the south provide good habitats for the endangered mediterranean monk seal. Some of the most significant bird species found in the country include the golden eagle (national symbol of Albania), various vulture species, capercaillie and waterfowl species.
According to the Köppen system, Albania hosts five major climatic subtypes. These include mediterranean, subtropical, oceanic, continental and subarctic. With its coastline facing the Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea in the west, Albania 's highlands backed upon the elevated Balkan landmass, and the entire country lying at a latitude subject to a variety of weather patterns during the winter and summer seasons. The climate on the coasts is typically mediterranean, while in the highlands it is continental. In both the western lowlands and the inner highlands, the weather varies from north to south. The lowlands have mild winters, averaging about 7 ° C (45 ° F), while summer temperatures average 24 ° C (75 ° F). In the southern lowlands, temperatures average about 5 ° C (9 ° F) higher throughout the year. The difference is greater than 5 ° C (9 ° F) during the summer and somewhat less during the winter.
Inland conditions vary depending on elevation, but the higher areas above 1,524 metres (5,000 feet) in the northern and central highlands are rather cold and frequently snowy in winter; here cold conditions with snow may linger into spring. The temperatures are affected more by differences in elevation than by latitude or any other factor. Average summer temperatures are lower than in the coastal areas and much lower at higher elevations, but daily fluctuations are greater.
Average precipitation is heavy, a result of the convergence of the prevailing airflow from the Mediterranean Sea and the continental air mass. Because they usually meet at the point where the terrain rises, the heaviest rain falls in the central highlands. When the continental air mass is weak, Mediterranean winds drop their moisture farther inland. When there is a dominant continental air mass, cold air spills onto the lowland areas, which occurs most frequently in the winter.
Lowland rainfall averages from 1,000 millimeters (39.4 in) to more than 1,500 millimeters (59.1 in) annually, with the higher levels in the north. Nearly 95 % of the rain falls in the winter. Rainfall in the northern highlands is heavier. Adequate records are not available, and estimates vary widely, but annual averages are probably about 1,800 millimeters (70.9 in) and are as high as 2,550 millimeters (100.4 in). However, the western Albanian Alps are among the wettest areas in Europe, receiving some 3,100 mm (122.0 in) of rain annually. The seasonal variation is not quite as great in the coastal area. The central highlands receive less precipitation than the intermediate northern highlands. Terrain differences cause wide local variations, but the seasonal distribution is the most consistent of any area. In 2009, an expedition from the University of Colorado discovered four small glaciers inside the Albanian Alps. The glaciers are at the relatively low level of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft), almost unique for such a southerly latitude.
With a total area of 28,748 square kilometres (11,100 square miles), Albania is divided into 12 counties (Albanian: Qarqe). The counties are the primary administrative divisions and further subdivided into 61 municipalities (Bashkia). Until 2000, the 12 counties were subdivided into 36 districts (Rrethe).
The counties were created on 31 July 2000 to replace the 36 former districts. The government introduced the new administrative divisions to be implemented in 2015, whereby municipalities were reduced to 61, while the rurals (Komuna) were abolished. The defunct municipalities are known as neighborhoods or villages (Lagje or Fshat). There are overall 2980 villages or communities in the entire country, formerly known as localities (Lokalitete). The municipalities are the first level of local governance, responsible for local needs and law enforcement. As part of the reform, major town centers in the country were physically redesigned and façades painted to reflect a more Mediterranean look.
Politics in Albania operate under a framework laid out in the Constitution of Albania. First in 1913, Albania was constituted as a monarchy, briefly a republic in 1920, then into a democratic monarchy in 1928. Succeeding, it became a socialist republic, until the restoration of capitalism and democracy, after the collapse of communism. Nowadays, Albania is a unitary parliamentary constitutional republic in which the President serves as the head of state and the Prime Minister as the head of government.
The President is the head of state, commander - in - chief of the military and the representative of the unity of the Albanian people. The head of state is elected to a five - year term by the Parliament by a majority of three - fifths of all its members. The President has the power to guarantee observation of the Constitution and all laws, exercise the duties of the Parliament when it is not in session and appoints the Prime Minister. The executive power is exercised by the head of government and the Council of Ministers which make up the government. The Parliament must give final approval of the composition of the Cabinet. The Prime Minister is responsible for carrying out both foreign and domestic policies, directs and controls the activities of the ministries and other state organs.
The Parliament is the unicameral representative body of the citizens of Albania and is elected by the people to a four - year term on the basis of direct, universal, periodic and equal suffrage by secret ballot. There are 140 deputies in the Parliament, which are elected through a party - list proportional representation system. The Parliament has the power to decide the direction of domestic and foreign policy, approve or amend the constitution, declare war on another state, ratify or annul international treaties, elect the President, the Supreme Court, the Attorney General and their deputies and control the activity of state radio and television, state news agency and other official information media.
The judicial system of Albania is a civil law system divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts. It is codified and based on the French law. Major institutions of the branch include the Supreme Court, Constitutional Court, Court of Appeal, and the Administrative Court. Law enforcement in the country is primarily the responsibility of the Albanian Police. It is the main and largest state law enforcement agency in the country. It carries nearly all general police duties thath includes criminal investigation, patrol activity, traffic policing and border control.
Foreign relations are conducted through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Tirana. The current minister is Ditmir Bushati. Since the collapse of Communism in 1990, Albania has extended its responsibilities and position in European and international affairs, supporting and establishing friendly relations with other nations around the world.
The main objectives of the Albanian foreign policy are the Accession of Albania to the European Union, the International recognition of Kosovo, the recognition of Expulsion of Cham Albanians, helping and protecting of the rights the Albanians in Montenegro, Macedonia, Greece, southern Serbia, Italy and the Albanian diaspora. Albania has a network of 40 foreign embassies and 46 diplomatic missions abroad.
Albania has been a member of the United Nations since December 1955. Three years later in 1958, it became member of UNESCO. Albania took on the membership of the United Nations Economic and Social Council from 2005 to 2007 and for the second time in 2012. In addition to that, Albania served as vice president of the ECOSOC in 2006 and 2013. In 2014, it also joined the United Nations Human Rights Council from 2015 to 2017 and was elected vice president in 2015. Albania was among the first eastern European countries to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Major Albanian politicians considered admission to NATO as a top priority for the country. Since 1992, it has been extensively engaged with NATO, and has maintained its position as a stability factor and a strong ally of the United States and European Union in the troubled and divided region of the Balkans.
Besides, Albania is a full member of numerous international organizations, namely the United Nations, Council of Europe, International Organization for Migration, World Health Organization, Union for the Mediterranean, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, International Monetary Fund, World Trade Organization and La Francophonie.
The Albanian Armed Forces (Forcat e Armatosura të Shqipërisë) are the military and paramilitary forces of Albania, under the President as supreme commander. In times of peace, the President 's powers as a commander are executed through the Prime Minister and the Defence Minister. The military consist the General staff, the Land Force (Forca Tokësore), the Air Force (Forca Ajrore) and the Naval Force (Forca Detare). Albania has nocompulsory military service. Until January 2010 military service was compulsory for men at age 18 and conscripts served six - month tours of duty. Nowadays, military service is voluntary, with the age of 19 being the legal minimum age for the duty.
Albania has committed to increase the participations in multinational operations. Since the fall of communism, the country has participated in six international missions but participated in only one United Nations mission in Georgia sending of 3 military observers. Since February 2008, Albania has participated officially in NATO 's Operation Active Endeavor in the Mediterranean Sea. It was invited to join NATO on 3 April 2008, and it became a full member on 2 April 2009.
Albania reduced the number of active troops from 65,000 in 1988 to 14,500 in 2009. The military now consists mainly of a small fleet of aircraft and sea vessels. In the 1990s, the country scrapped enormous amounts of obsolete hardware from China, such as tanks and SAM systems. Increasing the military budget was one of the most important conditions for NATO integration. Military spending has generally been low. As of 1996 military spending was an estimated 1.5 % of the country 's GDP, only to peak in 2009 at 2 % and fall again to 1.5 %. According to 2016 Global Peace Index, the nation ranked 54th out of 163 countries in the world.
The transition from a socialist planned economy to a capitalist mixed economy has been largely successful. Albania has a developing mixed economy that is classed as a upper - middle income economy by the World Bank. With 14.7 % in 2016, Albania has the 4th lowest unemployment rate in the Balkans. Albania 's largest trading partners are Italy, Greece, China, Spain, Kosovo and the United States. The lek (ALL) is Albania 's currency and is pegged at approximately 132, 51 lek per euro.
Both, Tirana and Durrës are the economic heart of Albania. Further, Tirana is the major centre for trade, banking and finance, transportation, advertising, legal services, accountancy, and insurance. Major roads and railways run through Tirana and Durrës, connecting the north with the south and the west with the east. Among the largest companies the petroleum Taçi Oil, Albpetrol, ARMO and Kastrati, the mineral AlbChrome, THE cement Antea, the investment BALFIN Group and the technology Albtelecom, Vodafone, Telekom Albania and others.
In 2012, Albania 's GDP per capita stood at 30 % of the European Union average, while GDP (PPP) per capita was 35 %. Albania were one of three countries in Europe to record an economic growth in the first quarter of 2010 after the global financial crisis. The International Monetary Fund predicted 2.6 % growth for Albania in 2010 and 3.2 % in 2011. According to the Forbes as of December 2016, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was growing at 2.8 %. The country had a trade balance of − 9.7 % and unemployment rate of 14.7 %. The Foreign direct investment has increased significantly in recent years as the government has embarked on an ambitious program to improve the business climate through fiscal and legislative reforms. The economy is expected to expand in the near term, driven by a recovery in consumption and robust investments. Growth is projected to be 3.2 % in 2016, 3.5 % in 2017, and 3.8 % in 2018.
Agriculture in the country is based on small to medium - sized family - owned dispersed units. It remains a significant sector of the economy of Albania. It employs 41 % of the population, and about 24.31 % of the land is used for agricultural purposes. One of the earliest farming sites in Europe has been found in southeastern of the country. As part of the pre-accession process of Albania to the European Union, farmers are being aided through IPA funds to improve Albanian agriculture standards.
Albania produces significant amounts of fruits (apples, olives, grapes, oranges, lemons, apricots, peaches, cherries, figs, sour cherries, plums, and strawberries), vegetables (potatoes, tomatoes, maize, onions, and wheat), sugar beets, tobacco, meat, honey, dairy products, traditional medicine and aromatic plants. Albania 's proximity to the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Sea give the underdeveloped fishing industry great potential. The World Bank and European Community economists report that, Albania 's fishing industry has good potential to generate export earnings because prices in the nearby Greek and Italian markets are many times higher than those in the Albanian market. The fish available off the coasts of Albania are carp, trout, sea bream, mussels, and crustaceans.
Albania has one of Europe 's longest histories of viticulture. The today 's region was one of the few places where vine was naturally grown during the ice age. The oldest found seeds in the region are 4,000 to 6,000 years old. In 2009, the nation produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes of wine During the communism, the production area expanded to some 20,000 hectares (49,000 acres).
The secondary sector of Albania have undergone many changes and diversification, since the collapse of the communist regime in the country. It is very diversified, from electronics, manufacturing, textiles, to food, cement, mining, and energy. The Antea Cement plant in Fushë - Krujë is considered as one of the largest industrial greenfield investments in the country. Albanian oil and gas is represents of the most promising albeit strictly regulated sectors of its economy. Albania has the second largest oil deposits in the Balkan peninsula after Romania, and the largest oil reserves in Europe. The Albpetrol company is owned by the Albanian state and monitors the state petroleum agreements in the country. The textile industry has seen an extensive expansion by approaching companies from the European Union (EU) in Albania. According to the Institute of Statistics (INSTAT) as of 2016, the textile production marked an annual growth of 5, 3 % and an annual turnover of around 1, 5 billion euros.
Albania is a significant minerals producer and is ranked among the world 's leading chromium producers and exporters. The nation is also a notable producer of copper, nickel and coal. The Batra mine, Bulqizë mine, and Thekna mine are among the most recognised Albanian mines that are still in operation.
The service industry represents the fastest growing sector of the Albanian economy. A significant part of Albania 's national income derives from tourism. In 2016, it directly accounted for 8.4 percent of GDP, though including indirect contributions pushes the proportion to 26 percent. In the same year, Albania welcomed around 4.74 million visitors, mostly from Southern Europe and several countries from the European Union and also the United States. The increase of foreign visitors has been dramatic. Albania had only 500,000 visitors in 2005, while in 2012 had an estimated 4.2 million, an increase of 740 percent in only 7 years. In 2015, tourism in summer increased by 25 percent in contrast the previous year, accouring to the country 's tourism agency. In 2011, Lonely Planet named as a top travel destination, while The New York Times placed Albania as number 4 global touristic destination in 2014.
The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the Adriatic and Ionian Sea in the west of the country. However, the Albanian Riviera in the southwest has the most scenic and pristine beaches, and is often called the pearl of the Albanian coast. Its coastline has a considerable length of 446 kilometres (277 miles). The coast has a particular character because it is rich in varieties of virgin beaches, capes, coves, covered bays, lagoons, small gravel beaches, sea caves and many landforms. Some parts of this seaside are very clean ecologically, which represent in this prospective unexplored areas, which are very rare within the Mediterranean. Other attractions include the mountainous areas such as the Albanian Alps, Ceraunian Mountains and Korab Mountains but also the historical cities of Berat, Durrës, Gjirokastër, Sarandë, Shkodër and Korçë.
Following the collapse of the communist regime in Albania, the transportation has undergone significant changes in the past two decades, vastly modernizing the country 's infrastructure. Improvements to the road infrastructure, urban transport, and air travel have all led to a vast improvement in transportation.
Currently there are three main motorways in Albania: the A1, A2, and A3. The A1 motorway connects the port city of Durrës on the Adriatic Sea, to Pristina, the capital of Kosovo. Prospectively, the motorway will link with Pan-European Corridor X near Niš in Serbia. The project was the largest and most expensive infrastructure road project ever undertaken in the country. Two additional highways are currently under construction. The A3 motorway is going to connect the capital city Tirana with Pan-European Corridor VIII, linking Albania with Macedonia and Bulgaria to the east. The North - South motorway consists of SH1 and SH2 and makes up the Albanian portion of the Adriatic -- Ionian motorway, a larger regional highway connecting Croatia with Greece along the Adriatic and Ionian coasts. When all three corridors are completed, Albania will have an estimated 759 kilometers of highway linking it with all of its neighboring countries.
The busiest and largest seaport in Albania is the Port of Durrës. As of 2014, the port ranks as one of the largest passenger ports on the Adriatic Sea, with annual passenger volume of approximately 1.5 million. Other seaports include Vlorë, Sarandë, and Shëngjin. The ports serve an extensive system of ferries connecting numerous islands and coastal cities in addition to ferry lines to several cities in Croatia, Greece, and Italy.
The only international airport in the country is the Tirana International Airport Nënë Tereza. It is the only port of entry for air travelers to the country. The airport offers international connections to many European cities. In 2016, the Government of Albania reached an agreement with Tirana International Airport to end its monopoly on flights, paving the way for the opening of an airport at Kukës in the north.
The railways in Albania are administered by the national railway company Hekurudha Shqiptare. The railway system was extensively promoted by the totalitarian communist regime of dictator Enver Hoxha, during which time the use of private transport was effectively prohibited. Since the collapse of the communist regime, there has been a considerable increase in car ownership and bus usage. A new railway line from the capital Tirana via Tirana International Airport to the port city Durrës is currently planned. The location of this railway, connecting the most populated urban areas in Albania, makes it an important economic development project. The opening will take place in 2019.
Until 1990, after the fall of Communism in Albania, the country was one of the world 's most isolated and controlled countries, and installation and maintenance of a modern system of international and domestic telecommunications was precluded. Callers previously needed operator assistance even to make domestic long - distance calls. Internet in Albania is fast and inexpensive in comparison to the rest of Europe. For example, an ISP known as ABcom, offers a 30mbit download package for 306.999 lekë ($2.39579 USD) per month. In the mobile network industry, providers such as Vodafone, Telekom, Albanian Mobile Communications and Eagle Mobile provide both 3G and 4G data plans. From 1993 human resources in sciences and technology have drastically decreased. Various surveys show that during 1991 -- 2005, approximately 50 % of the professors and research scientists of the universities and science institutions in the country have emigrated.
However, in 2009 the government approved the "National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation in Albania '' covering the period 2009 -- 15. It aims to triple public spending on research and development (R&D) to 0.6 % of GDP and augment the share of gross domestic expenditure on R&D from foreign sources, including via the European Union 's Framework Programmes for Research, to the point where it covers 40 % of research spending, among others.
Energy in Albania is dependent on hydroelectricity. Albania is the largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world, having a percentage of 100 %. The country is host to five hydroelectric power stations and a plant. Almost four power stations including Fierza, Koman, Skavica and Vau i Dejës are situated on the Drin River, the longest river in the country with a total length of 335 km (208 mi). Due to its strategical location, it plays a significant role for the production of electricity in Albania.
Albania and Croatia have discussed the possibility of jointly building a nuclear power plant at Lake Shkodër, close to the border with Montenegro, a plan that has gathered criticism from Montenegro due to seismicity in the area. In February 2009 Italian company Enel announced plans to build an 800 MW coal - fired power plant in Albania, to diversify electricity sources.
The Albanian Devoll Hydropower company, owned and operated by Norwegian Statkraft, is currently build two hydroelectricity plants on the Devoll River near Banjë and Moglicë. The Moglicë Hydro Power Plant is anticipated to be the world 's highest of its kind upon completion. The Devoll Hydropower Project is one of the largest hydropower investments in the Balkan peninsula. The two plants are expected to be completed in 2016 and 2018. After its completion, it will produce 729 GWh annually, increasing the electricity production in Albania by almost 17 %.
Radio in Albania began officially in 1938 with the founding of RTSH (Albania Radio and Television - Radio Televizioni Shqiptar), and television broadcasting began in 1960. Almost 4 regional radio stations serve in the four extremities of Albania. The international service broadcasts radio programmes in Albanian and seven other languages via medium wave (AM) and short wave (SW). The international service has used the theme from the song "Keputa një gjethe dafine '' as its signature tune. The international television service via satellite was launched since 1993 and aims at Albanian communities in Kosovo, Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro and northern Greece, plus the Albanian diaspora in the rest of Europe. According to the Albanian Media Authority, Albania has an estimated 257 media outlets, including 66 radio stations and 67 television stations, with three national, 62 local and more than 50 cable TV stations. In Llast years, Albania has organized several shows as a part of worldwide series like Dancing with the Stars, Big Brother, Got Talent, The Voice, and X Factor.
Albania ranked 34th in the 2003 Press Freedom Index report compiled by the Reporters Without Borders. In 2016, it ranked 82nd. In 2016, there were 1.82 million Internet users in the country in percentage 63 % of the population.
Following the fall of communism in Albania in 1991, a reorganization plan was announced that would extend the compulsory education program from eight to ten years. The following year, major economic and political crisis in Albania, and the ensuing breakdown of public order, plunged the school system into chaos. Widespread vandalism and extreme shortages of textbooks and supplies had a devastating effect on school operations, prompting Italy and other countries to provide material assistance. In the late 1990, many schools were rebuilt or reconstructed, to improve learning conditions. Most of the improvements have happened in the larger cities of the country especially in Tirana, Durrës and Shkodër.
All educational programmes in Albania are regulated by the Ministry of Education and administered by local municipalities. Education is mostly supported by the state and is composed of three stages, primary education (arsimi fillorë), secondary education (arsimi i mesëm), and tertiary education (arsimi universitarë). The academic year is very similar to the one in the United States, with classes starting in September or October and ending in June or July. Albanian is the primary language of instruction in all public schools. The primary education is obligatory from grade one to nine. Students must pass the graduation exams at the end of the 9th grade in order to continue their education. After the primary school, the general education is provided at the secondary schools. Students get prepared for the Matura examination, allowing them to obtain their matura diploma, which grants admission to higher education. Although, Albania follows the Bologna model in accordance with the 2007 Law on Higher Education. These institutions can be public or private, and may offer one, two or three levels of higher education depending on the institution.
The school life expectancy of Albania is 16 years, ranking 25th in the world. Literacy rate in Albania is 99.2 % for males and 98.3 % for females, having an overall of 98.7 %.
Albania has a universal health care system run by the Ministry of Health. According to the World Health Organization, Albania had the world 's 55th best healthcare performance in 2000. The system has been in a steep decline since the collapse of communism in the country, but a process of modernization has been taking place since 2000. There were a total of 51 hospitals in 2000 in the country, including a military hospital and specialist facilities. The most common causes of death are circulatory diseases followed by cancerous illnesses. Demographic and Health Surveys completed a survey in April 2009, detailing various health statistics in Albania, including male circumcision, abortion and more. The leading causes of death are cardiovascular disease, trauma, cancer, and respiratory disease. Albania has successfully eradicated diseases such as malaria.
Life expectancy is estimated at 77.8 years (75.1 for males and 80.7 for females), ranking thirty - seventh in the world and outperforming a number of European Union countries, such as Slovenia, Estonia, Poland, Hungary and Slovakia. Albania 's infant mortality rate, estimated at 12 per 1,000 live births in 2015. Compared to other European countries, Albania has a relatively low rate of obesity, probably thanks to the health benefits of the Mediterranean diet.
According to the Institute of Statistics (INSTAT) Census of 2011, the total population of Albania was approximately 2,821,977 with a low Fertility rate of 1.49 children born per woman. The last census, was conducted in 1989.
The fall of the Communist regime in 1990, Albania was accompanied with massive migration. External migration was prohibited outright in Communist Albania while internal migration was quite limited, hence this was a new phenomenon. Between 1991 and 2004, roughly 900,000 people have migrated out of Albania, about 600,000 of them settling in Greece. Migration greatly affected Albania 's internal population distribution. Population decreased mainly in the North and South of the country while it increased in Tirana and Durrës center districts. According to the Institute of Statistics (INSTAT) as of 1 January 2015, the population of Albania is 2,893,005.
Issues of ethnicity are a delicate topic and subject to debate. Contrary to official statistics that show an over 97 per cent Albanian majority in the country, minority groups (such as Greeks, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Roma and Aromanians) have frequently disputed the official numbers, asserting a higher percentage of the country 's population. According to the disputed 2011 census, ethnic affiliation was as follows: Albanians 2,312,356 (82.6 % of the total), Greeks 24,243 (0.9 %), Macedonians 5,512 (0.2 %), Montenegrins 366 (0.01 %), Aromanians 8,266 (0.30 %), Romani 8,301 (0.3 %), Balkan Egyptians 3,368 (0.1 %), other ethnicities 2,644 (0.1 %), no declared ethnicity 390,938 (14.0 %), and not relevant 44,144 (1.6 %). On the quality of the specific data the Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities stated that "the results of the census should be viewed with the utmost caution and calls on the authorities not to rely exclusively on the data on nationality collected during the census in determining its policy on the protection of national minorities. ''.
Albania recognizes almost three national minorities, Greeks, Macedonians and Montenegrins, and two cultural minorities: Aromanians and Romani people. Other Albanian minorities are Bulgarians, Gorani, Serbs, Balkan Egyptians, Bosniaks and Jews. Regarding the Greeks, "it is difficult to know how many Greeks there are in Albania. The Greek government, it is typically claimed, says that there are around 300,000 ethnic Greeks in Albania, but most western estimates are around the 200,000 mark. '' The Albanian government puts the number at only 24,243. '' The CIA World Factbook estimates the Greek minority at 0.9 % of the total population and the US State Department uses 1.17 % for Greeks and 0.23 % for other minorities. However, the latter questions the validity of the data about the Greek minority, due to the fact that measurements have been affected by boycott.
Macedonian and some Greek minority groups have sharply criticized Article 20 of the Census law, according to which a $1,000 fine will be imposed on anyone who will declare an ethnicity other than what is stated on his or her birth certificate. This is claimed to be an attempt to intimidate minorities into declaring Albanian ethnicity, according to them the Albanian government has stated that it will jail anyone who does not participate in the census or refuse to declare his or her ethnicity. Genc Pollo, the minister in charge has declared that: "Albanian citizens will be able to freely express their ethnic and religious affiliation and mother tongue. However, they are not forced to answer these sensitive questions ''. The amendments criticized do not include jailing or forced declaration of ethnicity or religion; only a fine is envisioned which can be overthrown by court.
Greek representatives form part of the Albanian parliament and the government has invited Albanian Greeks to register, as the only way to improve their status. On the other hand, nationalists, various organizations and political parties in Albania have expressed their concern that the census might artificially increase the numbers of the Greek minority, which might be then exploited by Greece to threaten Albania 's territorial integrity.
About 53.4 % of Albania 's population living in cities. According the Institute of Statistics (INSTAT), the three largest counties account for half of the population. Over 1 million people lives in the Tirana and Durrës, making it the largest urban area in Albania. The capital Tirana, is one of largest cities in the Balkan Peninsula and ranks 7th with a population about 800,000. The second largest is the port city of Durrës, with a population of 201.110, followed by Vlorë, the largest city in southern Albania, with 141.513 inhabitants.
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Albanian is the official language of the Republic of Albania. Its standard spoken and written form is revised and merged from the two main dialects, Gheg and Tosk, though it is notably based more on the Tosk dialect. The Shkumbin river is the rough dividing line between the two dialects. Also a dialect of Greek that preserves features now lost in standard modern Greek is spoken in areas inhabited by the Greek minority. Other languages spoken by ethnic minorities in Albania include Aromanian, Serbian, Macedonian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Gorani, and Roma. Macedonian is official in the Pustec Municipality in East Albania.
Greek is the second most - spoken language in the country, with two thirds of families having at least one member that speaks Greek. La Francophonie states 320,000 French speakers can be found in Albania. Other spoken languages include Italian, English, French, German, and Turkish.
According to the 2011 population census, 2,765,610 or 98.767 % of the population declared Albanian as their mother tongue (mother tongue is defined as the first or main language spoken at home during childhood).
According to the Institute of Statistics (INSTAT) Census of 2011, 58.79 % of Albanians adhere to Islam, making it the largest religion in the country; Christianity is practiced by 17.06 % of the population, and 24.29 % of the total population is either non-religious, belongs to other religious groups, or are ' undeclared '. Both the Albanian Orthodox church and the Bektashi Sufi order refused to recognize the 2011 census results regarding faith, with the Orthodox claiming that 24 % of the total population are Albanian Orthodox Christians rather than just 6.75 %. Before World War II, 70 % of the population were Muslims, 20 % Eastern Orthodox, and 10 % Roman Catholics. According to a 2010 survey, religion today plays an important role in the lives of only 39 % of Albanians, and Albania is ranked among the least religious countries in the world. A 2012 Pew Research Center study found that 65 % of Albanian Muslims are non-denominational Muslims. According to 2008 statistics from the religious communities in Albania, there are 1119 churches and 638 mosques in the country. The Catholics declared 694 churches, the Orthodox 425 churches, the Muslim community 568 mosques and the Bektashi 70 tekkes.
Albania is one of the most ancient countries of Christianity. There are thought to have been about seventy Christian families in the port town of Durrës as early as the time of the Apostles. The Archbishopric of Durrës was purportedly founded by the apostle Paul while preaching in Illyria and Epirus. (1) The Albanians first appeared in the historical record in Byzantine sources of the late 11th century. At this point, they were already fully Christianized. Islam came for the first time in the 9th century to the region which is known as Albania today. It later emerged as the majority religion during the centuries of Ottoman rule, though a significant Christian minority remained. After independence (1912) from the Ottoman Empire, the Albanian republican, monarchic and later Communist regimes followed a systematic policy of separating religion from official functions and cultural life. Albania never had an official state religion either as a republic or as a kingdom. In the 20th century, the clergy of all faiths was weakened under the monarchy, and ultimately eradicated during the 1950s and 1960s, under the state policy of obliterating all organized religion from Albanian territories.
The Communist regime that took control of Albania after World War II persecuted and suppressed religious observance and institutions and entirely banned religion to the point where Albania was officially declared to be the world 's first atheist state. Religious freedom has returned to Albania since the regime 's change in 1992. Albania joined the Organisation of the Islamic Conference in 1992, following the fall of the communist government, but did not attend the 2014 conference due a dispute regarding the fact that its parliament never ratified the country 's membership. Albanian Muslim populations (mainly secular and of the Sunni branch) are found throughout the country whereas Albanian Orthodox Christians as well as Bektashis are concentrated in the south and Roman Catholics are found in the north of the country.
The first recorded Albanian Protestant was Said Toptani, who traveled around Europe, and in 1853 returned to Tirana and preached Protestantism. He was arrested and imprisoned by the Ottoman authorities in 1864. Mainline evangelical Protestants date back to the work of Congregational and later Methodist missionaries and the work of the British and Foreign Bible Society in the 19th century. The Evangelical Alliance, which is known as VUSh, was founded in 1892. Today VUSh has about 160 member congregations from different Protestant denominations. VUSh organizes marches in Tirana including one against blood feuds in 2010. Bibles are provided by the Interconfessional Bible Society of Albania. The first full Albanian Bible to be printed was the Filipaj translation printed in 1990. Seventh - day Adventist Church, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints, and Jehovah 's Witnesses also have a number of adherents in Albania.
Albania was the only country in Europe where Jewish population experienced growth during the Holocaust. After the mass emigration to Israel since the fall of Communist regime, only 200 Albanian Jews are left in the country today.
The Albanian folk music is a prominent section of the national identity and continues to play a major part in Albanian music. Although, it can be divided into two stylistic groups, as performed by the northern Ghegs and southern Labs and Tosks. The northern and southern traditions are contrasted by the rugged tone of the north and the relaxed form of the south. Many of the songs are about events from history including the national hero Skanderbeg and traditional themes about honour, hospitality, treachery and revenge. The first compilation of Albanian folk music was made by two Himariot musicians Neço Muka and Koço Çakali in Paris during their interpretations with the song Diva Tefta Tashko Koço. Several gramophone compilations were recorded in those years by this genial trio of artists which eventually led to the recognition of the Himariot Isopolyphonic Music as an UNESCO World Cultural Heritage.
The contemporary music artists Rita Ora, Bebe Rexha, Ermonela Jaho, Inva Mula, and Era Istrefi, have achieved international recognition for their music. Sporano Ermonela Jaho has been described by the Economist as the World 's most acclaimed Soprano. One widely recognized musician from Elbasan is Saimir Pirgu, an Albanian international opera singer. He was nominated for the 2017 Grammy Award.
Each cultural and geographical region of Albania has its own specific variety of costume that vary in style, material, color, shape, detail and form. Presently, the national costumes are most often worn with connection to special events and celebrations, mostly at ethnic festivals, religious holidays, weddings, and by dancing groups. Some conservative old men and women mainly from the high northern as well as southern regions and wear traditional clothing in their daily lives. The clothing was made mainly of products from the local agriculture and livestock such as leather, wool, linen, hemp fiber and silk. Nowadays, the traditional textiles are still embroidered in very collaborate ancient patterns.
The Albanian cuisine is a prominent feature of the Albanian culture, like the art of hospitality of the Albanian people. The cuisine is strongly influenced by its long history, like that of the other Mediterranean countries. At different times, Albania has been occupied by ancient Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and Ottomans. Each group has left its mark on the Albanian cuisine.
The cooking traditions vary across the country because of the cultural and environmental conditions in Albania, which are suitable for various vegetables, herbs and fruits. One of the most characteristic element of the cuisine is by far olive oil, which is the major type of oil used for cooking. It is produced from the olive trees prominent throughout the south of the country. The main meal of Albanians is the midday meal, which is usually accompanied by a salad of fresh vegetables such as tomatoes, cucumbers, green peppers and olives with olive oil, vinegar and salt. It also includes a main dish of vegetables and meat. Though it is used in several dishes, pumpkins are more commonly displayed and traditionally given as gifts throughout Albania, especially in the region of Berat. Seafood specialities are also common in the coastal cities of Albania in the west along the Adriatic and Ionian Seas such as Durrës, Sarandë and Vlorë. In high elevation localities, smoked meat and pickled preserves are common.
The Albanian cuisine uses a variety of ingredients. These include a wider availability of vegetable such as zucchini, eggplant, peppers, tomatoes, cucumbers, potatoes, cabbages and spinach, as well as several cereals such as wheat, corn, barley and rye. Widely used meat varieties are lamb, goat, beef, veal, chicken and other poultry. Pork is also common in regions depending on denomination. Herbs and spices include oregano, mint, garlic, onion and basil.
Due to its long history, Albania is home to many valuable cultural and historical landmarks. From the classical to the modern period, major cities in the country have evolved from within the castle to include dwellings, religious, and commercial structures, with constant redesigning of town squares and evolution of building techniques.
Notable architectural styles in Albania include Historicism and Art Nouveau for example in Korçë, but also the modern Italian style is present such as in Shkodër, Vlorë, Sarandë and Durrës. Other cities received their present - day Albania - unique appearance through various cultural or economic influences. Due to the long period of rule of the Byzantine Empire, Albania is home to many Byzantine churches, castles, and monasteries. Albania also host many surviving monuments from the five centuries of Ottoman rule. In the 19th century, Albanian towns underwent urban transformations by Austro - Hungarian and Italian architects, giving them the appearance of European cities. During the communism, many socialist - styled complexes, wide roads, and factories were constructed, while town squares were redesigned and a number of historic buildings demolished.
Albania is host to two cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the ancient remains of Butrint in the south of Sarandë, and the medieval Historic Centres of Berat and Gjirokastër Further, the natural and cultural heritage of Ohrid, the royal Illyrian tombs of Selca e Poshtme, the remains of Apollonia, the ancient Amphitheatre of Durrës and the Fortress of Bashtovë has been included on the tentative list.
The visual arts tradition of Albania has been shaped by the many cultures, which have flourished on its territory. Once the Byzantines, the Ottomans ruled over Albania for nearly five centuries, which greatly affected the country 's artwork and artistic forms. After Albania 's joining with the Ottoman Empire in 1478, Ottoman influenced art forms such as mosaic and mural paintings became prevalent and no real artistic change occurred until the independence in 1912.
Following mosaics and murals from Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the first paintings were icons Byzantine traditions. Albanian earliest icons date from the late 13th century and generally estimated that their artistic peak reached in the 18th century. Among the most prominent representatives of the Albanian iconographic art were Onufri and David Selenica. The museums of Berat, Korçë and Tirana houses good collections remaining icons.
By the end of the Ottoman rule, the painting was limited mostly to folk art and ornate mosques. Paintings and sculpture arose in the first half of the twentieth century and reached a modest peak in the 1930s and 1940s, when the first organized art exhibitions at national level. Contemporary Albanian artwork captures the struggle of everyday Albanians, however new artists are utilizing different artistic styles to convey this message. Albanian artists continue to move art forward, while their art still remains distinctively Albanian in content. Though among Albanian artist post-modernism was fairly recently introduced, there is a number of artists and works known internationally. Among the most prominent Albanian post-modernist are considered Anri Sala, Sislej Xhafa, and Helidon Gjergji.
The Albanian language comprises its own branch of the Indo - European language family. The language is considered an isolate within the Indo - European. The only other languages that are the sole surviving member of a branch of Indo - European are Armenian and Greek. It was proved to be an Indo - European language in 1854 by the German philologist Franz Bopp. Albanian is often held to be related to the Illyrian languages, a language spoken in the Balkans during classical times. Scholars argue that Albanian derives from Illyrian while some others claim that it derives from Daco - Thracian. (Illyrian and Daco - Thracian, however, might have been closely related languages; see Thraco - Illyrian.)
The cultural renaissance was first of all expressed through the development of the Albanian language in the area of church texts and publications, mainly of the Catholic region in the northern of Albania, but also of the Orthodox in the south. The Protestant reforms invigorated hopes for the development of the local language and literary tradition, when cleric Gjon Buzuku brought into the Albanian language the Catholic liturgy, trying to do for the Albanian language, what Martin Luther did for the German language. Meshari (The Missal) written by Gjon Buzuku was published in 1555 and is considered as one of the first literary work of written Albanian during the Middle Ages. The refined level of the language and the stabilised orthography must be the result of an earlier tradition of written Albanian, a tradition that is not well understood. However, there is some fragmented evidence, pre-dating Buzuku, which indicates that Albanian was written from at least the 14th century. The earliest evidence dates from 1332 AD with a Latin report from the French Dominican Guillelmus Adae, Archbishop of Antivari, who wrote that Albanians used Latin letters in their books although their language was quite different from Latin. Other significant examples include: a baptism formula (Unte paghesont premenit Atit et Birit et spertit senit) from 1462, written in Albanian within a Latin text by the Bishop of Durrës, Pal Engjëlli; a glossary of Albanian words of 1497 by Arnold von Harff, a German who had travelled through Albania, and a 15th - century fragment of the Bible from the Gospel of Matthew, also in Albanian, but written in Greek letters.
Albanian writings from these centuries must not have been religious texts only, but historical chronicles too. They are mentioned by the humanist Marin Barleti, who in his book Siege of Shkodër (Rrethimi i Shkodrës) from 1504, confirms that he leafed through such chronicles written in the language of the people (in vernacula lingua) as well as his famous biography of Skanderbeg Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum principis (History of Skanderbeg) from 1508. The History of Skanderbeg is still the foundation of Skanderbeg studies and is considered an Albanian cultural treasure, vital to the formation of Albanian national self - consciousness.
During the 16th and the 17th centuries, the catechism (E mbësuame krishterë) (Christian Teachings) from 1592 written by Lekë Matrënga, (Doktrina e krishterë) (The Christian Doctrine) from 1618 and (Rituale romanum) 1621 by Pjetër Budi, the first writer of original Albanian prose and poetry, an apology for George Castriot (1636) by Frang Bardhi, who also published a dictionary and folklore creations, the theological - philosophical treaty Cuneus Prophetarum (The Band of Prophets) (1685) by Pjetër Bogdani, the most universal personality of Albanian Middle Ages, were published in Albanian. The most famous Albanian writer in the 20th and 21th century is probably Ismail Kadare. He has been mentioned as a possible recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature several times.
Cinematography became popular in the 20th century, when foreign films and documentaries were shown in the cities of Shkodër and Korçë. The first public showing to occur in Albania was a little - known title, Paddy the Reliable a comical story.
The first Albanian films were mostly documentaries; the first was about the Monastir Congress that sanctioned the Albanian alphabet in 1908. During communism, the Albanian Film Institute that later became known as Kinostudio Shqipëria e Re was founded with Soviet assistance, focusing mostly on propaganda of wartime struggles. After 1945, the communist government founded the Kinostudio Shqipëria e Re in 1952. This was followed by the first Albanian epic film, the Great Warrior Skanderbeg, a cooperation with Soviet artists chronicling the life and fight of the Albanian national hero Skanderbeg. In addition the film was awarded the International Prize at the 1954 Cannes Film Festival.
By 1990, about 200 movies had been produced, and Albania had over 450 theaters. With the economic transition after the collapse of communism in the 1990s, the Kinostudio was broken up and privatised. A new National Center of Cinematography was established, while cities built modern cinema theatres showing mostly American movies. The Tirana International Film Festival was established in 2003 and has become the premier and largest film festival in the country as well as in the Balkans. Durrës hosts the International Film Summerfest of Durrës, the second largest international film festival in the country which takes place every year in late August or early September in Durrës Amphitheatre.
Notable Albanian film directors include Andamion Murataj, Besim Sahatçiu, Xhanfize Keko, Dhimitër Anagnosti, Kujtim Çashku, Luljeta Hoxha, Saim Kokona, Saimir Kumbaro, Kristaq Mitro, Leon Qafzezi and Gjergj Xhuvani. Famous actors in Albania include Nik Xhelilaj, Klement Tinaj, Masiela Lusha, Blerim Destani, Aleksandër Moisiu, Tinka Kurti, Pjetër Malota, Sandër Prosi and Margarita Xhepa.
There are internationally renowned actors in the Albanian diaspora, such as the Albanian - Americans Eliza Dushku, Jim and John Belushi, Kosovo - Albanians Bekim Fehmiu and Arta Dobroshi and Turkish - Albanian Barish Arduç.
Albania participated at the Olympic Games in 1972 for the first time. The country made their Winter Olympic Games debut in 2006. Albania missed the next four games, two of them due to the 1980 and 1984 boycotts, but returned for the 1992 games in Barcelona. Since then, Albania have participated in all games. Albania normally competes in events that include swimming, athletics, weightlifting, shooting and wrestling. The country have been represented by the National Olympic Committee of Albania since 1972. The nation has participated at the Mediterranean Games since the games of 1987 in Syria. The Albanian athletes have won a total of 43 (8 gold, 17 silver and 18 bronze) medals from 1987 to 2013.
Popular sports in Albania include Football, Weightlifting, Basketball, Volleyball, Tennis, Swimming, Rugby, and Gymnastics. Football is by far the most popular sport in Albania. It is governed by the Football Association of Albania (Albanian: Federata Shqiptare e Futbollit, F. SH. F.), which was created in 1930 and has membership in FIFA and UEFA. Football arrived in Albania early in the 20th century when the inhabitants of the northern city of Shkodër were surprised to see a strange game being played by students at a Christian mission.
The Albania national football team, ranking 51th in the World in 2017 (highest 22nd in August 22, 2015) have won the 1946 Balkan Cup and the Malta Rothmans International Tournament 2000, but had never participated in any major UEFA or FIFA tournament, until UEFA Euro 2016, Albania 's first ever appearance at the continental tournament and at a major men 's football tournament. Albania scored their first ever goal in a major tournament and secured their first ever win in European Championship when they beat Romania by 1 -- 0 in a UEFA Euro 2016 match on 19 June 2016. The most successful football clubs in the country are Skënderbeu, KF Tirana, Dinamo Tirana, Partizani and Vllaznia.
Weightlifting is one of the most successful individual sport for the Albanians, with the national team winning medals at the European Weightlifting Championships and the rest international competitions. Albanian weightlifters have won a total of 16 medals at the European Championships with 1 of them being gold, 7 silver and 8 bronze. In the World Weightlifting Championships, the Albanian weightlifting team has won in 1972 a gold in 2002 a silver and in 2011 a bronze medal.
Since antiquity, Albanians have established communities in many regions throughout southern Europe. The modern Albanian diaspora was formed largely in the 15th century, when many Albanians emigrated to southern Italy, especially in Sicily and Calabria also to Greece, to escape either various socio - political difficulties and the Ottoman conquest. Other destinations includes Turkey, United States, Argentina and Chile. After the fall of communism in 1991, many Albanians have migrated out of Albania to Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Scandinavia, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.
Notable people of Albanian origin includes Mother Teresa, Ferid Murad, Rita Ora, Bebe Rexha, Dua Lipa, Tony Dovolani, Fadil Berisha, Shkodran Mustafi, Granit Xhaka, Xherdan Shaqiri, Mateo Musacchio, Ernesto Sabato, Cecilia Bolocco and many others. (See also: List of Albanians)
The following are international rankings of Albania, including those measuring life quality, health care quality, stability, press freedom, and income.
: MacMillan And Co. Ltd.; 1st Edition, archived from the original on 2012 - 11 - 13, Prince William of Wied, the first Prince of Albania
Coordinates: 41 ° N 20 ° E / 41 ° N 20 ° E / 41; 20
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what kind of engine did the sherman tank have | M4 Sherman - Wikipedia
M4 and M4A1 model: Continental R975 - C1 or - C4 9 cylinder radial gasoline engine, 350 or 400 hp (261 or 298 kW) at 2,400 rpm M4A2 model: General Motors 6046 twin inline diesel engine; 375 hp (280 kW) at 2,100 rpm M4A3 model: Ford GAA V8 gasoline engine; 450 hp (336 kW) at 2,600 rpm M4A4 model: Chrysler A57 30 cylinder gasoline engine; 370 hp (276 kW) at 2,400 rpm
The M4 Sherman, officially Medium Tank, M4, was the most widely used medium tank by the United States and Western Allies in World War II. The M4 Sherman proved to be reliable, relatively cheap to produce, and available in great numbers. Thousands were distributed through the Lend - Lease program to the British Commonwealth and Soviet Union. The tank was named by the British for the American Civil War General William Tecumseh Sherman.
The M4 Sherman evolved from the M3 Medium Tank, which had its main armament in a side sponson mount. The M4 retained much of the previous mechanical design, but put the main 75 mm gun in a fully traversing turret. One feature, a one - axis gyrostabilizer, was not precise enough to allow firing when moving but did help keep the reticle on target, so that when the tank did stop to fire, the gun would be aimed in roughly the right direction. The designers stressed mechanical reliability, ease of production and maintenance, durability, standardization of parts and ammunition in a limited number of variants, and moderate size and weight. These factors, combined with the Sherman 's then - superior armor and armament, outclassed German light and medium tanks fielded in 1939 -- 42. The M4 went on to be produced in large numbers. It spearheaded many offensives by the Western Allies after 1942.
When the M4 tank went into combat in North Africa with the British Army at El Alamein in late 1942, it increased the advantage of Allied armor over Axis armor and was superior to the lighter German and Italian tank designs. For this reason, the US Army believed that the M4 would be adequate to win the war, and no pressure was exerted for further tank development. Logistical and transport restrictions, such as limitations imposed by roads, ports, and bridges, also complicated the introduction of a more capable but heavier tank. Tank destroyer battalions using vehicles built on the M4 hull and chassis, but with open - topped turrets and more potent high - velocity guns, also entered widespread use in the Allied armies. Even by 1944, most M4 Shermans kept their dual purpose 75 mm gun. By 1944, the M4 was inferior in firepower and armor to increasing numbers of German heavy tanks, but was able to fight on with numerical superiority and mutual support from growing numbers of fighter - bombers and artillery pieces. Some Shermans were produced with a more capable gun, the 76 mm gun M1, or refitted with an Ordnance QF 17 - pounder by the British (the Sherman Firefly).
The relative ease of production allowed large numbers of the M4 to be manufactured, and significant investment in tank recovery and repair units allowed disabled vehicles to be repaired and returned to service quickly. These factors combined to give the Allies numerical superiority in most battles, and many infantry divisions were provided with M4s and tank destroyers.
After World War II, the Sherman, particularly the many improved and upgraded versions, continued to see combat service in many conflicts around the world, including the UN forces in the Korean War, with Israel in the Arab - Israeli Wars, briefly with South Vietnam in the Vietnam War, and on both sides of the Indo - Pakistani War of 1965.
The U.S. Army Ordnance Department designed the M4 medium tank as a replacement for the M3 medium tank. The M3 was an up - gunned development of the M2 Medium Tank of 1939, in turn derived from the M2 light tank of 1935. The M3 was developed as a stopgap measure until a new turret mounting a 75 mm gun could be devised. While it was a big improvement when tried by the British in Africa against early German tanks, the placement of a 37 mm gun turret on top gave it a very high profile, and the unusual side - sponson mounted main gun, with limited traverse, could not be aimed across the other side of the tank. Though reluctant to adopt British weapons into their arsenal, the American designers were prepared to accept proven British ideas. British ideas, as embodied in a tank designed by the Canadian General Staff, also influenced the development of the American Sherman tank. Before long American military agencies and designers had accumulated sufficient experience to forge ahead on several points. In the field of tank armament the American 75 mm and 76 mm dual - purpose tank guns won the acknowledgement of British tank experts. Detailed design characteristics for the M4 were submitted by the Ordnance Department on 31 August 1940, but development of a prototype was delayed while the final production designs of the M3 were finished and the M3 entered full - scale production. On 18 April 1941, the U.S. Armored Force Board chose the simplest of five designs. Known as the T6, the design was a modified M3 hull and chassis, carrying a newly designed turret mounting the M3 's 75 mm gun. This would later become the Sherman.
The Sherman 's reliability resulted from many features developed for U.S. light tanks during the 1930s, including vertical volute spring suspension, rubber - bushed tracks, and a rear - mounted radial engine with drive sprockets in front. The goals were to produce a fast, dependable medium tank able to support infantry, provide breakthrough striking capacity, and defeat any tank then in use by the Axis nations.
The T6 prototype was completed on 2 September 1941. The upper hull of the T6 was a single large casting. It featured a single overhead hatch for the driver, and a hatch in the side of the hull. In the later M4A1 production model, this large casting was maintained, although the side hatch was eliminated and a second overhead hatch was added for the assistant driver. The modified T6 was standardized as the M4, and production began in February 1942 The cast hull models would later be re-standardized as M4A1, with the first welded hull models receiving the designation M4.
As the United States approached entry into World War II, armored employment was doctrinally governed by Field Manual 100 -- 5, Operations (published May 1941, the month following selection of the M4 tank 's final design). That field manual stated:
The armored division is organized primarily to perform missions that require great mobility and firepower. It is given decisive missions. It is capable of engaging in all forms of combat, but its primary role is in offensive operations against hostile rear areas.
The M4 was, therefore, not originally intended primarily as an infantry support tank; in fact, FM 100 - 5 specifically stated the opposite. It placed tanks in the "striking echelon '' of the armored division, and placed the infantry in the "support echelon ''. A field manual covering the use of the Sherman (FM 17 -- 33, "The Tank Battalion, Light and Medium '' of September 1942) described fighting enemy tanks when necessary as one of the many roles of the Sherman, but devoted only one page of text and four diagrams to tank - versus - tank action, out of 142 pages. This early armored doctrine was heavily influenced by the sweeping early war successes of German blitzkrieg tactics. By the time M4s reached combat in significant numbers, battlefield demands for infantry support and tank versus tank action far outnumbered the occasional opportunities of rear - echelon exploitation.
United States doctrine held that the most critical anti-tank work (stopping massed enemy tank attacks) was primarily to be done by towed and self - propelled anti-tank guns, both of which were referred to as "tank destroyers, '' with friendly tanks being used in support if possible. Speed was essential in order to bring the tank destroyers from the rear to destroy incoming tanks. This doctrine was rarely followed in combat, as it was found to be impractical. Commanders were reluctant to leave tank destroyers in reserve; if they were, it was also easier for an opposing armored force to achieve a breakthrough against an American tank battalion, which would not have all of its anti-tank weapons at the front during the beginning of any attack.
The first production of the Sherman took place at the Lima Locomotive Works, producing them for British use. The first production Sherman was given to the U.S. Army for evaluation, and the second tank of the British order went to London. Nicknamed Michael, probably after Michael Dewar, head of the British tank mission in the U.S., the tank was displayed in London and is now an exhibit at The Tank Museum, Bovington, UK.
In World War II, the U.S. Army ultimately fielded 16 armored divisions, along with 70 separate tank battalions, while the U.S. Marine Corps fielded six Sherman tank battalions. A third of all Army tank battalions, and all six Marine tank battalions, were deployed to the Pacific Theater of Operations (PTO). Prior to September 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had announced a production program calling for 120,000 tanks for the Allied war effort. Although the American industrial complex was not affected by enemy aerial bombing nor submarine warfare as was Japan, Germany and, to a lesser degree, Great Britain, an enormous amount of steel for tank production had been diverted to the construction of warships and other naval vessels. Steel used in naval construction amounted to the equivalent of approximately 67,000 tanks; and consequently only about 53,500 tanks were produced during 1942 and 1943.
The Army had seven main sub-designations for M4 variants during production: M4, M4A1, M4A2, M4A3, M4A4, M4A5, and M4A6. These designations did not necessarily indicate linear improvement; in that "M4A4 '' did not indicate it was better than "M4A3. '' These sub-types indicated standardized production variations, which were in fact often manufactured concurrently at different locations. The sub-types differed mainly in engines, although the M4A1 differed from the other variants by its fully cast upper hull, with a distinctive rounded appearance. The M4A4 had a longer engine system that required a longer hull and more track blocks, and thus the most distinguishing feature of the M4A4 was the wider longitudinal spacing between the bogies. "M4A5 '' was an administrative placeholder designation for Canadian production. The M4A6 had a radial diesel engine as well as the elongated chassis of the M4A4, but only 75 of these were ever produced.
While most Sherman sub-types ran on gasoline, (the Continental - produced 350 or 400 hp (261 or 298 kW) Wright R975 Whirlwind 9 cylinder radial gasoline engine, the 450 hp (336 kW) Ford GAA V8 gasoline engine, or the 370 hp (276 kW) 30 cylinder Chrysler A57 multibank gasoline engine) the M4A2 and M4A6 had diesel engines. The M4A2 was powered by a pair of GMC 6 -- 71 two - stroke inline engines, that produced a total of 375 hp (280 kW), while the M4A6 used an RD - 1820 (a redesigned Caterpillar D - 200A radial diesel engine, adapted from Wright Aeronautical 's Cyclone 9 nine cylinder radial aircraft engine.) that produced 450 hp (340 kW) The M4A2 and M4A4 were mostly supplied to other Allied countries under Lend - Lease. The term "M4 '' can refer specifically to the initial sub-type with its Continental radial engine, or generically, to the entire family of seven Sherman sub-types, depending on context. Many details of production, shape, strength, and performance improved while in production, without a change to the tank 's basic model number. These included more durable suspension units, safer "wet '' (W) ammunition stowage, and stronger or more efficient armor arrangements, such as the M4 "Composite, '' which had a cheaper to produce cast front hull section mated to a regular welded rear hull. British nomenclature regarding Sherman variants differed from that employed by the U.S. A 24 - volt electrical system was used in the M4.
Early Shermans mounted a 75 mm medium - velocity general - purpose gun. Although Ordnance began work on the T20 medium tank series as Sherman replacements, ultimately the Army decided to minimize production disruption by incorporating elements of other tank designs into the Sherman. Later M4A1, M4A2, and M4A3 models received the larger T23 turret with a high - velocity 76 mm gun. Later, the M4 and M4A3 were factory - produced with a 105 mm howitzer and a distinctive rounded mantlet, which surrounded the main gun, on the turret. The first standard - production 76 mm gun - armed Sherman was an M4A1, accepted in January 1944, which first saw combat in July 1944 during Operation Cobra. The first Sherman to be armed with the 105 mm howitzer was the M4, first accepted in February 1944.
From May to July 1944, the Army accepted a limited run of 254 M4A3E2 Jumbo Shermans, which had very thick hull armor and the 75 mm gun in a new, far better protected T23 - style turret, in order to assault fortifications. The M4A3 model was the first to be factory - produced with the horizontal volute spring suspension (HVSS) system, beginning in August 1944. With wider tracks to distribute weight, and the smooth ride of the HVSS, it gained the nickname "Easy Eight '' from its experimental E8 designation. The M4 and M4A3 105 mm - armed tanks, as well as the M4A1 and M4A2 76 mm - armed tanks, were also eventually equipped with HVSS. Both the Americans and the British developed a wide array of special attachments for the Sherman, although few saw combat, remaining experimental. Those that saw action included a bulldozer blade, the Duplex Drive system, flamethrowers for Zippo flame tanks, and various rocket launchers such as the T34 Calliope. British variants (DDs and mine flails) formed part of the group of specialized vehicles collectively known as "Hobart 's Funnies '' (after Percy Hobart, commander of the 79th Armoured Division).
The M4 Sherman 's basic chassis was used for all the sundry roles of a modern mechanized force: roughly 49,000 Sherman tanks, plus thousands more derivative vehicles under different model numbers. These included the M10 and M36 tank destroyers; M7B1, M12, M40, and M43 self - propelled artillery; the M32 and M74 "tow truck '' - style recovery tanks with winches, booms, and an 81 mm mortar for smoke screens; and the M34 (from M32B1) and M35 (from M10A1) artillery prime movers.
During World War II, approximately 19,247 Shermans were issued to the U.S. Army and about 1,114 to the U.S. Marine Corps. The U.S. also supplied 17,184 to Great Britain (some of which in turn went to the Canadians and the Free Poles), while the Soviet Union received 4,102 and an estimated 812 were transferred to China. These numbers were distributed further to the respective countries ' allied nations.
The U.S. Marine Corps used the diesel M4A2 and gasoline - powered M4A3 in the Pacific. However, the Chief of the Army 's Armored Force, Lt. Gen. Jacob L. Devers, ordered that no diesel - engined Shermans be used by the Army outside the Zone of Interior (the continental U.S.). The Army used all types for either training or testing within the United States, but intended the M4A2 and M4A4 (with the A57 Multibank engine) to be the primary Lend - Lease exports.
Shermans were being issued in small numbers for familiarization to U.S. armored divisions when there was a turn of events in the Western Desert campaign. Axis forces had taken Tobruk and were advancing into Egypt and Britain 's supply line through the Suez Canal was threatened. The US considered collecting all Shermans together so as to be able to send the 2nd Armored Division under Patton to reinforce Egypt, but delivering the Shermans directly to the British was quicker and over 300 -- mostly M4A1s, but also including M4A2s -- had arrived there by September 1942.
The Shermans were modified for desert warfare with sandshields over the tracks and other stowage. The Sherman first saw combat at the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942 with the British 8th Army. At the start of the offensive, there were 252 tanks fit for action. These equipped the British 9th Armoured Brigade (with the New Zealand Division), 2nd Armoured Brigade (1st Armoured Division) and 8th and 20th Armoured Brigades (10th Armoured Division). Their first encounter with tanks was against German Panzer III and IV tanks with long 50 mm and 75 mm guns engaging them at 2,000 yards (1,800 m). There were losses to both sides.
The first U.S. Shermans in battle were M4s and M4A1s in Operation Torch the next month. On 6 December, near Tebourba, Tunisia, a platoon from the 2nd Battalion, 13th Armored Regiment was lost to enemy tanks and anti-tank guns.
Additional M4s and M4A1s replaced M3s in U.S. tank battalions over the course of the North African campaign.
The M4 and M4A1 were the main types in U.S. units until late 1944, when the Army began replacing them with the preferred M4A3 with its more powerful 500 hp (370 kW) engine. Some M4s and M4A1s continued in U.S. service for the rest of the war. The first Sherman to enter combat with the 76 mm gun in July 1944 was the M4A1, closely followed by the M4A3. By the end of the war, roughly half the U.S. Army Shermans in Europe had the 76 mm gun. The first HVSS - equipped Sherman to see combat was the M4A3 (76) W in December 1944.
While combat in the European Theater of Operations (ETO) consisted of high - profile armored warfare, the mainly naval nature of the Pacific Theater of Operations (PTO) relegated it to secondary status for both the Allies and the Japanese. While the US Army fielded 16 armored divisions and 70 separate tank battalions during the war, only a third of the battalions and none of the divisions were deployed to the Pacific Theater. The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) deployed only their 2nd Tank Division to the Pacific during the war. Armor from both sides mostly operated in jungle terrain that was poorly suited to armored warfare. For this type of terrain, the Japanese and the Allies found light tanks easier to transport and employ.
During the early stages of combat in the Pacific, specifically the Guadalcanal Campaign, the U.S. Marine Corps ' M2A4 light tank fought against the equally matched Type 95 Ha - Go light tank; both were armed with a 37 mm main gun. However, the M2 (produced in 1940) was newer by five years. By 1943, the IJA still used the Type 95 and Type 97 Chi - Ha medium tanks, while Allied forces were quickly replacing their light tanks with 75 mm - armed M4s. The Chinese in India received 100 M4 Shermans and used them to great effect in the subsequent 1943 and 1944 offensives.
To counter the Sherman, the Japanese developed the Type 3 Chi - Nu and the heavier Type 4 Chi - To; both tanks were armed with 75 mm guns, albeit of different type. Only 166 Type 3s and two Type 4s were built, and none saw combat; they were saved for the defense of the Japanese home islands, leaving 1930s vintage light and medium armor to do battle against 1940s built Allied light and medium armor.
During these later years of the war, general purpose high explosive ammunition was preferred for fighting Japanese tanks, because armor - piercing rounds, which had been designed for penetrating thicker steel, often went through the thin armor of the Type 95 Ha - Go (the most commonly encountered Japanese tank) and out the other side without stopping. Although the high - velocity guns of tank destroyers were useful for penetrating fortifications, M4s armed with flamethrowers were often deployed, as direct fire seldom destroyed Japanese fortifications.
After World War II, the U.S. kept the M4A3 ' "Easy Eight '' in service, with either the 76 mm gun or a 105 mm M4 howitzer. The Sherman remained a common U.S. tank in the Korean War, where it fought alongside the M26 Pershing and M46 Patton. The M4A3 (76) W HVSS Sherman and T - 34 - 85 were comparable and could destroy each other at normal combat ranges, although the use of High Velocity Armor Piercing ammunition, advanced optics, and better crew training gave the Sherman an advantage. The M4A3 (76) W HVSS Sherman, using 76 mm HVAP ammunition, destroyed a total of 41 enemy tanks from July -- November 1950. The lighter M4A3 (76) W HVSS tank became the preferred U.S. tank in the later phases of the war in Korea, due to the mechanical reliability of the M4, its ease of maintenance, and its driveability compared to the M26 tank.
The U.S. Army replaced the M4 in 1957. The U.S. continued to transfer Shermans to its allies, which contributed to widespread foreign use.
The Israeli Defense Force used Shermans from its creation in 1948 until the 1980s, having first acquired a single M4A2 lacking main armament from British forces as they withdrew from Israel. The popularity of the tank (having now been re-armed) compared to the outdated, 1934 - origin French Renault R35 interwar light tanks with their 37 mm short - barreled guns, which made up the bulk of the IDF 's tank force, led to the purchase of 30 unarmed M4 (105mm) s from Italian scrapyards. Three of these, plus the original M4A2, saw extensive service in the 1948 - 9 war of independence. The remainder were then serviced and rearmed with 75 mm guns and components whenever these became available, composing a large part of Israeli tank forces for the next eight years. The 75 mm - armed Sherman were replaced by M4A1 (76 mm) Shermans imported from France before the 1956 Suez Crisis, after it was realised that their armor penetration was insufficient for combat against newer tanks such as the Centurions and T - 34 - 85s being delivered to Egyptian forces. During further upgrades, the French military helped develop a conversion kit to upgrade about 300 Shermans to the long high - velocity 75 mm gun CN 75 - 50 used in the AMX - 13. These were designated Sherman M - 50 by the Israelis. Before the Six Day War in 1967, the Israeli Army upgraded about 180 M4A1 (76) W HVSS Shermans with the French 105 mm Modèle F1 gun, re-engined them with Cummins diesel engines and designated the upgraded tank Sherman M - 51. The Sherman tanks, fighting alongside the 105 mm Centurion Sh'ot Kal and M48 Patton tanks, were able to defeat the T - 34 / 85, T - 54 / 55 / 62 series, and IS - 3 tanks used by the Egyptian and Syrian forces in the 1967 Six Day War.
M4A3s were also used by British forces in Indonesia during the Indonesian National Revolution until 1946, when they were passed on to the KNIL, which used them until 1949 before they were passed on to the Indonesian Army.
As the Sherman was being designed, provisions were made so that multiple types of main armament (specified as a 75 mm gun, a 3 - inch gun, or a 105 mm howitzer) could be mounted in the turret. The possibility of mounting the main gun of the M6 heavy tank, the 3 - inch gun M7, in the turret of the M4 Sherman was explored first. As this gun was developed from a land - based antiaircraft gun, the size and weight limitations of fitting it into a tank 's turret were of secondary concern. As a result, it was found that the gun was too large to fit in the turret of the Sherman. Development on a new 76 mm gun better - suited to the Sherman began in 1942.
In early 1942, tests began on the feasibility of mounting a 105 mm howitzer into the turret of the Sherman. The basic 105 mm howitzer M2A1 was found to be ill - designed for mounting in a tank turret, so it was completely redesigned and re-designated the 105 mm howitzer M4. After modifications to the turret (concerning the balancing of the gun and the strength of the power traverse) and interior of the hull (concerning the stowage of the 105 mm ammunition), the Ordnance Department expressed its approval of the project, and production of M4 tanks armed with 105 mm howitzers began in February 1944.
The Sherman would enter combat in 1942 equipped with the 75 mm gun M3, a 40 - caliber gun which could penetrate 88 mm (3.5 in) of unsloped rolled homogeneous armor (RHA) at 100 meters (110 yd) and 73 mm (2.9 in) at 1,000 meters (1,100 yd) firing the usual M61 round. Facing the early Panzer III and Panzer IV in North Africa, the Sherman 's gun could penetrate the frontal armor of these tanks at normal combat ranges, within 1,000 yd (910 m). U.S. Army Intelligence discounted the arrival of the Tiger I in 1942 and the Panther tank in 1943, predicting that the Panther would be a heavy tank like the Tiger I, and doubted that many would be produced. There were also reports of British QF 6 pdr (57 mm) guns being able to destroy the Tiger I. However, this only happened at very close ranges and against the thinner side armor. Due to their misconceptions related to this, and also due to tests that seemed to prove that the 76 mm gun was able to destroy both the Tiger and the Panther, the leadership of Army Ground Forces were not especially concerned by the Tiger I. The tests of the 76 mm were later ruled inaccurate, with Eisenhower even remarking that he was wrongly told by Ordnance that the 76 mm could knock out any German tank. The Army also failed to anticipate that the Germans would attempt to make the Panther the standard tank of their panzer divisions in 1944, supported by small numbers of Tiger I and IIs.
When the newly designed 76 mm gun, known as the T1, was first installed in the M4 in 1943, it was found to unbalance the turret, and the gun barrel also protruded too far forward, making it more difficult to transport and susceptible to hitting the ground when the tank traveled over undulating terrain. The barrel length was reduced by 15 in (380 mm) (from 57 calibers to 52), resulting in the M1 variant. Mounting this gun in the original M4 turret proved problematic, so the turret for the aborted T23 tank project was used instead for the definitive production version of the 76 mm M4 Shermans, along with a modified version of the gun known as the M1A1.
Despite the Ordnance Department 's development of new 76 mm and 90 mm anti-tank guns, the Army Ground Forces rejected their deployment as unnecessary. An attempt to upgrade the M4 Sherman by installing the 90 mm - armed turret from the T26 tank project on an M4 hull in April 1944 was halted after realizing it could not go into production sooner than the T26 and would likely delay T26 development. Even in 1943, most German armored fighting vehicles (later models of the Panzer IV, StuG III, and Marder III) mounted the 7.5 cm KwK 40. As a result, even weakly armored light German tank destroyers such as the Marder III, which was meant to be a stop - gap measure to fight Soviet tanks in 1942, could destroy Shermans from a distance. The disparity in firepower between the German armored fighting vehicles of 1943 and the 75 mm - armed M4 was the impetus to begin production of 76 mm - armed M4s in January 1944. In testing prior to the invasion of Normandy, the 76 mm gun was found to have an undesirably large muzzle blast that kicked up dust from the ground and obscured vision for further firing. The M1A1C gun, which entered production lines in March 1944, was threaded for a muzzle brake, but as the brakes were still in development, the threads were protected with a cap. The addition of a muzzle brake on the new M1A2 gun (which also incorporated a faster rifling twist leading to a slight accuracy increase at longer ranges) beginning in October 1944 finally solved this problem by directing the blast sideways.
Army doctrine at the time emphasized the multirole ability of the tank, and the capability of the high explosive shell was considered important. Being a dedicated anti-tank gun, the 76 mm had a much weaker high explosive shell than the existing 75 mm, and was not initially accepted by various U.S. armored division commanders, even though many had already been produced and were available. All of the U.S. Army M4s deployed initially in Normandy in June 1944 had the 75 mm gun. Tests against American armor plate suggested that the new M1A1 gun would be adequate, but testing against captured Panther tanks was never done. Fighting against Panther tanks in Normandy quickly demonstrated the need for better anti-tank firepower, and the 76 mm M4s were deployed to First Army units in July 1944. Operation Cobra was the combat debut of the 76 mm gun - armed Sherman, in the form of the M4A1 (76) W. General George S. Patton 's Third Army were initially issued 75 mm M4s and accepted 76 mm - armed M4s only after the Battle of Arracourt against Panther tanks in late September 1944.
The higher - velocity 76 mm gun gave Shermans anti-tank firepower at least equal to most of the German vehicles they encountered, particularly the Panzer IV and StuG III. The gun could penetrate 125 mm (4.9 in) of unsloped RHA at 100 meters (110 yd) and 106 mm (4.2 in) at 1,000 meters (1,100 yd) using the usual M62 round. The M1 helped to equalize the Sherman and the Panzer IV in terms of firepower; the 48 - caliber 7.5 cm KwK 40 (75mm L / 48) of the Panzer IV could penetrate 135 mm (5.3 in) of unsloped RHA at 100 meters (110 yd) and 109 mm (4.3 in) at 1,000 meters (1,100 yd). The 76 mm gun was still inferior to the much more powerful 70 - caliber 7.5 cm KwK 42 (75mm L / 70) of the Panther, which could penetrate 185 mm (7.3 in) of unsloped RHA at 100 meters (110 yd) and 149 mm (5.9 in) at 1,000 meters (1,100 yd) using the usual PzGr. 39 / 42 round. The 76 mm was capable of knocking out a Panther at normal combat ranges from the flanks or rear, but could not overcome the glacis plate. Due to its 55 degree slope, the Panther 's 80 mm (3.1 in) glacis had a line of sight thickness of 140 mm (5.5 in) with actual effectiveness being even greater. An M4 might only knock out a Panther frontally from point - blank range by aiming for its turret front and transverse - cylindrical shaped mantlet, the lower edge of which on most Panthers (especially the earlier Ausf. D and A versions) constituted a vulnerable shot trap. A 76 mm - armed Sherman could penetrate the upper frontal hull superstructure of a Tiger I tank from normal combat ranges. Although the new gun lessened the gap between the two tanks, the Tiger I was still capable of knocking a M4 out frontally from over 2,000 meters (2,200 yd).
In late summer 1944, after breaking out of the bocage and moving into open country, U.S. tank units which engaged German defensive positions at longer ranges sometimes took 50 % casualties before spotting where the fire was coming from. The average combat range noted by the Americans for tank versus tank action was 800 meters (870 yd) to 900 meters (980 yd). Sherman crews also had concerns about firing from longer ranges, as the Sherman 's high - flash powder made their shots easier to spot. This, and the U.S. Army 's usual offensive tactical situation, often contributed to losses suffered by the U.S. Army in Europe. Even though the various gunsights fitted to the Sherman had less magnification settings than those fitted to German tanks, their gunners were able to use a secondary periscope which featured a far larger field of view than their German counterparts.
T4 High - Velocity Armor Piercing (HVAP) ammunition became available in August 1944 for the 76 mm gun. The projectile contained a tungsten penetrator surrounded by a lightweight aluminum body and ballistic windshield, which gave it a higher velocity and more penetrating power. The increased penetration of HVAP allowed the 76 mm gun to match the Panther 's 7.5 cm KwK 42 APCR shot. However, its performance was heavily degraded by sloped armor such as the Panther 's glacis. Because of tungsten shortages, HVAP rounds were constantly in short supply. Priority was given to U.S. tank destroyer units and over half of the 18,000 projectiles received were not compatible with the 76 mm gun M1, being fitted into the cartridge case of the M10 tank destroyer 's 3 - inch gun M7. Most Shermans carried only a few rounds at any one time, and some units never received any.
The British anticipated future developments in German armor and began development of a 3 - inch (76 mm) antitank gun even before its 57 mm predecessor entered service. Out of expediency and also driven by delays in their new tank designs, they mounted the powerful 3 in (76 mm) Ordnance QF 17 - pounder gun in a standard 75 mm M4 Sherman turret. This conversion became the Sherman Firefly. Like the U.S. M1 gun, The 17 pdr was also a 76 mm gun, but the British piece used a more voluminous cartridge case containing a much bigger propellant charge. This allowed it to penetrate 174 mm (6.9 in) of unsloped RHA at 100 meters (110 yd) and 150 mm (5.9 in) at 1,000 meters (1,100 yd) using APCBC ammunition. The 17 - pounder still could not penetrate the steeply sloped glacis plate of the Panther but it was expected to be able to pierce its gun mantlet at over 2,500 yards (2,300 m); moreover it was estimated it would defeat the Tiger I 's frontal armor from 1,900 yards (1,700 m). However, British Army test results conducted with two Fireflys against a Panther turret - sized target demonstrated relatively poor accuracy at long range; a hit probability of 25.4 % at 1,500 yards (1,400 m) with APCBC, and only 7.4 % with APDS. In late 1943, the British offered the 17 - pounder to the U.S. Army for use in their M4 tanks. General Devers insisted on comparison tests between the 17 - pounder and the U.S. 90 mm gun. The tests were finally done on March 25 and May 23, 1944; they seemed to show the 90 mm gun was equal to or better than the 17 - pounder. By then, production of the 76 mm - armed M4 and the 90 mm - armed M36 were both underway and U.S. Army interest in the 17 - pounder waned. Late in 1944, the British began to produce tungsten sabot rounds for the 17 - pounder, which could readily breach the armor of even the Tiger II; these were not as accurate as standard rounds and not generally available.
After the heavy tank losses of the Battle of the Bulge, in January 1945, General Eisenhower asked that no more 75 mm M4s be sent to Europe: only 76 mm M4s were wanted.
Interest in mounting the British 17 - pounder in U.S. Shermans flared anew. In February 1945, the U.S. Army began sending 75 mm M4s to England for conversion to the 17 - pounder. Approximately 100 conversions were completed by the beginning of May. By then, the end of the war in Europe was clearly in sight, and the U.S. Army decided the logistical difficulties of adding a new ammunition caliber to the supply train was not warranted. None of the converted 17 - pounder M4s were deployed in combat by the U.S., and it is unclear what happened to most of them, although some were given to the British as part of Lend - Lease post-war.
General Lesley J. McNair was head of the Army Ground Forces from 1942 to 1944. McNair, a former artilleryman, advocated for the role of the tank destroyer (TD) within the U.S. Army. In McNair 's opinion, tanks were to exploit breakthroughs and support infantry, while masses of attacking hostile tanks were to be engaged by tank destroyer units, which were composed of a mix of self - propelled and towed tank destroyers. Armored Force and Tank Destroyer Force doctrine were developed separately, and it was not against Armored Force doctrine for friendly tanks to engage hostile tanks while attacking or defending. The tank destroyers were to engage numbers of enemy tanks that broke through friendly lines. U.S. tank destroyers, called "gun motor carriages '' (as were any U.S. Army self - propelled armored vehicles mounting an artillery piece of heavy caliber) were similar to tanks but were lightly armored with open - topped turrets. The tank destroyers were supposed to be faster and carry a more powerful anti-tank gun than tanks (although in reality tanks often received more powerful guns before tank destroyers did) and armor was sacrificed for speed.
McNair approved the 76 mm upgrade to the M4 Sherman and production of the 90 mm gun - armed M36 tank destroyer, but he at first staunchly opposed mass production of the T20 medium tank series and its descendants the T25 and T26 (which would eventually become the M26 Pershing) during the crucial period of 1943 because they were not "battle worthy '' and he saw no "battle need '' for them. In fall 1943, Lieutenant General Devers, commander of U.S. forces in the European Theater of Operations (ETO), asked for 250 T26 tanks for use in the invasion of France; McNair refused, citing the fact that he believed the M4 was adequate. Devers appealed all the way to the War Department, and Major General Russell L. Maxwell, the Assistant Chief of Staff G - 4 of the War Department General Staff, ordered the 250 tanks built in December 1943. McNair finally relented in his opposition, but still opposed mass production; his Army Ground Forces even asked for the tanks to be "down - gunned '' from 90 mm to 75 or 76 mm in April 1944, believing the 76 mm gun was capable of performing satisfactorily. Marshall then summarily ordered the tanks to be provided to the ETO as soon as possible. Soon after the Normandy invasion in June 1944, General Dwight D. Eisenhower urgently requested heavy tanks, but McNair 's continued opposition to mass production due to persistent serious mechanical problems with the vehicles delayed their procurement. That same month, the War Department reversed course and completely overruled the Army Ground Forces when making their tank production plan for 1945. 7,800 tanks were to be built, of which 2,060 were to be T26s armed with 90 mm guns, 2,728 were to be T26s armed with 105 mm howitzers, and 3,000 were to be M4A3 Sherman tanks armed with 105 mm howitzers. As a part of the plan, the British requested 750 90 mm - armed T26s and 200 105 mm - armed T26s. General McNair was killed in a botched air support mission in July 1944, and the path to production for the T26 tank became somewhat clearer. General Marshall intervened again and the tanks were eventually brought into full production. However, only a few T26 tanks (by then designated M26) saw combat beginning in February 1945, too late to have any effect on the battlefield.
The Sherman, like its M3 predecessor, was an early tank to feature a gyroscopically stabilized gun and sight. The stabilization was only in the vertical plane, as the mechanism could not slew the turret. The stabilizer was sufficient to keep the gun 's elevation setting within 1 / 8th of a degree, or 2 mils while crossing moderately rough terrain at 15 miles per hour (24 km / h). This gave a hit probability of 70 % on enemy tanks at ranges of 300 yards (270 m) to 1,200 yards (1,100 m). The utility of the stabilization is debatable, with some saying it was useful for its intended purpose, others only for using the sights for stabilized viewing on the move. Some operators disabled the stabilizer.
The 75 mm gun also had an effective canister round that functioned as a large shotgun. In the close fighting of the French bocage, the U.S. Army 's 2nd Armored Division tanks used Culin Hedgerow Cutters fitted to their tanks to push three tanks together through a hedgerow. The flank tanks would clear the back of the hedgerow on their side with canister rounds while the center tank would engage and suppress known or suspected enemy positions on the next hedgerow. This approach permitted surprisingly fast progress through the very tough and well - defended hedgerows in Normandy. Over 500 sets of these were fitted to US armored vehicles, and many fitted to various British tanks (where they were called "Prongs '').
The 75 mm gun had a white phosphorus shell originally intended for use as an artillery marker to help with targeting. M4 tank crews discovered that the shell could also be used against the Tiger and Panther -- when the burning white phosphorus adhered to the German tanks, their excellent optics would be blinded and the acrid smoke would get sucked inside the vehicle, making it difficult or impossible for the crew to breathe. This, and the fear of fire starting or spreading inside the tank, would sometimes cause the crew to abandon the tank. There were several recorded instances where white phosphorus shells defeated German tanks in this fashion.
A variant of the M4 Sherman was armed with the 105 mm M4 howitzer, which provided even more powerful high explosive armament. This variant was employed in three - vehicle "assault gun '' platoons in tank battalions to provide close fire support and smoke. Armored infantry battalions were also issued three of these Shermans. The 105 mm - armed variants were of limited use against enemy tanks due to the poor anti-armor performance of the howitzer, which was not intended to fight other tanks, though a high explosive anti-tank (HEAT) round for the 105 mm howitzer was available for self - defense.
The turret armor of the 75 mm and 105 mm - armed M4 ranged from 25.4 mm (1.00 in) to 76.2 mm (3.00 in) thick. The turret front armor was 76.2 mm (3.0 in) thick, angled at 30 degrees from the vertical, giving an effective thickness of 87.9 mm (3.46 in). The opening in the front of the M4 's turret for the main gun was covered by a rounded 50.8 mm (2.00 in) thick rotor shield. Early Shermans that had a periscopic sight for the main gun mounted in the turret roof possessed a small 76.2 mm (3.00 in) thick mantlet that only covered the hole where the main gun barrel protruded; the exposed barrel of the coaxial machine gun was vulnerable to bullet splash or shrapnel and a small armored cover was manufactured to protect it. When the Sherman was later fitted with a telescopic sight next to the main gun, a larger 76.2 mm (3.00 in) thick gun mantlet that covered the entire rotor shield including the sight and coaxial machine gun barrel was produced. 105 mm - armed Sherman tanks did not have a rotor shield, possessing only the mantlet to cover the opening in the turret front. The turret side armor was 50.8 mm (2.00 in) thick at a 5 degree angle from the vertical. The turret rear armor was 50.8 mm (2.00 in) thick and vertical, while the turret roof armor was 25.4 mm (1.00 in) thick, and flat.
Later models of the M4A1, M4A2 and M4A3 Sherman tanks were equipped with the T23 turret and new 76 mm gun. This turret 's armor was 63.5 mm (2.50 in) thick on the sides and rear, angled from 0 to 13 degrees from the vertical. It had an 25.4 mm (1.00 in) thick roof which sat at 0 to 45 degrees from the vertical. The front of the T23 turret, which like the 105 mm - armed Sherman 's turret, did not have a rotor shield, was protected by an unsloped 88.9 mm (3.50 in) thick cast gun mantlet. Combat experience indicated that the single hatch in the three - man 75 mm gun turret was inadequate for timely evacuation, so Ordnance added a loader 's hatch beside the commander 's beginning in late 1943. All 76 mm gun turrets had two roof hatches.
The Sherman 's glacis plate was originally 50.8 mm (2.00 in) thick. and angled at 56 degrees from the vertical, providing an effective thickness of 90.8 mm (3.57 in). The M4, M4A1, early production M4A2 and early production M4A3 possessed protruding cast "hatchway '' structures that allowed the driver and assistant driver 's hatches to fit in front of the turret ring. In these areas, the effect of the glacis plate 's slope was greatly reduced. Later Shermans had an upgraded glacis plate that was uniformly 63.5 mm (2.50 in) thick and sloped at 47 degrees from the vertical, providing an effective thickness of 93.1 mm (3.67 in) over the entire plate. The new design improved overall ballistic protection by eliminating the "hatchways, '' while also allowing for larger hatches for the driver and bow gunner. The cast hull M4A1 for the most part retained its previous glacis shape even after the larger hatches were introduced; the casting, irrespective of the larger hatches, sat 37 to 55 degrees from the vertical, with the large majority of the piece sitting closer to a 55 degree angle.
The transmission housing was rounded, made of three cast sections bolted together or cast as one piece. It ranged from 50.8 -- 108 mm (2 to 4.25 in) thick The upper and lower hull sides were 38 mm (1.5 in) thick, and vertical, while the upper hull rear was also 38 mm (1.5 in) thick, vertical or sloped at 10 degrees from the vertical. The lower hull rear, which protected the engine, was 38 mm (1.5 in) thick, sloped at 0 to 22 degrees from the vertical depending upon the variant. The hull roof was 25.4 mm (1.00 in). The hull floor ranged from 25.4 mm (1.00 in) thick under the driver and assistant driver 's positions to 12.7 mm (0.50 in) thick at the rear. The M4 had a hatch on the hull bottom to dispose of spent shell casings and to provide an emergency escape route. In the Pacific, Marines often used this Sherman feature in reverse to recover wounded infantry under fire.
The armor of the M4 was effective against most early war tank and anti-tank weapons, but needed a compound angle to resist later German tank and anti-tank guns. The distinctive protruding "hatchways '' of the early Sherman compromised the 56 degree - angled glacis plate, making them weak points where the effect of the glacis plate 's slope was greatly reduced. In 1943, to make the thickness of these areas equal with the rest of the glacis plate, 1 - inch thick (25 mm) appliqué armor plates were fitted in front of them.
A Waffenamt - Prüfwesen 1 report estimated that with the M4 angled 30 degrees sidewards, the Sherman 's glacis plate was invulnerable to shots from the Tiger 's 8.8 cm KwK 36 L / 56 and that the Panther, with its 7.5 cm KwK 42 L / 70, would have to close in to 100 meters (110 yd) to achieve a penetration in the same situation. Although the later - model German medium and heavy tanks were greatly feared, Buckley opined "The vast majority of German tanks encountered in Normandy were either inferior or merely equal to the Sherman. ''
Research for tank casualties in Normandy from 6 June to 10 July 1944 conducted by the British No. 2 Operational Research concluded, that from a sample of 40 Sherman tanks, 33 tanks burned (82 percent) and 7 tanks remained unburned following an average of 1.89 penetrations. In comparison, from a sample of 5 Panzer IV 's, 4 tanks burned (80 percent) and 1 tank remained unburned, following an average of 1.5 penetrations. The Panther tank burned 14 times (63 percent) from a sample of 22 tanks and following 3.24 penetrations, while the Tiger burned 4 times (80 percent) out of a sample of 5 tanks following 3.25 penetrations. John Buckley, using a case study of the British 8th and 29th Armoured Brigades, found that of their 166 Shermans knocked out in combat during the Normandy campaign, 94 (56.6 percent) burned out. Buckley also notes that an American survey carried out concluded that 65 % of tanks burned out after being penetrated. United States Army research proved that the major reason for this was the stowage of main gun ammunition in the vulnerable sponsons above the tracks. A U.S. Army study in 1945 concluded that only 10 -- 15 percent of wet stowage Shermans burned when penetrated, compared to 60 -- 80 percent of the older dry - stowage Shermans.
At first, a partial remedy to ammunition fires in the M4 was found in 1943 by welding 1 - inch thick (25 mm) appliqué armor plates to the sponson sides over the ammunition stowage bins, though there was doubt that these had any effect. Later models moved ammunition stowage to the hull floor, with water jackets surrounding each stowage bin. The practice, known as wet stowage, reduced the chance of fire after a hit to about 15 percent. The Sherman gained grim nicknames like "Tommycooker '' (by the Germans, who referred to British soldiers as "Tommies ''; a tommy cooker was a World War I - era trench stove). The British and Germans took to calling it the "Ronson '', after the lighter. Fuel fires occasionally occurred, but such fires were far less common and less deadly than ammunition fires. In many cases, the fuel tank of the Sherman was found intact after a fire. Tankers described "fierce, blinding jets of flame '', which is inconsistent with gasoline - related fires.
Upgrades included the rectangular armor patches protecting ammunition stowage mentioned above, and smaller armor patches in front of each of the protruding hatchway structures in the glacis in an attempt to mitigate their ballistic weakness. Field improvisations included placing sandbags, spare track links, concrete, wire mesh, or even wood for increased protection against shaped - charge rounds. While mounting sandbags around a tank had little effect against high - velocity anti-tank gunfire it was thought to provide standoff protection against HEAT weapons, primarily the German Panzerfaust anti-tank grenade launcher and the bazooka - derived Panzerschreck 88 mm calibre anti-tank rocket launcher. In the only study known to have been done to test the use of sandbags, on March 9, 1945, officers of the 1st Armored Group tested standard Panzerfaust 60s against sandbagged M4s; shots against the side blew away the sandbags and still penetrated the side armor, whereas shots fired at an angle against the front plate blew away some of the sandbags but failed to penetrate the armor. Earlier, in the summer of 1944, General Patton, informed by his ordnance officers that sandbags were useless and that the machines ' chassis suffered from the extra weight, had forbidden the use of sandbags. Following the clamor for better armor and firepower after the losses of the Battle of the Bulge, Patton ordered extra armor plates salvaged from knocked - out American and German tanks welded to the turrets and hulls of tanks of his command. Approximately 36 of these up - armored M4s were supplied to each of the three armored divisions of the Third Army in the spring of 1945.
The M4A3E2 Sherman "Jumbo '' assault tank variant, based upon a standard M4A3 (75) W hull, had an additional 38 mm (1.5 in) plate welded to the glacis, giving a total thickness of 101.6 mm (4.00 in), which resulted in a glacis of 148.97 mm (5.865 in) line - of - sight thickness, and over 180 mm (7.1 in) effective thickness. The sponson sides had 38 mm (1.5 in) thick plates welded on, to make them 76 mm (3.0 in) thick, a significantly thicker transmission casing, a new, more massive T23 - style turret with 177.8 mm (7.00 in) of armor on the sides and rear and a 25.4 mm (1.00 in) thick flat roof, and a gun mantlet with an additional 88.9 mm (3.50 in) of armor welded on which resulted in a thickness of 177.8 mm (7.00 in). Intended for the assault to break out of the Normandy beachhead, it was originally to be armed with the 76 mm gun, but the 75 mm was preferred for infantry support and was used. The higher weight required reducing maximum speed to 22 mph, and crews were warned not to let the suspension "bottom '' too violently. 254 were built at the Fisher Tank Arsenal from May to July 1944, and arrived in Europe in the fall of 1944, being employed throughout the remainder of the fighting in various roles. They were "considered highly successful ''.
In its initial specifications for a replacement for the M3 Medium Tank, the U.S. Army restricted the Sherman 's height, width, and weight so that it could be transported via typical bridges, roads, railroads and landing craft without special accommodation. This greatly aided the strategic, logistical, and tactical flexibility and mobility of all Allied armored forces using the Sherman. A long - distance service trial conducted in Britain in 1943 compared diesel and gasoline Shermans to Cromwell tanks (Rolls - Royce Meteor engine) and Centaur (Liberty L - 12). The British officer commanding the trial concluded "They are utterly reliable... I do not think they are quite as good as the Cromwell across country when they are running on rather worn rubber tracks and the going is greasy, neither does one get as smooth a ride, but they appear so infinitely superior in every other way particularly in reliability with a minimum of maintenance that this cross-country consideration is completely overweighed. ''
The Sherman had good speed both on - and off - road. Off - road performance varied. In the desert, the Sherman 's rubber - block tracks performed well; while in the confined, hilly terrain of Italy, the smaller and more nimble Sherman could often cross terrain that some heavy German tanks could not.
Albert Speer recounted in his autobiography Inside the Third Reich
On the southwestern front (Italy) reports on the cross country mobility of the Sherman have been very favorable. The Sherman climbs mountains our tank experts consider inaccessible to tanks. One great advantage is that the Sherman has a very powerful motor in proportion to its weight. Its cross-country mobility on level ground is, as the 26th Panzer Division reports, definitely superior to that of our tanks
However, while this may have held true compared with the first generation German tanks, such as the Panzer III and Panzer IV, comparative testing with the second generation wide - tracked German tanks (Panther and Tiger) conducted by the Germans at their Kummersdorf testing facility, as well as by the U.S. 2nd Armored Division, proved otherwise, especially over muddy or other unfavorable terrain. Lieutenant Colonel Wilson M. Hawkins of the 2nd Armored Division wrote the following comparing the U.S. M4 Sherman and German Panther in a report to Allied headquarters:
It has been claimed that our tank is the more maneuverable. In recent tests we put a captured German Mark V (Panther) against all models of our own. The German tank was the faster, both across country and on the highway and could make sharper turns. It was also the better hill climber.
This was backed up in an interview with Technical Sergeant Willard D. May of the 2nd Armored Division who commented: "I have taken instructions on the Mark V (Panther) and have found, first, it is easily as maneuverable as the Sherman; second the flotation exceeds that of the Sherman. ''
Staff Sergeant and tank platoon sergeant Charles A. Carden completes the comparison in his report: ((quote The Mark V (Panther) and VI (Tiger) in my opinion have more maneuverability and certainly more flotation. I have seen in many cases where the Mark V and VI tanks could maneuver nicely over ground where the M4 would bog down. On one occasion I saw at least 10 Royal Tigers (Tiger II) make a counterattack against us over ground that for us was nearly impassable.
U.S. crews found that on soft ground such as mud or snow, the narrow tracks gave poor (i.e., high) ground pressure compared to wider - tracked second - generation German tanks such as the Panther and Tiger. The U.S. Army issued extended end connectors, or "duckbills '', to add width to the standard tracks as a stopgap solution. Duckbills began to reach front - line tank battalions in July 1944, and were original factory equipment for the heavy M4A3E2 Jumbo to compensate for the extra weight of armor. The M4A3 (76) W HVSS Shermans and other late models with wider - tracked HVSS suspension and twin road wheels on each axle -- rather than the single road wheel of the VVSS suspension designs -- corrected these problems but formed only a small proportion of the tanks in service even in 1945.
Vehicles that used the M4 chassis or hull:
The Sherman was extensively supplied through Lend - Lease to Britain, the Soviet Union and the Free French. Britain received 17,287 Shermans of various models. The Soviet Union received 4,035 M4A2 Shermans. The Free French was the third largest recipient, taking 657 Shermans 1943 -- 1944. 57 Shermans were delivered to other nations.
A similar vehicle was developed in Canada from January 1941, the Ram tank. Like the Sherman, this developed the M3 chassis and powertrain, with a fully rotating turret. One improvement was the use of all - steel ' CDP ' (Canadian Dry Pin) tracks, which although an inch narrower than the early M4 steel and rubber pad tracks, were cheaper to produce and gave better traction. Suspension units and roadwheels remained the M3 vertical volute pattern, with the idler above the mounting bracket, rather than the M4 development with the idler moved behind the mounting bracket to give more room for suspension travel. The Ram had a distinctive turret with a bolted flat - faced mantlet and the UK 6 pdr gun, with the hull machine gunner housed in a rotating turret based on the M3 ' Lee ' cupola, rather than the simpler ball - mount that was becoming universal for tank hull guns. Production facilities for the Ram were constructed at the Montreal Locomotive Works, with the aid of ALCo, but the large armour castings for turret and hull were supplied by General Steel Castings in the US. Greater Sherman production and availability meant that the Ram was never used in action as a gun tank, being either used for training or converted to Kangaroo armoured personnel carriers.
A later Canadian medium tank, produced from late 1943, was the Grizzly, an adaption of the Sherman M4A1. This differed only in details, such as the CDP tracks, British radio equipment and the British 2 '' smoke mortar in the turret roof. 188 were produced.
After World War II, Shermans were supplied to some NATO armies; Shermans were used by U.S. and allied forces in the Korean War.
Shermans also went to Israel. The Israeli up - gunned 75 mm M - 50 and 105 mm armed M - 51 Super Shermans are remarkable examples of how a long obsolete design can be upgraded for front - line use. They saw combat in the 1967 Six - Day War, fighting Soviet World War II - era armor like the T34 / 85, and also in the 1973 Yom Kippur War, proving effective even against newer, heavier Soviet tanks like the T - 54 and T - 55.
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treaty on the functioning of the european union year | Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union - wikipedia
The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (2007) is one of two primary Treaties of the European Union, alongside the Treaty on European Union (TEU). Originating as the Treaty of Rome, the TFEU forms the detailed basis of EU law, by setting out the scope of the EU 's authority to legislate and the principles of law in those areas where EU law operates.
The TFEU originated as the treaty establishing the European Economic Community (the EEC treaty), signed in Rome on 25 March 1957. On 7 February 1992, the Maastricht treaty, which led to the formation of the European Union, saw the EEC Treaty renamed as the Treaty establishing the European Community (TEC) and renumbered. The Maastricht reforms also saw the creation of the European Union 's three pillar structure, of which the European Community was the major constituent part.
Following the 2005 referenda, which saw the failed attempt at launching a European Constitution, on 13 December 2007 the Lisbon treaty was signed. This saw the ' TEC ' renamed as the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) and, once again, renumbered. The Lisbon reforms resulted in the merging of the three pillars into the reformed European Union.
The TFEU is split into seven parts:
In principles, article 1 establishes the basis of the treaty and its legal value. Articles 2 to 6 outline the competencies of the EU according to the level of powers accorded in each area. Articles 7 to 14 set out social principles, articles 15 and 16 set out public access to documents and meetings and article 17 states that the EU shall respect the status of religious, philosophical and non-confessional organisations under national law.
The second part begins with article 18 which outlaws, within the limitations of the treaties, discrimination on the basis of nationality. Article 19 states the EU will "combat discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation ''. Articles 20 to 24 establishes EU citizenship and accords rights to it; to free movement, consular protection from other states, vote and stand in local and European elections, right to petition Parliament and the European Ombudsman and to contact and receive a reply from EU institutions in their own language. Article 25 requires the Commission to report on the implementation of these rights every three years.
Part 3 is the largest in the TFEU. Articles 26 to 197 concern the substantive policies and actions of the EU.
Including the customs union
Common Agricultural Policy and Common Fisheries Policy
free movement of people, services and capital
Including police and justice co-operation
European Union competition law, taxation and harmonisation of regulations (note Article 101 and Article 102)
Articles 119 to 144 concern economic and monetary policy, including articles on the euro. Chapter 1: Economic policy - Article 126 deals with how excessive member state debt is handled. Chapter 2: Monetary policy - Article 127 outlines that the European System of Central Banks should maintain price stability and work with the principles of an open markets and free competition.
Title IX concerns employment policy, under articles 145 -- 150. Title X concerns social policy, and with reference to the European Social Charter 1961 and the Community Charter of the Fundamental Social Rights of Workers 1989. This gives rise to the weight of European labour law.
Title XI establishes the European Social Fund under articles 162 -- 164. Title XII, articles 165 and 166 concern education, vocational training, youth and sport policies. Title XIII concerns culture, in article 167. Title XIV allows measures for public health, under article 168. Title XV empowers the EU to act for consumer protection, in article 169.
Title XVI, articles 170 -- 172 empower action to develop and integrate Trans - European Networks. Title XVII, article 173, regards the EU 's industrial policy, to promote industry. Title XVIII, articles 174 to 178 concern economic, social and territorial cohesion (reducing disparities in development). Title XIX concerns research and development and space policy, under which the European Research Area and European Space Policy are developed.
Title XX concerns the increasingly important environmental policy, allowing action under articles 191 to 193. Title XXI, article 194, establishes the Energy policy of the European Union.
Title XXII, article 195 is tourism. Title XXIII, article 196 is civil protection. Title XXIV, article 197 is administrative co-operation.
Part 4, in articles 198 to 204, deals with association of overseas territories. Article 198 sets the objective of association as promoting the economic and social development of those associated territories as listed in annexe 2. The following articles elaborate on the form of association such as customs duties.
Part 5, in articles 205 to 222, deals with EU foreign policy. Article 205 states that external actions must be in accordance with the principles laid out in Chapter 1 Title 5 of the Treaty on European Union. Article 206 and 207 establish the common commercial (external trade) policy of the EU. Articles 208 to 214 deal with co-operation on development and humanitarian aid for third countries. Article 215 deals with sanctions while articles 216 to 219 deal with procedures for establishing international treaties with third countries. Article 220 instructs the High Representative and Commission to engage in appropriate co-operation with other international organisations and article 221 establishes the EU delegations. Article 222, the Solidarity clause states that members shall come to the aid of a fellow member who is subject to a terrorist attack, natural disaster or man - made disaster. This includes the use of military force.
Part 6, in articles 223 to 334, elaborates on the institutional provisions in the Treaty on European Union. As well as elaborating on the structures, articles 288 to 299 outline the forms of legislative acts and procedures of the EU. Articles 300 to 309 establish the European Economic and Social Committee, the Committee of the Regions and the European Investment Bank. Articles 310 to 325 outline the EU budget. Finally, articles 326 to 334 establishes provision for enhanced co-operation.
Part 7, in articles 335 to 358, deals with final legal points, such as territorial and temporal application, the seat of institutions (to be decided by member states, but this is enacted by a protocol attached to the treaties), immunities and the effect on treaties signed before 1958 or the date of accession.
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when was rick sanchez born rick and morty | Rick Sanchez (Rick and Morty) - wikipedia
Rick Sanchez is a fictional character from the Adult Swim animated television series Rick and Morty. Created by Justin Roiland and Dan Harmon, Sanchez is a genius alcoholic scientist based on Emmett Brown from Back to the Future. Rick is the show 's main protagonist alongside his grandson Morty. Known for his reckless, nihilist behavior and his pessimistic personality, the character has been well - received.
He is formally referred to as Rick Sanchez C - 137 by the Trans - Dimensional Council of Ricks, in reference to his original universe, C - 137. Both Rick and Morty are voiced by Roiland. The Rick and Morty comic series follows Rick Sanchez C - 132; the video game Pocket Mortys follows the Rick and Morty of C - 123.
Rick Sanchez from Earth dimension C - 137 is the father of Beth Smith, and the grandfather of Morty and Summer Smith. He is said to have been away from the family for several years prior to the events of the show. He frequently travels on adventures through space and other planets and dimensions with his grandson Morty. In the third season of the show, it is revealed that he is 70 years old. Rick is portrayed as a mad scientist; utilizing his mathematical and scientific prowess in conjunction with apathy and egotistical cynicism, he emerges safely from any situation, regardless of the consequences of his self - preservation. Rick also, in some episodes, desperately tries to regain his family after losing their trust, the creators wanted him to look like he was in control strategically, but not at all when it came to personal matters.
In "The Ricks Must Be Crazy '', Rick reveals that he powers his flying car with a battery that contains a miniature universe, or microverse, whose inhabitants unknowingly provide the required electricity. In the episode, the inhabitants cease to provide Rick 's car with energy. This is because a scientist from the microverse, resembling Rick in many ways, has created his own miniature universe to supply energy for the beings of his universe. Rick destroys the miniature universe inside his own miniature universe, killing everyone inside. He does not demonstrate remorse for his actions, and instead shows satisfaction. Nearing the end of the episode, Rick knows that his own microverse would power his battery, or he would toss them out and create a new one.
Rick 's intelligence is portrayed to transcend that of metaphysical beings, as demonstrated in the episode "Something Ricked This Way Comes '', where he outsmarts Satan. In the pilot, Rick is implied to be an atheist, as he tells Summer "there is no god... got ta rip that Band - Aid off now. You 'll thank me later ''.
Rick reveals his disdain for love in the episode "Rick Potion # 9 '', in which he claims that it is "a chemical reaction that compels animals to breed ''. When Rick and Morty irreversibly mutate all humans on Earth except for their family members, they abandon their original dimension, Dimension C - 137 (and their family in that dimension), for a new one. Rick locates a universe in which the alternate version of himself has undone the damage inflicted by the love potion, but where the new dimension 's Rick and Morty have been killed, allowing the C - 137 Rick and Morty to take their place. Despite Morty 's trauma concerning this knowledge, Rick is nonchalant about moving to the new dimension.
In the episode "Close Rick - counters of the Rick Kind '', after numerous Ricks in alternate dimensions are murdered, the Trans - Dimensional Council of Ricks accuses Rick C - 137 and orders for him to be arrested. Rick C - 137 finds himself captured by an "evil '' Rick, but is saved by a legion of alternate - dimension Mortys led by Morty C - 137.
In the first episode of the second season, "A Rickle in Time '', Rick nearly sacrifices himself to save Morty, but saves his own life when he realizes that doing so is possible. In the episode "Get Schwifty '', it is revealed that Rick was once in a rock band called the Flesh Curtains, alongside Birdperson and Squanchy. In the episode "Big Trouble in Little Sanchez '', Rick transfers his consciousness into a younger clone of himself, whom he calls "Tiny Rick ''. He soon becomes anguished in his new body, and manages to return to his older true form, and murders a line of other clones he produced. In the second season 's finale, "The Wedding Squanchers '', Rick and his family attend Birdperson 's wedding, where Birdperson is betrayed and killed by his bride Tammy, a double agent for the Galactic Federation. The family is forced to inhabit an unusually small yet Earth - like planet, as they can not return to Earth due to Rick 's status as a wanted criminal. Rick turns himself in to the Federation to allow his family to return home, and is incarcerated on a prison planet under the charges of having committed "everything ''. But in the season three premiere "The Rickshank Redemption '', by taking out the Council of Ricks while saving Morty and Summer, it is revealed that Rick actually turned himself in to access the Federation 's supercomputer and wipe it out financially. Rick also indirectly convinces Beth to divorce Jerry for trying to convince the family to sell him out.
The premiere episode of the series ' third season, "The Rickshank Rickdemption '' shows a possible origin for Rick, in which he was a well - meaning scientist who loved his wife Diane and daughter Beth, but had an encounter with a member of the Council of Ricks during his initial testing of a prototype portal gun, who offered him the secret to creating his inter-dimensional portal gun and joining the Council of Ricks. Shortly after his refusal, and his pledge to quit science forever, a bomb was sent through a portal, killing Diane and Beth. Rick claims that this was a fake memory he created in order to trick his interrogator into implanting a virus into the mind - reading device he was attached to, allowing him to hijack his body and escape from the Federation prison. At the end of the episode, Rick again insists, in a rant to Morty, that the death of his wife and daughter was a fake memory, though this may be simply him denying the truth to hide his feelings.
Rick 's catchphrase is "Wubba Lubba Dub - Dub '', first introduced in the episode "Meeseeks and Destroy ''. In Birdperson 's native language, the catchphrase translates to "I am in great pain, please help me ''.
The character was created by Justin Roiland and Dan Harmon, who first met at Channel 101 in the early 2000s. In 2006, Roiland created The Real Animated Adventures of Doc and Mharti, an animated short parodying the Back to the Future characters Doc Brown and Marty McFly, and the precursor to Rick and Morty. The idea for Rick and Morty, in the form of Doc and Mharti was brought up to Adult Swim, and the ideas for a family element and Rick being a grandfather to Morty were developed. Roiland considers his voice for Rick to be a "horrible Doc Brown manic impression ''.
The character has received positive reception. Speaking of Rick 's relatability and likability, Dan Harmon stated that "we 've all been Rick. But Rick really does have bigger fish to fry than anybody. He understands everything better than us. So you give him the right to be jaded and dismissive and narcissistic and sociopathic ''. Emily Gaudette of Inverse wrote that fans have "come to love (Rick) over two seasons of misadventures ''.
David Sims of The Atlantic noted Rick 's "bitter amorality '' and called the character "a genius who comfortably thinks of himself as the universe 's cleverest man and is grounded only by his empathy toward other people, which he tries to suppress as much as possible '', therefore writing that Rick 's selflessness at the end of the episode "The Wedding Squanchers '' is "the most surprising twist possible ''. Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club wrote that "(Rick) slowly realizing that he loved his grandkids and his daughter (and tolerated his son - in - law) no matter how many times he swore at them helped to give the character some necessary depth '', and that "behind all the catchphrases and the crazed energy... There 's something dead and sad and fucked up in the guy ''.
In the first episode of the third season, "The Rickshank Redemption '', Rick shows a significant interest in Szechuan sauce, a McNugget dipping sauce offered by McDonald 's restaurants in 1998 as a promotion for the Disney animated film Mulan. Rick 's insistence that his motivation in life is "finding that McNugget sauce '' caused a public interest in having the sauce be reinstated on the McDonald 's menu, with some fans attempting to recreate the sauce themselves. According to USA Today, McDonald 's spokesperson Terri Hickey stated that "We never say never, because when our customers speak, we listen. And to paraphrase some of our most enthusiastic fans, our sauce is so good that it would be worth waiting 9 seasons or 97 years for. ''
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that's what friends are for stevie wonder | That 's What Friends Are for - wikipedia
"That 's What Friends Are For '' is a song written by Burt Bacharach and Carole Bayer Sager. It was first recorded in 1982 by Rod Stewart for the soundtrack of the film Night Shift, but it is better known for the 1985 cover version by Dionne Warwick, Elton John, Gladys Knight and Stevie Wonder. This recording, billed as being by "Dionne & Friends '', was released as a charity single for AIDS research and prevention. It was a massive hit, becoming the # 1 single of 1986 in the United States, and winning the Grammy Awards for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals and Song of the Year. Its sales raised over US $3 million for its cause.
A one - off collaboration headed by Dionne Warwick and featuring Gladys Knight, Elton John, and Stevie Wonder was released as a charity single in the United Kingdom and the United States in 1985. It was recorded as a benefit for American Foundation for AIDS Research, and raised over US $3 million for that cause. Warwick, who had previously raised money for blood - related diseases such as sickle - cell anemia, wanted to help combat the then - growing AIDS epidemic because she had seen friends die painfully of the disease.
Elton John played piano and Stevie Wonder played harmonica; the two had previously worked together on 1983 's "I Guess That 's Why They Call It the Blues ''.
The song peaked at number one for three weeks on the soul chart and for four weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 in January 1986, and became Billboard 's number one single of 1986. In the U.S., it was certified Gold on January 15, 1986 by the RIAA. It was the final US number one for all but John. Due to Stevie Wonder 's involvement, it also holds the distinction of being the last number one song for anyone who had topped the charts before the British Invasion (Stevie Wonder 's first # 1 hit, "Fingertips '', came in 1963).
The Dionne and Friends version of the song won the performers the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals, as well as Song of the Year for its writers, Bacharach and Bayer Sager. This rendition is also listed at # 75 on Billboard 's Greatest Songs of all time. (1)
Dionne Warwick, Elton John, Gladys Knight, and Stevie Wonder performed the song live together for the first time in 23 years at the 25th Anniversary AmfAR Gala in New York City on February 10, 2011.
On March 17, 1990 an AIDS benefit titled That 's What Friends Are For: Arista Records 15th Anniversary Concert was held at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. One month later, CBS aired a two - hour version of the concert on television. The celebrity guests and Arista label performers were: Air Supply, Lauren Bacall, Burt Bacharach, Eric Carmen, Chevy Chase, Jane Curtin, Clive Davis, Taylor Dayne, Michael Douglas, Exposé, Whoopi Goldberg, Melanie Griffith, Hall & Oates, Jennifer Holliday, Whitney Houston, Alan Jackson, Kenny G, Melissa Manchester, Barry Manilow, Milli Vanilli, Jeffrey Osborne, Carly Simon, Patti Smith, Lisa Stansfield, The Four Tops, and Dionne Warwick. "That 's What Friends Are For '' was the finale song sung by Warwick and cousin Houston before being joined on the stage by the other guests of the event. Over $2.5 million was raised that night for the Arista Foundation which gave the proceeds to various AIDS organizations.
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where does the waste on a cruise ship go | Cruise ship pollution in the United States - wikipedia
The cruise ship industry is a significant and growing contributor to the United States economy, providing more than $32 billion in benefits annually and generating more than 330,000 U.S. jobs, but also making the environmental impacts of its activities an issue to many. Although cruise ships represent a small fraction of the entire shipping industry worldwide, public attention to their environmental impacts comes in part from the fact that cruise ships are highly visible and in part because of the industry 's desire to promote a positive image.
Cruise ships carrying several thousand passengers and crew have been compared to "floating cities, '' and the volume of wastes that they produce is comparably large, consisting of sewage; wastewater from sinks, showers, and galleys (graywater); hazardous wastes; solid waste; oily bilge water; ballast water; and air pollution. The waste streams generated by cruise ships are governed by a number of international protocols (especially MARPOL) and U.S. domestic laws (including the Clean Water Act and the Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships), regulations, and standards, but there is no single law or rule. Some cruise ship waste streams appear to be well regulated, such as solid wastes (garbage and plastics) and bilge water. But there is overlap of some areas, and there are gaps in others.
In 2000, the U.S. Congress enacted legislation restricting cruise ship discharges in U.S. navigable waters within the state of Alaska. California, and Maine have enacted state - specific laws concerning cruise ship pollution, and a few other states have entered into voluntary agreements with industry to address management of cruise ship discharges. Meanwhile, the cruise industry has voluntarily undertaken initiatives to improve pollution prevention, by adopting waste management guidelines and procedures and researching new technologies. Concerns about cruise ship pollution raise issues for Congress in three broad areas: adequacy of laws and regulations, research needs, and oversight and enforcement of existing requirements. Legislation to regulate cruise ship discharges of sewage, graywater, and bilge water nationally was introduced in the 109th Congress, but there was no further congressional action.
This article describes the several types of waste streams that cruise ships may discharge and emit. It identifies the complex body of international and domestic laws that address pollution from cruise ships. It then describes federal and state legislative activity concerning cruise ships in Alaskan waters and activities in a few other states, as well as current industry initiatives to manage cruise ship pollution.
More than 46,000 commercial vessels -- tankers, bulk carriers, container ships, barges, and passenger ships -- travel the oceans and other waters of the world, carrying cargo and passengers for commerce, transport, and recreation. Their activities are regulated and scrutinized in a number of respects by international protocols and U.S. domestic laws, including those designed to protect against discharges of pollutants that could harm marine resources, other parts of the ambient environment, and human health. However, there are overlaps of some requirements, gaps in other areas, geographic differences in jurisdiction based on differing definitions, and questions about the adequacy of enforcement.
Public attention to the environmental impacts of the maritime industry has been especially focused on the cruise industry, in part because its ships are highly visible and in part because of the industry 's desire to promote a positive image. It represents a relatively small fraction of the entire shipping industry worldwide. As of January 2008, passenger ships (which include cruise ships and ferries) composed about 12 % of the world shipping fleet. The cruise industry is a significant and growing contributor to the U.S. economy, providing more than $32 billion in total benefits annually and generating more than 330,000 U.S. jobs, but also making the environmental impacts of its activities an issue to many. Since 1980, the average annual growth rate in the number of cruise passengers worldwide has been 8.4 %, and in 2005, cruises hosted an estimated 11.5 million passengers. Cruises are especially popular in the United States. In 2005, U.S. ports handled 8.6 million cruise embarcations (75 % of global passengers), 6.3 % more than in 2004. The worldwide cruise ship fleet consists of more than 230 ships, and the majority are foreign - flagged, with Liberia and Panama being the most popular flag countries. Foreign - flag cruise vessels owned by six companies account for nearly 95 % of passenger ships operating in U.S. waters. Each year, the industry adds new ships to the total fleet, vessels that are bigger, more elaborate and luxurious, and that carry larger numbers of passengers and crew. Over the past two decades, the average ship size has been increasing at the rate of roughly 90 feet (27 m) every five years. The average ship entering the market from 2008 to 2011 will be more than 1,050 feet (320 m) long and will weigh more than 130,000 tons.
To the cruise ship industry, a key issue is demonstrating to the public that cruising is safe and healthy for passengers and the tourist communities that are visited by their ships. Cruise ships carrying several thousand passengers and crew have been compared to "floating cities, '' in part because the volume of wastes produced and requiring disposal is greater than that of many small cities on land. During a typical one - week voyage, a large cruise ship (with 3,000 passengers and crew) is estimated to generate 210,000 US gallons (790,000 L) of sewage; 1 million US gallons (3,800 m) of graywater (wastewater from sinks, showers, and laundries); more than 130 US gallons (490 L) of hazardous wastes; 8 tons of solid waste; and 25,000 US gallons (95 m) of oily bilge water. Passengers can, singlehandedl, produce up to 7.7 pounds of waste in a single day aboard a cruise ship. Those wastes, if not properly treated and disposed of, can pose risks to human health, welfare, and the environment. Environmental advocates have raised concerns about the adequacy of existing laws for managing these wastes, and suggest that enforcement of existing laws is weak.
A 2000 Government Accountability Office (GAO) report focused attention on problems of cruise vessel compliance with environmental requirements. GAO found that between 1993 and 1998, foreign - flag cruise ships were involved in 87 confirmed illegal discharge cases in U.S. waters. A few of the cases included multiple illegal discharge incidents occurring over the six - year period. GAO reviewed three major waste streams (solids, hazardous chemicals, and oily bilge water) and concluded that 83 % of the cases involved discharges of oil or oil - based products, the volumes of which ranged from a few drops to hundreds of gallons. The balance of the cases involved discharges of plastic or garbage. GAO judged that 72 % of the illegal discharges were accidental, 15 % were intentional, and 13 % could not be determined. The 87 cruise ship cases represented 4 % of the 2,400 illegal discharge cases by foreign - flag ships (including tankers, cargo ships and other commercial vessels, as well as cruise ships) confirmed during the six years studied by GAO. Although cruise ships operating in U.S. waters have been involved in a relatively small number of pollution cases, GAO said, several have been widely publicized and have led to criminal prosecutions and multimillion - dollar fines.
In 2000, a coalition of 53 environmental advocacy groups petitioned the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to take regulatory action to address pollution by cruise ships. The petition called for an investigation of wastewater, oil, and solid waste discharges from cruise ships. In response, EPA agreed to study cruise ship discharges and waste management approaches. As part of that effort, EPA issued a background document in 2000 with preliminary information and recommendations for further assessment through data collection and public information hearings. The agency released its final Cruise Ship Discharge Assessment Report in 2009. The report summarized findings of recent data collection activities, especially from cruise ships operating in Alaskan waters.
Concurrently, litigation regarding the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program led to a 2008 decision by the Ninth Circuit Court, ruling that EPA could not exclude vessel discharges from NPDES requirements. Subsequently EPA issued an initial Vessel General Permit (VGP) with an effective date of February 6, 2009.
Cruise ships generate a number of waste streams that can result in discharges to the marine environment, including sewage, graywater, hazardous wastes, oily bilge water, ballast water, and solid waste. They also emit air pollutants to the air and water. These wastes, if not properly treated and disposed of, can be a significant source of pathogens, nutrients, and toxic substances with the potential to threaten human health and damage aquatic life. Cruise ships represent a small -- although highly visible -- portion of the entire international shipping industry, and the waste streams described here are not unique to cruise ships. However, particular types of wastes, such as sewage, graywater, and solid waste, may be of greater concern for cruise ships relative to other seagoing vessels, because of the large numbers of passengers and crew that cruise ships carry and the large volumes of wastes that they produce. Further, because cruise ships tend to concentrate their activities in specific coastal areas and visit the same ports repeatedly (especially Florida, California, New York City, Galveston, Seattle, and the waters of Alaska), their cumulative impact on a local scale could be significant, as can impacts of individual large - volume releases (either accidental or intentional).
MARPOL 73 / 78 is one of the most important treaties regulating pollution from ships. Six Annexes of the Convention cover the various sources of pollution from ships and provide an overarching framework for international objectives. In the U.S., the Convention is implemented through the Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships. Under the provisions of the Convention, the United States can take direct enforcement action under U.S. laws against foreign - flagged ships when pollution discharge incidents occur within U.S. jurisdiction. When incidents occur outside U.S. jurisdiction or jurisdiction can not be determined, the United States refers cases to flag states, in accordance with MARPOL. These procedures require substantial coordination between the Coast Guard, the State Department, and other flag states, and the response rate from flag states has been poor.
In the United States, several federal agencies have some jurisdiction over cruise ships in U.S. waters, but no one agency is responsible for or coordinates all of the relevant government functions. The U.S. Coast Guard and EPA have principal regulatory and standard - setting responsibilities.
Cruise ships that are 79 feet (24 m) in length or greater, are subject to the requirements of the EPA Vessel General Permit (VGP). The most recent VGP was published in 2013. EPA issued a separate permit for smaller cruise ships, however this permit currently only applies to ballast water. A Congressionally - imposed moratorium applied to other wastestreams for these vessels until January 19, 2018.
The Department of Justice prosecutes violations of federal laws. In addition, the Department of State represents the United States at meetings of the IMO and in international treaty negotiations and is responsible for pursuing foreign - flag violations. Other federal agencies have limited roles and responsibilities. For example, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA, Department of Commerce) works with the Coast Guard and EPA to report on the effects of marine debris. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) is responsible for ensuring quarantine inspection and disposal of food - contaminated garbage (these APHIS responsibilities are part of the Department of Homeland Security). In some cases, states and localities have responsibilities as well.
Commercial vessels are required to obtain NPDES permits pursuant to Section 402 of the Clean Water Act. Section 312 of the Act prohibits the dumping of untreated or inadequately treated sewage from vessels into the navigable waters of the United States (defined in the act as within 3 miles (4.8 km) of shore). Cruise ships are subject to this prohibition. Commercial and recreational vessels with installed toilets are required to have marine sanitation devices, which are designed to prevent the discharge of untreated sewage. Beyond 3 miles (4.8 km), raw sewage can be discharged. On some cruise ships, especially many of those that travel in Alaskan waters, sewage is treated using Advanced Wastewater Treatment (AWT) systems that generally provide improved screening, treatment, disinfection, and sludge processing as compared with traditional MSDs. AWTs are believed to be very effective in removing pathogens, oxygen - demanding substances, suspended solids, oil and grease, and particulate metals from sewage, but only moderately effective in removing dissolved metals and nutrients (ammonia, nitrogen and phosphorus).
States may also establish no - discharge zones (NDZs) for vessel sewage, under section 312. A state may completely prohibit the discharge of both treated and untreated sewage from all vessels with installed toilets into some or all waters over which it has jurisdiction (up to 3 miles (4.8 km) from land). As of 2017, this designation has been used for 72 areas representing part or all of the waters of 26 states, including a number of inland states.
Graywater discharges from large cruise ships are regulated by the 2013 VGP. Under a Congressional moratorium, graywater discharges from small cruise ships were exempt from the EPA Small Vessel General Permit ("sVGP '') until January 19, 2018.
Pursuant to a state law in Alaska, greywater must be treated prior to discharge into that state 's waters.
Cruise ship discharges of solid waste are governed by two laws. Title I of the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act makes it illegal to transport garbage from the United States for the purpose of dumping it into ocean waters without a permit or to dump material from outside the U.S. into U.S. waters. Beyond U.S. waters, no MPRSA permit is required for a cruise ship to discharge solid waste. The routine discharge of effluent incidental to the propulsion of vessels is explicitly exempted from the definition of dumping in the MPRSA. 28
The Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships prohibits the discharge of all garbage within 3 nautical miles (5.6 km) of shore, certain types of garbage within 12 nautical miles (22 km) offshore, and plastic anywhere. It applies to all vessels operating in U.S. navigable waters and the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) is the primary federal law that governs hazardous waste management. The owner or operator of a cruise ship may be a generator and / or a transporter of hazardous waste, and thus subject to RCRA rules. Issues that the cruise ship industry may face relating to RCRA include ensuring that hazardous waste is identified at the point at which it is considered generated; ensuring that parties are properly identified as generators, storers, treaters, or disposers; and determining the applicability of RCRA requirements to each. Hazardous waste generated onboard cruise ships are stored onboard until the wastes can be offloaded for recycling or disposal in accordance with RCRA.
A range of activities on board cruise ships generate hazardous wastes and toxic substances that would ordinarily be presumed to be subject to RCRA. Cruise ships are potentially subject to RCRA requirements to the extent that chemicals used for operations such as ship maintenance and passenger services result in the generation of hazardous wastes. However, it is not entirely clear what regulations apply to the management and disposal of these wastes. RCRA rules that cover small - quantity generators (those that generate more than 100 kilograms but less than 1,000 kilograms of hazardous waste per month) are less stringent than those for large - quantity generators (generating more than 1,000 kilograms per month), and it is unclear whether cruise ships are classified as large or small generators of hazardous waste. Moreover, some cruise companies argue that they generate less than 100 kilograms per month and therefore should be classified in a third category, as "conditionally exempt small - quantity generators, '' a categorization that allows for less rigorous requirements for notification, recordkeeping, and the like.
In addition to RCRA, hazardous waste discharges from cruise ships are subject to Section 311 of the Clean Water Act, which prohibits the discharge of hazardous substances in harmful quantities into or upon the navigable waters of the United States, adjoining shorelines, or into or upon the waters of the contiguous zone.
Section 311 of the Clean Water Act, as amended by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, applies to cruise ships and prohibits discharge of oil or hazardous substances in harmful quantities into or upon U.S. navigable waters, or into or upon the waters of the contiguous zone, or which may affect natural resources in the U.S. EEZ (extending 200 miles (320 km) offshore). Coast Guard regulations prohibit discharge of oil within 12 miles (19 km) from shore, unless passed through a 15 - ppm oil water separator, and unless the discharge does not cause a visible sheen. Beyond 12 miles (19 km), oil or oily mixtures can be discharged while a vessel is proceeding en route and if the oil content without dilution is less than 100 ppm. Vessels are required to maintain an Oil Record Book to record disposal of oily residues and discharges overboard or disposal of bilge water.
In addition to Section 311 requirements, the Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships (APPS) implements MARPOL Annex I concerning oil pollution. APPS applies to all U.S. flagged ships anywhere in the world and to all foreign flagged vessels operating in the navigable waters of the United States, or while at a port under U.S. jurisdiction. To implement APPS, the Coast Guard has promulgated regulations prohibiting the discharge of oil or oily mixtures into the sea within 12 nautical miles (22 km) of the nearest land, except under limited conditions. However, because most cruise lines are foreign registered and because APPS only applies to foreign ships within U.S. navigable waters, the APPS regulations have limited applicability to cruise ship operations. In addition, most cruise lines have adopted policies that restrict discharges of machinery space waste within three miles (5 km) from shore.
After the intervention of the GAO, or Government Accountability Office, from 2003 to 2008, twelve cruise ship companies who violated pollution regulations implemented new environmental strategies. Several cruise lines within this group and others who have not been found guilty of previous violations have sought to ameliorate their pollution of marine waters. Some of these have reduced their waste production by transferring over from single use plastic packaging to reusable plastic containers for food being prepared on board and cutlery being used on the pool decks. Princess Cruises as well as the Royal Caribbean Cruise Line are two cruise lines that have acknowledged the waste problem, and have adopted reusable items to work towards a resolution. Recycling programs have also been implemented, and, because of the use of compactors on ships, plastics and aluminums are condensed and made easily recyclable upon ships return to port. The United States, alone, gains upward of 18,000 pounds of recycled goods from these practices. Some cruise lines have also taken it upon themselves to reduce air pollution, by using alternative, cleaner energy sources which has positive implications for marine waters as well. Battery power, fuel cells, and liquified natural gas are two such sources that are being explored. Carnival Corporation is one example of a cruise liner that is currently pursuing cleaner energies. The company has agreed to partner with Shell and utilize liquefied natural gas, LNG, to power their next two ships. Liquefied natural gas, although still a fossil fuel, is a much cleaner source of energy than oil and also much less expensive to the benefit of cruise companies. Transitioning away from oil will help cruise liners combat their problems with bilge pollution. Cruise ships efforts to reduce their waste, recycle, and find more renewable energies will help alleviate their current rate of pollution of marine waters.
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what did doc holliday say at the end of tombstone | Doc Holliday - wikipedia
John Henry "Doc '' Holliday (August 14, 1851 -- November 8, 1887) was an American gambler, gunfighter, and dentist, and a good friend of Wyatt Earp. He is best known for his role as a temporary deputy marshal in the events leading up to and following the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral.
At age 21 Holliday earned a degree in dentistry from the Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery. He set up practice in Atlanta, Georgia, but he was soon diagnosed with tuberculosis, the same disease that had claimed his mother when he was 15, having acquired it while tending to her needs while she was still in the contagious phase of the illness. Hoping the climate in the American Southwest would ease his symptoms, he moved to that region and became a gambler, a reputable profession in Arizona in that day. Over the next few years, he reportedly had several confrontations. While in Texas, he saved Wyatt Earp 's life and they became friends. In 1880, he joined Earp in Las Vegas, New Mexico and then rode with him to Prescott, Arizona, and then Tombstone. In Tombstone, local members of the outlaw Cochise County Cowboys gang repeatedly threatened him and spread rumors that he had robbed a stage. On October 26, 1881, Holliday was deputized by Tombstone city marshal Virgil Earp. The lawmen attempted to disarm five members of the Cowboys, which resulted in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral.
Following the Tombstone shootout, Virgil Earp was maimed by hidden assailants and Morgan Earp was murdered. Unable to obtain justice in the courts, Wyatt Earp took matters into his own hands. As the recently appointed deputy U.S. marshal, Earp formally deputized Holliday, among others. As a federal posse, they pursued the outlaw Cowboys they believed were responsible. They found Frank Stilwell lying in wait as Virgil boarded a train for California and killed him. The local sheriff issued a warrant for the arrest of five members of the federal posse, including Holliday. The federal posse killed three other Cowboys during late March and early April, 1882, before they rode to the New Mexico Territory. Wyatt Earp learned of an extradition request for Holliday and arranged for Colorado Governor Frederick Walker Pitkin to deny Holliday 's extradition. Holliday spent the few remaining years of his life in Colorado, and died of tuberculosis in his bed at the Glenwood Springs Hotel at age 36.
Holliday 's colorful life and character have been depicted in many books and portrayed by well - known actors in numerous movies and television series. Since his death, researchers have concluded that, contrary to popular myth - making, Holliday killed only one or two men.
Holliday was born in Griffin, Georgia, to Henry Burroughs Holliday and Alice Jane (McKey) Holliday. He was of English and Scottish ancestry. His father served in the Mexican -- American War and the Civil War (as a Confederate). When the war ended, Henry brought home an adopted son named Francisco and taught Holliday to shoot. Holliday was baptized at the First Presbyterian Church of Griffin in 1852. In 1864, his family moved to Valdosta, Georgia, where his mother died of tuberculosis on September 16, 1866. The same disease killed his adopted brother. Three months after his wife 's death, his father married Rachel Martin.
Some of Doc Holliday 's notable relatives include Ben Holladay the "Stagecoach King '' and John Holladay, Mormon pioneer and founder of Holladay, Utah and the city of San Bernardino, California. Another relative of note is Alexander Q. Holladay, politician, lawyer and Civil War Colonel in the Confederate Army.
Holliday attended the Valdosta Institute, where he received a classical education in rhetoric, grammar, mathematics, history, and languages -- principally Latin, but some French and Ancient Greek.
In 1870, 19 - year - old Holliday left home for Philadelphia. On March 1, 1872, at age 20, he received his Doctor of Dental Surgery degree from the Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery (now part of the University of Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine). Holliday graduated five months before his 21st birthday, so the school held his degree until he turned 21, the minimum age required to practice dentistry.
Holliday moved to St. Louis, Missouri, so he could work as an assistant for a classmate, A. Jameson Fuches, Jr. Less than four months later, at the end of July, he relocated to Atlanta, where he joined a dental practice. He lived with his uncle and his family so he could begin to build up his dental practice. A few weeks before Holliday 's birthday, dentist Arthur C. Ford advertised in the Atlanta papers that Holliday would substitute for him while he was attending dental meetings.
Holliday was reported to have been involved in a shooting on the Withlacoochee River, Georgia, in 1873. At age 22, Holliday went with some friends to their favorite swimming hole, but discovered it was occupied by a group of black youths. Holliday and his companions told them to leave, but they refused. Accounts of this event vary. Holliday left and returned carrying either a shotgun or a pistol and started shooting, either at or over the heads of the youths. Some of them may have shot back. There are no contemporaneous accounts of the incident. Some family members and friends allege that Holliday killed one to three of the youths, but other members of Holliday 's family dispute those accounts.
Shortly after beginning his dental practice, Holliday was diagnosed with tuberculosis. He was given only a few months to live, but was told that a drier and warmer climate might slow the deterioration of his health. After Dr. Ford 's return in September, Holliday left for Dallas, Texas, the "last big city before the uncivilized Western Frontier. ''
When he arrived in Dallas, Holliday partnered with a friend of his father 's, Dr. John A. Seegar. They won awards for their dental work at the Annual Fair of the North Texas Agricultural, Mechanical, and Blood Stock Association at the Dallas County Fair. They received all three awards: "Best set of teeth in gold '', "Best in vulcanized rubber '', and "Best set of artificial teeth and dental ware. '' Their office was located along Elm Street, between Market and Austin Streets. They dissolved the practice on March 2, 1874, and Holliday opened his own practice over the Dallas County Bank at the corner of Main and Lamar Streets.
His tuberculosis caused coughing spells at inopportune times, and his dental practice slowly declined. Meanwhile, Holliday found he had some skill at gambling, and he soon relied on it as his principal income source. On May 12, 1874, Holliday and 12 others were indicted in Dallas for illegal gambling. He was arrested in Dallas in January 1875 after trading gunfire with a saloon keeper, Charles Austin, but no one was injured and he was found not guilty. He moved his offices to Denison, Texas. But after being found guilty of -- and fined for -- gaming in Dallas, he decided to leave the state.
Holliday headed toward Denver, following the stage routes and gambling at towns and army outposts along the way. During the summer of 1875, he settled in Denver under the alias "Tom Mackey '' and found work as a faro dealer for John A. Babb 's Theatre Comique at 357 Blake Street. While there, he got in an argument with Bud Ryan, a well - known and tough gambler. Drawing knives, they fought, and Holliday left Ryan seriously wounded.
Holliday left after hearing about gold being discovered in Wyoming, and on February 5, 1876, he relocated to Cheyenne. He found work as a dealer for Babb 's partner, Thomas Miller, who owned a saloon called the Bella Union Saloon. In the fall of 1876, Miller moved the Bella Union to Deadwood (site of the gold rush in the Dakota Territory), and Holliday went with him.
In 1877, Holliday returned to Cheyenne, and then Denver, and eventually to Kansas where he visited an aunt. When he left Kansas, he went to Breckenridge, Texas, where he gambled. On July 4, 1877, he had a disagreement with gambler Henry Kahn, and Holliday beat him repeatedly with his walking stick. Both men were arrested and fined, but Kahn was not finished. Later that same day, he shot and seriously wounded the unarmed Holliday. On July 7, the Dallas Weekly Herald incorrectly reported that Holliday had been killed. His cousin, George Henry Holliday, moved west to take care of him during his recovery.
Once healed, Holliday relocated to Fort Griffin, Texas. While dealing cards at John Shanssey 's saloon, he met Mary Katharine "Big Nose Kate '' Horony, a dance hall woman and occasional prostitute. Her nose was a prominent feature. "Tough, stubborn and fearless, '' she was educated, but chose to work as a prostitute because she liked her independence. She is the only woman with whom Holliday is known to have had a relationship.
In October 1877, outlaw Dave Rudabaugh robbed a Sante Fe Railroad construction camp and fled south. Wyatt Earp was given a temporary commission as Deputy U.S. marshal, and he left Dodge City following Rudabaugh over 400 mi (640 km) to Fort Griffin, a frontier town on the Clear Fork of the Brazos River. Earp went to the Bee Hive Saloon, the largest in town and owned by John Shanssey, whom Earp had known since he was 21. Shanssey told Earp that Rudabaugh had passed through town earlier in the week, but he did not know where he was headed. Shanssey suggested Earp ask gambler Doc Holliday, who had played cards with Rudabaugh. Holliday told Earp that Rudabaugh was headed back to Kansas.
After about a month in Fort Griffin, Earp returned to Fort Clark and in early 1878, he went to Dodge City, where he became the assistant city marshal, serving under Charlie Bassett. During the summer of 1878, Holliday and Harony also arrived in Dodge City, where they stayed at Deacon Cox 's boardinghouse as Dr. and Mrs. John H. Holliday. Holliday sought to practice dentistry again, and ran an ad in the local paper:
DENTISTRY John H. Holliday, Dentist, very respectfully offers his professional services to the citizens of Dodge City and surrounding county during the Summer. Office at Room No. 24 Dodge House. Where satisfaction is not given, money will be refunded.
According to accounts of the following event reported by Glenn Boyer in I Married Wyatt Earp, Earp had run two cowboys, Tobe Driscall and Ed Morrison, out of Wichita earlier in 1878. During the summer, the two cowboys -- accompanied by another two dozen men -- rode into Dodge and shot up the town while galloping down Front Street. They entered the Long Branch Saloon, vandalized the room, and harassed the customers. Hearing the commotion, Earp burst through the front door, and before he could react, a large number of cowboys were pointing their guns at him. In another version, there were only three to five cowboys. In both stories, Holliday was playing cards in the back of the room and upon seeing the commotion, drew his weapon and put his pistol at Morrison 's head, forcing him and his men to disarm, rescuing Earp from a bad situation. No account of any such confrontation was reported by any of the Dodge City newspapers at the time. Whatever actually happened, Earp credited Holliday with saving his life that day, and the two men became friends.
Holliday was still practicing dentistry from his room in Fort Griffin, Texas, and in Dodge City, Kansas. In an 1878 Dodge newspaper advertisement, he promised money back for less than complete customer satisfaction, but this was the last known time that he worked as a dentist. He gained the nickname "Doc '' during this period.
Holliday reportedly engaged in a gunfight with a bartender named Charles White. Miguel Otero, who would later become governor of New Mexico Territory, said he was present when Holliday walked into the saloon with a cocked revolver in his hand and challenged White to settle an outstanding argument. White was serving customers at the time and took cover behind a bar, then started shooting at Holliday with his revolver. During the fight, Holliday shot White in the scalp. But there are no contemporaneous newspaper reports of the incident.
Bat Masterson reportedly said that Holliday was in Jacksonboro, South Carolina, and got into a gunfight with an unnamed soldier whom Holliday shot and killed. Historian Gary L. Roberts found a record for a Private Robert Smith who had been shot and killed by an "unknown assailant '', but Holliday was never linked to the death.
Holliday developed a reputation for his skill with a gun, as well as with the cards. In September 1879, Wyatt Earp resigned as assistant marshal in Dodge City and decided to join his brother Virgil in the Arizona Territory.
A few days before Christmas in 1878, Holliday and Horony arrived in Las Vegas, New Mexico. The 22 hot springs near the town were favored by individuals with tuberculosis for their alleged healing properties. Doc opened a dental practice and continued gambling as well, but the winter was unseasonably cold and business was slow. The New Mexico Territorial Legislature passed a bill banning gambling within the territory with surprising ease. On March 8, 1879, Holliday was indicted for "keeping (a) gaming table '' and was fined $25. The ban on gambling combined with extreme low temperatures persuaded him to return to Dodge City for a few months.
In September 1879, Wyatt Earp resigned as assistant marshal in Dodge City. Accompanied by his common - law wife Mattie Blaylock, his brother Jim, and his wife Bessie, they left for Arizona Territory. Holliday and Horony returned to Las Vegas where they met the Earps. The group arrived in Prescott in November.
In Dodge City, Holliday joined a team being formed by Deputy U.S. marshal Bat Masterson. He had been asked to prevent an outbreak of guerrilla warfare between the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway (or ATSF, or just Santa Fe) and the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad (or D&RGW), which were vying to be the first to claim a right - of - way across the Royal Gorge, one of the few natural routes through the Rockies that crossed the Continental Divide. Both were striving to be the first to provide rail access to the boom town of Leadville, Colorado. Royal Gorge was a bottleneck along the Arkansas, too narrow for both railroads to pass through, and with no other reasonable access to the South Park area. Doc remained there for about two and a half months. The federal intervention prompted the so - called "Treaty of Boston '' to end the fighting. The D&RGW completed its line and leased it for use by the Santa Fe. Holliday took home a share of a $10,000 bribe paid by the D&RGW to Masterson to give up their possession of the Santa Fe roundhouse, and returned to Las Vegas where Horony had remained.
The Santa Fe company built tracks to Las Vegas, New Mexico, but bypassed the city by about a mile. A new town was built up near the tracks and prostitution and gambling flourished there. On July 19, 1879, Holliday and John Joshua Webb, former lawman and gunman, were seated in a saloon. Former U.S. Army scout Mike Gordon tried to persuade one of the saloon girls, a former girlfriend, to leave town with him. She refused and Gordon stormed outside. He began firing into the building, and a few hours later, Gordon was found mortally wounded outside. Some attribute the shooting to Holliday, but no conclusive evidence of who killed Gordon was ever found. The next day, Holliday paid $372.50 to a carpenter to build a clapboard building to house the Doc Holliday 's Saloon with John Webb as his partner. While in town, he was fined twice for keeping a gambling device, and again for carrying a deadly weapon.
It appeared Holliday and Horony were settling into life in Las Vegas when Wyatt Earp arrived on October 18, 1879, with news of the boom going on in Tombstone, Arizona Territory. Holliday and Horony joined Wyatt and his wife Mattie, as well as Jim Earp and his wife and step daughter, as they traveled the next day to Prescott, Arizona Territory. They arrived within a few weeks and went straight to the home of Constable Virgil Earp and his wife Allie. Holliday and Horony checked into a hotel and when Wyatt, Virgil, and James Earp with their wives left for Tombstone, Holliday remained in Prescott, where he thought the gambling opportunities were better. Holliday finally joined the Earps in Tombstone in September 1880. Some accounts report that the Earps sent for Holliday for assistance with dealing with the outlaw Cowboys). Holliday quickly became embroiled in the local politics and violence that led up to the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral in October 1881.
Holliday and Horony had many fights. After a particularly nasty, drunken argument, Holliday kicked her out. County Sheriff Johnny Behan and Milt Joyce saw an opportunity and exploited the situation. They plied Horony with more booze and suggested to her a way to get even with Holliday. She signed an affidavit implicating Holliday in an attempted robbery and murder of passengers aboard a Kinnear and Company stage coach on March 15, 1881, carrying US $26,000 in silver bullion (about $645,248 in today 's dollars). Three cowboys had stopped the stage between Tombstone and Benson, Arizona and robbed it.
Bob Paul, who had run for Pima County sheriff and was contesting the election he lost due to ballot stuffing, was riding along as the Wells Fargo shotgun messenger. He had taken the reins and driver 's seat in Contention City because the usual driver, a well - known and popular man named Eli "Budd '' Philpot, was ill. Philpot was riding shotgun. Paul fired his shotgun and emptied his revolver at the robbers, wounding a cowboy, later identified as Bill Leonard, in the groin. Philpot and passenger Peter Roerig, riding in the rear dickey seat, were both shot and killed. Holliday was a good friend of Leonard, a former watchmaker from New York. Based on the affidavit sworn by Horony, Judge Wells Spicer issued an arrest warrant for Holliday.
Rumors flew that Holliday had taken part in the shooting and murders. Tombstone saloon owner Milt Joyce disarmed Holliday one day when he got into an altercation with fellow gambler Johnny Tyler. Later that day, Holliday heard that Joyce was spreading rumors that Holliday had taken part in the robbery. Drunk, Holliday returned to Joyce 's saloon. He insulted Joyce and demanded his firearm back. Joyce refused and threw him out, but Holliday came back carrying a "revolver '' and started firing. Joyce pulled out a pistol and Holliday shot the revolver out of Joyce 's hand, putting a bullet through his palm. When Joyce 's bartender, Parker, tried to grab his gun, Holliday wounded him in the toe. Joyce picked up his pistol and pistol - whipped Holliday, knocking him out.
The Earps found witnesses who could attest to Holliday 's location elsewhere at the time of the stagecoach murders, and Horony sobered up, revealing that Behan and Joyce had influenced her to sign a document she did not understand. With the cowboy plot revealed, Spicer freed Holliday. The district attorney threw out the charges, labeling them "ridiculous ''. Holliday gave Horony some money and put her on a stage out of town.
On October 26, 1881, Virgil Earp was both deputy U.S. marshal and Tombstone 's city police chief. He received reports that cowboys with whom they had had repeated confrontations were armed in violation of the city ordinance that required them to deposit their weapons at a saloon or stable soon after arriving in town. The cowboys had repeatedly threatened the Earps and Holliday. Fearing trouble, Virgil temporarily deputized Holliday and sought backup from his brothers Wyatt and Morgan. Virgil retrieved a short coach gun from the Wells Fargo office and the four men went to find the cowboys.
On Fremont Street, they ran into Cochise County Sheriff Behan, who told them or implied that he had disarmed the cowboys. To avoid alarming citizens and lessen tension when disarming the cowboys, Virgil gave the coach gun to Holliday so he could conceal it under his long coat. Virgil Earp took Holliday 's walking stick. The lawmen found the cowboys in a narrow 15 -- to 20 - ft - wide lot on Fremont Street, between Fly 's boarding house and the Harwood house. Holliday was boarding at Fly 's house and he possibly thought they were waiting there to kill him.
Different witnesses offered varying stories about Holliday 's actions. Cowboys witnesses testified that Holliday first pulled out a nickel - plated pistol he was known to carry, while others reported he first fired a longer, bronze - colored gun, possibly the coach gun. Holliday killed Tom McLaury with a shotgun blast in the side of his chest. Holliday was grazed by a bullet possibly fired by Frank McLaury who was on Fremont Street at the time. He supposedly challenged Holliday, yelling, "I 've got you now! '' Holliday is reported to have replied, "Blaze away! You 're a daisy if you have. '' McLaury died of shots to his stomach and behind his ear. Holliday may have also wounded Billy Clanton.
One analysis of the fight gives credit to either Holliday or Morgan Earp for firing the fatal shot at McLaury on Fremont Street. Holliday may have been on McLaury 's right and Morgan Earp on his left. McLaury was shot in the right side of the head, so Holliday is often given credit for shooting him. However, Wyatt Earp had shot McLaury in his torso earlier, a shot that alone could have killed him. McLaury would have turned away after having been hit and Wyatt could have placed a second shot in his head. A 30 - day - long preliminary hearing found that the Earps and Holliday had acted within their duties as lawmen, although this did not pacify Ike Clanton.
The situation in Tombstone soon grew worse when Virgil Earp was ambushed and permanently injured in December 1881. Following that, Morgan Earp was ambushed and killed in March 1882. Several Cowboys were identified by witnesses as suspects in the shooting of Virgil Earp on December 27, 1881, and the assassination of Morgan Earp on March 19, 1882. Additional circumstantial evidence also pointed to their involvement. Wyatt Earp had been appointed deputy U.S. marshal after Virgil was maimed. He deputized Holliday, Warren Earp, Sherman McMaster, and "Turkey Creek '' Jack Johnson.
After Morgan 's murder, Wyatt Earp and his deputies guarded Virgil Earp and Allie on their way to the train for Colton, California where his father lived, to recuperate from his serious shotgun wound. In Tucson, on March 20, 1882, the group spotted an armed Frank Stilwell and reportedly Ike Clanton hiding among the railroad cars, apparently lying in wait with the intent to kill Virgil. Frank Stilwell 's body was found at dawn alongside the railroad tracks, riddled with buckshot and gunshot wounds. Wyatt said later in life that he killed Stilwell with a shotgun.
Tucson Justice of the Peace Charles Meyer issued arrest warrants for five of the Earp party, including Holliday. On March 21, they returned briefly to Tombstone, where they were joined by Texas Jack Vermillion and possibly others. On the morning of March 22, a portion of the Earp posse including Wyatt, Warren, Holliday, Sherman McMaster, and "Turkey Creek '' Johnson rode about 10 mi (16 km) east to Pete Spence 's ranch to a wood cutting camp located off the Chiricahua Road, below the South Pass of the Dragoon Mountains. According to Theodore Judah -- who witnessed events at the wood camp -- the Earp posse arrived around 11: 00 am and asked for Spence and Florentino "Indian Charlie '' Cruz. They learned Spence was in jail and that Cruz was cutting wood nearby. They followed the direction Judah indicated and he soon heard a dozen or so shots. When Cruz did not return the next morning, Judah went looking for him, and found his body full of bullet holes.
Two days later, Earp 's posse traveled to Iron Springs located in the Whetstone Mountains, where they expected to meet Charlie Smith, who was supposed to be bringing $1,000 cash from their supporters in Tombstone. With Wyatt and Holliday in the lead, the six lawmen surmounted a small rise overlooking the springs. They surprised eight cowboys camping near the springs. Curly Bill recognized Wyatt Earp in the lead and immediately drew his shotgun and fired at Earp. The other Cowboys also drew their weapons and began firing. Wyatt Earp and Holliday left the only record of the fight. Earp dismounted, shotgun in hand. "Texas Jack '' Vermillion 's horse was shot and fell on him, pinning his leg and wedging his rifle underneath. Lacking cover, Holliday, Johnson, and McMaster retreated.
Earp returned Curly Bill 's gunfire with his own shotgun and shot him in the chest, nearly cutting him in half according to Earp 's later account. Curly Bill fell into the water by the edge of the spring and lay dead.
The Cowboys fired a number of shots at the Earp party, but the only casualty was Vermillion 's horse, which was killed. Wyatt 's long coat was punctured by bullets on both sides. Another bullet struck his boot heel and his saddle horn was hit as well, burning the saddle hide and narrowly missing Wyatt. Firing his pistol, Wyatt shot Johnny Barnes in the chest and Milt Hicks in the arm. Vermillion tried to retrieve his rifle wedged in the scabbard under his fallen horse, exposing himself to the Cowboys ' gunfire. Doc Holliday helped him gain cover. Wyatt had trouble remounting his horse because his cartridge belt had slipped down around his legs. He was finally able to get on his horse and retreat. McMaster was grazed by a bullet that cut through the straps of his field glasses.
Holliday and four other members of the posse were still faced with warrants for Stilwell 's death. The group elected to leave the Arizona Territory for New Mexico Territory and then on to Colorado. Wyatt and Holliday, who had been fast friends had a serious disagreement and parted ways in Albuquerque. According to a letter written by former New Mexico Territory Governor Miguel Otero, Wyatt and Holliday were eating at Fat Charlie 's The Retreat Restaurant in Albuquerque "when Holliday said something about Earp becoming ' a damn Jew - boy. ' Earp became angry and left.... Earp was staying with a prominent businessman, Henry N. Jaffa, who was also president of New Albuquerque 's Board of Trade. Jaffa was Jewish, and based on the letter Earp had, while staying in Jaffa 's home, he honored Jewish tradition by touching the mezuzah upon entering his home. According to Otero 's letter, Jaffa told him, "Earp 's woman was a Jewess. '' Earp 's anger at Holliday 's racial slur may indicate that the relationship between Josephine Marcus and Wyatt Earp was more serious at the time than is commonly known. Holliday and Dan Tipton arrived in Pueblo, Colorado in late April 1882.
On May 15, 1882, Holliday was arrested in Denver on the Tucson warrant for murdering Frank Stilwell. When Wyatt Earp learned of the charges, he feared his friend Holliday would not receive a fair trial in Arizona. Earp asked his friend Bat Masterson, then chief of police of Trinidad, Colorado, to help get Holliday released. Masterson drew up bunco charges against Holliday.
Holliday 's extradition hearing was set for May 30. Late in the evening of May 29, Masterson sought help getting an appointment with Colorado Governor Frederick Walker Pitkin. He contacted E.D. Cowen, capital reporter for the Denver Tribune, who held political sway in town. Cowen later wrote, "He submitted proof of the criminal design upon Holliday 's life. Late as the hour was, I called on Pitkin. '' His legal reasoning was that the extradition papers for Holliday contained faulty legal language, and that there was already a Colorado warrant out for Holliday -- including the bunco charge that Masterson had fabricated. Pitkin was persuaded by the evidence presented by Masterson and refused to honor Arizona 's extradition request.
Masterson took Holliday to Pueblo, where he was released on bond two weeks after his arrest. Holliday and Wyatt met again in June 1882 in Gunnison after Wyatt helped to keep his friend from being convicted on murder charges regarding Frank Stillwell. Holliday was able to see his old friend Wyatt one last time in the late winter of 1886, where they met in the lobby of the Windsor Hotel. Sadie Marcus described the skeletal Holliday as having a continuous cough and standing on "unsteady legs. ''
On July 14, 1882, Holliday 's long - time enemy Johnny Ringo was found dead in a low fork of a large tree in West Turkey Creek Valley near Chiricahua Peak, Arizona Territory. He had a bullet hole in his right temple and a revolver was found hanging from a finger of his hand. A coroner 's inquest officially ruled his death a suicide; but according to the book I Married Wyatt Earp, which author and collector Glen Boyer claimed to have assembled from manuscripts written by Earp 's third wife, Josephine Marcus Earp, Earp and Holliday traveled to Arizona with some friends in early July, found Ringo in the valley, and killed him. Boyer refused to produce his source manuscripts, and reporters wrote that his explanations were conflicting and not credible. New York Times contributor Allen Barra wrote that the book "is now recognized by Earp researchers as a hoax ''. A variant of the story, popularized in the movie Tombstone, holds that Holliday stepped in for Earp in response to a gunfight challenge from Ringo, and shot him.
Evidence is unclear as to Holliday 's exact whereabouts on the day of Ringo 's death. Records of the District Court of Pueblo County, Colorado indicate that Holliday and his attorney appeared in court in Pueblo on July 11, and again on July 14 to answer charges of "larceny ''; but a writ of capias was issued for him on the 11th, suggesting that he may not have been in court that day. The Pueblo Daily Chieftain reported that Holliday was seen in Salida, Colorado on July 7, more than 550 miles (890 km) from where Ringo 's body was found, and then in Leadville on July 18. Holliday biographer Karen Holliday Tanner noted that there was still an outstanding murder warrant in Arizona for Holliday 's arrest, making it unlikely that he would choose to reenter Arizona at that time.
Holliday spent his remaining days in Colorado. After a stay in Leadville, he suffered from the high altitude. He increasingly depended on alcohol and laudanum to ease the symptoms of tuberculosis, and his health and his skills as a gambler began to deteriorate.
Holliday 's last known confrontation took place in Hyman 's saloon in Leadville. Down to his last dollar, he had pawned his jewelry, and then borrowed $5 from Billy Allen, a bartender and special officer at the Monarch Saloon, which enabled Allen to carry a gun and make arrests within the saloon. When Allen demanded he be repaid, Holliday could not comply. He knew Allen was armed, and when Allen appeared ready to attack him, he shot him, wounding him in the arm. Holliday was arrested and put on trial. He claimed self - defense, noting that Allen outweighed him by 50 pounds and he feared for his life. A witness testified that Allen had been armed and in Hyman 's earlier in the day apparently looking for Holliday. On March 28, 1885, the jury acquitted Holliday.
In 1887, prematurely gray and badly ailing, Holliday made his way to the Hotel Glenwood, near the hot springs of Glenwood Springs, Colorado. He hoped to take advantage of the reputed curative power of the waters, but the sulfurous fumes from the spring may have done his lungs more harm than good. As he lay dying, Holliday is reported to have asked the nurse attending him for a shot of whiskey. When she told him no, he looked at his bootless feet, amused. The nurses said that his last words were, "This is funny. '' He always figured he would be killed someday with his boots on. Holliday died at 10am on November 8, 1887. He was 36. Wyatt Earp did not learn of Holliday 's death until two months afterward. Horony later said that she attended to him in his final days, and one contemporary source appears to back her claim.
The Glenwood Springs Ute Chief of November 12, 1887, wrote in his obituary that Holliday had been baptized in the Catholic Church. This was based on correspondence written between Holliday and his cousin, Sister Mary Melanie, a Catholic nun. No baptismal record has been found in either St. Stephen 's Catholic Church in Glenwood Springs or at the Annunciation Catholic Church in nearby Leadville. Holliday 's mother had been raised a Methodist and later joined a Presbyterian church (her husband 's faith), but objected to the Presbyterian doctrine of predestination and reconverted to Methodism publicly before she died, saying that she wanted her son John to know what she believed. Holliday himself was later to say that he had joined a Methodist church in Dallas. At the end of his life, Holliday had struck up friendships with both a Catholic priest, Father E.T. Downey, and a Presbyterian minister, Rev. W.S. Randolph, in Glenwood Springs. When he died, Father Downey was out of town, and so Rev. Randolph presided over the burial at 4pm on the same day that Holliday died. The services were reportedly attended by "many friends ''.
Holliday is buried in Linwood Cemetery overlooking Glenwood Springs. Since Holliday died in November, the ground may have been frozen. Some modern authors such as Bob Boze Bell speculate that it would have been impossible to transport him to the cemetery, which was only accessible by a difficult mountain road, or to dig a grave because the ground was frozen. Author Gary Roberts located evidence that other bodies were transported to the Linwood Cemetery at the same time of the month that year. Contemporary newspaper reports explicitly state that Holliday was buried in the Linwood Cemetery, but the exact location of his grave is uncertain.
Publicly, Holliday could be as fierce as was needed for a gambling man to earn respect, and his reputation as a skilled gunfighter is generally agreed upon by historians. According to Tombstone resident George W. Parsons, Holliday told Johnny Ringo in January 1882, "All I want of you is ten paces out in the street. '' Ringo and he were prevented from a gunfight by the Tombstone police, who arrested both. During the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, Holliday initially carried a shotgun and shot at and may have killed Tom McLaury. Holliday was grazed by a bullet fired by Frank McLaury, and shot back. Holliday was also part of a group of men led by Wyatt Earp guarding Virgil Earp, who had been maimed in an ambush in January. Once in Tucson, they found Frank Stilwell in the rail yard, and Holliday may have been one of several men who shot him. Holliday joined Wyatt and other men as part of a federal posse who killed three other outlaw Cowboys during the Earp Vendetta Ride. Holliday reported that he had been arrested 17 times, four attempts had been made to hang him, and that he survived ambush five times.
Throughout his lifetime, Holliday was known by many of his peers as a tempered, calm, Southern gentleman. In an 1896 article, Wyatt Earp said:
I found him a loyal friend and good company. He was a dentist whom necessity had made a gambler; a gentleman whom disease had made a vagabond; a philosopher whom life had made a caustic wit; a long, lean blonde fellow nearly dead with consumption and at the same time the most skillful gambler and nerviest, speediest, deadliest man with a six - gun I ever knew.
In a newspaper interview, Holliday was once asked if his conscience ever troubled him. He is reported to have said, "I coughed that up with my lungs, years ago. ''
Much of Holliday 's violent reputation was nothing but rumors and self promotion. However, he showed great skill in gambling and gunfights. His tuberculosis did not hamper his ability as a gambler and as a marksman. Holliday was ambidextrous.
No contemporaneous newspaper accounts or legal records offer proof of the many unnamed men whom Holliday is credited with killing in popular folklore. The only men he is known to have killed are Mike Gordon in 1879; probably Tom McLaury in Tombstone; and possibly Frank Stilwell in Tucson. Some scholars argue that Holliday may have encouraged the stories about his reputation, although his record never supported those claims.
In a March 1882 interview with the Arizona Daily Star, Virgil Earp told the reporter:
There was something very peculiar about Doc. He was gentlemanly, a good dentist, a friendly man, and yet outside of us boys I do n't think he had a friend in the Territory. Tales were told that he had murdered men in different parts of the country; that he had robbed and committed all manner of crimes, and yet when persons were asked how they knew it, they could only admit that it was hearsay, and that nothing of the kind could really be traced up to Doc 's account.
Biographer Karen Holliday Tanner found that Holliday had been arrested 17 times before his 1881 shootout in Tombstone. Only one arrest was for murder, which occurred in an 1879 shootout with Mike Gordon in New Mexico, for which he was acquitted. In the preliminary hearing following the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, Judge Wells Spicer exonerated Holliday 's actions as those of a duly appointed lawman. In Denver, the Arizona warrant against Holliday for Frank Stilwell 's murder went unserved when the governor was persuaded by Trinidad Chief of Police Bat Masterson to release Holliday to his custody for bunco charges.
Among his other arrests, Holliday pleaded guilty to two gambling charges, one charge of carrying a deadly weapon in the city (in connection with the argument with Ringo), and one misdemeanor assault and battery charge (for his shooting of Joyce and Parker). The others were all dismissed or returned as "not guilty. ''
Wyatt Earp recounted one event during which Holliday killed a fellow gambler named Ed Bailey. Earp and his common - law wife Mattie Blaylock were in Fort Griffin, Texas, during the winter of 1878, looking for gambling opportunities. Earp visited the saloon of his old friend from Cheyenne, John Shannsey, and met Holliday at the Cattle Exchange. The story of Holliday killing Bailey first appeared nine years after Holliday 's death in an 1896 interview with Wyatt Earp that was published in the San Francisco Enquirer. According to Earp, Holliday was playing poker with a well - liked local man named Ed Bailey. Holliday caught Bailey "monkeying with the dead wood '' or the discard pile, which was against the rules. According to Earp, Holliday reminded Bailey to "play poker '', which was a polite way to caution him to stop cheating. When Bailey made the same move again, Holliday took the pot without showing his hand, which was his right under the rules. Bailey immediately went for his pistol, but Holliday whipped out a knife from his breast pocket and "caught Bailey just below the brisket '' or upper chest. Bailey died and Holliday, new to town, was detained in his room at the Planter 's Hotel.
In Stuart Lake 's best - selling biography, Wyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal (1931), Earp added to the story. He is quoted as saying that Holliday 's girlfriend, "Big Nose Kate '' Horony, devised a diversion. She procured a second pistol from a friend in town, removed a horse from its shed behind the hotel, and then set fire to the shed. Everyone but Holliday and the lawmen guarding him ran to put out the fire, while she calmly walked in and tossed Holliday the second pistol. However, no contemporary records have been found of either Bailey 's death or of the shed fire. In addition, Horony denied that Holliday killed "a man named Bailey over a poker game, nor was he arrested and locked up in another hotel room. '' She laughed at the idea of "a 116 - pound woman, standing off a deputy, ordering him to throw up his hands, disarming him, rescuing her lover, and hustling him to the waiting ponies. ''
Author and Earp expert Ben Traywick doubts that Holliday killed Bailey. He could find no newspaper articles or court records to support the story. He found evidence to support that Holliday was being held in his hotel room under guard, but for "illegal gambling '', and that the story of Horony starting a fire as a diversion to free him was true. The story about Bailey as told in San Francisco Enquirer interview of Earp was likely fabricated by the writer. Years later, Earp wrote:
Of all the nonsensical guff which has been written around my life, there has been none more inaccurate or farfetched than that which has dealt with Doc Holliday. After Holliday died, I gave a San Francisco newspaper reporter a short sketch of his life. Apparently the reporter was not satisfied. The sketch appeared in print with a lot of things added that never existed outside the reporter 's imagination...
Three photos of unknown provenance are often reported to be of Holliday, some of them supposedly taken by C.S. Fly in Tombstone, but sometimes reported to have been taken in Dallas. Holliday lived in a rooming house in front of Fly 's photography studio. Many individuals share similar facial features, and the faces of people who look radically different can look similar when viewed from certain angles. Because of this, most museum staff, knowledgeable researchers, and collectors require provenance or a documented history for an image to support physical similarities that might exist. Experts rarely offer even a tentative identification of new or unique images of famous people based solely on similarities shared with other known images.
Cropped from a larger version, Holliday 's graduation photo from the Pennsylvania School of Dental Surgery in March 1872, age 20, known provenance and authenticated as Holliday
Cropped from a larger version, Holliday in Prescott, Arizona in 1879, age 27, known provenance and authenticated as Holliday
Uncreased print of supposed 1882 Tombstone photo of Holliday, left side is upturned, detachable shirt collar toward camera, no cowlick, unknown provenance
Creased and darker version of photo at left, unknown provenance
Individual most often reported to be of Holliday with a cowlick and folded - down collar, heavily retouched, oval, inscribed portrait, unknown provenance
Individual with a bowler hat and open vest and coat, unknown provenance
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Doc Holliday is one of the most recognizable figures in the American Old West, but he is most remembered for his friendship with Wyatt Earp and his role in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral. Holliday 's friendship with the lawman has been a staple of popular sidekicks in American Western culture, and Holliday himself became a stereotypical image of a deputy and a loyal companion in modern times. He is typically portrayed in films as being loyal to his friend Wyatt, whom he sticks with during the duo 's greatest conflicts, such as the Gunfight at the OK Corral and Earp 's vendetta, even with the ensuing violence and hardships which they both endured. Together with Wyatt Earp, Doc Holliday has become a modern symbol of loyalty, brotherhood, and friendship.
The Holliday birth home is marked with an historical marker located in Fayetteville, Georgia.
A life - sized statue of Holliday and Earp by sculptor Dan Bates was dedicated by the Southern Arizona Transportation Museum at the restored Historic Railroad Depot in Tucson, Arizona, on March 20, 2005, the 122nd anniversary of the killing of Frank Stilwell by Wyatt Earp. The statue stands at the approximate site of the shooting on the train platform.
"Doc Holliday Days '' are held yearly in Holliday 's birthplace of Griffin, Georgia. Valdosta, Georgia held a Doc Holliday look - alike contest in January 2010, to coincide with its sesquicentennial celebration.
Holliday was nationally known during his life as a gambler and gunman. The shootout at the O.K. Corral is one of the most famous frontier stories in the American West, and numerous Western TV shows and movies have been made about it. Holliday is usually a prominent part of the story.
Actors who have portrayed Holliday include:
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where is the cn tower located in canada | CN Tower - Wikipedia
The CN Tower (French: Tour CN) is a 553.3 m - high (1,815.3 ft) concrete communications and observation tower located in the city 's downtown core of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Built on the former Railway Lands, it was completed in 1976. Its name "CN '' originally referred to Canadian National, the railway company that built the tower. Following the railway 's decision to divest non-core freight railway assets prior to the company 's privatization in 1995, it transferred the tower to the Canada Lands Company, a federal Crown corporation responsible for real estate development.
The CN Tower held the record for the world 's tallest free - standing structure for 32 years from 1975 -- 2007 and was the world 's tallest tower until 2009 being overtaken by Burj Khalifa and Canton Tower, respectively. It is now the ninth tallest tower in the world and remains the tallest free - standing structure in the Western Hemisphere. In 1995, the CN Tower was declared one of the modern Seven Wonders of the World by the American Society of Civil Engineers. It also belongs to the World Federation of Great Towers.
It is a signature icon of Toronto 's skyline, and attracts more than two million international visitors annually.
The original concept of the CN Tower originated in 1968 when the Canadian National Railway wanted to build a large TV and radio communication platform to serve the Toronto area, as well as demonstrate the strength of Canadian industry and CN in particular. These plans evolved over the next few years, and the project became official in 1972.
The tower would have been part of Metro Centre (see CityPlace), a large development south of Front Street on the Railway Lands, a large railway switching yard that was being made redundant by newer yards outside the city. Key project team members were NCK Engineering as structural engineer; John Andrews Architects; Webb, Zerafa, Menkes, Housden Architects; Foundation Building Construction; and Canron (Eastern Structural Division).
As Toronto grew rapidly during the late 1960s and early 1970s, multiple skyscrapers were constructed in the downtown core, most notably First Canadian Place. The reflective nature of the new buildings compromised the quality of broadcast signals necessitating new, higher antennas that were at least 300 m (980 ft) tall.
At the time, most data communications took place over point - to - point microwave links, whose dish antennae covered the roofs of large buildings. As each new skyscraper was added to the downtown, former line - of - sight links were no longer possible. CN intended to rent "hub '' space for microwave links, visible from almost any building in the Toronto area.
The CN Tower can be seen from at least as far away as Kennedy Street in Aurora, Ontario, approximately 40 km (25 mi) to the north. It is also viewable to the naked eye from 60 km (37 mi) east of Toronto in Oshawa, several points along the Niagara Escarpment west of Toronto in Hamilton, Ontario, and 48 km (30 mi) to the south from Fort Niagara State Park in the U.S. state of New York.
The original plan for the tower envisioned a tripod consisting of three independent cylindrical "pillars '' linked at various heights by structural bridges. Had it been built, this design would have been considerably shorter, with the metal antenna located roughly where the concrete section between the main level and the SkyPod lies today. As the design effort continued, it evolved into the current design with a single continuous hexagonal core to the SkyPod, with three support legs blended into the hexagon below the main level, forming a large Y - shape structure at the ground level.
The idea for the main level in its current form evolved around this time, but the Space Deck (now named SkyPod) was not part of the plans until some time later. One engineer in particular felt that visitors would feel the higher observation deck would be worth paying extra for, and the costs in terms of construction were not prohibitive. It was also some time around this point that it was realized that the tower could become the world 's tallest structure, and plans were changed to incorporate subtle modifications throughout the structure to this end.
Construction on the CN Tower began on February 6, 1973, with massive excavations at the tower base for the foundation. By the time the foundation was complete, 56,000 t (61,729 short tons; 55,116 long tons) of earth and shale were removed to a depth of 15 m (49.2 ft) in the centre, and a base incorporating 7,000 m (9,156 cu yd) of concrete with 450 t (496 short tons; 443 long tons) of rebar and 36 t (40 short tons; 35 long tons) of steel cable had been built to a thickness of 6.7 m (22.0 ft). This portion of the construction was fairly rapid, with only four months needed between the start and the foundation being ready for construction on top.
To create the main support pillar, workers constructed a hydraulically raised slipform at the base. This was a fairly unprecedented engineering feat on its own, consisting of a large metal platform that raised itself on jacks at about 6 m (19.7 ft) per day as the concrete below set. Concrete was poured continuously by a team of 1,532 people until February 22, 1974, during which it had already become the tallest structure in Canada, surpassing the recently built Inco Superstack in Sudbury, which was built using similar methods.
In total, the tower contains 40,500 m (52,972 cu yd) of concrete, all of which was mixed on - site in order to ensure batch consistency. Through the pour, the vertical accuracy of the tower was maintained by comparing the slip form 's location to massive plumb bobs hanging from it, observed by small telescopes from the ground. Over the height of the tower, it varies from true vertical accuracy by only 29 mm (1.1 in).
In August 1974, construction of the main level commenced. Using 45 hydraulic jacks attached to cables strung from a temporary steel crown anchored to the top of the tower, twelve giant steel and wooden bracket forms were slowly raised, ultimately taking about a week to crawl up to their final position. These forms were used to create the brackets that support the main level, as well as a base for the construction of the main level itself. The Space Deck (currently named SkyPod) was built of concrete poured into a wooden frame attached to rebar at the lower level deck, and then reinforced with a large steel compression band around the outside.
The antenna was originally to be raised by crane as well, but during construction the Sikorsky S - 64 Skycrane helicopter became available when the United States Army sold one to civilian operators. The helicopter, named "Olga '', was first used to remove the crane, and then flew the antenna up in 36 sections.
The flights of the antenna pieces were a minor tourist attraction of their own, and the schedule was printed in the local newspapers. Use of the helicopter saved months of construction time, with this phase taking only three and a half weeks instead of the planned six months. The tower was topped - off on April 2, 1975, after 26 months of construction, officially capturing the height record from Moscow 's Ostankino Tower, and bringing the total mass to 118,000 t (130,073 short tons; 116,136 long tons).
Two years into the construction, plans for Metro Centre were scrapped, leaving the tower isolated on the Railway Lands in what was then a largely abandoned light - industrial space. This caused serious problems for tourists to access the tower. Ned Baldwin, project architect with John Andrews, wrote at the time that "All of the logic which dictated the design of the lower accommodation has been upset, '' and that "Under such ludicrous circumstances Canadian National would hardly have chosen this location to build. ''
Constructing the base, July 1973
Brackets being raised, August 1974
Helicopter lifting part of antenna, March 1975
Main pod construction, April 1975
Nearing completion, December 1975
Two months after opening, August 1976
The CN Tower opened to the public on June 26, 1976. The construction costs of approximately CA $ 63 million ($260 million in 2016 dollars) were repaid in fifteen years. Canadian National Railway sold the tower prior to taking the company private in 1995, when it decided to divest all operations not directly related to its core freight shipping businesses.
From the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s, the CN Tower was practically the only development along Front Street West; it was still possible to see Lake Ontario from the foot of the CN Tower due to the expansive parking lots and lack of development in the area at the time. As the area around the tower was developed, particularly with the completion of the Metro Toronto Convention Centre in 1984 and the SkyDome in 1989 (renamed Rogers Centre in 2005), the former Railway Lands were redeveloped and the tower became the centre of a newly developing entertainment area. Access was greatly improved with the construction of the SkyWalk in 1989, which connected the tower and SkyDome to the nearby Union Station railway and subway station, and, in turn, to the city 's PATH underground pedestrian system. By the mid-1990s, it was the centre of a thriving tourist district. The entire area continues to be an area of intense building, notably a boom in condominium construction in the first two decades of the 21st century, as well as the 2013 opening of the Ripley 's Aquarium by the base of the tower.
The CN Tower consists of several substructures. The main portion of the tower is a hollow concrete hexagonal pillar containing the stairwells and power and plumbing connections. The Tower 's six elevators are located in the three inverted angles created by the Tower 's hexagonal shape (two elevators per angle). Each of the three elevator shafts is lined with glass, allowing for views of the city as the glass - windowed elevators make their way through the Tower. The stairwell was originally located in one of these angles (the one facing north), but was moved into the central hollow of the Tower; the Tower 's new fifth and sixth elevators were placed in the hexagonal angle that once contained the stairwell. On top of the main concrete portion of the Tower is a 102 - metre (334.6 ft) tall metal broadcast antenna, carrying TV and radio signals. There are three visitor areas: the Glass Floor and Outdoor Observation Terrace which are both located at an elevation of 342 metres (1,122 ft), the Indoor Lookout Level (formerly known as "Indoor Observation Level '') located at 346 metres (1,135 ft), and the higher SkyPod (formerly known as "Space Deck '') at 446.5 metres (1,465 ft), just below the metal antenna. The hexagonal shape can be seen between the two areas; however, below the main deck, three large supporting legs give the tower the appearance of a large tripod.
The main deck level is seven storeys, some of which are open to the public. Below the public areas -- at 338 m (1,108.9 ft) -- is a large white donut - shaped radome containing the structure 's microwave receivers. The glass floor and outdoor observation deck are at 342 metres (1,122.0 ft). The glass floor has an area of 24 m (258 sq ft) and can withstand a pressure of 4,100 kilopascals (595 psi). The floor 's thermal glass units are 64 mm (2.5 in) thick, consisting of a pane of 25 - millimetre (1.0 in) laminated glass, 25 mm (1.0 in) airspace and a pane of 13 mm (0.5 in) laminated glass. Some people experience acrophobia when standing on the glass floor and looking down at the ground 342 m (1,122.0 ft) below. In 2008, one elevator was upgraded to add a glass floor panel, believed to have the highest vertical rise of any elevator equipped with this feature. The Horizons Cafe and the lookout level are at 346 metres (1,135.2 ft). The 360 Restaurant, a revolving restaurant that completes a full rotation once every 72 minutes, is at 351 m (1,151.6 ft). When the tower first opened, it also featured a disco named Sparkles (at the Indoor Observation Level), billed as the highest disco and dance floor in the world.
The SkyPod was once the highest public observation deck in the world until it was surpassed by the Shanghai World Financial Center in 2008.
A metal staircase reaches the main deck level after 1,776 steps, and the SkyPod 100 m (328 ft) above after 2,579 steps; it is the tallest metal staircase on Earth. These stairs are intended for emergency use only and are not open to the public, except for twice per year for charity stair - climb events. The average climber takes approximately 30 minutes to climb to the base of the radome, but the fastest climb on record is 7 minutes and 52 seconds in 1989 by Brendan Keenoy, an Ontario Provincial Police officer. In 2002, Canadian Olympian and Paralympic champion Jeff Adams climbed the stairs of the tower in a specially designed wheelchair. The stairs were originally on one of the three sides of the tower (facing north), with a glass view, but these were later replaced with the third elevator pair and the stairs were moved to the inside of the core. Top climbs on the new, windowless stairwell used since around 2003 have generally been over ten minutes.
Inside 360 Restaurant
Main Pod
Cross-section of Main Pod
Standing on glass floor
View though glass floor
On August 1, 2011, the CN Tower opened the EdgeWalk, an amusement in which thrill - seekers can walk on and around the roof of the main pod of the tower at 356 m (1,168.0 ft), which is directly above the 360 Restaurant. It is the world 's highest full - circle, hands - free walk. Visitors are tethered to an overhead rail system and walk around the edge of the CN Tower 's main pod above the 360 Restaurant on a 1.5 m (4.9 ft) metal floor. The attraction is closed throughout the winter season and during periods of electrical storms and high winds.
One of the notable guests who visited EdgeWalk includes Canadian comedian Rick Mercer, as featured on his CBC Television news satire show, Rick Mercer Report. He was accompanied by Canadian pop singer Jann Arden.
A freezing rain storm on March 2, 2007, resulted in a layer of ice several centimetres thick forming on the side of the tower and other downtown buildings. The sun thawed the ice, and winds of up to 90 km / h (56 mph) blew some of it away from the structure. There were fears that cars and windows of nearby buildings would be smashed by large chunks of ice. In response, police closed some streets surrounding the tower. During morning rush hour on March 5 of the same year, police expanded the area of closed streets to include the Gardiner Expressway 310 metres (1,017 ft) away from the tower, as increased winds blew the ice farther away, as far north as King Street, 490 m (1,608 ft) away, where a taxicab window was shattered. Subsequently, on March 6, 2007, the Gardiner Expressway reopened after winds abated.
On April 16, 2018, falling ice from the CN Tower punctured the roof of the nearby Rogers Centre, causing the Toronto Blue Jays to postpone the game that day to the following day as a doubleheader. On April 20, the CN Tower reopened.
In August 2000, a fire broke out at the Ostankino Tower in Moscow killing three people and causing extensive damage. The fire was blamed on poor maintenance and outdated equipment. The failure of the fire - suppression systems and the lack of proper equipment for firefighters allowed the fire to destroy most of the interior and spark fears the tower might even collapse.
The Ostankino Tower was completed nine years before the CN Tower, and is only 13 m (43 ft) shorter. The parallels between the towers led to some concern that the CN Tower could be at risk of a similar tragedy. However, Canadian officials subsequently stated that it is "highly unlikely '' that a similar disaster could occur at the CN Tower, as it has important safeguards that were not present in the Ostankino Tower. Specifically, officials cited:
Officials also noted that the CN Tower has an excellent safety record, although there was an electrical fire in the antennae on August 16, 2017 -- the tower 's first fire. Moreover, other supertall structures built between 1967 and 1976 -- such as the Willis Tower (formerly the Sears Tower), the World Trade Center (until its destruction on September 11, 2001), the Fernsehturm Berlin, the Aon Center, 875 North Michigan Avenue (formerly the John Hancock Center), and First Canadian Place -- also have excellent safety records, which suggests that the Ostankino Tower accident was a rare safety failure, and that the likelihood of similar events occurring at other supertall structures is extremely low.
The CN Tower was originally lit at night with incandescent lights, which were removed in 1997, because they were inefficient and expensive to repair. In June 2007, the tower was outfitted with 1,330 super-bright LED lights inside the elevator shafts, shooting over the main pod and upward to the top of the tower 's mast to light the tower from dusk until 2 a.m. The official opening ceremony took place on June 28 before the Canada Day holiday weekend.
The tower changes its lighting scheme on holidays and to commemorate major events. After the 95th Grey Cup in Toronto, the tower was lit in green and white to represent the colours of the Grey Cup champion Saskatchewan Roughriders. From sundown on August 27, 2011, to sunrise the following day, the tower was lit in orange, the official colour of the New Democratic Party (NDP), to commemorate the death of federal NDP leader and leader of the official opposition Jack Layton. When former South African president Nelson Mandela died, the tower was lit in the colours of the South African flag. When former federal finance minister under Stephen Harper 's Conservatives Jim Flaherty died, the tower was lit in green to reflect his Irish Canadian heritage. On the night of the attacks on Paris on November 13, 2015, the tower displayed the colours of the French flag.
Programmed from a desktop computer with a wireless network interface controller in Burlington, Ontario, the LEDs use less energy to light than the previous incandescent lights (10 % less energy than the dimly lit version and 60 % less than the brightly lit version). The estimated cost to use the LEDs is $1,000 per month.
During the spring and autumn bird migration seasons, the lights would be turned off to comply with the voluntary Fatal Light Awareness Program, which "encourages buildings to dim unnecessary exterior lighting to mitigate bird mortality during spring and summer migration. ''
The CN Tower is the tallest freestanding structure in the Western Hemisphere. As of 2013, there are only two other freestanding structures in the Western Hemisphere which exceed 500 m (1,640.4 ft) in height; the Willis Tower in Chicago, which stands at 527 m (1,729.0 ft) when measured to its pinnacle; and the topped - out One World Trade Center in New York City, which has a pinnacle height of 541.33 m (1,776.0 ft), or approximately 12 m (39.4 ft) shorter than the CN Tower. Due to the symbolism of the number 1776 (the year of the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence), the height of One World Trade Center is unlikely to be increased. The proposed Chicago Spire was expected to exceed the height of the CN Tower, but its construction was halted early due to financial difficulties amid the Great Recession, and was eventually cancelled in 2010.
Guinness World Records has called the CN Tower "the world 's tallest self - supporting tower '' and "the world 's tallest free - standing tower ''. Although Guinness did list this description of the CN Tower under the heading "tallest building '' at least once, it has also listed it under "tallest tower '', omitting it from its list of "tallest buildings. '' In 1996, Guinness changed the tower 's classification to "World 's Tallest Building and Freestanding Structure ''. Emporis and the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat both listed the CN Tower as the world 's tallest free - standing structure on land, and specifically state that the CN Tower is not a true building, thereby awarding the title of world 's tallest building to Taipei 101, which is 44 metres (144 ft) shorter than the CN Tower. The issue of what was tallest became moot when Burj Khalifa, then under construction, exceeded the height of the CN Tower in 2007 (see below).
Although the CN Tower contains a restaurant, a gift shop and multiple observation levels, it does not have floors continuously from the ground, and therefore it is not considered a building by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) or Emporis. CTBUH defines a building as "a structure that is designed for residential, business, or manufacturing purposes. An essential characteristic of a building is that it has floors. '' The CN Tower and other similar structures -- such as the Ostankino Tower in Moscow, Russia; the Oriental Pearl Tower in Shanghai, China; the Stratosphere Tower in Las Vegas, Nevada, USA; and the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France -- are categorized as "towers '', which are free - standing structures that may have observation decks and a few other habitable levels, but do not have floors from the ground up. The CN Tower was the tallest tower by this definition, until 2010 (see below).
Taller than the CN Tower are numerous radio masts and towers, which are held in place by guy - wires, the tallest being the KVLY - TV mast in Blanchard, North Dakota, USA at 628 metres (2,060 ft) tall, leading to a distinction between these and "free - standing '' structures. Additionally, the Petronius Platform stands 610 metres (2,001 ft) above its base on the bottom of the Gulf of Mexico, but only the top 75 metres (246 ft) of this oil and natural gas platform are above water, and the structure is thus partially supported by its buoyancy. Like the CN Tower, none of these taller structures are commonly considered buildings.
On September 12, 2007, Burj Khalifa, which is a hotel, residential and commercial building in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, and was formerly known as Burj Dubai before opening, passed the CN Tower 's 553.33 - metre height. The CN Tower held the record of tallest free - standing structure on land for over 30 years.
After Burj Khalifa had been formally recognized by the Guinness World Records as the world 's tallest freestanding structure, Guinness re-certified CN Tower as the world 's tallest freestanding tower. The tower definition used by Guinness was defined by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat as ' a building in which less than 50 % of the construction is usable floor space '. Guinness World Records editor - in - chief Craig Glenday announced that Burj Khalifa was not classified as a tower because it has too much usable floor space to be considered to be a tower. CN Tower still held world records for highest above ground wine cellar (in 360 Restaurant) at 351 metres, highest above ground restaurant at 346 metres (Horizons Restaurant), and tallest free - standing concrete tower during Guinness 's recertification. The CN Tower was surpassed in 2009 by the Canton Tower in Guangzhou, China, which stands at 604 metres (1,982 ft) tall, as the world 's tallest tower; which in turn was surpassed by the Tokyo Skytree in 2011, which currently is the tallest tower at 634.0 metres (2,080.1 ft) in height. The CN Tower, as of 2018, stands as the ninth - tallest free - standing structure on land and remains the tallest free - standing structure in the Western Hemisphere.
Since the construction of the tower had been completed, it has gained the following world height records:
The CN Tower has been and continues to be used as a communications tower for a number of different media and by numerous companies.
There is no AM broadcasting on the CN Tower. The FM antennas are situated 421 metres (1,381 ft) above ground.
The CN Tower has its own mascot, which resembles the tower itself.
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when were the la brea tar pits discovered | La Brea tar pits - wikipedia
The La Brea Tar Pits are a group of tar pits around which Hancock Park was formed in urban Los Angeles. Natural asphalt (also called asphaltum, bitumen, pitch or tar -- brea in Spanish) has seeped up from the ground in this area for tens of thousands of years. The tar is often covered with dust, leaves, or water. Over many centuries, the tar preserved the bones of trapped animals. The George C. Page Museum is dedicated to researching the tar pits and displaying specimens from the animals that died there. The La Brea Tar Pits are a registered National Natural Landmark.
Since la brea means the tar in Spanish, "The La Brea Tar Pits '' is an example of a tautological place name; "the La Brea Tar Pits '' literally means "the the tar tar pits ''.
Tar pits are composed of heavy oil fractions called gilsonite, which seeped from the Earth as oil. In Hancock Park, crude oil seeps up along the 6th Street Fault from the Salt Lake Oil Field, which underlies much of the Fairfax District north of the park. The oil reaches the surface and forms pools at several locations in the park, becoming asphalt as the lighter fractions of the petroleum biodegrade or evaporate.
The tar pits visible today are actually from human excavation. The lake pit was originally an asphalt mine. The other pits visible today were produced between 1913 and 1915, when over 100 pits were excavated in search of large mammal bones. Various combinations of asphaltum and waggler have since filled in these holes. Normally, the asphalt appears in vents, hardening as it oozes out, to form stubby mounds. These can be seen in several areas of the park.
This seepage has been happening for tens of thousands of years. From time to time, the asphalt would form a deposit thick enough to trap animals, and the surface would be covered with layers of water, dust, or leaves. Animals would wander in, become trapped, and eventually die. Predators would enter to eat the trapped animals and also become stuck. As the bones of dead animals sink into the asphalt, it soaks into them, turning them a dark - brown or black color. Lighter fractions of petroleum evaporate from the asphalt, leaving a more solid substance, which encases the bones. Dramatic fossils of large mammals have been extricated from the tar, but the asphalt also preserves microfossils: wood and plant remnants, rodent bones, insects, mollusks, dust, seeds, leaves, and even pollen grains. Examples of some of these are on display in the George C. Page museum. Radiometric dating of preserved wood and bones has given an age of 38,000 years for the oldest known material from the La Brea seeps. The pits still ensnare organisms today, so most of the pits are fenced to protect humans and animals.
The Native American Chumash and Tongva people living in the area built boats unlike any others in North America prior to contact by settlers. Pulling fallen Northern California redwood trunks and pieces of driftwood from the Santa Barbara Channel, their ancestors learned to seal the cracks between the boards of the large wooden plank canoes by using the natural resource of tar. This innovative form of transportation allowed access up and down the coastline and to the Channel Islands.
The Portolá expedition, a group of Spanish explorers led by Gaspar de Portolá, made the first written record of the tar pits in 1769. Father Juan Crespí wrote,
While crossing the basin the scouts reported having seen some geysers of tar issuing from the ground like springs; it boils up molten, and the water runs to one side and the tar to the other. The scouts reported that they had come across many of these springs and had seen large swamps of them, enough, they said, to caulk many vessels. We were not so lucky ourselves as to see these tar geysers, much though we wished it; as it was some distance out of the way we were to take, the Governor (Portolá) did not want us to go past them. We christened them Los Volcanes de Brea (the Tar Volcanoes).
Harrison Rogers, who accompanied Jedediah Smith on his 1826 expedition to California, was shown a piece of the solidified asphalt while at Mission San Gabriel, and noted in his journal that "The Citizens of the Country make great use of it to pitch the roofs of their houses ''.
The La Brea Tar Pits and Hancock Park are situated within what was once the Mexican land grant of Rancho La Brea, now part of urban Los Angeles in the Miracle Mile district. For some years, tar - covered bones were found on the Rancho La Brea property but were not initially recognized as fossils because the ranch had lost various animals -- including horses, cattle, dogs, and even camels -- whose bones closely resemble several of the fossil species. The original Rancho La Brea land grant stipulated that the tar pits be open to the public for the use of the local Pueblo. Initially, they mistook the bones in the pits for the remains of pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana) or cattle that had become mired.
Union Oil geologist W.W. Orcutt is credited, in 1901, with first recognizing that fossilized prehistoric animal bones were preserved in pools of asphalt on the Hancock Ranch. In commemoration of Orcutt 's initial discovery, paleontologists named the La Brea coyote (Canis latrans orcutti) in his honor.
Contemporary excavations of the bones started in 1913 -- 1915. In the 1940s and 1950s, public excitement was generated by the preparation of previously recovered large mammal bones. Subsequent study demonstrated the fossil vertebrate material was well preserved, with little evidence of bacterial degradation of bone protein. They were believed to be from the last glacial period, believed to be about 30,000 years ago. After radiocarbon dating redated the last glacial period as still occurring 11 to 12,000 years ago, the fossils were redated to be 10 - 20,000 years old.
Methane gas escapes from the tar pits, causing bubbles that make the asphalt appear to boil. Asphalt and methane appear under surrounding buildings and require special operations for removal to prevent the weakening of building foundations. In 2007, researchers from UC Riverside discovered that the bubbles were caused by hardy forms of bacteria embedded in the natural asphalt. After consuming petroleum, the bacteria release methane. Around 200 to 300 species of bacteria were newly discovered here.
The George C. Page Museum of La Brea Discoveries, part of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, was built next to the tar pits in Hancock Park on Wilshire Boulevard. Construction began in 1975, and the museum opened to the public in 1977.
However, the history of the fossil museum really began in 1913 when George Allan Hancock, the owner of Rancho La Brea, granted the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County exclusive excavation rights at the Tar Pits for two years. In those two years the Museum was able to extract 750,000 specimens at 96 sites guaranteeing that a large collection of fossils would remain consolidated and available to the community. Then in 1924 Hancock donated 23 acres to LA County with the stipulation that the county provide for the preservation of the park and the exhibition of fossils found there.
The Museum tells the story of the tar pits and presents specimens excavated from them. Visitors can walk around the park and see the tar pits. On the grounds of the park are life - size models of prehistoric animals in or near the tar pits. Of more than 100 pits, only Pit 91 is still regularly excavated by researchers and can be seen at the Pit 91 viewing station. In addition to Pit 91 there is one other ongoing excavation called "Project 23 ''. Paleontologists supervise and direct the work of volunteers at both sites.
On February 18, 2009, George C. Page Museum formally announced the 2006 discovery of 16 fossil deposits which had been removed from the ground during the construction of an underground parking garage for the Los Angeles County Museum of Art next to the tar pits. Among the finds are remains of a saber - toothed cat, dire wolves, bison, horses, a giant ground sloth, turtles, snails, clams, millipedes, fish, gophers, and an American lion. Also discovered is a nearly intact mammoth skeleton, nicknamed Zed; the only pieces missing are a rear leg, a vertebra and the top of its skull, which was sheared off by construction equipment in preparation to build the parking structure.
These fossils were packaged in boxes at the construction site and moved to a compound behind Pit 91, on Page Museum property so that construction could continue. Twenty - three large accumulations of tar and specimens were taken to the Page Museum. These deposits are worked on under the name "Project 23 ''. As work for the public transit Metro Purple Line is extended, museum researchers know more tar pits will be uncovered, for example near the intersection of Wilshire and Curson. In an exploratory subway dig in 2014 on the Miracle Mile, prehistoric objects unearthed included geoducks, sand dollars and a 10 - foot limb from a pine tree, of a type now found in central California 's woodlands.
Among the prehistoric species associated with the La Brea Tar Pits are Pleistocene mammoths, dire wolves, short - faced bears, ground sloths, and the state fossil of California, the saber - toothed cat (Smilodon fatalis).
Only one human has been found, a partial skeleton of the La Brea Woman dated to approximately 10,000 calendar years (c. 9,000 radiocarbon years) BP, who was 17 to 25 years old at death and found associated with remains of a domestic dog, and so was interpreted to have been ceremonially interred. John C. Merriam of the University of California led much of the early work in identifying species in the early 20th century.
The park is known for producing myriad mammal fossils dating from the last glacial period. While mammal fossils generate significant interest, other fossils, including fossilized insects and plants, and even pollen grains, are also valued. These fossils help define a picture of what is thought to have been a cooler, moister climate in the Los Angeles basin during the glacial age. Among these fossils are microfossils, which are retrieved from a matrix of asphalt and sandy clay by washing with a solvent to remove the petroleum, then picking through the remains under a high - powered lens.
Tar pits around the world are unusual in accumulating more predators than prey. The reason for this is unknown, but one theory is that a large prey animal would die or become stuck in a tar pit, attracting predators across long distances. This predator trap would catch predators along with their prey. Another theory is that dire wolves and their prey may have been trapped during a hunt. Since modern wolves hunt in packs, each prey animal could take several wolves with it. The same may also hold true of the saber - toothed cat (Smilodon fatalis) known from the area.
Movies filmed at the La Brea Tar Pits include Volcano, My Girl 2, Miracle Mile, and Seven Psychopaths.
The Stranglers track "Dead Loss Angeles '' from the 1979 album The Raven sings of "the dredged up Mastadon, has got his glasses on ~ from the La Brea Pit ''.
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what are the steps of election in india | Elections in India - Wikipedia
Executive:
Parliament:
Judiciary:
National coalitions:
State Level:
Local governments:
India has an asymmetric federal government, with elected officials at the federal, state and local levels. At the national level, the head of government, Prime Minister, is elected by members of the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the parliament of India. The elections are conducted by the Election Commission of India. All members of the Lok Sabha, except two who can be nominated by the President of India, are directly elected through general elections which take place every five years, in normal circumstances, by universal adult suffrage and a first - past - the - post system. Members of the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Indian parliament, are elected by elected members of the legislative assemblies of the states and the Electoral college for the Union Territories of India.
The 2014 general election involved an electorate of 863,500,000 people (larger than both EU and US elections combined). Declared expenditure has trebled since 1989 to almost $300 million, using more than one million electronic voting machines. The size of the huge electorate mandates that elections be conducted in a number of phases (there were nine phases in the 2014 general election). It involves a number of step - by - step processes from announcement of election dates to the announcement of results paving the way for the formation of the new government.
The President of India is elected for a five - year term by an electoral college of India consisting of members of federal legislature and state legislatures (i.e. all the elected member of parliament and all elected members of all legislative assemblies of the country).
The House of the People (Lok Sabha) represents citizens of India (as envisaged by the Constitution of India, currently the members of Lok Sabha are 545, out of which 543 are elected for five - year term and two members represent the Anglo - Indian community). The 543 members are elected under the plurality (' first past the post ') electoral system. The Council of States (Rajya Sabha) has 250 members, 238 members elected for a six - year term, with one - third retiring every two years. The members are indirectly elected, this being achieved by the votes of legislators in the state and union (federal) territories. The elected members are chosen under the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote. The twelve nominated members are usually an eclectic mix of eminent artists (including actors), scientists, jurists, sportspersons, businessmen and journalists and common people.
Lok Sabha is composed of representatives of the people chosen by direct election on the basis of the adult suffrage. The maximum strength of the House envisaged by the Constitution is 552, which is made up by election of up to 530 members to represent the States, up to 20 members to represent the Union Territories and not more than two members of the Anglo - Indian Community to be nominated by the President, if, in his / her opinion, that community is not adequately represented in the lower house i.e. Lok Sabha. In 1952, on Lok Sabha elections there were 1874 candidates, which rose to 13952 candidates in 1996. However, in Lok Sabha elections in 2009, only 8070 candidates contested. Historical share of seats and votes of major political parties are ranked by the number of seats won.
: 12 seats in Assam and 1 in Meghalaya did not vote.
Indian National Congress dominated the Indian political scene under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru from the independence in 1947 until his death in 1964. The party continued its dominance under the leadership of K Kamaraj and Lal Bahadur Shastri. The Congress party was split into two in the 1970s and Indira Gandhi led Congress (I) to election victory. But the winning run was broken for the first time in 1977, with the defeat of the party led by Indira Gandhi, by an unlikely coalition of all the major other parties, which protested against the imposition of a controversial emergency from 1975 -- 1977. But, Indira Gandhi regained power soon after and her son rajiv Gandhi led the party after her assassination. A coalition led by VP Singh swept to power in 1989 in the wake of major allegations of corruption against then Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi. But the coalition lost steam in 1990 necessitating new elections with the congress party again emerging victorious under the leadership of PV Narasimha Rao.
In 1996, the election results led to a coalition system wherein no single party achieved a majority in the Parliament to form a government, but rather has to depend on a process of coalition building with other parties to form a block and claim a majority to be invited to form the government. This has been a consequence of strong regional parties which ride on the back of regional aspirations. There were multiple governments within a span of few years led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, IK Gujral and HD Deve Gowda.
In 1999, National Democratic Alliance led by the Bharatiya Janata Party came to power and became the first coalition government to complete the full term. For the next decade, congress led coalition United Progressive Alliance formed the government under Manmohan Singh. In the recent elections held in 2014, the National Democratic Alliance led by the Bharatiya Janata Party came to power with Bharatiya Janata Party achieving a simple majority on its own by securing 282 seats. Narendra Modi, the BJP 's Prime Ministerial candidate, is now serving his first term as the Prime Minister of India.
While parties like the Telugu Desam Party, the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam have traditionally been strong regional contenders, the 1990s saw the emergence of other regional players such as Indian National Lok Dal, Shiromani Akali Dal, Shiv Sena, Samajwadi Party, Bahujan Samaj Party and Janata Dal. These parties are traditionally based on regional aspirations like Telangana Rashtra Samithi and Shiv Sena or strongly influenced by caste considerations like Bahujan Samaj Party which claims to represent the Dalits.
The Election Commission of India is an autonomous, constitutionally established federal authority responsible for administering all the electoral processes in the Republic of India. Under the supervision of the commission, free and fair elections have been held in India at regular intervals as per the principles enshrined in the Constitution. The Election Commission has the power of superintendence, direction and control of all elections to the Parliament of India and the state legislatures and of elections to the office of the President of India and the Vice-President of India.
Elections are conducted according to the constitutional provisions, supplemented by laws made by Parliament. The major laws are Representation of the People Act, 1950, which mainly deals with the preparation and revision of electoral rolls, the Representation of the People Act, 1951 which deals, in detail, with all aspects of conduct of elections and post election disputes. The Supreme Court of India has held that where the enacted laws are silent or make insufficient provision to deal with a given situation in the conduct of elections, the Election Commission has the residuary powers under the Constitution to act in an appropriate manner. Originally the commission had only a single Chief Election Commissioner. Two additional Commissioners were appointed to the commission for the first time on 16 October 1989, but they had a very short tenure until 1 January 1990. The Election Commissioner Amendment Act, 1993 made the Election Commission a multi-member body. Later, on 1 October 1993, two additional Election Commissioners were appointed. The concept of a multi-member Commission has been in operation since then, with decision - making power by majority vote.
announced.
The candidates are required to file the nomination papers following which the candidate list is published after scrutiny. No party is allowed to use the government resources for campaigning. No party is allowed to bribe the candidates before elections. The government can not start a project during the election period. The campaigning ends at 6: 00 pm of the second last day before the polling day.
The polling is held normally from 7: 00 am to 6: 00 pm, whereas it might be changed under special circumstances. The Collector of each district is in charge of polling. Government employees are employed as poll officers at the polling stations. Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) are being increasingly used instead of ballot boxes to prevent election fraud via booth capturing, which is heavily prevalent in certain parts of India. An indelible ink is applied usually on the left index finger of the voter as an indicator that the voter has cast his vote. This practice has been followed since the 1962 general elections to prevent a bad vote. Re-polling happens if the initial polling is unsuccessful due to reasons such as adverse weather, violence etc. The polled votes are counted to announce the winner. India follows first past the post methodology to declare the winner.
One of the earliest achievements of CSIR (Council of Scientific & Industrial Research), was to counter the challenge of fraudulent voting that research work on formulating indelible ink was initiated. Founding father of Indeliable Ink Dr. M.L. Goel and his team of Scientists in 1950 's started Chemical Division, NPL (National Physical Laboratory) now called the Analytical Chemistry Section.
As the ink is photo - sensitive, it needs to be protected from exposure to direct sun rays. Therefore, amber - coloured plastic containers are used for storing the ink, which in earlier times was stored in brown - coloured glass bottles. On application, the ink remains on the fingernail for at least two days, to even up to a month depending upon the person 's body temperature and the environment. The ink contains silver nitrate, which on exposure to UV light gets darker.
The precise protocol for making this ink including chemical composition and the quantity of each constituent is not known to many people, though the basic chemical formula of this ink has not been altered since 1952.
The cost per voter in the 2014 general elections was Rs 17, a twenty-fold increase over the first election, held in 1952. The total expenditure for the 2014 general election was 37.5 crore.
Electronic voting machines (EVM) are being used in Indian general and state elections to implement electronic voting in part from 1999 elections and in total since 2004 elections. The EVMs reduce the time in both casting a vote and declaring the results compared to the old paper ballot system. After rulings of Delhi High Court and Supreme Court and demands from various political parties, Election Commission decided to introduce EVMs with voter - verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) system.
On 14 August 2013, the government of India amended the elections rules to permit the use of the voter - verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) system. The first election to implement the new system was a by - election held in the Noksen assembly constituency of Nagaland. Voter - verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) system is introduced in 8 of 543 parliamentary constituencies as a pilot project in Indian general election, 2014. VVPAT is implemented in Lucknow, Gandhinagar, Bangalore South, Chennai Central, Jadavpur, Raipur, Patna Sahib and Mizoram constituencies. Generated slip tells voter to which party or candidate vote has been given and also includes name of voter, constituency and polling booth.
"None of the above '' is a voting option in India that would allow voters who support none of the candidates available to them to register an official vote of "none of the above '', which is currently allowed under India election regulation. (33) The Election Commission of India told the Supreme Court in 2009 that it wished to offer the voter a none of the above button on voting machines. The government, however, has generally opposed this option. On 27 September 2013, Supreme Court of India pronounced a judgement that citizen 's of India have right to negative vote by exercising none of the above (NOTA) option in EVMs and ballot papers. The judgment was passed on a PIL filed by the People 's Union for Civil Liberties, an NGO in 2009.
The Election Commission has implemented this option of "none of the above '' voting option in EVM machines w.e.f. five states polls starting from November 2013. However it does not mean that if ' NOTA ' gets highest votes the election will be conducted again, rather even in that case, the candidate with the highest votes will be treated as elected candidate.
An absentee ballot is a vote cast by someone who is unable or unwilling to attend the official polling station or to which the voter is normally allocated. Numerous methods have been devised to facilitate this. Increasing the ease of access to absentee ballots is seen by many as one way to improve voter turnout, though some countries require that a valid reason, such as infirmity or travel, be given before a voter can participate in an absentee ballot. Currently, India does not have an absentee ballot system for all citizens except in few exceptions. Section 19 of The Representation of the People Act (RPA) - 1950 allows a person to register to vote if he or she is above 18 years of age and is an ' ordinary resident ' of the residing constituency i.e. living at the current address for 6 months or longer. Section 20 of the above Act disqualifies a non-resident Indian (NRI) from getting his / her name registered in the electoral rolls. Consequently, it also prevents a NRI from casting his / her vote in elections to the Parliament and to the State Legislatures. In August 2010, Representation of the People (Amendment) Bill - 2010 which allows voting rights to NRI 's was passed in both Lok Sabha with subsequent gazette notifications on 24 November 2010. With this NRI 's will now be able to vote in Indian elections but have to be physically present at the time of voting. Several civic society organisations have urged the government to amend the RPA act to allow NRI 's and people on the move to cast their vote through absentee ballot system. People for Lok Satta has been actively pushing combination of internet and postal ballot as a viable means for NRI voting.
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where is the gare de lyon in paris | Gare de Lyon - wikipedia
The Gare de Lyon (Lyon Station), officially Paris - Gare - de-Lyon, is one of the six large mainline railway station termini in Paris, France. It handles about 90,000,000 passengers every year, making it the third busiest station of France and one of the busiest of Europe. It is the northern terminus of the Paris -- Marseille railway. It is named after the city of Lyon, a stop for many long - distance trains departing here, most en route to the south of France. The station is located in the XIIe arrondissement, on the north bank of the river Seine, in the east of Paris.
The station is served by high - speed TGV trains to south and eastern France, Switzerland, Germany, Italy and Spain. The station also hosts regional trains and the RER and also the Gare de Lyon metro station. Main line trains depart from 32 platforms in two distinct halls: Hall 1, which is the older train shed, contains tracks labelled with letters from A to N, while the modern addition of Hall 2 contains tracks which are numbered from 5 to 23. There are a further 4 platforms for the RER underneath the main lines.
The station was built for the World Exposition of 1900. On multiple levels, it is considered a classic example of the architecture of its time. Most notable is the large clock tower atop one corner of the station, similar in style to the clock tower of the United Kingdom Houses of Parliament, home to Big Ben.
The station houses the Le Train Bleu restaurant, which has served drinks and meals to travellers and other guests since 1901 in an ornately decorated setting.
On 27 June 1988, in the Gare de Lyon train accident, a runaway train crashed into a stationary rush - hour train, killing 56 people and injuring a further 55.
From Gare de Lyon train services depart to major French cities such as: Lyon, Marseille, Nice, Montpellier, Perpignan, Dijon, Besançon, Mulhouse, Grenoble and a number of destinations in the Alps.
International services operate to Italy: Turin, Milan and Venice, Switzerland: Geneva, Zurich, Bern, Interlaken, Lausanne and Brig, Germany Freiburg im Breisgau and Spain: Barcelona.
The following services currently call at Gare de Lyon:
For the Gare du Nord, take RER Line D towards Orry - la - Ville - Coye.
For the Gare de l'Est, either walk to nearby Quai de la Rapée Métro station for Line 5 (going north to Bobigny - Pablo Picasso), or take Line 1 from Lyon north to Bastille station and change there to Line 5. This is also another way to reach the Gare du Nord.
For Gare Saint - Lazare, take Métro Line 14.
For Gare Montparnasse, catch a 91 bus, which goes there directly. Or take the Métro Line 14 to Châtelet and then change for Line 4 to Montparnasse - Bienvenüe (although Châtelet is an extremely large and complex station, the connection between those two lines is very short).
For Gare d'Austerlitz the 5 - 10mn walk south across Pont Charles de Gaulle or Pont d'Austerlitz is quickest.
The station has appeared in the following films:
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sandie shaw hand in glove top of the pops | Hand in Glove - wikipedia
"Hand in Glove '' is a song by the English rock band the Smiths, written by singer Morrissey and guitarist Johnny Marr. It was released as the band 's first single in May 1983 on independent record label Rough Trade. It peaked at No. 3 on the UK Indie Chart but did not make the top 75 of the UK Singles Chart, settling outside at No. 124. A remixed version of the song was featured on the band 's debut album, The Smiths, in 1984. That same year, a cover version recorded by singer Sandie Shaw featuring Smiths members Marr, Andy Rourke and Mike Joyce as backing musicians reached No. 27 on the UK Singles Chart.
Morrissey and Marr wrote "Hand in Glove '' in January 1983, between the second and third concerts the Smiths ever played. Morrissey said that after Marr gave him a demo cassette of the song, he went home and wrote lyrics for it in the span of two hours, conscious of the fact that it would be the group 's first recorded work. Even prior to performing the song live, the group was unanimous in the opinion that "Hand in Glove '' was their strongest song to date.
The Smiths asked their manager Joe Moss to fund the recording of "Hand in Glove ''. In late February, the group booked a one - day recording session at Strawberry Studios in Stockport at the cost of £ 250, which they produced themselves. Morrissey claimed in later years that he was dissatisfied with his vocal and returned a week later to re-record his part, the day after which the entire group travelled to London and convinced Rough Trade owner Geoff Travis to release the record. However, author Simon Goddard noted that it was not until April 1983 that Marr and bassist Andy Rourke visited the Rough Trade offices. On that occasion, Marr handed Travis a cassette featuring "Hand in Glove '' and a live recording of "Handsome Devil '', telling Travis, "(L) isten to this, it 's not just another tape ''. Impressed, Travis promised he would. The following Monday, Travis called the group and invited them back to London to release "Hand in Glove '' as a single. Both parties agreed to release the single as a temporary arrangement before agreeing to any long - term partnership.
Two months after the single 's release, the Smiths recorded the song again during aborted sessions for their debut album with producer Troy Tate. This version was recorded a tone lower than the original in the key of F# minor, and features a shorter introduction. The Smiths recorded the song again with producer John Porter in October at Manchester 's Pluto Studios. Morrissey rejected this version of the song. Due to impending deadlines, the version that ultimately appeared on the band 's first album The Smiths was a remix of the original master recording from the Strawberry Studios session. For this version, Porter increased the separation between Marr 's guitar tracks and Morrissey 's vocals, emphasised drummer Mike Joyce 's drum beat, pushed Rourke 's bass back in the mix, and created a more dramatic opening and conclusion to the song.
The original recorded version of "Hand in Glove '' is in the key of G minor. The song begins with an overdub of Marr playing a harmonica over the rest of the music. Simon Goddard wrote that Marr 's use of the instrument "purposefully evoked the very same ' blunt vitality of working - class "northernness '' that Ian McDonald attributes to The Beatles ' parallel 1962 single ' Love Me Do ', though infinitely more melancholy. '' Of the backing music, Goddard wrote, "Marr 's redolent minor chord wash weeps with a rain - soaked hopelessness while Rourke contributes one of his most inspired bass patterns ''.
Morrissey explained that the song 's theme was "complete loneliness, '' going on to state: "It was important to me that that there 'd be something searingly poetic about it, in a lyrical sense, and yet jubilant at the same time. '' Goddard described "Hand in Glove '' as "a bleak proclamation of doomed happiness (...) a shattering left - hook of self - loathing, loss and desperation ''. Years later Morrissey considered the song to be the group 's "most special. '' The singer said he was particularly proud of the song 's second verse, which included the lines "Though we may be hidden by rags / We have something they 'll never have. '' Morrissey explained that the verse described "how I felt when I could n't afford clothes and used to dress in rags but I did n't really feel mentally impoverished. ''
In the song 's lyrics, Morrissey referenced works by playwright Shelagh Delaney, whom he would reference in several later songs. The song 's line "I 'll probably never see you again '' appears in Delaney 's kitchen sink realism play A Taste of Honey and The Lion in Love. Morrissey paraphrased the line "Everything depends upon how near you stand next to me '' from the 1974 Leonard Cohen song "Take This Longing ''. Goddard conjectures that the song 's title was inspired by the 1947 detective novel Hand in Glove by Ngaio Marsh.
The song starts with the lines "Hand in glove / the sun shines out of our behinds '' and then states that "No it 's not like any other love / this one 's different / because it 's us. '' The lyrics then state that "the people stare '' and "the Good People laugh '', "but we have something they 'll never have. '' The song ends with the repeated line "I 'll probably never see you again '' which is also a reference to A Taste of Honey. The intro to the song uses the chords F major (sus2), Eb major and Bb major. The verse uses the chord G minor 7, F7 (sus2) and Eb major. (The transcription cited is transposed to E minor instead of G minor.)
"Hand in Glove '' was released as the Smiths ' debut recording in May 1983. The single sold consistently for the next 18 months. Although the single failed to reach the UK Singles Chart, it reached number three on the UK Indie Chart. Its relative success earned the group a listing in the Guinness Book of Records in January 1984 when it and the group 's next two singles ' "This Charming Man '' and "What Difference Does It Make? '' ' held the top three position on the UK Indie Chart. "It should have been a massive hit '', Morrissey later said, "it was so urgent. To me, it was a complete cry in every direction. It really was a landmark. '' The single did raise the band 's profile; a week after its release the band gained its first major live reviews in the music press, which in turn led to their first radio session with BBC Radio 1 disc jockey John Peel.
While reviewing a 1983 concert by the Smiths and the Go - Betweens at The Venue in London, Barney Hoskyns, writing for the NME, described "Hand in Glove '' as "one of the year 's few masterpieces, a thing of beauty and a joy forever ''. In the 1984 edition of The Rock Yearbook, Hoskyns said the song "swept into my heart ''. Bill Black, writing for Sounds, described it as a "daunting '' debut. Writing for Allmusic, Ned Raggett called the song a "stunning, surprising debut '' and describes the music as "sparkling, '' highlighting Marr 's "careful overdubbing of acoustic and electric guitars ''. He also described Rourke 's bass and Joyce 's drumming as "sparse but effective '', and said that Joyce "especially shone ''.
Stephen Thomas Erlewine, senior editor for Allmusic, said "Hand in Glove '' 's lyrics contain "veiled references to homosexuality ''.
Morrissey had specific instructions on how he wanted the "Hand in Glove '' single to be packaged. He told Rough Trade 's art department that the single should have a paper label centre with four vents encircling the middle, in homage to singles from the 1960s. The cover to the single features a photograph of George O'Mara by Jim French, taken from Margaret Walters ' history The Nude Male. The sleeve 's homoerotic undertones elicited the reaction Morrissey was hoping for of unease and outrage. Rourke said when he showed the recording to his parents his father was "mortified. He said to me, ' that 's a bloke 's bum ' and I said, ' yeah ' but when he asked me why I just did n't have an answer for him ''.
Both songs written by Morrissey and Johnny Marr.
British 7 ": KISS MY SHADES / KISS MY SHADES TOO
"Kiss my shades '' is a lyric from the title track.
Despite having established themselves as a group, Morrissey and Marr still harboured ambitions that they would be recognised as songwriters by having their songs covered by others. Their top choice was singer Sandie Shaw, who had scored several hits throughout the 1960s and was one of the most prominent British vocalists of her era. In the summer of 1983, Marr and Morrissey began asking Shaw to cover their song "I Do n't Owe You Anything '', which they had conceived with her in mind to perform. The pair sent Shaw various letters coupled with song demos. Shaw was sceptical at first; she was discouraged by the negative media attention that accompanied the Smiths song "Reel Around the Fountain '', and when she received a copy of "Hand in Glove '' in the mail, she reportedly exclaimed to her husband "he 's started sending me pictures of naked men with their bums showing! ''
Shaw was eventually won over by the intervention of Geoff Travis and by Morrissey 's praise of her in the press. In January 1984, NME announced that Shaw and the Smiths would release a collaborative recording of "I Do n't Owe You Anything '' as a single on Rough Trade. In February, Shaw and the Smiths journeyed to Matrix Studios in London, where Shaw recorded three Smiths songs with Marr, Joyce and Rourke. The version of "Hand in Glove '' recorded at Matrix was performed in the key of D minor, while Marr placed the intro riff 's accent on a major scale and Shaw altered some lyrics. Shaw ended up selecting their recording of "Hand in Glove '' as the single 's A-side, placing "I Do n't Owe You Anything '' as the B - side. The cover features a still of Rita Tushingham from the movie A Taste of Honey, an adaptation of the play of the same name that was written by Shelagh Delaney, who appeared on the covers of the single "Girlfriend In a Coma '' and the compilation album Louder Than Bombs.
Released as a single in April 1984 solely under Shaw 's name, the recording became Shaw 's first hit in a decade when it reached number 27 on the UK Singles Chart. Marr, Rourke and Joyce backed Shaw on two mimed television performances of the song, first on Channel 4 's Earsay in March 1984, and then on Top of the Pops on 26 April, where the band appeared barefoot in homage to the singer, who did so often in the 1960s.
British 7 ": KISS MY SHADES / JM
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once upon a time in mumbai which film tag line | Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai - Wikipedia
Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai is a 2010 Indian gangster film written by Rajat Arora, directed by Milan Luthria and produced by Ekta Kapoor. It stars Ajay Devgn, Emraan Hashmi, Kangana Ranaut, Prachi Desai and Randeep Hooda. The film is produced under Balaji Motion Pictures and released on 30 July 2010. Once Upon A Time in Mumbaai received generally positive reviews from critics and was a box office success.
Its sequel, Once Upon ay Time in Mumbai Dobaara! was released on 15 August 2013. It featured Akshay Kumar replacing Hashmi from the first film alongside Imran Khan. The filming for the sequel began in August 2012 apparently in Qatar. The sequel received negative reviews from both critics and audiences and performed poorly at the box office.
The film opens with a suicide attempt by Additional Commissioner of Police (ACP) Agnel Wilson (Randeep Hooda) on the pretext of the Bombay Bombings in 1993. When questioned by his superior over his actions, he breaks down and claims that the recent tragic events are his own fault. Wilson recounts that 18 years ago, when he was posted as the ACP in the Mumbai crime branch, his inability to take the necessary action led to the rise of Shoaib Khan (Emraan Hashmi) a dreaded gangster, who played a central role in the bombings. Throughout the film, Wilson narrates the story of 1970s Bombay, when it was ruled by a kind hearted smuggler Sultan Mirza (Ajay Devgn), and how Mirza 's eventual downfall led to Shoaib 's rise to power.
After being hit by a flood in his hometown in Madras, a young Mirza arrives in Mumbai, where he lands a job as a coal shoveller. In spite of his meager earnings, the boy never fails to help the poor and needy, which soon gains their respect and admiration. Mirza is given the nickname of "Sultan. ''
As a grown man, Sultan Mirza becomes the kingpin of Mumbai 's smuggling underworld. Through his influence, Mirza peacefully divides the city among four gangsters, thus thwarting police efforts to curb illegal activities. Despite being a criminal, Sultan Mirza is portrayed as a man of principle with a heart of gold and a godfather - like figure to the people. He even refrains from smuggling contraband, as it is against his Muslim faith.
Mirza has a crush on Bollywood actress Rehana (Kangana Ranaut) and eventually the two begin dating. Sultan invests black money in her upcoming films. ACP Wilson moves to stop Rehana 's films funded by Sultan. Later, Sultan and Rehana frame Wilson to make it look as if Wilson is accepting a bribe, which damages his credibility.
Meanwhile, Shoaib is even in childhood a very ambitious person with a dark and daring character. He is frequently involved in petty theft. His father, Hussain Khan (Asif Basra), who is a sub-inspector with the Bombay Police, tries in vain to guide and control his son, his anger against Shoaib began years ago when Shoaib and his best friend Javed were stealing money and got caught red handed by a man, by teaching his son a lesson, Khan slaps him 5 times. Khan locks Shoaib in jail but Shoaib angers him as both Shoaib and Wilson make a deal saying that Shoaib wants to follow another path. Worried, the father turns to Sultan for help. Sultan agrees and helps the young man set up an electronics shop. But Shoaib is unsatisfied, as his only real ambition is to become rich and powerful, like Sultan Mirza who is his idol.
Shoaib 's beautiful girlfriend, Mumtaz (Prachi Desai), works in a local jewellery shop, which Shoaib visits often, to the aggravation of the girl 's boss. Shoaib gives her a beautiful necklace, which, unbeknownst to Mumtaz, Shoaib had stolen from a lady during a home robbery. Later, that lady comes to the shop with her husband to buy more jewellery. The lady soon recognises her own necklace being worn by Mumtaz; she then admits to the outraged customer that her boyfriend had given the item to her. The lady and her husband demand she take them to her boyfriend 's shop, where they confront him. This enrages Shoaib, who beats up the husband and destroys his own shop.
Shoaib goes to Sultan and asks to be a part of his crime ring. Seeing his potential, Sultan agrees to take him under his wing. Shoaib learns the tricks of the trade and soon becomes Sultan 's trusted aide. ACP Wilson hatches a plan to use Shoaib 's reckless ambition for quick money and power as a way to cause the downfall of Sultan. Wilson even refrains from killing Sultan and Shoaib when he has the opportunity. Wilson 's plan backfires, however. Finally, when Shoaib becomes invincible, Wilson blames himself for the subsequent catastrophe as he now can not stop Shoaib 's rise to power.
Sultan decides to hand over his power to Shoaib, and opts to enter state politics. He travels to Delhi to meet the Home Minister of India. Shoaib 's unscrupulous ambitions lead him to carry out trades and acts which Sultan himself would strongly condemn and abhors. Shoaib starts manufacturing illicit liquor, accepts contract killings, invests in drug peddling and runs extortion rackets. When Sultan returns to Bombay, he learns of Shoaib 's misdeeds and is outraged. He finds Shoaib at a party and slaps him in public for his unethical activities and states he can never really be like Sultan. This infuriates Shoaib and he plots revenge as he now knows that Sultan and he can not possibly rule Mumbai together due to Mirza 's strong principals and moral ethos. The next day, as Sultan campaigns for his new party, Shoaib appears and assassinates Sultan Mirza whilst he is addressing the people at the rally as a horrified Wilson looks on, thus ending the reign of the smuggler who was loved by his people.
In his narration, Wilson laments that he and the police are responsible for the bombings because of their lack of forethought, Wilson also says that Shoaib now rules Mumbai despite living abroad and the people are now forever at his mercy -- as Mumbai 's new underworld kingpin -- he has since established a global smuggling empire. No government or force can reach him now.
The film was made on a budget of ₹ 38 crore (₹ 28 crore for production and ₹ 10 crore for publicity and advertising).
The film depicts the growth of the Mumbai underworld, from crime and smuggling in its early stages to its connection with international terrorism in recent times. It is believed to be based on the lives of real - life gangsters Haji Mastan and Dawood Ibrahim, portrayed by the characters Sultan and Shoaib, respectively. Originally Sanjay Dutt was chosen to play the role of Haji Mastan but the role went to Ajay Devgn instead.
Rajeev Masand of CNN - IBN rated the film 2.5 out of 5 saying, "The film is watchable and enjoyable in parts even, but it does n't quite pull off the retro chic tone it was going for ''. IANS rated the movie 3.5 out of 5 saying, "Rajat Arora 's dialogues flow from the storytelling in a smooth flow of poetry and street wisdom. '' Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave it 4 / 5 and called it "An outstanding Cinematic experience ''. Nikhat Kazmi of the Times of India gave it 4 / 5 and stated, "Once Upon A Time in Mumbaai offers you both substance and soul, even as it dabbles with a slice of reality ''. Rediff gave it 4 / 5 and said, "Book your tickets now ''.
Once Upon A Time in Mumbaai managed to have a decent weekend despite starting slowly. The film picked up from Friday evening and managed to have good Saturday and Sunday collections. The approximate breakdowns are 5.50 crore (Friday), 7 crore (Saturday) and 7.75 crore (Sunday) for a 20.25 crore weekend. The film grossed Rs. 58.50 crore in India at the end of its ninth week. Once Upon A Time in Mumbaai was declared a "super-hit '' by Box Office India.
In its opening weekend the film showed a day-wise growth in U.K. (Friday £ 15,755, Saturday £ 19,381 and Sunday £ 19,644) and a decent start in U.S. (approx. $1, 37,000 at 32 venues). In its second weekend, the film collected £ 16,249 on 14 screens, with the per screen average working out to £ 1,161. Total: £ 1, 07,988 at U.K boxoffice. In its third weekend, the film collected £ 5,909 on 8 screens, with the per screen average working out to £ 739 (total: £ 1, 22,257 in U.K.) In its fourth weekend in U.K, the film collected £ 743 on four screens, with the per screen average working out to £ 186 (total: £ 1, 26,696). In its fifth weekend in the U.K, the film collected £ 105 on two screens, with the per screen average working out to £ 53 (total: £ 1, 27,338). In its fifth weekend at the U.S. boxoffice, the film collected $1,131 on two screens, with the per screen average working out to $566 (total: $3, 02,862).
The film received many awards at several award functions. Ajay Devgn and Prachi Desai received accolades for their nominations, while other awards were won for the film 's music, playback and technical direction.
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The films songs were released on 28 June 2010. There were a total of 14 songs composed by Pritam with lyrics penned by Irshad Kamil, Neelesh Misra and Amitabh Bhattacharya.
The film score was composed by Sandeep Shirodkar.
The song "Parda '' is a medley containing samples from the following 1970 's Bollywood songs; "Duniya Mein Logon Ko '' (Apna Desh), "Piya Tu Ab To Aaja '' (Caravan).
Due to the film 's commercial and critical success, a sequel was planned. Akshay Kumar and Imran Khan were roped in as the male leads. The sequel, Once Upon Ay Time in Mumbai Dobaara!, features Sonakshi Sinha playing the role of actress Mandakini, whilst Sonali Bendre was also roped in for a role. The film started shooting in August 2012, whilst the film released on 15 August 2013, thus avoids clashing with Rohit Shetty directorial Chennai Express, starring Shah Rukh Khan and Deepika Padukone, which released one week before the release of OUATIMD. The film was a flop at the box office as it had very slow opening with very low occupancy while Chennai Express was breaking various box office records throughout its release.
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if i start uni in 2017 when will i graduate | Tuition fees in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
Tuition fees were first introduced across the entire United Kingdom in September 1998 under the Labour government as a means of funding tuition to undergraduate and postgraduate certificate students at universities, with students being required to pay up to £ 1,000 a year for tuition. However, as a result of the establishment of devolved national administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, different arrangements now exist with regard to the charging of tuition fees in each of the countries of the United Kingdom.
In May 1996, Gillian Shephard, Secretary of State for Education and Employment, commissioned an inquiry, led by the then Chancellor of the University of Nottingham, Sir Ron Dearing, into the funding of British higher education over the next 20 years. This National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education reported to the new Labour Government, in the summer of 1997, stating additional billions of funding would be needed over the period, including £ 350 million in 1998 - 9 and £ 565 million in 1999 - 2000, in order to expand student enrolment, provide more support for part - time students and ensure an adequate infrastructure. The committee, as part of its brief, had controversially investigated the possibility of students contributing to the cost of this expansion, either through loans, a graduate tax, deferred contributions or means testing state assistance, as their report notes:
20.40 We do not underestimate the strength of feeling on the issue of seeking a contribution towards tuition costs: nor do we dispute the logic of the arguments put forward. A detailed assessment of the issues has, however, convinced us that the arguments in favour of a contribution to tuition costs from graduates in work are strong, if not widely appreciated. They relate to equity between social groups, broadening participation, equity with part - time students in higher education and in further education, strengthening the student role in higher education, and identifying a new source of income that can be ring - fenced for higher education.
20.41 We have, therefore, analysed the implications of a range of options against the criteria set out in paragraph 20.2. There is a wide array of options from which to choose, ranging from asking graduates to contribute only to their living costs through to asking all graduates to contribute to their tuition costs. We have chosen to examine four options in depth
In response to the findings, the Teaching and Higher Education Act 1998 was published on 26 November 1997, and enacted on 16 July 1998, part of which introduced tuition fees in all the countries of the United Kingdom. The act introduced a means - tested method of payment for students based on the amount of money their families earned. Starting with 1999 - 2000, maintenance grants for living expenses would also be replaced with loans and paid back at a rate of 9 percent of a graduate 's income above £ 10,000.
Following devolution in 1999, the newly devolved governments in Scotland and Wales brought in their own acts on tuition fees. The Scottish Parliament established, and later abolished a graduate endowment to replace the fees. Wales introduced maintenance grants of up to £ 1,500 in 2002, a value which has since risen to over £ 5000.
In England, tuition fee caps rose with the Higher Education Act 2004. Under the Act, universities in England could begin to charge variable fees of up to £ 3000 a year for students enrolling on courses as from the academic year of 2006 - 07 or later. This was also introduced in Northern Ireland in 2006 - 07 and introduced in Wales in 2007 - 08. In 2009 - 10 the cap rose to £ 3225 a year to take account of inflation. Following the Browne Review in 2010, the cap was controversially raised to £ 9,000 a year, sparking large student protests in London. A judicidal review against the raised fees failed in 2012, and so the new fee system came into use that September.
Students pay interest on loans. In 2012 this rate was set at the retail price index (RPI) plus 3 %. Students who started university between 1998 and 2011 pay Bank of England base rate plus 1 %. Students who started university before 1998 pay interest set at the RPI rate. As a consequence of the 2012 change, students who graduate in 2017 will pay 6.1 % interest, despite the Bank of England base rate being 0.25 %.
Further adjustments were put forth in the 2015 budget, with a proposed fee increase in line with inflation from the 2017 - 18 academic year onwards, and the planned scrapping of maintenance grants from September 2016. The changes were debated by the Third Delegated Legislation Committee in January 2016, rather than in the Commons. The lack of a vote on the matter has drawn criticism, as by circumventing the Commons the measures "automatically become law ''. Tuition fees and perceptions about them are directly linked to satisfaction.
In England, tuition fees are capped at £ 9,250 a year for UK and EU students, with around 76 % of all institutions charging the full amount in 2015 - 16. A loan of the same size is available for most universities, although students of private institutions are only eligible for £ 6,000 a year loans.
From 2017 - 18 onwards, the £ 9,000 fee cap will rise with inflation. Maintenance grants are also available to current students in England, although these are scheduled to cease with the 2016 - 17 academic year. Maintenance loans are available for living costs, and these are means tested. These loans are scheduled to increase in size for 2016 - 17, when the maintenance grant system is phased out. There will be a vote in the autumn to consider a further increase effective with the 2017 - 18 year. Several universities have already advertised fees of £ 9,250 for the year in anticipation of such a vote passing.
In the 2015 spending review, the government also proposed a freeze in the repayment threshold for tuition fee loans at £ 21,000; a figure which was previously set to rise with average earnings. The changes, if passed, will affect all Plan 2 tuition fee loans, backdated to cover loans taken out from 2012.
Many commentators suggested that the 2012 rise in tuition fees in England would put poorer students off applying to university. However, the gap between rich and poor students has slightly narrowed (from 30.5 % in 2010 to 29.8 % in 2013) since the introduction of the higher fees. This may be because universities have used tuition fees to invest in bursaries and outreach schemes. In 2016, The Guardian noted that the number of disadvantaged students applying to university had increased by 72 % from 2006 to 2015, a bigger rise than in Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. It wrote that most of the gap between richer and poorer students tends to open up between Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 4 (i.e. at secondary school), rather than when applying for university, and so the money raised from tuition fees should be spent there instead.
Research by the National Bureau of Economic Research found that the introduction of tuition fees had "increased funding per head, rising enrolments, and a narrowing of the participation gap between advantaged and disadvantaged students. ''
Tuition fees are currently capped at £ 3,805 in Northern Ireland, with loans of the same size available from Student Finance NI. Loan repayments are made when income rises above £ 17,335 a year, with graduates paying back a percentage of their earnings above this threshold.
Tuition is handled by the Student Awards Agency Scotland (SAAS), which does not charge fees to what it defines as "Young Students ''. Young Students are defined as those under 25, without children, marriage, civil partnership or cohabiting partner, who have not been outside of full - time education for more than three years. Fees exist for those outside the young student definition, typically from £ 1,200 to £ 1,800 for undergraduate courses, dependent on year of application and type of qualification. Postgraduate fees can be up to £ 3,400.
The system has been in place since 2007 when graduate endowments were abolished. Labour 's education spokesperson Rhona Brankin criticised the Scottish system for failing to address student poverty. Scotland has fewer disadvantaged students than England, Wales or Northern Ireland and disadvantaged students receive around £ 560 a year less in financial support than their counterparts in England do.
Like their English counterparts, Welsh universities are able to charge up to £ 9,000 a year in tuition fees. However, Welsh students can apply for fee grants of up to £ 5,190, in addition to a £ 3,810 loan to cover these costs. This system also applies to Welsh students who study elsewhere in the United Kingdom.
There have been two main proposed alternative ways of funding university studies: from general taxation or by a graduate tax.
Tuition is paid for by general taxation in Germany, although only 27 % of young people gain higher education qualification there, whereas in the UK the comparable figure is 48 %. Fully or partly funding universities from general taxation has been criticised by the Liberal Democrat party as a ' tax cut for the rich and a tax rise for the poor ' because people would be taxed to pay for something that many would not derive a benefit from, while graduates generally earn more due to their qualifications and only have to pay them back.
Jeremy Corbyn, current Labour leader, has stated that he would remove tuition fees and instead fund higher education by increasing National Insurance and Corporation Tax. In the long term this would cost the government about £ 8 billion a year.
In July 2017 Lord Adonis, former Number 10 Policy Unit staffer and education minister largely responsible for introducing tuition fees, said that the system had become a "Frankenstein 's monster '' putting many students over £ 50,000 in debt. He argued the system should either be scrapped or fees reverted to between £ 1,000 and £ 3,000 per the initial scheme.
During the 2015 Labour leadership election, Andy Burnham said that he would introduce a graduate tax to replace fees. He was ultimately unsuccessful in his bid for leadership. A graduate tax has been criticised because there would be no way to recover the money from students who move to a different country, or foreign students who return home.
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where did the industrial revolution begin a. michigan b. new york city c. great britain d. france | Hudson River - wikipedia
The Hudson River is a 315 - mile (507 km) river that flows from north to south primarily through eastern New York in the United States. The river originates in the Adirondack Mountains of Upstate New York, flows through the Hudson Valley, and eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean, between New York City and Jersey City. The river serves as a political boundary between the states of New Jersey and New York, and further north between New York counties. The lower half of the river is a tidal estuary occupying the Hudson Fjord, which formed during the most recent period of North American glaciation, estimated at 26,000 to 13,300 years ago. Tidal waters influence the Hudson 's flow from as far north as Troy.
The river is named after Henry Hudson, an Englishman sailing for the Dutch East India Company, who explored it in 1609, and after whom Canada 's Hudson Bay is also named. It had previously been observed by Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano sailing for King Francis I of France in 1524, as he became the first European known to have entered the Upper New York Bay, but he considered the river to be an estuary. The Dutch called the river the North River -- with the Delaware River called the South River -- and it formed the spine of the Dutch colony of New Netherland. Settlements of the colony clustered around the Hudson, and its strategic importance as the gateway to the American interior led to years of competition between the English and the Dutch over control of the river and colony.
During the eighteenth century, the river valley and its inhabitants were the subject and inspiration of Washington Irving, the first internationally acclaimed American author. In the nineteenth century, the area inspired the Hudson River School of landscape painting, an American pastoral style, as well as the concepts of environmentalism and wilderness. The Hudson was also the eastern outlet for the Erie Canal, which, when completed in 1825, became an important transportation artery for the early - 19th - century United States.
The source of the Hudson River is Lake Tear of the Clouds in the Adirondack Park at an altitude of 4,322 feet (1,317 m). The river is not cartographically called the Hudson River until miles downstream. The river is named Feldspar Brook until its confluence with Calamity Brook, and then is named Calamity Brook until the river reaches Indian Pass Brook, flowing south from the outlet of Henderson Lake. From that point on, the stream is cartographically known as the Hudson River.
Although numerous sources show the river originating directly at Henderson Lake, per the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the river cartographically begins at the confluence of Indian Pass Brook and Calamity Brook near the outlet of Henderson Lake in Newcomb, in the Adirondack Park.
The longest source of the Hudson River as shown on the most detailed USGS maps is the "Opalescent River '' on the west slopes of Little Marcy Mountain, originating two miles north of Lake Tear of the Clouds, and a mile longer than "Feldspar Brook '', which flows out of that lake in the Adirondack Mountains. Popular culture and convention, however, more often cite the photogenic Lake Tear of the Clouds as the source.
South of the confluence of Indian Pass Brook and Calamity Brook, the Hudson River flows south into Sanford Lake. South of the outlet of the lake, the Opalescent River flows into the Hudson. The Hudson then flows south, taking in Beaver Brook and the outlet of Lake Harris. After its confluence with the Indian River, the Hudson forms the boundary between Essex and Hamilton counties. In the hamlet of North River, the Hudson flows entirely in Warren County and takes in the Schroon River. Further south, the river forms the boundary between Warren and Saratoga Counties. The river then takes in the Sacandaga River from the Great Sacandaga Lake. Shortly thereafter, the river leaves the Adirondack Park, flows under Interstate 87, and through Glens Falls, just south of Lake George although receiving no streamflow from the lake. It next goes through Hudson Falls. At this point the river forms the boundary between Washington and Saratoga Counties. At this point the river has an altitude of 200 feet. Just south in Fort Edward, the river reaches its confluence with the Champlain Canal, which historically provided boat traffic between New York City and Montreal and the rest of Eastern Canada via the Hudson, Lake Champlain and the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Further south the Hudson takes in water from the Batten Kill River and Fish Creek near Schuylerville. The river then forms the boundary between Saratoga and Rensselaer counties. The river then enters the heart of the Capital District. It takes in water from the Hoosic River, which extends into Massachusetts. Shortly thereafter the river has its confluence with the Mohawk River, the largest tributary of the Hudson River, in Waterford. Shortly thereafter, the river reaches the Federal Dam in Troy, marking an impoundment of the river. At an elevation of 2 feet (0.61 m), the bottom of the dam marks the beginning of the tidal influence in the Hudson as well as the beginning of the lower Hudson River.
South of the Federal Dam, the Hudson River begins to widen considerably. The river enters the Hudson Valley, flowing along the west bank of Albany and the east bank of Rensselaer. Interstate 90 crosses the Hudson into Albany at this point in the river. The Hudson then leaves the Capital District, forming the boundary between Greene and Columbia Counties. It then meets its confluence with Schodack Creek, widening considerably at this point. After flowing by Hudson, the river then forms the boundary between Ulster and Columbia Counties and Ulster and Dutchess Counties, passing Germantown and Kingston. The Delaware and Hudson Canal meets the river at this point. The river then flows by Hyde Park, former residence of Franklin D. Roosevelt, and alongside the city of Poughkeepsie, flowing under the Walkway over the Hudson and the Mid-Hudson Bridge. Afterwards, the Hudson passes Wappingers Falls and takes in Wappinger Creek. The river then forms the boundary between Orange and Dutchess Counties. It flows between Newburgh and Beacon and under the Newburgh Beacon Bridge, taking in the Fishkill Creek. Shortly thereafter, the river enters the Hudson Highlands between Putnam and Orange Counties, flowing between mountains such as Storm King Mountain, Breakneck Ridge, and Bear Mountain. The river narrows considerably here before flowing under the Bear Mountain Bridge, which connects Westchester and Rockland Counties.
Afterward, leaving the Hudson Highlands, the river enters Haverstraw Bay, the widest point of the river at 3.5 miles (5.6 km) wide. Shortly thereafter, the river forms the Tappan Zee and flows under the Tappan Zee Bridge, which carries the New York State Thruway between Tarrytown and Nyack in Westchester and Rockland Counties respectively. South of the Tappan Zee Bridge, the west bank of the Hudson becomes Bergen and Hudson Counties of New Jersey, and further south the east bank of the river becomes Yonkers and then the Riverdale neighborhood of the Bronx in New York City. The Palisades, large, rocky cliffs along the west bank of the river, begin along the west bank of the river opposite the Bronx. South of the confluence of the Hudson and Spuyten Duyvil Creek, the east bank of the river becomes Manhattan. The river is sometimes still called the North River at this point. The George Washington Bridge crosses the river between Fort Lee and the Washington Heights neighborhood of Manhattan. The Lincoln Tunnel and the Holland Tunnel also cross under the river between Manhattan and New Jersey. South of the Battery, the river proper ends, meeting the East River to form Upper New York Bay, also known as New York Harbor. Its outflow continues through The Narrows between Brooklyn and Staten Island, under the Verrazano Bridge, and into Lower New York Bay and the Atlantic Ocean.
The lower Hudson is actually a tidal estuary, with tidal influence extending as far as the Federal Dam in Troy. Strong tides make parts of New York Harbor difficult and dangerous to navigate. During the winter, ice floes may drift south or north, depending upon the tides. The Mahican name of the river represents its partially estuarine nature: muh - he - kun - ne - tuk means "the river that flows both ways. '' The Hudson is often mistaken for one of the largest rivers in the United States, but it is an estuary throughout most of its length below Troy and thus only a small fraction of fresh water, about 15,000 cubic feet (425 m3) per second, is present. The mean fresh water discharge at the river 's mouth in New York is approximately 21,400 cubic feet (606 m3) per second. The Hudson and its tributaries, notably the Mohawk River, drain a large area. Parts of the Hudson River form coves, such as Weehawken Cove in the towns of Hoboken and Weehawken in New Jersey.
The Hudson is sometimes called, in geological terms, a drowned river. The rising sea levels after the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation, the most recent ice age, have resulted in a marine incursion that drowned the coastal plain and brought salt water well above the mouth of the river. The deeply eroded old riverbed beyond the current shoreline, Hudson Canyon, is a rich fishing area. The former riverbed is clearly delineated beneath the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, extending to the edge of the continental shelf.
The Narrows were most likely formed about 6,000 years ago at the end of the last ice age. Previously, Staten Island and Long Island were connected, preventing the Hudson River from terminating via The Narrows. At that time, the Hudson River emptied into the Atlantic Ocean through a more westerly course through parts of present - day northern New Jersey, along the eastern side of the Watchung Mountains to Bound Brook, New Jersey and then on into the Atlantic Ocean via Raritan Bay. A buildup of water in the Upper New York Bay eventually allowed the Hudson River to break through previous land mass that was connecting Staten Island and Brooklyn to form The Narrows as it exists today. This allowed the Hudson River to find a shorter route to the Atlantic Ocean via its present course between New Jersey and New York City.
The river was called Ca - ho - ha - ta - te - a ("the river '') by the Iroquois, and it was known as Muh - he - kun - ne - tuk ("river that flows two ways '') by the Mohican tribe who formerly inhabited both banks of the lower portion of the river. The Delaware Tribe of Indians (Bartlesville, Oklahoma) considers the closely related Mohicans to be a part of the Lenape people, and so the Lenape also claim the Hudson as part of their ancestral territory, naming the river Muhheakantuck ("river that flows two ways '').
The first known European name for the river was the Rio San Antonio as named by the Portuguese explorer in Spain 's employ, Estêvão Gomes, who explored the Mid-Atlantic coast in 1525. Another early name for the Hudson used by the Dutch was Rio de Montaigne. Later, they generally termed it the Noortrivier, or "North River '', the Delaware River being known as the Zuidrivier, or "South River ''. Other occasional names for the Hudson included: Manhattes rieviere "Manhattan River '', Groote Rivier "Great River '', and de grootte Mouritse reviere, or "the Great Mouritse River '' (Mouritse is a Dutch surname). The translated name North River was used in the New York metropolitan area up until the early 1900s, with limited use continuing into the present - day. The term persists in radio communication among commercial shipping traffic, especially below the Tappan Zee. The term also continues to be used in names of facilities in the river 's southern portion, such as the North River piers, North River Tunnels, and the North River Wastewater Treatment Plant. It is believed that the first use of the name Hudson River in a map was in a 1740, in a map created by the cartographer John Carwitham.
In 1939, the magazine Life described the river as "America 's Rhine '', comparing it to the 40 - mile (64 km) stretch of the Rhine in Central and Western Europe.
The area around Hudson River was inhabited by indigenous peoples ages before Europeans arrived. The Lenape, Wappinger, and Mahican branches of the Algonquins lived along the river, mostly in peace with the other groups. The Algonquins in the region mainly lived in small clans and villages throughout the area. One major settlement was called Navish, which was located at Croton Point, overlooking the Hudson River. Other settlements were located in various locations throughout the Hudson Highlands. Many villagers lived in various types of houses, which the Algonquins called wigwams, though large families often lived in longhouses that could be a hundred feet long. At the associated villages, they grew corn, beans, and squash. They also gathered other types of plant foods, such as hickory nuts and many other wild fruits and tubers. In addition to agriculture, the Algonquins also fished in the Hudson River, focusing on various species of freshwater fish, as well as various variations of striped bass, American eels, sturgeon, herring, and shad. Oyster beds were also common on the river floor, which provided an extra source of nutrition. Land hunting consisted of turkey, deer, bear, and other animals.
The lower Hudson River was inhabited by the Lenape, while further north, the Wappingers lived from Manhattan Island up to Poughkeepsie. They traded with both the Lenape to the south and the Mahicans to the north. The Mahicans lived in the northern part of the valley from present - day Kingston to Lake Champlain, with their capital located near present - day Albany.
John Cabot is credited for the Old World 's discovery of continental North America, with his journey in 1497 along the continent 's coast. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano sailed north along the Atlantic seaboard and into New York Harbor, however he left the harbor shortly thereafter, without navigating into the Hudson River. In 1598, Dutch men employed by the Greenland Company wintered in New York Bay. Eleven years later, the Dutch East India Company financed English navigator Henry Hudson in his search for the Northwest Passage. During the search, Hudson decided to sail his ship up the river that would later be named after him. His travel up the ever - widening river led him to Haverstraw Bay, leading him to believe he had successfully reached the Northwest Passage. He landed on the western shore the bay and claimed the territory for the Netherlands. He then proceeded upstream as far as present - day Troy before concluding that no such strait existed there.
The Dutch subsequently began to colonize the region, establishing the colony of New Netherland, including three major fur - trading outposts: New Amsterdam, Wiltwyck, and Fort Orange. New Amsterdam was founded at the mouth of the Hudson River, and would later become known as New York City. Wiltwyck was founded roughly halfway up the Hudson River, and would later become Kingston. Fort Orange was founded on the river north of Wiltwyck, and later became known as Albany. The Dutch West India Company operated a monopoly on the region for roughly twenty years before other businessmen were allowed to set up their own ventures in the colony. In 1647, Director - General Peter Stuyvesant took over management of the colony, and surrendered it in 1664 to the British, who had invaded the largely - defenseless New Amsterdam. New Amsterdam and the colony of New Netherland were renamed New York, after the Duke of York.
Under British colonial rule, the Hudson Valley became an agricultural hub. Manors were developed on the east side of the river, and the west side contained many smaller and independent farms. In 1754, the Albany Plan of Union was created at Albany City Hall on the Hudson. The plan allowed the colonies to treaty with the Iroquois and provided a framework for the Continental Congress.
During the American Revolutionary War, the British realized that the river 's proximity to Lake George and Lake Champlain would allow their navy to control the water route from Montreal to New York City. British general John Burgoyne planned the Saratoga campaign, to control the river and therefore cut off the patriot hub of New England (to the river 's east) from the South and Mid-Atlantic regions to the river 's west. The action would allow the British to focus on rallying the support of loyalists in the southerly states. As a result, numerous battles were fought along the river and in nearby waterways. These include the Battle of Long Island, in August 1776 and the Battle of Harlem Heights the following month. Later that year, the British and Continental Armies were involved in skirmishes and battles in rivertowns of the Hudson in Westchester County, culminating in the Battle of White Plains.
Also in late 1776, New England militias fortified the river 's choke point known as the Hudson Highlands, which included building Fort Clinton and Fort Montgomery on either side of the Hudson and a metal chain between the two. In 1777, Washington expected the British would attempt to control the Hudson River, however they instead conquered Philadelphia, and left a smaller force in New York City, with permission to strike the Hudson Valley at any time. The British attacked on October 5, 1777 in the Battle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery by sailing up the Hudson River, looting the village of Peeksill and capturing the two forts. In 1778, the Continentals constructed the Great West Point Chain in order to prevent another British fleet from sailing up the Hudson.
Hudson River School paintings reflect the themes of discovery, exploration, and settlement in America in the 19th century. The detailed and idealized paintings also typically depict a pastoral setting. The works often juxtapose peaceful agriculture and the remaining wilderness, which was fast disappearing from the Hudson Valley just as it was coming to be appreciated for its qualities of ruggedness and sublimity. The school characterizes the artistic body, its New York location, its landscape subject matter, and often its subject, the Hudson River. In general, Hudson River School artists believed that nature in the form of the American landscape was an ineffable manifestation of God, though the artists varied in the depth of their religious conviction. Their reverence for America 's natural beauty was shared with contemporary American writers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson. The artist Thomas Cole is generally acknowledged as the founder of the Hudson River School, while painters Frederic Edwin Church and Albert Bierstadt were the most successful painters of the school.
At the beginning of the 19th century, transportation from the US east coast into the mainland was difficult. Ships were the fastest vehicles at the time, as trains and automobiles were still being developed. In order to facilitate shipping throughout the country 's interior, numerous canals were constructed between internal bodies of water in the 1800s. One of the most significant canals of this era was the Erie Canal, built to link the Midwest to the Port of New York, a significant seaport during that time. The completion of the canal enhanced the development of the American West, allowing settlers to travel west, send goods to markets in frontier cities, and export goods via the Hudson River and New York City. The completion of the canal made New York City one of the most vital ports in the nation, surpassing the Port of Philadelphia and ports in Massachusetts. After the completion of the Erie Canal, smaller canals were built to connect it with the new system. The Champlain Canal was built to connect the Hudson River near Troy to the southern end of Lake Champlain. This canal allowed boaters to travel from the St. Lawrence Seaway, and then British cities such as Montreal to the Hudson River and New York City. Another major canal was the Oswego Canal, which connected the Erie Canal to Oswego and Lake Ontario, and could be used to bypass Niagara Falls. The Cayuga - Seneca Canal connected the Erie Canal to Cayuga Lake and Seneca Lake. Farther south, the Delaware and Hudson Canal was built between the Delaware River at Honesdale, Pennsylvania, and the Hudson River at Kingston, New York. This canal enabled the transportation of coal, and later other goods as well, between the Delaware and Hudson River watersheds. The combination of these canals made the Hudson River one of the most vital waterways for trade in the nation.
During the Industrial Revolution, the Hudson River became a major location for production, especially around Albany and Troy. The river allowed for fast and easy transport of goods from the interior of the Northeast to the coast. Hundreds of factories were built around the Hudson, in towns including Poughkeepise, Newburgh, Kingston, and Hudson. The North Tarrytown Assembly (later owned by General Motors), on the river in Sleepy Hollow, was a large and notable example. The River links to the Erie Canal and Great Lakes, allowing manufacturing in the Midwest, including automobiles in Detroit, to use the river for transport. With industrialization came new technologies for transport, including steamboats for faster transport. In 1807, the North River Steamboat (later known as Clermont), became the first commercially successful steamboat. It carried passengers between New York City and Albany along the Hudson River.
The Hudson River valley also proved to be a good area for railroads. The Hudson River Railroad was established in 1849 on the east side of the river as a way to bring passengers from New York City to Albany. The line was built as an alternative to the New York and Harlem Railroad for travel to Albany, and as a way to ease the concerns of cities along the river. The railroad was also used for commuting to New York City. Further north, the Livingston Avenue Bridge was opened in 1866 as a way to connect the Hudson River Railroad with the New York Central Railroad, which goes west to Buffalo. Smaller railroads existed north of this point. On the west side of the Hudson River, the West Shore Railroad opened to run passenger service from Weehawken, New Jersey to Albany, and then Buffalo. In 1889, the Poughkeepsie Railroad Bridge opened for rail service between Poughkeepsie and the west side of the river.
Starting in the 20th century, the technological requirements needed to build large crossings across the river were met. This was especially important by New York City, as the river is fairly wide at that point. In 1927, the Holland Tunnel opened between New Jersey and Lower Manhattan. The tunnel was the longest underwater tunnel in the world at the time, and used an advanced system to ventilate the tunnels and prevent the build - up of carbon monoxide. The original upper level of the George Washington Bridge and the Lincoln Tunnel followed in the 1930s. In 1955, the original Tappan Zee Bridge was built over one of the widest parts of the river, from Tarrytown to Nyack.
The late 20th century saw a decline in industrial production in the Hudson Valley. In 1993, IBM closed two of its plants in East Fishkill and Kingston due to IBM losing $16 billion over the previous three years. The plant in East Fishkill had 16,300 workers at its peak in 1984, and had opened in 1941 originally as part of the war effort. In 1996, the North Tarrytown GM Plant closed. In response to the plant closures, towns throughout the region sought to make the region attractive for technology companies. IBM maintained a Poughkeepsie mainframe unit, and newer housing and office developments were built near there as well. Commuting from Poughkeepsie to New York City also increased. Developers also looked to build on the property of the old GM plant.
Around the time of the last factories ' closing, environmental efforts to clean up the river progressed. For example, GE participated in cleanup efforts to remove PCBs from the site of its old factory in Hudson Falls. The cleanup is part of an EPA Superfund site, and consists of dredging a 40 mile stretch of the river the Troy Dam to Fort Edward in order to remove the probable carcinogen from the ecosystem. Other conservation efforts also occurred, such as when Christopher Swain became the first person to swim all 315 miles of the Hudson River in support of cleaning it up.
In conjunction with conservation efforts, the Hudson River region has seen an economic revitalization, especially in favor of green development. In 2009, the High Line was opened in the Chelsea neighborhood of Manhattan. This linear park has views of the river throughout its length. Also in 2009, the original Poughkeepsie railroad bridge, since abandoned, was converted into the Walkway Over the Hudson, a pedestrian park over the river. Emblematic of the increase in green development in the region, waterfront parks in cities like Kingston, Poughkeepsie, and Beacon were built, and several festivals are held annually.
Numerous landmarks have been constructed along the Hudson. Following the river from its source to mouth, there is the Hudson River Islands State Park in Greene and Columbia counties, and in Dutchess County, there is Bard College, Staatsburgh, the Vanderbilt Mansion National Historic Site, Franklin D. Roosevelt 's home and presidential library, and the main campus of the Culinary Institute of America, Marist College, the Walkway over the Hudson, Bannerman 's Castle, and Hudson Highlands State Park. South of that in Orange County is the United States Military Academy. In Westchester lies Indian Point Energy Center, Croton Point Park, and Sing Sing Correctional Facility. In New Jersey is Stevens Institute of Technology. In Manhattan is Fort Tryon Park with The Cloisters, the World Trade Center, and Liberty State Park. Ellis Island is located just south of the river 's mouth in New York Harbor. The Statue of Liberty, located on Liberty Island, is located a bit further south of there.
A 30 - mile (48 km) stretch on the east bank of the Hudson has been designated the Hudson River Historic District, a National Historic Landmark. The Palisades Interstate Park Commission protects the Palisades on the west bank of the river. The Hudson River was designated as an American Heritage River in 1997. The Hudson River estuary system is part of the National Estuarine Research Reserve System as the Hudson River National Estuarine Research Reserve.
The Hudson River is navigable for a great distance above mile 0 (at 40 ° 42.1'N., 74 ° 01.5'W.) off Battery Park. The original Erie Canal, opened in 1825 to connect the Hudson with Lake Erie, emptied into the Hudson at the Albany Basin, just 3 miles (4.8 km) south of the Federal Dam in Troy (at mile 134). The canal enabled shipping between cities on the Great Lakes and Europe via the Atlantic Ocean. The New York State Canal System, the successor to the Erie Canal, runs into the Hudson River north of Troy. It also uses the Federal Dam as a lock.
Along the east side of the river runs the Metro - North Railroad 's Hudson Line, from Manhattan to Poughkeepsie. The tracks continue north of Poughkeepsie as Amtrak trains run further north to Albany. On the west side of the river, CSX Transportation operates a freight rail line between North Bergen Yard in North Bergen, New Jersey and Selkirk Yard in Selkirk, New York.
The Hudson is crossed at numerous points by bridges, tunnels, and ferries. The width of the Lower Hudson River required major feats of engineering to cross, the results today visible in the George Washington Bridge and the Tappan Zee Bridge (soon to be replaced by the New Tappan Zee Bridge) as well as the Lincoln and Holland Tunnels and the PATH and Pennsylvania Railroad tubes. The George Washington Bridge, which carries multiple highways, connects Fort Lee, New Jersey to the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, and is the world 's busiest motor vehicle bridge. The Tappan Zee Bridge is the longest bridge in New York, although the Verrazano - Narrows Bridge has a larger main span. The Troy Union Bridge between Waterford and Troy was the first bridge over the Hudson; built in 1804 and destroyed in 1909; its replacement, the Troy -- Waterford Bridge, was built in 1909. The Rensselaer and Saratoga Railroad was chartered in 1832 and opened in 1835, including the Green Island Bridge, the second bridge over the Hudson south of the Federal Dam.
The most discussed pollution of the Hudson River is General Electric 's contamination of the river with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) between 1947 and 1977. This pollution caused a range of harmful effects to wildlife and people who ate fish from the river or drank the water. In response to this contamination, activists protested in various ways. Musician Pete Seeger founded the Hudson River Sloop Clearwater and the Clearwater Festival to draw attention to the problem. The activism led to the site being designated as one of the superfund sites. Other kinds of pollution, including mercury contamination and sewage dumping, have caused problems as well.
Other environmental groups targeting the river include Scenic Hudson, Hudson River Foundation, Riverkeeper, Hudson River Environmental Society, Hudson River Watertrail Association, and Groundwork Hudson Valley.
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what are the main products of hawaiian eruptions | Hawaiian eruption - wikipedia
A Hawaiian eruption is a type of volcanic eruption where lava flows from the vent in a relatively gentle, low level eruption; it is so named because it is characteristic of Hawaiian volcanoes. Typically they are effusive eruptions, with basaltic magmas of low viscosity, low content of gases, and high temperature at the vent. Very little amounts of volcanic ash are produced. This type of eruption occurs most often at hotspot volcanoes such as Kīlauea on Hawaii 's big island and in Iceland, though it can occur near subduction zones (e.g. Medicine Lake Volcano in California, United States) and rift zones. Another example of Hawaiian eruptions occurred on the island of Surtsey in Iceland from 1964 to 1967, when molten lava flowed from the crater to the sea.
Hawaiian eruptions may occur along fissure vents, such as during the eruption of Mauna Loa Volcano in 1950, or at a central vent, such as during the 1959 eruption in Kīlauea Iki Crater, which created a lava fountain 580 meters (1,900 ft) high and formed a 38 - meter cone named Pu ʻu Pua ʻi. In fissure - type eruptions, lava spurts from a fissure on the volcano 's rift zone and feeds lava streams that flow downslope. In central - vent eruptions, a fountain of lava can spurt to a height of 300 meters or more (heights of 1600 meters were reported for the 1986 eruption of Mount Mihara on Izu Ōshima, Japan).
Hawaiian eruptions usually start by the formation of a crack in the ground from which a curtain of incandescent magma or several closely spaced magma fountains appear. The lava can overflow the fissure and form ʻaʻā or pāhoehoe style of flows. When such an eruption from a central cone is protracted, it can form lightly sloped shield volcanoes, for example Mauna Loa or Skjaldbreiður in Iceland.
The key factors in generating a Hawaiian eruption are basaltic magma and a low percentage of dissolved water (less than one percent). The lower the water content, the more peaceful is the resulting flow. Almost all lava that comes from Hawaiian volcanoes is basalt in composition. Hawaiian basalts that make up almost all of the islands are tholeiite. These rocks are similar but not identical to those that are produced at ocean ridges. Basalt relatively richer in sodium and potassium (more alkaline) has erupted at the undersea volcano of Lō ʻihi at the extreme southeastern end of the volcanic chain, and these rocks may be typical of early stages in the "evolution '' of all Hawaiian islands. In the late stages of eruption of individual volcanoes, more alkaline basalt also was erupted, and in the very late stages after a period of erosion, rocks of unusual composition such as nephelinite were produced in very small amounts. These variations in magma composition have been investigated in great detail, in part to try to understand how mantle plumes may work.
Hawaiian eruptions are usually the most attractive to tourists and are the safest because there is little danger from ash. However, Hawaiian eruptions are not always safe.
In 1790, 80 warriors marching on Kīlauea were killed in an eruption. On May 18, 1924, a plantation accountant named Truman Taylor who was sightseeing on Kīlauea 's caldera, was hit with debris from an explosion. Although rushed to the hospital, Taylor succumbed to his injuries later that day.
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who plays riggs in lethal weapon tv show | Clayne Crawford - wikipedia
Clayne Crawford (born April 20, 1978) is an American actor. He is best known for portraying the roles of Martin Riggs on the FOX action comedy - drama television series Lethal Weapon, and Teddy Talbot on the critically acclaimed Sundance drama Rectify (2013 - 2016).
Crawford had supporting roles in the films A Walk to Remember (2002) and Swimfan (2002). He also appeared in A Love Song for Bobby Long (2004) and The Great Raid (2005). He also played in some small independent films that were not widely distributed.
Born Joseph "Joey '' Crawford in Clay, Alabama, he is the son of Brian and Lennie Crawford. By high school, he was on the football and wrestling teams, and graduated from Hewitt - Trussville High School.
In 1996 he drove to Los Angeles in order for Crawford to seek work as an actor. He often worked in construction to support himself while appearing in small theaters. In 2000, he changed his name professionally from Joey to Clayne, a combination to honor an ancestor ("Clan '') and his hometown (Clay, Alabama).
He had a recurring role in the first season of Jericho as Mitchell "Mitch '' Cafferty. In 2008 he appeared on Life in the episode "Evil... and His Brother Ziggy. '' Crawford was the protagonist in the 2010 straight - to - DVD prequel to Smokin ' Aces, Smokin ' Aces 2: Assassins ' Ball.
In 2010 he had a recurring role in the eighth season of 24 as ' Kevin Wade, ' a young, mysterious man. He also appeared in the first and second season of the A&E series The Glades.
Crawford played the role of Teddy (Ted Talbot, Jr.) in the first SundanceTV original series, Rectify, which was aired for four seasons from 2013 to 2016. The series, exploring a man who is released from prison after 19 years on death row after DNA evidence appears to support his innocence, also looks at the effects on his family and town. It received critical praise and won a Peabody Award in 2014, also receiving notice for its treatment of issues in criminal justice.
Crawford played the role of Cade LaSalle, older brother to Christopher LaSalle on NCIS: New Orleans.
Crawford portrayed Martin Riggs in the pilot for the Fox Television Lethal Weapon reboot, which was later picked up as a series.
2016 TV Critics ' Choice Awards -- Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Nominated)
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characteristics of a homogeneous chemical system in equilibrium | Chemical equilibrium - wikipedia
In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is the state in which both reactants and products are present in concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time. Usually, this state results when the forward reaction proceeds at the same rate as the reverse reaction. The reaction rates of the forward and backward reactions are generally not zero, but equal. Thus, there are no net changes in the concentrations of the reactant (s) and product (s). Such a state is known as dynamic equilibrium.
The concept of chemical equilibrium was developed after Berthollet (1803) found that some chemical reactions are reversible. For any reaction mixture to exist at equilibrium, the rates of the forward and backward (reverse) reactions are equal. In the following chemical equation with arrows pointing both ways to indicate equilibrium, A and B are reactant chemical species, S and T are product species, and α, β, σ, and τ are the stoichiometric coefficients of the respective reactants and products:
The equilibrium concentration position of a reaction is said to lie "far to the right '' if, at equilibrium, nearly all the reactants are consumed. Conversely the equilibrium position is said to be "far to the left '' if hardly any product is formed from the reactants.
Guldberg and Waage (1865), building on Berthollet 's ideas, proposed the law of mass action:
where A, B, S and T are active masses and k and k are rate constants. Since at equilibrium forward and backward rates are equal:
and the ratio of the rate constants is also a constant, now known as an equilibrium constant.
By convention the products form the numerator. However, the law of mass action is valid only for concerted one - step reactions that proceed through a single transition state and is not valid in general because rate equations do not, in general, follow the stoichiometry of the reaction as Guldberg and Waage had proposed (see, for example, nucleophilic aliphatic substitution by S 1 or reaction of hydrogen and bromine to form hydrogen bromide). Equality of forward and backward reaction rates, however, is a necessary condition for chemical equilibrium, though it is not sufficient to explain why equilibrium occurs.
Despite the failure of this derivation, the equilibrium constant for a reaction is indeed a constant, independent of the activities of the various species involved, though it does depend on temperature as observed by the van ' t Hoff equation. Adding a catalyst will affect both the forward reaction and the reverse reaction in the same way and will not have an effect on the equilibrium constant. The catalyst will speed up both reactions thereby increasing the speed at which equilibrium is reached.
Although the macroscopic equilibrium concentrations are constant in time, reactions do occur at the molecular level. For example, in the case of acetic acid dissolved in water and forming acetate and hydronium ions,
a proton may hop from one molecule of acetic acid on to a water molecule and then on to an acetate anion to form another molecule of acetic acid and leaving the number of acetic acid molecules unchanged. This is an example of dynamic equilibrium. Equilibria, like the rest of thermodynamics, are statistical phenomena, averages of microscopic behavior.
Le Châtelier 's principle (1884) gives an idea of the behavior of an equilibrium system when changes to its reaction conditions occur. If a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the conditions, the position of equilibrium moves to partially reverse the change. For example, adding more S from the outside will cause an excess of products, and the system will try to counteract this by increasing the reverse reaction and pushing the equilibrium point backward (though the equilibrium constant will stay the same).
If mineral acid is added to the acetic acid mixture, increasing the concentration of hydronium ion, the amount of dissociation must decrease as the reaction is driven to the left in accordance with this principle. This can also be deduced from the equilibrium constant expression for the reaction:
If (H O) increases (CH CO H) must increase and CH 3CO − 2 must decrease. The H O is left out, as it is the solvent and its concentration remains high and nearly constant.
A quantitative version is given by the reaction quotient.
J.W. Gibbs suggested in 1873 that equilibrium is attained when the Gibbs free energy of the system is at its minimum value (assuming the reaction is carried out at constant temperature and pressure). What this means is that the derivative of the Gibbs energy with respect to reaction coordinate (a measure of the extent of reaction that has occurred, ranging from zero for all reactants to a maximum for all products) vanishes, signalling a stationary point. This derivative is called the reaction Gibbs energy (or energy change) and corresponds to the difference between the chemical potentials of reactants and products at the composition of the reaction mixture. This criterion is both necessary and sufficient. If a mixture is not at equilibrium, the liberation of the excess Gibbs energy (or Helmholtz energy at constant volume reactions) is the "driving force '' for the composition of the mixture to change until equilibrium is reached. The equilibrium constant can be related to the standard Gibbs free energy change for the reaction by the equation
where R is the universal gas constant and T the temperature.
When the reactants are dissolved in a medium of high ionic strength the quotient of activity coefficients may be taken to be constant. In that case the concentration quotient, K,
where (A) is the concentration of A, etc., is independent of the analytical concentration of the reactants. For this reason, equilibrium constants for solutions are usually determined in media of high ionic strength. K varies with ionic strength, temperature and pressure (or volume). Likewise K for gases depends on partial pressure. These constants are easier to measure and encountered in high - school chemistry courses.
At constant temperature and pressure, one must consider the Gibbs free energy, G, while at constant temperature and volume, one must consider the Helmholtz free energy: A, for the reaction; and at constant internal energy and volume, one must consider the entropy for the reaction: S.
The constant volume case is important in geochemistry and atmospheric chemistry where pressure variations are significant. Note that, if reactants and products were in standard state (completely pure), then there would be no reversibility and no equilibrium. Indeed, they would necessarily occupy disjoint volumes of space. The mixing of the products and reactants contributes a large entropy (known as entropy of mixing) to states containing equal mixture of products and reactants. The standard Gibbs energy change, together with the Gibbs energy of mixing, determine the equilibrium state.
In this article only the constant pressure case is considered. The relation between the Gibbs free energy and the equilibrium constant can be found by considering chemical potentials.
At constant temperature and pressure, the Gibbs free energy, G, for the reaction depends only on the extent of reaction: ξ (Greek letter xi), and can only decrease according to the second law of thermodynamics. It means that the derivative of G with ξ must be negative if the reaction happens; at the equilibrium the derivative being equal to zero.
In order to meet the thermodynamic condition for equilibrium, the Gibbs energy must be stationary, meaning that the derivative of G with respect to the extent of reaction: ξ, must be zero. It can be shown that in this case, the sum of chemical potentials of the products is equal to the sum of those corresponding to the reactants. Therefore, the sum of the Gibbs energies of the reactants must be the equal to the sum of the Gibbs energies of the products.
where μ is in this case a partial molar Gibbs energy, a chemical potential. The chemical potential of a reagent A is a function of the activity, (A) of that reagent.
(where μo A is the standard chemical potential).
The definition of the Gibbs energy equation interacts with the fundamental thermodynamic relation to produce
Inserting dN = ν dξ into the above equation gives a Stoichiometric coefficient (ν i (\ displaystyle \ nu _ (i) ~)) and a differential that denotes the reaction occurring once (dξ). At constant pressure and temperature the above equations can be written as
This results in:
By substituting the chemical potentials:
the relationship becomes:
which is the standard Gibbs energy change for the reaction that can be calculated using thermodynamical tables. The reaction quotient is defined as:
Therefore,
At equilibrium:
leading to:
and
Obtaining the value of the standard Gibbs energy change, allows the calculation of the equilibrium constant.
For a reactional system at equilibrium: Q = K; ξ = ξ.
Note that activities and equilibrium constants are dimensionless numbers.
The expression for the equilibrium constant can be rewritten as the product of a concentration quotient, K and an activity coefficient quotient, Γ.
(A) is the concentration of reagent A, etc. It is possible in principle to obtain values of the activity coefficients, γ. For solutions, equations such as the Debye -- Hückel equation or extensions such as Davies equation Specific ion interaction theory or Pitzer equations may be used.. However this is not always possible. It is common practice to assume that Γ is a constant, and to use the concentration quotient in place of the thermodynamic equilibrium constant. It is also general practice to use the term equilibrium constant instead of the more accurate concentration quotient. This practice will be followed here.
For reactions in the gas phase partial pressure is used in place of concentration and fugacity coefficient in place of activity coefficient. In the real world, for example, when making ammonia in industry, fugacity coefficients must be taken into account. Fugacity, f, is the product of partial pressure and fugacity coefficient. The chemical potential of a species in the gas phase is given by
so the general expression defining an equilibrium constant is valid for both solution and gas phases.
In aqueous solution, equilibrium constants are usually determined in the presence of an "inert '' electrolyte such as sodium nitrate NaNO or potassium perchlorate KClO. The ionic strength of a solution is given by
where c and z stand for the concentration and ionic charge of ion type i, and the sum is taken over all the N types of charged species in solution. When the concentration of dissolved salt is much higher than the analytical concentrations of the reagents, the ions originating from the dissolved salt determine the ionic strength, and the ionic strength is effectively constant. Since activity coefficients depend on ionic strength the activity coefficients of the species are effectively independent of concentration. Thus, the assumption that Γ is constant is justified. The concentration quotient is a simple multiple of the equilibrium constant.
However, K will vary with ionic strength. If it is measured at a series of different ionic strengths the value can be extrapolated to zero ionic strength. The concentration quotient obtained in this manner is known, paradoxically, as a thermodynamic equilibrium constant.
To use a published value of an equilibrium constant in conditions of ionic strength different from the conditions used in its determination, the value should be adjusted.
A mixture may appear to have no tendency to change, though it is not at equilibrium. For example, a mixture of SO and O is metastable as there is a kinetic barrier to formation of the product, SO.
The barrier can be overcome when a catalyst is also present in the mixture as in the contact process, but the catalyst does not affect the equilibrium concentrations.
Likewise, the formation of bicarbonate from carbon dioxide and water is very slow under normal conditions
but almost instantaneous in the presence of the catalytic enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
When pure substances (liquids or solids) are involved in equilibria their activities do not appear in the equilibrium constant because their numerical values are considered one.
Applying the general formula for an equilibrium constant to the specific case of a dilute solution of acetic acid in water one obtains
For all but very concentrated solutions, the water can be considered a "pure '' liquid, and therefore it has an activity of one. The equilibrium constant expression is therefore usually written as
A particular case is the self - ionization of water itself
Because water is the solvent, and has an activity of one, the self - ionization constant of water is defined as
It is perfectly legitimate to write (H) for the hydronium ion concentration, since the state of solvation of the proton is constant (in dilute solutions) and so does not affect the equilibrium concentrations. K varies with variation in ionic strength and / or temperature.
The concentrations of H and OH are not independent quantities. Most commonly (OH) is replaced by K (H) in equilibrium constant expressions which would otherwise include hydroxide ion.
Solids also do not appear in the equilibrium constant expression, if they are considered to be pure and thus their activities taken to be one. An example is the Boudouard reaction:
for which the equation (without solid carbon) is written as:
Consider the case of a dibasic acid H A. When dissolved in water, the mixture will contain H A, HA and A. This equilibrium can be split into two steps in each of which one proton is liberated.
K and K are examples of stepwise equilibrium constants. The overall equilibrium constant, β, is product of the stepwise constants.
Note that these constants are dissociation constants because the products on the right hand side of the equilibrium expression are dissociation products. In many systems, it is preferable to use association constants.
β and β are examples of association constants. Clearly β = 1 / K and β = 1 / β; log β = pK and log β = pK + pK For multiple equilibrium systems, also see: theory of Response reactions.
The effect of changing temperature on an equilibrium constant is given by the van ' t Hoff equation
Thus, for exothermic reactions (ΔH is negative), K decreases with an increase in temperature, but, for endothermic reactions, (ΔH is positive) K increases with an increase temperature. An alternative formulation is
At first sight this appears to offer a means of obtaining the standard molar enthalpy of the reaction by studying the variation of K with temperature. In practice, however, the method is unreliable because error propagation almost always gives very large errors on the values calculated in this way.
The effect of electric field on equilibrium has been studied by Manfred Eigen among others.
In these applications, terms such as stability constant, formation constant, binding constant, affinity constant, association / dissociation constant are used. In biochemistry, it is common to give units for binding constants, which serve to define the concentration units used when the constant 's value was determined.
When the only equilibrium is that of the formation of a 1: 1 adduct as the composition of a mixture, there are any number of ways that the composition of a mixture can be calculated. For example, see ICE table for a traditional method of calculating the pH of a solution of a weak acid.
There are three approaches to the general calculation of the composition of a mixture at equilibrium.
In general, the calculations are rather complicated or complex. For instance, in the case of a dibasic acid, H A dissolved in water the two reactants can be specified as the conjugate base, A, and the proton, H. The following equations of mass - balance could apply equally well to a base such as 1, 2 - diaminoethane, in which case the base itself is designated as the reactant A:
With T the total concentration of species A. Note that it is customary to omit the ionic charges when writing and using these equations.
When the equilibrium constants are known and the total concentrations are specified there are two equations in two unknown "free concentrations '' (A) and (H). This follows from the fact that (HA) = β (A) (H), (H A) = β (A) (H) and (OH) = K (H)
so the concentrations of the "complexes '' are calculated from the free concentrations and the equilibrium constants. General expressions applicable to all systems with two reagents, A and B would be
It is easy to see how this can be extended to three or more reagents.
The composition of solutions containing reactants A and H is easy to calculate as a function of p (H). When (H) is known, the free concentration (A) is calculated from the mass - balance equation in A.
The diagram alongside, shows an example of the hydrolysis of the aluminium Lewis acid Al shows the species concentrations for a 5 × 10 M solution of an aluminium salt as a function of pH. Each concentration is shown as a percentage of the total aluminium.
The diagram above illustrates the point that a precipitate that is not one of the main species in the solution equilibrium may be formed. At pH just below 5.5 the main species present in a 5 μM solution of Al are aluminium hydroxides Al (OH), AlOH + 2 and Al 13 (OH) 7 + 32, but on raising the pH Al (OH) precipitates from the solution. This occurs because Al (OH) has a very large lattice energy. As the pH rises more and more Al (OH) comes out of solution. This is an example of Le Châtelier 's principle in action: Increasing the concentration of the hydroxide ion causes more aluminium hydroxide to precipitate, which removes hydroxide from the solution. When the hydroxide concentration becomes sufficiently high the soluble aluminate, Al (OH) − 4, is formed.
Another common instance where precipitation occurs is when a metal cation interacts with an anionic ligand to form an electrically neutral complex. If the complex is hydrophobic, it will precipitate out of water. This occurs with the nickel ion Ni and dimethylglyoxime, (dmgH): in this case the lattice energy of the solid is not particularly large, but it greatly exceeds the energy of solvation of the molecule Ni (dmgH).
At equilibrium, at a specified temperature and pressure, the Gibbs energy G is at a minimum:
For a closed system, no particles may enter or leave, although they may combine in various ways. The total number of atoms of each element will remain constant. This means that the minimization above must be subjected to the constraints:
where a is the number of atoms of element i in molecule j and b0 i is the total number of atoms of element i, which is a constant, since the system is closed. If there are a total of k types of atoms in the system, then there will be k such equations. If ions are involved, an additional row is added to the a matrix specifying the respective charge on each molecule which will sum to zero.
This is a standard problem in optimisation, known as constrained minimisation. The most common method of solving it is using the method of Lagrange multipliers, also known as undetermined multipliers (though other methods may be used).
Define:
where the λ are the Lagrange multipliers, one for each element. This allows each of the N and λ to be treated independently, and it can be shown using the tools of multivariate calculus that the equilibrium condition is given by
(For proof see Lagrange multipliers.) This is a set of (m + k) equations in (m + k) unknowns (the N and the λ) and may, therefore, be solved for the equilibrium concentrations N as long as the chemical potentials are known as functions of the concentrations at the given temperature and pressure. (See Thermodynamic databases for pure substances.) Note that the second equation is just the initial constraints for minimization.
This method of calculating equilibrium chemical concentrations is useful for systems with a large number of different molecules. The use of k atomic element conservation equations for the mass constraint is straightforward, and replaces the use of the stoichiometric coefficient equations.. The results are consistent with those specified by chemical equations. For example, if equilibrium is specified by a single chemical equation:,
where ν is the stochiometric coefficient for the j th molecule (negative for reactants, positive for products) and R is the symbol for the j th molecule, a properly balanced equation will obey:
Multiplying the first equilibrium condition by ν yields
As above, defining ΔG
which will be zero at equilibrium.
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where are the why don't we band from | Why Do n't We - wikipedia
Why Do n't We (commonly abbreviated as WDW) is an American pop boyband, that was assembled on September 27, 2016, consisting of Jonah Marais, Corbyn Besson, Daniel Seavey, Jack Avery and Zachary "Zach '' Herron, each of whom had previously recorded as solo artists.
On October 7, 2016, the group released their debut single "Taking You '', a track from their debut EP, Only the Beginning, which was released on November 25 of the same year. Their second EP, Something Different, was released on April 21, 2017. Its title track was released as the lead single the same day. They released their third EP, Why Do n't We Just, on June 2, 2017. They finished their "Something Different '' tour around the United States. Another single, These Girls was released on August 29, 2017.
They have appeared in vlogs from YouTuber and friend, Logan Paul.
The band originally formed on September 27, 2016, and announced it the next day via their YouTube account. Since then, the band has released three EPs and five singles in all.
The band has currently been working with YouTube vlogger and friend, Logan Paul. Logan has currently directed three music videos for Why Do n't We, one involving their collaboration "Help Me Help You. '' The band has made various appearances on Logan Paul 's daily vlogs. They have also helped Logan Paul on a diss track about Jake Paul called "The Fall of Jake Paul ''.
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where did the book of jasher come from | Book of Jasher (Biblical references) - wikipedia
The Book of Jasher (also, Jashar) or the Book of the Upright or the Book of the Just Man (Hebrew: סֵפֶר הַיׇּשׇׁר ; transliteration: sēfer hayyāšār) is an unknown book mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. The translation "Book of the Just Man '' is the traditional Greek and Latin translation, while the transliterated form "Jasher '' is found in the King James Bible, 1611.
The book appears to be referenced from around the reign of David. 2 Samuel 1: 18 states:
David 's lament for Jonathan immediately follows. The King James Version of the English Bible has the phrase "the use of '' in italics, showing that it is material the translator (s) added in order to render the original text into what they considered understandable and comfortable English. Other versions, such as the English Standard Version, indicate that what David taught the people was The Bow, that is, a poetic lament regarding the death of Saul and Jonathan. If the interpretation offered in the ESV footnote is to be accepted, then The Bow is a lament or a tune that was -- at the time of the composition of the Book of Samuel -- also included in the extra-canonical Book of Jashar.
The Book of Jasher is also mentioned in the Biblical Book of Joshua amid the descriptions of Joshua 's military exploits in the land of Canaan, specifically after Adonizedek, king of Jerusalem, and his allies attacked Gibeon for allying themselves with Israel and Joshua and the Israelites came to Gibeon 's aid (Joshua 9 - 10). When "YHWH gave the Amorites over to the sons of Israel '', Joshua told the sun to stand still over Gibeon and the moon to stand still over Valley of Aijalon (Joshua 9: 1 - 2). Then the Book of Joshua 10: 13 states:
The presence of this event in a book of poetry has been interpreted as a poetic description of the prolonged battle. Some think the reference to the Book of Jashar was inserted because Joshua wanted to show to those who disbelieved the event that others, besides himself, accepted it and recorded it, thus authenticating the event.
The Septuagint translation renders sefer hayashar in both cases as ' Book of the Just '. The reference to the bow is here missing, so that the text reads:
According to the Medieval Jewish scholar Rashi, Sefer HaYashar refers to the Pentateuch, as a fulfillment of Jacob 's prophecy regarding Ephraim -- "His seed will fill the nations '' (Gen. 48: 19) -- and that this prophecy refers to Joshua 's renown after the miracle of the standing of the sun.
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where do you get an at hop card | AT HOP card - wikipedia
The AT HOP card is an electronic fare payment card that was released in two versions on Auckland public transport services, beginning in May 2011. The smart card roll out was the first phase in the introduction of an integrated ticketing and fares system (Auckland Integrated Fares System, or "AIFS '') that was rolled out across the region.
The first iteration of the card -- commonly referred to as the "purple HOP card '' -- was discontinued in 2012 because of issues with the delivery of key technologies. The current card, called the AT HOP card, is in use on all ferry, train and bus services in Auckland. The rollout of the card to all three transport modes was completed in March 2014.
The AT HOP card is a dark blue credit - card - sized stored - value contactless smartcard that can hold prepaid funds (called HOP Money) to pay for fares or for monthly passes for unlimited travel within one or more of three "transport zones ''. Either facility must be added to the card before travel. Passengers "tag on '' and "tag off '' their card on electronic terminals when entering and leaving the transport system in order to validate it or deduct funds.
Cards may be "topped - up '' or monthly passes purchased in the following ways: online, at ticket machines, at ticketing offices, and at selected retail outlets such as bookshops. Top ups may be made by credit or debit card, with the latter three mediums accepting cash payment. The card is designed to reduce the number of transactions at ticket offices and the number of paper tickets. Usage is encouraged by offering cheaper fares than the cash ticket option, although there is an initial once - only fee to purchase the card. Monthly and / or multiple trip travel is only available with the AT HOP card.
The card can be used only for fare payments and only on Auckland Transport routes; it can not be used to pay for refreshments or other items. It can not be used to pay for travel on the Northern Explorer passenger train running between Auckland and Wellington or on inter-city bus services.
The AT HOP cards are based on near field communication (NFC) with DESFire with support of 3DES and AES, enabling 168 - 128 bit keys. This encryption give card holders the ability to not have their card simply cloned.
In 2008, the Auckland Regional Transport Authority announced its intentions to develop an integrated ticketing system for the region 's public transport services, called the Auckland Integrated Fares System (AIFS).
An initial system developed with a consortium including the French Thales Group and New Zealand - based Snapper Services was announced in 2010, however subsequent difficulties with the development of technologies for the system saw the termination of Auckland Transport 's agreement with Snapper. The council - controlled organisation confirmed Thales would be contracted with ongoing development of the system across the entirety of the region 's transport network.
Snapper Services Ltd, a subsidiary of Infratil, made a joint bid with ANZ, New Zealand Post, Eyede, Unisys and Beca Group for the contract of developing Auckland 's integrated ticketing system. However, the contract was awarded to the Thales Group. Snapper lodged a complaint, later dismissed, questioning the legitimacy of the tender process.
Snapper announced in late - 2009 that it would begin rolling out its Snapper card onto NZ Bus services (but no other Auckland bus company or service), in spite of the Auckland Regional Transport Authority - Thales integrated ticketing arrangement. In response, the Auckland Regional Transport Authority called the Snapper announcement "premature '' citing the development of ARTA 's integrated ticketing offering still in development with Thales and confirming that all public transport operators in Auckland, including NZ Bus, would be required to participate in ARTA 's system. Replacing the Auckland Regional Transport Authority in 2010, Auckland Transport announced it had invited Snapper to work with the council - controlled organisation and Thales on the ticketing system. Auckland Transport confirmed Snapper would develop a contactless smart card and supply buses with ticketing terminals that would support the Thales developed back - end, to be rolled out initially on NZ Bus services and later on ferry and train services in time for the Rugby World Cup 2011.
In April 2011, Auckland Transport announced the "HOP card '', developed by Snapper, with initial rollout on all NZ Bus services. This iteration of the "HOP card '' was met with initial confusion as to its capabilities and the extent of Auckland Transport 's integration with Snapper and Snapper 's pre-existing infrastructure, which included the ability to make minor transactions with merchants and retailers. Concerns were also raised as to the ability of Auckland 's ticketing system to work with Snapper cards used on Wellington 's transport network and vice versa, with Auckland Transport later instructing NZ Bus drivers not to accept the Wellington implementation of the Snapper card.
Auckland Transport subsequently announced in early - 2012 that bus passengers would be required to "swap out '' their HOP / Snapper cards for a new integrated ticketing card, also called "HOP '', as the Snapper offering would not be supported on ferries, trains and on some bus services.
Snapper faced difficulties in developing its technology to work with the Thales system, with Thales ' New Zealand chief executive citing that the "failure of Snapper to deliver a functional bus system that meets the ratified standard has caused delays to project go - live ''. Snapper 's "failure '' to meet the November 30 deadline imposed by Auckland Transport ultimately led to the organisation severing its relationship with Snapper, citing "concerns about whether Snapper could modify its system in a suitable timeframe ''. Snapper maintained it was "wrongly blamed '' for the delays, declaring "Auckland Transport is being disingenuous with its attempt to position Snapper as the reason that the (integrated ticketing) project is delayed. ''
Auckland Transport confirmed it had commissioned Thales to provide the new iteration of the "HOP '' smart card -- called "AT HOP '' -- and its ticketing terminals, replacing the HOP / Snapper offering on NZ Bus services and introducing the new card onto ferries, trains and all other bus services.
The current blue ' AT HOP card ' began rolling out on public transport, starting with the rail network on 28 October 2012. The rollout for all Auckland bus, train and ferry services was completed by March 2014.
Spark (then Telecom) had trialed a ' virtual AT HOP card ' on Android phones with NFC and intended it for release in late 2013.
A fee of 25 cents for each top up was abolished in July 2014.
In September 2016, it was reported that the one millionth AT Hop card had been sold, and that 42 per cent of Auckland adults had a card as of June (2016).
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what is the function of raphide crystal in a plant cell | Raphide - wikipedia
Raphides are needle - shaped crystals of calcium oxalate as the monohydrate or calcium carbonate as aragonite, found in more than 200 families of plants. Both ends are needle - like, but raphides tend to be blunt at one end and sharp at the other.
Many plants accumulate calcium oxalate crystals in response to surplus calcium, which is found throughout the natural environment. The crystals are produced in an intriguing variety of shapes. The crystal morphology depends on the taxonomic group of the plant. In one study of over 100 species, it was found that calcium oxalate accounted for 6.3 % of plant dry weight. Crystal morphology and the distribution of raphides (in roots or leaves or tubers etc.) is similar in some taxa but different in others leaving possible opportunities for plant key characteristics and systematic identification; mucilage in raphide containing cells makes light microscopy difficult, though. Little is known about the mechanisms of sequestration or indeed the reason for accumulation of raphides but it is most likely as a defense mechanism against herbivory. It has also been suggested that in some cases raphides may help form plant skeletal structure. Raphides typically occur in parenchyma cells in aerial organs especially the leaves, and are generally confined to the mesophyll. As the leaf area increases, so does the number of raphides, the process starting in even young leaves. The first indications that the cell will contain crystals is shown when the cells enlarge with a larger nucleus.
Raphides are found in specialized plant cells or crystal chambers called idioblasts. Electron micrographs have shown that raphide needle crystals are normally four sided or H - shaped (with a groove down both sides) or with a hexagonal cross section and some are barbed. Wattendorf (1976) suggested that all circular sectioned raphides, as visible in a light microscope, are probably hexagonal in cross section Microscopy using polarized light shows bright opalescence with raphides. Plants like Tradescantia pallida also accumulate calcium oxalate crystals in response to heavy metals stress.
Raphides can produce severe toxic reactions by facilitating the passage of toxin through the herbivore 's skin when the tissue containing the raphides also contains toxins. The lethal dose to mice is around 15 mg / kg. Raphides seem to be a defense mechanism against plant predators, as they are likely to tear and harm the soft tissues of the throat or esophagus of a plant predator chewing on the plant 's leaves. The venomous process is in two stages: mechanical pricking and injection of harmful protease. Typically ingestion of plants containing raphides, like those common in certain houseplants, can cause immediate numbing followed shortly by painful edema, vesicle formation and dysphagia accompanied by painful stinging and burning to the mouth and throat with symptoms occurring for up to two weeks. Airway assessment and management are of the highest priority, as are extensive irrigation and analgesics in eye exposure.
Raphides can not normally be destroyed by boiling; that requires an acidic environment or chemical solvents like ether, but heating raphide containing plant materials (like tubers) can fix the raphides into a dried starchy matrix so they are no longer mobile and thus less harmful. Some other plants store raphides in mucilaginous environments and also do not taste acrid.
Common names vary. The following list is incomplete. Raphides are found in many species in the families Araceae and Commelinaceae, but are also found in a few species in a number of other families.
Actinidiaceae:
Amaranthaceae:
Araceae:
Araliaceae:
Arecaceae:
Asparagaceae:
Bromeliaceae:
Commelinaceae:
Onagraceae:
Polygonaceae:
Rubiaceae:
Vitaceae:
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who was first member nominated for rajya sabha | List of nominated members of Rajya Sabha - wikipedia
As per the Fourth Schedule (Articles 4 (1) and 80 (2)) of the Constitution of India, 12 members are nominated by President for term of six years for their contributions to art, literature, science, and social services.
This is a Current list of Members of the Rajya Sabha who have been nominated by the President.
This is a Complete list of Members of the Rajya Sabha who have been nominated by the President.
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who has higher rank us marshals or fbi | United States Marshals Service - wikipedia
The United States Marshals Service (USMS) is a federal law - enforcement agency within the U.S. Department of Justice (28 U.S.C. § 561). It is the oldest American federal law - enforcement agency and was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789 during the presidency of George Washington as the Office of the United States Marshal. The USMS as it stands today was established in 1969 to provide guidance and assistance to Marshals throughout the federal judicial districts. USMS is an agency of the United States executive branch reporting to the United States Attorney - General but serves as the enforcement arm of the United States federal courts to ensure the effective operation of the judiciary and integrity of the Constitution.
The Marshals Service is the primary agency for fugitive operations, the protection of officers of the Federal Judiciary, the management of criminal assets, the operation of the United States Federal Witness Protection Program and the Justice Prisoner and Alien Transportation System, and execution of federal arrest warrants. Throughout its history, the Marshals have also provided unique security and enforcement services including protecting African - American students enrolling in the South during the civil rights movement, escort security for United States Air Force LGM - 30 Minuteman missile convoys, law enforcement for the United States Antarctic Program, and protection of the Strategic National Stockpile.
The office of United States Marshal was created by the First Congress. President George Washington signed the Judiciary Act into law on September 24, 1789. The Act provided that a United States Marshal 's primary function was to execute all lawful warrants issued to him under the authority of the United States. The law defined marshals as officers of the courts charged with assisting Federal courts in their law - enforcement functions:
And be it further enacted, That a marshal shall be appointed in and for each district for a term of four years, but shall be removable from office at pleasure, whose duty it shall be to attend the district and circuit courts when sitting therein, and also the Supreme Court in the district in which that court shall sit. And to execute throughout the district, all lawful precepts directed to him, and issued under the authority of the United States, and he shall have the power to command all necessary assistance in the execution of his duty, and to appoint as shall be occasion, one or more deputies.
The critical Supreme Court decision affirming the legal authority of the federal marshals was made in In re Neagle 135 U.S. 1 (1890).
For over 100 years marshals were patronage jobs, typically controlled by the district judge. They were paid primarily by fees until a salary system was set up in 1896.
Many of the first US Marshals had already proven themselves in military service during the American Revolution. Among the first marshals were John Adams 's son - in - law Congressman William Stephens Smith for the District of New York, another New York district marshal, Congressman Thomas Morris, and Henry Dearborn for the district of Maine.
From the nation 's earliest days, marshals were permitted to recruit special deputies as local hires, or as temporary transfers to the Marshals Service from other federal law - enforcement agencies. Marshals were also authorized to swear in a posse to assist with manhunts, and other duties, ad hoc. Marshals were given extensive authority to support the federal courts within their judicial districts, and to carry out all lawful orders issued by federal judges, Congress, or the President. Federal marshals were by far the most important government officials in territorial jurisdictions. Local law enforcement officials were often called "marshals '' so there is often an ambiguity whether someone was a federal or a local official.
Federal marshals are most famous for their law enforcement work, but that was only a minor part of their workload. The largest part of the business was paper work -- serving writs (e.g., subpoenas, summonses, warrants), and other processes issued by the courts, making arrests and handling all federal prisoners. They also disbursed funds as ordered by the courts. Marshals paid the fees and expenses of the court clerks, U.S. Attorneys, jurors, and witnesses. They rented the courtrooms and jail space, and hired the bailiffs, criers, and janitors. They made sure the prisoners were present, the jurors were available, and that the witnesses were on time.
The marshals thus provided local representation for the federal government within their districts. They took the national census every decade through 1870. They distributed presidential proclamations, collected a variety of statistical information on commerce and manufacturing, supplied the names of government employees for the national register, and performed other routine tasks needed for the central government to function effectively.
During the settlement of the American Frontier, marshals served as the main source of day - to - day law enforcement in areas that had no local government of their own. U.S. Marshals were instrumental in keeping law and order in the "Old West '' era. They were involved in apprehending desperadoes such as Bill Doolin, Ned Christie, and, in 1893, the infamous Dalton Gang after a shoot - out that left Deputy Marshals Ham Hueston, Lafe Shadley, and posse member Dick Speed, dead. Individual deputy marshals have been seen as legendary heroes in the face of rampant lawlessness (see Notable marshals below) with Wyatt Earp, Bat Masterson, Dallas Stoudenmire, and Bass Reeves as examples of well - known marshals. Bill Tilghman, Heck Thomas, and Chris Madsen formed a legendary law enforcement trio known as "The Three Guardsmen '' when they worked together policing the vast, lawless Oklahoma and Indian Territories.
The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 tasked marshals to enforce the law, recover and arrest fugitive slaves. Any negligence in doing so exposed marshals and deputies to severe financial penalties.
On October 26, 1881, Deputy U.S. Marshal Virgil Earp, his brothers, Special Deputy U.S. Marshals Morgan and Wyatt Earp, and Special Deputy U.S. Marshal John "Doc '' H. Holliday gunned down Frank and Tom McLaury and Billy Clanton in the legendary gunfight at the O.K. Corral in Tombstone, Arizona.
In 1894, U.S. Marshals helped suppress the Pullman Strike.
During the 1920s, U.S. Marshals enforced Prohibition.
Marshals registered enemy aliens in wartime, sealed the American border against armed expeditions from foreign countries, and at times during the Cold War also swapped spies with the Soviet Union.
In the 1960s the marshals were on the front lines of the civil rights movement, mainly providing protection to volunteers. In September 1962, President John F. Kennedy ordered 127 marshals to accompany James Meredith, an African American who wished to register at the segregated University of Mississippi. Their presence on campus provoked riots at the university, but the marshals stood their ground, and Meredith registered. Marshals provided continuous protection to Meredith during his first year at Ole Miss, and Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy later proudly displayed a deputy marshal 's dented helmet in his office. U.S. Marshals also protected black school children integrating public schools in the South. Artist Norman Rockwell 's famous painting The Problem We All Live With depicted a tiny Ruby Bridges being escorted by four towering United States Marshals in 1964.
Until 1965, each U.S. District Court hired and administered its own marshals independently from all others. In 1965, the Executive Office for US Marshals, was created as "the first organization to supervise U.S. Marshals nationwide ''. The United States Marshals Service, a federal agency, was created in 1969
Since June 1975, the Marshals Service have the mission of providing law enforcement support and escort security to United States Air Force LGM - 30 Minuteman and missile systems from military facilities.
Since 1989, the Marshals Service has been responsible for law enforcement among U.S. personnel in Antarctica.
Marshals have protected American athletes at Olympic Games, the refugee boy Elián González before his return to Cuba in 2000, and abortion clinics as required by federal law. In 2003, Marshals retrieved North Carolina 's copy of the Bill of Rights.
In 2002, the Marshals Service was tasked by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to provide protective security and law enforcement capabilities in the protection of the Strategic National Stockpile (SNS), such as warehouses, materiel and CDC personnel during deployment. Marshals also provide secure transportation of critical medical supplies and bio-terrorism response resources throughout the nation. Senior Inspectors of the US Marshals Service SNS Security Operations (SNSSO) Program have deployed to Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and responded during the H1N1 flu pandemic in 2009. SNSSO Senior Inspectors have also staffed National Security Special Events (NSSE) with their state, local and other federal partners on a regular basis.
In February 2017, Marshals began providing protective security to United States Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos, the first time since 2009 that a United States Cabinet - level official has been provided security by the Marshals.
The Marshals Service is responsible for apprehending wanted fugitives, providing protection for the federal judiciary, transporting federal prisoners, protecting endangered federal witnesses, and managing assets seized from criminal enterprises. The Marshals Service is responsible for 55.2 % of arrests of federal fugitives. Between 1981 and 1985, the Marshals Service conducted Fugitive Investigative Strike Team operations to jump - start fugitive capture in specific districts. In 2012, U.S. marshals captured over 36,000 federal fugitives and cleared over 39,000 fugitive warrants.
The Marshals Service also executes all lawful writs, processes, and orders issued under the authority of the United States, and shall command all necessary assistance to execute its duties.
U.S. Marshals also have the common law - based power to enlist any willing civilians as deputies. In the Old West this was known as forming a posse, although under the Posse Comitatus Act, they can not use military troops in uniform representing their unit or the military service for law enforcement duties. However, if a serviceman / woman is off duty, wearing civilian clothing, and willing to assist a law enforcement officer on his / her own behalf, it is acceptable.
Title 28 USC Chapter 37 § 564. authorizes United States Marshals, deputy marshals and such other officials of the Service as may be designated by the Director, in executing the laws of the United States within a State, to exercise the same powers which a sheriff of the State may exercise in executing the laws thereof.
Except for suits by incarcerated persons, non-prisoner litigants proceeding in forma pauperis, or (in some circumstances) by seamen, U.S. Marshals no longer serve leading process or subpoenas in private civil actions filed in the U.S. district courts. Under the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, process may be served by any U.S. citizen over the age of 18 who is not a party involved in the case. The Marshals still levy executions and serve writs of garnishment.
A chief responsibility of the Marshals is the United States Federal Witness Protection Program.
The Marshals Service publicizes the names of wanted persons it places on the list of U.S. Marshals 15 Most Wanted Fugitives, which is similar to and sometimes overlaps the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list or the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives Most Wanted List, depending on jurisdiction.
The 15 Most Wanted Fugitive Program was established in 1983 in an effort to prioritize the investigation and apprehension of high - profile offenders who are considered to be some of the country 's most dangerous fugitives. These offenders tend to be career criminals with histories of violence or whose instant offense (s) pose a significant threat to public safety. Current and past fugitives in this program include murderers, sex offenders, major drug kingpins, organized crime figures, and individuals wanted for high - profile financial crimes.
The Major Case Fugitive Program was established in 1985 in an effort to supplement the successful 15 Most Wanted Fugitive Program. Much like the 15 Most Wanted Fugitive Program, the Major Case Fugitive Program prioritizes the investigation and apprehension of high - profile offenders who are considered to be some of the country 's most dangerous individuals. All escapes from custody are automatically elevated to Major Case status.
The Wall Street Journal reported on 14 November 2014 that the Marshals Service 's Technical Operations Group utilizes a so - called dirtbox to track fugitives.
The Special Operations Group (SOG) was created in 1971, and is the Marshals Service 's specially trained and highly disciplined tactical unit. It is a self - supporting response team capable of responding to emergencies anywhere in the US or its territories. Most of the deputy marshals who have volunteered to be SOG members serve as full - time deputies in Marshals Service offices throughout the nation, and they remain on call 24 hours a day. The SOG also maintains a small, full - time operational cadre stationed at the Marshals Service Tactical Operations Center at Camp Beauregard, where all deputies undergo extensive, specialized training in tactics and weaponry. Deputies must meet rigorous physical and mental standards. The group 's missions include: apprehending fugitives, protecting dignitaries, providing court security, transporting high - profile and dangerous prisoners, providing witness security, and seizing assets.
Marshals Service hiring is competitive and comparable to the selection process for Special Agent positions in sister agencies. Typically fewer than five percent of qualified applicants are hired and must possess at a minimum a four - year bachelor 's degree or competitive work experience (which is usually three or more years at a local or state police department). While the USMS 's hiring process is not entirely in the public domain, applicants must pass a written test, an oral board interview, an extensive background investigation, a medical examination and drug test, and multiple Fitness In Total (FIT) exams to be selected for training. Deputy U.S. Marshals complete a 21 1 / 2 - week training program at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Glynco, Georgia.
The primary handgun for marshals are Glock pistols in. 40 S&W caliber (22, 23, 27), and each deputy may carry a backup handgun of their choice if it meets certain requirements. Deputy Marshals are also equipped with body armor and collapsible batons for daily use, and ballistic shields, helmets, and protective goggles for serving high risk warrants.
Members of the U.S. Marshal SOG Teams are armed with Colt 9mm SMG with Knight 's Armament Company suppressor, HK MP - 5 9mm SMG, Remington 870 and Ithaca DS 12 - gauge shotguns,. 357 magnum revolver, Smith & Wesson Model 654. 45cal pistol, Beretta 9mm pistol, Remington 700. 308 cal sniper rifles with scopes, M16A2 and CAR - 15 rifles
The Marshals Service is based in Arlington, Virginia, and, under the authority and direction of the Attorney General, is headed by a Director, who is assisted by a Deputy Director. The Marshals Service headquarters provides command, control, and cooperation for the disparate elements of the service.
The US court system is divided into 94 federal judicial districts, each with a district court (except the territory of Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, which share a US Marshal). For each district there is a presidentially - appointed and Senate - confirmed United States marshal, a Chief Deputy U.S. Marshal (GS - 14 or 15) (and an Assistant Chief Deputy U.S. Marshal (GS - 14) in certain larger districts), Supervisory Deputy U.S. Marshals (GS - 13), and as many deputy U.S. Marshals (GS - 7 and above) and special deputy U.S. Marshals as needed. In the United States federal budget for 2005, funds for 3,067 deputy marshals and criminal investigators were provided. The U.S. Marshal for United States courts of appeals (the 13 circuit courts) is the U.S. Marshal in whose district that court is physically located.
The director and each United States Marshal are appointed by the President of the United States and subject to confirmation by the United States Senate. The District U.S. Marshal is traditionally appointed from a list of qualified law enforcement personnel for that district or state. Each state has at least one district, while several larger states have three or more.
Deputy U.S. Marshals start their careers as 0082 basic Deputy U.S. Marshals at the GS - 7 pay grade. After the first year in grade, they are promoted to GS - 9, the following year GS - 11, and finally journeyman GS - 12 (automatic progression to the grade of GS - 13 is under consideration). Once deputies reach the GS - 11 pay grade, they are reclassified as 1811 Criminal Investigators. Criminal Investigators work additional hours and receive an additional 25 % Law Enforcement Availability Pay on top of their base pay.
Duties performed include criminal investigations, execution of warrants, and other investigative operations. They also protect government officials, process seized assets of crime rings for investigative agencies, and relocate and arrange new identities for federal witnesses in the United States Federal Witness Protection Program, which is headed by the USMS. After Congress passed the Adam Walsh Act, the U.S. Marshals Service was chosen to head the new federal sex offender tracking and prosecution hot team.
Under Title 14 USC 634 (b) in the United States Coast Guard, "Commissioned officers may be appointed as United States Deputy Marshals in Alaska. ''
Court Security Officers (CSOs) are contracted former law enforcement officers who receive limited deputations as armed Special Deputy Marshals and play a role in courthouse security. Using security screening systems, Court Security Officers attempt to detect and intercept weapons and other prohibited items that individuals attempt to bring into federal courthouses. There are more than 4,700 Court Security Officers with certified law enforcement experience deployed at more than 400 federal court facilities in the United States and its territories.
DEOs (1802s) are responsible for the care of prisoners in USMS custody. They also are tasked with the responsibility of conducting administrative remedies for the U.S. Marshal. DEOs can be seen transporting, booking and securing federal prisoners while in USMS custody. They also provide courtroom safety and cell block security.
Detention enforcement officers are deputized and fully commissioned federal law enforcement officers by the U.S. Marshal. They are authorized to carry firearms and conduct all official business on behalf of the agency. Not all districts employ detention enforcement officers.
This title was created for promotions within the service usually for senior non-supervisory personnel. Operational (GS - 1811 - 13), non-supervisory, employees assigned to the Witness Protection Program are given the title Senior Inspector. Senior DUSMs assigned to regional fugitive task forces or working in special assignments requiring highly skilled criminal investigators often receive the title Inspector. Deputy marshals assigned to The Organized Crime Drug Enforcement (OCDETF) department within the USMS also hold the title of Senior Inspector. Inspectors receive a GS - 13 pay grade level. The titles of Senior Inspector and Chief Inspector are also sometimes used in the service for certain assignments and positions within the agency.
More than 200 U.S. Marshals, deputy marshals, and special deputy marshals have been killed in the line of duty since Marshal Robert Forsyth was shot dead by an intended recipient of court papers in Augusta, Georgia, on January 11, 1794. He was the first U.S. federal law enforcement officer to be killed in the line of duty. The dead are remembered on an Honor Roll permanently displayed at Headquarters.
Wild Bill Hickok
Bass Reeves
Wyatt Earp
Frank Eaton
An audit by the Office of Inspector General (OIG) (November 2010) of the Justice Department found "weaknesses in the USMS 's efforts to secure federal court facilities in the six USMS district offices we visited ''. The report found, among other things, that the Marshals Service 's Judicial Security Division had contracted private security firms to provide Court Security Officers without having completed background checks. Another incident involved the Marshals Service awarding a $300 million contract to a firm that had a known history of numerous criminal activities leading to convictions for mail fraud and bank fraud and false insurance claims in addition to a civil judgment against its Chief Financial Officer. Technical problems included Court Security Officers not being properly trained on security screening equipment, which also meant equipment not being used. The OIG noted that in February 2009, several courthouses failed to detect mock explosives sent by Marshals Service Headquarters in order to test security procedures. They also found that eighteen percent of Court Security Officers had outdated firearms qualifications.
On March 26, 2009, the body of Deputy U.S. Marshal Vincent Bustamante was discovered in Juárez, Mexico, according to the Marshals Service. Bustamante, who was accused of stealing and pawning government property, was a fugitive from the law at the time of his death. Chihuahua State Police said the body had multiple wounds to the head -- apparently consistent with an execution - style shooting.
In January 2007, Deputy U.S. Marshal John Thomas Ambrose was charged with theft of Justice Department property, disclosure of confidential information, and lying to federal agents during an investigation. Deputy Ambrose had been in charge of protecting mobster - turned - informant Nicholas Calabrese, who was instrumental in sending three mob bosses to prison for life. A federal jury convicted Ambrose on April 27, 2009, of leaking secret government information concerning Calabrese to William Guide, a family friend and former Chicago police officer who had also served time in prison for corruption. Ambrose also was convicted of theft of government property but acquitted of lying to federal agents. On October 27, 2009, Ambrose was sentenced to serve four years in prison.
In 1998, retired Chief Deputy U.S. Marshal Matthew Fogg won a landmark EEO and Title VII racial discrimination and retaliation lawsuit against the Justice Department, for which he was awarded $4 million. The jury found the entire Marshals Service to be a "racially hostile environment '' which discriminates against blacks in its promotion practices. U.S. District Judge Thomas Penfield Jackson summarized the jurors ' decision by stating that they felt there was an "atmosphere of racial disharmony and mistrust within the United States Marshal Service ''. As of 2011, Fogg is president of "Bigots with Badges '', and executive director of CARCLE (Congress Against Racism and Corruption in Law Enforcement), and is also associated with Law Enforcement Against Prohibition (LEAP), a drug law reform organization of law enforcement officers.
The Department of Justice under Janet Reno acknowledged wrongdoing in U.S. Marshals decisions surrounding a firefight at Ruby Ridge in 1992, where it is alleged that a Deputy U.S. Marshal shot 14 - year - old Samuel Weaver in the back. Deputy US Marshals who were involved in a gunfight with Weaver 's father, who was wanted on a federal warrant for failure to appear, and another individual. Deputy United States Marshals dispute this claim. Deputy U.S. Marshal Billy Deegan was killed during a surveillance operation after identifying himself as a federal agent. This led to an extended gunfight in which both sides fired several rounds. Tragically, Samuel Weaver was shot and killed. His body was taken to a small building for more than a week and an autopsy was unable to determine entry and exit wounds (see Idaho Federal Court Transcripts for clarification of this incident). "Newsweek '' described the incident as "one of the most shameful episodes in the history of American law enforcement. ''
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draw a well labelled diagram of nitrogen cycle | Nitrogen cycle - wikipedia
The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into multiple chemical forms as it circulates among the atmosphere, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. The conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through both biological and physical processes. Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. The majority of Earth 's atmosphere (78 %) is nitrogen, making it the largest source of nitrogen. However, atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological use, leading to a scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems.
The nitrogen cycle is of particular interest to ecologists because nitrogen availability can affect the rate of key ecosystem processes, including primary production and decomposition. Human activities such as fossil fuel combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and release of nitrogen in wastewater have dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle.
Nitrogen is present in the environment in a wide variety of chemical forms including organic nitrogen, ammonium (NH), nitrite (NO), nitrate (NO), nitrous oxide (N O), nitric oxide (NO) or inorganic nitrogen gas (N). Organic nitrogen may be in the form of a living organism, humus or in the intermediate products of organic matter decomposition. The processes of the nitrogen cycle transform nitrogen from one form to another. Many of those processes are carried out by microbes, either in their effort to harvest energy or to accumulate nitrogen in a form needed for their growth. For example, the nitrogenous wastes in animal urine are broken down by nitrifying bacteria in the soil to be used as new. The diagram (besides) alongside shows how these processes fit together to form the nitrogen cycle.
The conversion of nitrogen gas (N) into nitrates and nitrites through atmospheric, industrial and biological processes is called nitrogen fixation. Atmospheric nitrogen must be processed, or "fixed '', into a usable form to be taken up by plants. Between 5x10 and 10x10 g per year are fixed by lightning strikes, but most fixation is done by free - living or symbiotic bacteria known as diazotrophs. These bacteria have the nitrogenase enzyme that combines gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to produce ammonia, which is converted by the bacteria into other organic compounds. Most biological nitrogen fixation occurs by the activity of Mo - nitrogenase, found in a wide variety of bacteria and some Archaea. Mo - nitrogenase is a complex two - component enzyme that has multiple metal - containing prosthetic groups. An example of free - living bacteria is Azotobacter. Symbiotic nitrogen - fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium usually live in the root nodules of legumes (such as peas, alfalfa, and locust trees). Here they form a mutualistic relationship with the plant, producing ammonia in exchange for carbohydrates. Because of this relationship, legumes will often increase the nitrogen content of nitrogen - poor soils. A few non-legumes can also form such symbioses. Today, about 30 % of the total fixed nitrogen is produced industrially using the Haber - Bosch process, which uses high temperatures and pressures to convert nitrogen gas and a hydrogen source (natural gas or petroleum) into ammonia.
Plants can absorb nitrate or ammonium from the soil via their root hairs. If nitrate is absorbed, it is first reduced to nitrite ions and then ammonium ions for incorporation into amino acids, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll. In plants that have a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia, some nitrogen is assimilated in the form of ammonium ions directly from the nodules. It is now known that there is a more complex cycling of amino acids between Rhizobia bacteroids and plants. The plant provides amino acids to the bacteroids so ammonia assimilation is not required and the bacteroids pass amino acids (with the newly fixed nitrogen) back to the plant, thus forming an interdependent relationship. While many animals, fungi, and other heterotrophic organisms obtain nitrogen by ingestion of amino acids, nucleotides, and other small organic molecules, other heterotrophs (including many bacteria) are able to utilize inorganic compounds, such as ammonium as sole N sources. Utilization of various N sources is carefully regulated in all organisms.
When a plant or animal dies or an animal expels waste, the initial form of nitrogen is organic. Bacteria or fungi convert the organic nitrogen within the remains back into ammonium (NH), a process called ammonification or mineralization. Enzymes involved are:
The conversion of ammonium to nitrate is performed primarily by soil - living bacteria and other nitrifying bacteria. In the primary stage of nitrification, the oxidation of ammonium (NH) is performed by bacteria such as the Nitrosomonas species, which converts ammonia to nitrites (NO). Other bacterial species such as Nitrobacter, are responsible for the oxidation of the nitrites (NO) into nitrates (NO). It is important for the ammonia (NH) to be converted to nitrates or nitrites because ammonia gas is toxic to plants.
Due to their very high solubility and because soils are highly unable to retain anions, nitrates can enter groundwater. Elevated nitrate in groundwater is a concern for drinking water use because nitrate can interfere with blood - oxygen levels in infants and cause methemoglobinemia or blue - baby syndrome. Where groundwater recharges stream flow, nitrate - enriched groundwater can contribute to eutrophication, a process that leads to high algal population and growth, especially blue - green algal populations. While not directly toxic to fish life, like ammonia, nitrate can have indirect effects on fish if it contributes to this eutrophication. Nitrogen has contributed to severe eutrophication problems in some water bodies. Since 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer has been increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States. This is occurring along the same lines as control of phosphorus fertilizer, restriction of which is normally considered essential to the recovery of eutrophied waterbodies.
Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates back into nitrogen gas (N), completing the nitrogen cycle. This process is performed by bacterial species such as Pseudomonas and Clostridium in anaerobic conditions. They use the nitrate as an electron acceptor in the place of oxygen during respiration. These facultatively anaerobic bacteria can also live in aerobic conditions. Denitrification happens in anaerobic conditions e.g. waterlogged soils. The denitrifying bacteria use nitrates in the soil to carry out respiration and consequently produce nitrogen gas, which is inert and unavailable to plants.
Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA), or nitrate / nitrite ammonification, is an anaerobic respiration process. Microbes which undertake DNRA oxidise organic matter and use nitrate as an electron acceptor, reducing it to nitrite, then ammonium (NO → NO → NH). Both denitrifying and nitrate ammonification bacteria will be competing for nitrate in the environment, although DNRA acts to conserve bioavailable nitrogen as soluble ammonium rather than producing dinitrogen gas.
In this biological process, nitrite and ammonia are converted directly into molecular nitrogen (N) gas. This process makes up a major proportion of nitrogen conversion in the oceans. The balanced formula for this "anammox '' chemical reaction is: NH + NO → N + 2H O (ΔG ° = - 357 kJ mol).
Though nitrogen fixation is the primary source of plant - available nitrogen in most ecosystems, in areas with nitrogen - rich bedrock, the breakdown of this rock also serves as a nitrogen source.
The nitrogen cycle is an important process in the ocean as well. While the overall cycle is similar, there are different players and modes of transfer for nitrogen in the ocean. Nitrogen enters the water through the precipitation, runoff, or as N from the atmosphere. Nitrogen can not be utilized by phytoplankton as N so it must undergo nitrogen fixation which is performed predominately by cyanobacteria. Without supplies of fixed nitrogen entering the marine cycle, the fixed nitrogen would be used up in about 2000 years. Phytoplankton need nitrogen in biologically available forms for the initial synthesis of organic matter. Ammonia and urea are released into the water by excretion from plankton. Nitrogen sources are removed from the euphotic zone by the downward movement of the organic matter. This can occur from sinking of phytoplankton, vertical mixing, or sinking of waste of vertical migrators. The sinking results in ammonia being introduced at lower depths below the euphotic zone. Bacteria are able to convert ammonia to nitrite and nitrate but they are inhibited by light so this must occur below the euphotic zone. Ammonification or Mineralization is performed by bacteria to convert organic nitrogen to ammonia. Nitrification can then occur to convert the ammonium to nitrite and nitrate. Nitrate can be returned to the euphotic zone by vertical mixing and upwelling where it can be taken up by phytoplankton to continue the cycle. N can be returned to the atmosphere through denitrification.
Ammonium is thought to be the preferred source of fixed nitrogen for phytoplankton because its assimilation does not involve a redox reaction and therefore requires little energy. Nitrate requires a redox reaction for assimilation but is more abundant so most phytoplankton have adapted to have the enzymes necessary to undertake this reduction (nitrate reductase). There are a few notable and well - known exceptions that include Prochlorococcus and some Synechococcus. These species can only take up nitrogen as ammonium.
The nutrients in the ocean are not uniformly distributed. Areas of upwelling provide supplies of nitrogen from below the euphotic zone. Coastal zones provide nitrogen from runoff and upwelling occurs readily along the coast. However, the rate at which nitrogen can be taken up by phytoplankton is decreased in oligotrophic waters year - round and temperate water in the summer resulting in lower primary production. The distribution of the different forms of nitrogen varies throughout the oceans as well.
Nitrate is depleted in near - surface water except in upwelling regions. Coastal upwelling regions usually have high nitrate and chlorophyll levels as a result of the increased production. However, there are regions of high surface nitrate but low chlorophyll that are referred to as HNLC (high nitrogen, low chlorophyll) regions. The best explanation for HNLC regions relates to iron scarcity in the ocean, which may play an important part in ocean dynamics and nutrient cycles. The input of iron varies by region and is delivered to the ocean by dust (from dust storms) and leached out of rocks. Iron is under consideration as the true limiting element to ecosystem productivity in the ocean.
Ammonium and nitrite show a maximum concentration at 50 -- 80 m (lower end of the euphotic zone) with decreasing concentration below that depth. This distribution can be accounted for by the fact that nitrite and ammonium are intermediate species. They are both rapidly produced and consumed through the water column. The amount of ammonium in the ocean is about 3 orders of magnitude less than nitrate. Between ammonium, nitrite, and nitrate, nitrite has the fastest turnover rate. It can be produced during nitrate assimilation, nitrification, and denitrification; however, it is immediately consumed again.
Nitrogen entering the euphotic zone is referred to as new nitrogen because it is newly arrived from outside the productive layer. The new nitrogen can come from below the euphotic zone or from outside sources. Outside sources are upwelling from deep water and nitrogen fixation. If the organic matter is eaten, respired, delivered to the water as ammonia, and re-incorporated into organic matter by phytoplankton it is considered recycled / regenerated production. New production is an important component of the marine environment. One reason is that only continual input of new nitrogen can determine the total capacity of the ocean to produce a sustainable fish harvest. Harvesting fish from regenerated nitrogen areas will lead to a decrease in nitrogen and therefore a decrease in primary production. This will have a negative effect on the system. However, if fish are harvested from areas of new nitrogen the nitrogen will be replenished.
As a result of extensive cultivation of legumes (particularly soy, alfalfa, and clover), growing use of the Haber -- Bosch process in the creation of chemical fertilizers, and pollution emitted by vehicles and industrial plants, human beings have more than doubled the annual transfer of nitrogen into biologically available forms. In addition, humans have significantly contributed to the transfer of nitrogen trace gases from Earth to the atmosphere and from the land to aquatic systems. Human alterations to the global nitrogen cycle are most intense in developed countries and in Asia, where vehicle emissions and industrial agriculture are highest.
Nitrous oxide (N O) has risen in the atmosphere as a result of agricultural fertilization, biomass burning, cattle and feedlots, and industrial sources. N O has deleterious effects in the stratosphere, where it breaks down and acts as a catalyst in the destruction of atmospheric ozone. Nitrous oxide is also a greenhouse gas and is currently the third largest contributor to global warming, after carbon dioxide and methane. While not as abundant in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, it is, for an equivalent mass, nearly 300 times more potent in its ability to warm the planet.
Ammonia (NH) in the atmosphere has tripled as the result of human activities. It is a reactant in the atmosphere, where it acts as an aerosol, decreasing air quality and clinging to water droplets, eventually resulting in nitric acid (H NO) that produces acid rain. Atmospheric ammonia and nitric acid also damage respiratory systems.
The very high temperature of lightning naturally produces small amounts of NO, NH, and HNO, but high - temperature combustion has contributed to a 6 - or 7-fold increase in the flux of NO to the atmosphere. Its production is a function of combustion temperature - the higher the temperature, the more NO is produced. Fossil fuel combustion is a primary contributor, but so are biofuels and even the burning of hydrogen. However, the rate that hydrogen is directly injected into the combustion chambers of internal combustion engines can be controlled to prevent the higher combustion temperatures that produce NO.
Ammonia and nitrous oxides actively alter atmospheric chemistry. They are precursors of tropospheric (lower atmosphere) ozone production, which contributes to smog and acid rain, damages plants and increases nitrogen inputs to ecosystems. Ecosystem processes can increase with nitrogen fertilization, but anthropogenic input can also result in nitrogen saturation, which weakens productivity and can damage the health of plants, animals, fish, and humans.
Decreases in biodiversity can also result if higher nitrogen availability increases nitrogen - demanding grasses, causing a degradation of nitrogen - poor, species - diverse heathlands.
Increasing levels of nitrogen deposition are shown to have a number of negative effects on both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Nitrogen gases and aerosols can be directly toxic to certain plant species, affecting the aboveground physiology and growth of plants near large point sources of nitrogen pollution. Changes to plant species interactions may also occur, as accumulation of nitrogen compounds increase its availability in a given ecosystem, eventually changing the species composition, plant diversity, and nitrogen cycling. Ammonia and ammonium - two reduced forms of nitrogen - can be detrimental over time due to an increased toxicity toward sensitive species of plants, particularly those that are accustomed to using nitrate as their source of nitrogen, causing poor development of their roots and shoots. Increased nitrogen deposition also leads to soil acidification, which increases base cation leaching in the soil and amounts of aluminium and other potentially toxic metals, along with decreasing the amount of nitrification occurring and increasing plant - derived litter. Due to the ongoing changes caused by high nitrogen deposition, an environment 's susceptibility to ecological stress and disturbance - such as pests and pathogens - may increase, thus making it less resilient to situations that otherwise would have little impact to its long - term vitality.
Additional risks posed by increased availability of inorganic nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems include water acidification; eutrophication of fresh and saltwater systems; and toxicity issues for animals, including humans. Eutrophication often leads to lower dissolved oxygen levels in the water column, including hypoxic and anoxic conditions, which can cause death of aquatic fauna. Relatively sessile benthos, or bottom - dwelling creatures, are particularly vulnerable because of their lack of mobility, though large fish kills are not uncommon. Oceanic dead zones near the mouth of the Mississippi in the Gulf of Mexico are a well - known example of algal bloom - induced hypoxia. The New York Adirondack Lakes, Catskills, Hudson Highlands, Rensselaer Plateau and parts of Long Island display the impact of nitric acid rain deposition, resulting in the killing of fish and many other aquatic species.
Ammonia (NH) is highly toxic to fish and the level of ammonia discharged from wastewater treatment facilities must be closely monitored. To prevent fish deaths, nitrification via aeration prior to discharge is often desirable. Land application can be an attractive alternative to the aeration.
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who wrote the first letter in the world | History of the alphabet - wikipedia
Egyptian hieroglyphs 32 c. BCE
Hangul 1443 (probably influenced by Tibetan)
The history of alphabetic writing goes back to the consonantal writing system used for Semitic languages in the Levant in the 2nd millennium BCE. Most or nearly all alphabetic scripts used throughout the world today ultimately go back to this Semitic proto - alphabet. Its first origins can be traced back to a Proto - Sinaitic script developed in Ancient Egypt to represent the language of Semitic - speaking workers in Egypt. This script was partly influenced by the older Egyptian hieratic, a cursive script related to Egyptian hieroglyphs.
Mainly through Phoenician and Aramaic, two closely related members of the Semitic family of scripts that were in use during the early first millennium BCE, the Semitic alphabet became the ancestor of multiple writing systems across the Middle East, Europe, northern Africa and South Asia.
Some modern authors distinguish between consonantal scripts of the Semitic type, called "abjads '', and "true alphabets '' in the narrow sense, the distinguishing criterion being that true alphabets consistently assign letters to both consonants and vowels on an equal basis, while in an abjad each symbol usually stands for a consonant. In this sense, the first true alphabet was the Greek alphabet, which was adapted from the Phoenician. Latin, the most widely used alphabet today, in turn derives from Greek (by way of Cumae and the Etruscans).
Two scripts are well attested from before the end of the fourth millennium BCE: Mesopotamian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs. Hieroglyphs were employed in three ways in Ancient Egyptian texts: as logograms (ideograms) that represent a word denoting an object pictorially depicted by the hieroglyph; more commonly as phonograms writing a sound or sequence of sounds; and as determinatives (which provide clues to meaning without directly writing sounds). Since vowels were mostly unwritten, the hieroglyphs which indicated a single consonant could have been used as a consonantal alphabet (or "abjad ''). This was not done when writing the Egyptian language, but seems to have been significant influence on the creation of the first alphabet (used to write a Semitic language). All subsequent alphabets around the world have either descended from this first Semitic alphabet, or have been inspired by one of its descendants (i.e. "stimulus diffusion ''), with the possible exception of the Meroitic alphabet, a 3rd - century BCE adaptation of hieroglyphs in Nubia to the south of Egypt -- though even here many scholars suspect the influence of the first alphabet. The Rongorongo script of Easter Island may also be an independently invented alphabet, but too little is known of it to be certain.
The Proto - Sinaitic script of Egypt has yet to be fully deciphered. However, it may be alphabetic and probably records the Canaanite language. The oldest examples are found as graffiti in the Wadi el Hol and date to perhaps 1850 BCE. The table below shows hypothetical prototypes of the Phoenician alphabet in Egyptian hieroglyphs. Several correspondences have been proposed with Proto - Sinaitic letters.
This Semitic script adapted Egyptian hieroglyphs to write consonantal values based on the first sound of the Semitic name for the object depicted by the hieroglyph (the "acrophonic principle ''). So, for example, the hieroglyph per ("house '' in Egyptian) was used to write the sound (b) in Semitic, because (b) was the first sound in the Semitic word for "house '', bayt. The script was used only sporadically, and retained its pictographic nature, for half a millennium, until adopted for governmental use in Canaan. The first Canaanite states to make extensive use of the alphabet were the Phoenician city - states and so later stages of the Canaanite script are called Phoenician. The Phoenician cities were maritime states at the center of a vast trade network and soon the Phoenician alphabet spread throughout the Mediterranean. Two variants of the Phoenician alphabet had major impacts on the history of writing: the Aramaic alphabet and the Greek alphabet.
The Phoenician and Aramaic alphabets, like their Egyptian prototype, represented only consonants, a system called an abjad. The Aramaic alphabet, which evolved from the Phoenician in the 7th century BCE as the official script of the Persian Empire, appears to be the ancestor of nearly all the modern alphabets of Asia:
By at least the 8th century BCE the Greeks borrowed the Phoenician alphabet and adapted it to their own language, creating in the process the first "true '' alphabet, in which vowels were accorded equal status with consonants. According to Greek legends transmitted by Herodotus, the alphabet was brought from Phoenicia to Greece by Cadmos. The letters of the Greek alphabet are the same as those of the Phoenician alphabet, and both alphabets are arranged in the same order. However, whereas separate letters for vowels would have actually hindered the legibility of Egyptian, Phoenician, or Hebrew, their absence was problematic for Greek, where vowels played a much more important role. The Greeks used for vowels some of the Phoenician letters representing consonants which were n't used in Greek speech. All of the names of the letters of the Phoenician alphabet started with consonants, and these consonants were what the letters represented, something called the acrophonic principle.
However, several Phoenician consonants were absent in Greek, and thus several letter names came to be pronounced with initial vowels. Since the start of the name of a letter was expected to be the sound of the letter (the acrophonic principle), in Greek these letters came to be used for vowels. For example, the Greeks had no glottal stop or voiced pharyngeal sounds, so the Phoenician letters ' alep and ` ayin became Greek alpha and o (later renamed o micron), and stood for the vowels / a / and / o / rather than the consonants / ʔ / and / ʕ /. As this fortunate development only provided for five or six (depending on dialect) of the twelve Greek vowels, the Greeks eventually created digraphs and other modifications, such as ei, ou, and o (which became omega), or in some cases simply ignored the deficiency, as in long a, i, u.
Several varieties of the Greek alphabet developed. One, known as Western Greek or Chalcidian, was used west of Athens and in southern Italy. The other variation, known as Eastern Greek, was used in Asia Minor (also called Asian Greece i.e. present - day aegean Turkey). The Athenians (c. 400 BCE) adopted that latter variation and eventually the rest of the Greek - speaking world followed. After first writing right to left, the Greeks eventually chose to write from left to right, unlike the Phoenicians who wrote from right to left. Many Greek letters are similar to Phoenician, except the letter direction is reversed or changed, which can be the result of historical changes from right - to - left writing to boustrophedon to left - to - right writing.
Greek is in turn the source of all the modern scripts of Europe. The alphabet of the early western Greek dialects, where the letter eta remained an / h /, gave rise to the Old Italic alphabet which in turn developed into the Old Roman alphabet. In the eastern Greek dialects, which did not have an / h /, eta stood for a vowel, and remains a vowel in modern Greek and all other alphabets derived from the eastern variants: Glagolitic, Cyrillic, Armenian, Gothic (which used both Greek and Roman letters), and perhaps Georgian.
Although this description presents the evolution of scripts in a linear fashion, this is a simplification. For example, the Manchu alphabet, descended from the abjads of West Asia, was also influenced by Korean hangul, which was either independent (the traditional view) or derived from the abugidas of South Asia. Georgian apparently derives from the Aramaic family, but was strongly influenced in its conception by Greek. A modified version of the Greek alphabet, using an additional half dozen demotic hieroglyphs, was used to write Coptic Egyptian. Then there is Cree syllabics (an abugida), which is a fusion of Devanagari and Pitman shorthand developed by the missionary James Evans.
A tribe known as the Latins, who became the Romans, also lived in the Italian peninsula like the Western Greeks. From the Etruscans, a tribe living in the first millennium BCE in central Italy, and the Western Greeks, the Latins adopted writing in about the seventh century. In adopting writing from these two groups, the Latins dropped four characters from the Western Greek alphabet. They also adapted the Etruscan letter F, pronounced ' w, ' giving it the ' f ' sound, and the Etruscan S, which had three zigzag lines, was curved to make the modern S. To represent the G sound in Greek and the K sound in Etruscan, the Gamma was used. These changes produced the modern alphabet without the letters G, J, U, W, Y, and Z, as well as some other differences.
C, K, and Q in the Roman alphabet could all be used to write both the / k / and / ɡ / sounds; the Romans soon modified the letter C to make G, inserted it in seventh place, where Z had been, to maintain the gematria (the numerical sequence of the alphabet). Over the few centuries after Alexander the Great conquered the Eastern Mediterranean and other areas in the third century BCE, the Romans began to borrow Greek words, so they had to adapt their alphabet again in order to write these words. From the Eastern Greek alphabet, they borrowed Y and Z, which were added to the end of the alphabet because the only time they were used was to write Greek words.
The Anglo - Saxons began using Roman letters to write Old English as they converted to Christianity, following Augustine of Canterbury 's mission to Britain in the sixth century. Because the Runic wen, which was first used to represent the sound ' w ' and looked like ap that is narrow and triangular, was easy to confuse with an actual p, the ' w ' sound began to be written using a double u. Because the u at the time looked like av, the double u looked like two v 's, W was placed in the alphabet by V. U developed when people began to use the rounded U when they meant the vowel u and the pointed V when the meant the consonant V. J began as a variation of I, in which a long tail was added to the final I when there were several in a row. People began to use the J for the consonant and the I for the vowel by the fifteenth century, and it was fully accepted in the mid-seventeenth century.
The order of the letters of the alphabet is attested from the fourteenth century BCE in the town of Ugarit on Syria 's northern coast. Tablets found there bear over one thousand cuneiform signs, but these signs are not Babylonian and there are only thirty distinct characters. About twelve of the tablets have the signs set out in alphabetic order. There are two orders found, one of which is nearly identical to the order used for Hebrew, Greek and Latin, and a second order very similar to that used for Ethiopian.
It is not known how many letters the Proto - Sinaitic alphabet had nor what their alphabetic order was. Among its descendants, the Ugaritic alphabet had 27 consonants, the South Arabian alphabets had 29, and the Phoenician alphabet 22. These scripts were arranged in two orders, an ABGDE order in Phoenician and an HMĦLQ order in the south; Ugaritic preserved both orders. Both sequences proved remarkably stable among the descendants of these scripts.
The letter names proved stable among the many descendants of Phoenician, including Samaritan, Aramaic, Syriac, Arabic, Hebrew, and Greek alphabet. However, they were largely abandoned in Tifinagh, Latin and Cyrillic. The letter sequence continued more or less intact into Latin, Armenian, Gothic, and Cyrillic, but was abandoned in Brahmi, Runic, and Arabic, although a traditional abjadi order remains or was re-introduced as an alternative in the latter.
The table is a schematic of the Phoenician alphabet and its descendants.
These 22 consonants account for the phonology of Northwest Semitic. Of the 29 consonant phonemes commonly reconstructed for Proto - Semitic, seven are missing: the interdental fricatives ḏ, ṯ, ṱ, the voiceless lateral fricatives ś, ṣ́, the voiced uvular fricative ġ, and the distinction between uvular and pharyngeal voiceless fricatives ḫ, ḥ, in Canaanite merged in ḥet. The six variant letters added in the Arabic alphabet include these (except for ś, which survives as a separate phoneme in Ge'ez ሠ): ḏ → ḏāl; ṯ → ṯāʾ; ṱ → ḍād; ġ → ġayn; ṣ́ → ẓāʾ; ḫ → ḫāʾ
One modern national alphabet that has not been graphically traced back to the Canaanite alphabet is the Maldivian script, which is unique in that, although it is clearly modeled after Arabic and perhaps other existing alphabets, it derives its letter forms from numerals. Another is the Korean Hangul, which was created independently in 1443. The Osmanya alphabet was devised for Somali in the 1920s by Osman Yusuf Kenadid, and the forms of its consonants appear to be complete innovations.
Among alphabets that are not used as national scripts today, a few are clearly independent in their letter forms. The Zhuyin phonetic alphabet derives from Chinese characters. The Santali alphabet of eastern India appears to be based on traditional symbols such as "danger '' and "meeting place '', as well as pictographs invented by its creator. (The names of the Santali letters are related to the sound they represent through the acrophonic principle, as in the original alphabet, but it is the final consonant or vowel of the name that the letter represents: le "swelling '' represents e, while en "thresh grain '' represents n.)
In early medieval Ireland, Ogham consisted of tally marks, and the monumental inscriptions of the Old Persian Empire were written in an essentially alphabetic cuneiform script whose letter forms seem to have been created for the occasion.
Changes to a new writing medium sometimes caused a break in graphical form, or make the relationship difficult to trace. It is not immediately obvious that the cuneiform Ugaritic alphabet derives from a prototypical Semitic abjad, for example, although this appears to be the case. And while manual alphabets are a direct continuation of the local written alphabet (both the British two - handed and the French / American one - handed alphabets retain the forms of the Latin alphabet, as the Indian manual alphabet does Devanagari, and the Korean does Hangul), Braille, semaphore, maritime signal flags, and the Morse codes are essentially arbitrary geometric forms. The shapes of the English Braille and semaphore letters, for example, are derived from the alphabetic order of the Latin alphabet, but not from the graphic forms of the letters themselves. Most modern forms of shorthand are also unrelated to the alphabet, generally transcribing sounds instead of letters.
ʾ
g
d
h
w
z
ḥ
ṭ
y
k
l
m
n
s
ʿ
p
ṣ
q
r
š
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which of the following evolved as a result of the peace of westphalia | Peace of Westphalia - wikipedia
The Peace of Westphalia (German: Westfälischer Friede) was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Osnabrück and Münster, effectively ending the European wars of religion. These treaties ended the Thirty Years ' War (1618 -- 1648) in the Holy Roman Empire between the Habsburgs and their Catholic allies on one side, and the Protestant powers (Sweden, Denmark, Dutch, and Holy Roman principalities) and their Catholic (France) Anti-Habsburg allies on the other. The treaties also ended the Eighty Years ' War (1568 -- 1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognising the independence of the Dutch Republic. The Treaties of Westphalia brought to a close a tumultuous period of European history which saw the deaths of approximately eight million people. The peace negotiations involved a total of 109 delegations representing European powers, including Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III, Philip IV of Spain, the Kingdom of France, Cristina of the Swedish Empire, the Dutch Republic, the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, and sovereigns of the free imperial cities. Thousands of diplomats and support staff attended these conferences. The Peace of Münster together with the Treaty of Münster between the Holy Roman Emperor, France and their allies and the Treaty of Osnabrück involving the Holy Roman Empire, Sweden and their allies collectively formed the Peace of Westphalia.
The Peace of Westphalia established the precedent of peaces established by diplomatic congress, and a new system of political order in central Europe, later called Westphalian sovereignty, based upon the concept of co-existing sovereign states. Inter-state aggression was to be held in check by a balance of power. A norm was established against interference in another state 's domestic affairs. As European influence spread across the globe, these Westphalian principles, especially the concept of sovereign states, became central to international law and to the prevailing world order.
Peace negotiations between France and the Habsburgs, provided by the Holy Roman Emperor and the Spanish King, were started in Cologne in 1641. These negotiations were initially blocked by France. Cardinal Richelieu of France desired the inclusion of all its allies, whether sovereign or a state within the Holy Roman Empire. In Hamburg and Lübeck, Sweden and the Holy Roman Empire negotiated the Treaty of Hamburg. This was done with the intervention of Richelieu.
The Holy Roman Empire and Sweden declared the preparations of Cologne and the Treaty of Hamburg to be preliminaries of an overall peace agreement. This larger agreement was negotiated in Westphalia, in the neighboring cities of Münster and Osnabrück.
Both cities were maintained as neutral and demilitarized zones for the negotiations. Münster was, since its re-Catholicization in 1535, a strictly mono - denominational community. It housed the Chapter of the Prince - Bishopric of Münster. Only Roman Catholic worship was permitted. No places of worship were provided for Calvinists and Lutherans. Osnabrück was a bidenominational Lutheran and Catholic city, with two Lutheran and two Catholic churches for its mostly Lutheran burghers and exclusively Lutheran city council and the Catholic Chapter of the Prince - Bishopric of Osnabrück with pertaining other clergy and other Catholic inhabitants.
From 1628 -- 33, Osnabrück had been subjugated by troops of the Catholic League. The Catholic Prince - Bishop Franz Wilhelm, Count of Wartenberg then imposed the Counter-Reformation onto the city, with many Lutheran burgher families being exiled. While under Swedish occupation, Osnabrücks 's Catholics were not expelled, but the city suffered severely from Swedish war contributions. Both cities strove for more autonomy, aspiring to become Free Imperial Cities, so they welcomed the neutrality imposed by the peace negotiations and the prohibition of all political influence by the warring parties, including their overlords, the prince - bishops.
Since Lutheran Sweden preferred Osnabrück as a conference venue, its peace negotiations with the Empire, including the allies of both sides, took place in Osnabrück. The Empire and its opponent France, including the allies of each, as well as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands and its opponent Spain (and their respective allies) negotiated in Münster.
The peace negotiations had no exact beginning and ending, because the participating total of 109 delegations never met in a plenary session, but arrived between 1643 -- 46, and left between 1647 -- 49. Between January 1646 and July 1647 probably the largest number of diplomats were present. In total, 194 European sovreigns were represented by these delegations. Delegations had been sent by 16 European states, sixty - six Imperial States, representing the interests of a total of 140 involved Imperial States, and 27 interest groups, representing the interests of a variety of a total of 38 groups.
Three separate treaties constituted the peace settlement. The Peace of Münster was between the Dutch Republic and the Kingdom of Spain on 30 January 1648, and was ratified in Münster on 15 May 1648. Two complementary treaties, both signed on 24 October 1648, were the Treaty of Münster (Instrumentum Pacis Monasteriensis, IPM), between the Holy Roman Emperor, France, and their respective allies, and the Treaty of Osnabrück (Instrumentum Pacis Osnabrugensis, IPO), involving the Holy Roman Empire, Sweden, and their respective allies. The treaties did not restore peace throughout Europe, but they did create a basis for national self - determination.
The power taken by Ferdinand III in contravention of the Holy Roman Empire 's constitution was stripped and returned to the rulers of the Imperial States. This rectification allowed the rulers of the Imperial States to decide their religious worship independently. Protestants and Catholics were redefined as equal before the law, and Calvinism was given legal recognition. The independence of the Dutch Republic also provided a safe country for European Jews.
The Holy See was very displeased at the settlement, with Pope Innocent X in Zelo Domus Dei reportedly calling it "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all time ''.
The main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia were:
The Peace of Westphalia has been studied extensively by those in the fields of International Relations and Political Science, as it marked a shift on ideas of state sovereignty. It has been described as an "icon '' of International Relations scholarship by Dr. Stephen Krasner of Stanford University, due to it touching upon the topics of collective security, the establishment of sovereign and equal states, and nonintervention into the internal affairs of foreign states:
The Westphalian model, based on principles of autonomy and territory, offers a simple, arresting, and elegant image. It orders the minds of policymakers. It is an analytic assumption for neo-realism and neo-liberal institutionalism, both of which posit that states can be treated as if they were autonomous, unified, rational actors. It is an empirical reality for various sociological and constructivist theories of international politics. Moreover, it is a benchmark for observers who discern a basic erosion of sovereignty in the contemporary world.
The new Westphalian system embraced the idea that nation - states held sovereignty over extraterritorial powers, such as the Catholic Church or the Holy Roman Empire. The European order after 1648 -- with its basic territorial unit of the nation - state -- provided the basis for the development of world - state interaction into the twentieth century. The twenty - first century has sometimes been described as "Post-Westphalian ''. This is due to supranational organizations such as the European Union and United Nations, alongside various other political and economic organizations, limiting state sovereignty. Furthermore, humanitarian ideas -- including the "right to protect '' -- have increasingly been used as a justification to violate state sovereignty since the 1990 's. The term "Westfailure '' was coined in 1999 by Susan Strange, which has been used to note signs of the weakening of the Westphalian system.
As the Thirty Years ' War was largely fought on the territory of the Holy Roman Empire, 95 % of the war 's casualties were Imperial subjects. The conflict was especially devastating for the ethnically German portions of the Empire: the population was reduced between 25 % and 40 % in Germany proper. As a result, the Thirty Years ' War has taken an important position in the German national consciousness. The Treaty of Westphalia also became an important topic in the developing German nationalism of the nineteenth century. The treaty has been commemorated as ending a devastating chapter in German history. It was also a sign of the failing power of the Holy Roman Empire of the Catholic Habsburgs, and was ultimately a step in the establishment of Prussia, which would become the leading German state in the nineteenth century.
The treaties did not entirely end conflicts arising out of the Thirty Years ' War. Fighting continued between France and Spain until the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. The Dutch - Portuguese War had started during the Spanish occupation of Portugal, as part of the Eighty Years ' War, but went on until 1663. Nevertheless, it did settle many outstanding European issues of the time. Some of the principles developed at Westphalia, especially those relating to respecting the boundaries of sovereign states and non-interference in their domestic affairs, became central to the world order that developed over the following centuries, and remain in effect today. In several parts of the world, however, sovereign states emerged from what was once imperial territory only after the post-World War II period of decolonization. More significantly, one of the major principles -- the balance of power -- was undermined in the Twentieth century. Referring to the Soviet Union, Adolf Hitler said that without the Wehrmacht, a "wave would have swept over Europe that would have taken no care of the ridiculous British idea of the balance of power in Europe in all its banality and stupid tradition -- once and for all. '' During World War II, the multipolar balance became bipolar, between the Axis and the Allies, followed by the United States and NATO nations against the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact nations during the Cold War. In his book Politics Among Nations in the chapter entitled "The New Balance of Power '', Hans Morgenthau opened with the words:
The destruction of that intellectual and moral consensus which restrained the struggle for power for almost three centuries deprived the balance of power of its vital energy that made it a living principle of international politics... The most obvious of these structural changes which impairs the operation of the balance of power is to be found in the drastic numerical reduction of the players in the game.
After the fall of the Soviet Union, power was seen as unipolar with the United States in absolute control, though nuclear proliferation and the rise of Japan, the European Union, the Middle East, China, and a resurgent Russia have begun to recreate a multipolar political environment. Instead of a traditional balance of power, inter-state aggression may now be checked by the preponderance of power, a sharp contrast to the Westphalian principle.
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i am the prettiest thing that lives in the house | I Am the Pretty Thing that Lives in the house - wikipedia
I Am the Pretty Thing That Lives in the House is a 2016 American - Canadian horror film written and directed by Osgood Perkins. It stars Ruth Wilson as a live - in nurse who suspects her elderly employer 's house may be haunted. It premiered at the 2016 Toronto International Film Festival and was released worldwide on Netflix on October 28.
Iris Blum, a retired horror writer, suffers from dementia and lives in a remote house in New England. The house was built by a man for his new bride, but the couple vanished on their wedding day and left the house unfurnished. Iris 's estate manager, Mr. Waxcap, hires live - in nurse Lily Saylor to care for her. On Lily 's first night in the house, the telephone is wrenched out of her hands by an unseen force. A spot of black mold appears on a section of wall and slowly grows as the months pass. Lily often finds a corner of the rug at the base of the stairs has been flipped up, but she is the only person in the house who walks on the first floor.
Iris only refers to Lily as "Polly, '' which Mr. Waxcap explains comes from the protagonist of her most popular novel, The Lady in the Walls. Later, Lily opens a copy of the book in Iris 's study, and finds that the novel implies that Iris knew Polly during her lifetime and is retelling her story. A flashback depicts a woman, presumably Polly, wearing a wedding dress and black blindfold, walking through the empty house. A man wearing a suit can be seen in the other room, his distinguishing features hidden from the frame. Lily sets the book back on the shelf, too frightened to continue.
While rinsing berries in the kitchen, black mold spots cover Lily 's hands and arms. Upon closer inspection, she realizes her arms have become noticeably bloated and have turned to a sickly grey color. Iris calls for Lily, which momentarily distracts her from her arms, and they appear normal when she looks at them again. Later that evening, while turning the channel dial on the television, she spots the reflection of a figure dressed in white standing in the archway of the room. When she turns around, no one is there.
Lily discovers a moldy cardboard box hidden away in a closet. Inside, she discovers rough drafts for The Lady in the Walls. Lily comes to believe that the novel may not be fictitious, but rather depicts an actual murder committed in the house. The continued flashback, a blindfolded Polly uses her hands to feel her surroundings, coming across a section of the wall that has been stripped of its boards - the same section where mold is growing in the present day. Polly raises her blindfold and sees the hole, locking eyes with her husband in confusion. Her husband suddenly bludgeons her to death with a hammer and hides her body behind the wall.
In the present, Lily discussing the book with Iris, who continues to address her as Polly. Iris grows angry with Lily, explaining that she feels betrayed and abandoned, stating that even the prettiest of things eventually rot, and that she will "fall apart like flowers. '' Later, Lily watches television in her bedroom when Polly 's ghost visits Iris, whispering in her ear. Lily hears a metallic clang, followed by a rhythmic banging sound. Downstairs, she finds the wall boards removed and piled beside the moldy wall. Lily suddenly encounters the ghost and dies of a shock - induced heart attack. Polly 's ghost lingers near the opening in the wall, staring at the camera.
Several days later, Mr. Waxcap discovers Lily 's body. Because Iris never received visitors, she dies as well. An ambulance removes the bodies, and Mr. Waxcap makes preparations to sell the house. A new family moves in, unaware of its history or ghostly occupants. The camera focuses on a ghostly apparition resembling Lily, who refers to herself as the "pretty thing you are looking at ''.
Writer - director Osgood Perkins originally intended for the story to be about the daughter of a male horror novelist, but he said that "one day, it just changed ''. Casting became easier once the film was financed; Perkins cited Wilson 's talent and excitement for the project as two of the reasons she was chosen to play Lily. Prentiss -- a family friend who, as well as her husband Richard Benjamin, had performed with Perkins ' father, Anthony Perkins -- was the director 's only choice to play Iris.
I Am the Pretty Thing That Lives in the House premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 10, 2016. It debuted on Netflix on October 28.
Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 60 % of fifteen surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 5.9 / 10. Dennis Harvey of Variety wrote that the film 's atmosphere can not overcome its minimalist and familiar writing. Stephen Dalton of The Hollywood Reporter called it "classy vintage horror with a literary flavor '' and compared it to the works of David Lynch, Stanley Kubrick, and Roman Polanski. April Wolfe of The Village Voice described it as "the most atmospherically faithful adaptation ever of a Shirley Jackson book that never existed '' and concluded that the film was "the very best of gothic horror. '' In rating it 2 / 5 stars, Nigel M. Smith of The Guardian wrote, "Osgood Perkins layers on the dread in his haunted house thriller. But as it becomes clear that there 's no worthwhile story, the scares dissipate fast. '' A.A. Dowd of The A.V. Club called it a creepy, slow burn drama that works despite its lack of a conventional payoff.
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what is the color of the color wheel | Color wheel - Wikipedia
A color wheel or colour circle is an abstract illustrative organization of color hues around a circle, which shows the relationships between primary colors, secondary colors, tertiary colors etc.
Some sources use the terms color wheel and color circle interchangeably; however, one term or the other may be more prevalent in certain fields or certain versions as mentioned above. For instance, some reserve the term color wheel for mechanical rotating devices, such as color tops or filter wheels. Others classify various color wheels as color disc, color chart, and color scale varieties.
As an illustrative model, artists typically use red, yellow, and blue primaries (RYB color model) arranged at three equally spaced points around their color wheel. Printers and others who use modern subtractive color methods and terminology use magenta, yellow, and cyan as subtractive primaries. Intermediate and interior points of color wheels and circles represent color mixtures. In a paint or subtractive color wheel, the "center of gravity '' is usually (but not always) black, representing all colors of light being absorbed; in a color circle, on the other hand, the center is white or gray, indicating a mixture of different wavelengths of light (all wavelengths, or two complementary colors, for example).
The original color circle of Isaac Newton showed only the spectral hues and was provided to illustrate a rule for the color of mixtures of lights, that these could be approximately predicted from the center of gravity of the numbers of "rays '' of each spectral color present (represented in his diagram by small circles). The divisions of Newton 's circle are of unequal size, being based on the intervals of a Dorian musical scale. Most later color circles include the purples, however, between red and violet, and have equal - sized hue divisions. Color scientists and psychologists often use the additive primaries, red, green and blue; and often refer to their arrangement around a circle as a color circle as opposed to a color wheel.
The typical artists ' paint or pigment color wheel includes the blue, red, and yellow primary colors. The corresponding secondary colors are green, orange, and violet or purple. The tertiary colors are green - yellow, yellow -- orange, orange - red, red -- violet, violet - blue and blue -- green.
A color wheel based on RGB (red, green, blue) or RGV (red, green, violet) additive primaries has cyan, magenta, and yellow secondaries (cyan was previously known as cyan blue). Alternatively, the same arrangement of colors around a circle can be described as based on cyan, magenta, and yellow subtractive primaries, with red, green, and blue (or violet) being secondaries.
Most color wheels are based on three primary colors, three secondary colors, and the six intermediates formed by mixing a primary with a secondary, known as tertiary colors, for a total of 12 main divisions; some add more intermediates, for 24 named colors. Other color wheels, however, are based on the four opponent colors, and may have four or eight main colors.
Goethe 's Theory of Colours provided the first systematic study of the physiological effects of color (1810). His observations on the effect of opposed colors led him to a symmetric arrangement of his color wheel anticipating Ewald Hering 's opponent color theory (1872).
... for the colours diametrically opposed to each other... are those that reciprocally evoke each other in the eye.
A color circle based on spectral wavelengths appears with red at one end of the spectrum and is 100 % mixable violet at the other. A wedge - shaped gap represents colors that have no unique spectral frequency. These extra-spectral colors, the purples, form from additive mixture of colors from the ends of the spectrum.
In normal human vision, wavelengths of between about 400 nm and 700 nm are represented by this incomplete circle, with the longer wavelengths equating to the red end of the spectrum. Complement colors are located directly opposite each other on this wheel. These complement colors are not identical to colors in pigment mixing (such as are used in paint), but when lights are additively mixed in the correct proportions appear as a neutral grey or white.
For example: the reason that the Wimbledon tennis tournament uses purple on the Wimbledon official logo is that purple is located almost opposite of green on the color wheel. Purple against green provides good contrast.
The color circle is used for, among other purposes, illustrating additive color mixture. Combining two colored lights from different parts of the spectrum may produce a third color that appears like a light from another part of the spectrum, even though dissimilar wavelengths are involved. This type of color matching is known as metameric matching. Thus a combination of green and red light might produce a color close to yellow in apparent hue. The newly formed color lies between the two original colors on the color circle, but they are usually represented as being joined by a straight line on the circle, the location of the new color closer to the (white) centre of the circle indicating that the resulting hue is less saturated (i.e., paler) than either of the two source colors. The combination of any two colors in this way are always less saturated than the two pure spectral colors individually.
Objects may be viewed under a variety of different lighting conditions. The human visual system is able to adapt to these differences by chromatic adaptation. This aspect of the visual system is relatively easy to mislead, and optical illusions relating to color are therefore a common phenomenon. The color circle is a useful tool for examining these illusions.
Arranging spectral colors in a circle to predict admixture of light stems from work by Sir Isaac Newton. Newton 's calculation of the resulting color involves three steps: First, mark on the color circle the constituent colors according to their relative weight. Second, find the barycenter of these differently weighted colors. Third, interpret the radial distance (from the center of the circle to the barycenter) as the saturation of the color, and the azimuthal position on the circle as the hue of the color. Thus, Newton 's color circle is a predecessor of the modern, horseshoe - shaped CIE color diagram.
The psychophysical theory behind the color circle dates to the early color triangle of Thomas Young, whose work was later extended by James Clerk Maxwell and Hermann von Helmholtz. Young postulated that the eye contains receptors that respond to three different primary sensations, or spectra of light. As Maxwell showed, all hues, but not all colors, can be created from three primary colors such as red, green, and blue, if they are mixed in the right proportions.
There is no straight - line relationship between colors mixed in pigment, which vary from medium to medium. With a psychophysical color circle, however, the resulting hue of any mixture of two colored light sources can be determined simply by the relative brightness and wavelength of the two lights. A similar calculation can not be performed with two paints. As such, a painter 's color wheel is indicative rather than predictive, being used to compare existing colors rather than calculate exact colors of mixtures. Because of differences relating to the medium, different color wheels can be created according to the type of paint or other medium used, and many artists make their own individual color wheels. These often contain only blocks of color rather than the gradation between tones that is characteristic of the color circle.
A number of interactive color wheel applications are available both on the Internet and as desktop applications. These programs are used by artists and designers for picking colors for a design.
The HSL and HSV color spaces are simple geometric transformations of the RGB cube into cylindrical form. The outer top circle of the HSV cylinder -- or the outer middle circle of the HSL cylinder -- can be thought of as a color wheel. There is no authoritative way of labeling the colors in such a color wheel, but the six colors which fall at corners of the RGB cube are given names in the X11 color list, and are named keywords in HTML.
Color schemes are logical combinations of colors on the color wheel.
In color theory, a color scheme is the choice of colors used in design for a range of media. For example, the use of a white background with black text is an example of a common default color scheme in web design.
Color schemes are used to create style and appeal. Colors that create an aesthetic feeling together commonly appear together in color schemes. A basic color scheme uses two colors that look appealing together. More advanced color schemes involve several colors in combination, usually based around a single color -- for example, text with such colors as red, yellow, orange and light blue arranged together on a black background in a magazine article.
Color schemes can also contain different shades of a single color; for example, a color scheme that mixes different shades of green, ranging from very light (almost white) to very dark.
Analogous colors are colors next to each other on the wheel. For example, yellow and green. Monochromic colors are different shades of the same color. For example, light blue, indigo, and cyan blue. Complementary colors are colors across from each other on a color wheel. For example, blue and orange. Triadic colors are colors that are evenly across from each other, in a triangle over the color wheel. For example, the primary colors red, yellow, and blue are triadic colors.
For a list of ways to construct color schemes, regarding properties such as warmness / achromiticness / complementariness, see color theory.
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where will chlorophyll be found in the chloroplast | Chlorophyll - wikipedia
Chlorophyll (also chlorophyl) is any of several related green pigments found in cyanobacteria and the chloroplasts of algae and plants. Its name is derived from the Greek words χλωρός, chloros ("green '') and φύλλον, phyllon ("leaf ''). Chlorophyll is essential in photosynthesis, allowing plants to absorb energy from light.
Chlorophylls absorb light most strongly in the blue portion of the electromagnetic spectrum as well as the red portion. Conversely, it is a poor absorber of green and near - green portions of the spectrum, which it reflects, producing the green color of chlorophyll - containing tissues. Two types of chlorophyll exist in the photosystems of green plants: chlorophyll a and b.
Chlorophyll was first isolated and named by Joseph Bienaimé Caventou and Pierre Joseph Pelletier in 1817. The presence of magnesium in chlorophyll was discovered in 1906, and was the first time that magnesium had been detected in living tissue.
After initial work done by German chemist Richard Willstätter spanning from 1905 to 1915, the general structure of chlorophyll a was elucidated by Hans Fischer in 1940. By 1960, when most of the stereochemistry of chlorophyll a was known, Robert Burns Woodward published a total synthesis of the molecule. In 1967, the last remaining stereochemical elucidation was completed by Ian Fleming, and in 1990 Woodward and co-authors published an updated synthesis. Chlorophyll f was announced to be present in cyanobacteria and other oxygenic microorganisms that form stromatolites in 2010; a molecular formula of C H O N Mg and a structure of (2 - formyl) - chlorophyll a were deduced based on NMR, optical and mass spectra.
Chlorophyll is vital for photosynthesis, which allows plants to absorb energy from light.
Chlorophyll molecules are arranged in and around photosystems that are embedded in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. In these complexes, chlorophyll serves three functions. The function of the vast majority of chlorophyll (up to several hundred molecules per photosystem) is to absorb light. Having done so, these same centers execute their second function: the transfer of that light energy by resonance energy transfer to a specific chlorophyll pair in the reaction center of the photosystems. This pair effects the final function of chlorophylls, charge separation, leading to biosynthesis. The two currently accepted photosystem units are photosystem II and photosystem I, which have their own distinct reaction centres, named P680 and P700, respectively. These centres are named after the wavelength (in nanometers) of their red - peak absorption maximum. The identity, function and spectral properties of the types of chlorophyll in each photosystem are distinct and determined by each other and the protein structure surrounding them. Once extracted from the protein into a solvent (such as acetone or methanol), these chlorophyll pigments can be separated into chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b.
The function of the reaction center of chlorophyll is to absorb light energy and transfer it to other parts of the photosystem. The absorbed energy of the photon is transferred to an electron in a process called charge separation. The removal of the electron from the chlorophyll is an oxidation reaction. The chlorophyll donates the high energy electron to a series of molecular intermediates called an electron transport chain. The charged reaction center of chlorophyll (P680) is then reduced back to its ground state by accepting an electron stripped from water. The electron that reduces P680 ultimately comes from the oxidation of water into O and H through several intermediates. This reaction is how photosynthetic organisms such as plants produce O gas, and is the source for practically all the O in Earth 's atmosphere. Photosystem I typically works in series with Photosystem II; thus the P700 of Photosystem I is usually reduced as it accepts the electron, via many intermediates in the thylakoid membrane, by electrons coming, ultimately, from Photosystem II. Electron transfer reactions in the thylakoid membranes are complex, however, and the source of electrons used to reduce P700 can vary.
The electron flow produced by the reaction center chlorophyll pigments is used to pump H ions across the thylakoid membrane, setting up a chemiosmotic potential used mainly in the production of ATP (stored chemical energy) or to reduce NADP to NADPH. NADPH is a universal agent used to reduce CO into sugars as well as other biosynthetic reactions.
Reaction center chlorophyll -- protein complexes are capable of directly absorbing light and performing charge separation events without the assistance of other chlorophyll pigments, but the probability of that happening under a given light intensity is small. Thus, the other chlorophylls in the photosystem and antenna pigment proteins all cooperatively absorb and funnel light energy to the reaction center. Besides chlorophyll a, there are other pigments, called accessory pigments, which occur in these pigment -- protein antenna complexes.
Chlorophylls are numerous types, but all are defined by the presence of a fifth ring beyond the four pyrrole - like rings. Most chlorophylls are classified as chlorins, which are reduced relatives to porphyrins (found in hemoglobin). They share a common biosynthetic pathway as porphyrins, including the precursor uroporphyrinogen III. Unlike hemes, which feature iron at the center of the tetrapyrrole ring, chlorophylls bind magnesium. For the structures depicted in this article, some of the ligands attached to the Mg center are omitted for clarity. The chlorin ring can have various side chains, usually including a long phytol chain. The most widely distributed form in terrestrial plants is chlorophyll a.
The structures of chlorophylls are summarized below:
When leaves degreen in the process of plant senescence, chlorophyll is converted to a group of colourless tetrapyrroles known as nonfluorescent chlorophyll catabolites (NCC 's) with the general structure:
These compounds have also been identified in several ripening fruits.
Measurement of the absorption of light is complicated by the solvent used to extract the chlorophyll from plant material, which affects the values obtained,
By measuring the absorption of light in the red and far red regions, it is possible to estimate the concentration of chlorophyll within a leaf.
Ratio fluorescence emission can be used to measure chlorophyll content. By exciting chlorophyll "a '' fluorescence at a lower wavelength, the ratio of chlorophyll fluorescence emission at 705 nm + / - 10 nm and 735 nm + / - 10 nm can provide a linear relationship of chlorophyll content when compared to chemical testing. The ratio F735 / F700 provided a correlation value of r 0.96 compared to chemical testing in the range from 41 mg m up to 675 mg m. Gitelson also developed a formula for direct readout of chlorophyll content in mg m. The formula provided a reliable method of measuring chlorophyll content from 41 mg m up to 675 mg m with a correlation r value of 0.95.
In plants, chlorophyll may be synthesized from succinyl - CoA and glycine, although the immediate precursor to chlorophyll a and b is protochlorophyllide. In Angiosperm plants, the last step, the conversion of protochlorophyllide to chlorophyll, is light - dependent and such plants are pale (etiolated) if grown in darkness. Non-vascular plants and green algae have an additional light - independent enzyme and grow green even in darkness.
Chlorophyll itself is bound to proteins and can transfer the absorbed energy in the required direction. Protochlorophyllide occurs mostly in the free form and, under light conditions, acts as a photosensitizer, forming highly toxic free radicals. Hence, plants need an efficient mechanism of regulating the amount of chlorophyll precursor. In angiosperms, this is done at the step of aminolevulinic acid (ALA), one of the intermediate compounds in the biosynthesis pathway. Plants that are fed by ALA accumulate high and toxic levels of protochlorophyllide; so do the mutants with the damaged regulatory system.
Chlorosis is a condition in which leaves produce insufficient chlorophyll, turning them yellow. Chlorosis can be caused by a nutrient deficiency of iron -- called iron chlorosis -- or by a shortage of magnesium or nitrogen. Soil pH sometimes plays a role in nutrient - caused chlorosis; many plants are adapted to grow in soils with specific pH levels and their ability to absorb nutrients from the soil can be dependent on this. Chlorosis can also be caused by pathogens including viruses, bacteria and fungal infections, or sap - sucking insects.
Anthocyanins are other plant pigments. The absorbance pattern responsible for the red color of anthocyanins may be complementary to that of green chlorophyll in photosynthetically active tissues such as young Quercus coccifera leaves. It may protect the leaves from attacks by plant eaters that may be attracted by green color.
The chlorophyll maps show milligrams of chlorophyll per cubic meter of seawater each month. Places where chlorophyll amounts were very low, indicating very low numbers of phytoplankton, are blue. Places where chlorophyll concentrations were high, meaning many phytoplankton were growing, are yellow. The observations come from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA 's Aqua satellite. Land is dark gray, and places where MODIS could not collect data because of sea ice, polar darkness, or clouds are light gray. The highest chlorophyll concentrations, where tiny surface - dwelling ocean plants are thriving, are in cold polar waters or in places where ocean currents bring cold water to the surface, such as around the equator and along the shores of continents. It is not the cold water itself that stimulates the phytoplankton. Instead, the cool temperatures are often a sign that the water has welled up to the surface from deeper in the ocean, carrying nutrients that have built up over time. In polar waters, nutrients accumulate in surface waters during the dark winter months when plants can not grow. When sunlight returns in the spring and summer, the plants flourish in high concentrations.
Chlorophyll is registered as a food additive (colorant), and its E number is E140. Chefs use chlorophyll to color a variety of foods and beverages green, such as pasta and absinthe. Chlorophyll is not soluble in water, and it is first mixed with a small quantity of vegetable oil to obtain the desired solution.
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when does season five of spirit come out | Spirit Riding Free - Wikipedia
Spirit Riding Free is a computer - animated series, produced by DreamWorks Animation Television and distributed by Netflix, based on the 2002 Oscar - nominated traditionally - animated film, Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron. The series was first released on Netflix on May 5, 2017.
Set during the 19th century in the small town of Miradero, Texas, a 12 - year - old girl named Lucky, who had recently relocated from the city, encounters a wild kiger mustang named Spirit. Offspring of Spirit and Rain from Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron, the horse is caught by wranglers and brought to be "broken '' in Miradero. Lucky gradually bonds with the stallion, and frees him. Lucky also meets two other girls, Pru and Abigail, who both own horses, Chica Linda, a palomino, and Boomerang, a pinto horse, respectively. They embark on everyday adventures across the land.
Six episodes of the first season premiered on May 5, 2017. The series was renewed for a second season and it premiered on September 8, 2017. The series was renewed for a third season and it premiered on November 17, 2017. The series was renewed for a fourth season and it premiered on March 16, 2018. A fifth season of the show was released on Netflix on May 11, 2018.
The voice director for the first three episodes was Ginny McSwain; Katie McWane took over as voice director subsequent to that.
A DVD collection of all the episodes from seasons 1 -- 4, titled Spirit Riding Free: Season 1 -- 4 was released on DVD on June 5, 2018 by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment.
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which of the following is a form of online advertising | Online advertising - wikipedia
Online advertising, also called online marketing or Internet advertising or web advertising, is a form of marketing and advertising which uses the Internet to deliver promotional marketing messages to consumers. Consumers view online advertising as an unwanted distraction with few benefits and have increasingly turned to ad blocking for a variety of reasons. When software is used to do the purchasing, it is known as programmatic advertising.
It includes email marketing, search engine marketing (SEM), social media marketing, many types of display advertising (including web banner advertising), and mobile advertising. Like other advertising media, online advertising frequently involves both a publisher, who integrates advertisements into its online content, and an advertiser, who provides the advertisements to be displayed on the publisher 's content. Other potential participants include advertising agencies who help generate and place the ad copy, an ad server which technologically delivers the ad and tracks statistics, and advertising affiliates who do independent promotional work for the advertiser.
In 2016, Internet advertising revenues in the United States surpassed those of cable television and broadcast television. In 2017, Internet advertising revenues in the United States totaled $83.0 billion, a 14 % increase over the $72.50 billion in revenues in 2016.
Many common online advertising practices are controversial and increasingly subject to regulation. Online ad revenues may not adequately replace other publishers ' revenue streams. Declining ad revenue has led some publishers to hide their content behind paywalls.
In early days of the Internet, online advertising was mostly prohibited. For example, two of the predecessor networks to the Internet, ARPANET and NSFNet, had "acceptable use policies '' that banned network "use for commercial activities by for - profit institutions ''. The NSFNet began phasing out its commercial use ban in 1991.
The first widely publicized example of online advertising was conducted via electronic mail. On 3 May 1978, a marketer from DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation), Gary Thuerk, sent an email to most of the ARPANET 's American west coast users, advertising an open house for a new model of a DEC computer. Despite the prevailing acceptable use policies, electronic mail marketing rapidly expanded and eventually became known as "spam. ''
The first known large - scale non-commercial spam message was sent on 18 January 1994 by an Andrews University system administrator, by cross-posting a religious message to all USENET newsgroups. In January 1994 Mark Eberra started the first email marketing company for opt in email list under the domain Insideconnect.com. He also started the Direct Email Marketing Association to help stop unwanted email and prevent spam.
Four months later, Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel, partners in a law firm, broadly promoted their legal services in a USENET posting titled "Green Card Lottery -- Final One? '' Canter and Siegel 's Green Card USENET spam raised the profile of online advertising, stimulating widespread interest in advertising via both Usenet and traditional email. More recently, spam has evolved into a more industrial operation, where spammers use armies of virus - infected computers (botnets) to send spam remotely.
Online banner advertising began in the early 1990s as page owners sought additional revenue streams to support their content. Commercial online service Prodigy displayed banners at the bottom of the screen to promote Sears products. The first clickable web ad was sold by Global Network Navigator in 1993 to a Silicon Valley law firm. In 1994, web banner advertising became mainstream when HotWired, the online component of Wired Magazine, sold banner ads to AT&T and other companies. The first AT&T ad on HotWired had a 44 % click - through rate, and instead of directing clickers to AT&T 's website, the ad linked to an online tour of seven of the world 's most acclaimed art museums.
GoTo.com (renamed Overture in 2001, and acquired by Yahoo! in 2003) created the first search advertising keyword auction in 1998. Google launched its "AdWords '' search advertising program in 2000 and introduced quality - based ranking allocation in 2002, which sorts search advertisements by a combination of bid price and searchers ' likeliness to click on the ads.
More recently, companies have sought to merge their advertising messages into editorial content or valuable services. Examples include Red Bull 's Red Bull Media House streaming Felix Baumgartner 's jump from space online, Coca - Cola 's online magazines, and Nike 's free applications for performance tracking. Advertisers are also embracing social media and mobile advertising; mobile ad spending has grown 90 % each year from 2010 to 2013.
Display advertising conveys its advertising message visually using text, logos, animations, videos, photographs, or other graphics. Display advertisers frequently target users with particular traits to increase the ads ' effect. Online advertisers (typically through their ad servers) often use cookies, which are unique identifiers of specific computers, to decide which ads to serve to a particular consumer. Cookies can track whether a user left a page without buying anything, so the advertiser can later retarget the user with ads from the site the user visited.
As advertisers collect data across multiple external websites about a user 's online activity, they can create a detailed profile of the user 's interests to deliver even more targeted advertising. This aggregation of data is called behavioral targeting. Advertisers can also target their audience by using contextual to deliver display ads related to the content of the web page where the ads appear. Retargeting, behavioral targeting, and contextual advertising all are designed to increase an advertiser 's return on investment, or ROI, over untargeted ads.
Advertisers may also deliver ads based on a user 's suspected geography through geotargeting. A user 's IP address communicates some geographic information (at minimum, the user 's country or general region). The geographic information from an IP can be supplemented and refined with other proxies or information to narrow the range of possible locations. For example, with mobile devices, advertisers can sometimes use a phone 's GPS receiver or the location of nearby mobile towers. Cookies and other persistent data on a user 's machine may provide help narrowing a user 's location further.
Web banners or banner ads typically are graphical ads displayed within a web page. Many banner ads are delivered by a central ad server.
Banner ads can use rich media to incorporate video, audio, animations, buttons, forms, or other interactive elements using Java applets, HTML5, Adobe Flash, and other programs.
Frame ads were the first form of web banners. The colloquial usage of "banner ads '' often refers to traditional frame ads. Website publishers incorporate frame ads by setting aside a particular space on the web page. The Interactive Advertising Bureau 's Ad Unit Guidelines proposes standardized pixel dimensions for ad units.
A pop - up ad is displayed in a new web browser window that opens above a website visitor 's initial browser window. A pop - under ad opens a new browser window under a website visitor 's initial browser window. Pop - under ads and similar technologies are now advised against by online authorities such as Google, who state that they "do not condone this practice ''.
A floating ad, or overlay ad, is a type of rich media advertisement that appears superimposed over the requested website 's content. Floating ads may disappear or become less obtrusive after a preset time period.
An expanding ad is a rich media frame ad that changes dimensions upon a predefined condition, such as a preset amount of time a visitor spends on a webpage, the user 's click on the ad, or the user 's mouse movement over the ad. Expanding ads allow advertisers to fit more information into a restricted ad space.
A trick banner is a banner ad where the ad copy imitates some screen element users commonly encounter, such as an operating system message or popular application message, to induce ad clicks. Trick banners typically do not mention the advertiser in the initial ad, and thus they are a form of bait - and - switch. Trick banners commonly attract a higher - than - average click - through rate, but tricked users may resent the advertiser for deceiving them.
"News Feed Ads '', also called "Sponsored Stories '', "Boosted Posts '', typically exist on social media platforms that offer a steady stream of information updates ("news feed '') in regulated formats (i.e. in similar sized small boxes with a uniform style). Those advertisements are intertwined with non-promoted news that the users are reading through. Those advertisements can be of any content, such as promoting a website, a fan page, an app, or a product.
Some examples are: Facebook 's "Sponsored Stories '', LinkedIn 's "Sponsored Updates '', and Twitter 's "Promoted Tweets ''.
This display ads format falls into its own category because unlike banner ads which are quite distinguishable, News Feed Ads ' format blends well into non-paid news updates. This format of online advertisement yields much higher click - through rates than traditional display ads.
The process by which online advertising is displayed can involve many parties. In the simplest case, the website publisher selects and serves the ads. Publishers which operate their own advertising departments may use this method.
The ads may be outsourced to an advertising agency under contract with the publisher, and served from the advertising agency 's servers.
Alternatively, ad space may be offered for sale in a bidding market using an ad exchange and real - time bidding. This involves many parties interacting automatically in real time. In response to a request from the user 's browser, the publisher content server sends the web page content to the user 's browser over the Internet. The page does not yet contain ads, but contains links which cause the user 's browser to connect to the publisher ad server to request that the spaces left for ads be filled in with ads. Information identifying the user, such as cookies and the page being viewed, is transmitted to the publisher ad server.
The publisher ad server then communicates with a supply - side platform server. The publisher is offering ad space for sale, so they are considered the supplier. The supply side platform also receives the user 's identifying information, which it sends to a data management platform. At the data management platform, the user 's identifying information is used to look up demographic information, previous purchases, and other information of interest to advertisers.
Broadly speaking, there are three types of data obtained through such a data management platform:
This customer information is combined and returned to the supply side platform, which can now package up the offer of ad space along with information about the user who will view it. The supply side platform sends that offer to an ad exchange.
The ad exchange puts the offer out for bid to demand - side platforms. Demand side platforms act on behalf of ad agencies, who sell ads which advertise brands. Demand side platforms thus have ads ready to display, and are searching for users to view them. Bidders get the information about the user ready to view the ad, and decide, based on that information, how much to offer to buy the ad space. According to the Internet Advertising Bureau, a demand side platform has 10 milliseconds to respond to an offer. The ad exchange picks the winning bid and informs both parties.
The ad exchange then passes the link to the ad back through the supply side platform and the publisher 's ad server to the user 's browser, which then requests the ad content from the agency 's ad server. The ad agency can thus confirm that the ad was delivered to the browser.
This is simplified, according to the IAB. Exchanges may try to unload unsold ("remnant '') space at low prices through other exchanges. Some agencies maintain semi-permanent pre-cached bids with ad exchanges, and those may be examined before going out to additional demand side platforms for bids. The process for mobile advertising is different and may involve mobile carriers and handset software manufacturers.
An interstitial ad displays before a user can access requested content, sometimes while the user is waiting for the content to load. Interstitial ads are a form of interruption marketing.
A text ad displays text - based hyperlinks. Text - based ads may display separately from a web page 's primary content, or they can be embedded by hyperlinking individual words or phrases to advertiser 's websites. Text ads may also be delivered through email marketing or text message marketing. Text - based ads often render faster than graphical ads and can be harder for ad - blocking software to block.
Search engine marketing, or SEM, is designed to increase a website 's visibility in search engine results pages (SERPs). Search engines provide sponsored results and organic (non-sponsored) results based on a web searcher 's query. Search engines often employ visual cues to differentiate sponsored results from organic results. Search engine marketing includes all of an advertiser 's actions to make a website 's listing more prominent for topical keywords.
Search engine optimization, or SEO, attempts to improve a website 's organic search rankings in SERPs by increasing the website content 's relevance to search terms. Search engines regularly update their algorithms to penalize poor quality sites that try to game their rankings, making optimization a moving target for advertisers. Many vendors offer SEO services.
Sponsored search (also called sponsored links, search ads, or paid search) allows advertisers to be included in the sponsored results of a search for selected keywords. Search ads are often sold via real - time auctions, where advertisers bid on keywords. In addition to setting a maximum price per keyword, bids may include time, language, geographical, and other constraints. Search engines originally sold listings in order of highest bids. Modern search engines rank sponsored listings based on a combination of bid price, expected click - through rate, keyword relevancy and site quality.
Social media marketing is commercial promotion conducted through social media websites. Many companies promote their products by posting frequent updates and providing special offers through their social media profiles.
Mobile advertising is ad copy delivered through wireless mobile devices such as smartphones, feature phones, or tablet computers. Mobile advertising may take the form of static or rich media display ads, SMS (Short Message Service) or MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service) ads, mobile search ads, advertising within mobile websites, or ads within mobile applications or games (such as interstitial ads, "advergaming, '' or application sponsorship). Industry groups such as the Mobile Marketing Association have attempted to standardize mobile ad unit specifications, similar to the IAB 's efforts for general online advertising.
Mobile advertising is growing rapidly for several reasons. There are more mobile devices in the field, connectivity speeds have improved (which, among other things, allows for richer media ads to be served quickly), screen resolutions have advanced, mobile publishers are becoming more sophisticated about incorporating ads, and consumers are using mobile devices more extensively. The Interactive Advertising Bureau predicts continued growth in mobile advertising with the adoption of location - based targeting and other technological features not available or relevant on personal computers. In July 2014 Facebook reported advertising revenue for the June 2014 quarter of $2.68 billion, an increase of 67 percent over the second quarter of 2013. Of that, mobile advertising revenue accounted for around 62 percent, an increase of 41 percent on the previous year.
Email advertising is ad copy comprising an entire email or a portion of an email message. Email marketing may be unsolicited, in which case the sender may give the recipient an option to opt out of future emails, or it may be sent with the recipient 's prior consent (opt - in).
As opposed to static messaging, chat advertising refers to real time messages dropped to users on certain sites. This is done by the usage of live chat software or tracking applications installed within certain websites with the operating personnel behind the site often dropping adverts on the traffic surfing around the sites. In reality this is a subset of the email advertising but different because of its time window.
Online classified advertising is advertising posted online in a categorical listing of specific products or services. Examples include online job boards, online real estate listings, automotive listings, online yellow pages, and online auction - based listings. Craigslist and eBay are two prominent providers of online classified listings.
Adware is software that, once installed, automatically displays advertisements on a user 's computer. The ads may appear in the software itself, integrated into web pages visited by the user, or in pop - ups / pop - unders. Adware installed without the user 's permission is a type of malware.
Affiliate marketing occurs when advertisers organize third parties to generate potential customers for them. Third - party affiliates receive payment based on sales generated through their promotion. Affiliate marketers generate traffic to offers from affiliate networks, and when the desired action is taken by the visitor, the affiliate earns a commission. These desired actions can be an email submission, a phone call, filling out an online form, or an online order being completed.
Content marketing is any marketing that involves the creation and sharing of media and publishing content in order to acquire and retain customers. This information can be presented in a variety of formats, including blogs, news, video, white papers, e-books, infographics, case studies, how - to guides and more.
Considering that most marketing involves some form of published media, it is almost (though not entirely) redundant to call ' content marketing ' anything other than simply ' marketing '. There are, of course, other forms of marketing (in - person marketing, telephone - based marketing, word of mouth marketing, etc.) where the label is more useful for identifying the type of marketing. However, even these are usually merely presenting content that they are marketing as information in a way that is different from traditional print, radio, TV, film, email, or web media.
Online marketing platform (OMP) is an integrated web - based platform that combines the benefits of a business directory, local search engine, search engine optimisation (SEO) tool, customer relationship management (CRM) package and content management system (CMS). Ebay and Amazon are used as online marketing and logistics management platforms. On Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, LinkedIn, and other Social Media, retail online marketing is also used. Online business marketing platforms such as Marketo, Aprimo, MarketBright and Pardot have been bought by major IT companies (Eloqua - Oracle, Neolane - Adobe and Unica - IBM).
Unlike television marketing in which Neilsen TV Ratings can be relied upon for viewing metrics, online advertisers do not have an independent party to verify viewing claims made by the big online platforms.
Advertisers and publishers use a wide range of payment calculation methods. In 2012, advertisers calculated 32 % of online advertising transactions on a cost - per - impression basis, 66 % on customer performance (e.g. cost per click or cost per acquisition), and 2 % on hybrids of impression and performance methods.
Cost per mille, often abbreviated to CPM, means that advertisers pay for every thousand displays of their message to potential customers (mille is the Latin word for thousand). In the online context, ad displays are usually called "impressions. '' Definitions of an "impression '' vary among publishers, and some impressions may not be charged because they do n't represent a new exposure to an actual customer. Advertisers can use technologies such as web bugs to verify if an impression is actually delivered.
Publishers use a variety of techniques to increase page views, such as dividing content across multiple pages, repurposing someone else 's content, using sensational titles, or publishing tabloid or sexual content.
CPM advertising is susceptible to "impression fraud, '' and advertisers who want visitors to their sites may not find per - impression payments a good proxy for the results they desire.
CPC (Cost Per Click) or PPC (Pay per click) means advertisers pay each time a user clicks on the ad. CPC advertising works well when advertisers want visitors to their sites, but it 's a less accurate measurement for advertisers looking to build brand awareness. CPC 's market share has grown each year since its introduction, eclipsing CPM to dominate two - thirds of all online advertising compensation methods.
Like impressions, not all recorded clicks are valuable to advertisers. GoldSpot Media reported that up to 50 % of clicks on static mobile banner ads are accidental and resulted in redirected visitors leaving the new site immediately.
Cost per engagement aims to track not just that an ad unit loaded on the page (i.e., an impression was served), but also that the viewer actually saw and / or interacted with the ad.
Cost per view video advertising. Both Google and TubeMogul endorsed this standardized CPV metric to the IAB 's (Interactive Advertising Bureau) Digital Video Committee, and it 's garnering a notable amount of industry support. CPV is the primary benchmark used in YouTube Advertising Campaigns, as part of Google 's AdWords platform.
The CPI compensation method is specific to mobile applications and mobile advertising. In CPI ad campaigns brands are charged a fixed of bid rate only when the application was installed.
In marketing, "attribution '' is the measurement of effectiveness of particular ads in a consumer 's ultimate decision to purchase. Multiple ad impressions may lead to a consumer "click '' or other action. A single action may lead to revenue being paid to multiple ad space sellers.
CPA (Cost Per Action or Cost Per Acquisition) or PPP (Pay Per Performance) advertising means the advertiser pays for the number of users who perform a desired activity, such as completing a purchase or filling out a registration form. Performance - based compensation can also incorporate revenue sharing, where publishers earn a percentage of the advertiser 's profits made as a result of the ad. Performance - based compensation shifts the risk of failed advertising onto publishers.
Fixed cost compensation means advertisers pay a fixed cost for delivery of ads online, usually over a specified time period, irrespective of the ad 's visibility or users ' response to it. One examples is CPD (cost per day) where advertisers pay a fixed cost for publishing an ad for a day irrespective of impressions served or clicks.
The low costs of electronic communication reduce the cost of displaying online advertisements compared to offline ads. Online advertising, and in particular social media, provides a low - cost means for advertisers to engage with large established communities. Advertising online offers better returns than in other media.
Online advertisers can collect data on their ads ' effectiveness, such as the size of the potential audience or actual audience response, how a visitor reached their advertisement, whether the advertisement resulted in a sale, and whether an ad actually loaded within a visitor 's view. This helps online advertisers improve their ad campaigns over time.
Advertisers have a wide variety of ways of presenting their promotional messages, including the ability to convey images, video, audio, and links. Unlike many offline ads, online ads also can be interactive. For example, some ads let users input queries or let users follow the advertiser on social media. Online ads can even incorporate games.
Publishers can offer advertisers the ability to reach customizable and narrow market segments for targeted advertising. Online advertising may use geo - targeting to display relevant advertisements to the user 's geography. Advertisers can customize each individual ad to a particular user based on the user 's previous preferences. Advertisers can also track whether a visitor has already seen a particular ad in order to reduce unwanted repetitious exposures and provide adequate time gaps between exposures.
Online advertising can reach nearly every global market, and online advertising influences offline sales.
Once ad design is complete, online ads can be deployed immediately. The delivery of online ads does not need to be linked to the publisher 's publication schedule. Furthermore, online advertisers can modify or replace ad copy more rapidly than their offline counterparts.
According to a US Senate investigation, the current state of online advertising endangers the security and privacy of users.
Eye - tracking studies have shown that Internet users often ignore web page zones likely to contain display ads (sometimes called "banner blindness ''), and this problem is worse online than in offline media. On the other hand, studies suggest that even those ads "ignored '' by the users may influence the user subconsciously.
There are numerous ways that advertisers can be overcharged for their advertising. For example, click fraud occurs when a publisher or third parties click (manually or through automated means) on a CPC ad with no legitimate buying intent. For example, click fraud can occur when a competitor clicks on ads to deplete its rival 's advertising budget, or when publishers attempt to manufacture revenue.
Click fraud is especially associated with pornography sites. In 2011, certain scamming porn websites launched dozens of hidden pages on each visitor 's computer, forcing the visitor 's computer to click on hundreds of paid links without the visitor 's knowledge.
As with offline publications, online impression fraud can occur when publishers overstate the number of ad impressions they have delivered to their advertisers. To combat impression fraud, several publishing and advertising industry associations are developing ways to count online impressions credibly.
Because users have different operating systems, web browsers and computer hardware (including mobile devices and different screen sizes), online ads may appear to users differently from how the advertiser intended, or the ads may not display properly at all. A 2012 comScore study revealed that, on average, 31 % of ads were not "in - view '' when rendered, meaning they never had an opportunity to be seen. Rich media ads create even greater compatibility problems, as some developers may use competing (and exclusive) software to render the ads (see e.g. Comparison of HTML 5 and Flash).
Furthermore, advertisers may encounter legal problems if legally required information does n't actually display to users, even if that failure is due to technological heterogeneity. In the United States, the FTC has released a set of guidelines indicating that it 's the advertisers ' responsibility to ensure the ads display any required disclosures or disclaimers, irrespective of the users ' technology.
Ad blocking, or ad filtering, means the ads do not appear to the user because the user uses technology to screen out ads. Many browsers block unsolicited pop - up ads by default. Other software programs or browser add - ons may also block the loading of ads, or block elements on a page with behaviors characteristic of ads (e.g. HTML autoplay of both audio and video). Approximately 9 % of all online page views come from browsers with ad - blocking software installed, and some publishers have 40 % + of their visitors using ad - blockers.
Some web browsers offer privacy modes where users can hide information about themselves from publishers and advertisers. Among other consequences, advertisers ca n't use cookies to serve targeted ads to private browsers. Most major browsers have incorporated Do Not Track options into their browser headers, but the regulations currently are only enforced by the honor system.
The collection of user information by publishers and advertisers has raised consumer concerns about their privacy. Sixty percent of Internet users would use Do Not Track technology to block all collection of information if given an opportunity. Over half of all Google and Facebook users are concerned about their privacy when using Google and Facebook, according to Gallup.
Many consumers have reservations about online behavioral targeting. By tracking users ' online activities, advertisers are able to understand consumers quite well. Advertisers often use technology, such as web bugs and respawning cookies, to maximizing their abilities to track consumers. According to a 2011 survey conducted by Harris Interactive, over half of Internet users had a negative impression of online behavioral advertising, and forty percent feared that their personally - identifiable information had been shared with advertisers without their consent. Consumers can be especially troubled by advertisers targeting them based on sensitive information, such as financial or health status. Furthermore, some advertisers attach the MAC address of users ' devices to their ' demographic profiles ' so they can be retargeted (regardless of the accuracy of the profile) even if the user clears their cookies and browsing history.
Scammers can take advantage of consumers ' difficulties verifying an online persona 's identity, leading to artifices like phishing (where scam emails look identical to those from a well - known brand owner) and confidence schemes like the Nigerian "419 '' scam. The Internet Crime Complaint Center received 289,874 complaints in 2012, totaling over half a billion dollars in losses, most of which originated with scam ads.
Consumers also face malware risks, i.e. malvertising, when interacting with online advertising. Cisco 's 2013 Annual Security Report revealed that clicking on ads was 182 times more likely to install a virus on a user 's computer than surfing the Internet for porn. For example, in August 2014 Yahoo 's advertising network reportedly saw cases of infection of a variant of Cryptolocker ransomware.
The Internet 's low cost of disseminating advertising contributes to spam, especially by large - scale spammers. Numerous efforts have been undertaken to combat spam, ranging from blacklists to regulatorily - required labeling to content filters, but most of those efforts have adverse collateral effects, such as mistaken filtering.
In general, consumer protection laws apply equally to online and offline activities. However, there are questions over which jurisdiction 's laws apply and which regulatory agencies have enforcement authority over transborder activity.
As with offline advertising, industry participants have undertaken numerous efforts to self - regulate and develop industry standards or codes of conduct. Several United States advertising industry organizations jointly published Self - Regulatory Principles for Online Behavioral Advertising based on standards proposed by the FTC in 2009. European ad associations published a similar document in 2011. Primary tenets of both documents include consumer control of data transfer to third parties, data security, and consent for collection of certain health and financial data. Neither framework, however, penalizes violators of the codes of conduct.
Privacy regulation can require users ' consent before an advertiser can track the user or communicate with the user. However, affirmative consent ("opt in '') can be difficult and expensive to obtain. Industry participants often prefer other regulatory schemes.
Different jurisdictions have taken different approaches to privacy issues with advertising. The United States has specific restrictions on online tracking of children in the Children 's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA), and the FTC has recently expanded its interpretation of COPPA to include requiring ad networks to obtain parental consent before knowingly tracking kids. Otherwise, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission frequently supports industry self - regulation, although increasingly it has been undertaking enforcement actions related to online privacy and security. The FTC has also been pushing for industry consensus about possible Do Not Track legislation.
In contrast, the European Union 's "Privacy and Electronic Communications Directive '' restricts websites ' ability to use consumer data much more comprehensively. The EU limitations restrict targeting by online advertisers; researchers have estimated online advertising effectiveness decreases on average by around 65 % in Europe relative to the rest of the world.
Many laws specifically regulate the ways online ads are delivered. For example, online advertising delivered via email is more regulated than the same ad content delivered via banner ads. Among other restrictions, the U.S. CAN - SPAM Act of 2003 requires that any commercial email provide an opt - out mechanism. Similarly, mobile advertising is governed by the Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991 (TCPA), which (among other restrictions) requires user opt - in before sending advertising via text messaging.
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how many chapters does my hero academia anime cover | List of My Hero Academia chapters - wikipedia
My Hero Academia is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Kōhei Horikoshi. It began its serialization in the manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump on July 7, 2014. Its individual chapters have been collected into nineteen tankōbon volumes, the first released on November 4, 2014. The story is set in a world where most of the world population has a superhuman ability known as a "Quirk ''. The main character Izuku Midoriya is a teenage boy who does not have a Quirk, despite his longtime dream to be a superhero, until he is approached by All Might, the world 's most famous hero and his childhood idol, who chooses him to inherit his Quirk "One For All ''.
The series is licensed for English language release in North America by Viz Media, who published the first volume on August 4, 2015. As the series is published in Japan, it is also released simultaneously in English digitally by Viz Media 's Weekly Shounen Jump.
A spin - off series, My Hero Academia: Vigilantes, began being published biweekly on the ShonenJump+ website and app in 2017. The series is licensed for the English language release in North America by Viz Media, who published the first volume on July 3, 2018.
These chapters have yet to be published in a tankōbon volume. They were originally serialized in Japanese in issues of Weekly Shōnen Jump from July 2018 to October 2018.
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when does you'll be in my heart play in tarzan | You 'll be in My Heart - wikipedia
"You 'll Be in My Heart '' is a song by Phil Collins, from the 1999 Disney animated feature Tarzan. It appeared on Tarzan: An Original Walt Disney Records Soundtrack as well as various other Disney compilations. A version of the single performed by Glenn Close also appears on the soundtrack.
A demo version with Collins playing piano and singing is featured as a bonus on the 2 - DVD Special Edition of Tarzan, along with "I Will Follow '', "Celebration '', "6 / 8 Demo '' and "Rhythm Piece '' which became "Strangers Like Me '', "Son of Man '' and "Trashin ' the Camp ''. "6 / 8 Demo '' was not featured in the movie.
The music video for the song was directed by Kevin Godley.
Collins was originally hired by Disney as a songwriter, but given his history as a drummer for the rock band Genesis, he appealed to the Disney production crew, who "wanted a strong jungle beat to accompany Tarzan 's adventures ''. This "ballad '' is one of five original songs he wrote for the film, and he ended up also performing this song as well.
The song, originally called "Lullaby '' is used in a scene when Tarzan 's adoptive gorilla mother Kala sings that her baby should stop crying because she will protect him and keep him safe and warm. She says everything will be fine and she tells him that "you will be in my heart always ''. The song is about "how love is a bond that can not be broken ''.
In the movie the song ends on the first verse, the full version of the song on the soundtrack album notes that others do n't understand why a mother and child who are so different can love each other. When destiny calls, the child is told he must be strong even if the parent is not with him. The song is one of only two songs within Disney 's Tarzan to have a part performed by an actual character (the other being "Trashin ' the Camp '' which the character 's role in the song can be classified as scat singing). The rest of the songs were performed by Collins himself and overlaid into the movie. The full song is finally played all together during the end credits.
In the 2006 stage version, the song is performed by Kala with the ensemble, while a reprise is performed by Kala and Tarzan when the latter "decides to join the human world ''. This was because the omniscience of Collins ' songs did not translate too well, so the song along with Two Worlds, "perform similar thematic and character introductions on stage ''.
Manilla Standard said Collins "waxes poetic '' with the song. The Disney Song Encyclopedia deemed it an "uptempo ballad '' and "tender song ''. American Musical Theatre: A Chronicle said that Merle Dandridge, who sang this song as the role of Tarzan 's adoptive mother Kala in the Broadway version, had "the best song ''. American Literature on Stage and Screen: 525 Works and Their Adaptations said this song was "contemporary sounding yet (its) rhythmic momentum blended beautifully with the pulsating sounds of the jungle ''. Billboard said the song ran "in the same vein '' as another Collins song "Ca n't Stop Loving You ''. Musical Experience in Our Lives: Things We Learn and Meanings We Make recounted a personal story of how the song has a special meaning to a mother / daughter relationship involving fetus - singing. Similar stories were recounted by two other sources.
Soon after the song was released, it was already "being touted as an Oscar contender ''. The song went on to win the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and the Academy Award for Best Original Song. Collins performed the song live at that year 's ceremony. The song also received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media, but lost to Madonna 's "Beautiful Stranger '' from Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me.
The song became very popular and received steady airplay ". "You 'll Be in My Heart '', spent nineteen non consecutive weeks at number one on the Adult Contemporary charts ("the longest time ever up to that point '') and peaked at # 21 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100. The song was Collins 's first appearance on the top forty of the Billboard Hot 100 chart since 1994 's "Everyday ''. The track peaked at # 17 in the UK Singles Chart, continuing his success that had not stopped after "Everyday ''.
The entire Tarzan soundtrack, including "You 'll Be in My Heart '', was also written and performed by Phil Collins in various other languages besides English, namely German, French, Spanish and Italian. In the Hungarian, Norwegian, Brazilian Portuguese, Japanese, Mandarin, Cantonese, Malay, Swedish and Portuguese versions, the whole soundtracks were performed by the Hungarian singer Akos, the Norwegian singer Tor Endresen, the Brazilian singer Ed Motta, Japanese singer Masayuki Sakamoto, Chinese singer Wakin Chau, Malaysian singer Zainal Abidin, Swedish singer Pelle Ankarberg and Portuguese singer Luís Represas, respectively. The Portuguese version, however, includes the original credits ' song. Because of the multiple recordings, a Spanish version of the song, "En Mi Corazón Vivirás '', marks Collins ' only appearance on Billboard 's Hot Latin Tracks. The song charted at # 32.
On German television, he sang a translation of "You 'll Be in My Heart '' called "Dir Gehört Mein Herz ''.
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define immunization and how it is carried out | Immunization - wikipedia
Immunization, or immunisation, is the process by which an individual 's immune system becomes fortified against an agent (known as the immunogen).
When this system is exposed to molecules that are foreign to the body, called non-self, it will orchestrate an immune response, and it will also develop the ability to quickly respond to a subsequent encounter because of immunological memory. This is a function of the adaptive immune system. Therefore, by exposing an animal to an immunogen in a controlled way, its body can learn to protect itself: this is called active immunization.
The most important elements of the immune system that are improved by immunization are the T cells, B cells, and the antibodies B cells produce. Memory B cells and memory T cells are responsible for a swift response to a second encounter with a foreign molecule. Passive immunization is direct introduction of these elements into the body, instead of production of these elements by the body itself.
Immunization is done through various techniques, most commonly vaccination. Vaccines against microorganisms that cause diseases can prepare the body 's immune system, thus helping to fight or prevent an infection. The fact that mutations can cause cancer cells to produce proteins or other molecules that are known to the body forms the theoretical basis for therapeutic cancer vaccines. Other molecules can be used for immunization as well, for example in experimental vaccines against nicotine (NicVAX) or the hormone ghrelin in experiments to create an obesity vaccine.
Immunizations are often widely stated as less risky and an easier way to become immune to a particular disease than risking a milder form of the disease itself. They are important for both adults and children in that they can protect us from the many diseases out there. Immunization not only protects children against deadly diseases but also helps in developing children 's immune systems. Through the use of immunizations, some infections and diseases have almost completely been eradicated throughout the United States and the World. One example is polio. Thanks to dedicated health care professionals and the parents of children who vaccinated on schedule, polio has been eliminated in the U.S. since 1979. Polio is still found in other parts of the world so certain people could still be at risk of getting it. This includes those people who have never had the vaccine, those who did n't receive all doses of the vaccine, or those traveling to areas of the world where polio is still prevalent.
Active immunization / vaccination has been named one of the "Ten Great Public Health Achievements in the 20th Century ''.
Before the introduction of vaccines, people could only become immune to an infectious disease by contracting the disease and surviving it. Smallpox (variola) was prevented in this way by inoculation, which produced a milder effect than the natural disease. It was introduced into England from Turkey by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu in 1721 and used by Zabdiel Boylston in Boston the same year. In 1798 Edward Jenner introduced inoculation with cowpox (smallpox vaccine), a much safer procedure. This procedure, referred to as vaccination, gradually replaced smallpox inoculation, now called variolation to distinguish it from vaccination. Until the 1880s vaccine / vaccination referred only to smallpox, but Louis Pasteur developed immunization methods for chicken cholera and anthrax in animals and for human rabies, and suggested that the terms vaccine / vaccination should be extended to cover the new procedures. This can cause confusion if care is not taken to specify which vaccine is used e.g. measles vaccine or influenza vaccine.
Immunization can be achieved in an active or passive manner: vaccination is an active form of immunization.
Active immunization can occur naturally when a person comes in contact with, for example, a microbe. The immune system will eventually create antibodies and other defenses against the microbe. The next time, the immune response against this microbe can be very efficient; this is the case in many of the childhood infections that a person only contracts once, but then is immune.
Artificial active immunization is where the microbe, or parts of it, are injected into the person before they are able to take it in naturally. If whole microbes are used, they are pre-treated.
The importance of immunization is so great that the American Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has named it one of the "Ten Great Public Health Achievements in the 20th Century ''. Live attenuated vaccines have decreased pathogenicity. Their effectiveness depends on the immune systems ability to replicate and elicits a response similar to natural infection. It is usually effective with a single dose. Examples of live, attenuated vaccines include measles, mumps, rubella, MMR, yellow fever, varicella, rotavirus, and influenza (LAIV).
Passive immunization is where pre-synthesized elements of the immune system are transferred to a person so that the body does not need to produce these elements itself. Currently, antibodies can be used for passive immunization. This method of immunization begins to work very quickly, but it is short lasting, because the antibodies are naturally broken down, and if there are no B cells to produce more antibodies, they will disappear.
Passive immunization occurs physiologically, when antibodies are transferred from mother to fetus during pregnancy, to protect the fetus before and shortly after birth.
Artificial passive immunization is normally administered by injection and is used if there has been a recent outbreak of a particular disease or as an emergency treatment for toxicity, as in for tetanus. The antibodies can be produced in animals, called "serum therapy, '' although there is a high chance of anaphylactic shock because of immunity against animal serum itself. Thus, humanized antibodies produced in vitro by cell culture are used instead if available.
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when was the last time the titanic was visited | RMS Titanic - wikipedia
RMS Titanic (/ taɪˈtænɪk /) was a British passenger liner that sank in the North Atlantic Ocean in the early hours of 15 April 1912, after colliding with an iceberg during its maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City. There were an estimated 2,224 passengers and crew aboard, and more than 1,500 died, making it one of the deadliest commercial peacetime maritime disasters in modern history. RMS Titanic was the largest ship afloat at the time it entered service and was the second of three Olympic - class ocean liners operated by the White Star Line. It was built by the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast. Thomas Andrews, her architect, died in the disaster.
Titanic was under the command of Capt. Edward Smith, who also went down with the ship. The ocean liner carried some of the wealthiest people in the world, as well as hundreds of emigrants from Great Britain and Ireland, Scandinavia and elsewhere throughout Europe who were seeking a new life in the United States. The first - class accommodation was designed to be the pinnacle of comfort and luxury, with an on - board gymnasium, swimming pool, libraries, high - class restaurants and opulent cabins. A high - powered radiotelegraph transmitter was available for sending passenger "marconigrams '' and for the ship 's operational use. Although Titanic had advanced safety features such as watertight compartments and remotely activated watertight doors, Titanic only carried enough lifeboats for 1,178 people -- about half the number on board, and one third of her total capacity -- due to outdated maritime safety regulations. The ship carried 16 lifeboat davits which could lower three lifeboats each, for a total of 48 boats. However, Titanic carried only a total of 20 lifeboats, four of which were collapsible and proved hard to launch during the sinking.
After leaving Southampton on 10 April 1912, Titanic called at Cherbourg in France and Queenstown (now Cobh) in Ireland before heading west to New York. On 14 April, four days into the crossing and about 375 miles (600 km) south of Newfoundland, she hit an iceberg at 11: 40 p.m. ship 's time. The collision caused the hull plates to buckle inwards along her starboard (right) side and opened five of her sixteen watertight compartments to the sea; she could only survive four flooding. Meanwhile, passengers and some crew members were evacuated in lifeboats, many of which were launched only partially loaded. A disproportionate number of men were left aboard because of a "women and children first '' protocol for loading lifeboats. At 2: 20 a.m., she broke apart and foundered with well over one thousand people still aboard. Just under two hours after Titanic sank, the Cunard liner RMS Carpathia arrived and brought aboard an estimated 705 survivors.
The disaster was met with worldwide shock and outrage at the huge loss of life and the regulatory and operational failures that led to it. Public inquiries in Britain and the United States led to major improvements in maritime safety. One of their most important legacies was the establishment in 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), which still governs maritime safety today. Additionally, several new wireless regulations were passed around the world in an effort to learn from the many missteps in wireless communications -- which could have saved many more passengers.
The wreck of Titanic was discovered in 1985 (more than 70 years after the disaster), and remains on the seabed. The ship was split in two and is gradually disintegrating at a depth of 12,415 feet (3,784 m). Thousands of artefacts have been recovered and displayed at museums around the world. Titanic has become one of the most famous ships in history; her memory is kept alive by numerous works of popular culture, including books, folk songs, films, exhibits, and memorials. Titanic is the second largest ocean liner wreck in the world, only beaten by her sister HMHS Britannic, the largest ever sunk. The final survivor of the sinking, Millvina Dean, aged two months at the time, died in 2009 at the age of 97.
The name Titanic was derived from Greek mythology and meant gigantic. Built in Belfast, Ireland, in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (as it was then known), the RMS Titanic was the second of the three Olympic - class ocean liners -- the first was the RMS Olympic and the third was the HMHS Britannic. They were by far the largest vessels of the British shipping company White Star Line 's fleet, which comprised 29 steamers and tenders in 1912. The three ships had their genesis in a discussion in mid-1907 between the White Star Line 's chairman, J. Bruce Ismay, and the American financier J.P. Morgan, who controlled the White Star Line 's parent corporation, the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM).
The White Star Line faced an increasing challenge from its main rivals Cunard, which had recently launched the Lusitania and the Mauretania -- the fastest passenger ships then in service -- and the German lines Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd. Ismay preferred to compete on size rather than speed and proposed to commission a new class of liners that would be larger than anything that had gone before as well as being the last word in comfort and luxury. The company sought an upgrade in their fleet primarily in response to the Cunard giants but also to replace their oldest pair of passenger ships still in service, being the SS Teutonic of 1889 and SS Majestic of 1890. Teutonic was replaced by Olympic while Majestic was replaced by Titanic. Majestic would be brought back into her old spot on White Star 's New York service after Titanic 's loss.
The ships were constructed by the Belfast shipbuilders Harland and Wolff, who had a long - established relationship with the White Star Line dating back to 1867. Harland and Wolff were given a great deal of latitude in designing ships for the White Star Line; the usual approach was for the latter to sketch out a general concept which the former would take away and turn into a ship design. Cost considerations were relatively low on the agenda and Harland and Wolff was authorised to spend what it needed on the ships, plus a five percent profit margin. In the case of the Olympic - class ships, a cost of £ 3 million (£ 250 million in 2015 money) for the first two ships was agreed plus "extras to contract '' and the usual five percent fee.
Harland and Wolff put their leading designers to work designing the Olympic - class vessels. The design was overseen by Lord Pirrie, a director of both Harland and Wolff and the White Star Line; naval architect Thomas Andrews, the managing director of Harland and Wolff 's design department; Edward Wilding, Andrews ' deputy and responsible for calculating the ship 's design, stability and trim; and Alexander Carlisle, the shipyard 's chief draughtsman and general manager. Carlisle 's responsibilities included the decorations, equipment and all general arrangements, including the implementation of an efficient lifeboat davit design.
On 29 July 1908, Harland and Wolff presented the drawings to J. Bruce Ismay and other White Star Line executives. Ismay approved the design and signed three "letters of agreement '' two days later, authorising the start of construction. At this point the first ship -- which was later to become Olympic -- had no name, but was referred to simply as "Number 400 '', as it was Harland and Wolff 's four hundredth hull. Titanic was based on a revised version of the same design and was given the number 401.
Titanic was 882 feet 9 inches (269.06 m) long with a maximum breadth of 92 feet 6 inches (28.19 m). Her total height, measured from the base of the keel to the top of the bridge, was 104 feet (32 m). She measured 46,328 gross register tons and with a draught of 34 feet 7 inches (10.54 m), she displaced 52,310 tons.
All three of the Olympic - class ships had ten decks (excluding the top of the officers ' quarters), eight of which were for passenger use. From top to bottom, the decks were:
Titanic was equipped with three main engines -- two reciprocating four - cylinder, triple - expansion steam engines and one centrally placed low - pressure Parsons turbine -- each driving a propeller. The two reciprocating engines had a combined output of 30,000 hp and a further 16,000 hp was contributed by the turbine. The White Star Line had used the same combination of engines on an earlier liner, the SS Laurentic, where it had been a great success. It provided a good combination of performance and speed; reciprocating engines by themselves were not powerful enough to propel an Olympic - class liner at the desired speeds, while turbines were sufficiently powerful but caused uncomfortable vibrations, a problem that affected the all - turbine Cunard liners Lusitania and Mauretania. By combining reciprocating engines with a turbine, fuel usage could be reduced and motive power increased, while using the same amount of steam.
The two reciprocating engines were each 63 feet (19 m) long and weighed 720 tons, with their bedplates contributing a further 195 tons. They were powered by steam produced in 29 boilers, 24 of which were double - ended and five single - ended, which contained a total of 159 furnaces. The boilers were 15 feet 9 inches (4.80 m) in diameter and 20 feet (6.1 m) long, each weighing 91.5 tons and capable of holding 48.5 tons of water.
They were heated by burning coal, 6,611 tons of which could be carried in Titanic 's bunkers, with a further 1,092 tons in Hold 3. The furnaces required over 600 tons of coal a day to be shovelled into them by hand, requiring the services of 176 firemen working around the clock. 100 tons of ash a day had to be disposed of by ejecting it into the sea. The work was relentless, dirty and dangerous, and although firemen were paid relatively generously there was a high suicide rate among those who worked in that capacity.
Exhaust steam leaving the reciprocating engines was fed into the turbine, which was situated aft. From there it passed into a surface condenser, to increase the efficiency of the turbine and so that the steam could be condensed back into water and reused. The engines were attached directly to long shafts which drove the propellers. There were three, one for each engine; the outer (or wing) propellers were the largest, each carrying three blades of manganese - bronze alloy with a total diameter of 23.5 feet (7.2 m). The middle propeller was slightly smaller at 17 feet (5.2 m) in diameter, and could be stopped but not reversed.
Titanic 's electrical plant was capable of producing more power than an average city power station of the time. Immediately aft of the turbine engine were four 400 kW steam - driven electric generators, used to provide electrical power to the ship, plus two 30 kW auxiliary generators for emergency use. Their location in the stern of the ship meant they remained operational until the last few minutes before the ship sank.
The interiors of the Olympic - class ships were subdivided into 16 primary compartments divided by 15 bulkheads which extended well above the waterline. Eleven vertically closing watertight doors could seal off the compartments in the event of an emergency. The ship 's exposed decking was made of pine and teak, while interior ceilings were covered in painted granulated cork to combat condensation. Standing above the decks were four funnels, each painted buff with black tops, (though only three were functional -- the last one was a dummy, installed for aesthetic purposes and also for kitchen ventilation) -- and two masts, each 155 feet (47 m) high, which supported derricks for working cargo.
Titanic 's rudder was so large -- at 78 feet 8 inches (23.98 m) high and 15 feet 3 inches (4.65 m) long, weighing over 100 tons -- that it required steering engines to move it. Two steam - powered steering engines were installed though only one was used at any one time, with the other one kept in reserve. They were connected to the short tiller through stiff springs, to isolate the steering engines from any shocks in heavy seas or during fast changes of direction. As a last resort, the tiller could be moved by ropes connected to two steam capstans. The capstans were also used to raise and lower the ship 's five anchors (one port, one starboard, one in the centreline and two kedging anchors).
The ship was equipped with her own waterworks, capable of heating and pumping water to all parts of the vessel via a complex network of pipes and valves. The main water supply was taken aboard while Titanic was in port, but in an emergency the ship could also distil fresh water from seawater, though this was not a straightforward process as the distillation plant quickly became clogged by salt deposits. A network of insulated ducts conveyed warm air, driven by electric fans, around the ship, and First Class cabins were fitted with additional electric heaters.
Titanic 's radiotelegraph equipment (then known as wireless telegraphy) was leased to the White Star Line by the Marconi International Marine Communication Company, which also supplied two of its employees, Jack Phillips and Harold Bride, as operators. The service maintained a 24 - hour schedule, primarily sending and receiving passenger telegrams, but also handling navigation messages including weather reports and ice warnings.
The radio room was located on the Boat Deck, in the officers ' quarters. A soundproofed "Silent Room '', next to the operating room, housed loud equipment, including the transmitter and a motor - generator used for producing alternating currents. The operators ' living quarters were adjacent to the working office. The ship was equipped with a ' state of the art ' 5 kilowatt rotary spark - gap transmitter, operating under the radio callsign MGY, and communication was conducted in Morse code. This transmitter was one of the first Marconi installations to use a rotary spark gap, which gave Titanic a distinctive musical tone that could be readily distinguished from other signals. The transmitter was one of the most powerful in the world, and guaranteed to broadcast over a radius of 350 miles (563 km). An elevated T - antenna that spanned the length of the ship was used for transmitting and receiving. The normal operating frequency was 500 kHz (600 m wavelength), however the equipment could also operate on the "short '' wavelength of 1000 kHz (300 m wavelength) that was employed by smaller vessels with shorter antennas.
The passenger facilities aboard Titanic aimed to meet the highest standards of luxury. According to Titanic 's general arrangement plans, the ship could accommodate 833 First Class Passengers, 614 in Second Class and 1,006 in Third Class, for a total passenger capacity of 2,453. In addition, her capacity for crew members exceeded 900, as most documents of her original configuration have stated that her full carrying capacity for both passengers and crew was approximately 3,547. Her interior design was a departure from that of other passenger liners, which had typically been decorated in the rather heavy style of a manor house or an English country house.
Titanic was laid out in a much lighter style similar to that of contemporary high - class hotels -- the Ritz Hotel was a reference point -- with First Class cabins finished in the Empire style. A variety of other decorative styles, ranging from the Renaissance to Louis XV, were used to decorate cabins and public rooms in First and Second Class areas of the ship. The aim was to convey an impression that the passengers were in a floating hotel rather than a ship; as one passenger recalled, on entering the ship 's interior a passenger would "at once lose the feeling that we are on board ship, and seem instead to be entering the hall of some great house on shore ''.
Among the more novel features available to first - class passengers was a 7 ft. deep saltwater swimming pool, a gymnasium, a squash court, and a Turkish bath which comprised electric bath, steam room, cool room, massage room, and hot room. First - class common rooms were impressive in scope and lavishly decorated. They included a Lounge in the style of the Palace of Versailles, an enormous Reception Room, a men 's Smoking Room, and a Reading and Writing Room. There was an À la Carte Restaurant in the style of the Ritz Hotel which was run as a concession by the famous Italian restaurateur Gaspare Gatti. A Café Parisien decorated in the style of a French sidewalk café, complete with ivy covered trellises and wicker furniture, was run as an annex to the restaurant. For an extra cost, first - class passengers could enjoy the finest French haute cuisine in the most luxurious of surroundings. There was also a Verandah Café where tea and light refreshments were served, that offered grand views of the ocean. At 114 ft. long X 92 ft. wide, the Dining Saloon on D - Deck was the largest room afloat and could seat almost 600 passengers at a time. Third Class (commonly referred to as Steerage) accommodations aboard Titanic were not as luxurious as First or Second Class, but even so were better than on many other ships of the time. They reflected the improved standards which the White Star Line had adopted for trans - Atlantic immigrant and lower - class travel. On most other North Atlantic passenger ships at the time, Third Class accommodations consisted of little more than open dormitories in the forward end of the vessels, in which hundreds of people were confined, often without adequate food or toilet facilities.
The White Star Line had long since broken that mould. As seen aboard Titanic, all White Star Line passenger ships divided their Third Class accommodations into two sections, always at opposite ends of the vessel from one another. The established arrangement was that single men were quartered in the forward areas, while single women, married couples and families were quartered aft. In addition, while other ships provided only open berth sleeping arrangements, White Star Line vessels provided their Third Class passengers with private, small but comfortable cabins capable of accommodating two, four, six, eight and 10 passengers.
Third Class accommodations also included their own dining rooms, as well as public gathering areas including adequate open deck space, which aboard Titanic comprised the Poop Deck at the stern, the forward and aft well decks, and a large open space on D Deck which could be used as a social hall. This was supplemented by the addition of a smoking room for men and a General Room on C Deck which women could use for reading and writing. Although they were not as glamorous in design as spaces seen in upper class accommodations, they were still far above average for the period.
Leisure facilities were provided for all three classes to pass the time. As well as making use of the indoor amenities such as the library, smoking rooms, and gymnasium, it was also customary for passengers to socialise on the open deck, promenading or relaxing in hired deck chairs or wooden benches. A passenger list was published before the sailing to inform the public which members of the great and good were on board, and it was not uncommon for ambitious mothers to use the list to identify rich bachelors to whom they could introduce their marriageable daughters during the voyage.
One of Titanic 's most distinctive features was her First Class staircase, known as the Grand Staircase or Grand Stairway. Built of solid English oak with a sweeping curve, the staircase descended through seven decks of the ship, between the Boat Deck to E deck, before terminating in a simplified single flight on F Deck. It was capped with a dome of wrought iron and glass that admitted natural light to the stairwell. Each landing off the staircase gave access to ornate entrance halls paneled in the William & Mary style and lit by ormolu and crystal light fixtures.
At the uppermost landing was a large carved wooden panel containing a clock, with figures of "Honour and Glory Crowning Time '' flanking the clock face. The Grand Staircase was destroyed during the sinking and is now just a void in the ship which modern explorers have used to access the lower decks. During the filming of James Cameron 's Titanic in 1997, his replica of the Grand Staircase was ripped from its foundations by the force of the inrushing water on the set. It has been suggested that during the real event, the entire Grand Staircase was ejected upwards through the dome.
Although Titanic was primarily a passenger liner, she also carried a substantial amount of cargo. Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship (RMS) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail (and also for the United States Post Office Department). For the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables), 26,800 cubic feet (760 m) of space in her holds was allocated. The Sea Post Office on G Deck was manned by five postal clerks; three Americans and two Britons, who worked 13 hours a day, seven days a week sorting up to 60,000 items daily.
The ship 's passengers brought with them a huge amount of baggage; another 19,455 cubic feet (550.9 m) was taken up by first - and second - class baggage. In addition, there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo, ranging from furniture to foodstuffs, and a 1912 Renault Type CE Coupe de Ville motor car. Despite later myths, the cargo on Titanic 's maiden voyage was fairly mundane; there was no gold, exotic minerals or diamonds, and one of the more famous items lost in the shipwreck, a jewelled copy of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, was valued at only £ 405 (£ 36,800 today). According to the claims for compensation filed with Commissioner Gilchrist, following the conclusion of the Senate Inquiry, the single most highly valued item of luggage or cargo was a large neoclassical oil painting entitled La Circassienne au Bain by French artist Merry - Joseph Blondel. The painting 's owner, first class passenger Mauritz Håkan Björnström - Steffansson, filed a claim for $100,000 ($2.4 million equivalent in 2014) in compensation for the loss of the artwork.
Titanic was equipped with eight electric cranes, four electric winches and three steam winches to lift cargo and baggage in and out of the hold. It is estimated that the ship used some 415 tons of coal whilst in Southampton, simply generating steam to operate the cargo winches and provide heat and light.
Titanic carried a total of 20 lifeboats: 14 standard wooden Harland and Wolff lifeboats with a capacity of 65 people each and four Englehardt "collapsible '' (wooden bottom, collapsible canvas sides) lifeboats (identified as A to D) with a capacity of 47 people each. In addition, she had two emergency cutters with a capacity of 40 people each. Olympic herself did not even carry the four collapsibles A -- D during the 1911 -- 12 season. All of the lifeboats were stowed securely on the boat deck and, except for collapsible lifeboats A and B, connected to davits by ropes. Those on the starboard side were odd - numbered 1 -- 15 from bow to stern, while those on the port side were even - numbered 2 -- 16 from bow to stern.
Both cutters were kept swung out, hanging from the davits, ready for immediate use, while collapsible lifeboats C and D were stowed on the boat deck (connected to davits) immediately inboard of boats 1 and 2 respectively. A and B were stored on the roof of the officers ' quarters, on either side of number 1 funnel. There were no davits to lower them and their weight would make them difficult to launch by hand. Each boat carried (among other things) food, water, blankets, and a spare life belt. Lifeline ropes on the boats ' sides enabled them to save additional people from the water if necessary.
Titanic had 16 sets of davits, each able to handle four lifeboats. This gave Titanic the ability to carry up to 64 wooden lifeboats which would have been enough for 4,000 people -- considerably more than her actual capacity. However, the White Star Line decided that only 16 wooden lifeboats and four collapsibles would be carried, which could accommodate 1,178 people, only one - third of Titanic 's total capacity. At the time, the Board of Trade 's regulations required British vessels over 10,000 tons to only carry 16 lifeboats with a capacity of 990 occupants.
Therefore, the White Star Line actually provided more lifeboat accommodation than was legally required. At the time, lifeboats were intended to ferry survivors from a sinking ship to a rescuing ship -- not keep afloat the whole population or power them to shore. Had the SS Californian responded to Titanic 's distress calls, the lifeboats may have been adequate to ferry the passengers to safety as planned.
The sheer size of Titanic and her sister ships posed a major engineering challenge for Harland and Wolff; no shipbuilder had ever before attempted to construct vessels this size. The ships were constructed on Queen 's Island, now known as the Titanic Quarter, in Belfast Harbour. Harland and Wolff had to demolish three existing slipways and build two new ones, the largest ever constructed up to that time, to accommodate both ships. Their construction was facilitated by an enormous gantry built by Sir William Arrol & Co., a Scottish firm responsible for the building of the Forth Bridge and London 's Tower Bridge. The Arrol Gantry stood 228 feet (69 m) high, was 270 feet (82 m) wide and 840 feet (260 m) long, and weighed more than 6,000 tons. It accommodated a number of mobile cranes. A separate floating crane, capable of lifting 200 tons, was brought in from Germany.
The construction of Olympic and Titanic took place virtually in parallel, with Olympic 's keel laid down first on 16 December 1908 and Titanic 's on 31 March 1909. Both ships took about 26 months to build and followed much the same construction process. They were designed essentially as an enormous floating box girder, with the keel acting as a backbone and the frames of the hull forming the ribs. At the base of the ships, a double bottom 5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) deep supported 300 frames, each between 24 inches (61 cm) and 36 inches (91 cm) apart and measuring up to about 66 feet (20 m) long. They terminated at the bridge deck (B Deck) and were covered with steel plates which formed the outer skin of the ships.
The 2,000 hull plates were single pieces of rolled steel plate, mostly up to 6 feet (1.8 m) wide and 30 feet (9.1 m) long and weighing between 2.5 and 3 tons. Their thickness varied from 1 inch (2.5 cm) to 1.5 inches (3.8 cm). The plates were laid in a clinkered (overlapping) fashion from the keel to the bilge. Above that point they were laid in the "in and out '' fashion, where strake plating was applied in bands (the "in strakes '') with the gaps covered by the "out strakes '', overlapping on the edges. Commercial oxy - fuel and electric arc welding methods, ubiquitous in fabrication today, were still in their infancy; like most other iron and steel structures of the era, the hull was held together with over three million iron and steel rivets, which by themselves weighed over 1,200 tons. They were fitted using hydraulic machines or were hammered in by hand. In the 1990s some material scientists concluded that the steel plate used for the ship was subject to being especially brittle when cold, and that this brittleness exacerbated the impact damage and hastened the sinking. It is believed that, by the standards of the time, the steel plate 's quality was good, not faulty, but that it was inferior to what would be used for shipbuilding purposes in later decades, owing to advances in the metallurgy of steelmaking. As for the rivets, considerable emphasis has also been placed on their quality and strength.
One of the last items to be fitted on Titanic before the ship 's launch was her two side anchors and one centre anchor. The anchors themselves were a challenge to make with the centre anchor being the largest ever forged by hand and weighing nearly 16 tons. Twenty Clydesdale draught horses were needed to haul the centre anchor by wagon from the Noah Hingley & Sons Ltd forge shop in Netherton, near Dudley, United Kingdom to the Dudley railway station two miles away. From there it was shipped by rail to Fleetwood in Lancashire before being loaded aboard a ship and sent to Belfast.
The work of constructing the ships was difficult and dangerous. For the 15,000 men who worked at Harland and Wolff at the time, safety precautions were rudimentary at best; a lot of the work was dangerous and was carried out without any safety equipment like hard hats or hand guards on machinery. As a result, deaths and injuries were to be expected. During Titanic 's construction, 246 injuries were recorded, 28 of them "severe '', such as arms severed by machines or legs crushed under falling pieces of steel. Six people died on the ship herself while she was being constructed and fitted out, and another two died in the shipyard workshops and sheds. Just before the launch a worker was killed when a piece of wood fell on him.
Titanic was launched at 12: 15 p.m. on 31 May 1911 in the presence of Lord Pirrie, J. Pierpoint Morgan, J. Bruce Ismay and 100,000 onlookers. 22 tons of soap and tallow were spread on the slipway to lubricate the ship 's passage into the River Lagan. In keeping with the White Star Line 's traditional policy, the ship was not formally named or christened with champagne. The ship was towed to a fitting - out berth where, over the course of the next year, her engines, funnels and superstructure were installed and her interior was fitted out.
Although Titanic was virtually identical to the class 's lead ship Olympic, a few changes were made to distinguish both ships. The most noticeable exterior difference was that Titanic (and the third vessel in class, Britannic) had a steel screen with sliding windows installed along the forward half of the A Deck promenade. This was installed as a last minute change at the personal request of Bruce Ismay, and was intended to provide additional shelter to first class passengers. Extensive changes were made to B Deck on Titanic as the promenade space in this deck, which had proven unpopular on Olympic was converted into additional First Class cabins, including two opulent parlour suites with their own private promenade spaces. The À la Carte restaurant was also enlarged and the Café Parisien, an entirely new feature which did not exist on Olympic, was added. These changes made Titanic slightly heavier than her sister, and thus she could claim to be the largest ship afloat. The work took longer than expected due to design changes requested by Ismay and a temporary pause in work occasioned by the need to repair Olympic, which had been in a collision in September 1911. Had Titanic been finished earlier, she might well have missed her collision with an iceberg.
Titanic 's sea trials began at 6 a.m. on Tuesday, 2 April 1912, just two days after her fitting out was finished and eight days before she was due to leave Southampton on her maiden voyage. The trials were delayed for a day due to bad weather, but by Monday morning it was clear and fair. Aboard were 78 stokers, greasers and firemen, and 41 members of crew. No domestic staff appear to have been aboard. Representatives of various companies travelled on Titanic 's sea trials, Thomas Andrews and Edward Wilding of Harland and Wolff and Harold A. Sanderson of IMM. Bruce Ismay and Lord Pirrie were too ill to attend. Jack Phillips and Harold Bride served as radio operators, and performed fine - tuning of the Marconi equipment. Francis Carruthers, a surveyor from the Board of Trade, was also present to see that everything worked, and that the ship was fit to carry passengers.
The sea trials consisted of a number of tests of her handling characteristics, carried out first in Belfast Lough and then in the open waters of the Irish Sea. Over the course of about 12 hours, Titanic was driven at different speeds, her turning ability was tested and a "crash stop '' was performed in which the engines were reversed full ahead to full astern, bringing her to a stop in 850 yd (777 m) or 3 minutes and 15 seconds. The ship covered a distance of about 80 nautical miles (92 mi; 150 km), averaging 18 knots (21 mph; 33 km / h) and reaching a maximum speed of just under 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km / h).
On returning to Belfast at about 7 p.m., the surveyor signed an "Agreement and Account of Voyages and Crew '', valid for 12 months, which declared the ship seaworthy. An hour later, Titanic departed Belfast to head to Southampton, a voyage of about 570 nautical miles (660 mi; 1,060 km). After a journey lasting about 28 hours she arrived about midnight on 4 April and was towed to the port 's Berth 44, ready for the arrival of her passengers and the remainder of her crew.
Both Olympic and Titanic registered Liverpool as their home port. The offices of the White Star Line as well as Cunard were in Liverpool, and up until the introduction of the Olympic, most British ocean liners for both Cunard and White Star, such as Lusitania and Mauretania, sailed out of Liverpool followed by a port of call in Queenstown, Ireland. Since the company 's founding in 1871, a vast majority of their operations had taken place out of Liverpool. However, in 1907 White Star established another service out of the port of Southampton on England 's south coast, which became known as White Star 's "Express Service ''. Southampton had many advantages over Liverpool, the first being its proximity to London.
In addition, Southampton, being on the south coast, allowed ships to easily cross the English Channel and make a port of call on the northern coast of France, usually at Cherbourg. This allowed British ships to pick up clientele from continental Europe before recrossing the channel and picking up passengers at Queenstown. The Southampton - Cherbourg - New York run would become so popular that most British ocean liners began using the port after World War I. Out of respect for Liverpool, ships continued to be registered there until the early 1960s. Queen Elizabeth 2 was one of the first ships registered in Southampton when introduced into service by Cunard in 1969.
Titanic 's maiden voyage was intended to be the first of many trans - Atlantic crossings between Southampton and New York via Cherbourg and Queenstown on westbound runs, returning via Plymouth in England while eastbound. Indeed, her entire schedule of voyages through to December 1912 still exists. When the route was established, four ships were assigned to the service. In addition to Teutonic and Majestic, the RMS Oceanic and the brand new RMS Adriatic sailed the route. When the Olympic entered service in June 1911, she replaced Teutonic, which after completing her last run on the service in late April was transferred to the Dominion Line 's Canadian service. The following August, Adriatic was transferred to White Star 's main Liverpool - New York service, and in November, Majestic was withdrawn from service impending the arrival of Titanic in the coming months, and was mothballed as a reserve ship.
White Star 's initial plans for Olympic and Titanic on the Southampton run followed the same routine as their predecessors had done before them. Each would sail once every three weeks from Southampton and New York, usually leaving at noon each Wednesday from Southampton and each Saturday from New York, thus enabling the White Star Line to offer weekly sailings in each direction. Special trains were scheduled from London and Paris to convey passengers to Southampton and Cherbourg respectively. The deep - water dock at Southampton, then known as the "White Star Dock '', had been specially constructed to accommodate the new Olympic - class liners, and had opened in 1911.
Titanic had around 885 crew members on board for her maiden voyage. Like other vessels of her time, she did not have a permanent crew, and the vast majority of crew members were casual workers who only came aboard the ship a few hours before she sailed from Southampton. The process of signing up recruits had begun on 23 March and some had been sent to Belfast, where they served as a skeleton crew during Titanic 's sea trials and passage to England at the start of April.
Captain Edward John Smith, the most senior of the White Star Line 's captains, was transferred from Olympic to take command of Titanic. Henry Tingle Wilde also came across from Olympic to take the post of Chief Mate. Titanic 's previously designated Chief Mate and First Officer, William McMaster Murdoch and Charles Lightoller, were bumped down to the ranks of First and Second Officer respectively. The original Second Officer, David Blair, was dropped altogether. The Third Officer was Herbert Pitman MBE, the only deck officer who was not a member of the Royal Naval Reserve. Pitman was the second to last surviving officer.
Titanic 's crew were divided into three principal departments: Deck, with 66 crew; Engine, with 325; and Victualling (pronounced vi - tal - ling), with 494. The vast majority of the crew were thus not seamen, but were either engineers, firemen, or stokers, responsible for looking after the engines, or stewards and galley staff, responsible for the passengers. Of these, over 97 % were male; just 23 of the crew were female, mainly stewardesses. The rest represented a great variety of professions -- bakers, chefs, butchers, fishmongers, dishwashers, stewards, gymnasium instructors, laundrymen, waiters, bed - makers, cleaners, and even a printer, who produced a daily newspaper for passengers called the Atlantic Daily Bulletin with the latest news received by the ship 's wireless operators.
Most of the crew signed on in Southampton on 6 April; in all, 699 of the crew came from there, and 40 % were natives of the town. A few specialist staff were self - employed or were subcontractors. These included the five postal clerks, who worked for the Royal Mail and the United States Post Office Department, the staff of the First Class A La Carte Restaurant and the Café Parisien, the radio operators (who were employed by Marconi) and the eight musicians, who were employed by an agency and travelled as second - class passengers. Crew pay varied greatly, from Captain Smith 's £ 105 a month (equivalent to £ 9,500 today) to the £ 3 10 s (£ 320 today) that stewardesses earned. The lower - paid victualling staff could, however, supplement their wages substantially through tips from passengers.
Titanic 's passengers numbered approximately 1,317 people: 324 in First Class, 284 in Second Class, and 709 in Third Class. Of these, 869 (66 %) were male and 447 (34 %) female. There were 107 children aboard, the largest number of which were in Third Class. The ship was considerably under capacity on her maiden voyage, as she could accommodate 2,453 passengers -- 833 First Class, 614 Second Class, and 1,006 Third Class.
Usually, a high prestige vessel like Titanic could expect to be fully booked on its maiden voyage. However, a national coal strike in the UK had caused considerable disruption to shipping schedules in the spring of 1912, causing many crossings to be cancelled. Many would - be passengers chose to postpone their travel plans until the strike was over. The strike had finished a few days before Titanic sailed; however, that was too late to have much of an effect. Titanic was able to sail on the scheduled date only because coal was transferred from other vessels which were tied up at Southampton, such as SS City of New York and RMS Oceanic, as well as coal Olympic had brought back from a previous voyage to New York, which had been stored at the White Star Dock.
Some of the most prominent people of the day booked a passage aboard Titanic, travelling in First Class. Among them (with those who perished marked with a dagger †) were the American millionaire John Jacob Astor IV † and his wife Madeleine Force Astor, industrialist Benjamin Guggenheim †, painter and sculptor Francis Davis Millet †, Macy 's owner Isidor Straus † and his wife Ida †, Denver millionairess Margaret "Molly '' Brown, Sir Cosmo Duff Gordon and his wife, couturière Lucy (Lady Duff - Gordon), Lieut. Col. Arthur Peuchen, writer and historian Archibald Gracie, cricketer and businessman John B. Thayer † with his wife Marian and son Jack, George Dunton Widener † with his wife Eleanor and son Harry †, Noël Leslie, Countess of Rothes, Mr. † and Mrs. Charles M. Hays, Mr. and Mrs. Henry S. Harper, Mr. † and Mrs. Walter D. Douglas, Mr. † and Mrs. George D. Wick, Mr. † and Mrs. Henry B. Harris, Mr. † and Mrs. Arthur L. Ryerson, Mr. † and Mrs. † Hudson J.C. Allison, Mr. and Mrs. Dickinson Bishop, noted architect Edward Austin Kent †, brewery heir Harry Molson †, tennis players Karl Behr and Dick Williams, author and socialite Helen Churchill Candee, future lawyer and suffragette Elsie Bowerman and her mother Edith, journalist and social reformer William Thomas Stead †, journalist and fashion buyer Edith Rosenbaum, Philadelphia and New York socialite Edith Corse Evans †, wealthy divorcée Charlotte Drake Cardeza, French sculptor Paul Chevré (fr), author Jacques Futrelle † with his wife May, silent film actress Dorothy Gibson with her mother Pauline, Alfons Simonius - Blumer, Swiss Army Colonel and banker, president of the Swiss Bankverein, James A. Hughes 's daughter Eloise, banker Robert Williams Daniel, the chairman of the Holland America Line, Johan Reuchlin (de), Arthur Wellington Ross 's son John H. Ross, Washington Roebling 's nephew Washington A. Roebling II, Andrew Saks 's daughter Leila Saks Meyer with her husband Edgar Joseph Meyer † (son of Marc Eugene Meyer), senator William A. Clark 's nephew Walter M. Clark with his wife Virginia, great - great - grandson of soap manufacturer Andrew Pears, Thomas C. Pears, with wife, John S. Pillsbury 's honeymooning grandson John P. Snyder and wife, Nelle, Dorothy Parker 's New York manufacturer uncle Martin Rothschild with his wife, Elizabeth, among others.
Titanic 's owner J.P. Morgan was scheduled to travel on the maiden voyage but cancelled at the last minute. Also aboard the ship were the White Star Line 's managing director J. Bruce Ismay and Titanic 's designer Thomas Andrews, who was on board to observe any problems and assess the general performance of the new ship.
The exact number of people aboard is not known, as not all of those who had booked tickets made it to the ship; about 50 people cancelled for various reasons, and not all of those who boarded stayed aboard for the entire journey. Fares varied depending on class and season. Third Class fares from London, Southampton, or Queenstown cost £ 7 5s (equivalent to £ 700 today) while the cheapest First Class fares cost £ 23 (£ 2,100 today). The most expensive First Class suites were to have cost up to £ 870 in high season (£ 79,000 today).
Titanic 's maiden voyage began on Wednesday, 10 April 1912. Following the embarkation of the crew the passengers began arriving at 9: 30 a.m., when the London and South Western Railway 's boat train from London Waterloo station reached Southampton Terminus railway station on the quayside, alongside Titanic 's berth. The large number of Third Class passengers meant they were the first to board, with First and Second Class passengers following up to an hour before departure. Stewards showed them to their cabins, and First Class passengers were personally greeted by Captain Smith. Third Class passengers were inspected for ailments and physical impairments that might lead to their being refused entry to the United States -- a prospect the White Star Line wished to avoid, as it would have to carry anyone who failed the examination back across the Atlantic. In all, 920 passengers boarded Titanic at Southampton -- 179 First Class, 247 Second Class, and 494 Third Class. Additional passengers were to be picked up at Cherbourg and Queenstown.
The maiden voyage began at noon, as scheduled. An accident was narrowly averted only a few minutes later, as Titanic passed the moored liners SS City of New York of the American Line and Oceanic of the White Star Line, the latter of which would have been her running mate on the service from Southampton. Her huge displacement caused both of the smaller ships to be lifted by a bulge of water and then drop into a trough. New York 's mooring cables could not take the sudden strain and snapped, swinging her around stern - first towards Titanic. A nearby tugboat, Vulcan, came to the rescue by taking New York under tow, and Captain Smith ordered Titanic 's engines to be put "full astern ''. The two ships avoided a collision by a matter of about 4 feet (1.2 m). The incident delayed Titanic 's departure for about an hour, while the drifting New York was brought under control.
After making it safely through the complex tides and channels of Southampton Water and the Solent, Titanic headed out into the English Channel. She headed for the French port of Cherbourg, a journey of 77 nautical miles (89 mi; 143 km). The weather was windy, very fine but cold and overcast. Because Cherbourg lacked docking facilities for a ship the size of Titanic, tenders had to be used to transfer passengers from shore to ship. The White Star Line operated two at Cherbourg, the SS Traffic and the SS Nomadic. Both had been designed specifically as tenders for the Olympic - class liners and were launched shortly after Titanic. (Nomadic is today the only White Star Line ship still afloat.) Four hours after Titanic left Southampton, she arrived at Cherbourg and was met by the tenders. There, 274 additional passengers were taken aboard -- 142 First Class, 30 Second Class, and 102 Third Class. Twenty - four passengers left aboard the tenders to be conveyed to shore, having booked only a cross-Channel passage. The process was completed within only 90 minutes and at 8 p.m. Titanic weighed anchor and left for Queenstown with the weather continuing cold and windy.
At 11: 30 a.m. on Thursday 11 April, Titanic arrived at Cork Harbour on the south coast of Ireland. It was a partly cloudy but relatively warm day, with a brisk wind. Again, the dock facilities were not suitable for a ship of Titanic 's size, and tenders were used to bring passengers aboard. In all, 123 passengers boarded Titanic at Queenstown -- three First Class, seven Second Class and 113 Third Class. In addition to the 24 cross-channel passengers who had disembarked at Cherbourg, another seven passengers had booked an overnight passage from Southampton to Queenstown. Among the seven was Father Francis Browne, a Jesuit trainee who was a keen photographer and took many photographs aboard Titanic, including the last - ever known photograph of the ship. A decidedly unofficial departure was that of a crew member, stoker John Coffey, a Queenstown native who sneaked off the ship by hiding under mail bags being transported to shore. Titanic weighed anchor for the last time at 1: 30 p.m. and departed on her westward journey across the Atlantic.
Titanic was planned to arrive at New York Pier 59 on the morning of 17 April. After leaving Queenstown Titanic followed the Irish coast as far as Fastnet Rock, a distance of some 55 nautical miles (63 mi; 102 km). From there she travelled 1,620 nautical miles (1,860 mi; 3,000 km) along a Great Circle route across the North Atlantic to reach a spot in the ocean known as "the corner '' south - east of Newfoundland, where westbound steamers carried out a change of course. Titanic sailed only a few hours past the corner on a rhumb line leg of 1,023 nautical miles (1,177 mi; 1,895 km) to Nantucket Shoals Light when she made her fatal contact with an iceberg. The final leg of the journey would have been 193 nautical miles (222 mi; 357 km) to Ambrose Light and finally to New York Harbor.
From 11 April to local apparent noon the next day, Titanic covered 484 nautical miles (557 mi; 896 km); the following day, 519 nautical miles (597 mi; 961 km); and by noon on the final day of her voyage, 546 nautical miles (628 mi; 1,011 km). From then until the time of her sinking she travelled another 258 nautical miles (297 mi; 478 km), averaging about 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km / h).
The weather cleared as she left Ireland under cloudy skies with a headwind. Temperatures remained fairly mild on Saturday 13 April, but the following day Titanic crossed a cold weather front with strong winds and waves of up to 8 feet (2.4 m). These died down as the day progressed until, by the evening of Sunday 14 April, it became clear, calm and very cold.
The first three days of the voyage from Queenstown had passed without apparent incident. A fire had begun in one of Titanic 's coal bunkers approximately 10 days prior to the ship 's departure, and continued to burn for several days into its voyage, but passengers were unaware of this situation. Fires occurred frequently on board steamships of that day due to spontaneous combustion of the coal. The fires had to be extinguished with fire hoses, by moving the coal on top to another bunker and by removing the burning coal and feeding it into the furnace. The fire was over on 14 April. There has been some speculation and discussion as to whether this fire and attempts to extinguish it may have made the ship more vulnerable to its fate.
Titanic received a series of warnings from other ships of drifting ice in the area of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. One of the ships to warn Titanic was the Atlantic Line 's Mesaba. Nevertheless, the ship continued to steam at full speed, which was standard practice at the time. Although the ship was not trying to set a speed record, timekeeping was a priority, and under prevailing maritime practices, ships were often operated at close to full speed, with ice warnings seen as advisories and reliance placed upon lookouts and the watch on the bridge. It was generally believed that ice posed little danger to large vessels. Close calls with ice were not uncommon, and even head - on collisions had not been disastrous. In 1907 SS Kronprinz Wilhelm, a German liner, had rammed an iceberg but still had been able to complete her voyage, and Captain Smith himself had declared in 1907 that he "could not imagine any condition which would cause a ship to founder. Modern shipbuilding has gone beyond that. ''
At 11: 40 p.m. (ship 's time) on 14 April, lookout Frederick Fleet spotted an iceberg immediately ahead of Titanic and alerted the bridge. First Officer William Murdoch ordered the ship to be steered around the obstacle and the engines to be stopped, but it was too late; the starboard side of Titanic struck the iceberg, creating a series of holes below the waterline. The hull was not punctured by the iceberg, but rather dented such that the hull 's seams buckled and separated, allowing water to seep in. Five of the ship 's watertight compartments were breached. It soon became clear that the ship was doomed, as she could not survive more than four compartments being flooded. Titanic began sinking bow - first, with water spilling from compartment to compartment as her angle in the water became steeper.
Those aboard Titanic were ill - prepared for such an emergency. In accordance with accepted practices of the time, where ships were seen as largely unsinkable and lifeboats were intended to transfer passengers to nearby rescue vessels, Titanic only had enough lifeboats to carry about half of those on board; if the ship had carried her full complement of about 3,339 passengers and crew, only about a third could have been accommodated in the lifeboats. The crew had not been trained adequately in carrying out an evacuation. The officers did not know how many they could safely put aboard the lifeboats and launched many of them barely half - full. Third - class passengers were largely left to fend for themselves, causing many of them to become trapped below decks as the ship filled with water. The "women and children first '' protocol was generally followed when loading the lifeboats, and most of the male passengers and crew were left aboard.
At 2: 20 a.m., two hours and 40 minutes after Titanic struck the iceberg, her rate of sinking suddenly increased as her forward deck dipped underwater, and the sea poured in through open hatches and grates. As her unsupported stern rose out of the water, exposing the propellers, the ship began to break in two between the third and fourth funnels, due to the immense forces on the keel. With the bow underwater, and air trapped in the stern, the stern remained afloat and buoyant for a few minutes longer, rising to a nearly vertical angle with hundreds of people still clinging to it, before sinking. For many years it was generally believed the ship sank in one piece; however, when the wreck was located many years later, it was discovered that the ship had fully broken in two. All remaining passengers and crew were immersed into lethally cold water with a temperature of 28 ° F (− 2 ° C). Sudden immersion into freezing water typically causes death within minutes, either from cardiac arrest, uncontrollable breathing of water, or cold incapacitation (not, as commonly believed, from hypothermia), and almost all of those in the water died of cardiac arrest or other bodily reactions to freezing water, within 15 -- 30 minutes. Only 13 of them were helped into the lifeboats, though these had room for almost 500 more people.
Distress signals were sent by wireless, rockets, and lamp, but none of the ships that responded was near enough to reach Titanic before she sank. A radio operator on board the Birma, for instance, estimated that it would be 6 a.m. before the liner could arrive at the scene. Meanwhile, the SS Californian, which was the last to have been in contact before the collision, saw Titanic 's flares but failed to assist. Around 4 a.m., RMS Carpathia arrived on the scene in response to Titanic 's earlier distress calls.
About 710 people survived the disaster and were conveyed by Carpathia to New York, Titanic 's original destination, while at least 1,500 people lost their lives. Carpathia 's captain described the place as an ice field that had included 20 large bergs measuring up to 200 feet (61 m) high and numerous smaller bergs, as well as ice floes and debris from Titanic; passengers described being in the middle of a vast white plain of ice, studded with icebergs. This area is now known as Iceberg Alley.
RMS Carpathia took three days to reach New York after leaving the scene of the disaster. Her journey was slowed by pack ice, fog, thunderstorms and rough seas. She was, however, able to pass news to the outside world by wireless about what had happened. The initial reports were confused, leading the American press to report erroneously on 15 April that Titanic was being towed to port by the SS Virginian.
Later that day, confirmation came through that Titanic had been lost and that most of her passengers and crew had died. The news attracted crowds of people to the White Star Line 's offices in London, New York, Montreal, Southampton, Liverpool and Belfast. It hit hardest in Southampton, whose people suffered the greatest losses from the sinking. Four out of every five crew members came from this town.
Carpathia docked at 9: 30 p.m. on 18 April at New York 's Pier 54 and was greeted by some 40,000 people waiting at the quayside in heavy rain. Immediate relief in the form of clothing and transportation to shelters was provided by the Women 's Relief Committee, the Travelers Aid Society of New York, and the Council of Jewish Women, among other organisations. Many of Titanic 's surviving passengers did not linger in New York but headed onwards immediately to relatives ' homes. Some of the wealthier survivors chartered private trains to take them home, and the Pennsylvania Railroad laid on a special train free of charge to take survivors to Philadelphia. Titanic 's 214 surviving crew members were taken to the Red Star Line 's steamer SS Lapland, where they were accommodated in passenger cabins.
Carpathia was hurriedly restocked with food and provisions before resuming her journey to Fiume, Austria - Hungary. Her crew were given a bonus of a month 's wages by Cunard as a reward for their actions, and some of Titanic 's passengers joined together to give them an additional bonus of nearly £ 900 (£ 82,000 today), divided among the crew members.
The ship 's arrival in New York led to a frenzy of press interest, with newspapers competing to be the first to report the survivors ' stories. Some reporters bribed their way aboard the pilot boat New York, which guided Carpathia into harbour, and one even managed to get onto Carpathia before she docked. Crowds gathered outside newspaper offices to see the latest reports being posted in the windows or on billboards. It took another four days for a complete list of casualties to be compiled and released, adding to the agony of relatives waiting for news of those who had been aboard Titanic.
In January 1912, the hulls and equipment of Titanic and Olympic had been insured through Lloyd 's of London. The total coverage was £ 1,000,000 (£ 91,000,000 today) per ship. The policy was to be "free from all average '' under £ 150,000, meaning that the insurers would only pay for damage in excess of that sum. The premium, negotiated by brokers Willis Faber & Company (now Willis Group), was 15 s (75 p) per £ 100, or £ 7,500 (£ 680,000 today) for the term of one year. Lloyd 's paid the White Star Line the full sum owed to them within 30 days.
Many charities were set up to help the victims and their families, many of whom lost their sole breadwinner, or, in the case of many Third Class survivors, everything they owned. On 29 April opera stars Enrico Caruso and Mary Garden and members of the Metropolitan Opera raised $12,000 ($300,000 in 2014) in benefits for victims of the disaster by giving special concerts in which versions of "Autumn '' and "Nearer My God To Thee '' were part of the programme. In Britain, relief funds were organised for the families of Titanic 's lost crew members, raising nearly £ 450,000 (£ 41,000,000 today). One such fund was still in operation as late as the 1960s.
Even before the survivors arrived in New York, investigations were being planned to discover what had happened, and what could be done to prevent a recurrence. Inquiries were held in both the United States and United Kingdom, the former more robustly critical of traditions and practices, and scathing of the failures involved, and the latter broadly more technical and expert - oriented.
The U.S. Senate 's inquiry into the disaster was initiated on 19 April, a day after Carpathia arrived in New York. The chairman, Senator William Alden Smith, wanted to gather accounts from passengers and crew while the events were still fresh in their minds. Smith also needed to subpoena all surviving British passengers and crew while they were still on American soil, which prevented them from returning to the UK before the American inquiry was completed on 25 May. The British press condemned Smith as an opportunist, insensitively forcing an inquiry as a means of gaining political prestige and seizing "his moment to stand on the world stage ''. Smith, however, already had a reputation as a campaigner for safety on U.S. railroads, and wanted to investigate any possible malpractices by railroad tycoon J.P. Morgan, Titanic 's ultimate owner.
The British Board of Trade 's inquiry into the disaster was headed by Lord Mersey, and took place between 2 May and 3 July. Being run by the Board of Trade, who had previously approved the ship, it was seen by some as having little interest in its own or White Star 's conduct being found negligent.
Each inquiry took testimony from both passengers and crew of Titanic, crew members of Leyland Line 's Californian, Captain Arthur Rostron of Carpathia and other experts. The British inquiry also took far greater expert testimony, making it the longest and most detailed court of inquiry in British history up to that time. The two inquiries reached broadly similar conclusions: the regulations on the number of lifeboats that ships had to carry were out of date and inadequate, Captain Smith had failed to take proper heed of ice warnings, the lifeboats had not been properly filled or crewed, and the collision was the direct result of steaming into a dangerous area at too high a speed.
Neither inquiry 's findings listed negligence by IMM or the White Star Line as a factor. The American inquiry concluded that since those involved had followed standard practice the disaster was an act of God. The British inquiry concluded that Smith had followed long - standing practice that had not previously been shown to be unsafe, noting that British ships alone had carried 3.5 million passengers over the previous decade with the loss of just 10 lives, and concluded that Smith had done "only that which other skilled men would have done in the same position ''. Lord Mersey did however find fault with the "extremely high speed (twenty - two knots) which was maintained '' following numerous ice warnings, noting that without hindsight, "what was a mistake in the case of the Titanic would without doubt be negligence in any similar case in the future ''.
The recommendations included strong suggestions for major changes in maritime regulations to implement new safety measures, such as ensuring that more lifeboats were provided, that lifeboat drills were properly carried out and that wireless equipment on passenger ships was manned around the clock. An International Ice Patrol was set up to monitor the presence of icebergs in the North Atlantic, and maritime safety regulations were harmonised internationally through the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea; both measures are still in force today.
On 18 June 1912, Guglielmo Marconi gave evidence to the Court of Inquiry regarding the telegraphy. Its final report recommended that all liners carry the system and that sufficient operators maintain a constant service.
One of the most controversial issues examined by the inquiries was the role played by SS Californian, which had been only a few miles from Titanic but had not picked up her distress calls or responded to her signal rockets. Californian had warned Titanic by radio of the pack ice that was the reason Californian had stopped for the night, but was rebuked by Titanic 's senior wireless operator, Jack Phillips.
Testimony before the British inquiry revealed that at 10: 10 p.m., Californian observed the lights of a ship to the south; it was later agreed between Captain Stanley Lord and Third Officer C.V. Groves (who had relieved Lord of duty at 11: 10 p.m.) that this was a passenger liner. At 11: 50 p.m., the officer had watched that ship 's lights flash out, as if she had shut down or turned sharply, and that the port light was now visible. Morse light signals to the ship, upon Lord 's order, were made between 11: 30 p.m. and 1: 00 a.m., but were not acknowledged. If Titanic were as far from the Californian as Lord claimed, then he knew, or should have known, that Morse signals would not be visible. A reasonable and prudent course of action would have been to awaken the wireless operator and to instruct him to attempt to contact Titanic by that method. Had Lord done so, it is possible he could have reached Titanic in time to save additional lives.
Captain Lord had gone to the chartroom at 11: 00 p.m. to spend the night; however, Second Officer Herbert Stone, now on duty, notified Lord at 1: 10 a.m. that the ship had fired five rockets. Lord wanted to know if they were company signals, that is, coloured flares used for identification. Stone said that he did not know and that the rockets were all white. Captain Lord instructed the crew to continue to signal the other vessel with the Morse lamp, and went back to sleep. Three more rockets were observed at 1: 50 a.m. and Stone noted that the ship looked strange in the water, as if she were listing. At 2: 15 a.m., Lord was notified that the ship could no longer be seen. Lord asked again if the lights had had any colours in them, and he was informed that they were all white.
Californian eventually responded. At around 5: 30 a.m., Chief Officer George Stewart awakened wireless operator Cyril Furmstone Evans, informed him that rockets had been seen during the night, and asked that he try to communicate with any ship. He got news of Titanic 's loss, Captain Lord was notified, and the ship set out to render assistance. She arrived well after Carpathia had already picked up all the survivors.
The inquiries found that the ship seen by Californian was in fact Titanic and that it would have been possible for Californian to come to her rescue; therefore, Captain Lord had acted improperly in failing to do so.
The number of casualties of the sinking is unclear, due to a number of factors. These include confusion over the passenger list, which included some names of people who cancelled their trip at the last minute, and the fact that several passengers travelled under aliases for various reasons and were therefore double - counted on the casualty lists. The death toll has been put at between 1,490 and 1,635 people. The tables below use figures from the British Board of Trade report on the disaster. While the use of Marconi wireless system did not achieve the result of bringing a rescue ship to the Titanic before it sank, the use of wireless did bring the Carpathia in time to rescue some of the survivors who otherwise would have perished due to exposure.
The water temperature in the area where Titanic sank, which was well below normal, also contributed to the rapid death of many passengers during the sinking. Water temperature readings taken around the time of the accident were reported to be 28 ° F (− 2 ° C). Typical water temperatures were normally in the mid-40 ° F range during mid-April. The coldness of the water was a critical factor, often causing death within minutes for many of those in the water.
Fewer than a third of those aboard Titanic survived the disaster. Some survivors died shortly afterwards; injuries and the effects of exposure caused the deaths of several of those brought aboard Carpathia. The figures show stark differences in the survival rates of the different classes aboard Titanic. Although only 3 % of first - class women were lost, 54 % of those in third class died. Similarly, five of six first - class and all second - class children survived, but 52 of the 79 in third class perished. The differences by gender were even bigger: nearly all female crew members, first and second class passengers were saved. Men from the First Class died at a higher rate than women from the Third Class. In total, 50 % of the children survived, 20 % of the men and 75 % of the women.
The last living survivor, Millvina Dean from England, who at only nine weeks old was the youngest passenger on board, died aged 97 on 31 May 2009. A special survivor was crew member Violet Jessop who survived the sinkings of both Titanic and Britannic and was aboard Olympic when she was rammed in 1911.
Once the massive loss of life became known, White Star Line chartered the cable ship CS Mackay - Bennett from Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, to retrieve bodies. Three other Canadian ships followed in the search: the cable ship Minia, lighthouse supply ship Montmagny and sealing vessel Algerine. Each ship left with embalming supplies, undertakers, and clergy. Of the 333 victims that were eventually recovered, 328 were retrieved by the Canadian ships and five more by passing North Atlantic steamships.
The first ship to reach the site of the sinking, the CS Mackay - Bennett, found so many bodies that the embalming supplies aboard were quickly exhausted. Health regulations required that only embalmed bodies could be returned to port. Captain Larnder of the Mackay - Bennett and undertakers aboard decided to preserve only the bodies of first class passengers, justifying their decision by the need to visually identify wealthy men to resolve any disputes over large estates. As a result, many third class passengers and crew were buried at sea. Larnder identified many of those buried at sea as crew members by their clothing, and stated that as a mariner, he himself would be contented to be buried at sea.
Bodies recovered were preserved for transport to Halifax, the closest city to the sinking with direct rail and steamship connections. The Halifax coroner, John Henry Barnstead, developed a detailed system to identify bodies and safeguard personal possessions. Relatives from across North America came to identify and claim bodies. A large temporary morgue was set up in the curling rink of the Mayflower Curling Club and undertakers were called in from all across eastern Canada to assist. Some bodies were shipped to be buried in their home towns across North America and Europe. About two - thirds of the bodies were identified. Unidentified victims were buried with simple numbers based on the order in which their bodies were discovered. The majority of recovered victims, 150 bodies, were buried in three Halifax cemeteries, the largest being Fairview Lawn Cemetery followed by the nearby Mount Olivet and Baron de Hirsch cemeteries.
In mid-May 1912, RMS Oceanic recovered three bodies over 200 miles (320 km) from the site of the sinking who were among the original occupants of Collapsible A. When Fifth Officer Harold Lowe and six crewmen returned to the wreck site sometime after the sinking in a lifeboat to pick up survivors, they rescued a dozen males and one female from Collapsible A, but left the dead bodies of three of its occupants. After their retrieval from Collapsible A by Oceanic, the bodies were buried at sea.
The last Titanic body recovered was steward James McGrady, Body No. 330, found by the chartered Newfoundland sealing vessel Algerine on 22 May and buried at Fairview Lawn Cemetery in Halifax on 12 June.
Only 333 bodies of Titanic victims were recovered, one in five of the over 1,500 victims. Some bodies sank with the ship while currents quickly dispersed bodies and wreckage across hundreds of miles making them difficult to recover. By June, one of the last search ships reported that life jackets supporting bodies were coming apart and releasing bodies to sink.
Titanic was long thought to have sunk in one piece and, over the years, many schemes were put forward for raising the wreck. None came to fruition. The fundamental problem was the sheer difficulty of finding and reaching a wreck that lies over 12,000 feet (3,700 m) below the surface, in a location where the water pressure is over 6,500 pounds per square inch (450 bar). A number of expeditions were mounted to find Titanic but it was not until 1 September 1985 that a Franco - American expedition led by Robert Ballard succeeded.
The team discovered that Titanic had in fact split apart, probably near or at the surface, before sinking to the seabed. The separated bow and stern sections lie about a third of a mile (0.6 km) apart in Titanic Canyon off the coast of Newfoundland. They are located 13.2 miles (21.2 km) from the inaccurate coordinates given by Titanic 's radio operators on the night of her sinking, and approximately 715 miles (1,151 km) from Halifax and 1,250 miles (2,012 km) from New York.
Both sections struck the sea bed at considerable speed, causing the bow to crumple and the stern to collapse entirely. The bow is by far the more intact section and still contains some surprisingly intact interiors. In contrast, the stern is completely wrecked; its decks have pancaked down on top of each other and much of the hull plating was torn off and lies scattered across the sea floor. The much greater level of damage to the stern is probably due to structural damage incurred during the sinking. Thus weakened, the remainder of the stern was flattened by the impact with the sea bed.
The two sections are surrounded by a debris field measuring approximately 5 by 3 miles (8.0 km × 4.8 km). It contains hundreds of thousands of items, such as pieces of the ship, furniture, dinnerware and personal items, which fell from the ship as she sank or were ejected when the bow and stern impacted on the sea floor. The debris field was also the last resting place of a number of Titanic 's victims. Most of the bodies and clothes were consumed by sea creatures and bacteria, leaving pairs of shoes and boots -- which have proved to be inedible -- as the only sign that bodies once lay there.
Since its initial discovery, the wreck of Titanic has been revisited on numerous occasions by explorers, scientists, filmmakers, tourists and salvagers, who have recovered thousands of items from the debris field for conservation and public display. The ship 's condition has deteriorated significantly over the years, particularly from accidental damage by submersibles but mostly because of an accelerating rate of growth of iron - eating bacteria on the hull. In 2006, it was estimated that within 50 years the hull and structure of Titanic would eventually collapse entirely, leaving only the more durable interior fittings of the ship intermingled with a pile of rust on the sea floor.
Many artefacts from Titanic have been recovered from the sea bed by RMS Titanic Inc., which exhibits them in touring exhibitions around the world and in a permanent exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. A number of other museums exhibit artefacts either donated by survivors or retrieved from the floating bodies of victims of the disaster.
On 16 April 2012, the day after the 100th anniversary of the sinking, photos were released showing possible human remains resting on the ocean floor. The photos, taken by Robert Ballard during an expedition led by NOAA in 2004, show a boot and a coat close to Titanic 's stern which experts called "compelling evidence '' that it is the spot where somebody came to rest, and that human remains could be buried in the sediment beneath them. The wreck of the Titanic falls under the scope of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This means that all states party to the convention will prohibit the pillaging, commercial exploitation, sale and dispersion of the wreck and its artefacts. Because of the location of the wreck in international waters and the lack of any exclusive jurisdiction over the wreckage area, the convention provides a state co-operation system, by which states inform each other of any potential activity concerning ancient shipwreck sites, like the Titanic, and co-operate to prevent unscientific or unethical interventions.
After the disaster, recommendations were made by both the British and American Boards of Inquiry stating that ships should carry enough lifeboats for all aboard, mandated lifeboat drills would be implemented, lifeboat inspections would be conducted, etc. Many of these recommendations were incorporated into the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea passed in 1914. The convention has been updated by periodic amendments, with a completely new version adopted in 1974. Signatories to the convention followed up with national legislation to implement the new standards. For example in Britain, new "Rules for Life Saving Appliances '' were passed by the Board of Trade on 8 May 1914 and then applied at a meeting of British steamship companies in Liverpool in June 1914.
Further, the United States government passed the Radio Act of 1912. This act, along with the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, stated that radio communications on passenger ships would be operated 24 hours a day, along with a secondary power supply, so as not to miss distress calls. Also, the Radio Act of 1912 required ships to maintain contact with vessels in their vicinity as well as coastal onshore radio stations. In addition, it was agreed in the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea that the firing of red rockets from a ship must be interpreted as a sign of need for help. Once the Radio Act of 1912 was passed it was agreed that rockets at sea would be interpreted as distress signals only, thus removing any possible misinterpretation from other ships.
Finally, the disaster led to the formation and international funding of the International Ice Patrol, an agency of the United States Coast Guard that to the present day monitors and reports on the location of North Atlantic Ocean icebergs that could pose a threat to transatlantic sea traffic. Coast Guard aircraft conduct the primary reconnaissance. In addition, information is collected from ships operating in or passing through the ice area. Except for the years of the two World Wars, the International Ice Patrol has worked each season since 1913. During the period there has not been a single reported loss of life or property due to collision with an iceberg in the patrol area. In 1912, the Board of Trade chartered the barque Scotia to act as a weather ship in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, keeping a look - out for icebergs. A Marconi wireless was installed to enable her to communicate with stations on the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland.
Titanic has gone down in history as the ship that was called unsinkable. For more than 100 years, she has been the inspiration of fiction and non-fiction. She is commemorated by monuments for the dead and by museums exhibiting artefacts from the wreck. Just after the sinking memorial postcards sold in huge numbers together with memorabilia ranging from tin candy boxes to plates, whiskey jiggers, and even black mourning teddy bears. Several survivors wrote books about their experiences but it was not until 1955 the first historically accurate book A Night to Remember was published.
The first film about the disaster, Saved from the Titanic, was released only 29 days after the ship sank and had an actual survivor as its star -- the silent film actress Dorothy Gibson. The British film A Night to Remember (1958) is still widely regarded as the most historically accurate movie portrayal of the sinking. The most financially successful by far has been James Cameron 's Titanic (1997), which became the highest - grossing film in history up to that time, as well as the winner of 11 Oscars at the 70th Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director for Cameron.
The Titanic disaster was commemorated through a variety of memorials and monuments to the victims, erected in several English - speaking countries and in particular in cities that had suffered notable losses. These included Southampton, Liverpool and Belfast in the United Kingdom; New York and Washington, D.C. in the United States; and Cobh (formerly Queenstown) in Ireland. A number of museums around the world have displays on Titanic, the most prominent is in Belfast, the ship 's birthplace (see next section).
RMS Titanic Inc., which is authorised to salvage the wreck site, has a permanent Titanic exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Nevada which features a 22 - ton slab of the ship 's hull. It also runs an exhibition which travels around the world. In Nova Scotia, Halifax 's Maritime Museum of the Atlantic displays items that were recovered from the sea a few days after the disaster. They include pieces of woodwork such as panelling from the ship 's First Class Lounge and an original deckchair, as well as objects removed from the victims. In 2012 the centenary was marked by plays, radio programmes, parades, exhibitions and special trips to the site of the sinking together with commemorative stamps and coins.
In a frequently commented - on literary coincidence, Morgan Robertson authored a novel called Futility in 1898 about a fictional British passenger liner with the plot bearing a number of similarities to the Titanic disaster. In the novel the ship is the SS Titan, a four - stacked liner, the largest in the world and considered unsinkable. But like the Titanic, she sinks after hitting an iceberg and does not have enough lifeboats.
Only recently has the significance of Titanic most notably been given by Northern Ireland where it was built by Harland and Wolff in the capital city, Belfast. While the rest of the world embraced the glory and tragedy of Titanic, in its birth city, Titanic remained a taboo subject throughout the 20th century. The sinking brought tremendous grief and was a blow to the city 's pride. But its shipyard was also a place many Catholics regarded as hostile. In the latter half of the century, during a 30 - year sectarian conflict Titanic was a reminder of the lack of civil rights that in part contributed towards The Troubles. While the fate of Titanic remained a well - known story within local households throughout the 20th century, commercial investment around Titanic 's legacy was modest because of these issues.
After The Troubles in 1998, the number of overseas tourists visiting Northern Ireland dramatically increased to 30 million (100 % rise by 2008). It was subsequently identified in the ' Northern Ireland Tourism Board 's Strategic Framework for Action 2004 -- 2007 ' that the significance of and interest in Titanic globally (partly due to the 1997 film ' Titanic ') was not being fully exploited as a tourist attraction. Thus, Titanic Belfast ® was spearheaded, along with some smaller projects, such as a Titanic memorial.
In 2012 on the ship 's centenary, Titanic Belfast visitor attraction was opened on the site of the shipyard where Titanic was built. It was Northern Ireland 's second most visited tourist attraction with almost 700,000 visitors in 2016.
Despite over 1,600 ships being built by Harland and Wolff in Belfast Harbour, Queen 's Island became renamed after its most famous ship; Titanic Quarter in 1995. In 2005 Titanic Quarter Ltd launched one of the world 's largest urban - waterfront regeneration projects. Today Titanic Quarter is Northern Ireland 's most esteemed site; a major hub of world - class education, employment, entertainment and tourist facilities. Once a sensitive story, Titanic is now considered one of Northern Ireland 's most iconic and uniting symbols.
There have been several proposals and studies for a project to build a replica ship based on the Titanic. A project by South African businessman Sarel Gaus was abandoned in 2006, and a project by Australian businessman Clive Palmer was announced in 2012, known as the Titanic II.
A Chinese shipbuilding company known as Wuchang Shipbuilding Industry Group Co., Ltd commenced construction in January 2014 to build a replica ship of the Titanic for use in a resort. The vessel will house many features of the original, such as a ballroom, dining hall, theatre, first - class cabins, economy cabins and swimming pool. Tourists will be able to reside inside the Titanic during their time at the resort. It will be permanently docked at the resort and feature an audiovisual simulation of the sinking, which has caused some criticism.
The RMS Olympic was the sister ship of the Titanic. The interior decoration of the dining salon and the grand staircase were in identical style and created by the same craftsmen. Large parts of the interior of the Olympic were later sold and are now in the White Swan Hotel, Alnwick, which gives an impression of how the interior of the Titanic looked.
The upcoming game Titanic: Honor and Glory aims to tell the story of the sinking through a mystery and is VR compatible.
Books:
Journals and news articles:
Investigations:
Coordinates: 41 ° 43 ′ 57 '' N 49 ° 56 ′ 49 '' W / 41.73250 ° N 49.94694 ° W / 41.73250; - 49.94694
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meaning of the colors on the us flag | Flag of the United States - wikipedia
The flag of the United States of America, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. It consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton (referred to specifically as the "union '') bearing fifty small, white, five - pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows, where rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternate with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states of the United States of America, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and became the first states in the U.S. Nicknames for the flag include the Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, and the Star - Spangled Banner.
The current design of the U.S. flag is its 27th; the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48 - star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49 - star version became official on July 4, 1959. The 50 - star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21, 1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the longest - used version of the U.S. flag and has been in use for over 58 years.
The Continental Colors (aka the "Grand Union Flag '')
Flag of the British East India Company, 1707 -- 1801
At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the Continental Congress would not legally adopt flags with "stars, white in a blue field '' for another year. The flag contemporaneously known as "the Continental Colors '' has historically been referred to as the first national flag.
The Continental Navy raised the Colors as the ensign of the fledgling nation in the American War for Independence -- likely with the expedient of transforming their previous British red ensigns by adding white stripes -- and would use this flag until 1777, when it would form the basis for the subsequent de jure designs.
The name "Grand Union '' was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the U.S. flag.
The flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been easily constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign, one of the three maritime flags used throughout the British Empire at the time. However, an East India Company flag could have from nine to 13 stripes, and was not allowed to be flown outside the Indian Ocean. Benjamin Franklin once gave a speech endorsing the adoption of the Company 's flag by the United States as their national flag. He said to George Washington, "While the field of your flag must be new in the details of its design, it need not be entirely new in its elements. There is already in use a flag, I refer to the flag of the East India Company. '' This was a way of symbolising American loyalty to the Crown as well as the United States ' aspirations to be self - governing, as was the East India Company. Some colonists also felt that the Company could be a powerful ally in the American War of Independence, as they shared similar aims and grievances against the British government tax policies. Colonists therefore flew the Company 's flag, to endorse the Company.
However, the theory that the Grand Union Flag was a direct descendant of the flag of the East India Company has been criticised as lacking written evidence. On the other hand, the resemblance is obvious, and a number of the Founding Fathers of the United States were aware of the East India Company 's activities and of their free administration of India under Company rule. In any case, both the stripes (barry) and the stars (mullets) have precedents in classical heraldry. Mullets were comparatively rare in early modern heraldry, but an example of mullets representing territorial divisions predating the U.S. flag are those in the coat of arms of Valais of 1618, where seven mullets stood for seven districts.
On June 14, 1777, the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution which stated: "Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation. '' Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment.
The first official U.S. flag flown during battle was on August 3, 1777, at Fort Schuyler (Fort Stanwix) during the Siege of Fort Stanwix. Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes; scarlet material to form the red was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers ' wives, while material for the blue union was secured from Capt. Abraham Swartwout 's blue cloth coat. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag.
The 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a national flag did not yet exist, or was only nascent. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee. On May 10, 1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern "it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. '' However, the term, "Standard, '' referred to a national standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the national standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag.
The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement, number of points, nor orientation for the stars and the arrangement or whether the flag had to have seven red stripes and six white ones or vice versa. The appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows and some replaced a state 's star with its initial. One arrangement features 13 five - pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle (as opposed to up), the so - called Betsy Ross flag. This flag, however, is more likely a flag used for celebrations of anniversaries of the nation 's birthday. Experts have dated the earliest known example of this flag to be 1792 in a painting by John Trumbull.
Despite the 1777 resolution, the early years of American independence featured many different flags. Most were individually crafted rather than mass - produced. While there are many examples of 13 - star arrangements, some of those flags included blue stripes as well as red and white. Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, in a letter dated October 3, 1778, to Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, described the American flag as consisting of "13 stripes, alternately red, white, and blue, a small square in the upper angle, next the flag staff, is a blue field, with 13 white stars, denoting a new Constellation. '' John Paul Jones used a variety of 13 - star flags on his U.S. Navy ships including the well - documented 1779 flags of the Serapis and the Alliance. The Serapis flag had three rows of eight - pointed stars with stripes that were red, white, and blue. The flag for the Alliance, however, had five rows of eight - pointed stars with 13 red and white stripes, and the white stripes were on the outer edges. Both flags were documented by the Dutch government in October 1779, making them two of the earliest known flags of 13 stars.
Francis Hopkinson of New Jersey, a naval flag designer, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the 1777 flag while he was the Chairman of the Continental Navy Board 's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June 1777. The Navy Board was under the Continental Marine Committee. Not only did Hopkinson claim that he designed the U.S. flag, but he also claimed that he designed a flag for the U.S. Navy. Hopkinson was the only person to have made such a claim during his own lifetime, when he sent a letter and several bills to Congress for his work. These claims are documented in the Journals of the Continental Congress and George Hasting 's biography of Hopkinson. Hopkinson initially wrote a letter to Congress, via the Continental Board of Admiralty, on May 25, 1780. In this letter, he asked for a "Quarter Cask of the Public Wine '' as payment for designing the U.S. flag, the seal for the Admiralty Board, the seal for the Treasury Board, Continental currency, the Great Seal of the United States, and other devices. However, in three subsequent bills to Congress, Hopkinson asked to be paid in cash, but he did not list his U.S. flag design. Instead, he asked to be paid for designing the "great Naval Flag of the United States '' in the first bill; the "Naval Flag of the United States '' in the second bill; and "the Naval Flag of the States '' in the third, along with the other items. The flag references were generic terms for the naval ensign that Hopkinson had designed, that is, a flag of seven red stripes and six white ones. The predominance of red stripes made the naval flag more visible against the sky on a ship at sea. By contrast, Hopkinson 's flag for the United States had seven white stripes, and six red ones -- in reality, six red stripes laid on a white background. Hopkinson 's sketches have not been found, but we can make these conclusions because Hopkinson incorporated different stripe arrangements in the Admiralty (naval) Seal that he designed in the Spring of 1780 and the Great Seal of the United States that he proposed at the same time. His Admiralty Seal had seven red stripes; whereas, his second U.S. Seal proposal had seven white ones. Hopkinson 's flag for the Navy is the one that the Nation preferred as the national flag. Remnants of Hopkinson 's U.S. flag of seven white stripes can be found in the Great Seal of the United States and the President 's seal. When Hopkinson was chairman of the Navy Board, his position was like that of today 's Secretary of the Navy. The payment was not made, however, because it was determined he had already received a salary as a member of Congress. This contradicts the legend of the Betsy Ross flag, which suggests that she sewed the first Stars and Stripes flag by request of the government in the Spring of 1776. Furthermore, a letter from the War Board to George Washington on May 10, 1779, documents that there was still no design established for a national flag for the Army 's use in battle.
The origin of the stars and stripes design has been muddled by a story disseminated by the descendants of Betsy Ross. The apocryphal story credits Betsy Ross for sewing the first flag from a pencil sketch handed to her by George Washington. No evidence for this exists either in the diaries of George Washington nor in the records of the Continental Congress. Indeed, nearly a century passed before Ross ' grandson, William Canby, first publicly suggested the story in 1870. By her family 's own admission, Ross ran an upholstery business, and she had never made a flag as of the supposed visit in June 1776. Furthermore, her grandson admitted that his own search through the Journals of Congress and other official records failed to find corroboration of his grandmother 's story.
The family of Rebecca Young claimed that she sewed the first flag. Young 's daughter was Mary Pickersgill, who made the Star Spangled Banner Flag. She was assisted by Grace Wisher, an African American girl at just 13 years old. According to rumor, the Washington family coat of arms, shown in a 15th - century window of Selby Abbey, was the origin of the stars and stripes.
In 1795, the number of stars and stripes was increased from 13 to 15 (to reflect the entry of Vermont and Kentucky as states of the Union). For a time the flag was not changed when subsequent states were admitted, probably because it was thought that this would cause too much clutter. It was the 15 - star, 15 - stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', later known as "The Star Spangled Banner '', which is now the American national anthem. The flag is currently on display in the exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem '' at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History in a two - story display chamber that protects the flag while it is on view.
On April 4, 1818, a plan was passed by Congress at the suggestion of U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid in which the flag was changed to have 20 stars, with a new star to be added when each new state was admitted, but the number of stripes would be reduced to 13 so as to honor the original colonies. The act specified that new flag designs should become official on the first July 4 (Independence Day) following admission of one or more new states. The most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, occurred in 1960 when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959. Before that, the admission of Alaska in January 1959 prompted the debut of a short - lived 49 - star flag.
Prior to the adoption of the 48 - star flag in 1912, there was no official arrangement of the stars in the canton, although the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy used standardized designs. Throughout the 19th century there was an abundance of different star patterns, rectangular and circular.
On July 4, 2007, the 50 - star flag became the version of the flag in longest use, surpassing the 48 - star flag that was used from 1912 to 1959.
The U.S. flag was brought to the city of Canton (Guǎngzhōu) in China in 1784 by the merchant ship Empress of China, which carried a cargo of ginseng. There it gained the designation "Flower Flag '' (Chinese: 花旗; pinyin: huāqí; Cantonese Yale: fākeì). According to a pseudonymous account first published in the Boston Courier and later retold by author and U.S. naval officer George H. Preble:
When the thirteen stripes and stars first appeared at Canton, much curiosity was excited among the people. News was circulated that a strange ship had arrived from the further end of the world, bearing a flag "as beautiful as a flower ''. Every body went to see the kwa kee chuen (花旗 船; Fākeìsyùhn), or "flower flagship ''. This name at once established itself in the language, and America is now called the kwa kee kwoh (花旗 國; Fākeìgwok), the "flower flag country '' -- and an American, kwa kee kwoh yin (花旗 國人; Fākeìgwokyàhn) -- "flower flag countryman '' -- a more complimentary designation than that of "red headed barbarian '' -- the name first bestowed upon the Dutch.
In the above quote, the Chinese words are written phonetically based on spoken Cantonese. The names given were common usage in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Vietnam has borrowed the term for the United States, as Hoa Kỳ or 花旗 ("Flower Flag '') in Vietnamese language.
Chinese now refer to the United States as simplified Chinese: 美国; traditional Chinese: 美國; pinyin: Měiguó. Měi is short for Měilìjiān (simplified Chinese: 美利坚; traditional Chinese: 美利堅, phono - semantic matching of "American '') and "guó '' means "country '', so this name is unrelated to the flag. However, the "flower flag '' terminology persists in some places today: for example, American Ginseng is called flower flag ginseng (simplified Chinese: 花旗 参; traditional Chinese: 花旗 參) in Chinese, and Citibank, which opened a branch in China in 1902, is known as Flower Flag Bank (花旗 银行).
The U.S. flag took its first trip around the world in 1787 -- 90 on board the Columbia. William Driver, who coined the phrase "Old Glory '', took the U.S. flag around the world in 1831 -- 32. The flag attracted the notice of Japanese when an oversized version was carried to Yokohama by the steamer Great Republic as part of a round - the - world journey in 1871.
In the following table depicting the 28 various designs of the United States flag, the star patterns for the flags are merely the usual patterns, often associated with the United States Navy. Canton designs, prior to the proclamation of the 48 - star flag, had no official arrangement of the stars. Furthermore, the exact colors of the flag were not standardized until 1934.
In the November 2012 U.S. election, Puerto Rico voted to become a U.S. state. However, the legitimacy of the result of this election was disputed. On June 11, 2017, another referendum was held, this time with the result that 97 % of voters in Puerto Rico voted for statehood, but it had a turnout of only 23 %. Similarly in November 2016, a statehood referendum was held in the District of Columbia where 86 % of voters approved the proposal. If a new U.S. state were to be admitted, it would require a new design on the flag to accommodate the additional star.
The flag of the United States is one of the nation 's most widely recognized symbols. Within the United States, flags are frequently displayed not only on public buildings but on private residences. The flag is a common motif on decals for car windows, and on clothing ornamentation such as badges and lapel pins. Throughout the world the flag has been used in public discourse to refer to the United States.
The flag has become a powerful symbol of Americanism, and is flown on many occasions, with giant outdoor flags used by retail outlets to draw customers. Reverence for the flag has at times reached religion - like fervor: in 1919 William Norman Guthrie 's book The Religion of Old Glory discussed "the cult of the flag '' and formally proposed vexillolatry.
Despite a number of attempts to ban the practice, desecration of the flag remains protected as free speech. Scholars have noted the irony that "(t) he flag is so revered because it represents the land of the free, and that freedom includes the ability to use or abuse that flag in protest ''. Comparing practice worldwide, Testi noted in 2010 that the United States was not unique in adoring its banner, for the flags of Scandinavian countries are also "beloved, domesticated, commercialized and sacralized objects ''.
This nationalist attitude around the flag is a shift from earlier sentiments; the US flag was largely a "military ensign or a convenient marking of American territory '' that rarely appeared outside of forts, embassies, and the like until the opening of the American Civil War in April of 1861, when Major Robert Anderson was forced to surrender Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor to Confederates. Anderson was celebrated in the North as a hero and U.S. citizens throughout Northern states co-opted the national flag to symbolize U.S. nationalism and rejection of secessionism:
For the first time American flags were mass - produced rather than individually stitched and even so, manufacturers could not keep up with demand. As the long winter of 1861 turned into spring, that old flag meant something new. The abstraction of the Union cause was transfigured into a physical thing: strips of cloth that millions of people would fight for, and many thousands die for. -- Adam Goodheart.
The basic design of the current flag is specified by 4 U.S.C. § 1; 4 U.S.C. § 2 outlines the addition of new stars to represent new states. The specification gives the following values:
These specifications are contained in an executive order which, strictly speaking, governs only flags made for or by the U.S. federal government. In practice, most U.S. national flags available for sale to the public have a different width - to - height ratio; common sizes are 2 × 3 ft. or 4 × 6 ft. (flag ratio 1.5), 2.5 × 4 ft. or 5 × 8 ft. (1.6), or 3 × 5 ft. or 6 × 10 ft. (1.667). Even flags flown over the U.S. Capitol for sale to the public through Representatives or Senators are provided in these sizes. Flags that are made to the prescribed 1.9 ratio are often referred to as "G - spec '' (for "government specification '') flags.
The exact red, white, and blue colors to be used in the flag are specified with reference to the CAUS Standard Color Reference of America, 10th edition. Specifically, the colors are "White '', "Old Glory Red '', and "Old Glory Blue ''. The CIE coordinates for the colors of the 9th edition of the Standard Color Card were formally specified in JOSA in 1946. These colors form the standard for cloth, and there is no perfect way to convert them to RGB for display on screen or CMYK for printing. The "relative '' coordinates in the following table were found by scaling the luminous reflectance relative to the flag 's "white ''.
As with the design, the official colors are only officially required for flags produced for the U.S. federal government, and other colors are often used for mass - market flags, printed reproductions, and other products intended to evoke flag colors. The practice of using more saturated colors than the official cloth is not new. As Taylor, Knoche, and Granville wrote in 1950: "The color of the official wool bunting (of the blue field) is a very dark blue, but printed reproductions of the flag, as well as merchandise supposed to match the flag, present the color as a deep blue much brighter than the official wool. ''
Sometimes, Pantone Matching System (PMS) approximations to the flag colors are used. One set was given on the website of the U.S. embassy in London as early as 1998; the website of the U.S. embassy in Stockholm claimed in 2001 that those had been suggested by Pantone, and that the U.S. Government Printing Office preferred a different set. A third red was suggested by a California Military Department document in 2002. In 2001, the Texas legislature specified that the colors of the Texas flag should be "(1) the same colors used in the United States flag; and (2) defined as numbers 193 (red) and 281 (dark blue) of the Pantone Matching System. ''
When Alaska and Hawaii were being considered for statehood in the 1950s, more than 1,500 designs were submitted to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although some of them were 49 - star versions, the vast majority were 50 - star proposals. At least three of these designs were identical to the present design of the 50 - star flag. At the time, credit was given by the executive department to the United States Army Institute of Heraldry for the design.
Of these proposals, one created by 17 - year - old Robert G. Heft in 1958 as a school project received the most publicity. His mother was a seamstress, but refused to do any of the work for him. He originally received a B -- for the project. After discussing the grade with his teacher, it was agreed (somewhat jokingly) that if the flag was accepted by Congress, the grade would be reconsidered. Heft 's flag design was chosen and adopted by presidential proclamation after Alaska and before Hawaii was admitted into the Union in 1959. According to Heft, his teacher did keep to their agreement and changed his grade to an A for the project. The 49 - and 50 - star flags were each flown for the first time at Fort McHenry on Independence Day, in 1959 and 1960 respectively.
Traditionally, the flag may be decorated with golden fringe surrounding the perimeter of the flag as long as it does not deface the flag proper. Ceremonial displays of the flag, such as those in parades or on indoor posts, often use fringe to enhance the appearance of the flag.
The first recorded use of fringe on a flag dates from 1835, and the Army used it officially in 1895. No specific law governs the legality of fringe, but a 1925 opinion of the attorney general addresses the use of fringe (and the number of stars) "... is at the discretion of the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy... '' as quoted from footnote in previous volumes of Title 4 of the United States Code law books and is a source for claims that such a flag is a military ensign not civilian. However, according to the Army Institute of Heraldry, which has official custody of the flag designs and makes any change ordered, there are no implications of symbolism in the use of fringe. Several federal courts have upheld this conclusion, most recently and forcefully in Colorado v. Drew, a Colorado Court of Appeals judgment that was released in May 2010. Traditionally, the Army and Air Force use a fringed National Color for parade, color guard and indoor display, while the Sea Services (Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard) use a fringeless National Color for all occasions.
The flag is customarily flown year - round at most public buildings, and it is not unusual to find private houses flying full - size (3 by 5 feet (0.91 by 1.52 m)) flags. Some private use is year - round, but becomes widespread on civic holidays like Memorial Day, Veterans Day, Presidents ' Day, Flag Day, and on Independence Day. On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war veterans. Also on Memorial Day it is common to fly the flag at half staff, until noon, in remembrance of those who lost their lives fighting in U.S. wars.
The United States Flag Code outlines certain guidelines for the use, display, and disposal of the flag. For example, the flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the ensign responding to a salute from a ship of a foreign nation. This tradition may come from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII: the American flag bearer did not. Team captain Martin Sheridan is famously quoted as saying "this flag dips to no earthly king '', though the true provenance of this quotation is unclear.
The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and, if flown at night, must be illuminated. If the edges become tattered through wear, the flag should be repaired or replaced. When a flag is so tattered that it can no longer serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. The American Legion and other organizations regularly conduct flag retirement ceremonies, often on Flag Day, June 14. (The Boy Scouts of America recommends that modern nylon or polyester flags be recycled instead of burned, due to hazardous gases being produced when such materials are burned.)
The Flag Code prohibits using the flag "for any advertising purpose '' and also states that the flag "should not be embroidered, printed, or otherwise impressed on such articles as cushions, handkerchiefs, napkins, boxes, or anything intended to be discarded after temporary use ''. Both of these codes are generally ignored, almost always without comment.
Section 8, entitled Respect For Flag states in part: "The flag should never be used as wearing apparel, bedding, or drapery '', and "No part of the flag should ever be used as a costume or athletic uniform ''. Section 3 of the Flag Code defines "the flag '' as anything "by which the average person seeing the same without deliberation may believe the same to represent the flag of the United States of America ''.
An additional part of Section 8 Respect For Flag, that is frequently violated at sporting events is part (c) "The flag should never be carried flat or horizontally, but always aloft and free. ''
Although the Flag Code is U.S. federal law, there is no penalty for a private citizen or group failing to comply with the Flag Code and it is not widely enforced -- indeed, punitive enforcement would conflict with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech. Passage of the proposed Flag Desecration Amendment would overrule legal precedent that has been established.
When the flag is affixed to the right side of a vehicle of any kind (e.g.: cars, boats, planes, any physical object that moves), it should be oriented so that the canton is towards the front of the vehicle, as if the flag were streaming backwards from its hoist as the vehicle moves forward. Therefore, U.S. flag decals on the right sides of vehicles may appear to be reversed, with the union to the observer 's right instead of left as more commonly seen.
The flag has been displayed on every U.S. spacecraft designed for manned flight, including Mercury, Gemini, Apollo Command / Service Module, Apollo Lunar Module, and the Space Shuttle. The flag also appeared on the S - IC first stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle used for Apollo. But since Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo were launched and landed vertically and were not capable of horizontal atmospheric flight as the Space Shuttle did on its landing approach, the "streaming '' convention was not followed and these flags were oriented with the stripes running horizontally, perpendicular to the direction of flight.
On some U.S. military uniforms, flag patches are worn on the right shoulder, following the vehicle convention with the union toward the front. This rule dates back to the Army 's early history, when both mounted cavalry and infantry units would designate a standard bearer, who carried the Colors into battle. As he charged, his forward motion caused the flag to stream back. Since the Stars and Stripes are mounted with the canton closest to the pole, that section stayed to the right, while the stripes flew to the left. Several US military uniforms, such as flight suits worn by members of the United States Air Force and Navy, have the flag patch on the left shoulder.
Other organizations that wear flag patches on their uniforms can have the flag facing in either direction. The congressional charter of the Boy Scouts of America stipulates that Boy Scout uniforms should not imitate U.S. military uniforms; consequently, the flags are displayed on the right shoulder with the stripes facing front, the reverse of the military style. Law enforcement officers often wear a small flag patch, either on a shoulder, or above a shirt pocket.
Every U.S. astronaut since the crew of Gemini 4 has worn the flag on the left shoulder of his or her space suit, with the exception of the crew of Apollo 1, whose flags were worn on the right shoulder. In this case, the canton was on the left.
The flag did not appear on U.S. postal stamp issues until the Battle of White Plains Issue was released in 1926, depicting the flag with a circle of 13 stars. The 48 - star flag first appeared on the General Casimir Pulaski issue of 1931, though in a small monochrome depiction. The first U.S. postage stamp to feature the flag as the sole subject was issued July 4, 1957, Scott catalog number 1094. Since that time the flag has frequently appeared on U.S. stamps.
In 1907 Eben Appleton, New York stockbroker and grandson of Lieutenant Colonel George Armistead (the commander of Fort McHenry during the 1814 bombardment) loaned the Star Spangled Banner Flag to the Smithsonian Institution, and in 1912 he converted the loan to a gift. Appleton donated the flag with the wish that it would always be on view to the public. In 1994, the National Museum of American History determined that the Star Spangled Banner Flag required further conservation treatment to remain on public display. In 1998 teams of museum conservators, curators, and other specialists helped move the flag from its home in the Museum 's Flag Hall into a new conservation laboratory. Following the reopening of the National Museum of American History on November 21, 2008, the flag is now on display in a special exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem, '' where it rests at a 10 degree angle in dim light for conservation purposes.
By presidential proclamation, acts of Congress, and custom, U.S. flags are displayed continuously at certain locations.
The flag should especially be displayed at full staff on the following days:
The flag is displayed at half - staff (half - mast in naval usage) as a sign of respect or mourning. Nationwide, this action is proclaimed by the president; statewide or territory - wide, the proclamation is made by the governor. In addition, there is no prohibition against municipal governments, private businesses or citizens flying the flag at half - staff as a local sign of respect and mourning. However, many flag enthusiasts feel this type of practice has somewhat diminished the meaning of the original intent of lowering the flag to honor those who held high positions in federal or state offices. President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first proclamation on March 1, 1954, standardizing the dates and time periods for flying the flag at half - staff from all federal buildings, grounds, and naval vessels; other congressional resolutions and presidential proclamations ensued. However, they are only guidelines to all other entities: typically followed at state and local government facilities, and encouraged of private businesses and citizens.
To properly fly the flag at half - staff, one should first briefly hoist it top of the staff, then lower it to the half - staff position, halfway between the top and bottom of the staff. Similarly, when the flag is to be lowered from half - staff, it should be first briefly hoisted to the top of the staff.
Federal statutes provide that the flag should be flown at half - staff on the following dates:
National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day, on July 27, was formerly a day of half - staff observance until the law expired in 2003. In 2009, it became a day of full - staff observance.
Though not part of the official Flag Code, according to military custom, flags should be folded into a triangular shape when not in use. To properly fold the flag:
There is also no specific meaning for each fold of the flag. However, there are scripts read by non-government organizations and also by the Air Force that are used during the flag folding ceremony. These scripts range from historical timelines of the flag to religious themes.
Traditionally, the flag of the United States plays a role in military funerals, and occasionally in funerals of other civil servants (such as law enforcement officers, fire fighters, and U.S. presidents). A burial flag is draped over the deceased 's casket as a pall during services. Just prior to the casket being lowered into the ground, the flag is ceremonially folded and presented to the deceased 's next of kin as a token of respect.
Flag of Bikini Atoll
Flag of Liberia
Flag of Malaysia
Flag of El Salvador 1875 -- 1912
Flag of Brittany
Media related to Flags of the United States at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Flag of the United States at Wikiquote
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what is the per capita personal income of the united states | Per capita personal income in the United States - Wikipedia
The per capita personal income of the United States is the income that is received by persons from all sources. It is calculated as the sum of wage and salary disbursements, supplements to wages and salaries, proprietors ' income with inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments, rental income of persons with capital consumption adjustment, personal dividend income, personal interest income, and personal current transfer receipts, less contributions for government social insurance. This measure of income is calculated as the personal income of the residents of a given area divided by the resident population of the area. In computing per capita personal income, the United States Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) uses the United States Census Bureau 's annual midyear population estimates. In 2007 the total per capita personal income in the United States was US $38,611.
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when was the last time carolina panthers went to superbowl | Super Bowl XXXVIII - wikipedia
Super Bowl XXXVIII was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Carolina Panthers and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion New England Patriots to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2003 season. The Patriots defeated the Panthers by the score of 32 - 29. The game was played at Reliant Stadium in Houston, Texas, on February 1, 2004. At the time, this was the most watched Super Bowl ever with 144.4 million viewers.
The Panthers were making their first ever Super Bowl appearance after posting an 11 -- 5 regular season record. They also made it the second straight year that a team from the NFC South division made the Super Bowl, with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers winning Super Bowl XXXVII. The Patriots were seeking their second Super Bowl title in three years after posting a 14 -- 2 record.
NFL fans and sports writers widely consider this game one of the most well - played and thrilling Super Bowls; Sports Illustrated writer Peter King hailed it as the "Greatest Super Bowl of all time. '' Although neither team could score in the first and third quarters, they both ended up with a combined total of 868 yards and 61 points. The game was scoreless for a Super Bowl record 26: 55 before the two teams combined for 24 points prior to halftime. The clubs then combined for a Super Bowl record 37 points in the fourth quarter. The contest was finally decided on the Patriots kicker Adam Vinatieri 's 41 - yard field goal with four seconds left. Patriots quarterback Tom Brady was named Super Bowl MVP for the second time in his career.
The game is also known for its controversial halftime show in which Janet Jackson 's breast, adorned with a nipple shield, was exposed by Justin Timberlake for about half a second, in what was later referred to as a "wardrobe malfunction ''. Along with the rest of the halftime show, it led to an immediate crackdown by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and widespread debate on perceived indecency in broadcasting.
NFL owners voted to award Super Bowl XXXVIII to Houston during their November 1, 2000 meeting held in Atlanta. This was the first Super Bowl to be played in a stadium with a retractable roof (but it was eventually closed during the game). It also marked the first time in 4 tries that the Patriots played a Super Bowl that was not in New Orleans. This game marked a six - month stretch for Texas hosting the Super Bowl, NCAA men 's Division I basketball Final Four and Major League Baseball (MLB) All - Star Game. The Final Four was played at the Alamodome in San Antonio and the MLB All - Star Game was also played in Houston at nearby Minute Maid Park.
Beginning with this game, all Super Bowl games have been played on the first Sunday in February every year. This is based on the 22 weeks necessary from opening week through Super Bowl Sunday, which includes scheduling no games until after Labor Day, granting a bye week to each team during the sixteen - game season, and granting a bye week to the teams qualifying for the Super Bowl after each wins their respective conference championship game. Consequently, the Super Bowl is currently scheduled no earlier than February 1 and no later than February 7.
This game set the record for most Roman numerals in a Super Bowl title (seven). This will not be matched until Super Bowl LXXVIII after the 2043 NFL season and Super Bowl LXXXVII after the 2052 season, and not surpassed until Super Bowl LXXXVIII after the 2053 season.
The Panthers made their first trip to the Super Bowl after posting a one - win regular season just two years earlier. The franchise was only in their ninth year of existence, joining the league as an expansion team in 1995. In just their second season, they posted a 12 -- 4 regular season record and advanced to the NFC Championship Game, but lost to the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers 30 -- 13 (the Packers coincidentally went on to defeat the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXI 35 -- 21). But from 1997 onward, they had just one non-losing season (an 8 -- 8 finish in 1999) until they finally suffered through a franchise worst 1 -- 15 record in 2001, winning only the first game of the regular season against the Minnesota Vikings. After that year, head coach George Seifert was relieved of his duties and replaced by John Fox, former defensive coordinator for the New York Giants who helped lead the Giants to Super Bowl XXXV in 2000.
With John Fox at the helm and the team taking advantage of the free agent market and the salary cap rules, the Panthers improved in 2002, finishing with a 7 -- 9 record. Then in 2003, they recorded an 11 -- 5 record and won the NFC South.
One of the free agents that Carolina signed before the 2003 season was quarterback Jake Delhomme. Delhomme was not picked by any team in the NFL Draft, but later joined the New Orleans Saints as an undrafted free agent in 1998. Delhomme also then played for the NFL Europe 's Frankfurt Galaxy in 1999, and along with Pat Barnes, he was part of the "double - headed quarterback monster '' that led the Galaxy to a World Bowl victory over the Barcelona Dragons.
Although he only played 6 games in his 5 seasons with New Orleans, the Panthers signed Delhomme in 2003 to be the backup to starting quarterback Rodney Peete. However, after the Panthers fell to a 17 -- 0 third quarter deficit in their first game of the season against the Jacksonville Jaguars, gaining only one first down and 36 offensive yards, Fox immediately replaced Peete with Delhomme. Delhomme ended up leading Carolina to a 24 -- 23 comeback victory over the Jaguars.
Delhomme became the team 's starting quarterback for the rest of the season, throwing for 3,219 yards and 19 touchdowns, with 16 interceptions. The team 's main receiving threat was multi-talented third - year wide receiver Steve Smith, who also specialized as a kickoff and punt returner. Smith caught 88 passes for 1,110 yards and 7 touchdowns, rushed for 42 yards, gained 439 yards and another touchdown returning punts, and recorded 309 kickoff return yards. Wide receiver Muhsin Muhammad was also a constant breakaway threat, recording 54 receptions for 837 yards and 3 touchdowns.
However, the Panthers ' strength on offense was their running game, led by running backs Stephen Davis and DeShaun Foster. Davis was the team 's leading rusher with a franchise record 1,444 yards and 8 touchdowns, while Foster rushed for 429 yards and caught 26 passes for 207 yards. Carolina also had running back Rod Smart on their roster, who became widely known for his XFL debut jersey name "He Hate Me '' during that league 's only season in 2001. During 2003, Smart was primarily used as the Panthers ' other kickoff returner, recording 947 yards and one touchdown.
On defense, Carolina 's main strength was their defensive line, anchored by defensive ends Julius Peppers (7 sacks and 3 forced fumbles) and Mike Rucker (12 sacks and 1 interception), and Pro Bowl defensive tackle Kris Jenkins (5 sacks and 1 fumble recovery). The secondary was led by defensive backs Reggie Howard (2 interceptions), Mike Minter (3 interceptions for 100 return yards and 2 touchdowns), Deon Grant (3 interceptions), and Ricky Manning Jr. (3 interceptions for 33 return yards and 1 touchdown).
Despite their victory in Super Bowl XXXVI after the 2001 season, the Patriots stumbled early in the 2002 season, recorded a 9 -- 7 regular season record, and failed to make the playoffs.
Then, New England seemed to implode before the 2003 season ever started. Five days before their opening game against the Buffalo Bills, Pro Bowl safety Lawyer Milloy, one of the Patriots ' defensive leaders, was unexpectedly cut by the team after refusing to restructure his contract. The move devastated many of the New England players, while Milloy immediately signed with the Bills two days later. With the Patriots seemingly in emotional disarray, Buffalo defeated New England, 31 -- 0, with Milloy forcing an interception and recording one sack and five tackles.
However, after a 2 -- 2 start, the Patriots ended up winning their last 12 games (including a mirror 31 -- 0 shutout of the Bills in the final week) to earn a league - best 14 -- 2 record.
Tom Brady, the Super Bowl XXXVI MVP, had become the team 's permanent starter in 2002 after quarterback Drew Bledsoe left the team to lead the Bills. Brady had a solid season in 2003, completing 317 out of 527 (60.2 percent) of his passes for 3,620 yards and 23 touchdowns, with only 12 interceptions. His primary weapon was second year wide receiver Deion Branch, who caught 57 passes for 803 yards. Another key contributor was wide receiver David Givens, who filled in for the injured starter David Patten. Givens recorded 34 receptions for 510 yards and 6 touchdowns. Other weapons in the passing game included veteran wide receiver Troy Brown, who had 40 receptions, 472 yards, 4 touchdowns, and 293 yards returning punts, and tight end Daniel Graham who recorded 28 catches, 409 yards, and 4 touchdowns.
In the backfield, the team 's rushing game was led by running backs Antowain Smith and Kevin Faulk, who carried the ball equally. Smith was the team 's leading rusher with 642 yards and 3 touchdowns, while Faulk rushed for 638 yards and caught 48 passes for 440 yards.
New England 's defense was retooled before the 2003 season when the team signed veteran safety Rodney Harrison as a free agent and traded for defensive lineman Ted Washington. With these additions, the Patriots led the league in fewest passing yards allowed per attempt (5.64), fewest passing touchdowns allowed (11), and most interceptions (29). They also ranked 4th in fewest rushing yards allowed (1,434) and 7th in fewest total yards (4,919).
Washington helped anchor New England 's defensive line, recording 32 tackles and 2 sacks. Pro Bowl defensive tackle Richard Seymour also contributed with 8 sacks. Behind them, the Patriots had 3 outstanding linebackers: Pro Bowl linebacker Willie McGinest (5.5 sacks, 2 fumble recoveries and 1 interception), Mike Vrabel (9.5 sacks, 1 fumble recovery, four forced fumbles, and 2 interceptions), and Tedy Bruschi (131 tackles, 2 sacks, 1 fumble recovery, 3 interceptions, and 2 touchdowns).
Harrison became the veteran leader in the secondary, recording 92 tackles, 3 interceptions, and 3 sacks. Meanwhile, Pro Bowl cornerback Ty Law recorded 6 interceptions, cornerback (and ex-Panthers player) Tyrone Poole had 6 interceptions for 112 return yards and 1 touchdown, and rookie safety Eugene Wilson recorded 4 interceptions. Overall, the secondary combined for 19 interceptions.
The Patriots and Panthers both played against the AFC South and NFC East in the regular season. The Patriots lost to the Washington Redskins 20 -- 17 in Week Four but swept the rest of the NFC East and the entire AFC South; the Patriots shut out Dallas in bitter cold and edged the Giants in the rain while hammering Philly following the infamously erroneous "They hate their coach '' quote from Tom Jackson; the Patriots also edged the Titans, Houston in overtime, and former division rival Indianapolis in shootouts while routing Jacksonville (which, like Carolina, had entered the NFL in 1995) in the regular season, and then edged the Titans and hammered the Colts in the playoffs. The Panthers had less success, going 6 -- 4 against the two divisions, losing to the Titans and Houston while defeating Jacksonville and the Colts, and defeating Washington and the Giants while losing to Philadelphia and Dallas in the regular season, then routing the Cowboys and edging the Eagles in the playoffs.
VS. Jacksonville Jaguars
VS. Philadelphia Eagles
VS. Washington Redskins
VS. Tennessee Titans
VS. New York Giants
VS. Indianapolis Colts
VS. Houston Texans
VS. Dallas Cowboys
Since the Panthers finished with the third best regular season record in the NFC, they had to win three playoff games to reach the Super Bowl. The St. Louis Rams and the Philadelphia Eagles had better regular season records at 12 -- 4, and thus under the playoff format, each would have to win two playoff games to reach the league championship game. Against Carolina 's first opponent, the Dallas Cowboys, Delhomme threw for 273 yards and a touchdown, Davis recorded 104 rushing yards and a touchdown, and kicker John Kasay made 5 field goals, en route to a thorough 29 -- 10 victory.
The Panthers then eliminated the Rams on the road, 29 -- 23 in double overtime. St. Louis built a 6 -- 0 lead early in the second quarter, but Carolina took the lead after Muhammad 's fumble recovery in the end zone. Both teams spent the rest of the second and the third quarter exchanging field goals before Brad Hoover 's 7 - yard rushing touchdown gave the Panthers a 23 -- 12 fourth quarter lead. However, the Rams rallied back with a touchdown, a successful two - point conversion, and a field goal to send the game into overtime. Both teams missed field goals in the first overtime period, but Delhomme threw a 69 - yard touchdown pass to Smith on the first play of the second overtime period to win the game.
The Panthers then went on the road again to eliminate the Eagles in the NFC Championship Game, 14 -- 3. Philadelphia was coming off of a 20 -- 17 overtime win over the Green Bay Packers, that included quarterback Donovan McNabb 's 28 - yard pass to Freddie Mitchell on a famous play known as "4th and 26 ''. This was the third consecutive NFC Championship Game appearance for Philadelphia, and thus they were heavily favored to win. But Carolina 's defense only allowed a field goal and held McNabb to just 10 of 22 completions for 100 yards. Ricky Manning also intercepted McNabb 3 times. Although Carolina 's offense only scored 14 points, it was more than enough for the team to earn their first trip to the Super Bowl with a 14 -- 3 win.
The Panthers became the first No. 3 seed to advance to the Super Bowl since the league expanded to a 12 - team playoff format in 1990. In doing so, they were also the first division winner to advance to the league championship after playing three playoff games. All other instances up to this point where teams advanced to the Super Bowl after playing all three rounds of the playoffs were wild card teams in Super Bowls XV, XX, XXVII, XXXII, XXXIV, and XXXV. Prior to Super Bowl XVII, the Miami Dolphins and Washington Redskins both won three playoff games to reach the Super Bowl, but that came during the strike - shortened 1982 season when the regular season was reduced to nine games and the playoffs were expanded to 16 teams, with no teams receiving first - round byes. Since then, there have been six instances of teams advancing to the Super Bowl after playing three playoff games: the Pittsburgh Steelers in Super Bowl XL as the No. 6 seeded team, the Indianapolis Colts in Super Bowl XLI as the No. 3 seed, the New York Giants in Super Bowl XLII as the No. 5 seed, the Arizona Cardinals in Super Bowl XLIII as the No. 4 seed, the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XLV as the No. 6 seed, and again the New York Giants in Super Bowl XLVI as the No. 4 seed. The Colts, Cardinals, and the Giants in 2011, like the Panthers, were division winners in those years (Although in the Colts case, they played the No. 4 seeded New England Patriots in the AFC Championship that year, ensuring at least the second division winner to play three rounds to make it to the Super Bowl.), and all but the Cardinals went on to win it all. The Super Bowl would mark the third game (out of four) of the playoffs in which Carolina scored 29 points.
Meanwhile, the Patriots first defeated the Tennessee Titans, 17 -- 14, in one of the coldest games in NFL history, with temperatures reaching 4 ° F (− 15 ° C). New England jumped to 14 -- 7 lead in the first half with a touchdown pass by Brady and a touchdown run from Smith. However, quarterback Steve McNair 's 11 - yard touchdown pass to receiver Derrick Mason tied the game in the third period. With 4: 06 remaining in the game, Patriots kicker Adam Vinatieri made a 46 - yard field goal to take the lead. New England 's defense later clinched a victory as they stopped the Titans from scoring on fourth down on their last drive of the game.
New England then eliminated the Indianapolis Colts, 24 -- 14, in the AFC Championship Game. The Colts entered the game leading the NFL in passing yards and ranked third in total offensive yards. With quarterback Peyton Manning, wide receiver Marvin Harrison, and running back Edgerrin James, the Colts had scored 79 points in their 2 playoff victories against the Denver Broncos and the Kansas City Chiefs, including a 38 -- 31 victory over the Chiefs in the first punt-less game in NFL playoff history. However, New England 's defense dominated the Colts, only allowing 14 points, intercepting 4 passes from Manning (3 of them by Ty Law), and forcing a safety. Although New England 's offense only scored one touchdown, Vinatieri scored 5 field goals to make up the difference.
The game was broadcast on television in the United States by CBS, with Greg Gumbel handling the play - by - play duties and color commentator Phil Simms in the broadcast booth. Armen Keteyian and Bonnie Bernstein roamed the sidelines. Jim Nantz hosted all the events with help from his fellow cast members from The NFL Today: Dan Marino, Deion Sanders, and Boomer Esiason. This would be the final Super Bowl game Greg Gumbel would call; as before the 2004 season began, he and Nantz would switch roles; though by the time CBS next aired a Super Bowl; James Brown was brought in as host of The NFL Today while Gumbel had moved to a secondary play - by - play role.
Westwood One carried the game nationwide over terrestrial radio with Marv Albert on play - by - play and Boomer Esiason on color commentary, with Jim Gray hosting the pregame and halftime shows. Locally, Gil Santos and Gino Cappelletti called the game for the Patriots and Bill Rosinski and Eugene Robinson served that position for the Panthers.
After the postgame coverage was complete, CBS aired the season premiere for Survivor: All Stars.
Both teams passed on the opportunity for their starters to be introduced individually before the game, a move perpetuated by the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXVI.
The game was held exactly one year, to the day, after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, in Houston, the same city as the Johnson Space Center. Thus, the lost crew of the Columbia was honored in a pregame tribute by singer Josh Groban, performing "You Raise Me Up ''. Also appearing on the field was the crew of STS - 114, the "Return to Flight '' Space Shuttle mission that eventually launched Space Shuttle Discovery on July 26, 2005. Houston - native Beyoncé then sang the national anthem.
The coin toss ceremony featured former NFL players and Texas natives Earl Campbell, Ollie Matson, Don Maynard, Y.A. Tittle, Mike Singletary, Gene Upshaw. Tittle tossed the coin.
The NFL logo was painted at midfield for the first time since Super Bowl XXX, and the Super Bowl XXXVIII logo was placed on the 25 - yard lines. From Super Bowls XXXI through XXXVII, the Super Bowl logo was painted at midfield, and the helmets of the teams painted at the 30 - yard lines. From Super Bowl VI through Super Bowl XXX, the NFL logo was painted on the 50 - yard line, except for Super Bowls XXV and XXIX. The Super Bowl XXV logo was painted at midfield and the NFL logo was painted at each 35 - yard line. In Super Bowl XXIX, the NFL 75th Anniversary logo was painted at midfield with the Super Bowl logo at each 30 - yard line.
The most controversial and widely discussed moment of Super Bowl XXXVIII came during halftime. The show was produced by Viacom 's MTV and CBS Sports, and was sponsored by America Online 's TopSpeed software for dial - up Internet service. The show was themed supposedly around MTV 's Choose or Lose vote campaign, however beyond some flag imagery, Jessica Simpson 's declaration that Houston should "Choose to Party! '' and a vague call to action for younger persons to vote in a celebrity montage the first minute of the program and an audio outro about choices, the theme was not called out for the remainder of the show.
After a brief appearance by Simpson, the show began with a joint performance by marching bands the Spirit of Houston, from the University of Houston, and the "Ocean of Soul '' of Texas Southern University. Next, Janet Jackson made her first appearance, singing "All for You ''. Then, P. Diddy, Nelly, and Kid Rock appeared respectively, and performed a mixture of their hits.
After Jackson 's performance of her song "Rhythm Nation '', Justin Timberlake appeared, and he and Jackson sang a duet of Timberlake 's song "Rock Your Body ''. The performance featured many suggestive dance moves by both Timberlake and Jackson. As the song reached the final line, "I 'm gon na have you naked by the end of this song, '' Timberlake pulled off a part of Jackson 's costume, revealing her outer right breast (adorned with a large, sun - shaped nipple shield, a piece of jewelery worn to accentuate the appearance of a nipple piercing). CBS quickly cut to an aerial view of the stadium, however the action was too late to be effective. Many people considered this indecent exposure, and numerous viewers contacted the network to complain, saying it was inappropriate in the context of a football game. This was the most rewatched moment in TiVo history.
Just before the start of the second half, a British streaker, Mark Roberts, ran onto the field disguised as a referee, undressed, and performed a dance wearing only a thong. He was tackled to the ground by Patriots linebacker Matt Chatham and arrested. It is customary for American television to avoid broadcasting such events, but it was later shown on Late Show with David Letterman. He received a $1,000 fine for trespassing.
This game is noted for its unusual scoring pattern between the teams. Nearly ninety percent of the first half and all of the third quarter were scoreless. Twenty - four points were scored in the last three minutes of the first half, and a record 37 points were scored in the fourth quarter.
Most of the first half was a defensive struggle, with neither team able to score until late in the second quarter, despite several early scoring opportunities for New England. After Carolina was forced to punt on their opening drive, Patriots receiver Troy Brown gave his team great field position with a 28 - yard return to the Panthers 47 - yard line. The Patriots subsequently marched to the 9 - yard line, but Carolina kept them out of the end zone and Adam Vinatieri missed a 31 - yard field goal attempt. The Patriots forced Carolina to punt after 3 plays and again got the ball with great field position, receiving Todd Sauerbrun 's 40 - yard punt at the Panthers 49 - yard line. New England then drove to the 31 - yard line, but on third down, linebacker Will Witherspoon tackled Brown for a 10 - yard loss on an end - around play, pushing the Patriots out of field goal range.
Later on, New England drove 57 yards to the Panthers 18 - yard line with 6 minutes left in the second quarter, but once again they failed to score as Carolina kept them out of the end zone and Vinatieri 's 36 - yard field goal attempt was blocked by Panthers defender Shane Burton.
Meanwhile, the Carolina offense was stymied by the New England defense, with quarterback Jake Delhomme completing just one out of his first nine passes, sacked three times, and fumbling once. That fumble occurred 3 plays after Vinatieri 's second missed field goal; Delhomme lost the ball while being sacked by linebacker Mike Vrabel, and Patriots defensive tackle Richard Seymour recovered the ball at the Panthers 20 - yard line; by this point of the game the Panthers had suffered a net loss of nine yards on twenty offensive snaps.
Two plays later, New England faced a third down and 7, but quarterback Tom Brady scrambled 12 yards to the 5 - yard line for a first down. Then wide receiver Deion Branch caught a 5 - yard touchdown pass from Brady on the next play. The play was a play - action fake to Antowain Smith. Carolina 's Dan Morgan bit on the route, causing the touchdown.
Branch 's touchdown came after 26: 55 had elapsed in the game, setting the record for the longest amount of time a Super Bowl remained scoreless. The play also suddenly set off a scoring explosion from both teams for the remainder of the first half.
The Panthers stormed down the field on their ensuing possession, driving 95 yards in 8 plays, and tying the game on a 39 - yard touchdown pass from Delhomme to wide receiver Steve Smith with just 1: 07 left in the half.
The Patriots immediately countered with a 6 - play, 78 - yard scoring drive of their own. Starting from their own 22 - yard line, Brady completed a 12 - yard pass to wide receiver David Givens. Then after throwing an incompletion, Brady completed a long pass to Branch, who caught it at the Panthers 24 - yard line in stride before being tackled at the 14 - yard line for a 52 - yard gain. Three plays later, Givens caught a 5 - yard touchdown from Brady to give New England a 14 -- 7 lead with only 18 seconds left in the half. The Patriots decided to squib kick the ensuing kickoff to prevent a long return, but their plan backfired as Carolina tight end Kris Mangum picked up the ball at his own 35 - yard line and returned it 12 yards to the 47. The Patriots expected a pass play from the Panthers, but instead running back Stephen Davis ran for 21 yards on the next play to set up kicker John Kasay 's 50 - yard field goal as time expired in the half, cutting Carolina 's deficit to 14 -- 10.
The third quarter was scoreless as each team exchanged punts twice. However, with 3: 57 left in the period, the Patriots put together a 71 - yard, 8 - play scoring drive, featuring tight end Daniel Graham 's 33 - yard reception to advance to the Carolina 9 - yard line.
Running back Antowain Smith then capped off the drive with a 2 - yard touchdown run on the second play on the fourth quarter to increase their lead, 21 -- 10. This was the start of another scoring explosion, one that became one of the biggest explosions in Super Bowl history, with both teams scoring a combined 37 points in the last 15 minutes, the most ever in a single quarter of a Super Bowl.
Delhomme started out Carolina 's ensuing drive with a 13 - yard completion to wide receiver Muhsin Muhammad. After committing a false start penalty on the next play, Delhomme completed a pair of passes to Smith for gains of 18 and 22 yards. Running back DeShaun Foster then scored on a 33 - yard touchdown run, cutting the Panthers ' deficit to 21 -- 16 after Delhomme 's 2 - point conversion pass fell incomplete. The Patriots responded on their ensuing possession by driving all the way to Carolina 's 9 - yard line, but the drive ended when Panthers defensive back Reggie Howard intercepted a third down pass from Brady in the end zone. Then on 3rd down from his own 15 - yard line, Delhomme threw for the longest play from scrimmage in Super Bowl history, an 85 - yard touchdown completion to Muhammad. Carolina 's 2 - point conversion attempt failed again, but they took their first lead of the game, 22 -- 21, with 6: 53 remaining. It was the first time in Super Bowl history a team down 10 + points during the 4th quarter had come back to take the lead. Three other times teams have come back to tie the game; the Tennessee Titans against the Rams in Super Bowl XXXIV, the Rams against the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXVI, and the Patriots against the Falcons in Super Bowl LI.
However, New England retook the lead on their next drive, advancing 68 yards with the aid of a pair of completions from Brady to Givens for gains of 18 and 25 yards. Once again the Patriots were faced with third down and goal, but this time they scored with Brady 's 1 - yard pass to Vrabel, who had lined up in an eligible tight end position. Then on a two - point conversion attempt, running back Kevin Faulk took a direct snap and ran into the end zone to make the score 29 -- 22. Despite amassing over 1,000 combined yards, Faulk 's two - point conversion constituted the only points he scored all season.
The Panthers countered on their next possession. Foster started the drive with a 9 - yard run and a 7 - yard reception. After that, Delhomme completed a 19 - yard pass to Muhammad, followed by a 31 - yard completion to receiver Ricky Proehl. Then Proehl, who caught the fourth quarter game - tying touchdown pass against the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXVI two years earlier for the St. Louis Rams, finished the drive with a 12 - yard touchdown reception. Kasay 's ensuing extra point tied the game, 29 -- 29, with 1: 08 to play in regulation and it appeared that the game would be the first Super Bowl ever to go into overtime.
However, Kasay kicked the ensuing kickoff out of bounds, giving New England the ball on their own 40 - yard line. Brady led the Patriots offense down the field with a 13 - yard pass to Brown on second down. An offensive pass interference penalty on Brown pushed New England back to their own 43 - yard line, but another 13 - yard reception to Brown and a 4 - yard pass to Graham brought up a critical 3rd down and 3 from the Carolina 40 - yard line. The Panthers defense could not prevent the Patriots from gaining the first down, as Brady completed a 17 - yard pass to Branch. On the next play, Vinatieri kicked a 41 - yard field goal to give New England the lead, 32 -- 29, with four seconds left in the game. Carolina failed on their last chance, as Rod Smart went nowhere on the ensuing kickoff, and the Patriots had won their second Super Bowl in three years. This was the fourth Super Bowl to be decided on a field goal in the final seconds (Super Bowl V was won on a last second kick by the Baltimore Colts ' Jim O'Brien to defeat the Dallas Cowboys, Super Bowl XXV had the Buffalo Bills ' Scott Norwood miss his field goal chance against the New York Giants, and in Super Bowl XXXVI Vinatieri made his to defeat the St. Louis Rams).
at Reliant Stadium, Houston, Texas
The game set a number of marks for offensive production. The two teams combined for 868 yards of total offense, the second - highest total in Super Bowl history. Both starting quarterbacks threw for at least 300 yards for only the second time in Super Bowl history, with Dan Marino and Joe Montana each passing for at least 300 yards in Super Bowl XIX. This was also only the second Super Bowl to feature one 100 - yard receiving performance on each team, with Deion Branch and Muhsin Muhammad each reaching 100 yards. Andre Reed and Michael Irvin first accomplished the feat in Super Bowl XXVII.
The 37 total points scored in the 4th quarter were the most combined points in a 4th quarter in a Super Bowl and the most in any quarter by two teams. Washington 's 35 points in Super Bowl XXII was the previous high for most combined points in a single quarter in a Super Bowl. The fourth quarter was the second in Super Bowl history to have five touchdowns scored in a single quarter, the first being when the Redskins had five in Super Bowl XXII in the second quarter. It was also the first time in Super Bowl history that both teams would score at least two touchdowns in the same quarter.
Delhomme finished the game with 16 completions out of 33 attempts for 323 yards, three touchdowns, and no interceptions for a passer rating of 113.6. He was seen standing on the field during the Patriots ' post-game celebration; he later commented: "I wanted to catch up to the moment of what it feels like to be on the other side, to be on this side, the losing side. To let it sink in, to hurt, so when we start practice in the fall, the two - a-days and there are days during the season when I 'm tired and I want to go home, but I need to watch that extra film. I want to get back there, but I want to get on the other side of that field. They rope you off, the losing team basically. I just want to get on the other side of that rope. I just wanted to watch and let it sink in and hurt a little bit. When I have a tough day, I 'll just think about that feeling and it will make me dig down just a little deeper. ''
Muhsin Muhammad caught four passes for 140 yards, an average of 35 yards per catch, and a touchdown. Steve Smith caught four passes for 80 yards and a touchdown. He also returned a punt for two yards, and returned a kickoff for 30 yards, giving him 112 total yards. Proehl caught four passes for 71 yards and a touchdown. Proehl joined Jerry Rice as only two players to score touchdowns with two different teams in Super Bowls.
Tom Brady 's 32 completions were the most in Super Bowl history. His 48 attempts were the most for a winning quarterback. His 354 yards passing is now the fifth best total in Super Bowl history. Brady 's passer rating for this game was 100.5. Branch was the top receiver of the game with 10 receptions for 143 yards and a touchdown. Brown caught 8 passes for 76 yards, and returned four punts for 40 yards. Antowain Smith was the top rusher of the game with 83 yards and a touchdown.
Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XXXVIII, Super Bowl XXXVIII Play Finder NE, Super Bowl XXXVIII Play Finder Car, USA Today Super Bowl XXXVIII Play by Play
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted
Source:
Tom Sifferman became the second official to work consecutive Super Bowls on the field. The first was Jim Tunney, the referee for Super Bowls XI and XII.
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when was it discovered that yellowstone was a volcano | Yellowstone caldera - wikipedia
The Yellowstone Caldera is a volcanic caldera and supervolcano in Yellowstone National Park in the Western United States, sometimes referred to as the Yellowstone Supervolcano. The caldera and most of the park are located in the northwest corner of Wyoming. The major features of the caldera measure about 34 by 45 miles (55 by 72 km).
The caldera formed during the last of three supereruptions over the past 2.1 million years: the Huckleberry Ridge eruption 2.1 million years ago (which created the Island Park Caldera and the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff); the Mesa Falls eruption 1.3 million years ago (which created the Henry 's Fork Caldera and the Mesa Falls Tuff); and the Lava Creek eruption approximately 630,000 years ago (which created the Yellowstone Caldera and the Lava Creek Tuff).
Volcanism at Yellowstone is relatively recent, with calderas that were created during large eruptions that took place 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and 630,000 years ago. The calderas lie over a hotspot where light, hot, magma (molten rock) from the mantle rises toward the surface. While the Yellowstone hotspot is now under the Yellowstone Plateau, it did help to create the eastern Snake River Plain (to the west of Yellowstone) through a series of huge volcanic eruptions. The hotspot appears to move across terrain in the east - northeast direction, but in fact the hotspot is much deeper than terrain and remains stationary while the North American Plate moves west - southwest over it.
Over the past 18 million years or so, this hotspot has generated a succession of violent eruptions and less violent floods of basaltic lava. Together these eruptions have helped create the eastern part of the Snake River Plain from a once - mountainous region. At least a dozen of these eruptions were so massive that they are classified as supereruptions. Volcanic eruptions sometimes empty their stores of magma so swiftly that the overlying land collapses into the emptied magma chamber, forming a geographic depression called a caldera.
The oldest identified caldera remnant straddles the border near McDermitt, Nevada -- Oregon, although there are volcaniclastic piles and arcuate faults that define caldera complexes more than 60 km (37 mi) in diameter in the Carmacks Group of southwest - central Yukon, Canada, which are interpreted to have formed 70 million years ago by the Yellowstone hotspot. Progressively younger caldera remnants, most grouped in several overlapping volcanic fields, extend from the Nevada -- Oregon border through the eastern Snake River Plain and terminate in the Yellowstone Plateau. One such caldera, the Bruneau - Jarbidge caldera in southern Idaho, was formed between 10 and 12 million years ago, and the event dropped ash to a depth of one foot (30 cm) 1,000 miles (1,600 km) away in northeastern Nebraska and killed large herds of rhinoceros, camel, and other animals at Ashfall Fossil Beds State Historical Park. The United States Geological Survey ("USGS '') estimates there are one or two major caldera - forming eruptions and 100 or so lava extruding eruptions per million years, and "several to many '' steam eruptions per century.
The loosely defined term "supervolcano '' has been used to describe volcanic fields that produce exceptionally large volcanic eruptions. Thus defined, the Yellowstone Supervolcano is the volcanic field which produced the latest three supereruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot; it also produced one additional smaller eruption, thereby creating West Thumb Lake 174,000 years ago. The three supereruptions occurred 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and approximately 630,000 years ago, forming the Island Park Caldera, the Henry 's Fork Caldera, and Yellowstone calderas, respectively. The Island Park Caldera supereruption (2.1 million years ago), which produced the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff, was the largest, and produced 2,500 times as much ash as the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption. The next biggest supereruption formed the Yellowstone Caldera (~ 630,000 years ago) and produced the Lava Creek Tuff. The Henry 's Fork Caldera (1.2 million years ago) produced the smaller Mesa Falls Tuff, but is the only caldera from the Snake River Plain - Yellowstone hotspot that is plainly visible today.
Non-explosive eruptions of lava and less - violent explosive eruptions have occurred in and near the Yellowstone caldera since the last supereruption. The most recent lava flow occurred about 70,000 years ago, while a violent eruption excavated the West Thumb of Lake Yellowstone around 150,000 years ago. Smaller steam explosions occur as well: an explosion 13,800 years ago left a 5 km (3.1 mi) diameter crater at Mary Bay on the edge of Yellowstone Lake (located in the center of the caldera). Currently, volcanic activity is exhibited via numerous geothermal vents scattered throughout the region, including the famous Old Faithful Geyser, plus recorded ground - swelling indicating ongoing inflation of the underlying magma chamber.
The volcanic eruptions, as well as the continuing geothermal activity, are a result of a great cove of magma located below the caldera 's surface. The magma in this cove contains gases that are kept dissolved by the immense pressure under which the magma is contained. If the pressure is released to a sufficient degree by some geological shift, then some of the gases bubble out and cause the magma to expand. This can cause a chain reaction. If the expansion results in further relief of pressure, for example, by blowing crust material off the top of the chamber, the result is a very large gas explosion.
According to analysis of earthquake data in 2013, the magma chamber is 80 km (50 mi) long and 20 km (12 mi) wide. It also has 4,000 km (960 cu mi) underground volume, of which 6 -- 8 % is filled with molten rock. This is about 2.5 times bigger than scientists had previously imagined it to be; however, scientists believe that the proportion of molten rock in the chamber is much too low to allow another supereruption.
The source of the Yellowstone hotspot is controversial. Some geoscientists hypothesize that the Yellowstone hotspot is the effect of an interaction between local conditions in the lithosphere and upper mantle convection. Others suggest an origin in the deep mantle (mantle plume). Part of the controversy is the relatively sudden appearance of the hotspot in the geologic record. Additionally, the Columbia Basalt flows appeared at the same approximate time in the same place, causing speculation about their common origin. As the Yellowstone hotspot traveled to the east and north, the Columbia disturbance moved northward and eventually subsided.
Volcanic and tectonic actions in the region cause between 1,000 and 2,000 measurable earthquakes annually. Most are relatively minor, measuring a magnitude of 3 or weaker. Occasionally, numerous earthquakes are detected in a relatively short period of time, an event known as an earthquake swarm. In 1985, more than 3,000 earthquakes were measured over a period of several months. More than 70 smaller swarms were detected between 1983 and 2008. The USGS states these swarms are likely caused by slips on pre-existing faults rather than by movements of magma or hydrothermal fluids.
In December 2008, continuing into January 2009, more than 500 quakes were detected under the northwest end of Yellowstone Lake over a seven - day span, with the largest registering a magnitude of 3.9. The most recent swarm started in January 2010, after the Haiti earthquake and before the Chile earthquake. With 1,620 small earthquakes between January 17, 2010, and February 1, 2010, this swarm was the second - largest ever recorded in the Yellowstone Caldera. The largest of these shocks was a magnitude 3.8 that occurred on January 21, 2010. This swarm reached the background levels by February 21. On March 30, 2014, at 6: 34 AM MST, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck Yellowstone, the largest recorded there since February 1980.
The last full - scale eruption of the Yellowstone Supervolcano, the Lava Creek eruption which happened approximately 640,000 years ago, ejected approximately 240 cubic miles (1,000 km) of rock, dust and volcanic ash into the sky.
Geologists are closely monitoring the rise and fall of the Yellowstone Plateau, which has been rising as fast as 0.6 inches (1.5 cm) per year, as an indication of changes in magma chamber pressure.
The upward movement of the Yellowstone caldera floor between 2004 and 2008 -- almost 3 inches (7.6 cm) each year -- was more than three times greater than ever observed since such measurements began in 1923. From 2004 to 2008, the land surface within the caldera moved upward as much as 8 inches (20 cm) at the White Lake GPS station. By the end of 2009, the uplift had slowed significantly and appeared to have stopped. In January 2010, the USGS stated that "uplift of the Yellowstone Caldera has slowed significantly '' and that uplift continues but at a slower pace. The U.S. Geological Survey, University of Utah and National Park Service scientists with the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory maintain that they "see no evidence that another such cataclysmic eruption will occur at Yellowstone in the foreseeable future. Recurrence intervals of these events are neither regular nor predictable. '' This conclusion was reiterated in December 2013 in the aftermath of the publication of a study by University of Utah scientists finding that the "size of the magma body beneath Yellowstone is significantly larger than had been thought ''. The Yellowstone Volcano Observatory issued a statement on its website stating,
Although fascinating, the new findings do not imply increased geologic hazards at Yellowstone, and certainly do not increase the chances of a ' supereruption ' in the near future. Contrary to some media reports, Yellowstone is not ' overdue ' for a supereruption.
Other media reports were more hyperbolic in their coverage.
A study published in GSA Today, the monthly news and science magazine of the Geological Society of America, identified three fault zones on which future eruptions are most likely to be centered. Two of those areas are associated with lava flows aged 174,000 -- 70,000 years, and the third is a focus of present - day seismicity.
Studies and analysis may indicate that the greater hazard comes from hydrothermal activity which occurs independently of volcanic activity. Over 20 large craters have been produced in the past 14,000 years, resulting in such features as Mary Bay, Turbid Lake, and Indian Pond which was created in an eruption about 1300 BC.
In a 2003 report, USGS researchers proposed that an earthquake may have displaced more than 77 million cubic feet (2,200,000 m) (576,000,000 US gallons) of water in Yellowstone Lake, creating colossal waves that unsealed a capped geothermal system and led to the hydrothermal explosion that formed Mary Bay.
Further research shows that very distant earthquakes reach and have effects upon the activities at Yellowstone, such as the 1992 7.3 magnitude Landers earthquake in California 's Mojave Desert that triggered a swarm of quakes from more than 800 miles (1,300 km) away, and the 2002 7.9 magnitude Denali fault earthquake 2,000 miles (3,200 km) away in Alaska that altered the activity of many geysers and hot springs for several months afterward.
In 2016, the United States Geological Survey announced plans to map the subterranean systems responsible for feeding the area 's hydrothermal activity. According to the researchers, these maps could help predict when another supereruption occurs.
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where can you find samples of contemporary filipino arts | Art of the Philippines - wikipedia
The art of the Philippines refers to the works of art that have developed and accumulated in the Philippines from the beginning of civilization in the country up to the present era. It reflects to its society and non-Filipinos the wide range of cultural influences on the country 's culture and how these influences honed the country 's arts. The art of the Philippines can be divided into two distinct branches, namely, traditional arts, and non-traditional arts. Each branch is further divided into various categories with subcategories.
Many of historians believed that the various cultures of the Philippine archipelago first encountered Hindu and / or Buddhist beliefs as early as the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE, but some of recent scholarship suggests that these cultural influences mostly filtered in during the 10th through the early 14th centuries. Present - day scholarship believes these religious and cultural influences mostly came through trade with Southeast Asian thassalocratic empires such as the Srivijaya and Majapahit, which had in turn had trade relationships with India.
Scholars such as Milton Osborne emphasise that despite these beliefs being originally from India, they reached the Philippines through Southeast Asian cultures with Austronesian roots.
The artifacts reflect the iconography of the Vajrayana Buddhism and its influences on the Philippines ' early states.
The copper Buddha 's of Ma - i (metal relics) -- "The gentleness of Tagalog customs that the first Spaniards found, very different from those of other provinces of the same race and in Luzon itself, can very well be the effect of Buddhism "There are copper Buddha 's '' images. the people in Ma - i sound like newcomers (to this port) since they do n't know where those metal statues in the jungle come from. ''
Archaeological findings show that before the settlement of the Spaniards in the country, the Tagalogs, especially the Batangueños, had attained a semblance of high civilization. This was shown by certain jewelry, made from a chambered nautilus ' shell, where tiny holes were created by a drill - like tool. The ancient Batangueños were influenced by India as shown in the origin of most languages from Sanskrit and certain ancient potteries. A Buddhist image was reproduced in mould on a clay medallion in bas - relief from the municipality of Calatagan. According to experts, the image in the pot strongly resembles the iconographic portrayal of Buddha in Siam, India, and Nepal. The pot shows Buddha Amithaba in the tribhanga pose inside an oval nimbus. Scholars also noted that there is a strong Mahayanic orientation in the image, since the Boddhisattva Avalokitesvara was also depicted.
The archipelagos of Southeast Asia were under the influence of Hindu Tamil, Gujarati and Indonesian traders through the ports of Malay - Indonesian islands. Indian religions, possibly an amalgamated version of Hindu - Buddhist arrived in the Philippine archipelago in the 1st millennium, through the Indonesian kingdom of Srivijaya, followed by Majapahit. Archaeological evidence suggesting exchange of ancient spiritual ideas from India to the Philippines includes the 1.79 kilogram, 21 carat gold Hindu goddess Agusan (sometimes referred to as Golden Tara), found in Mindanao in 1917 after a storm and flood exposed its location. The statue now sits in the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, and is dated from the period 13th to early 14th centuries.
A study of this image was made by Dr. F.D.K. Bosch, of Batavia, in 1920, who came to the conclusion that it was made by local workmen in Mindanao, copying a Ngandjuk image of the early Majapahit period -- except that the local artist overlooked the distinguishing attributes held in the hand. It probably had some connection with the Javanese miners who are known to have been mining gold in the Agusan - Surigao area in the middle or late 14th century. The image is apparently that of a Sivaite goddess, and fits in well with the name "Butuan '' (signifying "phallus '').
Juan Francisco suggests that the golden Agusan statue may be a representation of goddess Sakti of the Siva - Buddha (Bhairava) tradition found in Java, in which the religious aspect of Shiva is integrated with those found in Buddhism of Java and Sumatra. The Rajahnate of Butuan, in present - day Agusan del Norte and Butuan City, used Hinduism as its main religion along with indigenous Lumad nature - worships. A Hindu Tamil King of the Rajahnate of Cebu was also recorded. Another gold artifact, from the Tabon Caves in the island of Palawan, is an image of Garuda, the bird who is the mount of Vishnu. The discovery of sophisticated Hindu imagery and gold artifacts in Tabon Caves has been linked to those found from Oc Eo, in the Mekong Delta in Southern Vietnam. These archaeological evidence suggests an active trade of many specialized goods and gold between India and Philippines and coastal regions of Vietnam and China. Golden jewelry found so far include rings, some surmounted by images of Nandi -- the sacred bull, linked chains, inscribed gold sheets, gold plaques decorated with repoussé images of Hindu deities.
In 1989, a laborer working in a sand mine at the mouth of Lumbang River near Laguna de Bay found a copper plate in Barangay Wawa, Lumban. This discovery, is now known as the Laguna Copperplate Inscription by scholars. It is the earliest known written document found in the Philippines, dated to be from the late 9th century CE, and was deciphered in 1992 by Dutch anthropologist Antoon Postma. The copperplate inscription suggests economic and cultural links between the Tagalog people of Philippines with the Javanese Medang Kingdom, the Srivijaya empire, and the Hindu - Buddhist kingdoms of India. Hinduism in the country declined when Islam was introduced by traders from Arabia which was then followed by Christianity from Spain. This is an active area of research as little is known about the scale and depth of Philippine history from the 1st millennium and before.
The Lingling - o (sometimes also spelled "ling - ling - o '') are an "omega shaped '' type of pendant or amulet that has been associated with various indigenous cultures of the Philippines since the early metal age. The earliest surviving examples of lingling - o, dating back to the metal age, were made out of Nephrite jade, but many later examples were made of shell, gold, copper, and wood; the kind of material suggests differences in the social standing of its wearer. The term was first popularized by H. Otley Beyer, who adapted it from the Southern Ifugao name for such ornaments. The term has since also come to be used as a blanket term for various metal age ornaments found in the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam.
Earlier historians have posited that the earliest lingling - o artifacts found in the Philippines were created outside of the archipelago, but an expedition to the northern Philippine province of Batanes, led by archeologist Peter Bellwood in the early 2000s, led to the discovery of a lingling - o workshop, complete with construction tools and fragments. The find provides evidence of indigenous Philippine manufacture of lingling - o as early as 2,500 years ago.
The vernacular architecture of the Philippines is diverse and developed according to the traditions, history and influences exposure experienced by each culture or society. They ranged from simple Bahay Kubo which is the basis of all Filipino cultural architecture which gave way to houses like Bahay na bato, up to the palaces such as Torogans, fortifications like the Classical Kota 's and Idjangs, Colonial Forts and mega structure such as Banaue Rice Terraces which is built from carving of the mountain walls, and Mosques in Mindanao. Architectures like Baroque was adopted to the Filipino culture, making their own interpretation through the Filipino culture climate and environment. One of the product of Filipino Baroque is the Earthquake Baroque, which is especially designed to adapt to the earthquake prone environment of the Philippines.
Philippine weaving involves many threads being measured, cut, and mounted on a wooden platform. The threads are dyed and weaved on a loom.
Before Spanish colonization, native Filipinos weaved using fibers from abaca, pineapple, cotton, and bark cloth. Textiles, clothes, rugs, and hats were weaved. Baskets were also weaved and used as vessels of transport and storage, and for hunting. These baskets were used to transport grain, store food, and catching fish. They also used weaving to make just about all of the clothing that was worn. They weaved rugs that they used for quilts and bedding. The quality of the quilt / bedding was based on how soft, how tight together, and the clean pattern. The patterns were usually thick stripes with different colors and with a nice pattern.
However, during Spanish colonization, Filipinos used fabric called nipis to weave white clothing. These were weaved with decorative, flower designs.
Prehistoric cave drawings were discovered in numbers of sites in Philippines. The notable ones are those in Angono Petroglyphs is located in a shallow rock shelter. It measures 63 meters wide, 8 meters deep and a maximum height of 5 meters. It has been created due to faulting and formed in volcanic soil during the Quaternary period. There are 127 drawings in the form of animate and static figures of circular or dome - like head on top of a ' V ' shaped torso distributed on a horizontal plane on the rock wall area measuring 25 meters by 3 meters. Only 51 of the total 127 drawings are distinct. Due to the complexity and plurality of the drawings, it is suggested that the drawings on the rock were not only created by a single individual. the figures engraved on the rockwall probably carved during the late Neolithic, or before 2000 BC. These inscriptions clearly show stylized human figures, frogs and lizards, along with other designs that may have depicted other interesting figures but erosion may have caused it to become indistinguishable. The engravings are mostly symbolic representations and are associated with healing and sympathetic magic.
Artistic paintings were introduced to Filipinos in the 16th century when the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines. During this time, the Spaniards used paintings as visual aid for their religious propaganda to spread Catholicism throughout the Philippines. These paintings, appearing mostly on church walls, featured religious figures appearing in Catholic teachings. In short, due to the Spanish occupation of the Philippines and the Church 's supervision of Filipino art, the purpose of most paintings in the Philippines from the 16th to the 19th century were to aid the Catholic Church.
In the early 19th century, wealthier, educated Filipinos introduced more secular Filipino art, causing art in the Philippines to deviate from religious motifs. The use of watercolour paintings increased and the subject matter of paintings began to include landscapes, Filipino inhabitants, Philippine fashion, and government officials. Portrait paintings featured the painters themselves, Filipino jewelry, and native furniture. The subject of landscape paintings featured artists ' names painted ornately as well as day - to - day scenes of average Filipinos partaking in their daily tasks. These paintings were done on canvas, wood, and a variety of metals.
During World War II, some painters focused their artwork on the effects of war, including battle scenes, destruction, and the suffering of the Filipino people.
Ceiling paintings of Argao Church by Canuto Avila and Raymundo Francia
Tampuhan by Juan Luna
Las virgenes Cristianas expuestas al populacho by Félix Hidalgo
The Philippines has numerous indigenous scripts collectively called as suyat. Various ethno - linguistic groups in the Philippines prior to Spanish colonization in the 16th century up to the independence era in the 21st century have used the scripts with various mediums. By the end of colonialism, only four of the suyat scripts survived and continue to be used by certain communities in everyday life. These four scripts are hanunó'o / hanunoo of the Hanuno'o Mangyan people, buhid / buid of the Buhid Mangyan people, apurahuano / tagbanwa of the Tagbanwa people, and palaw'an / pala'wan of the Palaw'an people. All four scripts were inscribed in the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme, under the name Philippine Paleographs (Hanunoo, Buid, Tagbanua and Pala'wan), in 1999.
Due to dissent from colonialism, many artists and cultural experts have revived the usage of suyat scripts that went extinct due to Spanish persecution. These scripts being revived include the kulitan script of the Kapampangan people, the badlit script of various Visayan ethnic groups, the iniskaya script of the Eskaya people, the baybayin script of the Tagalog people, and the kur - itan script of the Ilocano people, among many others. Calligraphy using the Western alphabet and the Arabic alphabet are also prevalent in the Philippines due to its colonial past, but the Western alphabet and the Arabic alphabet are not considered as suyat, and therefore Western alphabet and Arabic calligraphy are not considered as suyat calligraphy.
Kulitan calligraphy
Baybayin calligraphy
Tagbanwa musical instrument with Apurahuano calligraphy
Buhid calligraphy
Bow with Hanunó'o calligraphy
Like Mongolia, Taiwan, China, Japan and Korea, the Philippines also had a sealing culture prior to Spanish colonization, which is reasonable as the Philippines is within the Sinosphere, or East Asian cultural sphere. However, when the Spaniards succeeded in colonizing the islands, they abolished the practice and burned all documents they captured from the natives while forcefully establishing a Roman Catholic - based rule. Records on Philippine seals were forgotten until in the 1970s when actual ancient seals made of ivory were found in an archaeological site in Butuan. The seal, now known as the Butuan Ivory Seal, has been declared as a National Cultural Treasure. The seal is inscribed with the word "Butwan '' through a native Suyat script. The discovery of the seal proved the theory that pre-colonial Filipinos, or at least in coastal areas, used seals on paper. Before the discovery of the seal, it was only thought that ancient Filipinos used bamboo, metal, bark, and palm leaves (lontar) for writing. The presence of paper documents in the classical era of the Philippines is also backed by a research of Dr. H. Otley Beyer, father of Philippine anthropology, stating that Spanish friars ' boasted ' about burning ancient Philippine documents with suyat inscriptions, one of the reasons why ancient documents from the Philippines are almost non-existent in present time. The ivory seal is now housed at the National Museum of the Philippines. Nowadays, younger generations are trying to revive the usage of seals, notably in signing pieces of art such as drawings, paintings, calligraphy, and literary works. Additionally, traditional handmade paper - making practices using native fibers, such as abaca, cogon, and pina have been revived by numerous organizations throughout the country.
The religion of the Ifugao people is based on ancestor worship and the veneration of spirits and gods of nature. Rice deities are particularly revered. These bululs are activated through ritual, the bulol guardian figures are believed to contain spirits capable of ensuring abundant harvests, increasing rice yields and protecting against catastrophe. Shaped like a rice mortar, the distinctive base of the sculpture is a visual link to its spiritual purpose. The pairing of male with female is a fundamental feature of Cordilleras ancestral art. These Bulul guardians represent the harmonious union of opposing elements, the protection of communities from malevolent spirits and the promise of good fortune. Carved from auspicious red sandalwood, these sculptures are differentiated by their distinct genitalia, alluding to fertility and abundance. The figures have a rich patina of sacrificial blood and smoke resulting from their use in religious practice and life - cycle ceremonies. A Bulul is a carved wooden figure used to guard the rice crop by the Ifugao (and their sub-tribe Kalanguya) peoples of northern Luzon. The sculptures are highly stylized representations of ancestors, and are thought to gain power from the presence of the ancestral spirit. The Ifugao are particularly noted for their skill in carving bululs. Bul - uls are used in ceremonies associated with rice production and with healing. Creation of a bul - ul involves alwen bul - ul ritual by a priest to ensure that the statue gains power. The bul - ul is treated with care and respect to avoid the risk of the spirits of the ancestors bringing sickness. The figures are placed together with the rice in the house or granaries to bring a plentiful harvest. Bul - ul is important to Ifugaos because they believe they can protect and multiply the rice and help make the harvest abundant.
The Sarimanok is a legendary bird of the Maranao people who originate from Mindanao. It comes from the words sari and manok. Sari means cloth or garment, which is generally of assorted colors. Manok means "chicken ''. The Sarimanok is the legendary bird that has become an ubiquitous symbol of Maranao art. It is depicted as a fowl with colorful wings and feathered tail, holding a fish on its beak or talons. The head is profusely decorated with scroll, leaf, and spiral motifs. It is said to be a symbol of good fortune. And another example of Maranao sculpture was in the Islamic tradition; the Buraq is often described as "a white animal, half - mule, half - donkey, with wings ''. The Prophet Muhammad rode the Buraq to fly through the heavens in a single night, a journey known as Mir'aj. Only in certain regions, such as Mindanao, is the animal depicted with a human face. Although the Buraq is not uncommon in Islamic art, sculptures of the creature seem to be unique to the Philippines. It is possible that the flourishing carving industry of religious images for Catholic Filipinos may have encouraged the making of such sculptures.
A bulul guardian figure. Wine server of the Ifugao people. Wood and sacrificial remains, northern Luzon, c. 15th century.
Vega Ancestral House, carvings
Sculpture of Buraq unique to Mindanao Muslims in the Philippines.
La Madre Filipina
Carvings in Miagao Church in Iloilo describes daily life, culture and nature of the Filipinos. A fine example of Filipino baroque art.
There are numerous types of Filipino dances, varying in influence, from the country 's regions. Types of Filipino dance include Cordillera, Muslim, tribal, rural, and Spanish style dances. Jerrah is the most well known kind of dance in the cordillera region. Within the Cordilleras ' dances, there are the Banga, Bendayan, Lumagen / Tachok, Manmanok, Ragragsakan, Salisid, Talip, Tarektek, and Uyaoy / Uyauy. The Banga dance shows the grace and strength of women in the Kalinga tribe. Women performing the Banga balance heavy pots on their heads while dancing to beat of wind chimes. This mimics Kalinga women collecting and transporting water. Another dance, called Lumagen or Tachok, is performed to celebrate happy occasions. When Lumagen is performed, it is meant to symbolize flying birds and is musically paired to the beat of gongs. Another cordillera dance, Salisid, is the dance to show courtship. In the Salisid dance, a male and a female performer represent a rooster attempting to attract a hen.
Tribal dances include Malakas at Maganda, Kadal Blelah, Kadal Tahaw, Binaylan, Bagobo Rice Cycle, and Dugso. Malakas at Maganda is a national folklore dance. It tells the story of the origin of the Filipino people on the islands. Another dance, called the Binaylan dance, tells the story of a hen, the hen 's baby, and a hawk. In this dance, the hawk is said to control a tribe 's well - being, and is killed by hunters after attempting to harm the hen 's baby.
Two examples of traditional Filipino dances are Tinikling and Binasuan and many more. Filipinos have unique folk dances like tinikling where assistants take two long bamboo sticks rapidly and in rhythm, clap sticks for dancers to artistically and daringly try to avoid getting their feet caught between them. Also in the southern part of the Philippines, there is another dance called Singkil using long bamboo poles found in tinikling; however, it is primarily a dance showing off lavish Muslim royalty. In this dance, there are four bamboo sticks arranged in a tic - tac - toe pattern in which the dancers exploit every position of these clashing sticks. Dancers can be found trying to avoid all 4 bamboo sticks all together in the middle. They can also try to dance an entire rotation around the middle avoiding all sticks. Usually these stick dances performed in teamwork fashion not solo. The Singkil dance is identifiable with the use of umbrellas and silk clothing.
Sagayan, a war dance of the Maguindanaon and Maranao peoples.
Kappa Malong Malong (also called Sambi sa Malong), a traditional Maranao dance showing many ways of wearing a malong.
Panderetas, a María Clara dance originated from Tanza, Iloilo.
Tinikling, a Filipino folk dance with its origins from Leyte.
Jota Cagayana dance from Enrile, Cagayan.
Many towns have their own versions of the Senakulo, using traditional scripts that are decades or centuries old. A version is held at the Cultural Center of the Philippines, sponsored by the Department of Tourism. Popular film and televisions stars often join the cast of the play. In Taguig, they popularize the modern version of Jesus Christ Superstar reshown at the Fort Santiago Amphitheater for the benefit of Manileños. In Mexico, Pampanga and Dinalupihan, Bataan, the actor portraying Jesus has been actually nailed to the cross to simulate Christ 's passion as best and as painfully possible. Similar shows are also held in Makati and in the Santa Ana district of Manila.
The Arnis, also known as Kali or Eskrima, is the national sport and martial art of the Philippines. The three are roughly interchangeable umbrella terms for the traditional martial arts of the Philippines ("Filipino Martial Arts '', or FMA) that emphasize weapon - based fighting with sticks, knives, bladed weapons and various improvised weapons as well as "open hand '' or techniques without weapons. It is also known as Estoque (Spanish for rapier), Estocada (Spanish for thrust or stab) and Garrote (Spanish for club). In Luzon they may go by the name of Arnis de Mano. The indigenous martial art that the Spanish encountered in 1610 was not yet called "Eskrima '' at that time. During those times, this martial art was known as Paccalicali - t to the Ibanags, Didya (later changed to Kabaroan) to the Ilocanos, Sitbatan or Kalirongan to Pangasinenses, Sinawali ("to weave '') to the Kapampangans, Calis or Pananandata (use of weapons) to the Tagalogs, Pagaradman to the Ilonggos and Kaliradman to the Cebuanos. Kuntaw and Silat are separate martial arts that are also practiced in the Philippine archipelago.
Traditional pot - making in certain areas of the Philippines would use clay found near the Sibalom River. Molding the clay required the use of wooden paddles, and the clay had to be kept away from sunlight.
Native Filipinos created pottery since 3500 years ago. They used these ceramic jars to hold the deceased.
Other pottery used to hold remains of the deceased were decorated with anthropomorphic designs. These anthropomorphic earthenware pots date back to 5 BC. - 225 A.D and had pot covers shaped like human heads.
Filipino pottery had other uses as well. During the Neolithic period of the Philippines, pottery was made for water vessels, plates, cups, and for many other uses.
Kalinga Pottery
Ceramic vessels of Kalinga are divided into three types: rice cooking (ittoyom), vegetable / meat cooking (oppaya), and water storage (immosso) pots. According to Skibo, the rice cooking pots are usually larger, thinner and have a smaller opening than vegetable / meat pots. On the other hand, water storage pots have an average and uniform size and a smaller neck size.
Except for water storage pots, which have a uniform size, the other two kinds can come in three different sizes, large, medium and small. Although this is true in some cases, another larger type of vegetable / meat pot and smaller water storage pot exists.
Manufacture of Kalinga potteries
The first step in the manufacture of pots is the acquisition of the starting material, clay. The clay is then pounded, added with enough amount of water, to reach the wanted flexibility, and placed in a rotating plate. Using the hand - modeling and coil - and - scrape techniques, the height, thickness and shape of the pot is established. After this, the rim is designed by placing a wet rag on top of it and then rotating it in the other direction. Furthermore, scraping of the walls can also be done if the walls produced are too thick.
The pot, after the modeling stage, is then dried for a short period of time before the base is shaped. Also, after additional heating, small amounts of clay are added inside and outside the clay to maintain the evenness of the surface. A polishing step can also be done through the use of a polishing stone. In some cases, pots are also painted with red hematite paint for some stylized design.
Pottery Functions
Pots are ceramic vessels that are made by molding clay into its wanted shape and then leaving it in an environment with an elevated temperature thereby making it solid and sturdy. It is widely recognized as one of better tools that humans invented since it managed to store the surplus of food Neolithic humans gathered.
In the book Pottery Function: A Use - Alteration Perspective, the author, James Skibo, reasoned out why the use of pots is far more advantageous than baskets and other organic containers. He said that since potteries are commonly made in clay, heat has little to none effect on the container, and its contents, and that it protects the food from moisture and pests. Furthermore, its range of storable contents is far wider than baskets and animal skins since it can store both liquid and dry goods.
Also, Rice, in his book Pottery Analysis, classified ceramic vessels into 17 categories depending on various factors that concern the use and production of the tool. One of these is the content wherein he further divided a type of pot into four depending on the state (liquid or solid) and temperature (hot or cold) of the food inside it. He also said that a ceramic has three main uses. These three are storage, processing, and transfer.
Based from these three uses that Rice gave, Skibo further characterized the usage of ceramic vessels by dividing the tool 's function into two, (1) intended use and (2) actual use.
Intended use, as the name implies, is how the tool 's supposed to be used. This is the basis of the manufacture of the ceramic vessel since the form follows the function. On the other hand, actual use is how the tool was used. This sometimes disregards the pot 's form as long it can do a specific function.
Kalinga Pottery and its Uses
In Kalinga, ceramic vessels can be used for two situations: daily life use and ceremonial use. Daily life uses include the making of rice from the pots and the transfer of water from nearby water bodies to their homes.
Determining actual function of Kalinga pots
As said, a pottery sometimes has a different actual use than intended use. This is the reason why when archaeologists study the function of a pottery, they tend to focus on how the tool was actually used. They do this by studying the alterations that the pottery has. These alterations, accretion and attrition, are commonly the abrasions and scratches on the vessel. In Skibo 's study of Kalinga potteries functions, he relied on three main tests, namely (1) dissolved residue, (2) surface attrition and (3) carbon deposition.
Iron Age pottery
There are three major complexes in Philippine Iron Age according to Solheim, Kalanay, Novaliches and Bau pottery complexes. Kalanay pottery complex pertains to Beyer 's Early Iron Age pottery of the Visayan Islands found in Negros and Mindoro; novaliches pottery complex to Beyer 's Early Iron Age pottery from Rizal province. Bau pottery, on the other hand, does not fit into the two previous complexes and could correspond instead to the Late Iron Age pottery.
Kalanay Pottery Complex
The type site of the Kalanay pottery complex is the Kalanay Cave found in Masbate. From this site, the pottery is further subdivided into pottery types Kalanay and Bagupantao.
Specific varieties of decoration are as follows:
Kalanay complex pottery can be divided into 16 groups according to Solheim.
Bau Pottery Complex
It has less variation in both form and decoration compared to the Kalanay pottery complex.
Specific varieties of decoration are as follows:
In terms of forms:
Novaliches Pottery Complex
Most of Novaliches pottery can be distinguished from Bau pottery and Kalanay pottery. While it shares form and decoration with Kalanay pottery, it contains more variability compared to Bau pottery. According to Solheim (2002), "it is the most sophisticated pottery that has yet been found in the Philippines ''
Novaliches pottery can be diagnosed by its form being a shallow bowl with a high right - foot. The shallow bowl is generally plain but the feet are highly decorated. Majority of Novaliches pottery were well polished. The form is so symmetrical that it looks as if it was made in a potter wheel, however, examinations showed that it was n't.
Specific varieties of decoration are as follows:
Vessel forms are as follows:
Kalanay Cave Site
The Kalanay cave site is a small burial cave. It is located at the northwest coast of Masbate.
Kalanay Pottery
Kalanay Incised
Kalanay slipped
Bagupantao Pottery
Bagupantao Plain
Bagupantao Impressed
Bagupantao Painted
Extraneous Pottery - Three vessels that did not belong to the Bagupantao and Kalanay style were also found.
First pot
Second pot
Third pot
Filipino cuisine is composed of the cuisines of 144 distinct ethnolinguistic groups found within the Philippine archipelago. The majority of mainstream Filipino dishes that compose Filipino cuisine are from the cuisines of the Bikol, Chavacano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Kapampangan, Maranao, Pangasinan, Cebuano (or Bisaya), Tagalog, and Waray ethnolinguistic tribes. The style of cooking and the food associated with it have evolved over many centuries from their Austronesian origins to a mixed cuisine of Indian, Chinese, Spanish, and American influences, in line with the major waves of influence that had enriched the cultures of the archipelago, as well as others adapted to indigenous ingredients and the local palate. Dishes range from the very simple, like a meal of fried salted fish and rice, to the complex paellas and cocidos created for fiestas of Spanish origin. Popular dishes include: lechón (whole roasted pig), longganisa (Philippine sausage), tapa (cured beef), torta (omelette), adobo (chicken or pork braised in garlic, vinegar, oil and soy sauce, or cooked until dry), kaldereta (meat in tomato sauce stew), mechado (larded beef in soy and tomato sauce), puchero (beef in bananas and tomato sauce), afritada (chicken or pork simmered in tomato sauce with vegetables), kare - kare (oxtail and vegetables cooked in peanut sauce), pinakbet (kabocha squash, eggplant, beans, okra, and tomato stew flavored with shrimp paste), crispy pata (deep - fried pig 's leg), hamonado (pork sweetened in pineapple sauce), sinigang (meat or seafood in sour broth), pancit (noodles), and lumpia (fresh or fried spring rolls).
Various artifacts and art pieces have either been looted or directly bought from the Philippines by various foreign entities since the Spanish colonial period. The majority of stolen or bought Philippine artifacts and art pieces were shipped into foreign hands during the American period, World War II, and post-war era, where the economy was crippled. During the post-war era, Philippine artifacts and art pieces became easy pickings for foreigners as Filipinos were forced to sell the items in extremely low prices because of the immediate need for money during an era marred with high inflation and high cost of living. These pieces include the Golden Tara (in United States possession), the Balangiga bells (in United States possession), the two remaining copies of Doctrina Christiana (in United States and Spain 's possession), the Boxer Codex (in United States possession), and many others. Most pieces are currently under the possession of the United States and Spain. Various attempts to return stolen or looted Philippine artifacts and art pieces have been made by the Philippine government since the 1990s. The most recent is the national call to return the Balangiga bells in 2017 and the Golden Tara in 2018.
Past notable Filipino artists include Juan Luna, Fernando Amorsolo, Augusto Arbizo, Félix Hidalgo, Ang Kiukok, Anita Magsaysay - Ho, Lito Mayo, Mauro Malang Santos, Santiago Bosé, Rey Paz Contreras and David Cortés Medalla. Present - day Filipino artists featuring Filipino culture include Benedicto Cabrera, Elito Circa, Fred DeAsis, Daniel Coquilla, Francisco Viri, and Nunelucio Alvarado. The art or paintings by Zóbel, Amorsolo and many more could be seen in most of the art museums in the Philippines. Zobel 's paintings can be seen in the Ayala Museum.
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robin sharma books monk who sold his ferrari | The Monk Who Sold His Ferrari - wikipedia
The Monk Who Sold His Ferrari is a self - help book by Robin Sharma, a writer and motivational speaker. The book is a business fable derived from Sharma 's personal experiences after leaving his career as a litigation lawyer at the age of 25.
The Monk Who Sold His Ferrari was published in 1997 by Harper Collins Publishers, and has sold more than three million copies as of 2013. A recent translation to Dogri language was done by Champa Sharma. Sharma also wrote several other books in the series, such as The Secret Letters Of The Monk Who Sold His Red Ferrari, Leadership Wisdom from the Monk Who Sold His Ferrari, Discover Your Destiny with the Monk who sold his Ferrari and Family Wisdom from the Monk Who Sold His Ferrari.
The book develops around two characters, Julian Mantle and his best friend John, in the form of conversation. Julian narrates his spiritual experiences during a Himalayan journey which he undertook after selling his holiday home and red Ferrari.
Mystical Fable - 7 virtues of life
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aishwarya rai all movies box office collection list | List of Films released by Yash Raj Films - Wikipedia
Yash Raj Films (abbreviated as YRF) is an Indian entertainment company, established by Yash Chopra in 1970, that produces and distributes motion pictures. As of 2018, the company has produced 75 Hindi films, including three that are yet - to - be-released, and one Tamil film. Yash Raj Films started a film distribution business in 1997, and in addition to distributing their own productions, the company has handled the domestic and international distribution of 37 films from other companies.
Yash Raj Films ' first release came in 1973 with the Chopra - directed Daag: A Poem of Love, a drama about bigamy, starring Rajesh Khanna, Raakhee and Sharmila Tagore. The company had four more releases in the 1970s, including the family drama Kabhie Kabhie and the action film Kaala Patthar, both of which starred Amitabh Bachchan. Yash Raj Films ' sole commercial success in the 1980s was the Sridevi - starring romance Chandni. The year 1995 marked the directorial debut of Yash Chopra 's son, Aditya Chopra, with the highly successful romantic drama Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge. Starring Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol, the film has the longest theatrical run in Indian cinema history. Other successful releases of the 1990s were Darr (1993) and Dil To Pagal Hai (1997), both starring Khan.
In the 2000s, Yash Raj Films produced a larger number of films. In addition to directorial ventures from Yash and Aditya Chopra, the company launched several new directors, including Sanjay Gadhvi, Vijay Krishna Acharya, Kunal Kohli, Siddharth Anand, and Shaad Ali. Some of the company 's top - grossing films in that decade include Gadhvi 's action thrillers Dhoom (2004) and Dhoom 2 (2006), Kohli 's romantic thriller Fanaa (2006), Ali 's comedy film Bunty Aur Babli (2005), Yash Chopra 's romance Veer - Zaara (2004), and Aditya Chopra 's dramas Mohabbatein (2000) and Rab Ne Bana Di Jodi (2008). Beginning in 2008, the company introduced a number of new actors such as Anushka Sharma, Ranveer Singh, Parineeti Chopra, and Arjun Kapoor.
Yash Raj Films ' highest - grossing films came in the 2010s with the spy thriller Ek Tha Tiger (2012) and its 2017 sequel, both starring Salman Khan and Katrina Kaif, the third installment of the Dhoom franchise, entitled Dhoom 3 (2013), featuring Aamir Khan, Uday Chopra and Abhishek Bachchan, and the sports drama Sultan (2016), starring Salman Khan and Anushka Sharma. All four films rank among the highest - grossing Bollywood films of all time. The most frequent collaborations of the company have been with the actors Rani Mukerji, Rishi Kapoor, Shah Rukh Khan, Anushka Sharma, Katrina Kaif, Saif Ali Khan, and Parineeti Chopra.
In addition to the films produced by Yash Raj Films since 1997, the following films from other banners were distributed by the company:
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where does polyester come from and how is it made | Polyester - wikipedia
Polyester is a category of polymers that contain the ester functional group in their main chain. As a specific material, it most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Polyesters include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics through step - growth polymerization such as polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not. The material is used extensively in clothing.
Depending on the chemical structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset. There are also polyester resins cured by hardeners; however, the most common polyesters are thermoplastics.
Fabrics woven or knitted from polyester thread or yarn are used extensively in apparel and home furnishings, from shirts and pants to jackets and hats, bed sheets, blankets, upholstered furniture and computer mouse mats. Industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in car tire reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high - energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters and upholstery padding. Polyester fabrics are highly stain - resistant -- in fact, the only class of dyes which can be used to alter the color of polyester fabric are what are known as disperse dyes.
Polyester fibers are sometimes spun together with natural fibers to produce a cloth with blended properties. Cotton - polyester blends (polycotton) can be strong, wrinkle and tear - resistant, and reduce shrinking. Synthetic fibers in polyester also create materials with water, wind and environmental resistance compared to plant - derived fibers. Disadvantages of cotton and polyester blends include being less breathable than cotton and trapping more moisture while sticking to the skin. They are also less fire resistant and can melt when ignited.
Polyester blends have been renamed so as to suggest their similarity or even superiority to natural fibers (for example, China silk, which is a term in the textiles industry for a 100 % polyester fiber woven to resemble the sheen and durability of insect - derived silk).
Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays, holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire and insulating tapes. Polyesters are widely used as a finish on high - quality wood products such as guitars, pianos and vehicle / yacht interiors. Thixotropic properties of spray - applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open - grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, with a high - build film thickness per coat. Cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high - gloss, durable finish.
Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially used liquid crystal polymers. They are used for their mechanical properties and heat - resistance. These traits are also important in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines.
Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat. While combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend to shrink away from flames and self - extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibers have high tenacity and E-modulus as well as low water absorption and minimal shrinkage in comparison with other industrial fibers.
Unsaturated polyesters (UPR) are thermosetting resins. They are used in the liquid state as casting materials, in sheet molding compounds, as fiberglass laminating resins and in non-metallic auto - body fillers. They are also used as the thermoset polymer matrix in pre-pregs. Fiberglass - reinforced unsaturated polyesters find wide application in bodies of yachts and as body parts of cars.
According to the composition of their main chain, polyesters can be:
Increasing the aromatic parts of polyesters increases their glass transition temperature, melting temperature, thermal stability, chemical stability...
Polyesters can also be telechelic oligomers like the polycaprolactone diol (PCL) and the polyethylene adipate diol (PEA). They are then used as prepolymers.
Polyester is a synthetic polymer made of purified terephthalic acid (PTA) or its dimethyl ester dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and monoethylene glycol (MEG). With 18 % market share of all plastic materials produced, it ranges third after polyethylene (33.5 %) and polypropylene (19.5 %).
The main raw materials are described as follows:
To make a polymer of high molecular weight a catalyst is needed. The most common catalyst is antimony trioxide (or antimony tri-acetate):
In 2008, about 10,000 tonnes Sb O were used to produce around 49 million tonnes polyethylene terephthalate.
Polyester is described as follows:
There are several reasons for the importance of polyester:
In the following table, the estimated world polyester production is shown. Main applications are textile polyester, bottle polyester resin, film polyester mainly for packaging and specialty polyesters for engineering plastics. According to this table, the world 's total polyester production might exceed 50 million tons per annum before the year 2010.
The raw materials PTA, DMT, and MEG are mainly produced by large chemical companies which are sometimes integrated down to the crude oil refinery where p - Xylene is the base material to produce PTA and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the base material to produce MEG.
After the first stage of polymer production in the melt phase, the product stream divides into two different application areas which are mainly textile applications and packaging applications. In the following table, the main applications of textile and packaging of polyester are listed.
Abbreviations:
A comparable small market segment (much less than 1 million tonnes / year) of polyester is used to produce engineering plastics and masterbatch.
In order to produce the polyester melt with a high efficiency, high - output processing steps like staple fiber (50 -- 300 tonnes / day per spinning line) or POY / FDY (up to 600 tonnes / day split into about 10 spinning machines) are meanwhile more and more vertically integrated direct processes. This means the polymer melt is directly converted into the textile fibers or filaments without the common step of pelletizing. We are talking about full vertical integration when polyester is produced at one site starting from crude oil or distillation products in the chain oil → benzene → PX → PTA → PET melt → fiber / filament or bottle - grade resin. Such integrated processes are meanwhile established in more or less interrupted processes at one production site. Eastman Chemicals were the first to introduce the idea of closing the chain from PX to PET resin with their so - called INTEGREX process. The capacity of such vertically integrated production sites is > 1000 tonnes / day and can easily reach 2500 tonnes / day.
Besides the above - mentioned large processing units to produce staple fiber or yarns, there are ten thousands of small and very small processing plants, so that one can estimate that polyester is processed and recycled in more than 10 000 plants around the globe. This is without counting all the companies involved in the supply industry, beginning with engineering and processing machines and ending with special additives, stabilizers and colors. This is a gigantic industry complex and it is still growing by 4 -- 8 % per year, depending on the world region.
Synthesis of polyesters is generally achieved by a polycondensation reaction. See "condensation reactions in polymer chemistry ''. The general equation for the reaction of a diol with a diacid is:
In this classical method, an alcohol and a carboxylic acid react to form a carboxylic ester. To assemble a polymer, the water formed by the reaction must be continually removed by azeotrope distillation.
The acid begins as an acid chloride, and thus the polycondensation proceeds with emission of hydrochloric acid (HCl) instead of water. This method can be carried out in solution or as an enamel.
Aliphatic polyesters can be assembled from lactones under very mild conditions, catalyzed anionically, cationically or metallorganically. A number of catalytic methods for the copolymerization of epoxides with cyclic anhydrides have also recently been shown to provide a wide array of functionalized polyesters, both saturated and unsaturated.
The futuro house was made of fibreglass - reinforced polyester plastic; polyester - polyurethane, and poly (methylmethacrylate) one of them was found to be degrading by Cyanobacteria and Archaea.
Unsaturated polyesters are thermosetting resins. They are generally copolymers prepared by polymerizing one or more diol with saturated and unsaturated dicarboxylic acids (maleic acid, fumaric acid...) or their anhydrides. The double bond of unsaturated polyesters reacts with a vinyl monomer, usually styrene, resulting in a 3 - D cross-linked structure. This structure acts as a thermoset. The exothermic cross-linking reaction is initiated through a catalyst, usually an organic peroxide such as methyl ethyl ketone peroxide or benzoyl peroxide.
A team at Plymouth University in the UK spent 12 months analysing what happened when a number of synthetic materials were washed at different temperatures in domestic washing machines, using different combinations of detergents, to quantify the microfibres shed. They found that an average washing load of 6 kg could release an estimated 137,951 fibres from polyester - cotton blend fabric, 496,030 fibres from polyester and 728,789 from acrylic. Those fibers add to the general microplastics pollution.
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who sings tomorrow belongs to me in cabaret | Cabaret (1972 film) - wikipedia
Cabaret is a 1972 American musical drama film which was directed by Bob Fosse and which starred Liza Minnelli, Michael York, and Joel Grey.
Situated in Berlin during the Weimar Republic in 1931, under the presence of the growing Nazi Party, the film is loosely based on the 1966 Broadway musical Cabaret by Kander and Ebb, which was adapted from the novel The Berlin Stories (1939) by Christopher Isherwood and the 1951 play I Am a Camera adapted from the same book. Only a few numbers from the stage score were used for the film; Kander and Ebb wrote new ones to replace those that were discarded. In the traditional manner of musical theater, called an "integrated musical '', every significant character in the stage version sings to express his or her own emotion and to advance the plot. In the film version, the musical numbers are entirely diegetic, taking place inside the club, with one exception; this was "Tomorrow Belongs to Me '', the only song sung neither by Grey 's character of the Kit Kat Klub 's Master of Ceremonies nor by Minnelli 's character of Sally Bowles. In the sexually charged "Two Ladies '', about a ménage à trois, the Master of Ceremonies is joined by two of the Kit Kat girls.
After he caused a box - office disaster with his film version of Sweet Charity in 1969, Bob Fosse bounced back with Cabaret in 1972, a year that would make him the most honored director in show business. And he proved to be far from the only winner in this case, as the film also brought Liza Minnelli, a daughter of Judy Garland, her own first chance to sing on screen, and she also won the Academy Award for Best Actress. With Academy Awards for Best Supporting Actor (Joel Grey), Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction, Best Sound, Best Original Song Score and Adaptation, and Best Film Editing, it holds the record for most Oscars earned by a film not honored for Best Picture. It is listed as number 367 on Empire 's 500 greatest films of all time.
Cabaret opened to glowing reviews and strong box office, eventually taking in more than $20 million. In addition to its eight Oscars, it won Best Picture citations from the National Board of Review and the Hollywood Foreign Press Association and took Best Supporting Actor honors for Grey from the National Board of Review, the Hollywood Foreign Press, and the National Society of Film Critics.
In 1931 Berlin, young American Sally Bowles (Liza Minnelli) performs at the Kit Kat Klub. A new British arrival in the city, Brian Roberts (Michael York), moves into the boarding house where Sally lives. A reserved academic and writer, Brian gives English lessons to earn a living while completing his doctorate. Sally tries seducing Brian and suspects he may be gay. Brian tells Sally that on three previous occasions he has tried to have physical relationships with women, all of which failed. They become friends, and Brian witnesses Sally 's anarchic, bohemian life in the last days of the German Weimar Republic. Sally and Brian become lovers despite their earlier reservations; they conclude that his previous failures with women were because they were "the wrong three girls ''.
Sally befriends Maximilian von Heune, a rich playboy baron who takes her and Brian to his country estate; it becomes ambiguous which of the duo Max is seducing. After a sexual experience with Brian, Max loses interest in the two and departs for Argentina. During an argument, when Sally tells Brian that she has been having sex with Max, Brian reveals that he has as well. Brian and Sally later reconcile, and Sally reveals that Max left them money and mockingly compares the sum with what a professional prostitute gets.
Sally learns that she is pregnant, but is unsure of the father. Brian offers to marry her and take her back to his university life in Cambridge. At first they celebrate their resolution to start this new life together, but after a picnic between Sally and Brian, in which Brian acts distant and uninterested, Sally starts to doubt continuing with the pregnancy and is disheartened by the vision of herself as a bored faculty wife washing dirty diapers. Ultimately she has an abortion, without informing Brian in advance. When he confronts her, she shares her fears, and the two reach an understanding. Brian departs for England, and Sally continues her life in Berlin, embedding herself in the Kit Kat Klub, but the final shot shows men in Nazi uniforms in the front row of the club.
A subplot concerns Fritz Wendel (Fritz Wepper), a German Jew passing as a Christian, who is in love with Natalia Landauer (Marisa Berenson), a wealthy German Jewish heiress, who holds him in contempt and suspects his motives. The worldly Sally gives advice, which eventually enables Fritz to win her love. However, in order to get her parents ' consent for their marriage, Fritz must reveal his true religious and ethnic background -- a highly dangerous act, considering what is in store for Jews under the coming Nazi regime. Although the Nazis are not yet in power, some of them kill Natalia 's beloved dog one night.
The Nazis 's violent rise is a powerful, ever - present undercurrent in the film. Their progress can be tracked through the characters ' changing actions and attitudes. While in the beginning of the film National Socialist members are sometimes harassed and even kicked out of the Kit Kat Klub, the final shot of the film shows the cabaret 's audience is dominated by Nazi party members. The rise of the Nazis is also dramatically demonstrated in the rural beer garden scene. In a sunlit outdoor setting a boy -- only his face seen -- sings to a relaxed audience of all ages what at first seem mild lyrics ("Tomorrow Belongs To Me '') about the beauties of nature and youth. The camera shifts to show that the singer is wearing a brown Hitler Youth uniform. He lifts his hand in the Nazi salute. One by one, nearly all the adults and young people watching are induced to rise and join in the singing and saluting, the gentle a capella ballad gradually transforming to a harsh and militant anthem. Max and Brian return to their car after witnessing this show of growing support for the National Socialist movement, Brian asking Max, "Do you still think you can control them? '' Later, Brian 's one - man confrontation with a Nazi in the street is a futile gesture, leading to nothing but him being beaten up.
While he does not play a role in the main plot, the "Master of Ceremonies '' (Joel Grey) serves in the role of storyteller throughout the film. His surface demeanor is one of benevolence and hospitality ("Willkommen ''), but his intermittent songs in the Kit Kat Klub are increasingly risqué and pointedly mock the Nazis initially, while later songs reveal the growing acceptance of anti-semitism.
The Kit - Kat Dancers:
Playwrights Jay Presson Allen and Hugh Wheeler went back to the original stories to restore the subplot about the gigolo and the Jewish heiress. They also drew on original author Christopher Isherwood 's openness about his homosexuality to make the leading male character, a writer modeled on him, a bisexual who shares his bed and a male lover with Sally. Fosse decided to increase the focus on the Kit Kat Klub, where Sally performs, as a metaphor for the decadence of Germany in the 1930s by eliminating all but one of the musical numbers performed outside the club. The only remaining outside number is "Tomorrow Belongs to Me '', a folk song rendered spontaneously by patrons at an open - air cafe in one of the film 's most chilling scenes. In addition, the show 's original songwriters, John Kander and Fred Ebb, wrote two new songs, "Mein Herr '', "Money '', and incorporated a song they had composed in 1964 for Kaye Ballard, "Maybe This Time ''.
The two new songs and "Maybe This Time '' were performed by the film 's leading lady, Liza Minnelli ("Money '' also featured Grey). Ironically, she had auditioned to play Sally in the original Broadway production. Some involved with the show say she was too inexperienced at the time, though she had already won Broadway 's Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical. Others have suggested that she was too big a presence for the role as written on Broadway. By the time Cabaret reached the screen, however, Minnelli was a major film star, having won an Oscar nomination as the emotionally damaged college student in 1969 's The Sterile Cuckoo.
In 1971, Bob Fosse learned through Harold Prince, director of the original Broadway production, that Cy Feuer was producing a film adaptation of Cabaret through ABC Pictures and Allied Artists. This was the first film produced in the revival of Allied Artists. Determined to direct the film, Fosse urged Feuer to hire him. Chief executives Manny Wolf and Marty Baum preferred a bigger name director such as Joseph L. Mankiewicz or Gene Kelly. That Fosse had directed the unsuccessful film adaptation of Sweet Charity gave Wolf and Baum pause. Feuer appealed to the studio heads, citing Fosse 's talent for staging and shooting musical numbers, adding that if inordinate attention was given to filming the book scenes at the expense of the musical numbers, the whole film could fail. Fosse was ultimately hired. Over the next months, Fosse met with previously hired writer Jay Allen to discuss the screenplay. Dissatisfied with Allen 's script, he hired Hugh Wheeler to rewrite and revise her work. Wheeler is referred to as a "research consultant '', while Allen retains screenwriting credit. The final script was based less on Joe Masteroff 's original book of the stage version, and more on The Berlin Stories and I Am a Camera.
Fosse and Feuer traveled to Germany, where producers chose to shoot the film, in order to finish assembling the film crew. During this time, Fosse highly recommended Robert L. Surtees for cinematographer, but Feuer and the top executives saw Surtees 's work on Sweet Charity as one of the film 's many artistic problems. Producers eventually chose British cinematographer Geoffrey Unsworth. Designers Rolf Zehetbauer, Hans Jürgen Kiebach and Herbert Strabel served as production designers. Charlotte Flemming designed costumes. Fosse dancer Kathy Doby, Louise Quick and John Sharpe were brought on as Fosse 's dance aides.
Feuer had cast Liza Minnelli as Sally Bowles and Joel Grey (reprising his stage role) long before Fosse was attached to the project. Fosse was given the option of using Grey as Master of Ceremonies or walking away from the production. Fosse hired Michael York as Sally Bowles 's openly bisexual love interest. Several smaller roles, as well as the remaining four dancers in the film, were eventually cast in Germany.
Rehearsals and filming took place entirely in Germany. For reasons of economy, indoor scenes were shot at Bavaria Film Studios in Grünwald, outside Munich. Location shooting took place in and around Munich and Berlin, and in Schleswig - Holstein and Saxony. Editing was done in Los Angeles before the eventual theatrical release in February 1972.
Although the songs throughout the film allude to and advance the narrative, every song except "Tomorrow Belongs to Me '' is executed in the context of a Kit Kat Klub performance. The voice heard on the radio reading the news throughout the film in German was that of associate producer Harold Nebenzal, whose father Seymour Nebenzahl made such notable Weimar films as M (1931), Testament of Dr. Mabuse (1933), and Threepenny Opera (1931).
The film is significantly different from the Broadway musical. In the stage version, Sally Bowles is English (as she was in Christopher Isherwood 's "Sally Bowles ''). In the film version, she is American. The character of Cliff Bradshaw was renamed Brian Roberts and made British (as was Isherwood, upon whom the character was based) rather than American as in the stage version. The characters and plot lines involving Fritz, Natalia and Max were pulled from I Am a Camera and did not appear in the stage version of Cabaret (or in "Sally Bowles ''), and a minor character named Max in the stage version, the owner of the Kit Kat Klub, bears no relation to the character in the film. In the film, Sally is a very good singer, whereas the stage version often portrays her as being untalented.
Fosse cut several of the songs, leaving only those that are sung within the confines of the Kit Kat Klub, and "Tomorrow Belongs to Me '' -- sung in a beer garden (in the stage musical, it is sung first by the cabaret boys and then at a private party). Kander and Ebb wrote several new songs for the movie and removed others; "Do n't Tell Mama '' was replaced by "Mein Herr '', and "The Money Song '' (retained in an instrumental version as "Sitting Pretty '') was replaced by "Money, Money ''. "Mein Herr '' and "Money, Money '', which were composed for the film version were added to performances of the stage musical alongside the original numbers. The song "Maybe This Time '', which Sally performs at the cabaret, was not written for the film. Kander and Ebb had written it years earlier for Kaye Ballard, thus it was ineligible for an Academy Award nomination. Although "Do n't Tell Mama '' and "Married '' were removed as performed musical numbers, both were used in the film. The former 's bridge section appears as instrumental music played on Sally 's gramophone; the latter is initially played on the piano in Fraulein Schneider 's parlor and later heard on Sally 's gramophone in a German translation ("Heiraten '') sung by cabaret singer Greta Keller.
All tracks written by John Kander and Fred Ebb.
The following songs from the original Broadway production were omitted from the film version: "So What? '', "Do n't Tell Mama '', "Telephone Song '', "Perfectly Marvelous '', "Why Should I Wake Up? '', "The Money Song '' (replaced by "Money, Money ''), "It Could n't Please Me More '', "Meeskite '', "What Would You Do? '', and "Married ''. Some of these selections are used as instrumentals as gramophone selections.
The film was immediately successful at the box office. By May 1973 it had earned rentals of $4.5 million in North America and $3.5 million in other countries and reported a profit of $2,452,000.
Roger Ebert gave a positive review, saying: "This is no ordinary musical. Part of its success comes because it does n't fall for the old cliché that musicals have to make you happy. Instead of cheapening the movie version by lightening its load of despair, director Bob Fosse has gone right to the bleak heart of the material and stayed there well enough to win an Academy Award for Best Director. '' Variety says: "The film version of the 1966 John Kander - Fred Ebb Broadway musical Cabaret is most unusual: it is literate, bawdy, sophisticated, sensual, cynical, heart - warming, and disturbingly thought - provoking. Liza Minnelli heads a strong cast. Bob Fosse 's generally excellent direction recreates the milieu of Germany some 40 years ago. '' Jamie Russel from BBC.com reviewed: "The first musical ever to be given an X certificate, Bob Fosse 's ' Cabaret ' launched Liza Minnelli into Hollywood superstardom and reinvented the musical for the Age of Aquarius. ''
Pauline Kael wrote a review applauding the film: "A great movie musical. Taking its form from political cabaret, it 's a satire of temptations. In a prodigious balancing act, Bob Fosse, the choreographer - director, keeps the period -- Berlin, 1931 -- at a cool distance. We see the decadence as garish and sleazy; yet we also see the animal energy in it -- everything seems to become sexualized. The movie does not exploit decadence; rather, it gives it its due. With Joel Grey as our devil - doll host -- the master of ceremonies -- and Liza Minnelli (in her first singing role on the screen) as exuberant, corruptible Sally Bowles, chasing after the life of a headliner no matter what; Minnelli has such gaiety and electricity that she becomes a star before our eyes. ''
In 2013, film critic Peter Bradshaw listed Cabaret at number one on his list of "Top 10 musicals '', describing it as "satanically catchy, terrifyingly seductive... directed and choreographed with electric style by Bob Fosse... Cabaret is drenched in the sexiest kind of cynicism and decadent despair. ''
Although less explicit compared to other films made in the 1970s, Cabaret dealt explicitly with topics like corruption, sexual ambiguity, false dreams and Nazism. Tim Dirks at Filmsite.org notes: "The sexually - charged, semi-controversial, kinky musical was the first one ever to be given an X rating (although later re-rated) with its numerous sexual flings and hedonistic club life. There was considerable sexual innuendo, profanity, casual sex talk (homosexual and heterosexual), some evidence of anti-Semitism, and even an abortion in the film. '' It was also rated X in the UK and later re-rated as 15 +.
The "Tomorrow Belongs to Me '' scene was highly controversial and potentially confused with a real Nazi anthem. John Kander and Fred Ebb were accused of anti-Semitism until the world found that both were Jews. According to a November 1976 Variety article, the film was censored in West Berlin when it was first released there theatrically, with the sequence featuring the Hitler Youth singing "Tomorrow Belongs to Me '' having been deleted. The article stated that the elimination had been made "because of the feeling that it might stir up resentments in the audience by showing the sympathizers for the Nazi movement during the ' 30s. '' The sequence was restored, however, when the film was shown on West German television on 7 November 1976.
Another topic of discussion was the song "If You Could See Her '', which closed with the line: "If you could see her through my eyes, she would n't look Jewish at all ''. The point of the song was showing anti-Semitism as it begins to run rampant in Berlin, but there were a number of Jewish groups who interpreted the lyrics differently.
The film earned a total of eight Academy Awards:
It was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture and the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay, losing both to The Godfather. Cabaret holds the record for most Academy Awards won by a film which did not win the Academy Award for Best Picture.
Shortly before the Academy Awards, Fosse won two Tonys for directing and choreographing Pippin, his biggest stage hit to date. When, months later, he won the Primetime Emmy Award for choreographing and directing Minnelli 's television special Liza with a Z, he became the first director to win all three awards in one year.
The film also won seven British Academy Film Awards, including Best Film, Best Direction and Best Actress, as well as the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy. It won the Grand Prix of the Belgian Film Critics Association.
In 1995, Cabaret was the ninth live - action musical film selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Cabaret is cited on TV Guide 's greatest films on TV and Video, and in Movieline magazine as one of the 100 Best Movies Ever. It was included in FilmFour 's 100 Greatest Films of All Time at number 78 and in San Francisco Chronicle 's film critics ' "Hot 100 Films of the Past '', being hailed as "The last great musical. Liza Minnelli plays Sally Bowles, an American adrift in pre-Nazi Berlin, in Bob Fosse 's stylish, near - perfect film. ''
David Benedict from The Observer has written about Cabaret 's influence in musical films: "Back then, musicals were already low on filmgoers ' lists, so how come it was such a success? Simple: Cabaret is the musical for people who hate them. Given the vibrancy of its now iconic numbers -- Liza Minnelli in bowler and black suspenders astride a bentwood chair belting out ' Mein Herr ' or shimmying and shivering with pleasure over ' Money ' with Joel Grey -- it sounds strange to say it but one of the chief reasons why Cabaret is so popular is that it 's not shot like a musical. ''
The film has been listed as one of the most important for queer cinema for its depictions of homosexuality, revolutionary at the time of its release. It turned Liza Minnelli into a gay icon. Film blogs have elected it as "the gayest winner in the history of the Academy ''.
The film was first released to DVD in 1998. There have been subsequent releases in 2003, 2008, and 2012. The film 's international ancillary distribution rights are owned by ABC (currently part of The Walt Disney Company), while Warner Bros. (which inherited the film from Lorimar, Allied Artists ' successor - in - interest) has domestic distribution rights. Today, Warner shares the film 's copyright with production partner ABC. Fremantle Media (owners of UK DVD rights under license from ABC / Disney) had planned a Blu - ray release of the film in 2008 or 2009, but later decided against it.
In April 2012, Warner unveiled a new restoration of the film at the TCM Classic Film Festival. A Blu - ray edition was released in February 2013. Before this, Cabaret had been sold on a standard - definition DVD from Warner Bros. but it was unavailable in high - definition or for digital presentation. The original camera negative is lost, and a surviving interpositive had a vertical scratch that ran through 1,000 feet, or 10 minutes, of one of its reels, as confirmed by Ned Price, vice president of mastering and restoration for Warner Bros. The damage apparently was caused by a piece of dirt that had rolled through the length of the reel, starting with a scene in which York 's character has a confrontation with a pro-Nazi boarding house resident, and cut into the emulsion. The damaged images were digitally "painted out '' using bits from surrounding areas but "the difficult part was matching the grain structure so the fix was invisible ''. After automated digital repair attempts failed, the 1,000 feet of damaged film was hand painted using a computer stylus.
Francesco Mismirigo, Cabaret, un film allemand, Université de Genève, 1984
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why does water boil below 100 c at high elevations | High - altitude cooking - wikipedia
High - altitude cooking is the opposite of pressure cooking in that the boiling point of water is lower at higher altitudes due to the decreased atmospheric pressure. This may require an increase in cooking times or temperature and alterations of recipe ingredients. For home cooking, this effect becomes relevant at altitudes above approximately 2,000 feet (610 m). At that altitude, water boils at approximately 208 ° F (98 ° C) and adjustments sometimes need to be made to compensate for the reduced air pressure / water boiling point.
At sea level water boils at 100 ° C. For each 500 ft (~ 150 m) increase in elevation, the boiling point is lowered by 0.5 ° C. For 8,000 ft (~ 2500 m) elevation, water boils at 92 ° C. Boiling as a cooking method must be adjusted or alternatives applied. Vegetables and some starches will simply take longer to cook while rice and legumes (beans) need a pressure cooker. Pasta will need a pressure cooker.
From pressure cooking: A pressure cooker is often used to compensate for the low atmospheric pressure at a very high elevation. Under these circumstances water boils at temperatures significantly below 100 ° C (212 ° F) and, without the use of a pressure cooker, may leave boiled foods undercooked, as described in Charles Darwin 's The Voyage of the Beagle (chapter XV, March 21, 1835):
Having crossed the Peuquenes (Piuquenes), we descended into a mountainous country, intermediate between the two main ranges, and then took up our quarters for the night. We were now in the republic of Mendoza. The elevation was probably not under 11,000 feet (...). At the place where we slept water necessarily boiled, from the diminished pressure of the atmosphere, at a lower temperature than it does in a less lofty country; the case being the converse of that of a Papin 's digester. Hence the potatoes, after remaining for some hours in the boiling water, were nearly as hard as ever. The pot was left on the fire all night, and next morning it was boiled again, but yet the potatoes were not cooked.
Lightweight pressure cookers as small as 1.5 liters weighing 1.28 kg are available for mountain climbers. Sherpas often use pressure cookers in base camp.
Based on standard sea - level atmospheric pressure (courtesy, NOAA):
Source: NASA
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when do new episodes of impractical jokers start | List of Impractical Jokers episodes - wikipedia
Impractical Jokers is an American hidden camera - practical joke reality television series that premiered on TruTV on December 15, 2011. It follows the 4 members including: Joe Gatto, James Murray, Brian Quinn, and Sal Vulcano of the comedy troupe The Tenderloins as they coerce one another into doing public pranks while being filmed by hidden cameras. The pranks vary in different levels of easy situations to uncomfortable situations with strangers. After the challenges, the losing Joker (s) will get punished. On May 12, 2017, TruTV renewed Impractical Jokers for a seventh season, expected to air in 2018.
The Jokers pretend to be eccentric White Castle cashiers, gather signatures in Union Square for causes the other Jokers have written for them, answer tourist questions in Times Square, and act as Costco store employees.
The group is challenged to apply the most lotion to beach - goers, survey amusement park guests at Six Flags Great Adventure, grab as many groceries from other customers at a grocery store as they can, and pay the least at a frozen yogurt shop.
The guys try off - color techniques of impressing women while speed - dating and act as fortune tellers at a boardwalk. Later, they talk to patrons through a bullhorn they ca n't control and ask surprising questions of people in a pharmacy.
The guys play a game of "Do n't I Know You? '', invades beach - goers ' towels, plays a humorous word game with customers at a grocery store, and acts as salesmen at a car dealership.
The Jokers act as reporters preparing an interview, caricature artists in a mall, and oddball apartment dwellers looking for roommates, and cut in line for Broadway show tickets.
The guys team up to teach karate classes, give interviews from Times Square, persuade shoppers at the pharmacy to not buy products, and give uncomfortable massages on the boardwalk.
The guys analyze handwriting at the mall, steal food from customers ' plates at a buffet, teach foreign languages that they do not speak to prospective students, and dance with strangers at the park.
The guys pose as bakery salesmen, focus group analysts, and shoe salesmen, and teach classes at a local gym.
The guys return to White Castle, where Q 's dad makes a cameo. Then they pose as bouncers at a nightclub, read horoscopes at a mall, and give interviews at a train station.
The Jokers pretend to be very unwelcoming members of a boardwalk welcoming committee, pose as furniture salesmen, sell jewelry to couples, and pitch some wacky memoirs to potential readers.
The lads play another round of "Do n't I Know You? '' with complete strangers, pose as driving school instructors and later shampoo boys at a women 's hair salon, and share embarrassing text messages in a waiting room.
The pranksters take jobs at a garden center, pose as deli employees, ask patrons questions about a drink and try their luck as CPR instructors.
The guys pose as puppy dog salesmen, try to start a new baseball chant that has nothing to do with baseball, get donations for a Broadway play that does n't exist, hold the remote to a toy car they can not control, and teach golf.
The guys raise donations for bizarre charities, eat food off other people 's plates at a Chinese restaurant, provide unsolicited advice to shoppers at the Jersey Gardens Mall and play another round of "Do n't I Know You? ''.
The Jokers try to kiss strangers, eat food out of other people 's shopping carts, play word games with people in a bookstore, pose as professional photographers and invade people 's conversations for 30 seconds.
The guys utilize a variety of strange objects to mess with customers at a party supply store, try to get signatures for college clubs that do n't exist, nose strangers at a restaurant and behave rudely at elevator etiquette.
The Jokers work in a dentist 's office, annoy patrons at a movie theater, participate in a crazy photography shoot at a public park for their blogs, and do a Joker vs. Joker challenge telling strangers their humiliating thoughts.
The guys try get strangers to hold their hands in a park, annoy the patrons at a comic book store, participate in a competitive race down an aisle at a grocery store, and try to get strangers to volunteer their time for an odd event.
The guys offer inaccurate sensitivity training to strangers, observe surprise celebrities while on the street, and work as rude receptionists in an office.
The Jokers reveal confidential information in a park, work in a fast food drive - through, and attempt to persuade innocent bystanders to participate in a dance with them.
The guys reveal strange devices to focus groups, attempt to use people as pillows in a park, and try to persuade grocery shoppers not to purchase their wanted items.
The Jokers utilize mall shoppers to mediate their mindless conflicts, complete specialized tasks at an ice cream joint, and start protests for ridiculous causes at a park.
The guys shake hands with department store shoppers, spin "The Wheel of Doom '' at the park, and work at a hibachi restaurant.
The Jokers attempt to successfully find a house - sitter despite the other guys ' interventions, convince strangers of the existence of obscure places, get food shoppers to agree about a strange weird word, and play "Pick Your Poison '' in the park.
The guys try to work as optometrists, provide incorrect financial advice, and attempt to secure numerous votes by campaigning on ridiculous political platforms.
The guys have debates at the mall, try to teach a dance class, attempt to sell fake tickets to Broadway shows, and get their fitness on at a local gym as personal trainers.
The guys host a taste test with uncomfortable survey questions afterward, negotiate for worthless items at a flea market, have conversations with strangers at the park for at least 30 seconds, and work as attendants at a gas station.
The jokers test themselves with the terrifying "Wheel of Doom '', advertise terrible ideas to a bunch of agency professionals, work as custodians at the mall food court, and work at the dentist 's office again.
The guys engage in a round of Joker vs. Joker challenges which include giving palm readings, free medical checkups, manicures and pedicures, act as receptionists, pose as pizza restaurant employees, and patrol the beach.
The guys race to see who can slip the most pencils into the pockets of unsuspecting grocery shoppers, guide each other through the park wearing darkened sunglasses, and pose as vacation planners with unusual presentations.
The Jokers compete to enhance inventions made by the other guys, try to get hugs as apologies for things they have "done '', and ask strangers for help finding their missing wives at the mall.
The guys teach art classes and test fate with the Dartboard of Destiny at a bar.
The pranksters have a race down the aisles while making eye contact with customers at the grocery store, pretend to be podiatrists, and ask for help burying mystery items in the park.
The guys perform embarrassing tasks to the word "Now! '' in the park, team up for fire safety presentations, and have cafe patrons review and rate their dating profiles.
The guys go head - to - head trying to avoid laughing during slide show presentations, search for celebrity look - alikes again in the park, and vote for each other to do horrible challenges using paddles with their names on them.
The Jokers hit the fast lanes as humiliating bowlers, dump scoops of mashed potatoes onto the plates of restaurant patrons, and go cloud watching with strangers in the park.
The Jokers complete embarrassing tasks on the mall escalators, whisper "sweet nothings '' to strangers at the supermarket, and ask offbeat survey questions at the zoo.
The Jokers take turns dipping fries into other peoples food at the food court, work at a beachside burger joint, and search for "Beth '' in the park.
The guys attach balloons to unsuspecting grocery store shoppers, work at the music store, and go head - to - head fishing for compliments about their unique outfit choices.
The guys blindly follow each other 's humiliating directions at a water park, compete head - to - head to sell their ridiculous book ideas, and try to convince unknowing strangers to save their seats in Times Square.
The Jokers work as grocery store cashiers and go head - to - head settling debates in the mall.
The jokers do and say what they are told at a department store, team up to lead a business luncheon, and try to sell running shoes.
The Jokers work as bellhops, serve up trouble as hot dog vendors, and go head - to - head presenting odd inventions to a focus group.
The guys teach music classes and participate in a focus group. Murr and Q ask the questions, while Joe and Sal go undercover as group members and provide them with embarrassing answers that Murr and Q wrote, to see if they can get through the whole survey without refusing to say an answer.
The guys must do dares in the park while attempting to guess the other Jokers ' voices on a voice changer, try to get applause while quitting their jobs, and team up for dinosaur presentations.
The Jokers cause mischief at the grocery store, try to give away items from the "mystery bag '', and search for "The Chosen One '' at a food court.
The guys work at the Carnegie Deli, and Joey Fatone makes a guest appearance, standing in for Q. Then, the guys settle ridiculous debates at another deli.
The Jokers attend a singles ' gathering and ask strangers in the park if they can borrow their phones.
While visiting the Lone Star State, the Jokers team up to teach classes at a dude ranch, sell cowboy boots, and wear blacked - out sunglasses.
The guys work at a liquor store, obey commands written for them on deli tickets, and try to get signatures for a made - up holiday.
The guys do what they are told at a ski lodge, and play the uninvited dinner guest at an Italian restaurant.
The guys conduct interviews while the others try to make them laugh from behind a window, and strike up a conversation with people using only a single word.
The guys team up to work at a sandwich shop, team up to have each other guess their specific secret tasks at a food court, and repeat a cycle of tasks at the park in a Joker vs. Joker challenge.
The guys must obey three specialized commands at a video game store, coax rock climbers into repeating a specific word, and do a Joker vs. Joker challenge, selling fake tickets.
The guys team up for presentations that have nothing to do with the topic, try to touch people at a mall with different body parts, and quit their jobs again.
The guys share secrets with grocery store shoppers, team up to help customers at an art store, and try to get pictures for a fake blog.
The Jokers team up to work at a beauty store, coerce strangers into translating text messages written in Spanish, and do another round of "Do n't I Know You? '' at the mall.
In the second episode shown to a live audience, the Jokers review clips of four Joker vs. Joker challenges. The challenges include participating in a focus group, competing to have their baseball team mascots approved, settling a dancing debate in the mall, and presenting their ridiculous book ideas.
The guys work as attendants in a bridal dress shop and present fragrance campaigns to focus groups.
The guys must do what they are told while getting massages, reveal some uncomfortable thoughts to strangers in the park, and obey tasks given to them on a slot machine.
The guys talk business with strangers at a networking event, team up to teach a photography class, and complete tasks in a certain amount of time.
The guys team up to present lousy telemarketing presentations, make odd wishes at a mall fountain, and try to analyze people 's dreams on the boardwalk.
The Jokers serve up some tips teaching indoor tennis and return to the park for another game of "Now! ''
The Jokers act as security guards at a drug store, and go head - to - head in a rematch clipping balloons onto grocery store shoppers.
The Jokers must do what they are told at a public pool, and try to convince strangers to give the thumbs - up to their absurd emails.
The guys work stadium security, team up to conduct a crime investigation class, and return to the park to test their memories again.
The guys work at the famous Katz 's Deli and take turns running a popsicle cart in Union Square.
The guys pose as blackjack dealers at a Connecticut casino, team up to play another hint and guess game at the park, and go head - to - head acting as shoe shiners.
The guys must explain their off - color resumes while applying for a job at a mobile phone shop, and complete a series of bizarre gestures at the ferry.
The guys head to Miami for the season 4 premiere. They ride around in scooters that are controlled by the other Jokers, complete embarrassing tasks on the beach, and team up posing as nightclub bouncers.
The guys try to teach fencing, but Q unknowingly encounters an Olympic athlete at his own defense. Then, they do and say what they are told as hairstylists at a barber shop.
The guys team up to host a team building seminar, and head down to the shore to act as horrible caricature artists.
The guys team up to play hide - and - sneak at the grocery store, and draw straws at a BBQ joint causing trouble.
The guys serve up awkwardness at a burger joint, have no one to blame but themselves at a department store, and make up bizarre words with odd definitions at the park.
The jokers try to get convenience store shoppers to side with them after being soaked by an angry customer, and team up to showcase their event planning business at a wedding expo.
The guys act not so silent at a library, and hunt for their imaginary wives again at the mall.
The guys hit the ice rink to play a slippery balloon game and try to get support for ridiculous causes at the park.
The guys pucker up at the food court trying to find a selected stranger to kiss, and show focus group attendees their latest life stories, published as movies.
The jokers annoy art - loving patrons at a gallery opening, and pass bizarre judgement on shoppers at the grocery store.
The guys team up to work at a rink rental counter, tell strangers to mind their manners at the mall, and convince strangers to leave a cafe.
The guys ask and answer questions in a focus group again and have a toilet paper basketball shootout at the grocery store.
The guys set sail for a special cruise ship mid-season finale episode. They make the pool deck their own playground, and team up to give out misinformation as entertainment directors.
The guys work to do what they 're told while selling auto parts, and team up to try to reel in unsuspecting shoppers ' luggage using a fish hook at the mall.
The guys use their bad service skills as sporting goods salesmen, and compete head - to - head in a game called "Do It Better '' on the streets.
The guys lend an unhelpful hand as high - tech store employees, and search for bizarre perps on the loose in the mall.
The guys compete in another game of "Put - Pocket '' at the grocery store, and at the park the guys take over each other 's cell phones.
The guys get punchy while giving boxing lessons, and head to the mall where they share the gift of music with strangers.
The guys teach a crash course in sorry behavior, settle bizarre debates at a discount store, and spread good news at the mall.
The guys team up to make security presentations, hold hands with others at the park, and stump each other with ridiculous facts at a florist.
This live one - hour special is hosted by Howie Mandel in New York City to commemorate the show 's 100th episode. The pre-taped challenges shown: The guys conduct interviews while the others try to make them laugh from behind a window, fake injuries at a grocery store, and cross off their "bucket list '' items.
The guys visit New Orleans and team up to steal sips from people 's drinks at a bar, work with the wheel of voo - doom, and crash a horse and buggy ride.
The guys ask people at the park if they agree or disagree with their bizarre points of view, team up to give lessons on real estate, and complete three assigned tasks at a greeting card store.
The guys do some babysitting and ask strangers to watch their kid while running an errand. They also conduct taste tests with shoppers while asking unrelated survey questions written by the other Jokers.
The guys work at a pizza parlor, and then ask strangers to translate text messages written in Spanish.
The jokers act as tailors, and ask strangers if they can borrow their phones on the streets.
The guys work as receptionists in a waiting room, and try to mingle with the stiff crowd at the world famous Madame Tussauds wax museum in New York.
The guys team up to work at Unique Copy Center, do bizarre interviews with moviegoers, and stand up for ridiculous protests on the streets.
The guys showcase their inventions to a focus group, and get off on the wrong foot at a shoe store.
The guys play copycat in the park while babysitting kids who are being told what to say and do, then head to the supermarket to play an epic game of catch and release.
The guys ask strangers to help them bury bizarre items in the park, go head - to - head to see who can cling to a car the longest, and play another game of "repeat after me ''.
The guys act as NYC cab drivers and try to solicit undeserved congratulations from park goers.
The guys team up acting as crummy cashiers at a grocery store, head to the mall to play a touching game with laser pointers, and confess to strangers at the park.
The guys act as inhospitable restaurant hosts and beg strangers to babysit their grandfathers.
The guys encourage strangers to fill out their questionnaires with a broken hand in a waiting room, and then head to the market where they solicit strangers for money they do n't deserve.
The guys make bizarre passes at supermarket shoppers and act as reporters asking ridiculous questions written by the other guys.
The guys go face to face hitting the bulls - eye at a clothing store, and go head to head in a focus group sabotaging each other with strange inventions.
The guys go head to head undermining each other in a focus group, spread much confusion while teaming up at a bagel shop, and pass ridiculous notes to strangers at the park.
The guys take name calling to new heights as receptionists and try to get donations for bogus charities at a pizza shop.
The guys show who 's boss while working the counter at a fast - food restaurant, and then whisper sweet nothings to strangers.
The guys team up to bark up the wrong tree at a pet store, team up to play a game of catch with groceries in the supermarket, and try to get strangers ' signatures for ridiculous causes.
The guys are on the prowl for partners in crime at a supermarket, and then throw caution to the wind as helpless romantics in the park.
The guys head to the mall completing challenges while spinning the "Wheel of Faces '', play another round of "Did I Deserve That? '', and save strangers from being shot with a water gun while saying something very awful to the stranger.
The guys share sad stories in the park, hoping to get some sympathy back, then share new video game ideas in a focus group, then head to the floral shop to stump each other.
The guys ask strangers to hold a random object for them chosen by the other guys in a supermarket, then team - up and teach business seminars, controlled by the others.
The guys do and say whatever they are told, while barefoot at a department store, and start conversations with strangers using a single word.
The guys pose as waiters in a Hooters restaurant, try to get people in a mall to remember lyrics to a song, and must invade people 's personal space in the park.
The guys are at a sunglasses store doing and saying whatever the guys tell them to do. Then they go to the store, posing as workers trying to get messages across through shoppers, and then get people on their side in a ridiculous protest.
The guys do and say whatever they are told while at a buffet restaurant, team - up for construction presentations, and play another game of "repeat after me ''.
The jokers team up to work at a pawn shop, try to give free hugs after incredibly bizarre apologies, and then complete designated tasks while riding the Roosevelt Island Tramway.
The guys interact with shoppers while wearing jingle vests, play another game of "Do n't I Know You? '', and pass notes to strangers.
In this supersized 2 - hour episode, a Nitro Circus / X-Games inspired obstacle course was presented and aside from clips of regular challenges filmed prior to this live special, viewers were shown clips of the Jokers preparing to run the course; the Joker who then ran the course the fastest won $100,000 for a charity of their choice. As Q was injured during the guys ' training sessions with Travis Pastrana, he was not cleared by doctors to compete in the actual obstacle course and chose Joey Fatone to perform in his place again. Challenges included getting strangers to watch their apartment, a trip back to the Castle of White, and a spin on the Wheel of "Now! ''.
The guys act as receptionists in a waiting room and ask strangers for advice about their personal dilemmas.
The guys play a game of "try not to laugh '' using the infamous two - way mirror and compete with each other in a supermarket to see who can get a customer to try more samples.
The guys get stuck in a grocery post-it showdown, ask strangers for questionable quotes at the park, and give "sound '' financial tips to hopefuls as advisors.
The guys pose as trainees at an organic food shop and compete at a mall to untangle their phone cords before having their pants pulled down by a special actor.
The jokers work at an ice cream parlor, and get strangers to help them watch Joe 's dogs at the park.
The guys compete in a "try not to laugh '' challenge while calling out ridiculous names the other guys have written for them, and then compete to see whose online dating profile is better.
The guys compete in a waiting room trying to not to laugh in the first ever four - way challenge, ask park - goers if they agree or disagree on an odd topic, and try to lead a kid 's art class as the teachers.
The guys pose odd TV shows as execs to the public and work the counter at a BBQ joint.
The guys try to get shoppers to repeat an odd catchphrase given by the other guys and do what they are told as psychoanalysts.
The guys work in pairs giving presentations about living life to its fullest while one of them hypes the other up as a member of the audience and pose as janitors giving responses to questions and statements over walkie - talkies.
The guys act as not - so - handy - men assembling furniture, drop underwear into shopper 's bags at the mall, and mistake strangers for someone they know at the supermarket.
The guys work as salesmen for Lids and serve some confused customers at Joey Fatone 's hot dog joint.
In an hour - long special episode sponsored by Universal Orlando Resort, the guys are line employees for Transformers: The Ride, they awkwardly ride Jurassic Park: The Ride, misguide park goers around the park, and try to find their missing relatives.
The guys attempt to get tips as fortune tellers, get strangers to pass along messages, ask strangers if their "proposal '' is ready, written by the other guys, give presentations on Hawaiian culture, and invade stranger 's towel space at the beach.
The guys do and say what they are told while posing as meditation instructors, and attempt to get secrets from strangers.
The guys pose as photographers, and get strangers to fill out questionnaires with messed up hands.
The guys get strangers ' help to reply to messages, play each other 's "wingman '' at a mingling event, and attempt to get strangers ' encouragement in odd dilemmas.
The guys "encourage '' strangers to reply to their texts at the food court, and play catch with other people 's groceries at the supermarket.
The guys try to justify a humiliating soaking at a mall retailer, play the "Laugh Man Standing '' game, and record stranger 's conversations at the park.
Murr, Sal, Joe and Q beg supermarket shoppers to hold on to a weird item for them, then make conversation in the park utilizing some outrageous words. Later, the guys volunteer to help teach tech to senior citizens.
The guys pose as toy inventors and must get strangers to approve emails written by the other guys.
The guys pose as employees at a botanical garden and take turns dipping fries into other people 's food at the food court.
The Jokers and their fathers show some classic scenes in a Father 's Day episode.
The Jokers count down the most memorable moments of the show, according to their fans.
Going head - to - head, the Jokers compete for the championship title in a Sweet Sixteen bracket from four divisions: Grocery Store, Mall, Park and Posing as Employees.
In this 1 - hour episode, the Jokers wreak havoc across the city of London. The guys serve up pints of awkwardness at a pub, try to sell ridiculous theatre tickets in the West End, team up to work at a fish and chips shop, and use their infamous bullhorns that are controlled by the other guys.
Loser (s): Joe and Murr
Going head - to - head, the Jokers compete for the championship title in a Sweet 16 bracket, this time using punishments.
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what is the song beauty and the beast about | Beauty and the Beast (Disney song) - wikipedia
"Beauty and the Beast '' is a song written by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken for the Disney animated feature film Beauty and the Beast (1991). The film 's theme song, the Broadway - inspired ballad was first recorded by British - American actress Angela Lansbury in her role as the voice of the character Mrs. Potts, and essentially describes the relationship between its two main characters Belle and the Beast, specifically how the couple has learned to accept their differences and in turn change each other for the better. Additionally, the song 's lyrics imply that the feeling of love is as timeless and ageless as a "tale as old as time ''. Lansbury 's rendition is heard during the famous ballroom sequence between Belle and the Beast, while a shorted chorale version plays in the closing scenes of the film, and the song 's motif features frequently in other pieces of Menken 's film score. "Beauty and the Beast '' was subsequently recorded as a pop duet by Canadian singer Celine Dion and American singer Peabo Bryson, and released as the only single from the film 's soundtrack on November 25, 1991.
Lansbury was initially hesitant to record "Beauty and the Beast '' because she felt that it was not suitable for her aging singing voice, but ultimately completed the song in one take. In order to promote the film, Disney decided to release "Beauty and the Beast '' as a single, and first recruited solely Dion to record a radio - friendly version of it. However, the studio was concerned that the then - relatively obscure singer would not attract a large enough audience in the United States on her own, so they hired the more prominent Bryson to be her duet partner. At first Dion was also hesitant to record "Beauty and the Beast '' because she had just recently been fired from recording the theme song of the animated film An American Tail: Fievel Goes West (1991). First heard during the film 's end credits, the single was produced by Walter Afanasieff who also arranged it with Robbie Buchanan, and included on Dion 's self - titled album. The single was accompanied by a music video. Directed by Dominic Orlando, it combined footage of the singers recording the song at The Power Station with excerpts from the film.
Both versions of "Beauty and the Beast '' were very successful, garnering both a Golden Globe and Academy Award for Best Original Song, as well as Grammy Awards for Best Song Written for Visual Media and Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals. The single was also nominated for the Grammy Award for Record of the Year and the Grammy Award for Song of the Year. Lansbury 's performance has been universally lauded by both film and music critics. While the Dion - Bryson version received mixed reviews from critics who felt that it was inferior to Lansbury 's original, the single became a commercial success, peaking at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 and becoming the better - known of the two renditions. In addition to returning Disney songs to the pop charts after a thirty - year absence, the success of "Beauty and the Beast '' also launched Dion 's career and established her as a bankable recording artist. After "Beauty and the Beast '' became the first Disney song to undergo a complete pop transformation, several contemporary artists were inspired to release their own radio - friendly renditions of Disney songs throughout the decade. Considered to be among Disney 's best and most popular songs, "Beauty and the Beast '' has since been covered by numerous artists. In 2004, the American Film Institute officially recognized "Beauty and the Beast '' as one of the greatest songs in film history, ranking it 62nd.
The song is also featured in the 2017 live - action adaptation; sung by Emma Thompson as Mrs. Potts during the film and also as a duet cover version by Ariana Grande and John Legend during the end credits. Grande and Legend 's version of the song is an homage to the cover performed by Dion and Bryson for the 1991 film.
"Beauty and the Beast '' was written by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken in 1990. Intending for the song to be "the height of simplicity '', the songwriters drew much of its influence from Broadway music. Due to Ashman 's failing health, some of Beauty and the Beast 's pre-production was relocated to a hotel in Fishkill, New York near Ashman 's residence to accommodate the ailing lyricist. Out of all the songs he has written for Beauty and the Beast, Menken devoted the most time to the title song. The track was first recorded by British - American actress Angela Lansbury, who voices the character Mrs. Potts, an enchanted teapot. The songwriters first introduced "Beauty and the Beast '' to Lansbury as a demo recording, which was accompanied by a note asking her if she might possibly be interested in singing it. Although a seasoned film and stage performer who had previously done her own singing for Disney in the musical film Bedknobs and Broomsticks (1971), Lansbury, who was more accustomed to performing uptempo songs, was hesitant to record the ballad because of its unfamiliar rock style. Although she liked the song, Lansbury also worried that her aging singing voice was no longer strong enough to record "Beauty and the Beast '', and was especially concerned about having to sustain its longer notes. Lansbury suggested that the songwriters ask someone else to sing "Beauty and the Beast '', but they insisted that she simply "sing the song the way (she) envisioned it. ''
On October 6, 1990, "Beauty and the Beast '' was recorded in a studio in New York accompanied by a live orchestra because the songwriters preferred to have all performers and musicians record together opposed to separating the singers from the instrumentalists. On the day of her scheduled recording session, Lansbury 's flight was delayed due to a bomb threat, which prompted an emergency landing in Las Vegas. Unaware of her whereabouts for several hours, the filmmakers had begun making plans to reschedule the session until Lansbury finally telephoned the studio once she arrived safely in New York. At the behest of one of the directors, Lansbury recorded a demo of the song for them to use in the event that no other actress was available to sing it on her behalf, or no character other than Mrs. Potts was deemed suitable. Ultimately, Lansbury recorded her version in one take, which wound up being used in the final film. Producer Don Hahn recalled that the actress simply "sang ' Beauty and the Beast ' from beginning to end and just nailed it. We picked up a couple of lines here and there, but essentially that one take is what we used for the movie. '' Lansbury 's performance moved everyone who was present in the recording studio at the time to tears. Meanwhile, the actress credits recording the song with ultimately helping her gain further perspective on Mrs. Potts ' role in the film.
Some of Ashman 's cut lyrics from the 1991 film were reinstated for the version in the 2017 film.
The scene in Beauty and the Beast during which the song is heard is the moment when Belle and the Beast 's true feelings for each other are finally established. Set in the ballroom of the Beast 's castle, "Beauty and the Beast '' is performed by the character Mrs. Potts, an enchanted teapot, midway through the film as she explains the feeling of love to her young teacup son Chip, referring to the emotion as "a tale as old as time ''. According to Armen Karaoghlanian of Interiors, "Belle familiarizes the Beast with the waltz and as soon he feels comfortable, he gracefully moves her across the floor ''. Afterwards, the song continues to play instrumentally as Belle and the Beast retire to the balcony for a romantic candlelit dinner. Believed to be the "centerpiece that brings Beauty and her Beast together, '' the sequence offers an insight into both characters ' psyches. From the Beast 's perspective, it is the moment he realizes that he wants to confess his true feelings for Belle to her and "decides he wants to tell Belle he is in love with her. '' Meanwhile, Belle begins to fall in love with her captor. Writing for The Globe and Mail, Jennie Punter reviewed it as the scene in which "romance finally blossoms. '' Film critic Ellison Estefan, writing for Estefan Films, believes that the sequence is responsible for "add (ing) another dimension to the characters as they continue to fall deeply in love with each other. '' Explaining the song 's role in the film, director Kirk Wise described the scene as "the culmination of their relationship, '' while producer Don Hahn pegged it as "the bonding moment of the film when the two main characters finally get together. ''
The scene had long been envisioned as having a more live - action feel to it than the rest of the film, an idea that originated from story artists Brenda Chapman and Roger Allers, who were the first to suggest that the ballroom be built using computers. As the film 's executive producer, former Head of Disney 's film division Jeffrey Katzenberg recalled that he began working on Beauty and the Beast deciding what its "wowie '' moment would be, defining this as "the moment in the movie where you see what 's on the screen and go, ' Wow - IEE ' ''; this ultimately became the film 's ballroom sequence. According to Hahn, the scene was conceived out of the filmmakers ' desire to manipulate the camera in order to "sweep '' the audience away. Allers and Chapman conceived the ballroom in order to provide the characters with an area in which they could linger, and were surprised by the amount of artistic freedom with which they were provided by the animators, who agreed to adjust to the changes in perspective that would result from the moving camera. While Allers decided to raise the camera in order to view the dancing couple from the overhead chandelier, Chapman decided to rotate the camera around Belle 's skirt as the couple danced past it.
In their dance together, Belle and the Beast move toward the camera, as we pan up and into the 3D chandelier. In the next shot, the camera slowly drops from the ceiling as we once again move alongside the 3D chandelier. This adds depth to the scene, as the chandelier is placed at the forefront of the image and Belle and the Beast are in the distance. This shot continues as we move down below and gracefully move around them. The Beast then sways Belle around and near the camera, once again providing us with an illusion that a camera is following these characters around in an actual ballroom. In a wide shot of Belle and the Beast dancing, the camera begins dollying back as Mrs. Potts and Chip appear in the frame. These beautiful compositions and camera movements show us how space functions within an animated feature film.
Regarded as an example of "a pronounced use of height and of vertical movement in sets and settings, in virtual camera movement... and in the actions of characters '' by Epics, Spectacles and Blockbusters: A Hollywood History author Sheldon Hall, Beauty and the Beast was one of the first feature - length animated films to use computer - generated imagery, which is prominently exhibited throughout the film 's "elaborate '' ballroom sequence. Light Science: Physics and the Visual Arts author Thomas D. Rossing believes that the filmmakers aimed to achieve "a moving perspective that would follow the dancers around the room, giving visual expression to the soaring emotions of the scene. '' CGI supervisor Jim Hillin was hired by Hahn to oversee the design of the scene 's graphics. However, because the computer - animation medium was so unfamiliar to the filmmakers at the time, at one point they had considered having Belle and the Beast simply dance in complete darkness -- save for a single spotlight -- should the project be unsuccessful; they jokingly referred to this idea as the "Ice Capades '' version.
First rendered as a simple cube, the filmmakers used computers to design the ballroom as a production set, making it the first full - dimensional computer - generated colored background in history. Unlike Disney 's previous CGI ventures, Beauty and the Beast 's ballroom was a much more detailed task that required animators to work exclusively with computers to compose, animate and color the scene. According to Hillin, the revolutionary use of computers allowed for a combination of theatrical lighting and "sweeping '' perspectives, which ultimately introduced live - action techniques to animation. To make the scene a "special moment '' for the characters, a "virtual camera '' was used to allow the animators to create the illusion of tracking, panning and zooming that "establish (es) the mood '' while helping audiences experience what the characters themselves are experiencing. Imitating tracking shot s, the camera frequently soars and zooms around the couple. The camera first follows Belle and the Beast as they enter the ballroom before panning until it finally returns to focus on the two characters. In his book Basics Animation 02: Digital Animation, author Andrew Chong wrote that "The sweeping camera move with a constantly shifting perspective during the ballroom sequence was a composition of traditionally drawn elements for the characters with digitally animated scenery. '' Several computer animators, layout artists, art directors and background artists used their combined efforts to achieve the scene 's end results; the ballroom 's official dimensions read 72 feet high, 184 feet long and 126 feet wide. The space also houses 28 windows and a dome that measures 86 by 61 feet; the dome 's mural was first hand - painted before it was texture - mapped onto it using a computer. Each element was carefully constructed individually. Timothy Wegner described the finished product in his book Image Lab as a "huge and elegant '' ballroom in which "the walls are decorated with elaborate moldings, Corinthian columns, and hundreds of candles. ''
Writing for Combustible Celluloid, Jeffrey M. Anderson believes that "The animators understood that the new technology could n't be used to represent organic beings, so they simply used it for backgrounds; i.e. the swirling, spinning ballroom during the ' Beauty and the Beast ' dance number. '' At first, Belle and the Beast were vaguely represented by computer - animated box and egg - shaped "stand - ins '' in order to choreograph their dance while the ballroom was still little more than a "chicken wire '' frame. Andrew Osmond, author of 100 Animated Feature Films, described this crude depiction of the characters as "wire frames moving in staccato. '' The characters were eventually updated to "stiff, line - drawn '' versions of themselves. Because Belle and the Beast are so "interconnected '' during this scene, both characters were animated solely by Belle 's supervising animator James Baxter; the Beast 's supervising animator Glen Keane eventually traced over Baxter 's work. Baxter prepared himself for animating the scene by studying ballet dancers in addition to taking dance lessons himself. Throughout the entire film, Belle moves with a ballerina 's turnout; the Los Angeles Times film critic Charles Solomon observed that Belle looks "liveliest and prettiest '' during this scene. At one point, both Baxter and Keane plotted out their characters ' routine themselves under the guidance of a professional dance coach. A software created by Pixar named CAPS (Computer Animation Production System) allowed the animators to paint Belle and the Beast using computers as opposed to the more conventional and time - consuming method of painting animated characters by hand. Art director Brian McEntee suggested a blue and gold colour scheme for the characters ' costumes at a late - night meeting because he felt that the colors were "compelling '' and "regal ''. Adhering to the ballroom 's blue and gold color scheme, Belle 's gold ballgown complements the trim on the Beast 's tuxedo, as well as the color of the ballroom itself, while the Beast 's royal blue attire complements his eyes, the night sky, the curtains and the floor tiles. Meanwhile, Julia Alexander of Movie Mezzanine wrote that "The elegance of their costumes against the background of a golden hall and a star filled sky adds to the whimsical romanticism of the movie. '' The entire sequence took several months to complete, much of which was spent syncing the traditionally animated couple with their computer - animated environment, which otherwise would have been virtually impossible had the filmmakers decided to use a more traditional method.
When Beauty and the Beast was released, many animators were impressed with the studio for "pushing the envelope '', while some considered the scene to be "a miserable failure '', accusing its new technology of distracting from "the moment ''. Describing the scene as "an early experiment in computer animation, '' Josh Larsen of Larsen on Film observed that the ballroom sequence features "the camera swooping in and around to provide an expansive sense of space that 3 - D still is n't able to capture. '' In her book The Beautiful Ache, author Leigh McLeroy wrote that the scene represents "one of those strange moments where love creeps in against all odds and insists on staying put. '' Audiences tend to remember the ballroom sequence as "the one in which Belle and the Beast share a romantic dance as the camera files and spins around them. '' Angela Lansbury recalled being "astonished '' when she first saw the "huge '' and "unique '' scene. In Moviepilot 's Chris Lucas ' opinion, "The ballroom scene remains the one that truly symbolizes their adoration for each other. '' IGN believes that the scene "signals the completion of (the Beast 's) inner change - from irascible recluse into (Belle 's) true love. ''
The original film version of "Beauty and the Beast '' performed by Lansbury was written in the key of G - flat major at a "moderately slow '' tempo of 84 beats per minute (Andante), at a duration of two minutes and forty - six seconds. An "eloquent '' rock - influenced pop song with a "calm '' and "lilting '' melody, Stephen Whitty of NJ.com described "Beauty and the Beast '' as a "Broadway ballad. '' Film critic Roger Ebert described the song 's melody as "haunting '', while Entertainment Weekly 's Lisa Schwarzbaum dubbed the song as a "lullaby ''. The Disney Song Encyclopedia author Thomas S. Hischak described Menken 's melody as "flowing '', while BuzzFeed 's Aylin Zafar wrote that the song is "Tender and warm. '' Writing for the Chicago Tribune, Gene Siskel described Lansbury 's voice, which spans two octaves from B ♭ to E ♭, as "richly textured ''. Meanwhile, Michael Cheang of The Star and Bill Gibron of PopMatters wrote that Lansbury performed using a "fragile '' "calm, motherly '' tone. Instrumentally, "Beauty and the Beast '' features several chord changes, woodwinds, and violins. GamesRadar observed that "Beauty and the Beast '' includes a key change during which "the music swells, and then the orchestra subsides to leave just trembling violins. '' Describing the ballad as "soaring '', TV Guide compared "Beauty and the Beast '' to "Shall We Dance? '' from the musical The King and I.
R.L. Shaffer of IGN identified "Beauty and the Beast '' as a "tear - jerking poetic ballad. '' Film Genre 2000: New Critical Essays author Wheeler W. Dixon believes that the song 's lyrics are about the couple 's "implicit promise of regeneration through love. '' 29 lines in length, all of which are exactly five syllables, "Beauty and the Beast '' is a love song about a couple 's transformation from friends into "something more ''. The film 's theme song, its lyrics "capture the essence of the film '' by describing the relationship between Beauty and the Beast 's two main characters, specifically citing ways in which the two have changed each other for the better and finally learned to accept their differences and mistakes. According to Jake Cole of Not Just Movies, the first stanza begins "in earnest, and the subtlety of it has the ironic effect of being overpowering. '' Beginning with Lansbury singing the lyrics "Tale as old as time, true as it can be, '' JoBlo.com wrote that the song "offers a sure sign of romance between the Beauty and her Beast. '' Meanwhile, Songfacts believes that "The message of the song is that a couple can be ' as old as time ' no matter how different they are. '' According to Chris Lucas of Moviepilot, Ashman 's lyrics describe the couple 's "hesitation and surprise at falling in love unexpectedly, '' while author Thomas S. Hischak wrote in The Disney Song Encyclopedia that the song is "about how two tentative hearts are united in love. '' Featuring the line "Barely even friends, then somebody bends, unexpectedly, '' Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune believes that the ballad "makes the case for all lovers to look past their partners ' faults and into their hearts, '' while Cole wrote, "Ashman goes for the truth... we do n't know we 're in love until we spend time with someone and unforced adjustments make the pieces fall into place. '' The Emperor 's Old Groove: Decolonizing Disney 's Magic Kingdom author Brenda Ayres cited the song as an "(indicator) that a reciprocal power relationship has developed between Belle and the Beast... confirm (ing) ' his transformation, her legitimacy, and their powerful unity. '' According to the lyricist 's website, "Beauty and the Beast '' summarizes the way in which "Belle tames the beast and finds the happy ending she has dreamed about. '' The Meanings of "Beauty and the Beast '': A Handbook author Jerry Griswold believes that the song 's opening line "tale as old as time '' alludes to the fact that Belle 's story is an ancient, timeless one "deliberately situated within the context of other traditional tales; '' hers is simply "the newest incarnation '' of it. The Translation of the Songs in Disney 's "Beauty and the Beast '': an example of Manipulation author Lucía Loureiro Porto agrees that although the song "does not tell any story, it is made of phrases that imply that love is as old a feeling as mankind. '' According to Perry Seibert of AllMovie, "Beauty and the Beast '' is "as sappy as Ashman ever got as a lyricist. '' Seibert believes that the song "acknowledges its own banality... without minimizing or mocking its inherently sweet description of true love. '' Reflecting upon Ashman 's death, Roger Moore of the Chicago Tribune believes that the song "was (Ashman 's) farewell to love and life and imagination. ''
"Beauty and the Beast '' continues to be constantly lauded by both film and music critics alike. Film critic Janet Maslin of The New York Times praised "Beauty and the Beast '', describing it as "a glorious ballad '' while dubbing it Ashman and Menken 's "biggest triumph ''. Beliefnet called the song "stirring '', while Hal Hinson of The Washington Post considers it to be among the film 's best. Roger Moore of the Chicago Tribune referred to "Beauty and the Beast '' as a "brilliant '' song that "can move you to tears, '' while James Berardinelli of ReelViews cited it among the film 's most "memorable '' songs. Anthony Quinn of The Independent highlighted "Beauty and the Beast '' as the film 's best song, going on to praise Lansbury 's "magnificent '' performance, while the Deseret News ' Chris Hicks called it "beautiful. '' Simon Brew of Den of Geek specifically enjoyed the lyrics "bittersweet and strange, finding you can change, '' describing the song as "superb. '' Lansbury 's vocal performance has also been singled out for praise: Slant Magazine 's Jaime N. Christley wrote that Lansbury "delivers the film 's title tune, gooey treacle that it is, like nobody 's business. '' Describing the song as "beautiful '', the Chicago Tribune 's Gene Siskel wrote that "Beauty and the Beast '' is "performed poignantly by the richly textured voice of Angela Lansbury. '' Similarly, PopMatters ' Bill Gibron penned, "the moment Angela Lansbury 's trite teapot steps up to sing the title song, all dry eye bets are off. '' The New York Post 's Lou Lumenick wrote that "Beauty and the Beast '' was "unforgettably delivered by Angela Lansbury. '' Aylin Zara of BuzzFeed opined that Lansbury 's version is superior to the single, penning, "Though the commercial pop version of ' Beauty and the Beast, ' sung by Celine Dion and Peabo Bryson, is great, the film version -- performed by Angela Lansbury as Mrs. Potts -- is even better. Tender and warm... it tugs at all the right heartstrings to get your eyes a little misty. '' Rachael Monaco of AXS cited "Tale as old as time. Tune as old as song. Bittersweet and strange. Finding you can change. Learning you were wrong. Certain as the sun rising in the East. Tale as old as time, song as old as rhyme, Beauty and the Beast '' as the film 's best lyric. Entertainment Weekly 's Darren Franich, however, admitted to preferring "Be Our Guest '' and "Belle '' over "Beauty and the Beast ''.
The ballroom sequence during which Belle and the Beast dance to "Beauty and the Beast '' continues to be praised, especially for its use of computer animation. The first time the "Beauty and the Beast '' musical sequence was made available to the public, it was in the form of an unfinished scene at the New York Film Festival in September 1991, to which Disney had been invited to premiere an incomplete version of Beauty and the Beast that largely consisted of uncolored pencil tests and storyboards. The New York Times ' Janet Maslin appreciated being previewed to the unfinished ballroom scene, writing, "when the radiant sight of Beauty and the Beast waltzing together, to the sound of the lilting theme song by Alan Menken and Howard Ashman stirs emotion even in this sketchy form, then both the power and the artifice of animation make themselves felt. '' Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly crowned the sequence the film 's "centerpiece. '' Writing for The Seattle Times, Candice Russel described it as an "irresistible highlight '', while The Globe and Mail 's Jennie Punter called the scene "glorious. '' David Parkinson of Radio Times identified the ballroom sequence as the scene in which the film 's use of CGI is "seen to best advantage. '' The Chicago Tribune 's Dave Kehr praised both layout artist Lisa Keene and computer animator Jim Hillin 's combined efforts on the scene, identifying it as the film 's "most impressive setting. ''
When Beauty and the Beast was re-released in 3D in 2012, Annlee Ellingson of Paste appreciated the way in which the sequence was adapted, describing it as "positively vertiginous. '' Mike Scott of The Times - Picayune hailed it as a "gorgeous '' and "memorable '' scene that "still stands out as one of the film 's more dazzling '', while Joanna Berry of The National wrote that "the ballroom sequence now seems to sparkle even more. '' Although Boxoffice 's Todd Gilchrist 's response towards the film 's 3D conversion overall was mixed, the critic admitted that "the times when the animators use computer animation to render the backgrounds '', including during "the dance sequence between Belle and Beast... are effective, immersive and maybe even memorable. '' Contrastingly, Chris Hicks of the Deseret News felt that "Today, the ballroom sequence no longer feels fresh and new after so many recent computer - animated 3 - D efforts, but that does n't diminish the power of its gorgeous design. '' Although James Berardinelli of ReelViews had originally reviewed the sequence as "the best scene in the movie '', he felt that the 3D conversion "diminishes the romance and emotion of the ballroom dance. ''
To viewers at the time, the computer effects in this climactic sequence were astonishing. The Beauty and the Beast ballroom sequence "thematized marriage in the dance '' by illustrating a "nuptial rehearsal '' which contrasts the "now '' (3D animation) with "then '' (2D animation) in a "successful marriage of character and set ''. The Studios After the Studios explains: "This chronological fusion was itself classicised by Mrs Potts ' song: she turns a moment of industrial novelty into balance ''.
"Beauty and the Beast '' has won several awards. The song garnered the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song at the 49th Golden Globe Awards in January 1992. The following March, "Beauty and the Beast '' won the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 64th Academy Awards. The award was for Ashman, who had died of AIDS on March 14, 1991, eight months before the film 's release. Menken acknowledged Ashman in his acceptance speech, while thanking Lansbury, Dion, Bryson and Afanasieff for their contributions. Ashman 's domestic partner Bill Lauch accepted the award on his behalf. The following year, "Beauty and the Beast '' garnered two wins out of eight nominations at the 35th Grammy Awards, one for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television. An instrumental version arranged and conducted by Richard S. Kaufman won the 1993 Grammy for Best Pop Instrumental Performance. This rendition was performed by the Nurenberg Symphony Orchestra for the album Symphonic Hollywood, under the record company Varese Sarabande. The James Galway instrumental movie version performed by The Galway Pops Orchestra and featured on the album Galway at the Movies was nominated in 1994 for the Best Pop Instrumental Performance Grammy.
The American Film Institute ranked "Beauty and the Beast '' 62nd on the organization 's list of the 100 greatest songs in film history. "Beauty and the Beast '' is one of only four songs from Disney animated films to have appeared on the list. When BuzzFeed organized "The Definitive Ranking Of The 102 Best Animated Disney Songs '' list, "Beauty and the Beast '' was placed at number four, while the same website ranked the ballad Disney 's fifth greatest love song. Similarly, "Beauty and the Beast '' is the fourth greatest Disney song according to M. "Beauty and the Beast '' finished 14th on GamesRadar 's "30 best Disney songs in history '' ranking. On the website 's list of the "Top 25 Disney Songs '', IGN ranked "Beauty and the Beast '' 22nd. While Broadway.com ranked the song the second greatest Academy Award - winning Disney song, Spin placed "Beauty and the Beast '' at number 30 on the magazine 's ranking of "Every Oscar Winner for Best Original Song ''. On her list of the "11 Highest - Charting Songs From Disney Movies '', author Nicole James of Fuse wrote that the Dion - Bryson version "cracked the Top 10, going to No. 9 on the charts (but No. 1 in our hearts). '' The same website included the pop version on its "Top 20 Disney Songs by Pop Stars '' list.
IGN placed the scene at number 83 on its ranking of the 100 greatest moments in film history. Total Film ranked the scene ninth on its list of the "50 Greatest Disney Movie Moments ''. In Den of Geek 's article "Top 12 most memorable dance scenes in films '', the ballroom sequence was ranked fifth. GamesRadar also included the scene on the website 's "50 Greatest Movie Dance Sequences '', with author Kim Sheehan lauding it as "more moving and romantic than most live - action dances. '' Oh No They Did n't ranked the song 2nd in its The Top 25 Disney Songs of All Time article, writing of its "vintage feel... brimming with life and originality '', the "surprising effectiveness '' of Lansbury 's performance, and the "captivating on - screen animation ''. The song was listed 8th is Metro 's article Ranked -- the top 20 Disney songs ever, with writer Duncan Lindsay commenting "... this dance sequence with Angela Lansbury 's gorgeous tones was one of Disney 's most romantic. What a song. ''
Much to Disney 's surprise, Beauty and the Beast received three separate Academy Award nominations for Best Original Song. To avoid dividing Academy voters and prevent a draw, Disney decided to promote the film 's title song ahead of its fellow nominees "Belle '' and "Be Our Guest '' by releasing "Beauty and the Beast '' as a single, similar to the way in which Universal Pictures released "Somewhere Out There '' from the animated film An American Tail as a single in 1986. Coincidentally, Ashman and Menken had written the song so that it could potentially experience success outside of the Beauty and the Beast film itself. Although Lansbury 's rendition was very much appreciated, it was considered to be unsuitable for a commercial release or radio airplay. Thus, the studio decided to make "Beauty and the Beast '' the first Disney song to be arranged into a pop version of itself for the film 's end credits. Menken referred to this experience as a "turning point '' in his career because it was also the first time one of his own compositions had ever undergone such a transformation. Producer Walter Afanasieff was hired to produce the pop version of the song, which he arranged with musician Robbie Buchanan. Menken commended Afanasieff for successfully making the song his own.
Actress and singer Paige O'Hara, who voices Belle, was among the first artists to express interest in recording the pop version of "Beauty and the Beast '', but Disney dismissed her for being "too Broadway ''. Unable to afford to hire a "big singer '' at the time, Disney settled for rising Canadian recording artist Celine Dion. Because she was relatively unknown to American audiences at the time, the studio doubted that Dion would have much of an impact in the United States on her own and subsequently hired the more well - known American singer Peabo Bryson to record the song alongside her as a duet. Disney contacted Dion 's manager René Angélil about having his client record "Beauty and the Beast '' while the singer was on tour in England. A fan of Dion 's music, Menken personally wrote the singer a letter of approval.
Hailing from the French - Canadian province of Quebec, Dion had just begun to learn English. At first Dion was hesitant to commit to the project due to having just recently been fired from recording "Dreams to Dream '', the theme song of the animated film An American Tail: Fievel Goes West (1991), in favor of American singer Linda Ronstadt, who had previously experienced great success with her rendition of "Somewhere Out There ''. Ronstadt, who was producer Steven Spielberg 's first choice, only agreed to record "Dreams to Dream '' after hearing Dion 's demo. Devastated by her termination, Dion eventually agreed to record "Beauty and the Beast '' after listening to and being moved by Lansbury 's performance. Meanwhile, Bryson became involved with the project via Walt Disney Records Senior Vice President Jay Landers, who was friends with Walt Disney Pictures President of Music Chris Montan at the time. The song 's instruments were recorded first at The Plant Recording Studios in California. The singers later quickly recorded their vocals at The Power Station in New York over the Labor Day long weekend, while mixing was completed at The Record Plant in Los Angeles. The song was released as the only single from the film 's soundtrack, on which the song appears alongside Lansbury 's version, on November 25, 1991.
The single is a pop ballad that lasts a total of four minutes and three seconds. It begins in the key of F major at a moderately slow tempo of 72 beats per minute, before modulating to D major, then G major, and ending in E major. The orchestration of the "conservatively - rendered pop song '', as described by Filmtracks, includes an electric oboe, keyboard, synthesizer and acoustic guitar. Additionally, the song 's "jazzy '' instrumentation heavily relies on drums, an instrument that is noticeably absent from the remainder of the soundtrack. According to Molly Lambert of Grantland, the track is "a sweeping downtempo... ballad '' that evokes the "early ' 90s gossamer high - tech style '', while Molly Horan of Refinery29 described it as a slow jam. According to the Chicago Tribune 's Brad Webber, Dion and Bryson 's vocals are "resonant and multiflavored. '' The opening line "Tale as old as time '' is preceded by Dion ad - libbing "Ooh ''. Similarities have been drawn between the song and "Somewhere Out There '' from the animated film An American Tail.
Unlike Lansbury 's original, the Dion - Bryson single has earned generally mixed reviews; critics generally voice their preference for Lansbury 's version over Dion and Bryson 's. Filmtracks.com wrote that Dion 's performance "made many fans wish that she had been given it as a solo. '' Arion Berger of Entertainment Weekly praised Dion 's vocals, describing "Beauty and the Beast '' as "a perfect showcase for what she 's best at. '' Describing the duet as "extremely effective, '' Sputnikmusic 's Irving Tan lauded the single, writing, "As the entirety of the film 's poignancy is hinged on the chemistry between Bryson and Dion, having the pair pull their assignment off beautifully is ultimately a fantastic conclusion to events. '' Jeff Benjamin of Fuse described the song as "a fantastic duet. '' However, the Chicago Tribune 's Brad Webber panned the rendition as a "sickly sweet, by - the - book... standard '' that "belie (s) (Dion 's) talent '', while The Star 's Michael Cheang accused the single of being "over-wrought. '' Critics have been vocal in their preference for Lansbury 's rendition; while praising the film version, Spin 's Andrew Unterberger dismissed the single as "unbearably cloying. '' Similarly, Kristian Lin of Fort Worth Weekly panned the single while complimenting Lansbury 's version, advising audience members to "Clear out of the theater before Celine Dion and Peabo Bryson butcher the title song over the end credits, '' while Consequence of Sound 's Dan Caffrey felt that "It 's a shame that the most globally known version of ' Beauty and the Beast ' is the one sang by Celine Dion and Peabo Bryson as opposed to the one sung by '' Lansbury.
At the 35th Grammy Awards, "Beauty and the Beast '' won the award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals. Additionally, the song was nominated for Record of the Year and Song of the Year, but lost both to Eric Clapton 's "Tears in Heaven ''. In Canada, "Beauty and the Beast '' won a Juno Award for Single of the Year, beating Dion 's own "If You Asked Me To ''. In 1993, "Beauty and the Beast '' also won an ASCAP Film and Television Music Award and ASCAP Pop Award for most performed song in the United States. Awarding the Dion - Bryson version an ' A ' grade, Grantland ranked the song second in its article "Counting Down the Top 10 in... KIDS MUSIC! '', while Refinery29 ranked it the fifth greatest cover of a Disney song. AXS included "Beauty and the Beast '' among Dion 's "Top five song lyrics or verses ''.
"Beauty and the Beast '' performed considerably well on charts around the world. The song peaked at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Dion 's second top - ten hit on the chart after "Where Does My Heart Beat Now ''. The song peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary chart. In Canada, "Beauty and the Beast '' peaked at number two. Outside of North America, the song peaked within the top ten in New Zealand and the United Kingdom, while peaking within the top twenty in Australia, Netherlands and Ireland. The song sold over a million copies worldwide.
Dion and Bryson 's recording session at The Power Station was filmed and later interpolated with various scenes from the film in order to create a music video, was directed by Dominic Orlando. The video premiered on the music channel VH - 1, thus airing to an audience who was not accustomed to seeing animated characters appear in the midst of their regular programming.
At the 1992 Oscars, Angela Lansbury, Celine Dion, and Peabo Bryson sang a composite of both versions from the film, backed by dancers dressed as Belle and the Beast. Celine and Peabo also duetted at the Grammys, World Music Awards, AMA 's, Wogan, The Tonight Show, and Top of the Pops later that year. The duo reunited in 1996 to perform the song for the television special Oprah in Disneyland, while Lansbury provided an encore performance at the 25th Anniversary screening of the film. Each of the 3 respective artists have performed the song in concerts later in their careers, outside the context of Disney 's Beauty and the Beast. For example, Lansbury sang it at the 2002 Christmas concert with Mormon Tabernacle Choir. Similarly, Dion and Bryson duetted at the JT Super Producers 94 tribute concert to David Foster, and as part of Dion 's 1994 - 95 The Colour of My Love Tour, though they have also often sung with different duet partners. Dion has sung with Tommy Körberg, Brian McKnight, Terry Bradford, Maurice Davis, Barnev Valsaint, and René Froger among others; Peabo has sung with Coko and Regine Velasquez.
shipments figures based on certification alone
Ariana Grande and John Legend covered "Beauty and the Beast '' for the 2017 live - action adaption of the same name. The accompanying music video, directed by Dave Meyers premiered on Freeform on March 5, 2017. In March 2017, Jennifer Thomas arranged an orchestral cover of the song featuring cellist Armen Ksajikian to coincide with the release of the 2017 film.
In 1993, jazz singer Chris Connor covered "Beauty and the Beast '' for her album My Funny Valentine. In 1998, O'Hara recorded a version of "Beauty and the Beast '' for her album Dream with Me. This marked the first time O'Hara had ever recorded the song, although she has covered it live several times. Billboard reviewed O'Hara's performance positively, writing that the actress provides each song with "the right youthful and gentle touch. '' In 2000, singer Kenny Loggins covered the song on his children 's music album More Songs from Pooh Corner. In 2002, music group Jump5 covered "Beauty and the Beast '' for the Walt Disney Records compilation album Disneymania; a music video was released later that year and included as a bonus feature on the film 's Platinum Edition DVD re-release, Beauty and the Beast: Special Edition. Belonging to a segment known as "Chip 's Fun and Games - For the Young at Heart '', the music video features the group performing their "bouncy '' teen pop rendition of the song interpolated with scenes from the film. Lauren Duca of The Huffington Post described the group 's uptempo cover as "ridiculously ' 90s pop ''. Meanwhile, musical duo H & Claire covered the song for the film 's Platinum Edition re-release in the United Kingdom, which Betty Clarke of The Guardian dismissed as a "boring '' rendition.
On the country - themed compilation album The Best of Country Sing the Best of Disney (2006), "Beauty and the Beast '' was covered by country band Diamond Rio. To support the film 's Diamond Edition re-release in 2010, singer Jordin Sparks recorded an R&B version of "Beauty and the Beast '', which was released on iTunes in September. A music video directed by Philip Andelman was included on the re-release as a bonus feature, part of the disc 's "Music and More '' segment. The video depicts Sparks performing "Beauty and the Beast '' in a castle. In 2011, Sparks performed her rendition of the song live at the 30th anniversary of the televised Independence Day concert "A Capitol Fourth ''. The cover is believed to have initiated the singer 's gradual transition from music to film. The compilation album Eurobeat Disney (2010) features a Eurobeat cover by singer Domino. In 2014, actors Clare Bowen and Sam Palladio covered "Beauty and the Beast '' for the television special Backstage with Disney on Broadway: Celebrating 20 Years, which documents the development of eight of Disney 's Broadway musicals. Both known for their roles in the television musical drama Nashville, Bowen, a fan of the film, arranged the cover herself to satisfy the documentary producers ' vision, who "were looking for performers who could offer unexpected interpretations of the (musicals ') familiar tunes. '' Hilary Lewis of The Hollywood Reporter observed that Bowen and Palladio 's rendition "is more stripped down '' than the stage, Lansbury and Dion - Bryson versions. The song has been covered multiple times as part of the We Love Disney album series. We Love Disney France (2013) features a cover by singers Garou and Camille Lou while We Love Disney Australia (2014) features a cover by operatic pop vocal group Sole Mio (2014). We Love Disney Indonesia (2015) featured a cover by Chilla Kiana, while We Love Disney Latino (2016) featured a cover by Jencarlos and Paula Rojo.
The song appears in the Broadway musical adaptation of the film, which premiered in 1994. When the song first premiered on Broadway, there were few Broadway musicals at the time that featured ballads about love. Originally covered live by actress Beth Fowler as Mrs. Potts, "Beauty and the Beast '' was included on the Original Broadway Cast Recording of the musical, again performed by Fowler. While critical reception towards the musical ranged from negative to mixed, John Simon of New York commended Fowler for "manag (ing) to heat up and brighten (her) material ''. Within the realm of reality television talent competitions, "Beauty and the Beast '' was covered on The Voice Australia by contestants Lionel Cole and Sabrina Batshon in 2014. Candice Barnes of The Sydney Morning Herald reviewed that the "song suited Sabrina best '' while it was "too high '' for Cole, in the end accusing both contestants of "destroying one of the best loved Disney songs with their vocal gymnastics. ''
In 1998, a version of the song, called "Beauty and the Bees '', was made for the 3D movie It 's Tough to be a Bug! 's queue at Disney 's Animal Kingdom and Disney California Adventure Park. The song, written by Bruce Broughton and George Wilkins, was released on the album The Legacy Collection: Disneyland.
The overall success of Beauty and the Beast is partially attributed to the song 's popularity. Andrew Unterberger of Spin believes that the song "set the template for the quivering love theme in ' 90s Disney movies ''. "Beauty and the Beast '' was the first Disney song to undergo a complete pop rearrangement for commercial purposes. After the success of Disney 's The Little Mermaid revived the Disney musical in 1989, Gary Trust of Billboard determined that "Once Beauty and the Beast followed in 1991... Disney was dominating charts like never before ''. The single ended a thirty year - long absence of Disney - released chart hits between the 1960s and 1990s, and inspired several similar hits; popular recording artists such as Elton John, Vanessa Williams, Michael Bolton, Christina Aguilera, and Phil Collins each experienced varying degrees of success with their own pop renditions of Disney songs throughout the decade. When a then - unknown Aguilera was selected to record a pop version of "Reflection '' from Disney 's Mulan in 1998, she felt honored "to be in such wonderful company as '' Dion. Writing for Sputnikmusic, Irving Tan wrote that "Although the number 's 1992 Academy Award for Best Original Song is something of an old chestnut at this point, it still bears some worth repeating - mainly as it is very likely the most famous of all the feature theme songs ever commissioned by Walt Disney Studios. ''
Bill Gibron of PopMatters believes that the song "proved that the pen and ink designs that drove the company for nearly 80 years could transcend the genre and turn into something seminal... something special... something sensational. '' The ballroom sequence continues to be held in high regard as one of Disney 's crowning achievements. Famous for successfully combining volumetric depth with dancing animated characters, the scene is now revered by film critics as a classic, groundbreaking and iconic moment in animation history, responsible for "chang (ing) the game '' of contemporary animation. Gaye Birch of Den of Geek pegged the scene as a Disney landmark because its accomplishments were "visually impressive in a way we had n't experienced in a Disney movie before ''. Huw Evans of Bournemouth University hailed the scene as "quite possibly the best piece of animation done on any feature film. '' On the sequence 's pioneering use of computer - generated imagery, Annie Ellingson of Paste wrote that the ballroom was "innovative at the time for compositing hand - drawn characters on a computer - generated backdrop to enable dramatic sweeping camera moves. '' Similarly, Empire 's Helen O'Hara believes that the scene "paved the way for the new digital style of animation. '' Mike Scott of The Times - Picayune holds the scene responsible for the subsequent success of Pixar ' computer - animated films, concluding that "the warm reaction to that single scene would serve as a major springboard for the computer - animation industry -- and a major blow to hand - drawn animation. '' In his 1995 review of Toy Story, film critic Roger Ebert encouraged audiences to re-watch Beauty and the Beast 's ballroom sequence to better understand the newer computer - animated film 's technology. According to Moving Innovation: A History of Computer Animation author Tom Vito, the scene "made many skeptics in Hollywood begin to look at CG seriously, '' inspiring formerly "hostile '' studio executives to pursue the new art form. Additionally, the scene is also appreciated as a dance sequence. The Houston Press ' Adam Castaneda extolled it as "one of the finest dance sequences in the history of film. '' In 2012, architect Mehruss Jon Ahi and filmmaker Armen Karaoghlanian designed an accurate floorplan of the ballroom, which was published in the Daily Mail. The golden ballgown Belle wears in the scene is now revered as iconic, with Vogue ranking it among the most famous dresses in history.
Beauty and the Beast: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack continues to be best remembered for spawning the Dion - Bryson single, which established itself as an instant classic. The success of song is believed to have established Dion as a bankable recording artist. Before agreeing to record "Beauty and the Beast '', Dion had been fired from recording the theme song of An American Tail: Fievel Goes West in favor of the more well - known Linda Ronstadt. Although both singles were released around the same time, the success of Dion 's song ultimately eclipsed Ronstadt 's "Dreams to Dream ''. Biography.com referred to "Beauty and the Beast '' as Dion 's "real breakthrough into pop music stardom. '' According to Lifetime, the song "cemented her international success, '' while People wrote that the release of "Beauty and the Beast '' is when the singer truly went "global. '' In the wake of "Beauty and the Beast '' 's success, young fans who had not yet learned Dion 's name would simply refer to her as "Beauty and the Beast ''. The commercial success of "Beauty and the Beast '' ultimately earned Dion a $10 million recording contract with Sony Music International; the song was then included on Dion 's successful self - titled studio album, serving as the record 's "cornerstone ''. American musician Prince was so moved by Dion 's performance on "Beauty and the Beast '' after hearing it on the radio that he personally wrote a song for her to include on the album. According to Filmtracks.com, "Beauty and the Beast '' offered "a glimpse at a forthcoming mega-movie song presence for Celine Dion. '' Evidently, the singer has since recorded the theme songs of several blockbuster films, including "When I Fall in Love '' from Sleepless in Seattle (1993), "Because You Loved Me '' from Up Close & Personal (1996) and finally her signature song "My Heart Will Go On '' from Titanic (1997). "Beauty and the Beast '' has since appeared on several of Dion 's greatest hits albums, while the singer has returned to Disney as a special guest to host various segments for certain Beauty and the Beast re-releases.
In addition to establishing Bryson as a mainstream recording artist, the singer has since returned to Disney on two separate occasions to record pop versions of "A Whole New World '' and "As Long as There 's Christmas '', the theme songs of the animated films Aladdin (1992) and Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas (1997), respectively, both of which are duets. Although "A Whole New World '' was very successful, "Beauty and the Beast '' remains a larger hit for the singer. Bryson also included "Beauty and the Beast '' on some of his compilation albums, including Through the Fire (1994) and Super Hits (2000). Meanwhile, Afanasieff would go on to produce several Disney singles, including "A Whole New World '' from Aladdin, for which he reunited with Bryson, and "Go the Distance '' from Hercules (1997). In 2004, Bryson was forced by the International Revenue Service (IRS) to auction off several of his personal belongings in order to help repay the singer 's $1.2 million tax dept, among them his Grammy Awards for "Beauty and the Beast '' and "A Whole New World ''. While the latter song 's Grammy was purchased by a friend and gifted back to the singer, Bryson 's Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals trophy for "Beauty and the Beast '' was ultimately sold to a stranger for $15,500.
Both the song 's film and single versions have been included on several compilation albums released by Disney, including The Music of Disney: A Legacy in Song (1992), Classic Disney: 60 Years of Musical Magic (1995), Disney 's Superstar Hits (2004), Ultimate Disney Princess (2006), The Best Disney Album in the World... Ever! (2006), and Now That 's What I Call Disney (2011). In 2005, actress and singer Julie Andrews, a Disney Legend, included Lansbury 's rendition of "Beauty and the Beast '' on her album Julie Andrews Selects Her Favorite Disney Songs, although she does not cover the song herself; the album is a simply compilation of Andrews ' favourite Disney songs.
The pilot episode of the animated TV series The Critic featured a minute - long "musical lampoon '' of the Beauty and the Beast ballroom sequence and song entitled "Beauty and King Dork '', written and composed by The Simpsons writer Jeff Martin. In the context of the episode, the unappealing protagonist Jay Sherman falls in love with a beautiful actress named Valerie, and this song is performed as they dance in his apartment where they are serenaded by a sentient vacuum cleaner and toilet. AnimatedViews deemed it "a spot - on rendition '' due to its use of singing furniture and "lavish '' CGI - animated backgrounds. Hollywood.com listed it in its article The Best Parodies of Disney Songs from Cartoons, writing "It 's a quick one, but the inclusion of singing dust busters, a Mork and Mindy reference, and Jay Sherman 's attempts to cover up the embarrassing lyrics make for one of the best gags on the list. '' It was TelevisionWithoutPity 's "favorite musical number '' from the series. Slant Magazine saw it as a "gut - busting parody ''. CantStopTheMovies said the "nice scene '' was "a bit crass '' due to the singing toilet, yet had mostly "pretty great '' lyrics.
In Disney 's fantasy film Enchanted (2007), the Jon McLaughlin ballad "So Close '' serves as a "deliberate '' reference to both the song and scene. Because director Kevin Lima had always wanted to recreate the cinematography exhibited in Beauty and the Beast 's ballroom sequence in live - action, an entire dance sequence was filmed to accommodate his vision. In addition to being composed by Alan Menken, one - half of "Beauty and the Beast '' 's songwriters, "So Close '' was arranged by Robbie Buchanan, who arranged the Dion - Bryson single.
In a duet with Jimmy Fallon, American singer Ariana Grande impersonated Dion while performing "Beauty and the Beast '' live on the comedian 's late - night talk show in 2015. M Magazine deemed it "amazing '', while 2DayFM said "the singing is so good it gave me goosebumps ''. SugarScape deemed it "pretty hilarious and surprisingly pretty much spot on ''. Billboard said the duo "put their own spin '' on the song, and that she "nailed her Celine impression ''. NineMSN called it a "pitch - perfect rendition '', while Access Hollywood said she belted out the song like a diva.
The ballroom sequence was parodied in an episode of Family Guy.
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who sings the songs in the grinch who stole christmas | Thurl Ravenscroft - Wikipedia
Thurl Arthur Ravenscroft (/ ˈθɜːrl ˈreɪvənzkrɒft /; February 6, 1914 -- May 22, 2005) was an American voice actor and bass singer known as the booming voice behind Tony the Tiger 's "They 're grrreat! '' in Kellogg 's Frosted Flakes television commercials for more than five decades. He was also the uncredited vocalist for the song "You 're a Mean One, Mr. Grinch '' from the classic Christmas television special, Dr. Seuss ' How the Grinch Stole Christmas!
Ravenscroft did some voice - over work and singing for Disney in both the films and the attractions at Disneyland (which were later featured at Walt Disney World). The best known of these attractions are Haunted Mansion as a singing bust, Country Bear Jamboree, Mark Twain Riverboat, Pirates of the Caribbean, Disneyland Railroad, and Walt Disney 's Enchanted Tiki Room as "Fritz ''. His voice acting career began in 1940 and lasted until his death in 2005 at age 91.
Ravenscroft left his native Norfolk, Nebraska, in 1933 for California, where he studied at Otis Art Institute. He achieved early success as part of a singing group called The Mellomen. The Mellomen can be heard on many popular recordings of the Big Band Era, including backup for Bing Crosby, Frankie Laine, Spike Jones, Jo Stafford, and Rosemary Clooney. Their earliest contribution to a Disney film was for Pinocchio (1940), to which they contributed the song "Honest John. '' This was deleted from the film but can still be heard in the supplements on the 2009 DVD. Despite the song being cut off, Ravenscroft lent his voice to Monstro the whale in the film. They also contributed to other Disney films, such as Alice in Wonderland and Lady and the Tramp. The group appeared on camera in a few episodes of the Disney anthology television series; in one instance recording a canine chorus for Lady and the Tramp and in another as a barbershop quartet that reminds Walt Disney of the name of the young newspaper reporter Gallegher. Ravenscroft is also heard with the quartet on some of the Merrie Melodies and Looney Tunes with Mel Blanc at Warner Bros. as well as on radio "driving Jack Benny crazy '' on The Jack Benny Program. During World War II, Ravenscroft served as a civilian navigator contracted to the U.S. Air Transport Command, spending five years flying courier missions across the north and south Atlantic. Among the notables carried on board his flights were Winston Churchill and Bob Hope. As he told an interviewer: "I flew Winston Churchill to a conference in Algiers and flew Bob Hope to the troops a couple of times. So it was fun. ''
Ravenscroft sang bass on Rosemary Clooney 's "This Ole House '', which went to No. 1 in both the United States and Britain in 1954, as well as Stuart Hamblen 's original version of that same song. He sang on the soundtrack for Ken Clark as "Stewpot '' in South Pacific, one of the top - selling albums of the 1950s. Singing with the Johnny Mann Singers, his distinctive bass can also be heard as part of the chorus on 28 of their albums that were released during the 1960s and 1970s. He was also the bass singer on Bobby Vee 's 1960 Liberty hit record "Devil or Angel ''. Andy Williams ' recording of "The 12 Days of Christmas '' features him as well. In the 1980s and 1990s, Ravenscroft was narrator for the annual Pageant of the Masters art show at the Laguna Beach, California, Festival of the Arts.
He sang the opening songs for the two Disney serials used on The Mickey Mouse Club, Boys of the Western Sea and The Hardy Boys: Mystery of the Applegate Treasure.
He sang the "Twitterpatter Song '' and "Thumper 's Song '' on the Disneyland record Peter Cottontail and other Funny Bunnies.
On the Disneyland record All About Dragons, he both provided the narration and sang the songs "The Reluctant Dragon '' and "The Loch Ness Monster ''.
His voice was heard during the Pirates of the Caribbean ride as well as the Haunted Mansion at Disneyland as Uncle Theodore, the lead vocalist of the singing busts in the cemetery near the end of the ride. He also played the Narrator in The Story and Song From the Haunted Mansion. Ravenscroft is also heard in the Enchanted Tiki Room as the voice of Fritz the Animatronics parrot. He was also the voice of the Disneyland Railroad in the 1990s. Further roles include that of The First Mate on The Mark Twain Riverboat and of the American bison head named Buff at The Country Bear Jamboree.
One of Ravenscroft 's best - known uncredited works is as the vocalist for the song "You 're a Mean One, Mr. Grinch. '' His name was accidentally left out of the credits, leading many to believe (erroneously) that the cartoon 's narrator, Boris Karloff, sang the song, while others cited Tennessee Ernie Ford as the song 's signature voice.
Ravenscroft also sang "No Dogs Allowed '' in the Peanuts animated motion picture Snoopy, Come Home and I Was a Teenaged Brain Surgeon for Spike Jones.
For more than 50 years, he was the uncredited voice of Tony the Tiger for Kellogg 's Frosted Flakes. His booming bass gave the cereal 's tiger mascot a voice with the catchphrase "They 're g-r-r-r - eat!!!! ''.
Various record companies, such as Abbott, Coral, Brunswick, and "X '' (a division of RCA) also released singles by Ravenscroft, often in duets with little - known female vocalists, in an attempt to turn the bass - voiced veteran into a pop singer. These efforts were commercially unsuccessful, if often quite interesting. He was also teamed up with The Andrews Sisters (on the Dot Records album The Andrews Sisters Present) on the cover of Johnny Cymbal 's "Mr. Bass Man ''. The Mellomen released some doo - wop records under the name Big John & the Buzzards, a name apparently given to them by the rock - and - roll - hating Mitch Miller. His lifelong dream, which he shared in an interview in 1999 with Peter Anthony Holder, was to record the entire Bible on tape, but a big name actor "beat him out ''. However, being a devoted Christian, he appeared on many religious television shows such as The Hour of Power. In 1970, he recorded an album called "Great Hymns in Story and Song '', which featured him singing 10 hymns, each prefaced with the stories of how each hymn came to be, with the background vocals and instrumentals arranged and conducted by Ralph Carmichael.
Ravenscroft married June Seamans in 1946, and they had two children. June died in 1999 from unknown causes. Ravenscroft semi-retired and did not work at any other studio anymore, but he continued to voice Tony The Tiger through 2004 (with limo transportation by Kellogg 's) and also submitted to an interview that year by the Disney "Extinct Attractions Club '' website. He died in his home on May 22, 2005, from prostate cancer. He was buried at the Memorial Gardens at the Crystal Cathedral in Garden Grove, California.
In the June 6, 2005, issue of the advertising industry journal Advertising Age, Kellogg 's ran an ad commemorating Ravenscroft. The headline read: "Behind every great character is an even greater man. '' After his death, Lee Marshall replaced him as the voice of Tony the Tiger in the Kellogg 's commercials, but some commercials still recycle clips of Ravenscroft.
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who makes up the members of the academy awards | Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences - Wikipedia
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS, also known as simply the Academy) is a professional honorary organization with the stated goal of advancing the arts and sciences of motion pictures. The Academy 's corporate management and general policies are overseen by a Board of Governors, which includes representatives from each of the craft branches.
The roster of the Academy 's approximately 6,000 motion picture professionals is a "closely guarded secret ''. While the great majority of its members are based in the United States, membership is open to qualified filmmakers around the world.
The Academy is known around the world for its annual Academy Awards, now officially known as The "Oscars ''.
In addition, the Academy holds the Governors Awards annually for lifetime achievement in film; presents Scientific and Technical Awards annually; gives Student Academy Awards annually to filmmakers at the undergraduate and graduate level; awards up to five Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting annually; and operates the Margaret Herrick Library (at the Fairbanks Center for Motion Picture Study) in Beverly Hills, California, and the Pickford Center for Motion Picture Study in Hollywood, Los Angeles. The Academy plans to open the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures in Los Angeles in 2019.
The notion of the Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) began with Louis B. Mayer, head of Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer (MGM). He said he wanted to create an organization that would mediate labor disputes without unions and improve the industry 's image. He met with actor Conrad Nagel, director Fred Niblo, and the head of the Association of Motion Picture Producers, Fred Beetson to discuss these matters. The idea of this elite club having an annual banquet was discussed, but no mention of awards at that time. They also established that membership into the organization would only be open to people involved in one of the five branches of the industry: actors, directors, writers, technicians, and producers.
After their brief meeting, Mayer gathered up a group of thirty - six people involved in the film industry and invited them to a formal banquet at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles on January 11, 1927. That evening Mayer presented to those guests what he called the International Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Everyone in the room that evening became a founder of the Academy. Between that evening and when the official Articles of Incorporation for the organization were filed on May 4, 1927, the "International '' was dropped from the name, becoming the "Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ''.
Several organizational meetings were held prior to the first official meeting held on May 6, 1927. Their first organizational meeting was held on May 11. At that meeting Douglas Fairbanks, Sr. was elected as the first president of the Academy, while Fred Niblo was the first vice-president, and their first roster, composed of 230 members, was printed. That night, the Academy also bestowed its first honorary membership, to Thomas Edison. Initially, the Academy was broken down into five main groups, or branches, although this number of branches has grown over the years. The original five were: Producers, Actors, Directors, Writers and Technicians.
The initial concerns of the group had to do with labor. '' However, as time went on, the organization moved "further away from involvement in labor - management arbitrations and negotiations. '' One of several committees formed in those initial days was for "Awards of Merit, '' but it was not until May 1928 that the committee began to have serious discussions about the structure of the awards and the presentation ceremony. By July 1928 the board of directors had approved a list of 12 awards to be presented. During July the voting system for the Awards was established, and the nomination and selection process began. This "award of merit for distinctive achievement '' is what we know now as the Academy Award.
The initial location of the organization was 6912 Hollywood Boulevard. In November 1927, the Academy moved to the Roosevelt Hotel at 7010 Hollywood Boulevard, which was also the month the Academy 's library began compiling a complete collection of books and periodicals dealing with the industry from around the world. In May 1928, the Academy authorized the construction of a state of the art screening room, to be located in the Club lounge of the hotel. The screening room was not completed until April 1929.
With the publication of Report on Incandescent Illumination in 1928, the Academy began a long history of publishing books to assist its members. Another early initiative concerned training Army Signal Corps officers.
In 1929, Academy members in a joint venture with the University of Southern California created America 's first film school to further the art and science of moving pictures. The school 's founding faculty included Fairbanks (President of the Academy), D.W. Griffith, William C. deMille, Ernst Lubitsch, Irving Thalberg, and Darryl F. Zanuck.
1930 saw another move, to 7046 Hollywood Boulevard, in order to accommodate the enlarging staff, and by December of that year the library was acknowledged as "having one of the most complete collections of information on the motion picture industry anywhere in existence. '' They would remain at that location until 1935, when further growth would cause them to move once again. This time, the administrative offices would move to one location, to the Taft Building at the corner of Hollywood and Vine, while the library would move to 1455 North Gordon Street.
In 1934, the Academy began publication of the Screen Achievement Records Bulletin, which today is known as the Motion Picture Credits Database. This is a list of film credits up for an Academy Award, as well as other films released in Los Angeles County, using research materials from the Academy 's Margaret Herrick Library. Another publication of the 1930s was the first annual Academy Players Directory in 1937. The Directory was published by the Academy until 2006, when it was sold to a private concern. The Academy had been involved in the technical aspects of film making since its founding in 1927, and by 1938, the Science and Technology Council consisted of 36 technical committees addressing technical issues related to sound recording and reproduction, projection, lighting, film preservation and cinematography.
In 2009, the inaugural Governors Awards were held, at which the Academy awards the Academy Honorary Award and the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award.
In 2016, the Academy became the target of criticism for its failure to recognize the achievements of minority professionals. For the second year in a row all 20 nominees in the major acting categories were white. The president of the Academy Cheryl Boone Isaacs, the first African American and third woman to lead the Academy, denied in 2015 that there was a problem. When asked if the Academy had difficulty with recognizing diversity, she replied "Not at all. Not at all. '' When the nominations for acting were all white for a second year in a row Gil Robertson IV, president of the African American Film Critics Association called it "offensive. '' The actors ' branch is "overwhelmingly white '' and the question is raised whether conscious or unconscious racial biases played a role.
Spike Lee, interviewed shortly after the all - white nominee list was published, pointed to Hollywood leadership as the root problem, "We may win an Oscar now and then, but an Oscar is not going to fundamentally change how Hollywood does business. I 'm not talking about Hollywood stars. I 'm talking about executives. We 're not in the room. '' Boone Isaacs also released a statement, in which she said "I am both heartbroken and frustrated about the lack of inclusion. This is a difficult but important conversation, and it 's time for big changes. '' After Boone Isaac 's statement, prominent African - Americans such as director Spike Lee, actors Will Smith and Jada Pinkett Smith, and activist Rev. Al Sharpton called for a boycott of the 2016 Oscars for failing to recognize minority achievements, the board voted to make "historic '' changes to its membership. The Academy stated that by 2020 it would double its number of women and minority members.
In August 2017, John Bailey was elected President of the Academy to a four - year term.
The Academy 's numerous and diverse operations are housed in three facilities in the Los Angeles area: the headquarters building in Beverly Hills, which was constructed specifically for the Academy, and two Centers for Motion Picture Study -- one in Beverly Hills, the other in Hollywood -- which were existing structures restored and transformed to contain the Academy 's Library, Film Archive and other departments and programs.
The Academy Headquarters Building in Beverly Hills once housed two galleries that were open free to the public. The Grand Lobby Gallery and the Fourth Floor Gallery offered changing exhibits related to films, film - making and film personalities. These galleries have since been closed in preparation for the opening of the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures in 2019.
The building includes the Samuel Goldwyn Theater, which seats 1,012, and was designed to present films at maximum technical accuracy, with state - of - the - art projection equipment and sound system. The theater is busy year - round with the Academy 's public programming, members - only screenings, movie premieres and other special activities (including the live television broadcast of the Academy Awards nominations announcement every January). The building once housed the Academy Little Theater, is a 67 - seat screening facility, but this was converted to additional office space in a building remodel.
The Pickford Center for Motion Picture Study, located in central Hollywood and named for legendary actress and Academy founder Mary Pickford, houses several Academy departments, including the Academy Film Archive, the Science and Technology Council, Student Academy Awards and Grants, and the Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting. The building, originally dedicated on August 18, 1948, is the oldest surviving structure in Hollywood that was designed specifically with television in mind. Additionally, it is the location of the Linwood Dunn Theater, which seats 286 people.
The Fairbanks Center for Motion Picture Study is located at 333 S. La Cienega Boulevard in Beverly Hills. It is home to the Academy 's Margaret Herrick Library, a world - renowned, non-circulating reference and research collection devoted to the history and development of the motion picture as an art form and an industry. Established in 1928, the library is open to the public and used year - round by students, scholars, historians and industry professionals. The library is named for Margaret Herrick, the Academy 's first librarian who also played a major role in the Academy 's first televised broadcast, helping to turn the Oscar ceremony into a major annual televised event.
The building itself was built in 1928, where it was originally built to be a water treatment plant for Beverly Hills. Its "bell tower '' held water - purifying hardware.
The Academy also has a New York City - based East Coast showcase theater, the Academy Theater at Lighthouse International. The 220 - seat venue was redesigned in 2011 by renowned theater designer Theo Kalomirakis, including an extensive installation of new audio and visual equipment. The theater is in the East 59th Street headquarters of the non-profit vision loss organization, Lighthouse International. In July 2015, it was announced that the Academy was forced to move out, due to Lighthouse International selling the property the theater was in.
The Academy Museum of Motion Pictures, a Los Angeles museum currently under construction, will be the newest facility associated with the Academy. It is scheduled to open in 2018 and will contain over 290,000 square feet of state - of - the - art galleries, exhibition spaces, movie theaters, educational areas, and special event spaces. The Academy Museum of Motion Pictures will be the world 's premier museum devoted to exploring and curating the history and future of the moving image.
Membership in the Academy is by invitation only. Invitation comes from the Board of Governors. Membership eligibility may be achieved by earning a competitive Oscar nomination, or by the sponsorship of two current Academy members from the same branch to which the candidate seeks admission.
New membership proposals are considered annually in the spring. Press releases announce the names of those who have recently been invited to join. Membership in the Academy does not expire, even if a member struggles later in his or her career.
Academy membership is divided into 17 branches, representing different disciplines in motion pictures. Members may not belong to more than one branch. Members whose work does not fall within one of the branches may belong to a group known as "Members at Large ''. Members at Large have all the privileges of branch membership except for representation on the Board. Associate members are those closely allied to the industry but not actively engaged in motion picture production. They are not represented on the Board and do not vote on Academy Awards.
According to a February 2012 study conducted by the Los Angeles Times (sampling over 5,000 of its 5,765 members), the Academy at that time was 94 % white, 77 % male, 86 % age 50 or older, and had a median age of 62. A third of members were previous winners or nominees of Academy Awards themselves. Of the academy 's 43 - member board of governors, only six were female; Cheryl Boone Isaacs was the sole person of color on the board.
June 29, 2016 saw a paradigm shift in the Academy 's selection process, resulting in a new class comprising 46 % women, and 41 % people of color. The effort to diversify the Academy was led by social activist, and Broadway Black managing - editor, April Reign. Reign created the Twitter hashtag # OscarsSoWhite as a means of criticizing the dearth of non-white nominees for the 2015 Academy Awards. Though the hashtag drew widespread media attention, the Academy remained obstinate on the matter of adopting a resolution that would make demonstrable its efforts to increase diversity. With the 2016 Academy Awards, many, including April Reign, were dismayed by the Academy 's insouciance about representation and inclusion, as the 2016 nominees were once again entirely white. April Reign revived # OscarsSoWhite, and renewed her campaign efforts, including multiple media appearances and interviews with reputable news outlets. As a result of Reign 's campaign, the discourse surrounding representation and recognition in film spread beyond the United States of America and became a global discussion. Faced with mounting pressure to modernize the Academy membership, the Academy capitulated and instituted all new policies to ensure that future Academy membership invitations would better represent the demographics of modern film - going audiences. In 2016, the Academy invited 683 new members that were made up of nearly half women and people of color, but it was still disproportionately white and male (89 % and 73 %, respectively); it is committed to doubling the number of women and minorities in its group by 2020.
Members are able to see many new films for free at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater and other facilities within two weeks of their debut, and sometimes before release; in addition, some of the screeners are available through iTunes to its members.
Two people are known to have been expelled from the Academy. Academy officials acknowledge that other members have been expelled in the past, most for selling their Oscar tickets, but no numbers are available.
The 17 branches of the Academy are:
As of April 2014, the Board of Governors consists of 51 members (governors), consisting of three governors from each of the 17 Academy branches. The Makeup Artists and Hairstylists Branch, created in 2006, had only one governor until July 2013. The Casting Directors Branch, created in 2013, elected its first three governors in Fall 2013. The Board of Governors is responsible for corporate management, control and general policies. The Board of Governors also appoints a CEO and a COO to supervise the administrative activities of the Academy.
From the original formal banquet which was hosted by Louis B. Mayer in 1927, everyone invited became a founder of the Academy:
Presidents are elected for one - year terms and may not be elected for more than four consecutive terms.
Source: "Academy Story ''. Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
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who sang tell laura i love her song | Tell Laura I Love Her - wikipedia
"Tell Laura I Love Her '', a teenage tragedy song written by Jeff Barry and Ben Raleigh, was an American Top Ten popular music hit for singer Ray Peterson in 1960 on RCA Victor Records, reaching # 7 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart. Later that same year, the song was recorded and released by Ricky Valance in the United Kingdom, where it went all the way to the # 1 spot in the UK Singles Chart. "Tell Laura I Love Her '' has been a hit in 14 countries, and has sold over seven million copies.
"Tell Laura I Love Her '' is the tragic story of a teenage boy named Tommy who is desperately in love with a girl named Laura. Although they are only teenagers, he wants to marry her, so he enters a stock car race, hoping to win, and use the prize money to buy Laura a wedding ring. The second verse tells how the boy 's car overturned and burst into flames -- though no - one knows how it happened. Tommy is fatally injured and his last words are "Tell Laura I love her... My love for her will never die. '' In the final verse, Laura prays inside the chapel, where she can still hear Tommy 's voice intoning the title one more time, before it fades out.
The lyrics of "Tell Laura I Love Her '' originally concerned a rodeo, not an automobile race, as composer Jeff Barry was an aficionado of cowboy culture. However, at RCA 's instigation Barry rewrote the song, in order to more closely resemble the # 1 hit "Teen Angel ''. The personnel on the original recording included Al Chernet, Charles Macy and Sebastian Mure on guitar, Lloyd Trotman on bass, Andrew Ackers on organ, Bob Burns on sax and Bunny Shawker on drums.
Decca Records in England decided not to release Ray Peterson 's 1960 recording on the grounds that it was "too tasteless and vulgar '' and destroyed about twenty thousand copies that had already been pressed. A cover version by Ricky Valance, released by EMI on the Columbia label, was No. 1 on the UK Singles Chart for three weeks.
In 1962, Smash Records released an album, The Tale of Patches by Dickey Lee, that included Lee 's version of "Tell Laura I Love Her ''. Another version of the song was recorded by J. Frank Wilson & the Cavaliers for their album, Last Kiss, which was released on the Josie Records label in 1964. The song was also recorded by singer Ricky Nelson.
John Leyton attended a singing audition with producer Joe Meek and subsequently recorded the song, which was released on the Top Rank label. At that time, however, Top Rank was undergoing a takeover by EMI, which had already released Ricky Valance 's version of the same song. The John Leyton recording was withdrawn from sale.
During the very early 1960s, Broadway Record Label released a version of this song, titled, "Tell Laura That I Love Her, '' on an EP - 45 rpm that featured "Vocals and Orchestra by Popular Artists, '' none of which are listed anywhere on the record label.
Over a decade later, it became one of 50s revival group Sha Na Na 's most popular and beloved numbers, both in concert and on record, with lead vocals by group tenor Johnny Contardo. It appears on their 1971 self - titled album. New Zealand group Creation had a major hit with a version of the song in New Zealand and Australia in 1973. In the USA the following year, Johnny T. Angel 's recording on Bell Records peaked at No. 94 on June 8, 1974.
The Swedish band the Boppers also released a version on their album Number 1 (1978).
German rock band Rudolf Rock & die Schocker sang their version "Sag ' Laura, ich liebe sie ''.
Mexican artist César Costa recorded a version in Spanish titled "La historia de Tommy ''. Also there is a version of Chilean singer Ray Palaviccino titled "Dile a Laura que la quiero ''.
Italian artist Michele recorded a version in italian titled "Dite a Laura che l'amo '' (1966)
The story of the song was adapted for stage and turned into Tell Laura I Love Her (The Musical) in 2007 by Richard C Hague.
An answer song, "Tell Tommy I Miss Him, '' was released by Marilyn Michaels in 1960. It was originally released by RCA Victor Records on a single as catalog number 47 - 7771 and is included on the 2007 compilation album The Answer To Everything - Girl Answer Songs Of The ' 60 'S. In 1961, country singer Skeeter Davis released the same song on her album Here 's The Answer. The British singer, Laura Lee with Orchestra directed by Johnny Keating, also recorded a version. It was released by Triumph Records on a single in the UK as catalog number RGM 1030 in August 1960.
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meaning of idiom make a mountain out of a molehill | Make a mountain out of a molehill - wikipedia
Making a mountain out of a molehill is an idiom referring to over-reactive, histrionic behaviour where a person makes too much of a minor issue. It seems to have come into existence in the 16th century.
The idiom is a metaphor for the common behaviour of responding disproportionately to something - usually an adverse circumstance. One who "makes a mountain out of a molehill '' is said to be greatly exaggerating the severity of the situation. In cognitive psychology, this form of distortion is called magnification or overreacting. The phrase itself is so common that a study by psychologists found that with respect to familiarity and image value, it ranks high among the 203 common sayings they tested.
Similar idioms include ' Much ado about nothing ' and ' Making a song and dance about nothing '. The meaning finds its opposite in the fable about the mountain in labour that gives birth to a mouse. In the former too much is made of little; in the latter one is led to expect much, but with too little result. The two appear to converge in William Caxton 's translation of the fable (1484), where he makes of the mountain a hylle whiche beganne to tremble and shake by cause of the molle whiche delved it. In other words, he mimics the meaning of the fable by turning a mountain into a molehill. It was in the context of this bringing together of the two ideas that the English idiom grew.
The earliest recorded use of the alliterative phrase making a mountain out of a molehill dates from 1548. The word for the animal involved was less than two hundred years old by then. Previous to that the mole had been known by its Old English name wand, which had slowly changed to ' want '. A molehill was known as a ' wantitump ', a word that continued in dialect use for centuries more. The former name of want was then replaced by mold (e) warp (meaning earth - thrower), a shortened version of which (molle) began to appear in the later 14th century and the word molehill in the first half of the 15th century.
The idiom is found in Nicholas Udall 's translation of The first tome or volume of the Paraphrase of Erasmus vpon the newe testamente (1548) in the statement that "The Sophistes of Grece coulde through their copiousness make an Elephant of a flye, and a mountaine of a mollehill. '' The comparison of the elephant with a fly (elephantem ex musca facere) is an old Latin proverb that Erasmus recorded in his collection of such phrases, the Adagia, European variations on which persist. The mountain and molehill seem to have been added by Udall and the phrase has continued in popular use ever since. If the idiom was not coined by Udall himself, the linguistic evidence above suggests that it can not have been in existence long.
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