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set control for the heart of the sun | Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun - wikipedia
"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun '' is a song by the English rock band Pink Floyd. It appeared on their second album, A Saucerful of Secrets (1968). It was written by Roger Waters and features a drum part by Nick Mason played with timpani mallets. The track was planned for release as a single, with "Scream Thy Last Scream '', on 8 September, before it was vetoed by the band 's record company, EMI. The song was regularly performed between 1967 and 1973 and can be heard on the live disc of the 1969 album Ummagumma and seen in the 1972 movie Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii. It also appears on the 2001 compilation album Echoes: The Best of Pink Floyd. It is the only song recorded by Pink Floyd to feature material from all five band members, as there are several different guitar parts recorded by both David Gilmour and Syd Barrett.
According to an interview with Gilmour in the 2006 documentary Which One 's Pink?, the studio version of the song contained minor guitar work both from Gilmour and Barrett, making "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun '' the only Pink Floyd song that features all five band members, though some listeners may not fully discern the guitar tracks as they largely blend in with Richard Wright 's keyboards and organs.
The song 's recording commenced in August 1967, with overdubs recorded in October of that year and in January 1968. In an article reprinted in the Bruno McDonald book Pink Floyd -- Through the Eyes of..., Waters borrowed the lyrics from a book of Chinese poetry from the Tang Dynasty (which was later identified as the book Poems of the late T'ang, translated by A.C. Graham).
Among the borrowed lines from Chinese poetry (as translated by Graham) were those written by Li He, whose poem "Do n't Go Out of the Door '' contains the line "Witness the man who raved at the wall as he wrote his questions to Heaven '', and Li Shangyin, whose poetry contained the lines "watch little by little the night turns around '', "countless the twigs which tremble in dawn '' and "one inch of love is one inch of ashes. ''
In a negative review for A Saucerful of Secrets, Jim Miller of Rolling Stone described "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun '', along with "Let There Be More Light '', as "boring melodically, harmonically, and lyrically. '' Miller further described the production work as "not as glittery as the first album 's, and the instrumental work is shoddy and routine. Miller also described the track as too long.
Pink Floyd performed the song from 1967 to 1973. A performance on 9 September 1967 featured Barrett and Waters switching guitars. The last ever performance of the song by Pink Floyd took place on 13 October 1973 at the Stadthalle, Vienna, during the Dark Side of the Moon tour.. Live versions of the song appear on the 1969 Ummagumma album and the 1972 Live at Pompeii music film. During these live performances, the song was significantly extended with a wide range of dynamics, including a white noise middle section.
The song has been a staple in Waters ' solo tours. Beginning with the 1984 -- 1985 tours, "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun '' was presented in a radically rearranged rendition - with female backing vocals, saxophone solos and a guitar solo (and even a shakuhachi solo in 1985). A truncated version (just the three verses) of the song featuring a simple acoustic guitar part was performed on a handful of occasions during the Radio K.A.O.S tour of 1987. The song was included in the setlist for his 1999 -- 2002 In the Flesh tour, featuring stills from the promotional videos of "Arnold Layne '' and "The Scarecrow '' projected on large screens. This version featured a psychedelic guitar solo by Snowy White, as well as a sax solo, and this version appears on his 2000 In the Flesh -- Live DVD and live album. In June 2002, Waters ' former Pink Floyd bandmate Nick Mason performed as guest drummer on the track for two nights at London 's Wembley Arena, the first indication of a reconciliation following the acrimonious split of the mid-1980s. It was also performed at Waters ' 2006 -- 2008 tour.
In 2016, Waters performed the song again on his concerts at the Zocalo Square and Foro Sol in Mexico, as well as the Desert Trip festival in the United States, but it was dropped from the setlist of his 2017 Us + Them Tour.
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who is known as father of indian constitution | B.R. Ambedkar - Wikipedia
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (14 April 1891 -- 6 December 1956), popularly known as Baba Saheb, was an Indian jurist, economist, politician and social reformer who inspired the Dalit Buddhist Movement and campaigned against social discrimination against Untouchables (Dalits), while also supporting the rights of women and labour. He was Independent India 's first law minister, the principal architect of the Constitution of India and a founding father of the Republic of India.
Ambedkar was a prolific student, earning doctorates in economics from both Columbia University and the London School of Economics, and gained a reputation as a scholar for his research in law, economics and political science. In his early career he was an economist, professor, and lawyer. His later life was marked by his political activities; he became involved in campaigning and negotiations for India 's independence, publishing journals, advocating political rights and social freedom for Dalits, and contributing significantly to the establishment of the state of India. In 1956 he converted to Buddhism, initiating mass conversions of Dalits.
In 1990, the Bharat Ratna, India 's highest civilian award, was posthumously conferred upon Ambedkar. Ambedkar 's legacy includes numerous memorials and depictions in popular culture.
Ambedkar was born on 14 April 1891 in the town and military cantonment of Mhow in the Central Provinces (now in Madhya Pradesh). He was the 14th and last child of Ramji Maloji Sakpal, an army officer who held the rank of Subedar, and Bhimabai Sakpal, daughter of Laxman Murbadkar. His family was of Marathi background from the town of Ambadawe (Mandangad taluka) in Ratnagiri district of modern - day Maharashtra. Ambedkar was born into a poor low Mahar (dalit) caste, who were treated as untouchables and subjected to socio - economic discrimination. Ambedkar 's ancestors had long worked for the army of the British East India Company, and his father served in the British Indian Army at the Mhow cantonment. Although they attended school, Ambedkar and other untouchable children were segregated and given little attention or help by teachers. They were not allowed to sit inside the class. When they needed to drink water, someone from a higher caste had to pour that water from a height as they were not allowed to touch either the water or the vessel that contained it. This task was usually performed for the young Ambedkar by the school peon, and if the peon was not available then he had to go without water; he described the situation later in his writings as "No peon, No Water ''. He was required to sit on a gunny sack which he had to take home with him.
Ramji Sakpal retired in 1894 and the family moved to Satara two years later. Shortly after their move, Ambedkar 's mother died. The children were cared for by their paternal aunt and lived in difficult circumstances. Three sons -- Balaram, Anandrao and Bhimrao -- and two daughters -- Manjula and Tulasa -- of the Ambedkars survived them. Of his brothers and sisters, only Ambedkar passed his examinations and went to high school. His original surname was Sakpal but his father registered his name as Ambadawekar in school, meaning he comes from his native village ' Ambadawe ' in Ratnagiri district. His Devrukhe Brahmin teacher, Krishna Keshav Ambedkar, changed his surname from ' Ambadawekar ' to his own surname ' Ambedkar ' in school records.
In 1897, Ambedkar 's family moved to Mumbai where Ambedkar became the only untouchable enrolled at Elphinstone High School. In 1906, when he was about 15 years old, his marriage to a nine - year - old girl, Ramabai, was arranged.
In 1907, he passed his matriculation examination and in the following year he entered Elphinstone College, which was affiliated to the University of Bombay, becoming the first untouchable to do so. This success evoked much celebration among untouchables and after a public ceremony, he was presented with a biography of the Buddha by Dada Keluskar, the author and a family friend.
By 1912, he obtained his degree in economics and political science from Bombay University, and prepared to take up employment with the Baroda state government. His wife had just moved his young family and started work when he had to quickly return to Mumbai to see his ailing father, who died on 2 February 1913.
In 1913, Ambedkar moved to the United States at the age of 22. He had been awarded a Baroda State Scholarship of £ 11.50 (Sterling) per month for three years under a scheme established by Sayajirao Gaekwad III (Gaekwad of Baroda) that was designed to provide opportunities for postgraduate education at Columbia University in New York City. Soon after arriving there he settled in rooms at Livingston Hall with Naval Bhathena, a Parsi who was to be a lifelong friend. He passed his M.A. exam in June 1915, majoring in Economics, and other subjects of Sociology, History, Philosophy and Anthropology. He presented a thesis, Ancient Indian Commerce. Ambedkar was influenced by John Dewey and his work on democracy.
In 1916 he completed his second thesis, National Dividend of India -- A Historic and Analytical Study, for another M.A., and finally he received his PhD in Economics in 1927 for his third thesis, after he left for London. On 9 May, he presented the paper Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development before a seminar conducted by the anthropologist Alexander Goldenweiser.
In October 1916, he enrolled for the Bar course at Gray 's Inn, and at the same time enrolled at the London School of Economics where he started working on a doctoral thesis. In June 1917, he returned to India because his scholarship from Baroda ended. His book collection was dispatched on different ship from the one he was on, and that ship was torpedoed and sunk by a German submarine. He got permission to return to London to submit his thesis within four years. He returned at the first opportunity, and completed a master 's degree in 1921. His thesis was on "The problem of the rupee: Its origin and its solution ''. In 1923, he completed a D.Sc. in Economics, and the same year he was called to the Bar by Gray 's Inn. His third and fourth Doctorates (LL. D, Columbia, 1952 and D. Litt., Osmania, 1953) were conferred honoris causa.
Ambedkar viewed the Shudras as Aryan and adamantly rejected the Aryan invasion theory, describing it as "so absurd that it ought to have been dead long ago '' in his 1946 book Who Were the Shudras?.
Ambedkar viewed Shudras as originally being "part of the Kshatriya Varna in the Indo - Aryan society '', but became socially degraded after they inflicted many tyrannies on Brahmins.
According to Arvind Sharma, Ambedkar noticed certain flaws in the Aryan invasion theory that were later acknowledged by western scholarship. For example, scholars now acknowledge anās in Rig Veda 5.29. 10 refers to speech rather than the shape of the nose. Ambedkar anticipated this modern view by stating:
The term Anasa occurs in Rig Veda V. 29.10. What does the word mean? There are two interpretations. One is by Prof. Max Muller. The other is by Sayanacharya. According to Prof. Max Muller, it means ' one without nose ' or ' one with a flat nose ' and has as such been relied upon as a piece of evidence in support of the view that the Aryans were a separate race from the Dasyus. Sayanacharya says that it means ' mouthless, ' i.e., devoid of good speech. This difference of meaning is due to difference in the correct reading of the word Anasa. Sayanacharya reads it as an - asa while Prof. Max Muller reads it as a-nasa. As read by Prof. Max Muller, it means ' without nose. ' Question is: which of the two readings is the correct one? There is no reason to hold that Sayana 's reading is wrong. On the other hand there is everything to suggest that it is right. In the first place, it does not make non-sense of the word. Secondly, as there is no other place where the Dasyus are described as noseless, there is no reason why the word should be read in such a manner as to give it an altogether new sense. It is only fair to read it as a synonym of Mridhravak. There is therefore no evidence in support of the conclusion that the Dasyus belonged to a different race.
Ambedkar disputed various hypotheses of the Aryan homeland being outside India, and concluded the Aryan homeland was India itself. According to Ambedkar, the Rig Veda says Aryans, Dāsa and Dasyus were competing religious groups, not different peoples.
As Ambedkar was educated by the Princely State of Baroda, he was bound to serve it. He was appointed Military Secretary to the Gaikwad but had to quit in a short time. He described the incident in his autobiography, Waiting for a Visa. Thereafter, he tried to find ways to make a living for his growing family. He worked as a private tutor, as an accountant, and established an investment consulting business, but it failed when his clients learned that he was an untouchable. In 1918, he became Professor of Political Economy in the Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics in Mumbai. Although he was successful with the students, other professors objected to his sharing a drinking - water jug with them.
Ambedkar had been invited to testify before the Southborough Committee, which was preparing the Government of India Act 1919. At this hearing, Ambedkar argued for creating separate electorates and reservations for untouchables and other religious communities. In 1920, he began the publication of the weekly Mooknayak (Leader of the Silent) in Mumbai with the help of Shahu of Kolhapur i.e. Shahu IV (1874 -- 1922).
Ambedkar went on to work as a legal professional. In 1926, he successfully defended three non-Brahmin leaders who had accused the Brahmin community of ruining India and were then subsequently sued for libel. Dhananjay Keer notes that "The victory was resounding, both socially and individually, for the clients and the Doctor.
Samarth
While practising law in the Bombay High Court, he tried to promote education to untouchables and uplift them. His first organised attempt was his establishment of the central institution Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha, intended to promote education and socio - economic improvement, as well as the welfare of "outcastes '', at the time referred to as depressed classes. For the defence of Dalit rights, he started many periodicals like Mook Nayak, Bahishkrit Bharat, and Equality Janta.
He was appointed to the Bombay Presidency Committee to work with the all - European Simon Commission in 1925. This commission had sparked great protests across India, and while its report was ignored by most Indians, Ambedkar himself wrote a separate set of recommendations for the future Constitution of India.
By 1927, Ambedkar had decided to launch active movements against untouchability. He began with public movements and marches to open up public drinking water resources. He also began a struggle for the right to enter Hindu temples. He led a satyagraha in Mahad to fight for the right of the untouchable community to draw water from the main water tank of the town. In a conference in late 1927, Ambedkar publicly condemned the classic Hindu text, the Manusmriti (Laws of Manu), for ideologically justifying caste discrimination and "untouchability '', and he ceremonially burned copies of the ancient text. On 25 December 1927, he led thousands of followers to burn copies of Manusmrti. Thus annually 25 December is celebrated as Manusmriti Dahan Din (Manusmriti Burning Day) by Ambedkarites and Dalits.
In 1930, Ambedkar launched Kalaram Temple movement after three months of preparation. About 15,000 volunteers assembled at Kalaram Temple satygraha making one of the greatest processions of Nashik. The procession was headed by a military band, a batch of scouts, women and men walked in discipline, order and determination to see the god for the first time. When they reached to gate, the gates were closed by Brahmin authorities.
In 1932, British announced the formation of a separate electorate for "Depressed Classes '' in the Communal Award. Gandhi fiercely opposed a separate electorate for untouchables, saying he feared that such an arrangement would divide the Hindu community. Gandhi protested by fasting while imprisoned in the Yerwada Central Jail of Poona. Following the fast, Congress politicians and activists such as Madan Mohan Malaviya and Palwankar Baloo organised joint meetings with Ambedkar and his supporters at Yerwada. On 25 September 1932, the agreement known as Poona Pact was signed between Ambedkar (on behalf of the depressed classes among Hindus) and Madan Mohan Malaviya (on behalf of the other Hindus). The agreement gave reserved seats for the depressed classes in the Provisional legislatures, within the general electorate. Due to the pact, the depressed class received 148 seats in the legislature, instead of the 71 as allocated in the Communal Award earlier proposed by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald. The text uses the term "Depressed Classes '' to denote Untouchables among Hindus who were later called Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes under India Act 1935, and the later Indian Constitution of 1950. In the Poona Pact, a unified electorate was in principle formed, but primary and secondary elections allowed Untouchables in practice to choose their own candidates.
In 1935, Ambedkar was appointed principal of the Government Law College, Bombay, a position he held for two years. He also served as the chairman of Governing body of Ramjas College, University of Delhi, after the death of its Founder Shri Rai Kedarnath. Settling in Bombay (today called Mumbai), Ambedkar oversaw the construction of a house, and stocked his personal library with more than 50,000 books. His wife Ramabai died after a long illness the same year. It had been her long - standing wish to go on a pilgrimage to Pandharpur, but Ambedkar had refused to let her go, telling her that he would create a new Pandharpur for her instead of Hinduism 's Pandharpur which treated them as untouchables. At the Yeola Conversion Conference on 13 October in Nasik, Ambedkar announced his intention to convert to a different religion and exhorted his followers to leave Hinduism. He would repeat his message at many public meetings across India.
In 1936, Ambedkar founded the Independent Labour Party, which contested the 1937 Bombay election to the Central Legislative Assembly for the 13 reserved and 4 general seats, and secured 11 and 3 seats respectively.
Ambedkar published his book Annihilation of Caste on 15 May 1936. It strongly criticised Hindu orthodox religious leaders and the caste system in general, and included "a rebuke of Gandhi '' on the subject. Later, in a 1955 BBC interview, he accused Gandhi of writing in opposition of the caste system in English language papers while writing in support of it in Gujarati language papers.
Ambedkar served on the Defence Advisory Committee and the Viceroy 's Executive Council as minister for labour.
In his work Who Were the Shudras?, Ambedkar tried to explain the formation of untouchables. He saw Shudras and Ati Shudras who form the lowest caste in the ritual hierarchy of the caste system, as separate from Untouchables. Ambedkar oversaw the transformation of his political party into the Scheduled Castes Federation, although it performed poorly in the 1946 elections for Constituent Assembly of India. Later he was elected into the constituent assembly of Bengal where Muslim League was in power.
Ambedkar contested in the Bombay North first Indian General Election of 1952, but lost to his former assistant and Congress Party candidate Narayan Kajrolkar. Ambedkar became a member of Rajya Sabha, probably an appointed member. He tried to enter Lok Sabha again in the by - election of 1954 from Bhandara, but he placed third (the Congress Party won). By the time of the second general election in 1957, Ambedkar had died.
Ambedkar also criticised Islamic practice in South Asia. While justifying the Partition of India, he condemned child marriage and the mistreatment of women in Muslim society.
No words can adequately express the great and many evils of polygamy and concubinage, and especially as a source of misery to a Muslim woman. Take the caste system. Everybody infers that Islam must be free from slavery and caste. (...) (While slavery existed), much of its support was derived from Islam and Islamic countries. While the prescriptions by the Prophet regarding the just and humane treatment of slaves contained in the Koran are praiseworthy, there is nothing whatever in Islam that lends support to the abolition of this curse. But if slavery has gone, caste among Musalmans (Muslims) has remained.
Upon India 's independence on 15 August 1947, the new Congress - led government invited Ambedkar to serve as the nation 's first Law Minister, which he accepted. On 29 August, he was appointed Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee, and was appointed by the Assembly to write India 's new Constitution.
Granville Austin described the Indian Constitution drafted by Ambedkar as ' first and foremost a social document '. ' The majority of India 's constitutional provisions are either directly arrived at furthering the aim of social revolution or attempt to foster this revolution by establishing conditions necessary for its achievement. '
The text prepared by Ambedkar provided constitutional guarantees and protections for a wide range of civil liberties for individual citizens, including freedom of religion, the abolition of untouchability, and the outlawing of all forms of discrimination. Ambedkar argued for extensive economic and social rights for women, and won the Assembly 's support for introducing a system of reservations of jobs in the civil services, schools and colleges for members of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and Other Backward Class, a system akin to affirmative action. India 's lawmakers hoped to eradicate the socio - economic inequalities and lack of opportunities for India 's depressed classes through these measures. The Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 by the Constituent Assembly.
Ambedkar opposed Article 370 of the Constitution of India, which granted a special status to the State of Jammu and Kashmir, and which was included against his wishes. Balraj Madhok reportedly said, Ambedkar had clearly told the Kashmiri leader, Sheikh Abdullah: "You wish India should protect your borders, she should build roads in your area, she should supply you food grains, and Kashmir should get equal status as India. But Government of India should have only limited powers and Indian people should have no rights in Kashmir. To give consent to this proposal, would be a treacherous thing against the interests of India and I, as the Law Minister of India, will never do it. '' Then Sk. Abdullah approached Nehru, who directed him to Gopal Swami Ayyangar, who in turn approached Sardar Patel, saying Nehru had promised Sk. Abdullah the special status. Patel got the Article passed while Nehru was on a foreign tour. On the day the article came up for discussion, Ambedkar did not reply to questions on it but did participate on other articles. All arguments were done by Krishna Swami Ayyangar.
During the debates in the Constituent Assembly, Ambedkar demonstrated his will to reform Indian society by recommending the adoption of a Uniform Civil Code. Ambedkar resigned from the cabinet in 1951, when parliament stalled his draft of the Hindu Code Bill, which sought to enshrine gender equality in the laws of inheritance and marriage. Ambedkar independently contested an election in 1952 to the lower house of parliament, the Lok Sabha, but was defeated in the Bombay (North Central) constituency by a little - known Narayan Sadoba Kajrolkar, who polled 138,137 votes compared to Ambedkar 's 123,576. He was appointed to the upper house, of parliament, the Rajya Sabha in March 1952 and would remain as member till death.
Ambedkar was the first Indian to pursue a doctorate in economics abroad. He argued that industrialisation and agricultural growth could enhance the Indian economy. He stressed investment in agriculture as the primary industry of India. According to Sharad Pawar, Ambedkar 's vision helped the government to achieve its food security goal. Ambedkar advocated national economic and social development, stressing education, public hygiene, community health, residential facilities as the basic amenities. He calculated the loss of development caused by British rule.
Ambedkar was trained as an economist, and was a professional economist until 1921, when he became a political leader. He wrote three scholarly books on economics:
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI), was based on the ideas that Ambedkar presented to the Hilton Young Commission.
Ambedkar 's first wife Ramabai died in 1935 after a long illness. After completing the draft of India 's constitution in the late 1940s, he suffered from lack of sleep, had neuropathic pain in his legs, and was taking insulin and homoeopathic medicines. He went to Bombay for treatment, and there met Dr. Sharada Kabir, whom he married on 15 April 1948, at his home in New Delhi. Doctors recommended a companion who was a good cook and had medical knowledge to care for him. She adopted the name Savita Ambedkar and cared for him the rest of his life. Savita Ambedkar, who was called ' Mai ' or ' Maisaheb ', died on May 29, 2003, aged 93 at Mehrauli, New Delhi.
Ambedkar considered converting to Sikhism, which encouraged opposition to oppression and so appealed to leaders of scheduled castes. But after meeting with Sikh leaders, he concluded that he might get "second - rate '' Sikh status, as described by scholar Stephen P. Cohen.
Instead, he studied Buddhism all his life. Around 1950, he devoted his attention to Buddhism and travelled to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) to attend a meeting of the World Fellowship of Buddhists. While dedicating a new Buddhist vihara near Pune, Ambedkar announced he was writing a book on Buddhism, and that when it was finished, he would formally convert to Buddhism. He twice visited Burma in 1954; the second time to attend the third conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists in Rangoon. In 1955, he founded the Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha, or the Buddhist Society of India. He completed his final work, The Buddha and His Dhamma, in 1956 which was published posthumously.
After meetings with the Sri Lankan Buddhist monk Hammalawa Saddhatissa, Ambedkar organised a formal public ceremony for himself and his supporters in Nagpur on 14 October 1956. Accepting the Three Refuges and Five Precepts from a Buddhist monk in the traditional manner, Ambedkar completed his own conversion, along with his wife. He then proceeded to convert some 500,000 of his supporters who were gathered around him. He prescribed the 22 Vows for these converts, after the Three Jewels and Five Precepts. He then travelled to Kathmandu, Nepal to attend the Fourth World Buddhist Conference. His work on The Buddha or Karl Marx and "Revolution and counter-revolution in ancient India '' remained incomplete.
Since 1948, Ambedkar suffered from diabetes. He was bed - ridden from June to October in 1954 due to medication side - effects and poor eyesight. He had been increasingly embittered by political issues, which took a toll on his health. His health worsened during 1955. Three days after completing his final manuscript The Buddha and His Dhamma, Ambedkar died in his sleep on 6 December 1956 at his home in Delhi.
A Buddhist cremation was organised at Dadar Chowpatty beach on 7 December, attended by half a million grieving people. A conversion program was organised on 16 December 1956, so that cremation attendees were also converted to Buddhism at the same place.
Ambedkar was survived by his second wife, who died in 2003, and his son Yashwant Ambedkar (known as Bhaiyasaheb). Ambedkar 's grandson, Prakash Ambedkar, is the chief - adviser of the Buddhist Society of India, leads the Bharipa Bahujan Mahasangh and has served in both houses of the Indian Parliament.
A number of unfinished typescripts and handwritten drafts were found among Ambedkar 's notes and papers and gradually made available. Among these were Waiting for a Visa, which probably dates from 1935 -- 36 and is an autobiographical work, and the Untouchables, or the Children of India 's Ghetto, which refers to the census of 1951.
A memorial for Ambedkar was established in his Delhi house at 26 Alipur Road. His birthdate is celebrated as a public holiday known as Ambedkar Jayanti or Bhim Jayanti. He was posthumously awarded India 's highest civilian honour, the Bharat Ratna, in 1990.
On the anniversary of his birth and death, and on Dhamma Chakra Pravartan Din (14 October) at Nagpur, at least half a million people gather to pay homage to him at his memorial in Mumbai. Thousands of bookshops are set up, and books are sold. His message to his followers was "educate, agitate, organise! ''.
Ambedkar 's legacy as a socio - political reformer, had a deep effect on modern India. In post-Independence India, his socio - political thought is respected across the political spectrum. His initiatives have influenced various spheres of life and transformed the way India today looks at socio - economic policies, education and affirmative action through socio - economic and legal incentives. His reputation as a scholar led to his appointment as free India 's first law minister, and chairman of the committee for drafting the constitution. He passionately believed in individual freedom and criticised caste society. His accusations of Hinduism as being the foundation of the caste system made him controversial and unpopular among Hindus. His conversion to Buddhism sparked a revival in interest in Buddhist philosophy in India and abroad.
Many public institutions are named in his honour, and the Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar International Airport in Nagpur, otherwise known as Sonegaon Airport. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Ambedkar University Delhi is also named in his honour. A large official portrait of Ambedkar is on display in the Indian Parliament building.
The Maharashtra government has acquired a house in London where Ambedkar lived during his days as a student in the 1920s. The house is expected to be converted into a museum - cum - memorial to Ambedkar.
Ambedkar was voted "the Greatest Indian '' in 2012 by a poll organised by History TV18 and CNN IBN. Nearly 20 million votes were cast, making him the most popular Indian figure since the launch of the initiative. Due to his role in economics, Narendra Jadhav, a notable Indian economist, has said that Ambedkar was "the highest educated Indian economist of all times. '' Amartya Sen, said that Ambedkar is "father of my economics '', and "he was highly controversial figure in his home country, though it was not the reality. His contribution in the field of economics is marvelous and will be remembered forever. '' Osho, a spiritual teacher, remarked "I have seen people who are born in the lowest category of Hindu law, the sudras, the untouchables, so intelligent: when India became independent, the man who made the constitution of India, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, was a sudra. There was no equal to his intelligence as far as law is concerned -- he was a world - famous authority. '' President Obama addressed the Indian parliament in 2010, and referred to Dalit leader Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as the great and revered Human Rights champion and main author of India 's constitution.
Ambedkar 's political philosophy has given rise to a large number of political parties, publications and workers ' unions that remain active across India, especially in Maharashtra. His promotion of Buddhism has rejuvenated interest in Buddhist philosophy among sections of population in India. Mass conversion ceremonies have been organised by human rights activists in modern times, emulating Ambedkar 's Nagpur ceremony of 1956. Most Indian Buddhists specially Navayana followers regard him as a Bodhisattva, the Maitreya, although he never claimed it himself. Outside India, during the late 1990s, some Hungarian Romani people drew parallels between their own situation and that of the downtrodden people in India. Inspired by Ambedkar, they started to convert to Buddhism.
Several movies, plays, and other works have been based on the life and thoughts of Ambedkar. Jabbar Patel directed the English - language film Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar in 2000 with Mammootty in the lead role. This biopic was sponsored by the National Film Development Corporation of India and the government 's Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. The film was released after a long and controversial gestation. David Blundell, professor of anthropology at UCLA and historical ethnographer, has established Arising Light -- a series of films and events that are intended to stimulate interest and knowledge about the social conditions in India and the life of Ambedkar. In Samvidhaan, a TV mini-series on the making of the Constitution of India directed by Shyam Benegal, the pivotal role of B.R. Ambedkar was played by Sachin Khedekar. The play Ambedkar Aur Gandhi, directed by Arvind Gaur and written by Rajesh Kumar, tracks the two prominent personalities of its title.
Bhimayana: Experiences of Untouchability is a graphic biography of Ambedkar created by Pardhan - Gond artists Durgabai Vyam and Subhash Vyam, and writers Srividya Natarajan and S. Anand. The book depicts the experiences of untouchability faced by Ambedkar from childhood to adulthood. CNN named it one of the top 5 political comic books.
The Ambedkar Memorial at Lucknow is dedicated in his memory. The chaitya consists of monuments showing his biography.
Google commemorated Ambedkar 's 124th birthday through a homepage doodle on 14 April 2015. The doodle was featured in India, Argentina, Chile, Ireland, Peru, Poland, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
The Education Department, Government of Maharashtra (Mumbai) published the collection of Ambedkar 's writings and speeches in different volumes.
Primary sources
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who is the creator of pretty little thing | Pretty Little Liars - Wikipedia
Pretty Little Liars is an American teen drama mystery thriller television series. Developed by I. Marlene King, the series is based on the book series of the same name written by Sara Shepard. The series follows the lives of four girls whose clique falls apart after the disappearance of their leader. One year later, the estranged friends are reunited as they begin receiving messages from a mysterious figure named "A '' who threatens to expose their deepest secrets. The series features an ensemble cast, headed by Troian Bellisario as Spencer Hastings, Lucy Hale as Aria Montgomery, Ashley Benson as Hanna Marin, Shay Mitchell as Emily Fields and Sasha Pieterse as Alison DiLaurentis.
The series premiered on June 8, 2010 on Freeform, formerly known as ABC Family and ended on June 27, 2017. After an initial order of 10 episodes, ABC Family ordered an additional 12 episodes on June 28, 2010. The ratings success of the first 10 episodes prompted the book series to be extended beyond the initial eight novels. Since its debut, the series has received mixed reviews from television critics, but remained a relative success for Freeform, garnering a large fandom, primarily on social media.
On March 26, 2013, a spin - off series was announced, titled Ravenswood. The series was canceled after one season. On June 10, 2014, Pretty Little Liars was renewed for its sixth and seventh seasons. On August 29, 2016, Freeform confirmed that the series would be ending after its ' seventh season in 2017. Filming of the series officially wrapped on October 26, 2016. The series finale aired on June 27, 2017, garnering a viewership of 1.41 million. The episode was followed by "A-List Wrap Party '', a live special featuring the cast and executive producer King discussing the series ending.
On September 25, 2017, Freeform announced that a second spin - off series, titled Pretty Little Liars: The Perfectionists, had been ordered, with Pieterse and Janel Parrish reprising their roles as Alison DiLaurentis and Mona Vanderwaal respectively.
Set in the small suburban town of Rosewood, Pennsylvania (not far from Philadelphia), the series follows the lives of five girls: Spencer Hastings, Alison DiLaurentis, Aria Montgomery, Hanna Marin and Emily Fields, whose clique falls apart after the leader of the group, Alison, goes missing. One year later, the remaining estranged friends are reunited as they begin receiving messages from a mysterious villain named "A '' and later from "A.D. '', who threatens and tortures them for the mistakes they have made before and after Alison 's death. At first, they think it is Alison herself, but after her body is found, the girls realize that it is someone else who is sending them the threatening text messages.
Originally developed as a television series by book packaging company Alloy Entertainment, the idea was described as "Desperate Housewives for teens. '' Alloy met with author Shepard and gave her the property to develop into a book series. With Alloy and Warner Horizon Television interested in producing Pretty Little Liars as a television series for years, it was first planned for The WB in 2005 with a different writer until the network shut down in early 2006 and reestablished as The CW later that year. The first novel was published by HarperTeen in October 2006. In June 2008, Alloy noted that it was developing a Pretty Little Liars television pilot for ABC Family, with the novels adapted for television. After the pilot was shot in Vancouver in December 2009, filming for the rest of the series moved to Los Angeles. The series was primarily filmed at the Warner Bros. studio and backlot in the city of Burbank, near Los Angeles. In June 2012, the series was selected by lottery for a California film and TV tax credit.
ABC Family began casting for a Pretty Little Liars television pilot in October 2009. Lucy Hale was cast as Aria Montgomery in the project, followed by Troian Bellisario as Spencer Hastings and Ian Harding as Ezra Fitz in November 2009. In December 2009, The Futon Critic confirmed the casting of Ashley Benson as Hanna Marin and Shay Mitchell as Emily Fields, as well as the addition of Laura Leighton as Ashley Marin, Nia Peeples as Pam Fields, Roark Critchlow as Tom Marin, and Bianca Lawson as Maya. Mitchell had initially auditioned for the role of Spencer and then tried for Emily. The Hollywood Reporter also noted that Torrey DeVitto and Sasha Pieterse landed recurring roles in the pilot. The Alloy website later confirmed that Pieterse would be playing Alison DiLaurentis and DeVitto would be Melissa Hastings, also mentioning the casting of Janel Parrish as Mona Vanderwaal. On January 27, 2010, ABC Family picked up the series for 10 episodes, set to premiere in June 2010. In April 2010, the role of Aria 's father Byron was recast with Chad Lowe, and Holly Marie Combs was cast as Aria 's mother Ella. Jenna Marshall is played by Tammin Sursok.
On January 7, 2011, Tilky Jones was cast as Logan Reed. On April 8, 2011, Annabeth Gish was cast for the role of Anne Sullivan, a therapist who tries to find out the characters ' secrets. On May 23, 2011, Andrea Parker signed up to appear as Jessica DiLaurentis, Alison 's mother. On June 29, 2011, it was announced that Natalie Hall would be replacing Natalie Floyd as Hanna 's soon - to - be stepsister, Kate. On January 30, 2012, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Tyler Blackburn had been promoted to series regular for the third season. In March 2012, Janel Parrish was also promoted from recurring to series regular for the third season. On March 16, 2016, TVLine reported that Andrea Parker was added as a series regular for the seventh season.
Pretty Little Liars was called one of the most spectacular new shows of summer 2010 thanks to heavy promotion by ABC Family, including "spicy promos and hot posters ''. ABC Family encouraged fans to host a "Pretty Little Premiere Party '' for the show by sending the first respondents a fan kit, and selected applicants to become part of an interactive "Secret Keeper Game '' played with iPhones provided by the network. The show 's official Facebook and Twitter accounts also promoted special fan features, including a "Pretty Little Lie Detector ''. Los Angeles department store Kitson showcased the show in their shop window.
A tie - in edition featuring the Season 1 poster and logo of the 2006 first novel in the Pretty Little Liars series was released on the date of the show 's premiere, as was the final book of the original book series, "Wanted ''. "Wanted '' later decidedly became the eighth book of the series, as Shepard later confirmed she would extend the series. A TV tie - in of the second book "Flawless '' featuring an altered Season 3 poster was released on December 28, 2012.
The theme song for Pretty Little Liars is "Secret '' by The Pierces, which was suggested by one of the show 's stars, Ashley Benson. The pilot episode featured music from artists such as The Fray, Ben 's Brother, MoZella, Orelia, and Colbie Caillat. The show has also featured music from Passion Pit, Lady Gaga, Pink, Florence and the Machine, Lykke Li, Selena Gomez & the Scene, McFly and Rachel Platten. Music from Katie Herzig can be heard multiple times throughout the show. A few songs being "Hey Na Na '' and "Where the Road Meets the Sun ''. Madi Diaz has been heard on the show with her song "Heavy Heart '', as well as Joy Williams with "Charmed Life '' and Foreign Slippers with "What Are You Waiting For? ''. The last episode of season one featured a song by Alexz Johnson that she originally recorded for the soundtrack of the Canadian hit TV show Instant Star. On June 14, 2011, "Jar of Hearts '' by Christina Perri was featured in the first episode of the second season. The song "Follow Suit '' by Trent Dabbs has also been featured on the show. In the episode "The Perfect Storm '', Lucy Hale sings a cover of the song "Who Knows Where the Time Goes? '' by British band Fairport Convention. The official soundtrack was released on February 15, 2011.
Rosewood is a fictional town in the state of Pennsylvania. It is the principal setting of the series and the books. The Liars live in this town along with most of the other characters. It contains many principal locations: the police station, the Rosewood High School, the church, the Rosewood Shopping Center, Hollis College, the Rosewood Community Hospital, the Rosewood movie theater, the mausoleum, the dental office, the Ophthalmology Cabinet, and the Rosewood Court.
Virtually all these locations are actually exteriors on the backlot of the Warner Bros. studio lot in Burbank. Interior scenes are filmed separately on nearby soundstages. For example, different sides of the same building on the backlot are used for the entrances of the Rosewood police station and high school.
Pretty Little Liars premiered on June 8, 2010 in the United States, becoming ABC Family 's highest - rated series debut on record across the network 's target demographics. It ranked number one in key 12 -- 34 demos and teens, becoming the number - one scripted show in Women 18 -- 34, and Women 18 -- 49. The premiere was number two in the hour for total viewers, which generated 2.47 million unique viewers, and was ABC Family 's best delivery in the time slot since the premiere of The Secret Life of the American Teenager.
The second episode retained 100 % of its premiere audience with 2.48 million viewers, despite the usual downward trend following a premiere of a show, and built on its premiere audience. It was the dominant number one of its time slot in Adults 18 -- 49, and the number one show in female teens. Subsequent episodes fluctuated between 2.09 and 2.74 million viewers. The August 10, 2010 "Summer Finale '' episode drew an impressive 3.07 million viewers.
On June 28, 2010, ABC Family ordered 12 more episodes of the show, bringing its total first - season order to 22. On January 10, 2011, ABC Family picked the show up for a second season that premiered on June 14, 2011. During the summer of 2011, Pretty Little Liars was basic cable 's top scripted series in women aged 18 -- 34 and viewers 12 -- 34. The second half of season 2 aired on Mondays at 8 / 7c, beginning on January 2, 2012.
On November 29, 2011, ABC Family renewed the show for a third season, which consisted of 24 episodes. On October 4, 2012, ABC Family announced that the show was renewed for a fourth season, again comprising 24 episodes. The second half of the third season began airing on January 8, 2013 and finished March 19, 2013. Pretty Little Liars returned for Season 4 on June 11, 2013. On March 25, 2013, it was again announced that Pretty Little Liars had been renewed for a fifth season scheduled for a 2014 air date and a new spin off show entitled Ravenswood would begin airing after the season four annual Halloween special in October 2013. The second half of season four premiered on January 7, 2014. It was announced on June 10, 2014 that Pretty Little Liars was renewed for two seasons, making the show ABC Family 's longest running original hit series. On August 29, 2016, I. Marlene King announced that Pretty Little Liars would be ending after the seventh season had aired. The second half of the seventh season will begin airing later than previous season, in April instead of January.
Pretty Little Liars opened with mixed reviews. Metacritic gave the pilot episode 52 out of 100, based upon 14 critical reviews. The New York Daily News gave the show a positive review, commenting that it "makes most popular vampire romances look anemic '', while concluding, "Pretty Little Liars could go in several directions, including mundane teen clichés. It 's got an equally good shot at making us care about these imperfect pretty girls. '' A writer on Terror Hook has stated that "' Pretty Little Liars ' gets off to a very promising start. Great production all around, the writing keeps the viewer on their toes, and the acting just reinforces it. The overall mystery of the show in the end is dark and unpredictable, even stepping into the slasher film realm. '' The New York Post gave the show three out of five stars, stating, "OK, so we 've established that there is no socially redeeming value in this series and that your kids should n't watch it if they are too young and impressionable. But if you can distract them enough to miss the first 15 minutes, the show is n't half - bad. Actually, it is half - good, if that makes sense. '' The Los Angeles Times wrote that the series is "one of those shows that manages to mildly, and perhaps unintentionally, spoof its genre while fully participating in it, and that 's not a bad thing at all. ''
Entertainment Weekly had a less favorable review, giving the show a letter grade of "D − '', saying, "Imagine the pitch for Liars: It 's I Know What You Did Last Summer meets Gossip Girl, but like not so subtle. '' It went on to say that the plot "hits every racy teen entertainment mark so hard (everyone 's hair is so full -- of secrets!) that it feels like the only thing missing is a visit from the ghosts of Jennifer Love Hewitt and Freddie Prinze, Jr. '' The Hollywood Reporter compared the show to those on The CW and noted, "Sure, there 's a lot here that sustains more eye - rolling than interested stares, but a little patience might be warranted. ''
Since the series premiere, Pretty Little Liars has remained popular. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that the show 's "popularity is tilted toward women more than any other show in the data -- over 94 percent of ' likes ' come from women ''.
The series earned its highest rated episode with 4.20 million total viewers, ranking among ABC Family 's top 5 telecasts in adult viewers 18 -- 34, total viewers and women viewers. The highest rated episodes include season one 's finale, with 3.64 million, and season two 's premiere and finale episodes, each yielding nearly 3.7 million viewers. The show stands as the most watched series on ABC Family, maintaining a steady viewership of over 2.5 million and currently standing as the only show to yield an average of over 2 million viewers.
All previously released special features on all seven seasons.
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when did you have to start registering guns | Gun Control Act of 1968 - wikipedia
The Gun Control Act of 1968 (GCA or GCA68) is a U.S. federal law that regulates the firearms industry and firearms owners. It primarily focuses on regulating interstate commerce in firearms by generally prohibiting interstate firearms transfers except among licensed manufacturers, dealers and importers.
The GCA was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on October 22, 1968, and is Title I of the U.S. federal firearms laws. The National Firearms Act of 1934 (NFA) is Title II. Both GCA and NFA are enforced by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF).
Passage of the Gun Control Act was initially prompted by the assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy in 1963. The President was shot and killed with a rifle purchased by mail - order from an ad in National Rifle Association (NRA) magazine American Rifleman. Congressional hearings followed and a ban on mail - order gun sales was discussed, but no law was passed until 1968. At the hearings NRA Executive Vice-President Franklin Orth supported a ban on mail - order sales, stating, "We do not think that any sane American, who calls himself an American, can object to placing into this bill the instrument which killed the president of the United States. ''
Precursors of the passage of the Gun Control Act were Senate Bill 1975 in 1963, "A Bill to Regulate the Interstate Shipment of Firearms, '' and Senate Bill 1592 in 1965, "A Bill to Amend the Federal Firearms Act of 1938. '' Both were introduced by Senator Thomas J. Dodd and met with fierce opposition on the floor but the bills also paved the way for the creation of the Gun Control Act of 1968.
The deaths of Martin Luther King, Jr. in April 1968 and U.S. Senator Robert F. Kennedy in June 1968 renewed efforts to pass the bill. On June 11, 1968, a tie vote in the House Judiciary Committee halted the bill 's passage. On reconsideration nine days later, the bill was passed by the committee. The Senate Judiciary Committee similarly brought the bill to a temporary halt, but as in the House, it was passed on reconsideration. House Resolution 17735, known as the Gun Control Act, was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on October 22, 1968 banning mail order sales of rifles and shotguns and prohibiting most felons, drug users and people found mentally incompetent from buying guns.
The Gun Control Act of 1968 was enhanced in 1993 with the passage of the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act. The Brady Act created a background check system which required licensed sellers to inspect the criminal history background of prospective gun purchasers, and the Brady Act created a list of categories of individuals to whom the sale of firearms is prohibited. As quoted from 18 U.S.C. 922 (d):
It shall be unlawful for any person to sell or otherwise dispose of any firearm or ammunition to any person knowing or having reasonable cause to believe that such person -- (1) is under indictment for, or has been convicted in any court of, a crime punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one year; (2) is a fugitive from justice; (3) is an unlawful user of or addicted to any controlled substance (as defined in section 102 of the Controlled Substances Act (21 U.S.C. 802)); (4) has been adjudicated as a mental defective or has been committed to any mental institution; (5) who, being an alien -- (A) is illegally or unlawfully in the United States; or (B) except as provided in subsection (y) (2), has been admitted to the United States under a nonimmigrant visa (as that term is defined in section 101 (a) (26) of the Immigration and Nationality Act (8 U.S.C. 1101 (a) (26))); (6) who (2) has been discharged from the Armed Forces under dishonorable conditions; (7) who, having been a citizen of the United States, has renounced his citizenship; (8) is subject to a court order that restrains such person from harassing, stalking, or threatening an intimate partner of such person or child of such intimate partner or person, or engaging in other conduct that would place an intimate partner in reasonable fear of bodily injury to the partner or child, except that this paragraph shall only apply to a court order that -- (A) was issued after a hearing of which such person received actual notice, and at which such person had the opportunity to participate; and (B) (i) includes a finding that such person represents a credible threat to the physical safety of such intimate partner or child; or (ii) by its terms explicitly prohibits the use, attempted use, or threatened use of physical force against such intimate partner or child that would reasonably be expected to cause bodily injury; or (9) has been convicted in any court of a misdemeanor crime of domestic violence.
Exceptions as quoted from 18 U.S.C. 921 (a) (33) (B):
(ii) A person shall not be considered to have been convicted of such an offense for purposes of this chapter if the conviction has been expunged or set aside, or is an offense for which the person has been pardoned or has had civil rights restored (if the law of the applicable jurisdiction provides for the loss of civil rights under such an offense) unless the pardon, expungement, or restoration of civil rights expressly provides that the person may not ship, transport, possess, or receive firearms.
Many states automatically reinstate gun ownership rights upon completion of sentence. Some states reinstate rights depending on the crime convicted of, and others have a petition process. Those convicted of a federal offense must contact the Office of the Pardon Attorney, Department of Justice, to receive a presidential pardon. Under the Department 's rules governing petitions for executive clemency, 28 C.F.R. § § 1.1 et seq., an applicant must satisfy a minimum waiting period of five years before he becomes eligible to apply for a presidential pardon of his federal conviction.
According to a 21 Sep 2011 "Open Letter to All Federal Firearms Licensees '' from ATF, holders of state - issued medical marijuana cards are automatically "prohibited persons '' under 18 U.S.C 922 (g) (3) and "shipping, transporting, receiving or possessing firearms or ammunition '' by a medical marijuana card holder is a violation.
Additionally, 18 U.S.C 922 (x) generally prohibits persons under 18 years of age from possessing handguns or handgun ammunition with certain exceptions for employment, target practice, education, and a handgun possessed while defending the home of the juvenile or a home in which they are an invited guest.
The Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act of 1993 created the National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) to prevent firearms sales to such prohibited persons.
The Gun Control Act mandated the licensing of individuals and companies engaged in the business of selling firearms. This provision effectively prohibited the direct mail order of firearms (except antique firearms) by consumers and mandated that anyone who wants to buy a gun in an interstate transaction from a source other than a private individual must do so through a federally licensed firearms dealer. The Act also banned unlicensed individuals from acquiring handguns outside their state of residence. The interstate purchase of long guns (rifles and shotguns) was not impeded by the Act so long as the seller is federally licensed and such a sale is allowed by both the state of purchase and the state of residence.
Private sales between residents of two different states are also prohibited without going through a licensed dealer, except for the case of a buyer holding a Curio & Relic license purchasing a firearm that qualifies as a curio or relic.
Private sales between unlicensed individuals who are residents of the same state are allowed under federal law so long as such transfers do not violate the other existing federal and state laws. While current law mandates that a background check be performed if the seller has a federal firearms license, private parties living in the same state are not required to perform such checks under federal law.
A person who does not have a Federal Firearms License may not be in the business of buying or selling firearms. Individuals buying and selling firearms without a federal license must be doing so from their own personal collection.
Under the Gun Control Act, a federally licensed importer, manufacturer, dealer or collector shall not sell or deliver any rifle or shotgun or ammunition for rifle or shotgun to any individual less than 18 years of age, nor any handgun or ammunition for a handgun to any individual less than 21 years of age.
While the Gun Control Act prohibits the direct mail - ordering of firearms, a person may ship a gun via contract carrier (such as United Parcel Service - UPS, United States Postal Service or FedEx) to a gunsmith (who has an FFL) or the gunmaker 's factory for repairs or modification. After the repair work is done, the gunsmith or the factory can ship the gun directly back to the customer.
The GCA created what is known as the "sporting purposes '' standard for imported firearms, saying that they must "be generally recognized as particularly suitable for or readily adaptable to sporting purposes. '' GCA sporting purposes includes hunting and organized competitive target shooting, but does not include "plinking '' or "practical shooting '' (which the ATF says is closer to police / combat - style competition and not comparable to more traditional types of sports), nor does it allow for collection for historical or design interest.
The law also required that all newly manufactured firearms produced by licensed manufacturers in the United States and imported into the United States bear a serial number. Firearms manufactured prior to the Gun Control Act and firearms manufactured by non-FFLs remain exempt from the serial number requirement. Defacement or removal of the serial number (if present) is a felony offense.
In a June 1966 essay, Neal Knox wrote that what was then called the Dodd Bill was opposed by outdoorsmen and conservationists Harry R. Woodward, C.R. Gutermuth of the Wildlife Management Institute, Richard H. Stroud of the Sport Fishing Institute, Howard Carter Jr. of the National Shooting Sports Foundation, E.C. Hadley of the Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers ' Institute, Robert T. Dennis of the Izaak Walton League, "and countless other sportsmen, and sportsmen and industry groups '' because it would have a far - reaching and damaging effect on the hunting and shooting sports, while failing to reduce crime.
In his remarks upon signing the act in October 1968, Johnson said:
Congress adopted most of our recommendations. But this bill -- as big as this bill is -- still falls short, because we just could not get the Congress to carry out the requests we made of them. I asked for the national registration of all guns and the licensing of those who carry those guns. For the fact of life is that there are over 160 million guns in this country -- more firearms than families. If guns are to be kept out of the hands of the criminal, out of the hands of the insane, and out of the hands of the irresponsible, then we just must have licensing. If the criminal with a gun is to be tracked down quickly, then we must have registration in this country. The voices that blocked these safeguards were not the voices of an aroused nation. They were the voices of a powerful lobby, a gun lobby, that has prevailed for the moment in an election year.
At the time of its passage in 1968, NRA executive vice president Franklin Orth wrote in American Rifleman that "the measure as a whole appears to be one that the sportsmen of America can live with ''.
In the May 1993 issue of Guns & Ammo magazine, Jews for the Preservation of Firearms Ownership (JPFO) compared the GCA to Nazi gun laws.
In a 2011 article noting the death of former U.S. Senator James A. McClure, the NRA called provisions of the GCA "draconian. '' McClure was cosponsor of the Firearm Owners Protection Act (FOPA) of 1986, also called the McClure - Volkmer Act.
Political scientist Robert Spitzer wrote in 2011 that the Gun Control Act of 1968 "provides an ideal case study to highlight the political processes affecting a direct effort to regulate firearms. '' He also stated in his book that President Johnson 's proposal called for national registration of all guns as well as licensing for all gun carriers, but his influence over the enacted law was small. House Rules Committee chair William Colmer only released H.R. 177735 to the floor after Judiciary Committee chair Emanuel Celler promised to oppose efforts to add licensing and registration provisions.
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if a table contains a primary key there can be no duplicate records in a table | Table (database) - wikipedia
A table is a collection of related data held in a structured format within a database. It consists of columns, and rows.
In relational databases, and flat file databases, a table is a set of data elements (values) using a model of vertical columns (identifiable by name) and horizontal rows, the cell being the unit where a row and column intersect. A table has a specified number of columns, but can have any number of rows. Each row is identified by one or more values appearing in a particular column subset. The columns subset which uniquely identifies a row is called the primary key.
"Table '' is another term for "relation ''; although there is the difference in that a table is usually a multiset (bag) of rows where a relation is a set and does not allow duplicates. Besides the actual data rows, tables generally have associated with them some metadata, such as constraints on the table or on the values within particular columns.
The data in a table does not have to be physically stored in the database. Views also function as relational tables, but their data are calculated at query time. External tables (in Informix or Oracle, for example) can also be thought of as views.
In terms of the relational model of databases, a table can be considered a convenient representation of a relation, but the two are not strictly equivalent. For instance, an SQL table can potentially contain duplicate rows, whereas a true relation can not contain duplicate tuples. Similarly, representation as a table implies a particular ordering to the rows and columns, whereas a relation is explicitly unordered. However, the database system does not guarantee any ordering of the rows unless an ORDER BY clause is specified in the SELECT statement that queries the table.
An equally valid representation of a relation is as an n - dimensional chart, where n is the number of attributes (a table 's columns). For example, a relation with two attributes and three values can be represented as a table with two columns and three rows, or as a two - dimensional graph with three points. The table and graph representations are only equivalent if the ordering of rows is not significant, and the table has no duplicate rows.
In non-relational systems, hierarchical databases, the distant counterpart of a table is a structured file, representing the rows of a table in each row of the file and each column in a row. This structure implies that a row can have repeating information, generally in the child data segments. Data are stored in sequence of physical records.
Unlike a spreadsheet, the datatype of a column is ordinarily defined by the schema describing the table. Some SQL systems, such as SQLite, are less strict about column datatype definitions.
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why did the united states of america sever all ties with cuba by 1965 | Cuba -- United States relations - wikipedia
Cuba and the United States restored diplomatic relations on 20 July 2015, which had been severed in 1961 during the Cold War. U.S. diplomatic representation in Cuba is handled by the United States Embassy in Havana, and there is a similar Cuban Embassy in Washington, D.C.. The United States, however, continues to maintain its commercial, economic, and financial embargo, which makes it illegal for U.S. corporations to do business with Cuba. Leaders in both houses of Congress as well as President Donald Trump support the embargo, although the Cuban government has called for it to be repealed.
The hold of the Spanish Empire on possessions in the Americas was reduced in the 1820s as a result of the Spanish American wars of independence; only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule until the Spanish -- American War (1898) that resulted from the Cuban War of Independence. Under the Treaty of Paris, Cuba became a U.S. protectorate; the U.S. gained a position of economic and political dominance over the island, which persisted after it became formally independent in 1902.
Following the Cuban Revolution of 1959, bilateral relations deteriorated substantially. In 1961, the U.S. severed diplomatic ties with Cuba and began pursuing covert operations to topple the Communist regime. Moreover, the U.S. imposed and subsequently tightened a comprehensive set of restrictions and bans vis - à - vis the Cuban regime as retaliation for the nationalization of U.S. corporations ' property by Cuba. Meanwhile, several organizations, including a nearly unanimous United Nations General Assembly, have called for "an end to the United States ' decades - long economic, commercial and financial embargo against Cuba. ''
On 17 December 2014, U.S. President Barack Obama and Cuban President Raúl Castro announced the beginning of a process of normalizing relations between Cuba and the U.S., which media sources have named "the Cuban Thaw ''. Negotiated in secret in Canada and Vatican City over preceding months, and with the assistance of Pope Francis, the agreement led to the lifting of some U.S. travel restrictions, fewer restrictions on remittances, U.S. banks access to the Cuban financial system, and the establishment of a U.S. embassy in Havana, which closed after Cuba became closely allied with the USSR in 1961. The countries ' respective "interests sections '' in one another 's capitals were upgraded to embassies on 20 July 2015. On 20 March 2016, President Barack Obama visited Cuba, becoming the first President in 88 years to visit the island.
On June 16, 2017 President Donald Trump announced that he was suspending the policy for unconditional sanctions relief for Cuba, while also leaving the door open for a "better deal '' between the US and Cuba.
Relations between the Spanish colony of Cuba and polities on the North American mainland first established themselves in the early 18th century through illicit commercial contracts by the European colonies of the New World, trading to elude colonial taxes. As both legal and illegal trade increased, Cuba became a comparatively prosperous trading partner in the region, and a center of tobacco and sugar production. During this period Cuban merchants increasingly traveled to North American ports, establishing trade contracts that endured for many years. The British occupation of Havana in 1762 opened up trade with the British colonies in North America, and the rebellion of the thirteen colonies in 1776 provided additional trade opportunities. Spain opened Cuban ports to North American commerce officially in November 1776 and the island became increasingly dependent on that trade.
After the opening of the island to world trade in 1818, trade agreements began to replace Spanish commercial connections. In 1820 Thomas Jefferson thought Cuba is "the most interesting addition which could ever be made to our system of States '' and told Secretary of War John C. Calhoun that the United States "ought, at the first possible opportunity, to take Cuba. '' In a letter to the U.S. Minister to Spain Hugh Nelson, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams described the likelihood of U.S. "annexation of Cuba '' within half a century despite obstacles: "But there are laws of political as well as of physical gravitation; and if an apple severed by the tempest from its native tree can not choose but fall to the ground, Cuba, forcibly disjoined from its own unnatural connection with Spain, and incapable of self support, can gravitate only towards the North American Union, which by the same law of nature can not cast her off from its bosom. ''
In August 1851, 40 Americans who took part in Narciso López 's filibustering expedition in Cuba, including William L. Crittenden, were executed by Spanish authorities in Havana. In 1854, a secret proposal known as the Ostend Manifesto was devised by U.S. diplomats, interested in adding a slave state to the Union. The Manifesto proposed buying Cuba from Spain for $130 million. If Spain were to reject the offer, the Manifesto implied that, in the name of Manifest Destiny, war would be necessary. When the plans became public, because of one author 's vocal enthusiasm for the plan, the manifesto caused a scandal, and was rejected, in part because of objections from anti-slavery campaigners.
By 1877, Americans purchased 83 percent of Cuba 's total exports. North Americans were also increasingly taking up residence on the island, and some districts on the northern shore were said to have more the character of America than Spanish settlements. Between 1878 and 1898 American investors took advantage of deteriorating economic conditions of the Ten Years ' War to take over estates they had tried unsuccessfully to buy before while others acquired properties at very low prices. Above all this presence facilitated the integration of the Cuban economy into the North American system and weakened Cuba 's ties with Spain.
As Cuban resistance to Spanish rule grew, rebels fighting for independence attempted to get support from U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant. Grant declined and the resistance was curtailed, though American interests in the region continued. U.S. Secretary of State James G. Blaine wrote in 1881 of Cuba, "that rich island, the key to the Gulf of Mexico, and the field for our most extended trade in the Western Hemisphere, is, though in the hands of Spain, a part of the American commercial system... If ever ceasing to be Spanish, Cuba must necessarily become American and not fall under any other European domination. ''
After some rebel successes in Cuba 's second war of independence in 1897, U.S. President William McKinley offered to buy Cuba for $300 million. Rejection of the offer, and an explosion that sank the American battleship USS Maine in Havana harbor, led to the Spanish -- American War. In Cuba the war became known as "the U.S. intervention in Cuba 's War of Independence ''. On the 10th December 1898 Spain and the United States signed the Treaty of Paris and, in accordance with the treaty, Spain renounced all rights to Cuba. The treaty put an end to the Spanish Empire in the Americas and marked the beginning of United States expansion and long - term political dominance in the region. Immediately after the signing of the treaty, the U.S. - owned "Island of Cuba Real Estate Company '' opened for business to sell Cuban land to Americans. U.S. military rule of the island lasted until 1902 when Cuba was finally granted formal independence.
The Teller Amendment to the U.S. declaration of war against Spain in 1898 disavowed any intention of exercising "sovereignty, jurisdiction or control '' over Cuba, but the United States only agreed to withdraw its troops from Cuba when Cuba agreed to the eight provisions of the Platt Amendment, an amendment to the 1901 Army Appropriations Act authored by Connecticut Republican Senator Orville H. Platt, which would allow the United States to intervene in Cuban affairs if needed for the maintenance of good government and committed Cuba to lease to the U.S. land for naval bases. Cuba leased to the United States the southern portion of Guantánamo Bay, where a United States Naval Station had been established in 1898. The Platt Amendment defined the terms of Cuban - U.S. relations for the following 33 years and provided the legal basis for U.S. military interventions with varying degrees of support from Cuban governments and political parties.
Despite recognizing Cuba 's transition into an independent republic, United States Governor Charles Edward Magoon assumed temporary military rule for three more years following a rebellion led in part by José Miguel Gómez. In the following 20 years the United States repeatedly intervened militarily in Cuban affairs: 1906 -- 09, 1912 and 1917 -- 22. In 1912 U.S. forces were sent to quell protests by Afro - Cubans against discrimination.
By 1926 U.S. companies owned 60 % of the Cuban sugar industry and imported 95 % of the total Cuban crop, and Washington was generally supportive of successive Cuban governments. However, internal confrontations between the government of Gerardo Machado and political opposition led to his military overthrow by Cuban rebels in 1933. U.S. Ambassador Sumner Welles requested U.S. military intervention. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, despite his promotion of the Good Neighbor policy toward Latin America, ordered 29 warships to Cuba and Key West, alerting United States Marines, and bombers for use if necessary. Machado 's replacement, Ramón Grau assumed the Presidency and immediately nullified the Platt amendment. In protest, the United States denied recognition to Grau 's government, Ambassador Welles describing the new regime as "communistic '' and "irresponsible ''.
The rise of General Fulgencio Batista in the 1930s to de facto leader and President of Cuba for two terms (1940 -- 44 and 1952 -- 59) led to an era of close co-operation between the governments of Cuba and the United States. The United States and Cuba signed another Treaty of Relations in 1934. Batista 's second term as President was initiated by a military coup planned in Florida, and U.S. President Harry S. Truman quickly recognized Batista 's return to rule providing military and economic aid. The Batista era witnessed the almost complete domination of Cuba 's economy by the United States, as the number of American corporations continued to swell, though corruption was rife and Havana also became a popular sanctuary for American organized crime figures, notably hosting the infamous Havana Conference in 1946. U.S. Ambassador to Cuba Arthur Gardner later described the relationship between the U.S. and Batista during his second term as President:
Batista had always leaned toward the United States. I do n't think we ever had a better friend. It was regrettable, like all South Americans, that he was known -- although I had no absolute knowledge of it -- to be getting a cut, I think is the word for it, in almost all the things that were done. But, on the other hand, he was doing an amazing job.
As armed conflict broke out in Cuba between rebels led by Fidel Castro and the Batista government, the U.S. was urged to end arms sales to Batista by Cuban president - in - waiting Manuel Urrutia Lleó. Washington made the critical move in March 1958 to prevent sales of rifles to Batista 's forces, thus changing the course of the revolution irreversibly towards the rebels. The move was vehemently opposed by U.S. ambassador Earl E.T. Smith, and led U.S. State Department adviser William Wieland to lament that "I know Batista is considered by many as a son of a bitch... but American interests come first... at least he was our son of a bitch. ''
Until Castro, the U.S. was so overwhelmingly influential in Cuba that the American ambassador was the second most important man, sometimes even more important than the Cuban president.
U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower officially recognized the new Cuban government after the 1959 Cuban Revolution which had overthrown the Batista government, but relations between the two governments deteriorated rapidly. Within days Earl E.T. Smith, U.S. Ambassador to Cuba, was replaced by Philip Bonsal. The U.S. government became increasingly concerned by Cuba 's agrarian reforms and the nationalization of industries owned by U.S. citizens. Between 15 and 26 April 1959, Fidel Castro and a delegation of representatives visited the U.S. as guests of the Press Club. This visit was perceived by many as a charm offensive on the part of Castro and his recently initiated government, and his visit included laying a wreath at the Lincoln memorial. After a meeting between Castro and Vice-President Richard Nixon, where Castro outlined his reform plans for Cuba, the U.S. began to impose gradual trade restrictions on the island. On 4 September 1959, Ambassador Bonsal met with Cuban Premier Fidel Castro to express "serious concern at the treatment being given to American private interests in Cuba both agriculture and utilities. ''
The Escambray rebellion was a six - year rebellion (1959 -- 1965) in the Escambray Mountains by a group of insurgents who opposed the Cuban government led by Fidel Castro. The rebelling group of insurgents was a mix of former Batista soldiers, local farmers, and former allied guerrillas who had fought alongside Castro against Batista during the Cuban Revolution. As state intervention and take - over of privately owned businesses continued, trade restrictions on Cuba increased. The U.S. stopped buying Cuban sugar and refused to supply its former trading partner with much needed oil, with a devastating effect on the island 's economy, leading to Cuba turning to their newfound trading partner the Soviet Union for petroleum. In March 1960, tensions increased when the freighter La Coubre exploded in Havana Harbor, killing over 75 people. Fidel Castro blamed the United States and compared the incident to the sinking of the Maine, though admitting he could provide no evidence for his accusation. That same month, President Eisenhower quietly authorized the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to organize, train, and equip Cuban refugees as a guerrilla force to overthrow Castro.
Each time the Cuban government nationalized American citizens properties, the American government took countermeasures, resulting in the prohibition of all exports to Cuba on 19 October 1960. Consequently, Cuba began to consolidate trade relations with the USSR, leading the U.S. to break off all remaining official diplomatic relations. Later that year, U.S. diplomats Edwin L. Sweet and William G. Friedman were arrested and expelled from the island having been charged with "encouraging terrorist acts, granting asylum, financing subversive publications and smuggling weapons ''. On 3 January 1961 the U.S. withdrew diplomatic recognition of the Cuban government and closed the embassy in Havana.
Presidential candidate John F. Kennedy believed that Eisenhower 's policy toward Cuba had been mistaken. He criticized what he saw as use of the U.S. government influence to advance the interest and increase the profits of private U.S. companies instead of helping Cuba to achieve economic progress, saying that Americans dominated the island 's economy and had given support to one of the bloodiest and most repressive dictatorships in the history of Latin America. "We let Batista put the U.S. on the side of tyranny, and we did nothing to convince the people of Cuba and Latin America that we wanted to be on the side of freedom ''.
In 1961 Cuba resisted an armed invasion by about 1,500 CIA trained Cuban exiles at the Bay of Pigs. President John F. Kennedy 's complete assumption of responsibility for the venture, which provoked a popular reaction against the invaders, proved to be a further propaganda boost for the Cuban government. The U.S. began the formulation of new plans aimed at destabilizing the Cuban government. These activities were collectively known as the "Cuban Project '' (also known as Operation Mongoose). This was to be a coordinated program of political, psychological, and military sabotage, involving intelligence operations as well as assassination attempts on key political leaders. The Cuban project also proposed attacks on mainland U.S. targets, hijackings and assaults on Cuban refugee boats to generate U.S. public support for military action against the Cuban government, these proposals were known collectively as Operation Northwoods.
A U.S. Senate Select Intelligence Committee report later confirmed over eight attempted plots to kill Castro between 1960 and 1965, as well as additional plans against other Cuban leaders. After weathering the failed Bay of Pigs invasion, Cuba observed as U.S. armed forces staged a mock invasion of a Caribbean island in 1962 named Operation Ortsac. The purpose of the invasion was to overthrow a leader whose name, Ortsac, was Castro spelled backwards. Tensions between the two nations reached their peak in 1962, after U.S. reconnaissance aircraft photographed the Soviet construction of intermediate - range missile sites. The discovery led to the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Trade relations also deteriorated in equal measure. In 1962, President John F. Kennedy broadened the partial trade restrictions imposed after the revolution by Eisenhower to a ban on all trade with Cuba, except for non-subsidized sale of foods and medicines. A year later travel and financial transactions by U.S. citizens with Cuba was prohibited. The United States embargo against Cuba was to continue in varying forms.
Relations began to thaw during President Lyndon B. Johnson 's tenure continuing through the next decade and a half. In 1964 Fidel Castro sent a message to Johnson encouraging dialogue, he wrote:
I seriously hope that Cuba and the United States can eventually respect and negotiate our differences. I believe that there are no areas of contention between us that can not be discussed and settled within a climate of mutual understanding. But first, of course, it is necessary to discuss our differences. I now believe that this hostility between Cuba and the United States is both unnatural and unnecessary -- and it can be eliminated.
Through the late 1960s and early 1970s a sustained period of aircraft hijackings between Cuba and the U.S. by citizens of both nations led to a need for cooperation. By 1974, U.S. elected officials had begun to visit the island. Three years later, during the Carter administration, the U.S. and Cuba simultaneously opened interests sections in each other 's capitals. In 1980, after 10,000 Cubans crammed into the Peruvian embassy seeking political asylum, Castro stated that any who wished to do so could leave Cuba, in what became known as the Mariel boatlift. Approximately 125,000 people left Cuba for the United States.
In 1977, Cuba and the United States signed a maritime boundary treaty in which the countries agreed on the location of their border in the Straits of Florida. The treaty was never sent to the United States Senate for ratification, but the agreement has been implemented by the U.S. State Department.
In 1981 President Ronald Reagan 's new administration announced a tightening of the embargo. The U.S. also re-established the travel ban, prohibiting U.S. citizens from spending money in Cuba. The ban was later supplemented to include Cuban government officials or their representatives visiting the U.S. In 1985 Radio y Televisión Martí, backed by Ronald Reagan 's administration, began to broadcast news and information from the U.S. to Cuba.
The Cold War ended with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the early - 1990s, leaving Cuba without its major international sponsor. The ensuing years were marked by economic difficulty in Cuba, a time known as the Special Period. U.S. law allowed private humanitarian aid to Cuba for part of this time. However, the long standing U.S. embargo was reinforced in October 1992 by the Cuban Democracy Act (the "Torricelli Law '') and in 1996 by the Cuban Liberty and Democracy Solidarity Act (known as the Helms - Burton Act). The 1992 act prohibited foreign - based subsidiaries of U.S. companies from trading with Cuba, travel to Cuba by U.S. citizens, and family remittances to Cuba. Sanctions could also be applied to non-U.S. companies trading with Cuba. As a result, multinational companies had to choose between Cuba and the U.S., the latter being a much larger market.
On 24 February 1996, two unarmed Cessna 337s flown by the group "Brothers to the Rescue '' were shot down by Cuban Air Force MiG - 29, killing three Cuban - Americans and one Cuban U.S. resident. The Cuban government claimed that the planes had entered into Cuban airspace.
Some veterans of CIA 's 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion, while no longer being sponsored by the CIA, are still active, though they are now in their seventies or older. Members of Alpha 66, an anti-Castro paramilitary organization, continue to practice their AK - 47 skills in a camp in South Florida.
In January 1999, U.S. President Bill Clinton eased travel restrictions to Cuba in an effort to increase cultural exchanges between the two nations. The Clinton administration approved a two - game exhibition series between the Baltimore Orioles and Cuban national baseball team, marking the first time a Major League Baseball team played in Cuba since 1959.
At the United Nations Millennium Summit in September 2000, Castro and Clinton spoke briefly at a group photo session and shook hands. U.N. Secretary - General Kofi Annan commented afterwards, "For a U.S. president and a Cuban president to shake hands for the first time in over 40 years -- I think it is a major symbolic achievement ''. While Castro said it was a gesture of "dignity and courtesy '', the White House denied the encounter was of any significance. In November 2001, U.S. companies began selling food to the country for the first time since Washington imposed the trade embargo after the revolution. In 2002, former U.S. President Jimmy Carter became the first former or sitting U.S. president to visit Cuba since 1928.
Relations deteriorated again following the election of George W. Bush. During his campaign Bush appealed for the support of Cuban - Americans by emphasizing his opposition to the government of Fidel Castro and supporting tighter embargo restrictions Cuban Americans, who until 2008 tended to vote Republican, expected effective policies and greater participation in the formation of policies regarding Cuba - U.S. relations. Approximately three months after his inauguration, the Bush administration began expanding travel restrictions. The United States Department of the Treasury issued greater efforts to deter American citizens from illegally traveling to the island. Also in 2001, five Cuban agents were convicted on 26 counts of espionage, conspiracy to commit murder, and other illegal activities in the United States. On 15 June 2009, the U.S. Supreme Court denied review of their case. Tensions heightened as the Under Secretary of State for Arms Control and International Security Affairs, John R. Bolton, accused Cuba of maintaining a biological weapons program. Many in the United States, including ex-president Carter, expressed doubts about the claim. Later, Bolton was criticized for pressuring subordinates who questioned the quality of the intelligence John Bolton had used as the basis for his assertion. Bolton identified the Castro government as part of America 's "axis of evil, '' highlighting the fact that the Cuban leader visited several U.S. foes, including Libya, Iran and Syria.
Following his 2004 reelection, Bush declared Cuba to be one of the few "outposts of tyranny '' remaining in the world.
In January 2006, United States Interests Section in Havana began, in an attempt to break Cuba 's "information blockade '', displaying messages, including quotes from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, on a scrolling "electronic billboard '' in the windows of their top floor. Following a protest march organized by the Cuban government, the government erected a large number of poles, carrying black flags with single white stars, obscuring the messages.
On 10 October 2006, the United States announced the creation of a task force made up of officials from several U.S. agencies to pursue more aggressively American violators of the U.S. trade embargo against Cuba, with penalties as severe as 10 years of prison and hundreds of thousands of dollars in fines for violators of the embargo.
In November 2006, U.S. Congressional auditors accused the development agency USAID of failing properly to administer its program for promoting democracy in Cuba. They said USAID had channeled tens of millions of dollars through exile groups in Miami, which were sometimes wasteful or kept questionable accounts. The report said the organizations had sent items such as chocolate and cashmere jerseys to Cuba. Their report concluded that 30 % of the exile groups who received USAID grants showed questionable expenditures.
After Fidel Castro 's announcement of resignation in 2008, U.S. Deputy Secretary of State John Negroponte said that the United States would maintain its embargo.
In 2003, the United States Commission for Assistance to a Free Cuba was formed to "explore ways the U.S. can help hasten and ease a democratic transition in Cuba. '' The commission immediately announced a series of measures that included a tightening of the travel embargo to the island, a crackdown on illegal cash transfers, and a more robust information campaign aimed at Cuba. Castro insisted that, in spite of the formation of the Commission, Cuba is itself "in transition: to socialism (and) to communism '' and that it was "ridiculous for the U.S. to threaten Cuba now ''.
In a 2004 meeting with members of the Commission for Assistance to a Free Cuba, President Bush stated, "We 're not waiting for the day of Cuban freedom; we are working for the day of freedom in Cuba. '' The President reaffirmed his commitment to Cuban - Americans just in time for his 2004 reelection with promises to "work '' rather than wait for freedom in Cuba.
In April 2006, the Bush administration appointed Caleb McCarry "transition coordinator '' for Cuba, providing a budget of $59 million, with the task of promoting the governmental shift to democracy after Castro 's death. Official Cuban news service Granma alleges that these transition plans were created at the behest of Cuban exile groups in Miami, and that McCarry was responsible for engineering the overthrow of the Aristide government in Haiti.
In 2006, the Commission for Assistance to a Free Cuba released a 93 - page report. The report included a plan that suggested the United States spend $80 million to ensure that Cuba 's communist system did not outlive the death of Fidel Castro. The plan also feature a classified annex that Cuban officials mistakenly claimed could be a plot to assassinate Fidel Castro or a United States military invasion of Cuba.
Relations between Cuba and the United States remain tenuous, but since Fidel Castro stepped down from official leadership of the Cuban state and Barack Obama became president of the United States, they have improved.
In April 2009, Obama, who had received nearly half of the Cuban Americans vote in the 2008 presidential election, began implementing a less strict policy towards Cuba. Obama stated that he was open to dialogue with Cuba, but that he would only lift the trade embargo if Cuba underwent political change. In March 2009, Obama signed into law a congressional spending bill which eased some economic sanctions on Cuba and eased travel restrictions on Cuban - Americans (defined as persons with a relative "who is no more than three generations removed from that person '') traveling to Cuba. The April executive decision further removed time limits on Cuban - American travel to the island. Another restriction loosened in April 2009 was in the realm of telecommunications, which would allow quicker and easier access to the internet for Cuba. The loosening of restrictions is likely to help nonprofits and scientists from both countries who work together on issues of mutual concern, such as destruction of shared biodiversity and diseases that affect both populations. At the 2009 5th Summit of the Americas, President Obama signaled the opening of a new beginning with Cuba.
Obama 's overtures were reciprocated, to some degree, by new Cuban President Raúl Castro. On 27 July 2012, Raúl Castro said that the Government of Cuba is willing to hold talks with the United States government to "discuss anything ''. On 10 December 2013, at a state memorial service for Nelson Mandela, Barack Obama and Raúl Castro shook hands, with Castro saying in English: "Mr. President, I am Castro. '' Though both sides played down the handshake (much like the Clinton handshake of 2000), an adviser to Obama said that Obama wanted to improve relations with Cuba, yet had concerns about human rights on the island.
Beginning in 2013, Cuban and U.S. officials held secret talks brokered in part by Pope Francis and hosted in Canada and Vatican City to start the process of restoring diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States. On 17 December 2014, the framework of an agreement to normalize relations and eventually end the longstanding embargo was announced by Castro in Cuba and Obama in the United States. Cuba and the United States pledged to start official negotiations with the aim of reopening their respective embassies in Havana and Washington. As part of the agreement, aid worker Alan Gross and Rolando Sarraff Trujillo, a Cuban national working as a U.S. intelligence officer, were released by the Cuban government, which also promised to free an unspecified number of Cuban nationals from a list of political prisoners earlier submitted by the United States. For its part, the U.S. government released the last three remaining members of the Cuban Five. Reaction to this change in policy within the Cuban - American community was mixed, and Cuban - American senators Bob Menendez (D - NJ), Marco Rubio (R - FL), and Ted Cruz (R - TX) all condemned the Obama administration 's change in policy. However, opinion polls indicated the thaw in relations was broadly popular with the American public.
High - level diplomats from Cuba and the United States met in Havana in January 2015. While the talks did not produce a significant breakthrough, both sides described them as "productive '', and Cuban Foreign Ministry official Josefina Vidal said further talks would be scheduled.
Under new rules implemented by the Obama administration, restrictions on travel by Americans to Cuba are significantly relaxed as of 16 January 2015, and the limited import of items like Cuban cigars and rum to the United States is allowed, as is the export of American computer and telecommunications technology to Cuba.
On 14 April 2015, the Obama administration announced that Cuba would be removed from the United States "Terrorist Sponsor '' list. The House and Senate had 45 days from 14 April 2015 to review and possibly block this action, but this did not occur, and on 29 May 2015, the 45 days lapsed, therefore officially removing Cuba from the United States ' list of state sponsors of terrorism. This move by President Obama was a long - overdue recognition that Cuba 's SST designation was no longer valid with the end of the Cold War. On 1 July 2015, President Barack Obama announced that formal diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States would resume, and embassies would be opened in Washington and Havana. Relations between Cuba and the United States were formally re-established on 20 July 2015, with the opening of the Cuban embassy in Washington and the U.S. embassy in Havana. Barack Obama visited Cuba for three days in March 2016. In August 2016, JetBlue Flight 387 landed in Santa Clara, becoming the first direct commercial flight to travel between the two countries since the early 1960s. On November 28, 2016, the first normally scheduled commercial flight after more than 50 years landed in Havana from Miami on an American Airlines jet.
With the election of Republican Donald Trump as U.S. president, the state of relations between the United States and Cuba was unclear as of January 2017. While a candidate for the presidency, Trump criticized aspects of the Cuban Thaw, suggesting he could suspend the normalization process unless he can negotiate "a good agreement ''.
On June 16, 2017, President Trump announced that he was suspending what he called a "completely one - sided deal with Cuba '' (referring to Obama 's policy of granting Cuba economic sanctions relief for nothing in return). A new policy aims to impose new restrictions with regards to travel and funding, however travelling via airlines and cruise lines will not be prohibited completely. Moreover, diplomatic relations remain intact and embassies in Washington D.C. and Havana stay open.
In the summer of 2017, reports surfaced that American and Canadian diplomats stationed in Havana had experienced unusual physical symptoms affecting the brain -- including hearing loss, dizziness, and nausea. American investigators have been unable to identify the cause of these symptoms.
In September 2017, the U.S. ordered nonessential diplomats and families out of Cuba as a result of these mysterious health issues.
Under the Trade Sanctions Reform and Enhancement Act of 2000, exports from the United States to Cuba in the industries of food and medical products are permitted with the proper licensing and permissions from the U.S. Department of Commerce and the United States Department of the Treasury.
The Obama administration eased specific travel and other restrictions on Cuba in January 2011. A delegation from the United States Congress called on Cuban president Raúl Castro on 24 February 2012 to discuss bilateral relations. The Congress delegation included Patrick Leahy, Democratic Senator from the state of Vermont and chairman of the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, and Richard Shelby, Republican Senator from the state of Alabama and ranking member of the Committee of Banking, Housing and Urban Matters; they went to Cuba as part of a delegation of Senators and Representatives of the Congress of United States.
Travel and import restrictions imposed by the United States were further relaxed by executive action in January 2015 as part of the Cuban Thaw.
The U.S. continues to operate a naval base at Guantánamo Bay under a 1903 lease agreement "for the time required for the purposes of coaling and naval stations ''. The U.S. issues a check to Cuba annually for its lease, but since the revolution, Cuba has cashed only one payment. The Cuban government opposes the treaty, arguing that it violates article 52 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, titled "Coercion of a State by the threat or use of force ''. However, Article 4, titled "Non-retroactivity of the present Convention '' of the same document states that Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties shall not be retroactively applied to any treaties made before itself.
The leasing of land like the Guantánamo Bay tract was one of the requirements of the Platt Amendment, conditions for the withdrawal of United States troops remaining in Cuba following the Spanish -- American War.
Over time, the United States ' laws and foreign policy regarding Cuba has changed drastically due to strained relationship. Beginning with opposition to the Castro led Independence Revolution in Cuba, the Spanish -- American War, naval use of Guantanamo Bay Trade restrictions imposed by Nixon, and a trade embargo opened in the year 2000.
Since the 1990s, American public opinion of Cuba has overall become more favorable, and people became more supportive of ending the trade embargo as well as re-establishing diplomatic ties to Cuba. Gallup 's poll that asked, "Is your overall opinion of Cuba very favorable, mostly favorable, mostly unfavorable or very unfavorable?, '' began in 1997 with only 10 % of people voting favorable, or mostly favorable and in 2015, Cuba 's favorability reached 46 %, almost half of the population believing Cuba to be very or mostly favorable, the highest percentage since the question has been asked. That question has a had a constant rise in favorability, while asking whether or not Cuba was a serious threat had a constant decrease. According to the Roper Center, 68 % of people in 1983 viewed Cuba has a serious or moderately serious threat to the United States, while in 2014 only 25 % of the American population see Cuba as a threat. In a separate question by Gallup, "Do you favor or oppose re-establishing diplomatic relationships with Cuba? '' this question has varied quite a bit over time, reaching its highest 71 % in 1999 and most recently 51 % in 2015. Data is likely to change more with higher favorability proceeding President Obama 's 2016 actions to lift the Cold War embargo policy off of Cuba.
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gl bajaj institute of technology and management mathura | Gl Bajaj institute of Technology and Management - wikipedia
G.L Bajaj institute of management and technology is the 6th institute under the banner of Rajiv memorial academic welfare society (Registered under societies registration act 1860)
G.L Bajaj institute of management and technology is one of the top most and prestigious educational institute located in Greater Noida / Delhi NCR region.
GL Bajaj is a class apart institute which focuses on the overall development of its students and has a very different approach in inculcating ethical values in its students.
The institute is approved by All India council of technical education (AICTE), Ministry of human resource and development, government of India and is affiliated to Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow.
GL Bajaj is a self - financed institute and is governed by Rajiv memorial academic welfare society and is located at Plot no 2, knowledge park III, Greater Noida, G.B Nagar, U.P, India. The chairman of the G.L Bajaj institute is R.K Agarwal, the vice chairman is Pankaj Agarwal and the Director of the institute is Dr. Rajeev Agarwal.
G.L Bajaj institute of management and technology has received various accolades and awards due to consistent excellent performance in academics and co-curricular activities. Some of the awards recently bagged by G.L Bajaj are -
And many more....
GL. Bajaj group of institutions have tie up with various MOU 's and alliances like -
The GL Bajaj group of institutions offers various undergraduate and post-graduate programs.
The institute offers four year undergraduate engineering programs in various branches like -
On the other hand the institute offers various master programs which is of two years in various departments like -
The faculty and the HOD 's are the major force behind each and every departments at GL Bajaj institute of management and technology the teachers are highly experienced and qualified, imparting their knowledge and skills in its students.
The G.L Bajaj institute of management and technology has joined hands with the NASSCOM industry academic partnership, where students gets an opportunity to gain various exposure and hands on experience on live projects.
The institute conducts various seminars, workshops for its students to keep them up to date with the current market trends some of the senior faculty members of the institution are associated with CII, CSI, IEEMA, and ISME.
The institute even has its Internal Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC), for the performance evaluation, assessment and accreditation and for the up - gradation of higher education. The quality of enhancement is a continuous process so IQAC is the integral part of the institution and works towards the betterment of the college and its quality.
The major goal of IQAC is the consistent and continuous improvement in the performance of the institution.
The institute has an anti-ragging cell and follows anti ragging policies. There is a proper anti-ragging committee and counselor for its students.
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strength of the story a boy's best friend | A Boy 's Best Friend - Wikipedia
"A Boy 's Best Friend '' is a science fiction short story by American writer Isaac Asimov, published in 1975. It has been collected in The Complete Robot and first appeared in Boys ' Life, March 1975.
This story is set far in the future when habitation of the Moon has already taken place. Jimmy Anderson is a Moon - born ten - year - old, and he owns a robotic dog named Robutt (robot - mutt), whom he comes to love. He can go on the moon freely and securely as he is moon born and has Robutt with him. However, his parents want him to have a real dog, a Scottish Terrier. Since Moon - borns can not visit Earth, his parents bring the dog to the Moon. Jimmy does n't want to part away from Robutt. But since the relationship between Jimmy and Robutt is so close, Jimmy decides not to have the ' living ' dog and keep the ' fake ' dog Robutt instead. Jimmy straight away disagree to what his parents says and tightly hug his robutt.
Quoting Asimov himself, "you may find in it (the story) a distant echo of Robbie ''. That story, written 35 years before, also involves a relationship between a child and a robot.
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what is another name for the prime meridian | Prime meridian - wikipedia
A prime meridian is a meridian (a line of longitude) in a geographical coordinate system at which longitude is defined to be 0 °. Together, a prime meridian and its antimeridian (the 180th meridian in a 360 ° - system) form a great circle. This great circle divides the sphere, e.g., the Earth, into two hemispheres. If one uses directions of East and West from a defined prime meridian, then they can be called Eastern Hemisphere and Western Hemisphere.
A prime meridian is ultimately arbitrary, unlike an equator, which is determined by the axis of rotation -- and various conventions have been used or advocated in different regions and throughout history. The most widely used modern meridian is the IERS Reference Meridian. It is derived but deviates slightly from the Greenwich Meridian, which was selected as an international standard in 1884.
The notion of longitude was developed by the Greek Eratosthenes (c. 276 BC -- c. 195 BC) in Alexandria, and Hipparchus (c. 190 BC -- c. 120 BC) in Rhodes, and applied to a large number of cities by the geographer Strabo (64 / 63 BC -- c. 24 AD). But it was Ptolemy (c. AD 90 -- c. AD 168) who first used a consistent meridian for a world map in his Geographia.
Ptolemy used as his basis the "Fortunate Isles '', a group of islands in the Atlantic which are usually associated with the Canary Islands (13 ° to 18 ° W), although his maps correspond more closely to the Cape Verde islands (22 ° to 25 ° W). The main point is to be comfortably west of the western tip of Africa (17.5 ° W) as negative numbers were not yet in use. His prime meridian corresponds to 18 ° 40 ' west of Winchester (about 20 ° W) today. At that time the chief method of determining longitude was by using the reported times of lunar eclipses in different countries.
Ptolemy 's Geographia was first printed with maps at Bologna in 1477, and many early globes in the 16th century followed his lead. But there was still a hope that a "natural '' basis for a prime meridian existed. Christopher Columbus reported (1493) that the compass pointed due north somewhere in mid-Atlantic, and this fact was used in the important Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 which settled the territorial dispute between Spain and Portugal over newly discovered lands. The Tordesillas line was eventually settled at 370 leagues west of Cape Verde. This is shown in Diogo Ribeiro 's 1529 map. São Miguel Island (25.5 ° W) in the Azores was still used for the same reason as late as 1594 by Christopher Saxton, although by then it had been shown that the zero magnetic deviation line did not follow a line of longitude.
In 1541, Mercator produced his famous 41 cm terrestrial globe and drew his prime meridian precisely through Fuertaventura (14 ° 1'W) in the Canaries. His later maps used the Azores, following the magnetic hypothesis. But by the time that Ortelius produced the first modern atlas in 1570, other islands such as Cape Verde were coming into use. In his atlas longitudes were counted from 0 ° to 360 °, not 180 ° W to 180 ° E as is usual today. This practice was followed by navigators well into the 18th century. In 1634, Cardinal Richelieu used the westernmost island of the Canaries, Ferro, 19 ° 55 ' west of Paris, as the choice of meridian. The geographer Delisle decided to round this off to 20 °, so that it simply became the meridian of Paris disguised.
In the early 18th century the battle was on to improve the determination of longitude at sea, leading to the development of the marine chronometer by John Harrison. But it was the development of accurate star charts, principally by the first British Astronomer Royal, John Flamsteed between 1680 and 1719 and disseminated by his successor Edmund Halley, that enabled navigators to use the lunar method of determining longitude more accurately using the octant developed by Thomas Godfrey and John Hadley. Between 1765 and 1811, Nevil Maskelyne published 49 issues of the Nautical Almanac based on the meridian of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. "Maskelyne 's tables not only made the lunar method practicable, they also made the Greenwich meridian the universal reference point. Even the French translations of the Nautical Almanac retained Maskelyne 's calculations from Greenwich -- in spite of the fact that every other table in the Connaissance des Temps considered the Paris meridian as the prime. ''
In 1884, at the International Meridian Conference in Washington, D.C., 22 countries voted to adopt the Greenwich meridian as the prime meridian of the world. The French argued for a neutral line, mentioning the Azores and the Bering Strait, but eventually abstained and continued to use the Paris meridian until 1911.
In October 1884 the Greenwich Meridian was selected by delegates (forty - one delegates representing twenty - five nations) to the International Meridian Conference held in Washington, D.C., United States to be the common zero of longitude and standard of time reckoning throughout the world. The modern prime meridian, the IERS Reference Meridian, is placed very near this meridian and is the prime meridian that currently has the widest use.
The modern prime meridian, based at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, was established by Sir George Airy in 1851.
The position of the Greenwich Meridian has been defined by the location of the Airy Transit Circle ever since the first observation was taken with it by Sir George Airy in 1851. Prior to that, it was defined by a succession of earlier transit instruments, the first of which was acquired by the second Astronomer Royal, Edmond Halley in 1721. It was set up in the extreme north - west corner of the Observatory between Flamsteed House and the Western Summer House. This spot, now subsumed into Flamsteed House, is roughly 43 metres to the west of the Airy Transit Circle, a distance equivalent to roughly 0.15 seconds of time. It was Airy 's transit circle that was adopted in principle (with French delegates, who pressed for adoption of the Paris meridian abstaining) as the Prime Meridian of the world at the 1884 International Meridian Conference.
All of these Greenwich meridians were located via an astronomic observation from the surface of the Earth, oriented via a plumb line along the direction of gravity at the surface. This astronomic Greenwich meridian was disseminated around the world, first via the lunar distance method, then by chronometers carried on ships, then via telegraph lines carried by submarine communications cables, then via radio time signals. One remote longitude ultimately based on the Greenwich meridian using these methods was that of the North American Datum 1927 or NAD27, an ellipsoid whose surface best matches mean sea level under the United States.
Satellites changed the reference from the surface of the Earth to its centre of mass around which all satellites orbit regardless of surface irregularities. The requirement that satellite - based geodetic reference systems be centred on the centre of mass of the earth caused the modern prime meridian to be 5.3 '' east of the astronomic Greenwich prime meridian through the Airy Transit Circle. At the latitude of Greenwich, this amounts to 102 metres. This was officially accepted by the Bureau International de l'Heure (BIH) in 1984 via its BTS84 (BIH Terrestrial System) that later became WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984) and the various ITRFs (International Terrestrial Reference Systems).
Due to the movement of Earth 's tectonic plates, the line of 0 ° longitude along the surface of the Earth has slowly moved toward the west from this shifted position by a few centimetres; that is, towards the Airy Transit Circle (or the Airy Transit Circle has moved toward the east, depending on your point of view) since 1984 (or the 1960s). With the introduction of satellite technology, it became possible to create a more accurate and detailed global map. With these advances there also arose the necessity to define a reference meridian that, whilst being derived from the Airy Transit Circle, would also take into account the effects of plate movement and variations in the way that the Earth was spinning. As a result, the International Reference Meridian was established and is commonly used to denote Earth 's prime meridian (0 ° longitude) by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service, which defines and maintains the link between longitude and time. Based on observations to satellites and celestial compact radio sources (quasars) from various coordinated stations around the globe, Airy 's transit circle drifts northeast about 2.5 centimetres per year relative to this Earth - centred 0 ° longitude. Circa 1999 the international reference meridian (IRM) passed 5.31 arcseconds east of Airy 's meridian or 102.5 metres (336.3 feet) at the latitude of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London. It is also the reference meridian of the Global Positioning System operated by the United States Department of Defense, and of WGS84 and its two formal versions, the ideal International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) and its realization, the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF). A current convention on the Earth uses the opposite of the IRM as the basis for the International Date Line.
On Earth, starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the IERS Reference Meridian (as of 2016) passes through:
As on the Earth, prime meridians must be arbitrarily defined. Often a landmark such as a crater is used; other times a prime meridian is defined by reference to another celestial object, or by magnetic fields. The prime meridians of the following planetographic systems have been defined:
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where was the movie my father the hero filmed | My Father the Hero (1994 film) - Wikipedia
My Father the Hero is a 1994 French - American comedy - drama directed by Steve Miner and starring Gérard Depardieu and Katherine Heigl. It is an English - language remake of the 1991 French film Mon père, ce héros, which also starred Depardieu.
André Arnel (Gérard Depardieu), a Frenchman divorced from his wife, takes his teenage daughter, Nicole (Katherine Heigl), on vacation with him to The Bahamas. She is desperate to appear as a woman and not a girl, so in order to impress a local boy Ben (Dalton James), she makes up more and more ridiculous stories, starting with André being her lover and leading to some bizarre assumptions by the rest of the community.
André is desperate to make Nicole happy (especially as she is increasingly upset by his relationship with girlfriend Isobel) and so plays along with her crazy games, and the stories they make up get increasingly bizarre.
Filming occurred during the summer of 1993.
The film debuted at No. 4 behind Ace Ventura: Pet Detective, Mrs. Doubtfire and Philadelphia.
The film received negative reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 14 %, based on 14 reviews, with an average score of 3.8 / 10.
The film featured music and appearances by the Baha Men. The group 's songs create the movie 's island soundtrack.
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who plays mr. tumnus in the chronicles of narnia | James McAvoy - wikipedia
James McAvoy (/ ˈmækəvɔɪ /; born 21 April 1979) is a Scottish actor. He made his acting debut as a teen in The Near Room (1995) and made mostly television appearances until 2003, when his feature film career began. His notable television work includes the thriller State of Play and the science fiction mini-series Frank Herbert 's Children of Dune.
Besides screen acting, McAvoy has performed in several West End productions and received three nominations for the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor. He has also done voice work for animated films including Gnomeo & Juliet, its sequel, Sherlock Gnomes, and Arthur Christmas.
In 2003, McAvoy appeared in a lead role in Bollywood Queen. This was followed by a supporting role, the faun Mr. Tumnus, in The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (2005). His performance in Kevin Macdonald 's drama The Last King of Scotland (2006) garnered him several award nominations. The critically acclaimed romantic drama war film Atonement (2007) earned him a Golden Globe Award nomination and his second BAFTA nomination. He appeared as a newly trained assassin in the action thriller Wanted (2008). Since 2011, he has played the young Professor Charles Xavier in the superhero film X-Men: First Class (2011), a role he reprised in X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014), X-Men: Apocalypse (2016), Deadpool 2 (2018) and X-Men: Dark Phoenix (2019). McAvoy starred in the crime comedy - drama film Filth (2013) for which he won Best Actor in the British Independent Film Awards. In 2017, he portrayed Kevin, a man with 23 personalities, in M. Night Shyamalan 's Split, for which he received critical acclaim.
McAvoy was born in Glasgow, Scotland on Saturday, 21 April 1979, the son of Elizabeth (née Johnstone), a psychiatric nurse, and James McAvoy, Sr., a builder. He was brought up as a Roman Catholic. His parents divorced when he was seven. McAvoy 's mother suffered from poor health and subsequently decided it was best that he live with his maternal grandparents, Mary and James Johnstone, a butcher who lived in a terraced council house in the nearby Drumchapel area of Glasgow. His mother lived with them intermittently. McAvoy has a sister, Joy, and a younger half - brother, Donald. McAvoy has not been in contact with his father since childhood.
He attended St Thomas Aquinas Secondary in Jordanhill, Glasgow, a Catholic school, and briefly considered joining the Catholic priesthood. In a 2006 interview, McAvoy said that he considered becoming a priest as a child because it seemed to be a way to explore the world via missionary work. During his education, he worked at a local bakery.
McAvoy 's acting debut came at the age of 15 in The Near Room (1995). He later admitted that he was not very interested in acting when joining the film, but was inspired to study acting after developing feelings for his co-star, Alana Brady. He continued to act while still a member of PACE Youth Theatre. McAvoy graduated from the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama in 2000. Throughout the early 2000s, he made guest appearances in television shows and began working in film. In 2001, McAvoy 's performance as a gay hustler in the play Out in the Open impressed director Joe Wright so much that Wright began offering McAvoy parts in his films. McAvoy kept declining them, however, and it was not until six years later that the two worked together.
He starred in Privates on Parade in the Donmar Warehouse, this time catching Sam Mendes ' attention. In 2001, the actor appeared as Private James W. Miller in Band of Brothers, an eleven - hour World War II miniseries by executive producers Steven Spielberg and Tom Hanks. He gained the attention of critics in 2002 's White Teeth, a four - part television drama miniseries adaption based on the novel of the same name by Zadie Smith.
In 2003, McAvoy appeared in the Sci Fi Channel miniseries Frank Herbert 's Children of Dune, adapted from Frank Herbert 's novels. It is one of the highest - rated programmes to be aired on the channel. More cable work came for him when he accepted the role of an unprincipled reporter in 2003 's State of Play. The well - received six - part British drama serial tells the story of a newspaper 's investigation into the death of a young woman and was broadcast on BBC One. Calling the programme a "must - see '', the Chicago Tribune recommended State of Play for its cast 's performance. In 2002, McAvoy shot scenes for Bollywood Queen, described as West Side Story meets Romeo and Juliet with bindis, the movie deals with star - crossed lovers caught in the middle of clashing cultures; it was shown as a special presentation at the 2003 Sundance Film Festival and opened in UK cinemas on 17 October. In 2004, he acted in a supporting role in the romantic comedy Wimbledon, also featuring Kirsten Dunst as a co-lead. His next project was voicing a character named Hal in the 2004 English version of Strings, a mythic fantasy film. Another 2004 release for him was Inside I 'm Dancing, an Irish production directed by Damien O'Donnell starring alongside fellow Scotsman Steven Robertson. In it, the actor was cast as one of the two principal characters: a maverick with duchenne muscular dystrophy. McAvoy ended 2004 by appearing in the first two seasons of Shameless as Steve McBride, the moral hero of the BAFTA - winning Channel 4 programme.
His public profile was raised in 2005 with the release of Walt Disney Pictures 's The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. McAvoy starred in the fantasy adventure film made by Andrew Adamson and based on C.S. Lewis 's children 's novel as Tumnus, a faun who befriends Lucy Pevensie (played by Georgie Henley) and joins Aslan (Liam Neeson) 's forces. It was given a UK release of 9 December. At the UK box office, the film opened at number one, earning around £ 8.7 million at 498 cinemas over the weekend. Worldwide, Narnia grossed £ 463 million, making it the 41st highest - grossing film of all - time worldwide. That succeeding year he also accepted the principal role of Brian Jackson, a nerdy university student who wins a place on a University Challenge quiz team in the mid-1980s, in Starter for 10. He was directed by David Nicholls, who adapted the film 's screenplay from his own book. The British - American production was given distribution in the UK on 10 November. In spite of the positive buzz, the movie flopped at the box office, unable to recover its production costs of £ 5.7 million.
Forest Whitaker had suggested McAvoy to director Kevin Macdonald for the role of Nicholas Garrigan in 2006 's Academy Award - winning low - budgeted The Last King of Scotland. McAvoy portrayed a Scottish doctor who becomes the personal physician to dictator Idi Amin (played by Whittaker) while in Uganda. While the film is based on factual events of Amin 's rule, the details of the story and the character McAvoy played are fictional and adapted from Giles Foden 's 1998 novel. McAvoy assessed his character to be a "completely selfish prick ''. An overwhelmed McAvoy fainted during his first take of what would be the hardest scene for him to shoot, Nicholas 's torture. McAvoy was named Best Actor of the year by Scotland 's own BAFTA Awards, where the film swept the major categories, and received a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. The film received three awards, including the Outstanding British Film of the Year. This was accompanied by praise for McAvoy 's performance.
Following that, he played Irish attorney Tom Lefroy and love - interest to Jane Austen in Becoming Jane, a 2007 historical movie inspired by the author 's early life. Next up was Penelope, which premiered at the 2006 Toronto International Film Festival. Also starring co-producer Reese Witherspoon, it generated polarised reviews. The breakthrough role in McAvoy 's career came in Atonement, Joe Wright 's 2007 adaptation of Ian McEwan 's novel of the same title. A romantic war film, it focuses on lovers Cecilia and Robbie 's (Keira Knightley and McAvoy) lives being torn apart after her jealous younger sister, Briony (Saoirse Ronan) falsely accuses him of rape. Upon reading the script, McAvoy said he thought "If I do n't get the part I 'm not reading the book because it 'll be devastating. It 's an amazing role and I really wanted it. '' McAvoy has called the film "incredibly sad '' but considers it an uplifting experience. He also shared that he hoped viewers will be left "absolutely devastated and harrowed. '' Screenings of Atonement were held at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival, where it was one of the most acclaimed films present, and Venice Film Festival. Atonement was a big awards contender; it was nominated for fourteen BAFTAs and seven Academy Awards. Both McAvoy and Knightley were nominated for their performances at the 65th Golden Globe Awards, respectively. Additionally, the film was lauded by critics, with Metacritic reporting it to have an approval rating of 85. The Hollywood Reporter writer Ray Bennett said the duo gave "compelling and charismatic performances ''.
His next role saw McAvoy starring with Angelina Jolie and Morgan Freeman in Wanted (2008), an action film where he portrayed Wesley Gibson, a young American slacker who learns he is heir to a legacy of assassins. When McAvoy screen - tested for the role, he was initially rejected because the studio was seeking an actor with conventional Hollywood leading - man looks and physique. He later recalled being considered the "runt of the litter '' of those who tested, but ultimately got the role in late 2006 since the studio "wanted someone geeky ''. While shooting action scenes for Wanted, he suffered several injuries, including a twisted ankle and an injured knee. Nonetheless the actor said he had a "good time '' doing the movie. McAvoy had never done this type of genre before and thought of Wanted as a chance to be more versatile.
Loosely based on the comic book miniseries of the same name by Mark Millar, it saw a June 2008 release worldwide. It received favourable reviews from the press, who generally liked that it was fast - paced. At the box office, Wanted was a success, grossing $341 million against a $75 million production budget. Next was The Last Station (2009), a biopic that details the final months of celebrated writer Leo Tolstoy and also stars Anne - Marie Duff, McAvoy 's wife at the time. It was shown at a limited number of screens in the US. Although most critics ' awards paid attention to co-stars Helen Mirren and Christopher Plummer, the Satellite Awards nominated McAvoy for Best Supporting Actor. In 2009, McAvoy voiced Angelina 's father, Maurice Mouseling, in the television series, Angelina Ballerina: The Next Steps.
He also appeared onstage in 2009 at Apollo Theater 's Three Days of Rain. He voiced the male titular character in Gnomeo and Juliet (2011), an animated movie based on William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet. In Robert Redford 's historical American drama The Conspirator, McAvoy played the role of an idealistic war hero who reluctantly defends co-conspirator Mary Surratt (Robin Wright) charged in the Abraham Lincoln assassination. It premiered at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival. While this movie garnered mixed reception, critics lauded the actor for his work. In Owen Gleiberman 's assessment of The Conspirator, he found it "stiff - jointed '' and tedious, but regarded McAvoy as "an avid presence ''.
In mid-2010, McAvoy was cast as telepathic superhero Professor X, leader and founder of the X-Men, in X-Men: First Class. He joined an ensemble that included Michael Fassbender, Jennifer Lawrence and Kevin Bacon. Based on the Marvel Comics and a prequel to the film series, it focuses on the relationship between Professor X and Magneto and the origin of their groups. McAvoy did not read comics as a child, but was a fan of the X-Men animated cartoon series. Released to the UK on 1 June, First Class topped its box office with ticket sales of around £ 5 million in its opening weekend. First Class was reviewed favourably, and McAvoy 's performance was widely praised. In 2011, McAvoy began filming the role of Max Lewinsky in the British thriller Welcome to the Punch. He played the lead role in the Danny Boyle film Trance.
In 2012, McAvoy was cast as Bruce Robertson in Filth, an adaptation of an Irvine Welsh novel of the same name. The film 's ensemble cast includes Jamie Bell, Jim Broadbent, Eddie Marsan, and Imogen Poots. For his role, McAvoy won Best Actor at the British Independent Film Awards in December 2013. It was also announced that he would co-star with Jessica Chastain in a double - feature film project, The Disappearance of Eleanor Rigby. He performed the male lead in radio play adaptation of Neverwhere written by Neil Gaiman. In October 2016 McAvoy played the character Richard in the BBC Radio 4 production of Neil Gaiman 's short story ' How The Marquis Got His Coat Back '. Gaiman played the role of the Boatman.
McAvoy starred in Shakespeare 's Macbeth on London 's West End in early 2013. Macbeth was the first performance at the Trafalgar Transformed, running from 9 February until 27 April. The production was directed by Jamie Lloyd who also directed McAvoy in his last stint on the stage in 2009 's Three Days of Rain. In 2015, McAvoy won the Best Actor award at London 's Evening Standard Theater Awards for his portrayal of Jack Gurney in The Ruling Class, a revival of the Peter Barnes play directed by Jamie Lloyd. It ran at Trafalgar Studios from 16 January to 11 April 2015.
McAvoy reprised his role as Professor X in X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014), which grossed $747.9 million worldwide, making it the sixth highest - grossing film of the year 2014, and the second highest - grossing film in the X-Men franchise and in 2016 's X-Men: Apocalypse. In 2016, he starred in the M. Night Shyamalan thriller Split as Kevin Wendell Crumb, a dissociative identity disorder sufferer with dangerous capabilities. His performance was praised by critics, with some hailing it as the best of his career. McAvoy will be returning as Professor X in the 2019 film X-Men: Dark Phoenix and as Crumb in Glass (2019).
McAvoy will play adult Bill Denbrough in the upcoming second IT film. The film is set to hit theaters in September 2019.
While working on Shameless, McAvoy started a relationship with Anne - Marie Duff, who played his character 's love interest, and they married on 11 November 2006 in a quiet ceremony. They have one child together, a son named Brendan (b. 2010). On 13 May 2016, McAvoy and Duff jointly announced their decision to divorce. To minimise disruption to Brendan 's life, they still share a home in North London when not working elsewhere.
After McAvoy won the "Rising Star '' award from the BAFTAs, his estranged father spoke to the Sunday Mirror, stating that he would love to get in touch with his son, but did not know how to reach him. Though the actor did not read the piece, he heard about it and was unmoved. He enjoys fantasy themes which he said started from the age of 11 with The Lord of the Rings.
McAvoy 's big interest outside acting and science fiction is football; he is a huge fan of Celtic Football Club, stating that his dream role would be to play Celtic legend Jimmy Johnstone. McAvoy considers himself a spiritual person who no longer practises Catholicism.
Speaking to Sky News, McAvoy said he believed that British filmmakers belittle and dumb down their productions to please American audiences. "It 's like we 're patronising them and short changing ourselves, '' the actor commented. He had previously called 3 - D films a "waste of money '', accusing film studios of using the effect to get more money out of their theatre audiences.
At one point, McAvoy did a "terrifying '' BASE jump from the world 's tallest hospital building in a bid to help raise money for Ugandan children 's charity Retrak, an organisation which assists children on the streets. Additionally, McAvoy is a celebrity supporter of the British Red Cross with whom he travelled to Uganda to raise awareness of the projects there. He had become involved with the charity after shooting The Last King of Scotland there for several months and was shocked by what he saw. In February 2007, he visited northern Uganda and spent four days seeing projects supported by the British Red Cross. In 2015, McAvoy pledged £ 125,000 to a 10 - year scholarship programme at his former drama school, the Royal Conservatoire of Scotland.
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which of the following groups was most often opposed to the ratification of the 18th amendment | Eighteenth amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The Eighteenth Amendment (Amendment XVIII) of the United States Constitution effectively established the prohibition of alcoholic beverages in the United States by declaring the production, transport, and sale of alcohol (though not the consumption or private possession) illegal. The separate Volstead Act set down methods for enforcing the Eighteenth Amendment, and defined which "intoxicating liquors '' were prohibited, and which were excluded from prohibition (e.g., for medical and religious purposes). The Amendment was the first to set a time delay before it would take effect following ratification, and the first to set a time limit for its ratification by the states. President Woodrow Wilson vetoed the bill, but the House of Representatives overrode the veto, and the Senate did so as well the next day. The Volstead Act set the starting date for nationwide prohibition for January 17, 1920, which was the earliest day allowed by the Eighteenth Amendment.
The Amendment was in effect for the following 13 years. It was repealed in 1933 by ratification of the Twenty - First Amendment. The Twenty - first Amendment was ratified on December 5, 1933. It is unique among the 27 amendments of the U.S. Constitution for being the only one to repeal a prior amendment and to have been ratified by state ratifying conventions.
Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all the territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.
Section 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.
The Eighteenth Amendment was the result of decades of effort by the temperance movement in the United States and at the time was generally considered a progressive amendment. Starting in 1906, the Anti-Saloon League (ASL) began leading a campaign to ban the sale of alcohol on a state level. They led speeches, advertisements, and public demonstrations, claiming that banning the sale of alcohol would get rid of poverty and social issues, such as immoral behavior and violence. It would also inspire new forms of sociability between men and women and they believed that families would be happier, fewer industrial mistakes would be made and overall, the world would be a better place. Other groups such as the Women 's Christian Temperance Union began as well trying to ban the sale, manufacturing, and distribution of alcoholic beverages. A well - known reformer during this time period was Carrie Amelia Moore Nation, whose violent actions (such as vandalizing saloon property) made her a household name across America. Many state legislatures had already enacted statewide prohibition prior to the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment but did not ban the consumption of alcohol in most households. It took some states longer than others to ratify this amendment, especially northern states, including New York, New Jersey, and Massachusetts. They violated the law by still allowing some wines and beers to be sold. By 1916, 23 of 48 states had already passed laws against saloons, some even banning the manufacture of alcohol in the first place.
The Temperance Movement was dedicated to the complete abstinence of alcohol from public life. The movement began in the early 1800s within the church, and was very religiously motivated. The central areas the group was founded out of were in the Saratoga area of New York, as well as in Massachusetts. Churches were also highly influential in gaining new members and support, garnering 6,000 local societies in several different states.
A group that was inspired by the movement was the Anti-Saloon league, who at the turn of the 20th century began heavily lobbying for prohibition in the United States. The group was founded in 1893 in the state of Ohio, gaining massive support from Evangelical Protestants, to becoming a national organization in 1895. The group was successful in helping implement prohibition, through heavy lobbying and having a vast influence. The group following repeal of prohibition fell out of power and in 1950 merged with other groups forming the National Temperance League.
On August 1, 1917, the Senate passed a resolution containing the language of the amendment to be presented to the states for ratification. The vote was 65 to 20, with the Democrats voting 36 in favor and 12 in opposition; and the Republicans voting 29 in favor and 8 in opposition. The House of Representatives passed a revised resolution on December 17, 1917. This was the first amendment to impose a date by which it had to be ratified or else the amendment would be discarded.
In the House, the vote was 282 to 128, with the Democrats voting 141 in favor and 64 in opposition; and the Republicans voting 137 in favor and 62 in opposition. Four Independents in the House voted in favor and two Independents cast votes against the amendment. It was officially proposed by the Congress to the states when the Senate passed the resolution, by a vote of 47 to 8, the next day, December 18.
The amendment and its enabling legislation did not ban the consumption of alcohol, but made it difficult to obtain alcoholic beverages legally, as it prohibited the sale, manufacture and distribution of them in U.S. territory. Any one who got caught selling, manufacturing or distributing alcoholic beverages would be arrested. Because prohibition was already implemented by many states, it was quickly ratified into a law. The ratification of the Amendment was completed on January 16, 1919, when Nebraska became the 36th of the 48 states then in the Union to ratify it. On January 29, acting Secretary of State Frank L. Polk certified the ratification.
The following states ratified the amendment:
The following states rejected the amendment:
To define the language used in the Amendment, Congress enacted enabling legislation called the National Prohibition Act, better known as the Volstead Act, on October 28, 1919. President Woodrow Wilson vetoed that bill, but the House of Representatives immediately voted to override the veto and the Senate voted similarly the next day. The Volstead Act set the starting date for nationwide prohibition for January 17, 1920, which was the earliest date allowed by the 18th amendment.
The Volstead Act was passed by Congress as a means of overriding the veto of the 18th amendment put forth by President Woodrow Wilson. The act was conceived and introduced by Wayne Wheeler who was a leader of the Anti-Saloon League, a group which found alcohol responsible for almost all of society 's problems, and were also responsible for many campaigns against the sale of alcohol. The law was also heavily supported by Judiciary Chairman at the time, Andrew Volstead from Minnesota and was named in his honor. The act in its written form laid the ground work of prohibition, defining the procedures for banning the distribution of alcohol including their production and distribution.
Volstead had once before introduced an early version of the law to congress. It was first brought to the floor on May 27, 1919 meeting heavy resistance from Democrat senators, introducing instead what was called the "wet law '', which was an attempt to end the wartime prohibition laws put into affect much earlier. The debate of prohibition would continue to be fueled even longer in congress, for that entire the House would be divided among what would be known as the "bone - drys and the "wets ''.
With Republicans in the majority of the House of Representatives, the act was passed July 22, 1919 with 287 in favor and 100 opposed. Unfortunately the act was in large part a failure, being unable to prevent mass distribution of alcoholic beverages and also inadvertently gave way to massive increase in organized crime. The act would go on to be the standard for enforcing prohibition, until the passing of the 21st amendment in 1933 effectively repealed it.
Source:
Positives:
Negatives:
The proposed amendment was the first to contain a provision setting a deadline for its ratification. That clause of the amendment was challenged, with the case reaching the US Supreme Court. It upheld the constitutionality of such a deadline in Dillon v. Gloss (1921). The Supreme Court also upheld the ratification by the Ohio legislature in Hawke v. Smith (1920), despite a petition requiring that the matter go to ballot.
This was not the only controversy around the amendment. The phrase "intoxicating liquor '' would not logically have included beer and wine, and their inclusion in the prohibition came as a surprise to the general public, as well as wine and beer makers. This controversy caused many Northern states to not abide by which caused some problems. The brewers were probably not the only Americans to be surprised at the severity of the regime thus created. Voters who considered their own drinking habits blameless, but who supported prohibition to discipline others, also received a rude shock. That shock came with the realization that federal prohibition went much farther in the direction of banning personal consumption than all local prohibition ordinances and many state prohibition statutes. National Prohibition turned out to be quite a different beast than its local and state cousins.
Under Prohibition, the illegal manufacture and sale of liquor -- known as "bootlegging '' -- occurred on a large scale across the United States. In urban areas, where the majority of the population opposed Prohibition, enforcement was generally much weaker than in rural areas and smaller towns. Perhaps the most dramatic consequence of Prohibition was the effect it had on organized crime in the United States: as the production and sale of alcohol went further underground, it began to be controlled by the Mafia and other gangs, who transformed themselves into sophisticated criminal enterprises that reaped huge profits from the illicit liquor trade.
When it came to its booming bootleg business, the Mafia became skilled at bribing police and politicians to look the other way. Chicago 's Al Capone emerged as the most notorious example of this phenomenon, earning an estimated $60 million annually from the bootlegging and speakeasy operations he controlled. In addition to bootlegging, gambling and prostitution reached new heights during the 1920s as well. A growing number of Americans came to blame Prohibition for this widespread moral decay and disorder -- despite the fact that the legislation had intended to do the opposite -- and to condemn it as a dangerous infringement on the freedom of the individual.
In his important study both of the Eighteenth Amendment and its repeal, Daniel Okrent identifies the powerful political coalition that worked successfully in the two decades leading to the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment:
Five distinct, if occasionally overlapping, components made up this unspoken coalition: racists, progressives, suffragists, populists (whose ranks included a small socialist auxiliary), and nativists. Adherents of each group may have been opposed to alcohol for its own sake, but used the Prohibition impulse to advance ideologies and causes that had little to do with it.
If public sentiment had turned against Prohibition by the late 1920s, the Great Depression only hastened its demise, as some argued that the ban on alcohol denied jobs to the unemployed and much - needed revenue to the government. The efforts of the nonpartisan group Americans Against Prohibition Association (AAPA) added to public disillusionment. In 1932, the platform of Democratic presidential candidate Franklin D. Roosevelt included a plank for repealing the 18th Amendment, and his victory that November marked a certain end to Prohibition.
In February 1933, Congress adopted a resolution proposing the Twenty - first Amendment, which repealed both the 18th Amendment and the Volstead Act. The resolution required state conventions, rather than the state legislatures, to approve the amendment, effectively reducing the process to a one - state, one - vote referendum rather than a popular vote contest. That December, Utah became the 36th state to ratify the amendment, achieving the necessary majority for repeal. A few states continued statewide prohibition after 1933, but by 1966 all of them had abandoned it. Since then, liquor control in the United States has largely been determined at the local level.
Just after the Eighteenth Amendment 's adoption, there was a significant reduction in alcohol consumption among the general public and particularly among low - income groups. There were fewer hospitalizations for alcoholism and likewise fewer liver - related medical problems. However, consumption soon climbed as underworld entrepreneurs began producing "rotgut '' alcohol which was full of dangerous diseases. With the rise of home distilled alcohol, many cases of careless distilling led to the deaths of many citizens. During the ban upwards of 10,000 deaths can be attributed to wood alcohol (methanol) poisoning. Ultimately, during prohibition use and abuse of alcohol ended up higher than before it started. The greatest unintended consequence of Prohibition however, was the plainest to see. For over a decade, the law that was meant to foster temperance instead fostered intemperance and excess. The solution the United States had devised to address the problem of alcohol abuse had instead made the problem even worse. The statistics of the period are notoriously unreliable, but it is very clear that in many parts of the United States more people were drinking, and people were drinking more.
Though there were significant increases in crimes involved in the production and distribution of illegal alcohol, there was an initial reduction in overall crime, mainly in types of crimes associated with the effects of alcohol consumption such as public drunkenness. Those who continued to use alcohol, tended to turn to organized criminal syndicates. Law enforcement was n't strong enough to stop all liquor traffic; however, they used a "sting '' operations -- "Prohibition agent Elliot Ness famously used wiretapping to discern secret locations of breweries. '' The prisons became crowded which led to fewer arrests for the distribution of alcohol, as well as those arrested being charged with small fines rather than prison time. The murder rate fell for two years, but then rose to record highs because this market became extremely attractive to criminal organizations, a trend that reversed the very year prohibition ended. Overall, crime rose 24 %, including increases in assault and battery, theft, and burglary.
Anti-prohibition groups arose and worked to have the amendment repealed, once it became apparent that Prohibition was an unprecedented catastrophe. The Eighteenth Amendment failed because of its sudden, strict enforcement. It did n't allow the people to have a say or let them gradually ease into the complete ban of alcoholic beverages. Instead, the people rebelled and the introduction of speakeasies and "flappers '' came about.
The Twenty - first Amendment repealed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 5, 1933.
Following ratification in 1919 the effects of the amendment were long lasting, leading to increases in crime in many large cities in the United States, like Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles (1). Along with this came many separate forms of illegal alcohol distribution. Examples of this include speakeasies and bootlegging, as well as illegal distilling operations.
Bootlegging got its start in towns bordering Mexico and Canada, as well as in areas with several ports and harbors, a favorite distribution area for bootleggers being Atlantic City, New Jersey. The alcohol was often supplied from various foreign distributors, like Cuba and the Bahamas, or even Newfoundland and islands under rule by the French.
The government in response employed the Coast Guard to search and detain any ships transporting alcohol into the ports, but with this came several complications such as disputes over where jurisdiction lay on the water. This was what made Atlantic City such a hot spot for smuggling operations, because of a shipping point nearly three miles off shore that U.S. officials could not investigate, further complicating enforcement of the amendment. What made matters even worse for the Coast Guard was that they were not well equipped enough to chase down bootlegging vessels. The Coast Guard however, was able to respond to these issues, and began searching vessels out at sea, instead of when they made port, and upgraded their own vehicles allowing for more efficient and consistent arrests.
But even with the advancements in enforcing the amendment, there were still complications that plagued the government 's efforts. One issue came in the form of forged prescriptions for alcoholic beverages. Many forms of alcohol were being sold over the counter at the time, under the guise of being for medical purposes. But in truth, these beverages had falsified the evidence that they were medically fit to be sold to consumers.
Bootlegging itself was the leading factor that developed the organized crime - rings in big cities, given that controlling and distributing liquor was a very difficult task to achieve. From that arose many profitable gangs that would control every aspect of the distribution process, whether it be concealed brewing and storage, or even operating a speakeasy, or selling in restaurants and nightclubs run by a specific syndicate. With organized crime becoming a rising problem in the United States, control of specific territories was a key objective among gangs, leading to many violent confrontations with murder rates and burglaries heavily increasing between 1920 and 1933. Bootlegging was also found to be a gateway crime for many gangs, who would then expand operations into crimes such as prostitution, gambling rackets, narcotics, loan - sharking, extortion and labor rackets, thus causing problems to persist long after the amendment was repealed.
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is there a gone with the wind part 2 | Scarlett (Ripley novel) - wikipedia
Scarlett is a 1991 novel by Alexandra Ripley, written as a sequel to Margaret Mitchell 's 1936 novel, Gone with the Wind. The book debuted on The New York Times bestsellers list, but both critics and fans of the original novel found Ripley 's version to be inconsistent with the literary quality of Gone with the Wind.
It was adapted as a television mini-series of the same title in 1994 starring Timothy Dalton as Rhett Butler and Joanne Whalley - Kilmer as Scarlett O'Hara.
The book begins where Gone with the Wind left off, with Scarlett attending the funeral of her former sister - in - law and rival for Ashley Wilkes ' affection, Melanie Wilkes, at which her estranged husband, Rhett Butler, is not present. Scarlett, heartbroken and aggravated that Rhett left her, sets out for Tara and is saddened when she learns that Mammy, her mainstay since birth, is dying. She sends a telegram to notify Rhett about Mammy under the name of Will Benteen (her sister Suellen 's husband), because she knows that Rhett wo n't come if he suspects Scarlett is there. Before Mammy dies, she makes Rhett swear to look after Scarlett. Rhett agrees, although he has no intention of honoring the request. After Mammy 's death, Rhett and Scarlett fight, which culminates in Rhett leaving and Scarlett returning to the Atlanta house, determined to win Rhett back.
Scarlett travels to Charleston to visit Rhett 's family and tries to corner him by winning his mother 's affection. She convinces Rhett to take her for a sail on the harbour, where their boat capsizes during a terrible storm. Scarlett and Rhett swim to an island, where they make love in a cave. Rhett initially denies, then admits, that he loves Scarlett, but he does not want to "lose himself '' over her again. Back in Charleston, Rhett leaves Scarlett near death at his mother 's house, telling her, in a letter, that while he admires her bravery, he will never see her again.
After Scarlett regains her strength, she leaves Charleston with her two aunts, Pauline and Eulalie, to attend her maternal grandfather 's birthday celebration in Savannah. She leaves a note to Rhett 's mother with Rhett 's sister, Rosemary, who burns the note.
Scarlett connects with the Savannah O'Haras against her maternal family 's wishes. Scarlett 's grandfather offers Scarlett his inheritance if she remains with him in Savannah until his death and avoids contact with her father 's side of the family. Scarlett refuses and storms out of the house. She goes to stay with her cousin Jamie and his family. Soon another cousin named Colum, a priest from Ireland, joins them. Scarlett agrees to travel to Ireland with him. By this time Scarlett has realized that she is pregnant with Rhett 's child but she keeps her pregnancy hidden.
In Ireland, Scarlett is heartily welcomed by her Irish kin. Exploring with Colum, they pass an old house called ' Ballyhara '; it was O'Hara land long ago before the English seized it. Scarlett soon receives a notification of divorce from Rhett. She makes plans to leave for America but learns that Rhett is now married to Anne Hampton, who is said to resemble Melanie Wilkes. Heartbroken, Scarlett decides to remain in Ireland. She works with lawyers and leaves her two - third share of her father 's plantation, Tara, to her son Wade Hamilton (fathered by her first husband, Charles Hamilton, brother of Melanie Wilkes), buys Ballyhara and settles down in Ireland, to her Irish family 's delight. She and Colum tell everyone that her husband died rather than tell the truth that she was divorced.
As Ballyhara is restored, Scarlett eagerly awaits the birth of her child, praying for it to be a girl and vowing to be a good mother. She is well respected by the townspeople and her family, earning her a reputation as a hard worker. She becomes known as The O'Hara, a title reserved for the undisputed leader of a family clan.
On Halloween night, her water breaks. Her housekeeper, Mrs. Fitzpatrick, and the midwife whom Colum summons are unable to handle the situation, and it appears that Scarlett will die. Instead, she is saved by a wise old woman who lives near the haunted tower. The Caesarian birth is successful, but internal damage is done to Scarlett, who can no longer have children. The baby, a girl, is born with dark skin like Rhett 's, but with blue eyes that slowly turn green. Scarlett names her Katie Colum O'Hara, and calls her "Cat '' because of her green eyes.
After Scarlett has settled down in Ballyhara, she runs into Rhett a number of times -- in America while she is on the boat to Boston, at a fair where she admits she still loves him, and at a foxhunt a week later. He still does not know he has a child. He then seeks her out at a society ball and Scarlett realizes he still loves her.
Lord Fenton, one of the wealthiest men in Europe, pursues Scarlett, wanting to marry her. He wants Scarlett to bear his children after seeing Cat 's fiery spirit and fearlessness. He also plans to unite their estates; he owns Adamstown, the land adjacent to Scarlett 's. Angered by his arrogance, Scarlett refuses and orders him out of her house. Scarlett leaves for Dublin for her yearly visit for parties and hunts. She later decides to accept Lord Fenton when she hears that Anne is pregnant with Rhett 's child.
The news leaks out about her engagement and a drunken Rhett insults her when she runs into him at a horse race. A friend tells Scarlett that Anne and the baby both died, and she rushes back to Ballyhara hopeful that Rhett will come looking for her. She finds English there with a warrant to arrest Colum, who is the head of a group of Irish terrorists. Colum is murdered and Rosaleen Fitzpatrick sets fire to the English arsenal to avenge him. The villagers, thinking Scarlett is in league with the English, burn her house down. Rhett comes to her rescue and tries to convince her to escape with him, but Scarlett runs around her house yelling for her daughter. When she tells Rhett that he is Cat 's father, he helps her search. After finding Cat, the three climb into a high tower on Ballyhara and stay there for the night. Rhett and Scarlett both say "I love you ''. They wake up the next morning ready to start their new lives together and leave Ireland.
Reviewing the novel for The New York Times in 1991, Janet Maslin said the book was a "stunningly uneventful 823 - page holding action. '' Donald McCaig, author of Rhett Butler 's People, said it was his impression that the Margaret Mitchell estate was "thoroughly embarrassed '' by Scarlett. Scarlett, universally panned by critics, nevertheless was a commercial success. The book sold millions of copies and remains in print. The publication of the book effectively extended the term of the copyright on Gone With The Wind which, under the law existing in 1991, was set to expire in 2011.
When discussing the possibility of his own works receiving unauthorized sequels after his death, A Song of Ice and Fire author George R.R. Martin called such books "abominations, to my mind, like (...) Scarlett, the (...) Gone With the Wind sequel ''.
It was adapted as a television mini-series of the same title in 1994 starring Timothy Dalton as Rhett Butler and Joanne Whalley - Kilmer as Scarlett O'Hara. The plot of the mini-series varies considerably from the book.
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when did the fcc vote to repeal net neutrality | Net neutrality in the United States - wikipedia
In the United States, net neutrality has been an issue of contention among network users and access providers since the 1990s.
In 2005, under Republican Chair Abernathy, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) adopted policies and rules establishing principles of "network neutrality '' in order to carry out the policy of the United States "to preserve the vibrant and competitive free market that presently exists for the Internet '' and "to promote the continued development of the Internet, '' "encourag (ing) the deployment on a reasonable and timely basis of advanced telecommunications capability '' -- broadband -- "to all Americans. ''. The FCC noted that Congress had cited the Internet 's educational and informational importance, and the fact that "(t) he Internet also represents "a forum for a true diversity of political discourse, unique opportunities for cultural development, and myriad avenues for intellectual activity, '' as well as "play (ing) an important role in the economy, as an engine for productivity growth and cost savings. ''
In order "to ensure that providers of telecommunications for Internet access or Internet Protocol - enabled (IP - enabled) services are operated in a neutral manner, '' and noting that its "Enforcement Bureau recently entered into a consent decree to resolve an investigation with respect to the blocking of ports used for voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), '' the Commission adopted network neutrality principles "to preserve and promote the vibrant and open character of the Internet as the telecommunications marketplace enters the broadband age. ''
Throughout 2005 and 2006, corporations supporting both sides of the issue zealously lobbied Congress. Between 2005 and 2012, five attempts to pass bills in Congress containing net neutrality provisions failed. Each sought to preserve the open Internet that consumer groups sought, and to prohibit Internet service providers from using various variable pricing models based upon the user 's quality of service level, described as tiered service in the industry and as price discrimination arising from abuse of "local monopolies enshrined in law '' by some economists.
Large broadband Internet access service providers challenged the FCC 's network neutrality principles. In Verizon Communications Inc. v. FCC, 740 F. 3d 623 (D.C. Cir. 2014) The D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that because the FCC classified broadband internet service providers (ISPs) as providing "information services, '' governed by Title I of the Communications Act of 1934, rather than "common carrier services, '' governed by Title II of the Act (47 U.S.C. § 201 -- 31), the FCC could not regulate ISPs pursuant to the much broader regulatory power found in Title II of the Act. Thus the rules were struck down.
Following that ruling, the FCC took steps to reclassify ISPs as common carriers subject to Title II regulation. The FCC issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) soliciting comments from the public on the issue. The FCC received 3.7 million comments, a substantial majority of which supported reclassifying internet to a telecommunications service and ISPs to common carriers subject to Title II regulatory authority. The FCC then went forward, reclassifying retail providers of BIAS as common carriers, and adopted revised open Internet requirements. On February 26, 2015, the FCC ruled in favor of net neutrality by reclassifying broadband as a common carrier under Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 and Section 706 of the Telecommunications Act of 1996. On April 13, 2015, the FCC published the final rule on its new "net neutrality '' regulations. These rules went into effect on June 12, 2015.
The United States Telecom Association, which represents large telecom companies, filed a lawsuit against the FCC in 2015 challenging the net neutrality rule. The Association argued that the FCC 's classification of broadband carriers as "common carriers '' was a form of administrative overreach. In June 2016, a divided panel of the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia upheld the FCC 's net neutrality rules and the FCC 's determination that broadband access is a public utility, rather than a luxury.
Upon becoming FCC chairman in April 2017, Ajit Pai proposed to repeal the policies and issued a NPRM soliciting comments from the public on the issue. The FCC received over 20 million comments this time around. While this process was still underway, New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman made public that he has been investigating a substantial amount of fraudulent activity relating to the comments on this rulemaking and that the FCC has been resistant to assisting him in his investigation. It has since been revealed that there were millions of fraudulent comments submitted during this comment period. Nevertheless, on December 14, 2017, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) voted in favor of repealing these policies, 3 -- 2, along party lines, as the 2015 vote had occurred. On January 4, 2018, the FCC published the official text for "Restoring Internet freedom ''. Shortly thereafter, twenty two state Attorneys General filed suit against the FCC, alleging, inter alia, that the comment process was corrupted, making the rule changes invalid.
While the term is new, the ideas underlying net neutrality have a long pedigree in telecommunications practice and regulation. Services such as telegrams and the phone network (officially, the public switched telephone network or PSTN) have been considered common carriers under U.S. law, which means that they have been akin to public utilities and expressly forbidden to give preferential treatment. They have been regulated by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in order to ensure fair pricing and access.
In the late 1980s the Internet became legally available for commercial use, and in the early years of public use of the Internet, this was its main use -- public access was limited and largely reached through dial - up modems (as was the Bulletin board system dial - up culture that preceded it). The Internet was viewed more as a commercial service than a domestic and societal system. Being business services, cable modem Internet access and high - speed data links, which make up the Internet 's core, had always since their creation been categorized under U.S. law as an information service, unlike telephone services (including services by dial - up modem), and not as a telecommunications service, and thus had not been subject to common carrier regulations, as upheld in National Cable & Telecommunications Association v. Brand X Internet Services.
However, by the late 1990s and early 2000s, the Internet started to become common in households and wider society. Also in the 1980s, arguments about the public interest requirements of the telecommunications industry in the U.S. arose; whether companies involved in broadcasting were best viewed as community trustees, with obligations to society and consumers, or mere market participants with obligations only to their shareholders. The legal debate about net neutrality regulations of the 2000s echoes this debate.
By the 1990s, some U.S. politicians began to express concern over protecting the Internet:
How can government ensure that the nascent Internet will permit everyone to be able to compete with everyone else for the opportunity to provide any service to all willing customers? Next, how can we ensure that this new marketplace reaches the entire nation? And then how can we ensure that it fulfills the enormous promise of education, economic growth, and job creation?
In the early 2000s, legal scholars such as Tim Wu and Lawrence Lessig raised the issue of neutrality in a series of academic papers addressing regulatory frameworks for packet networks. Wu, in particular, noted that the Internet is structurally biased against voice and video applications. The debate that started in the U.S. extended internationally with distinct differences of the debate in Europe.
In February 2004, then Federal Communications Commission Chairman Michael Powell announced a set of non-discrimination principles, which he called the principles of "Network Freedom ''. In a speech at the Silicon Flatirons Symposium, Powell encouraged ISPs to offer users these four freedoms:
In early 2005, in the Madison River case, the FCC for the first time showed the willingness to enforce its network neutrality principles by opening an investigation about Madison River Communications, a local telephone carrier that was blocking voice over IP service. Yet the FCC did not fine Madison River Communications. The investigation was closed before any formal factual or legal finding and there was a settlement in which the company agreed to stop discriminating against voice over IP traffic and to make a $15,000 payment to the US Treasury in exchange for the FCC dropping its inquiry. Since the FCC did not formally establish that Madison River Communications violated laws and regulation, the Madison River settlement does not create a formal precedent, though established that it would take enforcement action in such situations.
In 2004, the court case USTA v. FCC voided the FCC 's authority to enforce rules requiring telephone operators to unbundle certain parts of their networks at regulated prices. This caused the economic collapse of many competitive local exchange carriers (CLEC).
In the United States, broadband services were historically regulated differently according to the technology by which they were carried. While cable Internet has always been classified by the FCC as an information service free of most regulation, DSL was regulated as a telecommunications service. In 2005, the FCC reclassified Internet access across the phone network, including DSL, as "information service '' relaxing the common carrier regulations and unbundling requirement.
During the FCC 's hearing, the National Cable & Telecommunications Association urged the FCC to adopt the four criteria laid out in its 2005 Internet Policy Statement as the requisite openness. This made up a voluntary set of four net neutrality principles. Implementation of the principles was not mandatory; that would require an FCC rule or federal law. The modified principles were as follows:
In December 2006, the AT&T / Bell South merger agreement defined net neutrality as an agreement on the part of the broadband provider: "not to provide or to sell to Internet content, application or service providers... any service that privileges, degrades or prioritizes any (data) packet transmitted over AT&T / BellSouth 's wireline broadband Internet access service based on its source, ownership or destination. ''
In 2007, Comcast, the largest cable company in the US, was found to be blocking or severely delaying BitTorrent uploads on their network using a technique which involved creating ' reset ' packets (TCP RST) that appeared to come from the other party. An August 2007 report by TorrentFreak (based on substantial nationwide research led by chief researcher Andrew Norton) noted that ISPs had been throttling BitTorrent traffic for almost two years, since 2005, but Comcast was completely blocking it in at least some cases. This was later verified by both the EFF and Associated Press. On March 27, 2008, Comcast and BitTorrent reached an agreement to work together on network traffic where Comcast was to adopt a protocol - neutral stance "as soon as the end of (2008) '', and explore ways to "more effectively manage traffic on its network at peak times. '' In December 2009, Comcast reached a proposed settlement of US $16 million, admitting no wrongdoing and amounting to no more than US $16 per share.
In August 2008, the FCC made its first Internet network management decision. It voted 3 - to - 2 to uphold a complaint against Comcast ruling that it had illegally inhibited users of its high - speed Internet service from using file - sharing software because it throttled the bandwidth available to certain customers for video files to ensure that other customers had adequate bandwidth. The FCC imposed no fine, but required Comcast to end such blocking in the year 2008, ordered Comcast to disclose the details of its network management practices within 30 days, submit a compliance plan for ending the offending practices by the end of the year, and disclose to the public the details of intended future practices. Then - FCC chairman Kevin J. Martin said the order was meant to set a precedent, that Internet providers and all communications companies could not prevent customers from using their networks the way they see fit, unless there is a good reason. In an interview Martin stated that "We are preserving the open character of the Internet '' and "We are saying that network operators ca n't block people from getting access to any content and any applications. '' The case highlighted whether new legislation is needed to force Internet providers to maintain network neutrality, i.e., treat all usages of their networks equally. The legal complaint against Comcast was related to BitTorrent, software that is commonly used for downloading movies, television shows, music and software on the Internet.
Towards the end of 2009, FCC Chair Julius Genachowski announced at the Brookings Institution a series of proposals that would prevent telecommunications, cable and wireless companies from blocking certain information on the Internet, for example, Skype applications. In September 2009, he proposed to add two rules to its 2005 policy statement, viz., the nondiscrimination principle that ISPs must not discriminate against any content or applications, and the transparency principle, requiring that ISPs disclose all their policies to customers. He argued that wireless should be subject to the same network neutrality as wireline providers. In October 2009, the FCC gave notice of proposed rule making on net neutrality.
In two rulings, in April and June 2010 respectively, both of the above were rejected by the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit in Comcast Corp. v. FCC. On April 6, 2010, the FCC 's 2008 cease - and - desist order against Comcast to slow and stop BitTorrent transfers was denied. The U.S. Court of Appeals ruled that the FCC has no powers to regulate any Internet provider 's network, or the management of its practices: "(the FCC) ' has failed to tie its assertion ' of regulatory authority to an actual law enacted by Congress '', and in June 2010, it overturned (in the same case) the FCC 's Order against Comcast, ruling similarly that the FCC lacked the authority under Title One of the Communications Act of 1934, to force ISPs to keep their networks open, while employing reasonable network management practices, to all forms of legal content. In May 2010, the FCC announced it would continue its fight for net neutrality.
In February 2008, Kevin Martin, then Chairman of the Federal Communications Commission, said that he is "ready, willing and able, '' to prevent broadband ISPs from irrationally interfering with their subscribers ' Internet access.
In 2008, when the FCC auctioned off the 700 MHz block of wireless spectrum in anticipation of the DTV transition, Google promised to enter a bid of $4.6 billion, if the FCC required the winning licensee to adhere to four conditions:
These conditions were broadly similar to the FCC 's Internet Policy Statement; FCC 's applications and content were combined into a single bullet, and an extra bullet requiring wholesale access for third party providers was included. The FCC adopted only two of these four criteria for the auction, viz., open devices and open applications, and only applied these conditions to the nationwide C block portion of the band.
President Barack Obama 's American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 called for an investment of $7.2 billion in broadband infrastructure and included an openness stipulation.
In December 2010, the FCC approved the FCC Open Internet Order banning cable television and telephone service providers from preventing access to competitors or certain web sites such as Netflix. On December 21, 2010, the FCC voted on and passed a set of six net "neutrality principles '':
The net neutrality rule did not keep ISPs from charging more for faster access. The measure was denounced by net neutrality advocates as a capitulation to telecommunication companies such as allowing them to discriminate on transmission speed for their profit, especially on mobile devices like the iPad, while pro-business advocates complained about any regulation of the Internet at all. Republicans in Congress announced to reverse the rule through legislation. Advocates of net neutrality criticized the changes.
On January 14, 2014, the DC Circuit Court determined in the case of Verizon Communications Inc. v. Federal Communications Commission that the FCC had no authority to enforce network neutrality rules as long as service providers were not identified as "common carriers ''. The court agreed that FCC can regulate broadband and may craft more specific rules that stop short of identifying service providers as common carriers.
As a response to the DC Circuit Court 's decision, a dispute developed as to whether net neutrality could be guaranteed under existing law, or if reclassification of ISPs was needed to ensure net neutrality. Wheeler stated that the FCC had the authority under Section 706 of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 to regulate ISPs, while others, including President Obama, supported reclassifying ISPs as common carriers under Title II of the Communications Act of 1934. Critics of Section 706 point out that the section has no clear mandate to guarantee equal access to content provided over the internet, while subsection 202 (a) of the Communications Act states that common carriers can not "make any unjust or unreasonable discrimination in charges, practices, classifications, regulations, facilities, or services. '' Advocates of net neutrality have generally supported reclassifying ISPs under Title II, while FCC leadership and ISPs have generally opposed such reclassification. The FCC stated that if they reclassified ISPs as common carriers, the commission would selectively enforce Title II, so that only sections relating to broadband would apply to ISPs.
On February 19, 2014, the FCC announced plans to formulate new rules to resume enforcing net neutrality while complying with the court rulings. However, in the event, on April 23, 2014, the FCC reported a new draft rule that would permit broadband ISPs such as Comcast and Verizon to offer content providers, such as Netflix, Disney or Google, willing to pay a higher price, faster connection speeds, so their customers would have preferential access, thus reversing its earlier position and (so far as opinion outside the ISP sector generally agreed) would deny net neutrality.
Public response was heated, pointing out FCC chairman Tom Wheeler 's past as a president and CEO of two major ISP - related organizations, and the suspicion of bias towards the profit - motives of ISPs as a result. Shortly afterwards, during late April 2014, the contours of a document leaked that indicated that the FCC under Wheeler would consider promulgating rules allowing Internet service providers (ISPs) to violate net neutrality principles by making it easier for Internet users to access certain content -- whose owners paid fees to the ISPs (including cable companies and wireless ISPs) -- and harder to access other content, thus undermining the traditional open architecture of the Internet. These plans received substantial backlash from activists, the mainstream press, and some other FCC commissioners. In May 2014, over 100 Internet companies -- including Google, Microsoft, eBay, and Facebook -- signed a letter to Wheeler voicing their disagreement with his plans, saying they represented a "grave threat to the Internet ''. As of May 15, 2014, the "Internet fast lane '' rules passed with a 3 -- 2 vote. They were then open to public discussion that ended July 2014.
On May 15, 2014, in the face of continuing intense focus and criticism, the FCC stated it would consider two options regarding Internet services: first, permit fast and slow broadband lanes, thereby compromising net neutrality; and second, reclassify broadband as a telecommunication service, thereby preserving net neutrality. The same day, the FCC opened a public comment period on how FCC rulemaking could best protect and promote an open Internet, garnering over one million responses, the most the FCC had ever received for rulemaking. The FCC proposal for a tiered Internet received heavy criticism. Opponents argued that a user accessing content over the "fast lane '' on the Internet would find the "slow lane '' intolerable in comparison, greatly disadvantaging any content provider who is unable to pay for "fast lane '' access. They argued that a tiered Internet would suppress new Internet innovations by increasing the barrier to entry. Video providers Netflix and Vimeo in their comments filed with the FCC used the research of S.S. Krishnan and Ramesh Sitaraman that provided quantitative evidence of the impact of Internet speed on online video users. Their research studied the patience level of millions of Internet video users who waited for a slow - loading video to start playing. Users with faster Internet connectivity, such as fiber - to - the - home, demonstrated less patience and abandoned their videos sooner than similar users with slower Internet connectivity.
Opponents of the rules declared September 10, 2014, to be the "Internet slowdown ''. Participating websites were purposely slowed down to show what they felt would happen if the new rules took effect. Websites that participated in the Internet slowdown included Netflix, Reddit, Tumblr, Twitter, Vimeo and Kickstarter. The Economist described the "Battle for the Net (...) now casting the upcoming FCC decision as an epic clash between "Team Internet '' (a plucky band of high - tech multi-millionaires) and "Team Cable '' (a dastardly bunch of Big - ISP billionaires). '' On November 10, 2014, President Obama stepped in, and recommended the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a telecommunications service in order to preserve net neutrality.
On November 12, 2014, future president Donald Trump tweeted, "Obama 's attack on the internet is another top down power grab. Net neutrality is the Fairness Doctrine. Will target conservative media. ''
On January 16, 2015, Republicans presented legislation, in the form of a U.S. Congress HR discussion draft bill, that made concessions to net neutrality but prohibited the FCC from accomplishing that goal, or from enacting any further regulation affecting ISPs. Two weeks later, on January 31, AP News reported the FCC would present the notion of applying ("with some caveats '') common carrier status to the Internet in a vote expected on February 26, 2015. Adoption of this notion would reclassify Internet service from one of information to one of telecommunications and ensure net neutrality, according to FCC chairman Tom Wheeler. On the day before the FCC vote, the FCC was expected to vote to regulate the Internet in this manner, as a public good, and on February 26, 2015, the FCC voted to apply common carrier of the Communications Act of 1934 and Section 706 of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 to the Internet. On the same day, the FCC also voted to preempt state laws in North Carolina and Tennessee that limited the ability of local governments in those states to provide broadband services to potential customers outside of their service areas. While the latter ruling affects only those two states, the FCC indicated that the agency would make similar rulings if it received petitions from localities in other states. In response to ISP and opponent views, the FCC chairman, Tom Wheeler, commented, "This is no more a plan to regulate the Internet than the First Amendment is a plan to regulate free speech. They both stand for the same concept. ''
On March 12, 2015, the FCC released the specific details of its new net neutrality rules, and on April 13, 2015, the final rule was published.
Social media platforms had a large role on engaging the public in the debate surrounding net neutrality. Popular websites such as Tumblr, Vimeo, and Reddit also participated in the Internet slowdown on September 10, 2014, which the organization said was the largest sustained (lasting more than a single day) online protest effort in history. On January 26, 2015, popular blogging site Tumblr placed links to group Fight For The Future, a net neutrality advocacy group. The website displayed a countdown to the FCC vote on Title II on February 26, 2015. This was part of a widespread Internet campaign to sway congressional opinion and encourage users to call or submit comments to congressional representatives. Net neutrality advocacy groups such as Save the Internet coalition and Battle for the Net responded to the 2015 FCC ruling by calling for defense of the new net neutrality rules.
In January 2017, newly inaugurated president Donald Trump appointed Ajit Pai as the new chairman of the Federal Communications Commission. Pai had previously been nominated to fill one of the required Republican seats on the commission by President Obama under the recommendation of Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell. Pai, who objected to the 2015 Open Internet Order, quickly began to roll back some of the policies that had been implemented by the FCC during the Obama administration, and halted an investigation into the use of zero - rating by U.S. wireless providers. After his appointment, Pai stated that he planned to "modernize '' FCC policies to "match the reality of the modern marketplace '', but was unsure over whether the FCC would continue to enforce the net neutrality rules or Title II classification of broadband services.
In an interview on May 5, 2017, with NPR, Pai stated his argument against net neutrality enforcement rules to be only about focusing on fixing actual anti-competitive behavior that Internet providers show as opposed to just "regulating against hypothetical harms ''. Another argument he makes against this is that when the government inserts itself into the Internet 's issues then it stifles its innovation and growth. He argues that it is impossible to predict all outcomes, and although some might be bad, it is not a good idea to put such strict restrictions on everyone when there are only a few companies who would harm consumers or innovators. He believes that strict net neutrality rules would "prohibit a number of pro-competitive business arrangements '' and "would reduce investments ''.
In April 2017, it was reported that Pai had proposed that the net neutrality rules and Title II classifications be rolled back, that ISPs should instead "voluntarily '' commit to the principles, and that violations of them should be enforced by the Federal Trade Commission instead of the FCC as unfair or deceptive business practices. On April 29, 2017, a clearer understanding of the latest net neutrality compromise proposal was described.
On May 18, 2017, the FCC voted to move forward with Pai 's Notice of proposed rulemaking (NPRM) on "Restoring Internet freedom '' by rolling back net neutrality regulations. The official "Comment Date '' was July 17, 2017, with the "Reply Comment Date '' being August 16, 2017.
The primary argument in this NPRM is that the Title II Order (on net neutrality) has pushed the major telecoms to reduce their capital expenditures (CapEx) in new infrastructure, thereby threatening the future of the nation. For this, they cite the approx. $1 billion reduction from 2014 to 2015 in CapEx reported by the United States Telecom Association and similar figures from industry consultant Hal Singer.
However, the accompanying plot of the USTelecom data cited (but not plotted) in the NPRM raises questions about whether the Title II Order generated a major reduction in Telecom Capex following the FCC 's 2015 Title II Order on net neutrality: Roughly three quarters of the annual changes between 1996 and 2015 were larger. That change could easily be attributed to any number of other changes. The New York Times claimed that the majority on the FCC had to cherry - pick their data to support their conclusion. In her dissent to this NPRM, Commissioner Clyburn wrote, "I have yet to see a credible analysis that suggests that broadband provider capital expenditures have declined as a result of our 2015 Open Internet Order... Using the same logic that the NPRM uses, one could suggest that the FCC 's classification of cable modem service as an information service in 2002 resulted in an even more precipitous drop in broadband provider investment. ''
Falcon, Legislative Council for the Electronic Frontier Foundation claimed that no such claims of CapEx reductions have been made in official reports filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), He said that major companies can be sued by investors who assert that they lost money because of misleading information in an SEC filing, and no such penalties apply to potentially misleading statements to Congress or the public.
Falcon 's claim is supported by an analysis by Turner of Free Press in a report that includes 26 figures and tables, 21 of which were extracted from SEC filings and three of the remaining five came from the U.S. Census Bureau 's Annual Capital Expenditures Survey. The change since the Title II Order was negative for only 5 of Turner 's 24 tables, and the mean and median change over the 24 tables for which it seemed reasonable to extract a typical annualized percentage change were 8.1 % and 5.2 %, respectively.
Over 1,000 startups and investors signed an open letter to Pai opposing the proposal. The FCC received over 21 million comments from the public, though it has since become clear that millions of these comments were fraudulent. After the commenting period, the FCC voted along party lines to repeal the 2014 rules.
To investigate the suggestion that some of the anti-net neutrality comments might be fraudulently using the names of real people without their knowledge, Fight for the Future created a web site called comcastroturf, claiming (on May 23, 2017), "Someone has submitted nearly half a million anti-net neutrality comments to the FCC, many of which appear to be completely fake -- using stolen names and addresses '', and inviting the reader to see if comments had been filed by someone else in his / her name. On May 23, Fight for the Future reported they had ' received a cease and desist order from Comcast 's lawyers, claiming that Comcastroturf.com... violates Comcast 's "valuable intellectual property. '' The letter threatens legal action if the domain is not transferred to Comcast 's control. "This is exactly why we need Title II net neutrality protections that ban blocking, throttling, and censorship, '' said Evan Greer, campaign director of Fight for the Future, "If Ajit Pai 's plan is enacted, there would be nothing preventing Comcast from simply blocking sites like Comcastroturf.com that are critical of their corporate policies ''. '
In early May, Forbes reported that, "a group of activists, under the banner Battle for the Net, unveiled a campaign to generate letters to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to complain about zero rating offerings, or free data programs. '' Forbes claimed that, "All of the groups sponsoring this petition are funded by Google, who is likely upset because zero rating is a way for startups to circumvent Google 's demands. Zero rating eradicates the idea that paid ads on search engines are the only way to gain visibility online. ''
In early June, Battle for the Net, a coalition spearheaded by Fight for the Future, Free Press Action Fund, and Demand Progress, announced a "massive day of action '' for July 12. Over 50,000 websites, including multinational corporations, participated in what Fight for the Future called "the largest online protest in history ''.
On June 15, 2017, Gigi Sohn, who had previously served as a top counselor to then - FCC chairman Tom Wheeler, published "4 steps to writing an impactful net neutrality comment (which you should do) '':
On November 21, 2017, FCC chairman Pai unveiled plans to repeal the net neutrality policy in the United States. FCC commissioner Jessica Rosenworcel alleged on December 8 that the FCC was withholding evidence of fraud due to irregularities in its comment period and said the vote should be postponed until after an appropriate investigation.
Many organizations involved in the July 12 Day of Action planned an online protest for December 12. A vote was held on December 14, 2017, with a 3 -- 2 party - line vote approving the repeal.
Within minutes after the vote, New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman announced his intent to lead a multi-state lawsuit against the FCC to "stop illegal rollback of net neutrality ''. Washington Attorney General Bob Ferguson also stated his intent to sue. On January 4, 2018, the current version of "Restoring Internet freedom '' was published.
Many broadband operators imposed various contractual limits on the activities of their subscribers. In the best known examples, Cox Cable disciplined users of virtual private networks (VPNs) and AT&T, as a cable operator, warned customers that using a Wi - Fi service for home networking constituted "theft of service '' and a federal crime. Comcast blocked ports of VPNs, forcing the state of Washington, for example, to contract with telecommunications providers to ensure that its employees had access to unimpeded broadband for telecommuting applications. Other broadband providers proposed to start charging service and content providers in return for higher levels of service (higher network priority, faster or more predictable), creating what is known as a tiered Internet.
In 2005, North Carolina ISP Madison River Communications blocked the voice - over-internet protocol (VOIP) service Vonage. The FCC issued a Letter of Inquiry to Madison River, initiating an investigation. To avoid litigation, Madison River agreed to make a voluntary payment of fifteen thousand dollars and agreed to not block ports used for VoIP applications or otherwise prevent customers from using VoIP applications. According to the consent decree, "The Parties agree that this Consent Decree does not constitute either an adjudication on the merits or a factual or legal finding regarding any compliance or noncompliance with the requirements of the Act and the Commission 's orders and rules. The Parties agree that this Consent Decree is for settlement purposes only. ''
In September 2012, a group of public interest organizations such as Free Press, Public Knowledge and the New America Foundation 's Open Technology Institute filed a complaint with the FCC that AT&T was violating net neutrality rules by restricting use of Apple 's video - conferencing application FaceTime on cellular networks to those who have a shared data plan on AT&T, excluding those with older, unlimited or tiered data plans. The FCC response noted that "Although this report does not attempt to engage in any legal interpretations of the Open Internet Order, we do note that the Order treats these mobile broadband networks differently from traditional fixed networks. While both fixed and mobile broadband providers must disclose their management practices, mobile broadband providers have greater latitude for blocking devices and applications (as long as they do not compete with the provider 's own voice or video telephony services) and discriminating in how they serve traffic, in accordance with reasonable network - management practices. ''
Arguments associated with net neutrality regulations came into prominence in mid-2002 with nine different bills introduced on this issue between 2006 and 2013.
There has been extensive debate about whether net neutrality should be required by law in the United States. Debate over the issue predates the coining of the term. Advocates of net neutrality have raised concerns about the ability of broadband providers to use their last mile infrastructure to block Internet applications and content (e.g. websites, services, and protocols), and even to block out competitors. While opponents claim net neutrality regulations would deter investment into improving broadband infrastructure and try to fix something that is n't broken.
In 2014 Professor Susan Crawford, a legal and technology expert at Harvard Law School suggested that municipal broadband might be a possible solution to net neutrality concerns.
Organizations that support net neutrality come from widely varied political backgrounds and include groups such as MoveOn.org, Free Press, Consumer Federation of America, AARP, American Library Association, Gun Owners of America, Public Knowledge, the Media Access Project, the Christian Coalition, TechNet, the American Civil Liberties Union, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Greenpeace, Tumblr, Kickstarter, Vimeo, Wikia, Mozilla Foundation, and others.
Prominent supporters of net neutrality include Vinton Cerf, co-inventor of the Internet Protocol; Tim Berners - Lee, creator of the World Wide Web; law professor Tim Wu; Netflix CEO Reed Hastings; Tumblr founder David Karp; and Last Week Tonight host John Oliver, who created two full - length Last Week Tonight segments about the issue.
In December 2017, 83 % of voters supported keeping the rules on net neutrality, including 75 % of Republican voters, 89 % of Democratic voters, and 86 % of independent voters.
Proponents of net neutrality, in particular those in favor of reclassification of broadband to "common carrier '', have many concerns about the potential for discriminatory service on the part of providers such as Comcast. Common - carriage principles require network operators to serve the public regardless of geographical location, district income levels, or usage. Telecommunications companies are required to provide services, such as phone access, to all consumers on the premise that it is a necessity that should be available to all people equally. If the FCC 's ability to regulate this aspect is removed, providers could cease to offer services to low income neighborhoods or rural environments. Those in favor of net neutrality often cite that the internet is now an educational necessity, and as such should not be doled out at the discrimination of private companies, whose profit - oriented models cause a conflict of interest.
Outside of the US several countries have removed net neutrality protocols and have started double charging for delivering content (once to consumer and again to content providers). This equates to a toll being required for certain internet access, essentially limiting what is available to all people, in particular low income households.
Large already well established companies may not be hurt by the cost increase that providers such as Comcast intend to levy upon them, but it would permanently stifle small businesses and the internet 's ability to encourage start - ups. Many have pointed out that sites such as Facebook, Google, and Amazon would not have been able to survive if net neutrality had n't been in place. Concerns abound as to what kind of long term damage would be inflicted on future website innovations, including educational content such as MIT 's OpenCourseWare which is a free website offering online video lectures to the public.
Michael Conti, the CEO of Pennsylvania Cyber Charter School, suggests that the children 's education is at stake and that lessons that incorporate the use of the internet are under risk since charter and public schools may not afford the Internet; in addition, families may not be able to afford Internet at home for their children 's educational needs. Students from virtual charter schools, public schools, children with special needs and homeschool children all depend mostly on web instructions, according to Charamonte.
Barbara Stripling, the president of the American Library Association states: "School, public and college libraries rely upon the public availability of open, affordable Internet access for school homework assignments, distance learning classes, e-government services, licensed databases, job - training videos, medical and scientific research, and many other essential services, we must ensure the same quality access to online educational content as to entertainment and other commercial offerings. ''
Previously existing FCC rules do not prevent telecommunications companies from charging fees to certain content providers in exchange for preferential treatment (the so - called "fast lanes ''). Neutrality advocates Tim Wu and Lawrence Lessig have argued that the FCC does have regulatory power over the matter, following from the must - carry precedent set in the Supreme Court case Turner Broadcasting v. Federal Communications Commission.
Net neutrality proponents argue that telecom companies seek to impose a tiered service model in order to control the pipeline and thereby remove competition, create artificial scarcity, and oblige subscribers to buy their otherwise noncompetitive services. Many believe net neutrality to be primarily important for the preservation of current internet freedoms; a lack of net neutrality would allow Internet service providers, such as Comcast, to extract payment from content providers like Netflix, and these charges would ultimately be passed on to consumers.
Civil rights organizations, such as the Color of Change, the National Hispanic Media Coalition, and more argue that net neutrality is also important for communities of color because it allows for them to tell their own stories and "organize for racial and social justice. '' Much of the mainstream media does not showcase these minority people, so these organizations believe that it is important to open the Internet into giving these people some sort of broadcast station. By doing so, their voices can be heard, because beforehand ISPs could "block unpopular speech and prevent dissident voices from speaking freely online. '' As a result, net neutrality has become a social controversy, not just a technological one.
In May 2014, some websites admitted to inserting code that slowed access to their site by users from known FCC IP addresses, as a protest on the FCC 's position on net neutrality.
On his show Last Week Tonight, Oliver took on the issue of net neutrality for the first time in 2014, in the show 's first season. The episode went viral with 13 million views on YouTube and prompted 45,000 comments on the FCC website. Former FCC Chairman Tom Wheeler cites Oliver 's episode as a turning point in the issue of net neutrality. "John Oliver took the ultimate arcane issue, Title II, and made it something that got people interested. And that 's good. '' Oliver returned to the issue of net neutrality on his May 7, 2017, episode in response to Chairman Pai 's promise to get rid of the regulation. He prompted viewers to once again comment on the FCC website by buying the domain gofccyourself.com, which garnered 1.6 million contributions.
Opponents to net neutrality include FCC Commissioner Ajit Pai, the FreedomWorks Foundation, the Reason Foundation, Multiple technology companies, VOIP pioneers Daniel Berninger and Jeff Pulver, Electronic Frontier Foundation founder John Perry Barlow. and Citizens Against Government Waste. Prominent opponents also include Netscape founder and venture capitalist Marc Andreessen, co-inventor of the Internet Protocol Bob Kahn, PayPal founder and Facebook investor Peter Thiel, MIT Media Lab founder Nicholas Negroponte, Internet engineer and former Chief Technologist for the FCC David Farber, and Nobel Prize economist Gary Becker. Organizations and companies that oppose net neutrality regulations include several major technology hardware companies, cable and telecommunications companies, hundreds of small internet service providers, various think tanks, several civil rights groups, and others.
Opponents argue that net neutrality would benefit industry lobbyists, and not consumers due to the potential of regulatory capture with policies that protect incumbent interests. Former hedge fund manager turned journalist Andy Kessler has argued, the threat of eminent domain against the telecommunication providers, instead of new legislation, is the best approach by forcing competition and better services. One print ad frames the Hands Off the Internet message in pro-consumer terms. "Net neutrality means consumers will be stuck paying more for their Internet access to cover the big online companies ' share, '' the ad claims.
In November 2005, Edward Whitacre Jr., then chief executive officer of SBC Communications, stated "there 's going to have to be some mechanism for these (Internet upstarts) who use these pipes to pay for the portion they 're using '', and that "The Internet ca n't be free in that sense, because we and the cable companies have made an investment, '' sparking a furious debate. SBC spokesman Michael Balmoris said that Whitacre was misinterpreted and his comments only referred to new tiered services. Net neutrality laws are generally opposed by the cable television and telephone industries.
Net neutrality opponents such as IBM, Intel, Juniper, Qualcomm, and Cisco claim that net neutrality would deter investment into broadband infrastructure, saying that "shifting to Title II means that instead of billions of broadband investment driving other sectors of the economy forward, any reduction in this spending will stifle growth across the entire economy. Title II is going to lead to a slowdown, if not a hold, in broadband build out, because if you do n't know that you can recover on your investment, you wo n't make it. '' Others argue that the regulation is "a solution that wo n't work to a problem that simply does n't exist ''.
Critics of net neutrality argue that data discrimination is desirable for reasons like guaranteeing quality of service. Bob Kahn, co-inventor of the Internet Protocol, called the term net neutrality a slogan and opposes establishing it, but he admits that he is against the fragmentation of the net whenever this becomes excluding to other participants. Vint Cerf, Kahn 's co-founder of the Internet Protocol, explains the confusion over their positions on net neutrality, "There 's also some argument that says, well you have to treat every packet the same. That 's not what any of us said. Or you ca n't charge more for more usage. We did n't say that either. ''
An alternate position was proposed in 2010 by then - FCC Commissioner Julius Genachowski, which would narrowly reclassify Internet access as a telecommunication service under Title Two of the Communications Act of 1934. It would apply only six common carrier rules under the legal principle of forbearance that would sufficiently prevent unreasonable discrimination and mandate reasonable net neutrality policies under the concept of common carriage. Incumbent ISP AT&T opposed the idea saying that common carrier regulations would "cram today 's broadband Internet access providers into an ill - fitting 20th century regulatory silo '' while Google supported the FCC proposal "In particular, the Third Way will promote legal certainty and regulatory predictability to spur investment, ensure that the Commission can fulfill the tremendous promise of the National Broadband Plan, and make it possible for the Commission to protect and serve all broadband users, including through meaningful enforcement ''.
In October 2014, after the initial proposal was shot down, the FCC began drafting a new proposal that would take a hybrid regulatory approach to the issue. Although this alternative has not yet been circulated, it is said to propose that there be a divide between "wholesale '' and "retail '' transactions. In order to illustrate clear rules that are grounded by law, reclassification of Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 will be involved as well as parts of Section 706 of the Telecommunications Act of 1996. Data being sent between content provider and ISPs will involve stricter regulations compared to transactions between ISP 's and consumers, which will involve more lax parameters. Restrictions on offering a data fast lane will be enforced between content providers and ISPs to avoid unfair advantages. This hybrid proposal has become the most popular solution among the three options that FCC has reported. However, ISPs, such as AT&T who has already warned the public via tweet "any use of Title II would be problematic '', are expected to dispute this solution. The official proposal was rumored to become public by the end of 2014.
In 2006 Bram Cohen, the creator of BitTorrent, said "I most definitely do not want the Internet to become like television where there 's actual censorship... however it is very difficult to actually create network neutrality laws which do n't result in an absurdity, like making it so that ISPs ca n't drop spam or stop... attacks. ''
In June 2007, the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) urged restraint with respect to new regulations proposed by net neutrality advocates, noting the "broadband industry is a relatively young and evolving one, '' and given no "significant market failure or demonstrated consumer harm from conduct by broadband providers '' such regulations "may well have adverse effects on consumer welfare, despite the good intentions of their proponents. '' The FTC conclusions were questioned in Congress in September 2007, when Sen. Byron Dorgan, D-N. D., chairman of the Senate interstate commerce, trade and tourism subcommittee, told FTC Chairwoman Deborah Platt Majoras that he feared new services as groundbreaking as Google could not get started in a system with price discrimination.
In 2011 Aparna Watal, a legal officer at an Internet company named Attomic Labs, has put forward three points for resisting any urge "to react legislatively to the apparent regulatory crisis ''. Firstly, "contrary to the general opinion, the Comcast decision does not uproot the Commission 's authority to regulate ISPs. Section 201 (b) of the Act, which was cited as an argument by the Commission but not addressed by the Court on procedural grounds, could grant the Commission authority to regulate broadband Internet services where they render "charges, practices and regulations for, and in connection with '' common carrier services unjust and unreasonable. '' Secondly, she suggests, it is "undesirable and premature to legislatively mandate network neutrality or for the Commission to adopt a paternalistic approach on the issue... (as) there have been few overt incidents to date, and the costs of those incidents to consumers have been limited. '' She cites "prompt media attention and public backlash '' as effective policing tools to prevent ISPs from throttling traffic. She suggests that it "would be more prudent to consider introducing modest consumer protection rules, such as requiring ISPs to disclose their network management practices and to allow for consumers to switch ISPs inexpensively, rather than introducing network neutrality laws. '' "While by regulating broadband services the commission is not directly regulating content and applications on the Internet '', content will be affected by the reclassification. "The different layers of the Internet work in tandem with each other such that there is no possibility of throttling or improving one layer 's performance without impacting the other layers... To let the Commission regulate broadband pipelines connecting to the Internet and disregard that it indirectly involves regulating the data that runs through them will lead to a complex, overlapping, and fractured regulatory landscape in the years to come. ''
As of 2006 the debate over "neutrality '' did not yet capture some dimensions of the topic; for example, whether voice packets should get higher priority than packets carrying email or whether emergency services, mission - critical, or life - saving applications, such as tele - medicine, should get priority over spam.
Cable companies have lobbied Congress for a federal preemption to ban states and municipalities from competing and thereby interfering with interstate commerce. However, there is current Supreme Court precedent for an exception to the Commerce Power of Congress for states as states going into business for their citizens.
In 2006 it was proposed that neither municipal wireless nor other technological solutions such as encryption, onion routing, or time - shifting DVR would be sufficient to render possible discrimination moot.
EPB, the municipal utility serving Chattanooga, Tennessee, petitioned the FCC to allow them to deliver internet to communities outside of the 600 - square mile area that they service. A similar petition was made by Wilson, North Carolina. According to FCC officials, some residents who lived just outside the service areas of the Chattanooga and Wilson utilities then had no broadband service available. One of the two February 26, 2015, rulings set aside those states ' restrictions on municipal broadband, although legal challenges to the FCC 's authority to do so were seen as likely.
On November 21, 2017, FCC chairman Ajit Pai unveiled plans to repeal the net neutrality policy in the United States. A vote was held on December 14, 2017, and the FCC voted 3 -- 2, along party lines, to repeal the Title II net neutrality.
This decision -- and the previously announced intention to take this decision -- has generated a flurry of activity to restore net neutrality at the state level in spite of this FCC action, including a number of bills introduced into the legislatures in various states to require net neutrality by either (a) state regulation or (b) to obtain a contract with any state (and in some cases) local governmental body.
Particularly noteworthy are the actions of the governors of Montana (on January 22), New York (on January 24) and New Jersey (on February 5) to issue executive orders mandating that state agencies will only sign contracts for Internet access with companies that make enforceable commitments to abide by net neutrality principles for all their business within the state. These executive orders impact contract negotiations immediately for all contracts that become effective after a certain date -- unless the executive orders are blocked by court action or are rescinded by the governor or state legislature.
Other attempts by net neutrality supporters are still pending, awaiting, e.g., court action or votes in legislative bodies. Oregonians for Net Neutrality are trying to collect enough signatures to place this issue on their November 6, 2018, ballot.
As of Monday, January 15, 2018, 50 United States senators endorsed legislative action to reverse the repeal of Title II net neutrality by passing a resolution of disapproval. 51 votes are required to pass the resolution.
Pending state legislation falls primarily into two general categories: (a) regulation and (b) contracting with state and possibly sub-state entities. Both might be overturned by courts, depending on how the courts rule on the conflict between the state actions and section III. E. 7ff of this FCC order regarding, "Preemption of Inconsistent State and Local Regulations '': While it 's impossible to predict how courts may rule, on the surface this section suggests that state regulations in this area may not be enforceable. And courts may or may not overrule the use of state contracting authority in this area as being equivalent to impermissible regulation.
An effort is underway to overturn this decision in the US Congress under the Congressional Review Act.
Less than an hour after the results were published, the state attorneys general for Washington and New York announced that they were suing the FCC over its decision. Attorneys general for other states announced their intention to join this suit. This suit against the FCC was formally filed on January 16, 2018 in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit by the Attorney General of New York on behalf of 21 States and the District of Columbia. On February 5, 2018, Governor Phil Murphy of New Jersey announced that New Jersey will join 21 States and D.C. in this lawsuit. The new regulations appeared in the Federal Register on February 22, 2018, giving opponents of the FCC 's decision 60 days from that date to prevent the new regulations from going into effect. The multi-state lawsuit was refiled on February 22, including 22 states and the District of Columbia.
The status as of February 26, 2018, of executive orders and pending action at state levels is summarized as follows:
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orchestral manoeuvres in the dark history of modern | History of Modern - wikipedia
History of Modern is the eleventh studio album by British synthpop band Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark (OMD). It is their first since 1996, and also the first to feature the classic 4 - piece OMD line - up since 1986 's The Pacific Age. The record was released in the UK on 20 September 2010, peaking at # 28. It was a considerable hit in Germany, reaching # 5 -- the group 's highest chart placing for an LP in that country. The album was released in the US on Bright Antenna on 28 September 2010.
A free download demo track taken from the album, called "Sister Marie Says '', was released on 25 November 2009 and featured backing vocals from British classical crossover soprano Keedie Babb. The first single from the album, "If You Want It '', was released on 6 September 2010.
On 2 March 2011 an EP, History of Modern (Part I) was released containing remixes and B - Sides from History of Modern.
"Sister Marie Says '' was part - written in 1981 and later recorded during the sessions for 1993 's Liberator album. It was subsequently dropped from this album and did not get its first public airing until the OMD Event in 2005. The track has been revamped for the new album, produced and mixed by Guy Katsav at his London studio. The second track to be played from the album was "History of Modern pt. 2 ''. It was aired on 31 May 2010 on BBC 6 Music; the title of the song was revealed on the show 's web page a week before the broadcast.
Many of the songs had been written and demoed by Andy McCluskey prior to OMD 's official reformation, announced at a fan gathering in April 2005. Contributions by the remaining members were made in between other commitments. "New Holy Ground '' was originally written by McCluskey and Paul Humphreys in 2008 as an extra track for an EP which was later shelved. Humphreys also co-wrote "Green '' and "History of Modern (Part II) ''.
Samples are prevalent towards the end of the album. "Pulse '' contains a sample from "Pulse '' by Brother and Sister, "Bondage of Fate '' samples Hannah Peel 's "Organ Song '', while the closing track "The Right Side? '' contains a sample from "Looking Down on London '' by fellow Kraftwerk enthusiasts, Komputer.
"Sometimes '' features Jennifer John, who provided backing vocals on "Oil For the Lamps of China '' and "Promised the World '' by The Listening Pool, the band formed in the wake of OMD 's original split in 1989 by Paul Humphreys with Martin Cooper and Malcolm Holmes.
"RFWK '' is a homage to childhood heroes Kraftwerk and its initials comprise the first letter of each of the classic 4 - piece line - up 's forenames (Ralf, Florian, Wolfgang and Karl).
"The Future, The Past and Forever After '' began life as "Wheels of Steel '', a track originally considered for inclusion on the Sugar Tax album.
In an interview during the show the band confirmed the album would have two tracks named "History of Modern '' on it and plans to change the name of one of the songs to "The Big Bang Theory '' had apparently been scrapped.
The track "Pulse '' features backing vocals by former members of Genie Queen, including Abigail Clancy.
The track "The Right Side '' is an overt hommage to Kraftwerk, with the arrangement drawing heavily on the structure employed on their track "Europe Endless ''.
Bar three tracks, the album was mixed by Mike Crossey, who has worked for the likes of Arctic Monkeys, Foals and Razorlight.
Digital download and CD releases in certain countries feature the bonus track "Save Me '', a mash - up of OMD 's "Messages '' and Aretha Franklin 's "Save Me ''.
Special edition box sets of the album will also include a double vinyl LP, a DVD book pack and a CD of album demo tracks.
The artwork for History of Modern was conceived by Peter Saville and designed by Four23. The title was thought of by lead singer Andy McCluskey after he took his daughter to an art exhibition called ' The History of Modernism '.
"If You Want It '' was released as the first single on 6 September 2010. It was their first single since 1996 's "Universal ''. In October, "Sister Marie Says '' was announced as the album 's second single, and was released on 19 November 2010. The third single, "History of Modern (Part I) '' was remixed in radio and extended forms, and was released on 28 February 2011.
History of Modern received generally favourable reviews. An enthusiastic John Aizlewood in the London Evening Standard wrote: "Kudos is (OMD 's) again. History of Modern breaks little new ground but since it restates the old with such expertly crafted joy, it 's not a problem. '' The review in Q was also positive, noting that OMD 's "winning way with a rattling pop tune is timeless '' and that the record "refines their sound and gives it a modern production tweak ''. A mildly positive AllMusic review by Andy Kellman concluded with: "At its best, History of Modern is to OMD what Secrets is to The Human League: an inspired return from post-punk - turned - synth - pop greats. '' Conversely, BBC reviewer John Doran was unimpressed, stating: "A few highs aside, this is a poor return from the 80s hit - makers... it 's not too late for OMD to stride all the way back to greatness. But this album is n't even a stumble in the right direction. ''
"Alone '' -- B - side to digital download and CD versions of "If You Want It '' single. "Idea 1 '' -- B - side to limited edition 7 '' vinyl single of "If You Want It ''. "The Grand Deception '' -- B - side to CD version of "Sister Marie Says ''. "History of Modern, Pt. III & IV '' -- B - side to limited edition 7 '' vinyl single of "Sister Marie Says ''.
History of Modern reached No. 5 on the German Albums Chart, OMD 's highest ever position there. It also cracked the national albums charts of several countries including reaching No. 97 in the Netherlands, No. 63 in Switzerland, No. 36 in Austria and No. 28 in the United Kingdom where it reached No. 3 on the official independent chart as well, remaining 12 weeks in the top 50.
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who was the president of south africa in 1948 | South African general election, 1948 - Wikipedia
Jan Smuts United
D.F. Malan Reunited National
The parliamentary election in South Africa on 26 May 1948 represented a turning point in the country 's history. The United Party, which had led the government since its foundation in 1933, and its leader, incumbent Prime Minister Jan Smuts, were ousted by the Reunited National Party (Herenigde Nasionale Party in Afrikaans), led by Daniel Francois Malan, a Dutch Reformed cleric.
During the election battle, both the UP and the NP formed coalitions with smaller parties. The UP was aligned with the left - leaning Labour Party, while the Afrikaner Party sought to advance Afrikaner rights by allying with the HNP. By legislation relating to franchise requirements, very few people of Coloured and Asian descent were able to vote in this election; Africans had been banned altogether since the late 1930s, with the limited number of Africans meeting electoral qualifications voting for four "own '' white MPs separately.
The HNP, realising that many White South Africans felt threatened by black political aspirations, pledged to implement a policy of strict racial segregation in all spheres of living. The Nationalists labelled this new system of social organisation "apartheid '' ("apartness '' or "separation ''), the name by which it became universally known. The HNP also took advantage of white fear of black - on - white crime, and the HNP promised whites safety and security from black - on - white crime and violence.
In contrast to the HNP 's consistent, straightforward platform, the UP supported vague notions of slowly integrating the different racial groups within South Africa. Furthermore, white dissatisfaction with domestic and economic problems in South Africa after World War II, the NP 's superior organisation, and electoral gerrymandering, all proved to be significant challenges to the UP campaign.
Together, the HNP and the Afrikaner Party won 79 seats in the House of Assembly against a combined total of 74 won by the UP and the Labour Party. By a quirk of the First Past the Post system the NP had won more seats, even though the UP had received over eleven percent more votes. The Nationalist coalition subsequently formed a new government and ushered in the era of formal, legally binding apartheid. In 1951, the HNP and the Afrikaner Party merged, returning to the name National Party (NP).
One of the central issues facing the white electorate in the 1948 election was that of race. The United Party (UP) and the National Party (NP) presented voters with differing answers to questions relating to racial integration in SA. Smuts and his followers were in favour of a pragmatic approach, arguing that racial integration was inevitable and that the government should thus relax regulations which sought to prevent black people from moving into urban areas. Whilst still seeking to maintain white dominance, the UP argued in favour of gradually reforming the political system so that black South Africans could eventually, at some unspecified point in the future, exercise some sort of power in a racially integrated South Africa. In contrast to this seemingly vague ideology, the NP advanced the notion of further strictly enforced segregation between races and the total disempowerment of black South Africans. Rural to urban movement by blacks was to be discouraged. The UP position was supported by the Fagan Commission while the Sauer Commission informed the NP 's stance.
The putative policy of apartheid proposed by the NP served the economic interests of certain groups of white South Africans. Farmers from the northern portions of the country relied on cheap black labour to maximise profits while working class whites living in urban areas feared the employment competition that would follow an urban influx of black South Africans. Many commercial and financial Afrikaner interests based on agriculture saw the value of apartheid in promoting growth in this sector. The UP failed to realise the enormous economic benefits of apartheid to these large and influential groups and did not prioritise segregation as much as the NP.
As regards election tactics, the NP was extremely adroit at exploiting white fears while campaigning in the 1948 election. Because the UP had seemed to take a fairly lukewarm stance towards both integration and segregation, the NP was able to argue that a victory for the UP would ultimately lead to a black government in South Africa. NP propaganda linked black political power to Communism, an anathema to many white South Africans at the time. Slogans such as "Swart Gevaar '' ("Black Peril ''), "Rooi Gevaar '' ("Red Peril ''), "Die kaffer op sy plek '' ("The Kaffir in his place ''), and "Die koelies uit die land '' ("The coolies out of the country '') played upon and amplified white anxieties. Much was made of the fact that Smuts had developed a good working relationship with Joseph Stalin during World War II, when South Africa and the USSR were allies in the fight against Nazi Germany. Smuts had once remarked that he "doffs his cap to Stalin '' and the NP presented this remark as proof of Smuts 's latent Communist tendencies.
The Smuts government 's controversial immigration programme served to further inflame Afrikaner disquiet. Under this programme, numerous British immigrants had moved to South Africa and were perceived to have taken homes and employment away from (white) South African citizens. Moreover, it was claimed that the intention behind such plans was to swamp the Afrikaners, who had a higher birth rate than the British diaspora, with British immigrants so that Afrikaners would be outnumbered at the polls in future elections.
In preparation for the 1948 election, the NP moderated its stance on republicanism. Because of the immense and abiding national trauma caused by the Anglo - Boer War, transforming South Africa into a republic and dissolving all ties between South Africa and the United Kingdom had been an important mission for earlier incarnations of the NP. English speaking South Africans tended to favour a close relationship with the UK, and so the republican project became a source of conflict between the two largest white groups in South Africa. A staunchly pro-republic stance alienated moderate Afrikaners who had supported South Africa 's participation in World War II and wished to achieve reconciliation between their own people and English speakers. When the NP agreed to compromise its fiercely republican standpoint, conceding that South Africa should remain a Dominion in the Commonwealth, many Afrikaner UP supporters switched allegiance.
Demarcation of electoral district boundaries favoured the NP. Most of the 70 seats won by the National Party during the 1948 election were in rural areas, whereas most of the 65 seats won by the United Party were in the urban areas. According to the Constitution that South Africa had at the time, the constituencies in the rural areas were smaller than those in urban areas. This meant that there were more rural constituencies than urban ones. This was to the benefit of the National Party, since it tended to do well in rural areas in terms of votes. Despite winning 140,000 fewer votes than the UP, the NP / AP coalition gained a plurality of seats in Parliament. It has been calculated that if rural and urban votes had been of equal value, the UP would have won 80 seats, the NP / AP 60 seats, and other parties the remaining seats, thus giving the UP a majority.
Smuts and his cabinet were blamed for many of the hardships that occurred as a result of South Africa 's participation in World War II. During the war petrol was rationed by means of coupons, and bakeries were ordered not to bake white bread so as to conserve wheat. After the war some of these measures continued, as South Africa exported food and other necessaries to Britain and the Netherlands. South Africa even provided Britain with a loan of 4 million ounces of gold. These measures caused local shortages of meat and the unavailability of white bread. The Smuts government was blamed for this, as well as for the rate of inflation and the government 's dismal housing record. All these factors provided ammunition for the NP.
The UP at the time has been characterised as cumbersome and lacking vigour while the NP displayed energy and superior organisational skills. World War II had a bonding effect on the UP and white South Africans generally. Once this external uniting force fell away, Smuts lost a great deal of control over the UP as more and more voters considered alternatives to his tired regime; humiliatingly, the Prime Minister lost his parliamentary seat (Standerton) to an NP challenger. As can be seen from the final tally of seats, Smuts and his party proved unable to counter the many grievances raised by the NP in an effective way, and this inability led to a narrow NP victory.
After the 1948 election, the ruling coalition succeeded in fully enfranchising the mostly Afrikaans - and German - speaking voters in South West Africa, later known as Namibia upon independence in 1990; the result being that this gave the National Party more or less six reliable votes in parliament.
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who plays the bounty hunter in ready player one | Ready Player One (film) - wikipedia
Ready Player One is a 2018 American science fiction adventure film produced and directed by Steven Spielberg, and written by Zak Penn and Ernest Cline, based on Cline 's 2011 novel of the same name. The film stars Tye Sheridan, Olivia Cooke, Ben Mendelsohn, Lena Waithe, T.J. Miller, Simon Pegg, and Mark Rylance.
The film takes place in the year 2045, when much of humanity uses the virtual reality software OASIS to escape the desolation of the real world. Orphaned teenager Wade Watts (Sheridan) discovers clues to a hidden game within the program that promises the winner full ownership of the OASIS, and joins several allies to try to complete the game before a large company run by businessman Nolan Sorrento (Mendelsohn) can do so.
Ready Player One premiered at South by Southwest on March 11, 2018, was theatrically released by Warner Bros. Pictures in the United States on March 29, 2018, in 2D, Real D 3D, IMAX and IMAX 3D. It has grossed $581 million worldwide, making it the fourth - highest - grossing film of 2018. The film received generally positive reviews, with critics praising its visuals, brisk pacing, and Rylance 's performance. The film was noted to have significant differences from the book, with some critics calling the film 's plot an improvement over the source material.
In 2045, due to various geopolitical events, many of Earth 's cities have become slums; its inhabitants regularly escape into the virtual reality world of the OASIS. Its co-founder, the late James "Anorak '' Halliday, announces a contest in which players must find an Easter egg inside a gate that requires three keys hidden in the worlds; the winner to receive full ownership and control of the OASIS. This attracts a number of Gunters ("egg hunters '') as well as the video game conglomerate Innovative Online Industries (IOI), headed by their new CEO Nolan Sorrento, who employs researchers of Halliday, as well as top gamers and indentured servants called "Sixers ''.
In Columbus, Ohio, Wade Watts, an orphaned 17 - year - old Gunter, lives with his aunt Alice in the "stacks '', makeshift towers of trailer homes, and logs onto the OASIS from a nearby cargo van. His avatar Parzival, and his online friend Aech, a male first - person shooter expert and virtual mechanic, participate in the first quest: a vehicle race across ever - shifting roadways in Manhattan. Parzival befriends a well - known Gunter named Art3mis by saving her from being "zeroed out '' by King Kong, which would have wiped her character progression. At Anorak 's virtual archives containing video clips reconstructing Halliday 's life, Parzival gets an insight from a comment that Halliday made to his former business partner, Ogden Morrow, and on the next race, uncovers an underground shortcut to the finish line to acquire the first key. Aech and Art3mis, as well as players Daito and Sho, soon follow; appearing atop the global scoreboard as the "High Five ''.
At an OASIS dance club, i - R0k, a mercenary helping Sorrento, overhears Parzival tell Art3mis his real name. Sorrento requests Wade to join IOI, but when he refuses out of distrust, Sorrento and his aide F'Nale Zandor bomb Wade 's stack, killing Alice and Wade 's neighbors. Wade is taken to a Gunter hideout where he meets Art3mis in reality: Samantha Cook. They discover that Halliday regretted a movie date with a woman named Kira, who later married Morrow. After Parzival wins a coin on a small bet with the archive 's curator, the High Five enter a re-creation of The Shining where they traverse a series of frightening events to eventually reach Kira to acquire the second key.
Zandor tracks Wade to the Gunter hideout, but finds only Samantha, who is arrested and made into a Sixer for defaulting on her family 's debt. Wade is extracted by the other High Five players -- Aech / Helen Harris, Daito / Toshiro, and Sho / Zhou -- who have been secretly running their avatars from Helen 's postal truck. i - R0k activates a force field around the location of the third key inside a fortress on Planet Doom. After tricking Sorrento into revealing Samantha 's location, Wade helps her escape. She hacks Sorrento 's station, allowing Wade to recruit OASIS players to join an all - out assault against Sorrento and the Sixers at the fortress. Hiding among the active Sixers, Samantha shuts down the force field. During the battle, the rebels defeat Sorrento 's Mechagodzilla and i - R0k, but Parzival zeroes out Samantha 's avatar to let her escape IOI in reality.
Parzival and Sho find Sixers lining up to play on an Atari 2600 console, but failing on each game after time expires, even when one of them beats Adventure. Sorrento activates the Cataclyst, which zeroes out everyone on Planet Doom (including himself). However, the curator 's coin spares Parzival as an extra life. Parzival deduces that the goal is not to win Adventure but to simply find its own Easter egg, which Parzival completes to reveal the third key. Inside the gate, Anorak presents Parzival a contract; however, Wade declines as it is similar to the one Morrow had signed that dissolved his partnership with Halliday. Anorak transforms into Halliday and affirms Wade 's decision to be correct. After showing Parzival a Big Red Button that would shut down the OASIS permanently, Halliday officially awards him the Golden Egg as the winner of the contest.
Sorrento and Zandor are arrested after Aech had sent the police a recording of Sorrento 's conversation with Wade that resulted in the bombing. IOI 's indentured players are freed from their debts, heavily restructuring the company. The High Five share control of the OASIS, with Wade hiring Morrow, who is revealed to be the archive curator, as a consultant. The OASIS resumes operations, but is shut down on Tuesdays and Thursdays to force people to spend more time in the real world, including Wade and Samantha who have formed a relationship and bought an apartment together.
Additionally, Susan Lynch portrays Alice, Wade 's aunt; Ralph Ineson portrays Rick, Alice 's abusive boyfriend; Perdita Weeks portrays Karen "Kira '' Underwood, Morrow 's wife; Clare Higgins portrays Mrs. Gilmore, Wade 's neighbor; and Letitia Wright portrays a rebel who can briefly be seen at the safe house. McKenna Grace and Lulu Wilson appear as elementary school children who use the OASIS.
Warner Bros. and De Line Pictures won an auction for the rights to Ernest Cline 's novel Ready Player One in 2010, before it had been published. Cline was set to write the script for the film, which Donald De Line and Dan Farah would produce. Eric Eason rewrote Cline 's script, and Zak Penn was hired to rewrite the previous drafts by Cline and Eason. Village Roadshow Pictures came aboard to co-finance and co-produce the film with Warner Bros. Steven Spielberg signed on to direct and produce the film, which Kristie Macosko Krieger also produced, along with De Line and Farah. Ready Player One is Spielberg 's first action - fantasy film since The Adventures of Tintin in late 2011. Cline and Penn made several revisions while adapting the novel to film. Most of these changes were to eliminate scenes that would be uninteresting in a visual format, such as when Wade beats a high score in Pac - Man, or recites all the lines from the film WarGames.
Three actresses were top - runners for the role of Art3mis: Elle Fanning, Olivia Cooke, and Lola Kirke; In September 2015, Cooke was announced as having been cast in the coveted female lead role. In January 2016, Ben Mendelsohn joined the cast. In February 2016, Tye Sheridan was confirmed as playing the lead role of Wade, after a lengthy nationwide casting call failed to produce an unknown for the part. In March 2016, Simon Pegg joined the cast. In April 2016, Mark Rylance joined the cast, and in June 2016, T.J. Miller, Hannah John - Kamen and Win Morisaki also joined. In July 2016, Philip Zhao joined the cast, and Lena Waithe, Ralph Ineson, McKenna Grace, and Letitia Wright were later also announced to have been cast.
Production was set to begin in July 2016. Screenwriter Zak Penn tweeted on July 1, 2016 that the first week of filming had been completed. In August and September 2016, filming took place in Birmingham, England; this included Livery Street in the Jewellery Quarter area of the city, which was extensively used, including the van chase that takes place towards the film 's end. The chase was edited to make the street appear longer than it actually is. The backpackers ' hostel Hatters, also on Livery Street, was used for internal filming for a basement scene. Also utilized was the Ludgate Hill Car Park lot on Lionel Street, in which caravan homes were partially built; a planned explosion caused some local business and homes to call emergency services, as no prior notification were given by the production. Other locations in the city included the former industrial area of Digbeth, with a rooftop scene that overlooks the Birmingham City Centre skyline, with some of the city 's landmark buildings being erased and replaced with CGI buildings in order to create a dystopian Ohio in the year 2045. Principal photography ended on September 27, 2016.
Spielberg worked with Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) to oversee the film 's visual effects, meeting with ILM for 3 hours three times a week. He has stated that "(t) his is the most difficult movie I 've done since Saving Private Ryan. ''
A significant part of the film takes place in a virtual space based on the Overlook Hotel in the film The Shining. This was mostly a digital recreation of the film using high - quality telecine of the original film, giving them some freedom of new camera angles and shots that could be generated from this recreation. The final film includes a combination of the original footage from The Shining and ILM 's additional work. Only a few scenes in this sequence which involved real actors, such as the appearance of the Grady twins, required them to construct a faithful reproduction of The Shining 's set for the actors to interact with. Finally, the sequence was post-processed to introduce film grain and other aging effects to make the new footage indistinguishable from the original film.
Ready Player One pays homage to the popular culture of the 1970s and 1980s as in the book, but also extends to the 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s; several reviewers have identified well over one hundred references to films, television shows, music, toys, video games, anime and comics of these eras. Cline did not have any issues with these copyrighted elements when he published the book, but was aware that securing all necessary rights would be a major obstacle for a film adaptation, a task made easier by Spielberg 's reputation. Spielberg and producer Kristie Macosko Krieger spent several years securing the rights for the copyrighted elements used in the film, starting before filming began, since some scenes would not be possible without certain copyrighted elements. Spielberg estimated that they had gotten about 80 % of the copyrighted elements they wanted. Spielberg noted that in some cases, the filmmakers were able to secure rights for some but not all the characters they wanted; in negotiating with Warner Bros., they could not secure Close Encounters of the Third Kind from Columbia Pictures, despite the latter being one of Spielberg 's first films as director.
Blade Runner, which was integral to the plot of the book, was off limits to the film adaptation because Blade Runner 2049 was in production at the same time as Ready Player One. As a replacement, they conceived of players having to play out the events of The Shining, which Spielberg was able to secure the rights to as an homage to his friend Stanley Kubrick. While Cline 's original work heavily used the character of Ultraman, the rights over the character were still under legal dispute, requiring them to replace Ultraman with the titular robot from The Iron Giant. Spielberg recognized that his past films were a significant part of the 1980s popular culture cited in the book, and to avoid being accused of "vanity '', he opted to remove many of the references to his own work. Cline stated that he believed Spielberg wanted to avoid self - references to films he directed, due to the criticism he received for his film 1941, which lampooned his own previous works Jaws and Duel. Cline said he had to convince Spielberg to include some iconic elements, such as the Back to the Future DeLorean time machine, which Spielberg conceded as the film was one he produced rather than directed. Cline also asked ILM to include a reference to Last Action Hero, one of Penn 's first screenplays, without Penn 's knowledge.
On June 9, 2016, Variety stated that Spielberg 's regular collaborator John Williams was planning to compose the film 's score. However, in July 2017, it was reported that Williams had left the project to work on Spielberg 's The Post instead, with Alan Silvestri hired to take over scoring duties for Ready Player One. The official score was released by WaterTower Music as a two - CD set on March 30, 2018, with vinyl and cassette releases projected for the summer. At Spielberg 's request, Silvestri references his own music from Back to the Future within the film 's score, as well as quoting the music from The Shining for the film 's sequence at the Overlook Hotel.
The film also includes licensed music from the 1970s and 1980s, which appears on the digital - only album Ready Player One: Songs From The Motion Picture.
Ready Player One was initially scheduled to be released on December 15, 2017, but was pushed back to March 30, 2018, to avoid competition with Star Wars: The Last Jedi. In January 2018, it was announced the film 's release date had been moved up one day to March 29, 2018. The film had its world premiere at the Paramount Theatre in Austin, Texas on March 11, 2018 (as part of the South by Southwest Film Festival).
Warner Bros. distributes the film worldwide, with Village Roadshow Pictures distributing in several overseas territories.
Ready Player One is scheduled to be released on digital retailers on July 3, 2018, followed by a home media release date of July 24.
As of June 17, 2018, Ready Player One has grossed $136.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $444.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $581.5 million. Made on a production budget of $175 million, with about $150 million more spent on global marketing costs, the film needed to gross at least $440 million in order to break - even.
In the United States and Canada, Ready Player One was released alongside God 's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness and Acrimony, and was projected to gross $40 -- 50 million from 4,100 theaters over its first four days. It made $12.1 million on its first day, including $3.75 million from Wednesday night previews. It ended up grossing $41.8 million in its opening weekend (for a four - day total of $53.7 million), marking Spielberg 's biggest debut since 2008 's Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. In its second weekend it grossed $25.1 million (a drop of 40 %), finishing second behind newcomer A Quiet Place ($50 million). In its third weekend the film made $11.2 million, coming in fourth behind Rampage, A Quiet Place and Truth or Dare. In its fourth weekend the film made $7.4 million, finishing sixth at the box office In its fifth weekend it grossed $2.4 million, a drop of 67 % from previous weekend and finishing ninth.
Worldwide, the film was released day - in - date in 62 countries, including China, where it was expected to make $100 -- 120 million in its opening weekend. It grossed $2.9 million on its first day from 11 countries, including $980,000 from Korea. In China the film made $14.75 million on its first day and earned a score of 9.2 from audiences on Douban (compared to the average 6 -- 7 earned by Hollywood films). It grossed $61.7 million in China in its opening weekend which is the highest opening ever for Warner Bros in said territory. The film 's other major opening weekend territories were South Korea ($8.1 million), United Kingdom ($7.3 million), Russia ($6.1 million) and France ($6 million). In its second weekend in China it grossed $42 million, and in third weekend grossed $13.9 million. The film grossed $81.7 million in its second weekend overseas, dropping only 35 % and is ahead of other newcomers A Quiet Place and Blockers. In its third weekend it grossed $33.8 million overseas dropping 58.6 %. On April 21, 2018, the film topped $200 million in China, becoming the tenth - biggest U.S. release ever in the country. In its fourth weekend in China, it grossed $8.24 million finishing third at the box office and has a total gross of $207 million. It grossed $23 million overseas from 67 territories in its fourth weekend. It opened in Japan, its final major market and grossed $4.4 million. In its fifth weekend overseas, it grossed $8.6 million from 63 territories. In China, the weekend was $2.4 M to push it past Avatar as the no. 9 Hollywood title ever in the market with $213.8 M (RMB 1.34 B). Japan 's third frame held well during Golden Week with just a 6 % drop from the last session. The total there is currently at $17.5 M. In its sixth weekend in China, it bumped up 10 % from last session to lift the local cume to $220.2 M. As of April 29, the film 's largest markets after China are United Kingdom ($22.6 million), France ($20.3 million), Korea ($18.6 million), Japan ($17.5 million), and Russia - CIS ($12.7 million).
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 73 % based on 331 reviews, and an average rating of 6.9 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Ready Player One is a sweetly nostalgic thrill ride that neatly encapsulates Spielberg 's strengths while adding another solidly engrossing adventure to his filmography. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 64 out of 100, based on 54 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 82 % overall positive score and a 65 % "definite recommend ''.
In a review for RogerEbert.com, Brian Tallerico wrote that the film 's "overwhelming '' nature and non-stop action will likely thrill fans of pop culture; while he observed narrative weaknesses, such as a lack of depth among the supporting characters, he felt that they ultimately do not hinder the film from working "on the level of technical, blockbuster mastery that Spielberg helped define. '' Writing for Variety, Owen Gleiberman called the film a "coruscating explosion of pop - culture eye candy, '' and found The Shining sequence to be "irresistible ''. However, he also criticized Spielberg 's dichotomization of fantasy and reality, as well as the film having "more activity than it does layers. '' IndieWire 's Eric Kohn characterized the film as "an astonishing sci - fi spectacle and a relentless nostalgia trip at once '' and praised both The Shining sequence as well as Penn 's screenplay, particularly with respect to Mendelsohn 's character. Nevertheless, he remarked that the film "drags a bunch in its final third ''.
Alissa Wilkinson, writing for Vox, praised both the quality and quantity of the world building. She also commented on just how dystopian the future portrayed is, where the main characters fight to save the OASIS and the escape from reality it represents, with arguably less concern for the problems of the real world.
Monica Castillo was more critical of the film in her review for The Guardian and drew attention to the absence of character arcs, the lack of resolution for plot holes in the novel, and the bloating of scenes in the film by trivia. Matt Bobkin scored the film a 6 out of 10 for Exclaim! saying the film "is not so much a groundbreaking recontextualizing, more doe - eyed affection with no critical commentary. ''
Cline is working on a sequel to the novel. For a sequel to the film, he stated, "(...) I think there 's a good chance that, if this one does well, Warner Bros. will want to make a sequel. I do n't know if Steven (Spielberg) would want to dive back in, because he would know what he is getting into. He 's said that it 's the third - hardest film he 's made, out of dozens and dozens of movies. ''
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who sings the hook on nice for what | Nice for What - wikipedia
"Nice for What '' is a song recorded by Canadian rapper Drake from his fifth studio album Scorpion (2018). It was released by Young Money Entertainment and Cash Money Records as the second single from the album on April 6, 2018, along with its music video. The song was produced by Murda Beatz with co-production handled by Blaqnmild, and features additional vocals by Big Freedia and 5th Ward Weebie. It debuted at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100, replacing Drake 's own "God 's Plan '' and becoming his fifth US number one. It also topped the UK Singles Chart and ARIA Singles Chart, becoming his second number - one song of 2018 in the two countries after "God 's Plan ''.
On March 14, 2018, Lauryn Hill 's son Joshua Omaru Marley posted a snippet of the song on Snapchat. Drake later confirmed an upcoming Murda Beatz - produced single during an Instagram Live session. On April 5, Drake made a surprise appearance during a Majid Jordan concert in Toronto. "The reason I 'm here tonight is because I 'm back in the city finishing my album, '' he told the audience. "I 've got a new single dropping tomorrow night, too, just in case you got some free time. ''
"Nice for What '' is an upbeat bounce song which contains elements of early 2000s R&B, with a length of three minutes thirty seconds. It samples Lauryn Hill 's song "Ex-Factor '' (1998), "Drag Rap '' by the Showboys (1986), "Get Your Roll On '' by Big Tymers (2000), and also features clips from performances by Big Freedia. Lyrically, the hook of Drake 's song samples Lauryn Hill singing about "cutting loose in the midst of a relationship ''.
Directed by Karena Evans, the accompanying music video focuses on women carrying out various activities, including swimming, dancing, modeling and riding horses. It features guest appearances from, in order of appearance, Olivia Wilde, Misty Copeland, Issa Rae, Rashida Jones, Jourdan Dunn, Tracee Ellis Ross, Tiffany Haddish, Yara Shahidi, Zoe Saldana, Elizabeth and Victoria Lejonhjärta, Letitia Wright, Bria Vinaite, Emma Roberts, Syd, Michelle Rodriguez and Drake himself. Evans called it an honour to work on the video, writing on Instagram that it was "a privilege and a blessing to have told this story with every single one of you revolutionary women, both in front and behind the camera ''.
"Nice for What '' received positive reviews from music critics, with many praising its promotion of female empowerment. Hugh McIntyre of Forbes regarded the "perfectly - pitched '' song as "another perfect delivery from the biggest artist in hip - hop '', writing that the "vocal sample helps the track stand out from much of the rest of his discography ''. Kevin Lozano of Pitchfork awarded the song "Best New Track '', praising Drake for "smoothly handling the impeccable production from Murda Beatz '', and lauding the song as "a fantastic piece of hip - hop machinery '' and "one of Drake 's most complete releases in some time ''.
Chris DeVille of Stereogum deemed the song "a big, brash, almost obnoxiously loud New Orleans bounce - inspired production '', describing it as "extremely poppy and sounds like a bid for continued commercial dominance ''.
In the United States, Drake became the first artist to have a new number - one debut replace his former number - one debut ("God 's Plan '') at the top of the Hot 100. It debuted with 88,000 downloads sold and 60.4 million streams. "Nice for What '' became the 30th song in Billboard history to enter at number one. It also became Drake 's fifth US number - one song overall and third as a lead artist. The song also became the first song to debut on the Mainstream R&B / Hip - Hop chart in the top 10. "Nice for What '' topped the Hot 100 for four consecutive weeks before it was dethroned on May 14, 2018 by Childish Gambino 's "This Is America ''. It then returned for a fifth non-consecutive week at the number one spot on the issue date June 2, 2018. On the issue dated July 14, 2018, "Nice for What '' became the first song to reach number one in four nonconsecutive runs. It has topped the Hot 100 for eight nonconsecutive weeks.
Credits adapted from Tidal and Qobuz.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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where was el vuelo de la victoria filmed | El vuelo de la Victoria - wikipedia
El vuelo de la victoria (English: The Flight to Victory) is a Mexican telenovela produced by Nathalie Lartilleux for Televisa. The telenovela follows the story of Victoria a young runner who finds in athletics a way to make sense of her life and will fight to get a place in the Olympics. It stars Paulina Goto, Mané de la Parra and Andrés Palacios.
This story begins twenty - two years ago, when Cecilia, a young woman from a wealthy family, becomes pregnant. She is forced to abandon her daughter, by orders of her parents. After several days, Cecilia leaves her baby at the doors of an hacienda, thinking that her daughter will have a solved future.
However, it is not the owners of the hacienda who find Victoria, it is Chencha, the employee. She names the girl Victoria, thinking that her life will be full of victories, and raises her as her daughter. From an early age, Victoria has it clear that, although poor, she is meant to be a runner, and the love of the bold is never lacking, like the love of Andres, the son of the Santibáñez family, owners of the hacienda where Victoria lives.
Victoria begins a bitter period of her life after she is unjustly imprisoned at the age of fourteen in the local reformatory. Upon becoming a young adult, she is taken to prison. This was because of Gloria Santibáñez, mother of Andrés, who hates her. During these years, Victoria 's only motivation was listening to Raúl de la Peña 's radio program every night, which always has the most inspiring words and the best advice, in the midst of her sordid and dark reality.
In the meantime, Andrés has two goals. The first is to achieve Victoria 's freedom, for which he studies law and graduates with honors. After this, he tries to achieve his second goal, and it is to gain Victoria 's love.
Victoria is carried away by her feelings and marries Andres, but very soon realizes that she feels trapped again, because Gloria makes her life impossible. At that moment, she follows the beat of her heart and goes to Mexico City to pursue her dream, which is to become a professional athlete.
In the capital, Victoria meets Raul de la Peña, whom she had admired since she listened to his radio program in jail. Besides dedicating himself to the locution, Raúl is a doctor of the Olympic Committee, and it is right there that Victoria gets to work in the pursuit of her greatest desire. Raúl loves Victoria since he met her, and wants to take care of and protect her. Raúl is the same with Elsa, his daughter, who is actually his niece, but he loves her as if he were her father, because his brother gave her to him at a young age.
Andrés understands too late that Victoria is not a woman to have tied to an hacienda, since she has already lost many years of freedom. Andrés annulles their marriage after being taken over with jealousy and Victoria has the opportunity to make her life with Raul, who gives her his unconditional love and allows her to pursue her dreams. Victoria dedicates her entire soul to achieve her dream and finally arrives at the Olympics, where she obtains the highest merit for her country. However, her heart is puzzled, because she will have to decide if she returns with Andres or chooses to be happy with Raúl.
In February 2017, it was announced that the telenovela had been approved to begin writing, in development with Televisa. Production officially began on May 2, 2017. The series is written by Carlos Romero and produced by Nathalie Lartilleux.
Paulina Goto was cast as Victoria in March 3, 2017. followed by Mané de la Parra as Andrés, and Andrés Palacios as Raúl De la Peña. Pablo Montero had been chosen initially to interpret the character of Palacios, but due to problems with the production, he was dismissed from the project. Susana Dosamantes also had problems with the production so her participation was cut and is set to appear in a few episodes.
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when is the next season of suits release | Suits (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the American legal drama Suits was ordered on August 3, 2016, and started airing on USA Network in the United States July 12, 2017. The season has five series regulars playing employees at the fictional Pearson Specter Litt law firm in Manhattan: Gabriel Macht, Patrick J. Adams, Rick Hoffman, Meghan Markle, and Sarah Rafferty. Gina Torres is credited as the sixth regular only for the episodes that she appears in, following her departure last season.
The season featured the 100th episode of the series, which was directed by Patrick J. Adams and aired August 30, 2017. To celebrate the series ' milestone, the main cast (including Gina Torres) and creator Aaron Korsh came together at ATX Television Festival for a live read - through of the series ' pilot script. They were joined by Abigail Spencer and Nick Wechsler to read for the episode 's guest stars.
After Markle 's engagement to Prince Harry was announced on November 27, 2017 it was confirmed by show producers the next day that she would be leaving the show at the end of the season. On January 30, 2018, it was announced that the back half of the season would air from March 28, 2018 to April 25, 2018, concluding the season with a 120 - minute finale that would see the departure of both Markle and Adams. At the same time, the show was officially renewed for its eighth season.
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what is the most common name in germany | List of the most common surnames in Germany - wikipedia
Although Müller is the most common name in German - speaking countries, in some areas other surnames are more frequent than Müller. The common names Schmidt and Schmitz lead in the central German - speaking and eastern Low German - speaking areas. Meyer is particularly common in the Low German - speaking regions, especially in Lower Saxony (where it is more common than Müller). Bauer leads in eastern Upper German - speaking Bavaria. Rarer names tend to accumulate in the north and south. Huber is common in southern Bavaria and is, with the exception of Munich, the most frequent name in that area. The Patronymic surnames Jansen / Janssen, Hansen, and Petersen are the most common names in the far north (Lower Saxony and Schleswig - Holstein).
Due to the historical settlement of Slavs, Slavic names are most common in Saxony, Brandenburg, and Mecklenburg - Vorpommern (especially in Lusatia, where Sorbs continue to reside today). About 13 % of the German population today has names of Slavic origin. Many Austrians also have surnames of Slavic origin.
Polish names in Germany abound as a result of over 100,000 people (including 130,000 "Ruhrpolen '') immigrating westward from the Polish - speaking areas of the German Empire. Many Polish - named Germans reside in the Ruhr region of North Rhine - Westphalia and Berlin, though they are mostly "Germanized '' by form (e.g. Orlowski, Schimanski, Rudzinski, Kowalski, Schymanietz, Matuzek to Matussek or Mattner, Koslowski, etc.).
The large number of Turkish immigrants to Germany accounts for the frequency of Turkish surnames.
Because many Vietnamese sought asylum in West Germany or guest work in East Germany during and after the Vietnam War and because approximately 40 % of the Vietnamese population carry one particular name, the surname Nguyen is notably common in Germany. In other countries with larger numbers of Vietnamese immigrants, Nguyen is even more frequent, as in France (835th) or the United States (229th).
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when did geometry dash sub zero come out | Geometry Dash - wikipedia
Geometry Dash is a 2013 mobile and Steam game developed by Sweden - based developer Robert Topala, and published by his company, RobTop Games. It is a rhythm - based platforming game which currently has 21 official levels and has more than 40 million online levels made by players. Each level features unique background music. Other features include a level editor, map packs, user - created levels, secret coins, and a variety of icons and game modes, as well as user coins, three shops and three secret vaults in the latest versions.
Geometry Dash uses a simple tapping / clicking system to control different vehicles that react when a player presses anywhere on the touchscreen (space / up key (s), mouse, or "A '' button when using a controller if playing on the PC version) and can be held down to constantly interact (on some vehicles). Users can not control the speed at which the icon is moving, the only way to change speed is by touching a speed changing arrow set. The timing and rhythm of the in - game music are key parts of the game, often in relation to each other.
The objective of the game is to complete a level by reaching its end; however, if the player crashes into an obstacle, they will have to start over from the beginning. All levels (with the exception of the three "demon '' rated levels in the full version) are unlocked from the start, so they can be played out of order. Along the way, the player can collect up to three secret coins in each official level, which are scattered in either hidden or challenging areas (or both).
The icon can take up to seven separate gamemodes, which behave differently with each interaction. Gamemodes themselves can be changed with seven separate portals, while the behavior of these modes can be changed further with portals, including size portals, which change the size of the icon, mirror portals, which reverse the game view, gravity portals, which reverse the gravity, dual portals, which duplicate the icon, and five different speed arrow sets that change the speed of the icon. All of these features give a variety of ways to play the game. There also are dash arrows to go in a straight line until death or release of you finger (for mobile devices).
If the player completes a level, he / she will be rewarded with icons or colors on main levels, and mana orbs, which can be used to purchase icons, death effects, or trails in the shops.
Geometry Dash features 21 official levels, 18 of which are playable from the start. Each level has rewards for completing them. Each official level has 3 secret coins, making a total of 63. These secret coins are used to unlock 3 demon levels: 10 unlock Clubstep, 20 unlock Theory Of Everything 2, and 30 unlock Deadlocked. (Until Update 2.0, Clubstep required 20 coins to unlock, and Theory Of Everything 2 required 30 coins to unlock.)
These levels range wildly in difficulty; while some can be beaten by anyone, some require thousands of attempts to master and complete. Online levels can get even harder than the official levels, as repeatedly proven by the creators of these online levels. Over time, the "difficulty cap '' has risen and risen to reach new heights each update, especially in 2.1, with levels constantly coming out.
Levels are classified by difficulty, from Easy to Demon; in order of the levels ' addition to the game, somewhat but not completely in order of difficulty.
The stars represent the difficulty and the number of stars the player gets when completing that level. Also, official levels are worth more stars than custom levels. For example, Demon levels are rated 14 (as in Clubstep and Theory of Everything 2) to 15 stars (as in Deadlocked) for official levels, but only 10 stars in the custom ones.
Geometry Dash has a practice mode that can be used for any level. Checkpoints are available in this mode, allowing the player to restart at checkpoints instead of the very beginning. These checkpoints are marked by green, diamond - shaped gems.
In addition to the 21 official levels, the game also has custom levels. To access these custom levels, the player must have the full version. Notable objects that can be used include blocks, rings, jump pads, portals, spikes, and user coins. Coins that are verified can be collected for new icons, or they can be used to unlock the vault.
The player must be able to complete their own level with all coins in normal mode in order to ensure that it is actually possible to beat. A level can be verified in separate attempts such as completing a run through in one attempt and then collecting coins in another; however any changes made to the level will make it unverified. These levels can either have the same music already in the game or custom music from Newgrounds.
Each user - created level has a unique ID (The ID is lower if the level is older), which can be used to play the level without searching its name. As similar to the official levels, user - created levels are classified by difficulty, which is decided by RobTop, by players or "level mods '' who can send a level to RobTop to be rated. Unlike official levels, they can not be played offline unless they were previously downloaded.
The game features several achievements, which can be unlocked in several ways, such as collecting a certain number of stars, completing demon rated levels, completing official levels, adding friends, liking or disliking online levels, rating custom levels, etc.; plus secret achievements unlocked through undisclosed means.
Achievements can also be unlocked by collecting shards, which can be obtained From daily chests, from demon chests or by completing the respective shard 's gauntlet.
By unlocking achievements, the player is rewarded with certain icons, colors, or trails. The player can also unlock other customization features, namely a selection of trails behind icons, a secondary color glow around the icon 's black border, and death effects.
The game features three secret vaults. The first one can be unlocked by getting 10 silver (verified) user coins, the second by getting 50 diamonds, and the third with an emblem obtainable from the shop hidden the treasure room (in turn obtainable with 500 diamonds).
They display a screen with a text box where you can input codes that can be found from deciphering tricky riddles and unlock secret achievements, which unlock new icons, trails, etc.
In the Lite version, players can not access certain features that are in the purchased version. For example, players can not access user created levels and create their own levels, the main levels only reach Electroman Adventures, it does not have the daily chests, players can not create an account, the three shops are not accessible and players ca n't access the subfolder of Shards of Power. Also some achievements and customizations of vehicles that can not be obtained.
On 16 December 2015, RobTop announced the newest spin - off game called "Geometry Dash Meltdown '', which was released on December 17, 2015. Currently (as of update 1.0) includes 3 levels with new 2.1 icons made to showcase the 2.0 features to those who do not own the full version. RobTop released "Geometry Dash Meltdown '' on iOS and Android, on 19 December 2015, a day later he release it for iOS.
On 21 December 2016, RobTop announced the newest spin - off game called "Geometry Dash World '', saying that he would leave on the same day. Currently (as of update 1.0) includes 2 worlds with 5 levels in each world, new 2.1 icons, a shop, a new vault, daily quests, levels & rewards, and secret chests made to showcase some of the new 2.1 features that were included in the update for the full version.
On 12 December 2017, RobTop announced the newest spin - off game called "Geometry Dash SubZero '', which was released on December 21, 2017. It consists of 3 levels, and adds new icons and triggers such as Camera Controls. It is currently the latest stand - alone game released by RobTop.
According to Robert Topala, the game began as a project that could have moved in any direction. He made the remark, "There was really no detailed plan... it simply started as a template with a cube that could crash and jump ''. He previously developed it for the computer, but later altered his plan and made attempts to make it a mobile game. Topala was inspired by "The Impossible Game '' and he took about four months to create the game and take it to the App Store and Google Play. In the beta version, the game was called "Geometry Jump '', but was changed to "Geometry Dash ''.
Upon its release, Geometry Dash had just seven levels, which are now currently free to play on the game 's free version, alongside six other levels released in later updates in the full version (Time Machine, Cycles, xStep, Clutterfunk, Theory of Everything, and Electroman Adventures). It would soon gain serious popularity around the world, especially Canada, where it achieved the title as the most popular paid iPhone app in June 2014. There are four free versions of the game, one being "Geometry Dash Lite '' which currently (as of update 2.2) includes the first 13 levels from the full version.
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which is an abiotic factor that would affect the ability of a species of tree to survive | Interspecific competition - wikipedia
Interspecific competition, in ecology, is a form of competition in which individuals of different species compete for the same resources in an ecosystem (e.g. food or living space). This can be contrasted with interspecific cooperation, a type of symbiosis. Competition between members of the same species is called intraspecific competition.
If a tree species in a dense forest grows taller than surrounding tree species, it is able to absorb more of the incoming sunlight. However, less sunlight is then available for the trees that are shaded by the taller tree, thus interspecific competition. Leopards and lions can also be in interspecific competition, since both species feed on the same prey, and can be negatively impacted by the presence of the other because they will have less food.
Competition is only one of many interacting biotic and abiotic factors that affect community structure. Moreover, competition is not always a straightforward, direct, interaction. Interspecific competition may occur when individuals of two separate species share a limiting resource in the same area. If the resource can not support both populations, then lowered fecundity, growth, or survival may result in at least one species. Interspecific competition has the potential to alter populations, communities and the evolution of interacting species. On an individual organism level, competition can occur as interference or exploitative competition.
Direct competition has been observed between individuals, populations and species, but there is little evidence that competition has been the driving force in the evolution of large groups. Forexample, between amphibians, reptiles and mammals.
All of the types described here can also apply to intraspecific competition, that is, competition among individuals within a species. Also, any specific example of interspecific competition can be described in terms of both a mechanism (e.g., resource or interference) and an outcome (symmetric or asymmetric).
Exploitative competition, also referred to as resource competition, is a form of competition in which one species consumes and either reduces or more efficiently uses a shared limiting resource and therefore depletes the availability of the resource for the other species. Thus, it is an indirect interaction because the competing species interact via a shared resource.
Interference competition is a form of competition in which individuals of one species interacts directly with individuals of another species via antagonistic displays or more aggressive behavior.
In a review and synthesis of experimental evidence regarding interspecific competition, Schoener described six specific types of mechanisms by which competition occurs, including consumptive, preemptive, overgrowth, chemical, territorial, and encounter. Consumption competition is always resource competition, but the others are can not always be regarded as exclusively exploitative or interference.
Separating the effect of resource use from that of interference is not easy. A good example of exploitative competition is found in aphid species competing over the sap in plant phloem. Each aphid species that feeds on host plant sap uses some of the resource, leaving less for competing species. In one study, Fordinae geoica was observed to out - compete F. formicaria to the extent that the latter species exhibited a reduction in survival by 84 %. Another example is driving of bisexual rock lizards of genus Darevskia from their natural habitats by a daughter unisexual form; interference competition can be ruled out in this case, because parthenogenetic forms of the lizards never demonstrate aggressive behavior.
This type of competition can also be observed in forests where large trees dominate the canopy and thus allow little light to reach smaller competitors living below. These interactions have important implications for the population dynamics and distribution of both species.
Scramble and contest competition refer to the relative success of competitors. Scramble competition is said to occur when each competitor is equal suppressed, either through reduction in survival or birth rates. Contest competition is said to occur when one or a few competitors are unaffected by competition, but all others suffer greatly, either through reduction in survival or birth rates. Sometimes these types of competition are referred to as symmetric (scramble) vs. asymmetric (contest) competition. Scramble and contest competition are two ends of a spectrum, of completely equal or completely unequal effects.
Apparent competition is actually an example of predation that alters the relative abundances of prey on the same trophic level. It occurs when two or more species in a habitat affect shared natural enemies in a higher trophic level. If two species share a common predator, for example, apparent competition can exist between the two prey items in which the presence of each prey species increases the abundance of the shared enemy, and thereby suppresses one or both prey species. This mechanism gets its name from experiments in which one prey species is removed and the second prey species increases in abundance. Investigators sometimes mistakenly attribute the increase in abundance in the second species as evidence for resource competition between prey species. It is "apparently '' competition, but is in fact due to a shared predator, parasitoid, parasite, or pathogen.
Many studies, including those cited previously, have shown major impacts on both individuals and populations from interspecific competition. Documentation of these impacts has been found in species from every major branch of organism. The effects of interspecific competition can also reach communities and can even influence the evolution of species as they adapt to avoid competition. This evolution may result in the exclusion of a species in the habitat, niche separation, and local extinction. The changes of these species over time can also change communities as other species must adapt.
The competitive exclusion principle, also called "Gause 's law '' which arose from mathematical analysis and simple competition models states that two species that use the same limiting resource in the same way in the same space and time can not coexist and must diverge from each other over time in order for the two species to coexist. One species will often exhibit an advantage in resource use. This superior competitor will out - compete the other with more efficient use of the limiting resource. As a result, the inferior competitor will suffer a decline in population over time. It will be excluded from the area and replaced by the superior competitor.
A well - documented example of competitive exclusion was observed to occur between Dolly Varden charr (Trout) (Salvelinus malma) and white spotted char (Trout) (S. leucomaenis) in Japan. Both of these species were morphologically similar but the former species was found primarily at higher elevations than the latter. Although there was a zone of overlap, each species excluded the other from its dominant region by becoming better adapted to its habitat over time. In some such cases, each species gets displaced into an exclusive segment of the original habitat. Because each species suffers from competition, natural selection favors the avoidance of competition in such a way.
Niche differentiation is a process by which competitive exclusion leads to differences in resource use. In the previous example, niche differentiation resulted in spatial displacement. In other cases it may result in other changes that also avoid competition. If competition avoidance is achievable, each species will occupy an edge of the niche and will become more specialized to that area thus minimizing competition. This phenomenon often results in the separation of species over time as they become more specialized to their edge of the niche, called niche differentiation. The species do not have to be in separate habitats however to avoid niche overlap. Some species adapt regionally to utilizing different resources than they ordinarily would in order to avoid competition.
There have been several well - documented cases in birds where species that are very similar change their habitat use where they overlap. For example, they may consume different food resources or use different nesting habitat or materials. On the Galapagos Islands, finch species have been observed to change dietary specializations in just a few generations in order to utilize limited resources and minimize competition.
In some cases, third party species interfere to the detriment or benefit of the competing species. In a laboratory study, coexistence between two competing bacterial species was mediated by phage parasites. This type of interaction actually helped to maintain diversity in bacterial communities and has far reaching implications in medical research as well as ecology. Similar effects have been documented for many communities as a result of the action of a keystone predator that preys on a competitively superior species.
Although local extinction of one or more competitors has been less documented than niche separation or competitive exclusion, it does occur. In an experiment involving zooplankton in artificial rock pools, local extinction rates were significantly higher in areas of interspecific competition. In these cases, therefore, the negative effects are not only at the population level but also species richness of communities.
As mentioned previously, interspecific competition has great impact on community composition and structure. Niche separation of species, local extinction and competitive exclusion are only some of the possible effects. In addition to these, interspecific competition can be the source of a cascade of effects that build on each other. An example of such an effect is the introduction of an invasive species to the United States, purple - loosestrife. This plant when introduced to wetland communities often outcompetes much of the native flora and decreases species richness, food and shelter to many other species at higher trophic levels. In this way, one species can influence the populations of many other species as well as through a myriad of other interactions. Because of the complicated web of interactions that make up every ecosystem and habitat, the results of interspecific competition are complex and site - specific.
The impacts of interspecific competition on populations have been formalized in a mathematical model called the Competitive Lotka -- Volterra equations, which creates a theoretical prediction of interactions. It combines the effects of each species on the other. These effects are calculated separately for the first and second population respectively:
In these formulae, N is the population size, t is time, K is the carrying capacity, r is the intrinsic rate of increase and α and β are the relative competition coefficients. The results show the effect that the other species has on the species being calculated. The results can be graphed to show a trend and possible prediction for the future of the species. One problem with this model is that certain assumptions must be made for the calculation to work. These include the lack of migration and constancy of the carrying capacities and competition coefficients of both species. The complex nature of ecology determines that these assumptions are rarely true in the field but the model provides a basis for improved understanding of these important concepts.
An equivalent formulation of these models is:
In these formulae, α 11 (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (11)) is the effect that an individual of species 1 has on its own population growth rate. Similarly, α 12 (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (12)) is the effect that an individual of species 2 has on the population growth rate of species 1. One can also read this as the effect on species 1 of species 2. In comparing this formulation to the one above, we note that α 11 = 1 / K 1, α 22 = 1 / K 2 (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (11) = 1 / K_ (1), ~ \ alpha _ (22) = 1 / K_ (2)), and α 12 = α / K 1 (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (12) = \ alpha / K_ (1)).
Coexistence between competitors occurs when α 11 > α 12 (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (11) > \ alpha _ (12)) and α 22 > α 21 (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (22) > \ alpha _ (21)). We can translate this as coexistence occurs when the effect of each species on itself is greater the effect of the competitor.
There are other mathematical representations that model species competition, such as using non-polynomial functions.
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when did michael jordan play for the white sox | 1994 Chicago White Sox season - wikipedia
The 1994 Chicago White Sox season was the White Sox 's 94th season in the major leagues, and their 95th season overall. They led the American League Central, 1 game ahead of the 2nd place Cleveland Indians with a record of 67 - 46, when the season was cut short by the 1994 -- 95 Major League Baseball strike.
After retiring from the National Basketball Association, Michael Jordan surprised the sports world by signing a contract with the Chicago White Sox. He was invited to spring training and was sent to the Birmingham Barons on March 31, 1994. Jordan has stated this decision was made to pursue the dream of his late father, who had always envisioned his son as a Major League Baseball player.
By Friday, August 12, the White Sox had compiled a 67 - 46 record through 113 games. They were leading the AL Central Division and had scored 633 runs (5.60 per game) and allowed 498 runs (4.41 per game). Their hitters had also struck out just 568 times: the fewest in the Majors. While their pitchers combined for just 20 saves, they did have 9 shutouts, tying the Oakland Athletics for the most in the Majors, and hit only 17 batters: the fewest among all 28 teams.
Infielders
Coaches
Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; R = Runs scored; H = Hits; 2B = Doubles; 3B = Triples; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in; BB = Base on balls; SO = Strikeouts; AVG = Batting average; SB = Stolen bases
Note: W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; SV = Saves; IP = Innings pitched; H = Hits allowed; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; HR = Home runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; K = Strikeouts
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Manager
Coaches
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diary of a wimpy dog days kid cast | Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days (film) - wikipedia
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days (sometimes known as Diary of a Wimpy Kid 3: Dog Days) is a 2012 American comedy film directed by David Bowers from a screenplay by Wallace Wolodarsky and Maya Forbes. It stars Zachary Gordon and Steve Zahn. Robert Capron, Devon Bostick, Rachael Harris, Peyton List, Grayson Russell, and Karan Brar also have prominent roles. It is the third installment in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid film series, and is mashup of the third and fourth books in the series, but draws mostly from the fourth book.
The film was released on August 3, 2012. It is also Bowers ' second live - action film. Although the film is based on the third and fourth Diary of a Wimpy Kid books, there is a scene based on the first book, where Greg 's dad, Frank, is trying to unplug Greg 's video game system, but does not know how to. There is also a scene based off the second one, where Greg is sick on picture day, and his second grade picture gets sent in. Unlike the book, Greg was the one who was sick, where in the book, it was Rodrick.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days is also the last film in the series to feature the original cast members, as many of the cast (such as Zachary Gordon, Robert Capron and Devon Bostick) outgrew their roles and a re-cast was made for the future films in the series, starting with Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul, which was released five years later. It is also the final film role of Alf Humphreys before his death in 2018.
The Heffley family attends a pool party at the local pool, where the family meets Lenwood Heath, a former trouble - making friend of Rodrick who is now a model student after attending a prep school known as Spag Union (Lenwood Heath in the film is the lifeguard, but the ticket collecter in a cinema in the third book). Greg 's father Frank thinks about enrolling Greg there.
Greg 's summer starts off badly: Frank bans video games in anger at Greg 's laziness, and his mother Susan starts a book club for all the boys in the neighborhood, but she does not see their books as real literature. Frank is also getting jealous of the neighbor 's athletic kids, and after his video game ban, Susan forces Frank and Greg to bond with each other: their bonding activities end in disaster.
A few weeks later, Greg 's best friend, Rowley Jefferson, takes Greg to the local country club, where his family are members of. Greg enjoys the lifestyle there and the fact that his crush, Holly Hills, teaches tennis there and he does n't have to go to the book club.
Greg returns home to learn that Frank signed him up for an unpaid summer internship at his work without his consent, and Greg lies about having a job at the country club. Frank and Susan are delighted, and give him a starter cell phone, a Ladybug, which only allows him to call home or 911.
Later, Rowley invites Greg on a family trip to their beach house near the Boardwalk, but Greg finds the lifestyle banal and attempts to escape. He tries to call home using his Ladybug phone, but the phone rejects the call, and after he inadvertently calls 911, the police arrive, almost leading to the arrest of Rowley 's father, who sends home Greg in disgust.
Rowley does n't allow Greg to tag along with him to the country club because of the beach house incident, but Greg sneaks in, meets up with Holly and her sister Heather and manages to get Löded Diper a gig at Heather 's sweet sixteen, much to Rodrick 's delight.
Rowley and Greg quickly make up, but Rowley is unable to attend the club, forcing Greg to sneak in. One morning, Frank drops Greg off, only to be confronted by Rowley 's father: Greg has built up a $260 fruit smoothie bill from his time at the country club. When Frank attempts to explain the situation, the clerk informs him that the club does not employ minors, and Greg is exposed. As a result, when he receives a Spag Union disc in the mail, he fears he will be sent there.
Rodrick informs Greg that the "Wilderness Weekend '' could be a way to avoid Spag Union. Their troop proves weak compared to Frank 's boss, Stan 's, troop. After a Camp story and Greg continues to mess things up Frank tells him that everyone messes up, after the boys overhear Stan and his troop insulting Frank, Greg attempts to set up a plan for revenge by using traps, and finds out that Stan 's troop has been using electric and other appliances including pre-cooked meals and portable TV 's rather than actually camping.
Stan arrives at the tent, Greg manages to escape while Stan accidentally throws his own tent into the campfire, and Greg admits he was responsible but his friends tell him that he did it to defend his honor. Frank, having lost his respect for Stan, then confronts him with the electronic conveniences (although he was jealous of Stan throughout the movie), and Stan runs into Greg 's trap, leaving him humiliated.
Frank reveals that he never liked camping anyway, and decides not to send Greg to Spag Union, much to Greg 's surprise and delight. Frank gives Greg advice about learning from mistakes and taking responsibilities, and the two ultimately learn that they 're actually much more alike than they originally thought.
At Heather 's Sweet 16 birthday party a few days later, Löded Diper performs a hard rock version of "Baby '' by Justin Bieber and Ludacris, during an attempt to win over Heather. However, Rodrick accidentally knocks over a huge ice sculpture of Heather, which results in her losing her temper and accidentally smashing a chocolate fountain with a microphone stand, splashing chocolate all over her and her friend Madison, and the party ends in disaster.
Holly then implies that she likes Greg by holding his hand, and in the final scene, Greg, Holly, and Rowley all hang out together at the local pool. Greg describes that his summer did not go the way he expected, but had positive circumstances.
This film is the last movie in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid film series to feature the original cast, as they aged out of their roles as middle - schoolers.
Principal photography began on August 8, 2011 in Vancouver and was completed on October 7, 2011. The location for the country club pool was Eagle Ridge Outdoor pool in Coquitlam, BC. Filming at Eagle Ridge Outdoor pool took place during the end of August 2011. The municipal outdoor pool scenes at the beginning and the end of the movie were filmed at Steveston Outdoor pool in Richmond, BC. Filming occurred at the Steveston Outdoor pool during the beginning of September 2011. The Chinese Bunkhouse at the Steveston Shipyards in Richmond, BC was the location of the Wilderness Explorers cabin for Troop 133. During filming, stars Zachary Gordon and Robert Capron, were seen riding the Corkscrew at Playland at Vancouver 's fair, the PNE. A poster was leaked in March 2012. A teaser trailer was attached to The Three Stooges. An advance screening for the film was held on July 31, 2012.
On Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, the film has an approval rating of 51 % based on 71 reviews and an average rating of 5.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Overly familiar and a bit too reliant on slapstick, the sitcom - like Dog Days fails to improve upon previous installments and will likely appeal to few outside its target audience. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 54 out of 100 based on 22 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A − '' on an A+ to F scale.
Abby West of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B+ and wrote "Though often self - centered and conniving, Greg remains a likable kid, and the movie entertains by pulling off over-the - top scenarios that set up digestible life lessons for youngsters. ''
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days was released on iTunes on December 4, 2012. It was released on DVD and Blu - ray in the United States on December 18, 2012.
It was released on Redbox on January 15, 2013.
An animated short film set after the events of Dog Days, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Class Clown, was released on the home media release of Dog Days, with Zachary Gordon reprising his role as Greg Heffley, and archival audio of various other cast members from Dog Days covering the film.
At the time of its release, Dog Days was described as the last live - action film in the franchise. In August 2012, while doing press for the film, Jeff Kinney, Zachary Gordon and Robert Capron each indicated that there were no plans for a fourth film, but did not dismiss the possibility entirely. Kinney replied to inquiries regarding the possibility of another sequel, stating, "At present, we do n't have a fourth film in development, but you never know! ''
And when describing the likelihood of starring in another film in the series, Gordon explained, "(Dog Days) most likely will be the last movie. The main problem is (the cast) is getting older. You ca n't stop it. There 's no way to temporarily stop us from changing and growing up. You know, that 's the problem because the characters are supposed to be timeless. '' In March 2013, Zachary Gordon stated in a Spreecast live stream that there would not be a fourth live - action film. Jeff Kinney has indicated that instead of doing a live - action film of the sixth novel Cabin Fever, he would like to see it adapted into an animated film, stating in an interview, "I hope that it gets made into an animated movie. I 'd really like to see it turn into an animated television special. ''
On July 29, 2016, it was announced that a new movie with a different cast based on the 9th book, The Long Haul, had begun production. The film was released on May 19, 2017.
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where is the sahara dessert on a map | Sahara - wikipedia
The Sahara (UK: / səˈhɑːrə /, / səˈhærə /; Arabic: الصحراء الكبرى , aṣ - ṣaḥrāʼ al - kubrá, ' the Great Desert ') is the largest hot desert and the third largest desert in the world after Antarctica and the Arctic. Its area of 9,200,000 square kilometres (3,600,000 sq mi) is comparable to the area of China or the United States. The name ' Sahara ' is derived from a dialectal Arabic word for "desert '', ṣaḥra (صحرا / ˈsʕaħra /).
The desert comprises much of North Africa, excluding the fertile region on the Mediterranean Sea coast, the Atlas Mountains of the Maghreb, and the Nile Valley in Egypt and Sudan. It stretches from the Red Sea in the east and the Mediterranean in the north to the Atlantic Ocean in the west, where the landscape gradually changes from desert to coastal plains. To the south, it is bounded by the Sahel, a belt of semi-arid tropical savanna around the Niger River valley and the Sudan Region of Sub-Saharan Africa. The Sahara can be divided into several regions including: the western Sahara, the central Ahaggar Mountains, the Tibesti Mountains, the Aïr Mountains, the Ténéré desert, and the Libyan Desert.
For several hundred thousand years, the Sahara has alternated between desert and savanna grassland in a 41,000 year cycle caused by changes ("precession '') in the Earth 's axis as it rotates around the sun, which change the location of the North African Monsoon. It is next expected to become green in about 15,000 years (17,000 AD). There is a suggestion that the last time that the Sahara was converted from savanna to desert it was partially due to overgrazing by the cattle of the local population
The Sahara covers large parts of Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Western Sahara, Sudan and Tunisia. It covers 9 million square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi), amounting to 31 % of Africa. If all areas with a mean annual precipitation of less than 250 mm were included, the Sahara would be 11 million square kilometres (4,200,000 sq mi). It is one of three distinct physiographic provinces of the African massive physiographic division.
The Sahara is mainly rocky hamada (stone plateaus); ergs (sand seas - large areas covered with sand dunes) form only a minor part, but many of the sand dunes are over 180 metres (590 ft) high. Wind or rare rainfall shape the desert features: sand dunes, dune fields, sand seas, stone plateaus, gravel plains (reg), dry valleys (wadi), dry lakes (oued), and salt flats (shatt or chott). Unusual landforms include the Richat Structure in Mauritania.
Several deeply dissected mountains, many volcanic, rise from the desert, including the Aïr Mountains, Ahaggar Mountains, Saharan Atlas, Tibesti Mountains, Adrar des Iforas, and the Red Sea hills. The highest peak in the Sahara is Emi Koussi, a shield volcano in the Tibesti range of northern Chad.
The central Sahara is hyperarid, with sparse vegetation. The northern and southern reaches of the desert, along with the highlands, have areas of sparse grassland and desert shrub, with trees and taller shrubs in wadis, where moisture collects. In the central, hyperarid region, there are many subdivisions of the great desert: Tanezrouft, the Ténéré, the Libyan Desert, the Eastern Desert, the Nubian Desert and others. These extremely arid areas often receive no rain for years.
To the north, the Sahara skirts the Mediterranean Sea in Egypt and portions of Libya, but in Cyrenaica and the Maghreb, the Sahara borders the Mediterranean forest, woodland, and scrub eco-regions of northern Africa, all of which have a Mediterranean climate characterized by hot summers and cool and rainy winters. According to the botanical criteria of Frank White and geographer Robert Capot - Rey, the northern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the northern limit of date palm cultivation and the southern limit of the range of esparto, a grass typical of the Mediterranean climate portion of the Maghreb and Iberia. The northern limit also corresponds to the 100 mm (3.9 in) isohyet of annual precipitation.
To the south, the Sahara is bounded by the Sahel, a belt of dry tropical savanna with a summer rainy season that extends across Africa from east to west. The southern limit of the Sahara is indicated botanically by the southern limit of Cornulaca monacantha (a drought - tolerant member of the Chenopodiaceae), or northern limit of Cenchrus biflorus, a grass typical of the Sahel. According to climatic criteria, the southern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the 150 mm (5.9 in) isohyet of annual precipitation (this is a long - term average, since precipitation varies annually).
Important cities located in the Sahara include Nouakchott, the capital of Mauritania; Tamanrasset, Ouargla, Béchar, Hassi Messaoud, Ghardaïa, and El Oued in Algeria; Timbuktu in Mali; Agadez in Niger; Ghat in Libya; and Faya - Largeau in Chad.
The Sahara is the world 's largest low - latitude hot desert. The area is located in the horse latitudes under the subtropical ridge, a significant belt of semi-permanent subtropical warm - core high pressure where the air from upper levels of the troposphere tends to sink towards the ground. This steady descending airflow causes a warming and a drying effect in the upper troposphere. The sinking air prevents evaporating water from rising and, therefore, prevents the adiabatic cooling, which makes cloud formation extremely difficult to nearly impossible.
The permanent dissolution of clouds allows unhindered light and thermal radiation. The stability of the atmosphere above the desert prevents any convective overturning, thus making rainfall virtually non-existent. As a consequence, the weather tends to be sunny, dry and stable with a minimal risk of rainfall. Subsiding, diverging, dry air masses associated with subtropical high - pressure systems are extremely unfavorable for the development of convectional showers. The subtropical ridge is the predominant factor that explains the hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) of this vast region. The lowering of air is the strongest and the most effective over the eastern part of the Great Desert, in the Libyan Desert which is the sunniest, driest and the most nearly "rain-less '' place on the planet rivaling the Atacama Desert, lying in Chile and Peru.
The rainfall inhibition and the dissipation of cloud cover are most accentuated over the eastern section of the Sahara rather than the western. The prevailing air mass lying above the Sahara is the continental tropical (cT) air mass, which is hot and dry. Hot, dry air masses primarily form over the North - African desert from the heating of the vast continental land area, and it affects the whole desert during most of the year. Because of this extreme heating process, a thermal low is usually noticed near the surface, and is the strongest and the most developed during the summertime. The Sahara High represents the eastern continental extension of the Azores High, centered over the North Atlantic Ocean. The subsidence of the Sahara High nearly reaches the ground during the coolest part of the year while it is confined to the upper troposphere during the hottest periods.
The effects of local surface low pressure are extremely limited because upper - level subsidence still continues to block any form of air ascent. Also, to be protected against rain - bearing weather systems by the atmospheric circulation itself, the desert is made even drier by his geographical configuration and location. Indeed, the extreme aridity of the Sahara can not be only explained by the subtropical high pressure. The Atlas Mountains, found in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia also help to enhance the aridity of the northern part of the desert. These major mountain ranges act as a barrier causing a strong rain shadow effect on the leeward side by dropping much of the humidity brought by atmospheric disturbances along the polar front which affects the surrounding Mediterranean climates.
The primary source of rain in the Sahara is the Intertropical Convergence Zone, a continuous belt of low - pressure systems near the equator which bring the brief, short and irregular rainy season to the Sahel and southern Sahara. Rainfall in this giant desert has to overcome the physical and atmospheric barriers that normally prevent the production of precipitation. The harsh climate of the Sahara is characterized by: extremely low, unreliable, highly erratic rainfall; extremely high sunshine duration values; high temperatures year - round; negligible rates of relative humidity; a significant diurnal temperature variation; and extremely high levels of potential evaporation which are the highest recorded worldwide.
The sky is usually clear above the desert and the sunshine duration is extremely high everywhere in the Sahara. Most of the desert has more than 3,600 h of bright sunshine annually or over 82 % of the time, and a wide area in the eastern part experiences in excess of 4,000 h of bright sunshine a year or over 91 % of the time. The highest values are very close to the theoretical maximum value. A value of 4,300 h or 98 % of the time would be recorded in Upper Egypt (Aswan, Luxor) and in the Nubian Desert (Wadi Halfa). The annual average direct solar irradiation is around 2,800 kWh / (m year) in the Great Desert. The Sahara has a huge potential for solar energy production.
The constantly high position of the sun, the extremely low relative humidity, and the lack of vegetation and rainfall make the Great Desert the hottest continuously large area worldwide, and the hottest place on Earth during summer in some spots. The average high temperature exceeds 38 to 40 ° C or 100.4 to 104.0 ° F during the hottest month nearly everywhere in the desert except at very high altitudes. The highest officially recorded average high temperature was 47 ° C or 116.6 ° F in a remote desert town in the Algerian Desert called Bou Bernous with an elevation of 378 metres (1,240 ft) above sea level. It is the world 's highest recorded average high temperature and only Death Valley, California rivals it. Other hot spots in Algeria such as Adrar, Timimoun, In Salah, Ouallene, Aoulef, Reggane with an elevation between 200 and 400 metres (660 and 1,310 ft) above sea level get slightly lower summer average highs around 46 ° C or 114.8 ° F during the hottest months of the year. Salah, well known in Algeria for its extreme heat, has average high temperatures of 43.8 ° C or 110.8 ° F, 46.4 ° C or 115.5 ° F, 45.5 ° C or 113.9 ° F and 41.9 ° C or 107.4 ° F in June, July, August and September respectively. There are even hotter spots in the Sahara, but they are located in extremely remote areas, especially in the Azalai, lying in northern Mali. The major part of the desert experiences around three to five months when the average high strictly exceeds 40 ° C or 104 ° F. The southern central part of the desert experiences up to six or seven months when the average high temperature strictly exceeds 40 ° C or 104 ° F which shows the constancy and the length of the really hot season in the Sahara. Some examples of this are: Bilma, Niger and Faya - Largeau, Chad. The annual average daily temperature exceeds 20 ° C or 68 ° F everywhere and can approach 30 ° C or 86 ° F in the hottest regions year - round. However, most of the desert has a value in excess of 25 ° C or 77 ° F.
Sand and ground temperatures are even more extreme. During daytime, the sand temperature is extremely high as it can easily reach 80 ° C or 176 ° F or more. A sand temperature of 83.5 ° C (182.3 ° F) has been recorded in Port Sudan. Ground temperatures of 72 ° C or 161.6 ° F have been recorded in the Adrar of Mauritania and a value of 75 ° C (167 ° F) has been measured in Borkou, northern Chad.
Due to lack of cloud cover and very low humidity, the desert usually features high diurnal temperature variations between days and nights. However, it is a myth that the nights are cold after extremely hot days in the Sahara. The average diurnal temperature range is typically between 13 and 20 ° C or 23.4 and 36.0 ° F. The lowest values are found along the coastal regions due to high humidity and are often even lower than 10 ° C or 18 ° F, while the highest values are found in inland desert areas where the humidity is the lowest, mainly in the southern Sahara. Still, it is true that winter nights can be cold as it can drop to the freezing point and even below, especially in high - elevation areas. The frequency of subfreezing winter nights in the Sahara is strongly influenced by the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), with warmer winter temperatures during negative NAO events and cooler winters with more frosts when the NAO is positive. This is because the weaker clockwise flow around the eastern side of the subtropical anticyclone during negative NAO winters, although too dry to produce more than negligible precipitation, does reduce the flow of dry, cold air from higher latitudes of Eurasia into the Sahara significantly.
The average annual rainfall ranges from very low in the northern and southern fringes of the desert to nearly non-existent over the central and the eastern part. The thin northern fringe of the desert receives more winter cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of low pressure systems over the Mediterranean Sea along the polar front, although very attenuated by the rain shadow effects of the mountains and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 millimetres (4 in) to 250 millimetres (10 in). For example, Biskra, Algeria and Ouarzazate, Morocco are found in this zone. The southern fringe of the desert along the border with the Sahel receives summer cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of the Intertropical Convergence Zone from the south and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 millimetres (4 in) to 250 millimetres (10 in). For example, Timbuktu, Mali and Agadez, Niger are found in this zone. The vast central hyper - arid core of the desert is virtually never affected by northerly or southerly atmospheric disturbances and permanently remains under the influence of the strongest anticyclonic weather regime, and the annual average rainfall can drop to less than 1 millimetre (0.04 in). In fact, most of the Sahara receives less than 20 millimetres (0.8 in). Of the 9,000,000 square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi) of desert land in the Sahara, an area of about 2,800,000 square kilometres (1,100,000 sq mi) (about 31 % of the total area) receives an annual average rainfall amount of 10 millimetres (0.4 in) or less, while some 1,500,000 square kilometres (580,000 sq mi) (about 17 % of the total area) receives an average of 5 millimetres (0.2 in) or less. The annual average rainfall is virtually zero over a wide area of some 1,000,000 square kilometres (390,000 sq mi) in the eastern Sahara comprising deserts of: Libya, Egypt and Sudan (Tazirbu, Kufra, Dakhla, Kharga, Farafra, Siwa, Asyut, Sohag, Luxor, Aswan, Abu Simbel, Wadi Halfa) where the long - term mean approximates 0.5 millimetres (0.02 in) per year. Rainfall is very unreliable and erratic in the Sahara as it may vary considerably year by year. In full contrast to the negligible annual rainfall amounts, the annual rates of potential evaporation are extraordinarily high, roughly ranging from 2,500 millimetres (100 in) per year to more than 6,000 millimetres (240 in) per year in the whole desert. Nowhere else on Earth has air been found as dry and evaporative as in the Sahara region. However, at least two instances of snowfall have been recorded in Sahara, in February 1979 and December 2016, both in the town of Ain Sefra.
The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variations between wet and dry over the last few hundred thousand years, believed to be caused by long - term changes in the North African climate cycle that alters the path of the North African Monsoon - usually southward. The cycle is caused by a 41000 - year cycle in which the tilt of the earth changes between 22 ° and 24.5 °. At present (2000 AD), we are in a dry period, but it is expected that the Sahara will become green again in 15000 years (17000 AD). When the North African monsoon is at its strongest annual precipitation and subsequent vegetation in the Sahara region increase, resulting in conditions commonly referred to as the "green Sahara ''. For a relatively weak North African monsoon, the opposite is true, with decreased annual precipitation and less vegetation resulting in a phase of the Sahara climate cycle known as the "desert Sahara ''.
The idea that changes in insolation (solar heating) caused by long - term changes in the Earth 's orbit are a controlling factor for the long - term variations in the strength of monsoon patterns across the globe was first suggested by Rudolf Spitaler in the late nineteenth century, The hypothesis was later formally proposed and tested by the meteorologist John Kutzbach in 1981. Kutzbach 's ideas about the impacts of insolation on global monsoonal patterns have become widely accepted today as the underlying driver of long term monsoonal cycles. Kutzbach never formally named his hypothesis and as such it is referred to here as the "Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis '' as suggested by Ruddiman in 2001.
During the last glacial period, the Sahara was much larger than it is today, extending south beyond its current boundaries. The end of the glacial period brought more rain to the Sahara, from about 8000 BC to 6000 BC, perhaps because of low pressure areas over the collapsing ice sheets to the north. Once the ice sheets were gone, the northern Sahara dried out. In the southern Sahara, the drying trend was initially counteracted by the monsoon, which brought rain further north than it does today. By around 4200 BC, however, the monsoon retreated south to approximately where it is today, leading to the gradual desertification of the Sahara. The Sahara is now as dry as it was about 13,000 years ago.
The Sahara pump theory describes this cycle. During periods of a wet or "Green Sahara '', the Sahara becomes a savanna grassland and various flora and fauna become more common. Following inter-pluvial arid periods, the Sahara area then reverts to desert conditions and the flora and fauna are forced to retreat northwards to the Atlas Mountains, southwards into West Africa, or eastwards into the Nile Valley. This separates populations of some of the species in areas with different climates, forcing them to adapt, possibly giving rise to allopatric speciation.
It is also proposed that humans accelerated the drying out period from 6,000 -- 2,500 BC by pastoralists overgrazing available grassland.
The growth of speleothems (which requires rainwater) was detected in Hol - Zakh, Ashalim, Even - Sid, Ma'ale - ha - Meyshar, Ktora Cracks, Nagev Tzavoa Cave, and elsewhere, and has allowing tracking of prehistoric rainfall. The Red Sea coastal route was extremely arid before 140 and after 115 kya. Slightly wetter conditions appear at 90 -- 87 kya, but it still was just one tenth the rainfall around 125 kya. In the southern Negev Desert speleothems did not grow between 185 -- 140 kya (MIS 6), 110 -- 90 (MIS 5.4 -- 5.2), nor after 85 kya nor during most of the interglacial period (MIS 5.1), the glacial period and Holocene. This suggests that the southern Negev was arid to hyper - arid in these periods.
During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) the Sahara desert was more extensive than it is now with the extent of the tropical forests being greatly reduced, and the lower temperatures reduced the strength of the Hadley Cell. This is a climate cell which causes rising tropical air of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) to bring rain to the tropics, while dry descending air, at about 20 degrees north, flows back to the equator and brings desert conditions to this region. It is associated with high rates of wind - blown mineral dust, and these dust levels are found as expected in marine cores from the north tropical Atlantic. But around 12,500 BC the amount of dust in the cores in the Bølling / Allerød phase suddenly plummets and shows a period of much wetter conditions in the Sahara, indicating a Dansgaard - Oeschger (DO) event (a sudden warming followed by a slower cooling of the climate). The moister Saharan conditions had begun about 12,500 BC, with the extension of the ITCZ northward in the northern hemisphere summer, bringing moist wet conditions and a savanna climate to the Sahara, which (apart from a short dry spell associated with the Younger Dryas) peaked during the Holocene thermal maximum climatic phase at 4000 BC when mid-latitude temperatures seem to have been between 2 and 3 degrees warmer than in the recent past. Analysis of Nile River deposited sediments in the delta also shows this period had a higher proportion of sediments coming from the Blue Nile, suggesting higher rainfall also in the Ethiopian Highlands. This was caused principally by a stronger monsoonal circulation throughout the sub-tropical regions, affecting India, Arabia and the Sahara. Lake Victoria only recently became the source of the White Nile and dried out almost completely around 15 kya.
The sudden subsequent movement of the ITCZ southwards with a Heinrich event (a sudden cooling followed by a slower warming), linked to changes with the El Niño - Southern Oscillation cycle, led to a rapid drying out of the Saharan and Arabian regions, which quickly became desert. This is linked to a marked decline in the scale of the Nile floods between 2700 and 2100 BC.
The Sahara comprises several distinct ecoregions. With their variations in temperature, rainfall, elevation, and soil, these regions harbor distinct communities of plants and animals.
The Atlantic coastal desert is a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast where fog generated offshore by the cool Canary Current provides sufficient moisture to sustain a variety of lichens, succulents, and shrubs. It covers an area of 39,900 square kilometers (15,400 sq mi) in the south of Morocco and Mauritania.
The North Saharan steppe and woodlands is along the northern desert, next to the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregions of the northern Maghreb and Cyrenaica. Winter rains sustain shrublands and dry woodlands that form a transition between the Mediterranean climate regions to the north and the hyper - arid Sahara proper to the south. It covers 1,675,300 square kilometers (646,840 sq mi) in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia.
The Sahara Desert ecoregion covers the hyper - arid central portion of the Sahara where rainfall is minimal and sporadic. Vegetation is rare, and this ecoregion consists mostly of sand dunes (erg, chech, raoui), stone plateaus (hamadas), gravel plains (reg), dry valleys (wadis), and salt flats. It covers 4,639,900 square kilometres (1,791,500 sq mi) of: Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Sudan.
The South Saharan steppe and woodlands ecoregion is a narrow band running east and west between the hyper - arid Sahara and the Sahel savannas to the south. Movements of the equatorial Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) bring summer rains during July and August which average 100 to 200 mm (4 to 8 in) but vary greatly from year to year. These rains sustain summer pastures of grasses and herbs, with dry woodlands and shrublands along seasonal watercourses. This ecoregion covers 1,101,700 square kilometres (425,400 sq mi) in Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Sudan.
In the West Saharan montane xeric woodlands, several volcanic highlands provide a cooler, moister environment that supports Saharo - Mediterranean woodlands and shrublands. The ecoregion covers 258,100 square kilometres (99,650 sq mi), mostly in the Tassili n'Ajjer of Algeria, with smaller enclaves in the Aïr of Niger, the Dhar Adrar of Mauritania, and the Adrar des Iforas of Mali and Algeria.
The Tibesti - Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands ecoregion consists of the Tibesti and Jebel Uweinat highlands. Higher and more regular rainfall and cooler temperatures support woodlands and shrublands of Date palm, acacias, myrtle, oleander, tamarix, and several rare and endemic plants. The ecoregion covers 82,200 square kilometres (31,700 sq mi) in the Tibesti of Chad and Libya, and Jebel Uweinat on the border of Egypt, Libya, and Sudan.
The Saharan halophytics is an area of seasonally flooded saline depressions which is home to halophytic (salt - adapted) plant communities. The Saharan halophytics cover 54,000 square kilometres (21,000 sq mi) including: the Qattara and Siwa depressions in northern Egypt, the Tunisian salt lakes of central Tunisia, Chott Melghir in Algeria, and smaller areas of Algeria, Mauritania, and the southern part of Morocco.
The Tanezrouft is one of the harshest regions on Earth as well as one of the hottest and driest parts of the Sahara, with no vegetation and very little life. It is along the borders of Algeria, Niger, and Mali, west of the Hoggar mountains.
The flora of the Sahara is highly diversified based on the bio-geographical characteristics of this vast desert. Floristically, the Sahara has three zones based on the amount of rainfall received -- the Northern (Mediterranean), Central and Southern Zones. There are two transitional zones -- the Mediterranean - Sahara transition and the Sahel transition zone.
The Saharan flora comprises around 2800 species of vascular plants. Approximately a quarter of these are endemic. About half of these species are common to the flora of the Arabian deserts.
The central Sahara is estimated to include five hundred species of plants, which is extremely low considering the huge extent of the area. Plants such as acacia trees, palms, succulents, spiny shrubs, and grasses have adapted to the arid conditions, by growing lower to avoid water loss by strong winds, by storing water in their thick stems to use it in dry periods, by having long roots that travel horizontally to reach the maximum area of water and to find any surface moisture, and by having small thick leaves or needles to prevent water loss by evapotranspiration. Plant leaves may dry out totally and then recover.
Several species of fox live in the Sahara including: the fennec fox, pale fox and Rüppell 's fox. The addax, a large white antelope, can go nearly a year in the desert without drinking. The dorcas gazelle is a north African gazelle that can also go for a long time without water. Other notable gazelles include the rhim gazelle and dama gazelle.
The Saharan cheetah (northwest African cheetah) lives in Algeria, Togo, Niger, Mali, Benin, and Burkina Faso. There remain fewer than 250 mature cheetahs, which are very cautious, fleeing any human presence. The cheetah avoids the sun from April to October, seeking the shelter of shrubs such as balanites and acacias. They are unusually pale. The other cheetah subspecies (northeast African cheetah) lives in Chad, Sudan and the eastern region of Niger. However, it is currently extinct in the wild in Egypt and Libya. There are approximately 2000 mature individuals left in the wild.
Other animals include the monitor lizards, hyrax, sand vipers, and small populations of African wild dog, in perhaps only 14 countries and red - necked ostrich. Other animals exist in the Sahara (birds in particular) such as African silverbill and black - faced firefinch, among others. There are also small desert crocodiles in Mauritania and the Ennedi Plateau of Chad.
The deathstalker scorpion can be 10 cm (3.9 in) long. Its venom contains large amounts of agitoxin and scyllatoxin and is very dangerous; however, a sting from this scorpion rarely kills a healthy adult. The Saharan silver ant is unique in that due to the extreme high temperatures of their habitat, and the threat of predators, the ants are active outside their nest for only about ten minutes per day.
Dromedary camels and goats are the domesticated animals most commonly found in the Sahara. Because of its qualities of endurance and speed, the dromedary is the favourite animal used by nomads.
Human activities are more likely to affect the habitat in areas of permanent water (oases) or where water comes close to the surface. Here, the local pressure on natural resources can be intense. The remaining populations of large mammals have been greatly reduced by hunting for food and recreation. In recent years development projects have started in the deserts of Algeria and Tunisia using irrigated water pumped from underground aquifers. These schemes often lead to soil degradation and salinization.
Researchers from Hacettepe University (Yücekutlu, N. et al., 2011) have reported that Saharan soil may have bio-available iron and also some essential macro and micro nutrient elements suitable for use as fertilizer for growing wheat.
People lived on the edge of the desert thousands of years ago since the end of the last glacial period. The Sahara was then a much wetter place than it is today. Over 30,000 petroglyphs of river animals such as crocodiles survive, with half found in the Tassili n'Ajjer in southeast Algeria. Fossils of dinosaurs, including Afrovenator, Jobaria and Ouranosaurus, have also been found here. The modern Sahara, though, is not lush in vegetation, except in the Nile Valley, at a few oases, and in the northern highlands, where Mediterranean plants such as the olive tree are found to grow. It was long believed that the region had been this way since about 1600 BCE, after shifts in the Earth 's axis increased temperatures and decreased precipitation, which led to the abrupt desertification of North Africa about 5,400 years ago. However, this theory has recently been called into dispute, when samples taken from several 7 million year old sand deposits led scientists to reconsider the timeline for desertification.
The Kiffian culture is a prehistoric industry, or domain, that existed between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago in the Sahara, during the Neolithic Subpluvial. Human remains from this culture were found in 2000 at a site known as Gobero, located in Niger in the Ténéré Desert. The site is known as the largest and earliest grave of Stone Age people in the Sahara desert. The Kiffians were skilled hunters. Bones of many large savannah animals that were discovered in the same area suggest that they lived on the shores of a lake that was present during the Holocene Wet Phase, a period when the Sahara was verdant and wet. The Kiffian people were tall, standing over six feet in height. Craniometric analysis indicates that this early Holocene population was closely related to the Late Pleistocene Iberomaurusians and early Holocene Capsians of the Maghreb, as well as mid-Holocene Mechta groups. Traces of the Kiffian culture do not exist after 8,000 years ago, as the Sahara went through a dry period for the next thousand years. After this time, the Tenerian culture colonized the area.
Gobero was discovered in 2000 during an archaeological expedition led by Paul Sereno, which sought dinosaur remains. Two distinct prehistoric cultures were discovered at the site: the early Holocene Kiffian culture, and the middle Holocene Tenerian culture. The Kiffians were a prehistoric people who preceded the Tenerians and vanished approximately 8000 years ago, when the desert became very dry. The desiccation lasted until around 4600 BC, when the earliest artefacts associated with the Tenerians have been dated to. Some 200 skeletons have been discovered at Gobero. The Tenerians were considerably shorter in height and less robust than the earlier Kiffians. Craniometric analysis also indicates that they were osteologically distinct. The Kiffian skulls are akin to those of the Late Pleistocene Iberomaurusians, early Holocene Capsians, and mid-Holocene Mechta groups, whereas the Tenerian crania are more like those of Mediterranean groups. Graves show that the Tenerians observed spiritual traditions, as they were buried with artifacts such as jewelry made of hippo tusks and clay pots. The most interesting find is a triple burial, dated to 5300 years ago, of an adult female and two children, estimated through their teeth as being five and eight years old, hugging each other. Pollen residue indicates they were buried on a bed of flowers. The three are assumed to have died within 24 hours of each other, but as their skeletons hold no apparent trauma (they did not die violently) and they have been buried so elaborately - unlikely if they had died of a plague - the cause of their deaths is a mystery.
Uan Muhuggiag appears to have been inhabited from at least the 6th millennium BC to about 2700 BC, although not necessarily continuously. The most noteworthy find at Uan Muhuggiag is the well - preserved mummy of a young boy of approximately 2 1 / 2 years old. The child was in a fetal position, then embalmed, then placed in a sack made of antelope skin, which was insulated by a layer of leaves. The boy 's organs were removed, as evidenced by incisions in his stomach and thorax, and an organic preservative was inserted to stop his body from decomposing. An ostrich eggshell necklace was also found around his neck. Radiocarbon dating determined the age of the mummy to be approximately 5600 years old, which makes it about 1000 years older than the earliest previously recorded mummy in ancient Egypt. In 1958 - 1959, an archaeological expedition led by Antonio Ascenzi conducted anthropological, radiological, histological and chemical analyses on the Uan Muhuggiag mummy. The specimen was determined to be that of a 30 - month old child of uncertain sex, who possessed Negroid features. A long incision on the specimen 's abdominal wall also indicated that the body had been initially mummified by evisceration and later underwent natural desiccation. One other individual, an adult, was found at Uan Muhuggiag, buried in a crouched position. However, the body showed no evidence of evisceration or any other method of preservation. The body was estimated to date from about 7500 BP.
During the Neolithic Era, before the onset of desertification around 9500 BCE, the central Sudan had been a rich environment supporting a large population ranging across what is now barren desert, like the Wadi el - Qa'ab. By the 5th millennium BCE, the people who inhabited what is now called Nubia, were full participants in the "agricultural revolution '', living a settled lifestyle with domesticated plants and animals. Saharan rock art of cattle and herdsmen suggests the presence of a cattle cult like those found in Sudan and other pastoral societies in Africa today. Megaliths found at Nabta Playa are overt examples of probably the world 's first known archaeoastronomy devices, predating Stonehenge by some 2,000 years. This complexity, as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt.
By 6000 BCE predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent settlements in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium BCE centered predominantly on cereal and animal agriculture: cattle, goats, pigs and sheep. Metal objects replaced prior ones of stone. Tanning of animal skins, pottery and weaving were commonplace in this era also. There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the Al Fayyum in the 6th millennium BCE, with food activities centering on fishing, hunting and food - gathering. Stone arrowheads, knives and scrapers from the era are commonly found. Burial items included pottery, jewelry, farming and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit. Burial in desert environments appears to enhance Egyptian preservation rites, and the dead were buried facing due west.
By 3400 BCE, the Sahara was as dry as it is today, due to reduced precipitation and higher temperatures resulting from a shift in the Earth 's orbit. As a result of this aridification, it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with the remaining settlements mainly being concentrated around the numerous oases that dot the landscape. Little trade or commerce is known to have passed through the interior in subsequent periods, the only major exception being the Nile Valley. The Nile, however, was impassable at several cataracts, making trade and contact by boat difficult.
The people of Phoenicia, who flourished from 1200 -- 800 BCE, created a confederation of kingdoms across the entire Sahara to Egypt. They generally settled along the Mediterranean coast, as well as the Sahara, among the people of ancient Libya, who were the ancestors of people who speak Berber languages in North Africa and the Sahara today, including the Tuareg of the central Sahara.
The Phoenician alphabet seems to have been adopted by the ancient Libyans of north Africa, and Tifinagh is still used today by Berber - speaking Tuareg camel herders of the central Sahara.
Sometime between 633 BCE and 530 BCE, Hanno the Navigator either established or reinforced Phoenician colonies in Western Sahara, but all ancient remains have vanished with virtually no trace.
By 500 BCE, Greeks arrived in the desert. Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing trading colonies along the Red Sea. The Carthaginians explored the Atlantic coast of the desert, but the turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets caused a lack of presence further south than modern Morocco. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside the control of these states. Raids from the nomadic Berber people of the desert were of constant concern to those living on the edge of the desert.
An urban civilization, the Garamantes, arose around 500 BCE in the heart of the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the Wadi al - Ajal in Fezzan, Libya. The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap fossil water and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves (who were put to work extending the tunnels). The ancient Greeks and the Romans knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with them, and a Roman bath has been found in the Garamantes ' capital of Garama. Archaeologists have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes ' territory. The Garamantes ' civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the aquifers and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels further into the mountains.
The Berber people occupied (and still occupy) much of the Sahara. The Garamantes Berbers built a prosperous empire in the heart of the desert. The Tuareg nomads continue to inhabit and move across wide Sahara surfaces to the present day.
The Byzantine Empire ruled the northern shores of the Sahara from the 5th to the 7th centuries. After the Muslim conquest of Arabia, specifically the Arabian peninsula, the Muslim conquest of North Africa began in the mid-7th to early 8th centuries and Islamic influence expanded rapidly on the Sahara. By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in Muslim hands. Trade across the desert intensified, and a significant slave trade crossed the desert. It has been estimated that from the 10th to 19th centuries some 6,000 to 7,000 slaves were transported north each year.
In the 16th century the northern fringe of the Sahara, such as coastal regencies in present - day Algeria and Tunisia, as well as some parts of present - day Libya, together with the semi-autonomous kingdom of Egypt, were occupied by the Ottoman Empire. From 1517 Egypt was a valued part of the Ottoman Empire, ownership of which provided the Ottomans with control over the Nile Valley, the east Mediterranean and North Africa. The benefit of the Ottoman Empire was the freedom of movement for citizens and goods. Traders exploited the Ottoman land routes to handle the spices, gold and silk from the East, manufactured goods from Europe, and the slave and gold traffic from Africa. Arabic continued as the local language and Islamic culture was much reinforced. The Sahel and southern Sahara regions were home to several independent states or to roaming Tuareg clans.
European colonialism in the Sahara began in the 19th century. France conquered the regency of Algiers from the Ottomans in 1830, and French rule spread south from Algeria and eastwards from Senegal into the upper Niger to include present - day Algeria, Chad, Mali then French Sudan including Timbuktu, Mauritania, Morocco (1912), Niger, and Tunisia (1881). By the beginning of the 20th century, the trans - Saharan trade had clearly declined because goods were moved through more modern and efficient means, such as airplanes, rather than across the desert.
The French Colonial Empire was the dominant presence in the Sahara. It established regular air links from Toulouse (HQ of famed Aéropostale), to Oran and over the Hoggar to Timbuktu and West to Bamako and Dakar, as well as trans - Sahara bus services run by La Companie Transsaharienne (est. 1927). A remarkable film shot by famous aviator Captain René Wauthier documents the first crossing by a large truck convoy from Algiers to Tchad, across the Sahara.
Egypt, under Muhammad Ali and his successors, conquered Nubia in 1820 -- 22, founded Khartoum in 1823, and conquered Darfur in 1874. Egypt, including the Sudan, became a British protectorate in 1882. Egypt and Britain lost control of the Sudan from 1882 to 1898 as a result of the Mahdist War. After its capture by British troops in 1898, the Sudan became an Anglo - Egyptian condominium.
Spain captured present - day Western Sahara after 1874, although Rio del Oro remained largely under Sahrawi influence. In 1912, Italy captured parts of what was to be named Libya from the Ottomans. To promote the Roman Catholic religion in the desert, Pope Pius IX appointed a delegate Apostolic of the Sahara and the Sudan in 1868; later in the 19th century his jurisdiction was reorganized into the Vicariate Apostolic of Sahara.
Egypt became independent of Britain in 1936, although the Anglo - Egyptian treaty of 1936 allowed Britain to keep troops in Egypt and to maintain the British - Egyptian condominium in the Sudan. British military forces were withdrawn in 1954.
Most of the Saharan states achieved independence after World War II: Libya in 1951; Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia in 1956; Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger in 1960; and Algeria in 1962. Spain withdrew from Western Sahara in 1975, and it was partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco. Mauritania withdrew in 1979; Morocco continues to hold the territory.
In the post-World War II era, several mines and communities have developed to utilize the desert 's natural resources. These include large deposits of oil and natural gas in Algeria and Libya, and large deposits of phosphates in Morocco and Western Sahara.
A number of Trans - African highways have been proposed across the Sahara, including the Cairo -- Dakar Highway along the Atlantic coast, the Trans - Sahara Highway from Algiers on the Mediterranean to Kano in Nigeria, the Tripoli -- Cape Town Highway from Tripoli in Libya to N'Djamena in Chad, and the Cairo -- Cape Town Highway which follows the Nile. Each of these highways is partially complete, with significant gaps and unpaved sections.
The people of the Sahara are of various origins. Among them the Amaziɣ including the Turūq, various Arabized Amaziɣ groups such as the Hassaniya - speaking Sahrawis, whose populations include the Znaga, a tribe whose name is a remnant of the pre-historic Zenaga language. Other major groups of people include the: Toubou, Nubians, Zaghawa, Kanuri, Hausa, Songhai, Beja, and Fula / Fulani (French: Peul; Fula: Fulɓe).
Arabic dialects are the most widely spoken languages in the Sahara. Arabic, Berber and its variants now regrouped under the term Amazigh (which includes the Guanche language spoken by the original Berber inhabitants of the Canary Islands) and Beja languages are part of the Afro - Asiatic or Hamito - Semitic family. Unlike neighboring West Africa and the central governments of the states that comprise the Sahara, the French language bears little relevance to inter-personal discourse and commerce within the region, its people retaining staunch ethnic and political affiliations with Tuareg and Berber leaders and culture. The legacy of the French colonial era administration is primarily manifested in the territorial reorganization enacted by the Third and Fourth republics, which engendered artificial political divisions within a hitherto isolated and porous region. Diplomacy with local clients was conducted primarily in Arabic, which was the traditional language of bureaucratic affairs. Mediation of disputes and inter-agency communication was served by interpreters contracted by the French government, who, according to Keenan, "documented a space of intercultural mediation, '' contributing much to preserving the indigenous cultural identities in the region.
Coordinates: 23 ° N 13 ° E / 23 ° N 13 ° E / 23; 13
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who wants to be a millionaire phone a friend google | Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? - Wikipedia
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? (informally Millionaire) is an international television game show franchise of British origin, created by David Briggs, Mike Whitehill and Steven Knight. In its format, currently owned and licensed by Sony Pictures Television, large cash prizes are offered for correctly answering a series of multiple - choice questions of increasing (or, in some cases, random) difficulty. The maximum cash prize (in the original British version) was one million pounds. Most international versions offer a top prize of one million units of the local currency.
The original British version of the show debuted on 4 September 1998, and aired on ITV with Chris Tarrant as its host until 11 February 2014. International variants have aired in around 160 countries worldwide. The show 's format is a twist on the game show genre -- only one contestant plays at a time (similar to some radio quizzes), and the emphasis is on suspense rather than speed. In most versions there are no time limits to answer the questions, and contestants are given the question before they must decide whether to attempt an answer.
The contestants must first play a preliminary round, called "Fastest Finger First '' (or, in the U.S. version, simply "Fastest Finger ''), where they are all given a question and four answers from the host and are asked to put those four answers into a particular order; in the first series of the British version and in pre-2003 episodes of the Australian version, the round instead required the contestants to answer one multiple - choice question correctly as quickly as possible. The contestant who does so correctly and in the fastest time goes on to play the main game for the maximum possible prize (often a million units of the local currency). In the event that two or more contestants are tied for the fastest time, those contestants play another question to break the tie. If no one gets the question right, that question is discarded and another question is played in the same manner. If any contestants are visually impaired, the host reads the question and four choices all at once, then repeats the choices after the music begins.
Main game contestants are asked increasingly difficult general knowledge questions by the host. Questions are multiple choice: four possible answers are given (labelled A, B, C and D), and the contestant must choose the correct one. The ' D ' answer on the first question (except in the Shuffle format like in the US version) is always incorrect and humorous. Upon answering a question correctly, the contestant wins a certain amount of money. In most versions, there is no time limit to answer a question; a contestant may (and often does) take as long as they need to ponder an answer. After the first few questions, the host will ask the contestant if that is their "final answer ''. When a contestant says "final '' in conjunction with one of the answers, it is official, and can not be changed. The first five questions usually omit this rule, because the questions are generally so easy that requiring a final answer would significantly slow the game down; thus, there are five chances for the contestant to leave with no money if they were to provide a wrong answer before obtaining the first guaranteed amount; going for 1,000 units of currency after winning 500 units is the last point in the game at which a contestant can still leave empty - handed.
Subsequent questions are played for increasingly large sums, roughly doubling at each turn. The first few questions often have some joke answers. On episodes of the UK version aired between 1998 and 2007, the payout structure was as follows: first going from £ 100 to £ 300 in increments of £ 100, then from £ 500 to £ 64,000 with the pound value doubling for each new question, and finally from £ 125,000 to £ 1,000,000 with the pound value doubling for each new question.
After viewing a question, the contestant can leave the game with the money already won rather than attempting an answer. If the contestant answers a question incorrectly, then all of their winnings are lost, except that the £ 1,000 and £ 32,000 prizes are guaranteed: if a player gets a question wrong above these levels, then the prize drops to the previous guaranteed prize. Answering the £ 2,000 and £ 64,000 questions wrong does not reduce the prize money. The prizes are generally non-cumulative; for example, answering the £ 500 question gives the contestant £ 500, not the previous £ 300 plus £ 500 (i.e. £ 800). The game ends when the contestant answers a question incorrectly, decides not to answer a question, or answers all questions correctly.
When the U.S. Millionaire 's syndicated version debuted in 2002, Fastest Finger was eliminated for the reduced episode length (30 minutes as opposed to the previous network version 's length of 60 minutes). Thus, contestants immediately take the Hot Seat, each of them called in after their predecessors ' games end. Contestants are required to pass a more conventional game show qualification test at auditions; however, when the U.S. Millionaire revived its primetime version for specials, it also restored the Fastest Finger round; this was done in 2004 for the Super Millionaire series which raised the top prize to $10,000,000 and in August 2009 for an eleven - night special that celebrated the U.S. version 's tenth anniversary. Long after the U.S. version eliminated its Fastest Finger round, numerous other versions (including the Australian, Italian, Turkish, British, Russian, Dutch and French versions) followed suit by eliminating their respective Fastest Finger First rounds; additionally, some versions (such as the British, Dutch, French and Russian versions) have eliminated their respective Fastest Finger First rounds for special events wherein celebrities play for charity.
In 2007, it was announced that the UK version was changing its format, reducing the number of questions in the game from fifteen to twelve. The new payout structure was as follows: first going from £ 500 to £ 2,000 with the prize values doubling for each new question, then from £ 5,000 to £ 20,000 with the prize values doubling for each new question, then to £ 50,000, £ 75,000 and £ 150,000, and finally from £ 250,000 to £ 1,000,000 with the prize value doubling for each new question. Whereas the first safe haven remained at £ 1,000, the second safe haven was moved to £ 50,000. The new rules debuted in an episode that aired on 18 August 2007. Within a period of four years following its introduction to the British Millionaire, the 12 - question format was subsequently carried over to a number of international versions, including the Arab, Bulgarian, Dutch, French, Polish, Spanish, and Turkish versions.
In 2007, the German version modified its format, so that contestants would be allowed to choose the option of playing in a new variant called "Risk Mode ''. If the contestant chooses to play this variant, they are given access to a fourth lifeline that allows them to discuss a question with a volunteer from the audience, but the tenth - question safe haven is forfeited. This means that if the contestant answers any of questions 11 -- 15 incorrectly, they drop all the way to the guaranteed winnings gained by answering question 5 correctly. If the contestant chooses to the play the classic format, they keep the second safe haven. The risk format was subsequently adopted by such markets as Austria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, the Philippines, Poland, Russia, Switzerland and Venezuela.
In 2008, the U.S. version changed its format so that contestants were required to answer questions within a set time limit. The time limits were 15 seconds for questions 1 -- 5, 30 seconds for questions 6 - 10, and 45 seconds for questions 11 - 14. After each of the 14 questions were answered correctly, the remaining time after giving an answer was banked for the million - dollar question. The clock for each question began counting down immediately after all of the question was revealed, and was temporarily paused when a lifeline was used. Contestants who exceeded the time limit were forced to walk away with any prize money they had won up to that point. The clock was later adopted by other international versions; for example, the British version adopted it on 3 August 2010, and the Indian version adopted it on 11 October the same year.
In November 2008, the Norway version introduced a new format, called the "Hot Seat format '', wherein 6 contestants play at once, with each taking turns to climb the money tree. Contestants are allowed to "pass '' the onus of answering the question to the next contestant in line, who is unable to re-pass to the next contestant for that question. Also added were time limits on every question, with 15 seconds allocated for the first five questions, 30 for the middle five, and 45 for the last five. In addition, the option of walking away is eliminated, rendering several questions ' values pointless, as they can not be won. Also, if a player fails to give an answer within the time limit, it is considered an automatic pass. If a contestant can not pass on or correctly answer a question, he or she is eliminated and the highest value on the money tree is removed. The game ends either when all contestants are eliminated, or when the question for the highest value in the money tree is answered. If the final question is answered correctly, the answering player receives the amount of money; if it is answered incorrectly or all contestants are eliminated before the final question is reached, the last contestant to be eliminated receives either nothing, or a smaller prize if the fifth question milestone is reached. This format was later introduced to various markets (including Italy, Hungary, Vietnam, Indonesia, Australia, Chile and Spain) over the course of a four - year period from 2009 to 2012. In 2017, Australia 's Hot Seat brought back the Fastest Finger First round, while the winner may select one of the lifelines - "50: 50 '', "Ask a Friend '' or "Switch the Question ''.
On 13 September 2010, the U.S. version adopted its "shuffle format ''. Ten questions are asked in round one, each assigned one of ten different money amounts. The dollar values are randomised at the beginning of the game. The contestant is then shown the original order of difficulty for the ten questions as well as their categories, and those are then randomised as well. This means that the difficulty of the question is not tied to its value. The dollar values for each question remain hidden until a contestant either provides a correct answer or chooses to "jump '' their question. In this format, the value of each question answered correctly is added to the contestant 's bank, for a maximum total of $68,600. A contestant who completes the round successfully can walk at any subsequent point with all the money in their bank, or can walk before the round is completed with half that amount (e.g., a contestant who banked $30,000 would leave with $15,000). Contestants who give an incorrect answer at any point in the round leave with $1,000. After completing round one, the contestant moves on to a second round of gameplay (the "Classic Millionaire '' round), in which four non-categorised questions are played for set non-cumulative values and a correct answer augments the contestant 's winnings to that point, as in the older formats. The contestant is now allowed to walk away with all the money in their bank; an incorrect answer drops their winnings to $25,000. The shuffle format was replaced with a modified version of the original format (with only 14 questions) for the fourteenth syndicated season; the values of the last four questions remain unchanged.
Contestants are given a series of lifelines to aid them with difficult questions. After using a lifeline, the contestant can either answer the question, use another lifeline, or walk away and keep the money (although using the "Double Dip '' lifeline requires the contestant to immediately answer and using the "Jump the Question '' lifeline naturally prevents them from continuing with that question). Except for the first three seasons of the "Jump the Question '' lifeline 's use, each lifeline can only be used once. In the Hot Seat format, the concept of lifelines is discarded in favor of the option to pass.
The show 's original three lifelines are "50 / 50 '', in which the computer eliminates two of the incorrect answers; "Phone a Friend '', in which the contestant makes a thirty - second call to one of a number of friends (who provide their phone numbers in advance) and reads them the question and answer choices, after which the friend provides input; and "Ask the Audience '', in which audience members use touch pads to designate what they believe the correct answer to be, after which the percentage of the audience choosing each specific option is displayed to the contestant. In countries where the show is broadcast live, friends selected for Phone - a-Friend are alerted when their contestant begins to play the main game, and are told to keep the phone free and to wait for three rings before answering. Phone - a-Friend was removed from the U.S. version beginning with the episode that aired on 11 January 2010, after it was determined that there was an increasing trend of contestants ' friends using web search engines and other Internet resources to assist them, which unfairly privileged individuals who had computer access over those who did not, and that it was contrary to the original intent of the lifeline, by which friends were supposed to provide assistance based on what they already knew. From 2004 to 2008, the U.S. version had a fourth lifeline called "Switch the Question '', earned upon answering question ten, in which the computer replaced, at the contestant 's request, one question with another of the same monetary value; however, any lifelines used on the original question were not reinstated for the new question. Switch the Question returned as Cut the Question for a special week of shows with child contestants aired in 2014.
During the U.S. Millionaire 's Super Millionaire spin - off, two new lifelines were introduced: "Double Dip '', which allowed the contestant to make two guesses at a question, but required them to play out the question, forbidding them to walk away or use any further lifelines; and "Three Wise Men '', in which the contestant was allowed to ask a sequestered panel of three people chosen by the producers (one of which was usually a former Millionaire winner and at least one being female), appearing via face - to - face audio and video feeds, which answer they believed was correct, within a time limit of thirty seconds. When the clock format was implemented, Double Dip replaced the 50: 50 lifeline, and the show also introduced a new lifeline called "Ask the Expert '', similar to Three Wise Men but only had one person (usually a celebrity or a former Millionaire contestant) functioning as an expert instead of a panel of three people, lacked the time limit of its predecessor, and allowed the contestant and expert to discuss the question. Ask the Expert was originally available after the fifth question, but was moved to the beginning of the game after Phone - a-Friend was removed. In fact, the Hong Kong version introduced the "Ask the Expert '' lifeline in an extra-length celebrity special in a one - off basis in 2001, while the celebrity contestants may ask a panel of the experts instead of the original Phone - a-Friend lifeline.
The U.S. version sometimes used corporate sponsorship for its lifelines. Phone - a-Friend was sponsored by the original AT&T throughout the run of the ABC primetime show and in the first season of the syndicated version, then by the current AT&T for the 2009 primetime episodes. From 2004 to 2006, Ask the Audience was sponsored by AOL, which allowed users of its Instant Messenger to add the screen name MillionaireIM to their contact list and receive an instant message with the question and the four possible answers, to which the users replied with their choices. In addition, the Ask the Expert lifeline was sponsored by Skype for its live audio and video feeds.
The German Millionaire 's risk format features an extra lifeline called "Ask One of the Audience '', in which the host will reread the question and ask the audience who think they would be able to answer that question to stand up. The contestant may choose one of these (judging by looks only) and discuss the question at length with said audience member. He may or may not choose an answer after that. If he chooses the suggested answer and it proves to be correct, the audience member will also receive a prize of € 500. This lifeline is also implemented in the Costa Rican version, after the first milestone is reached. Starting in its thirteenth season, the U.S. syndicated version uses a variant of this lifeline, called "Plus One '', which allows the contestant to bring a companion with them for help, rather than having them select their companion from the audience.
The U.S. Millionaire 's shuffle format introduced a new lifeline, "Jump the Question '', which was able to be used twice in a single game for seasons nine through twelve of the syndicated version. At any point prior to selecting a final answer, a contestant could use Jump the Question to skip the current question and move on to the next one, thus reducing the number of questions they had to correctly answer. However, if the contestant uses Jump the Question, they do not gain any money from the question they choose to skip (for example, a contestant with a bank of $68,100 may jump the $100,000 question, but will still have only $68,100 instead of the typical $100,000 when they face the $250,000 question). Unlike other lifelines throughout the show 's history, this lifeline can not be used on the $1 million question, since it is the final question in the game. The introduction of Plus One reduced the number of Jump the Question lifelines available from two to one. On occasional specially designated weeks, starting with a Halloween - themed week that aired from 29 October to 2 November 2012, the shuffle format uses a special lifeline called "Crystal Ball '', which allows the contestant to see the money value of a round one question prior to giving an answer. Jump the Question was removed from the show at the end of the thirteenth syndicated season.
Out of all contestants that have played the game, few have been able to win the top prize on any international version of the show. The first was John Carpenter, who won the top prize on the U.S. version on 19 November 1999. Carpenter did not use a lifeline until the final question, using his Phone - a-Friend not for help but to call his father to tell him he had won the million.
Other notable top prize winners include Judith Keppel, the first winner of the UK version; Kevin Olmstead from the U.S. version, who won a progressive jackpot of $2.18 million; Martin Flood from the Australian version, who was investigated by producers after suspicions that he had cheated, much like Charles Ingram, but was later cleared; and Sushil Kumar from the Indian version, who is often referred to in Western media as the "real - life Slumdog Millionaire ''.
Of all the international versions, the Japanese version has produced the most number (38) of top prize winners, including juniors. The most recent Millionaire winner is Moksha Madusanka from the Sri Lankan version, winning Rs. 2,000,000 in the episode broadcast on 1 July 2017.
The original British version of Millionaire, hosted by Chris Tarrant, debuted on the ITV network on 4 September 1998. At its peak in 1999, one edition of the show was watched by over 19 million viewers (one out of every three Britons). Originally the contestants were predominantly members of the general public, but in the show 's later years, only celebrities appeared on the show, in special live editions that coincided with holidays and the like. On 22 October 2013, Tarrant decided to quit the show after 15 years, and ITV decided to cancel the show after his contract finished, stating that there would not be any further specials beyond the ones that had already been planned. Tarrant 's final live celebrity edition aired on 19 December 2013, and the final episode, a clip show entitled "Chris ' Final Answer '', aired on 11 February 2014.
The U.S. version of the show was launched in the primetime by ABC on 16 August 1999, and was originally hosted by Regis Philbin. The original network version was the highest - rated of all television shows in the 1999 -- 2000 season, reaching an average audience of approximately 29 million viewers, but before long, ABC overexposed the primetime series and the audience tired of the show, which ultimately grilled it to cancellation, with its final episode airing on 27 June 2002. A daily syndicated version of the programme debuted on 16 September 2002, and was launched by Meredith Vieira, who remained host for eleven seasons, with her final first - run episodes airing in May 2013. Later hosts after Vieira 's departure included Cedric the Entertainer and Terry Crews, who each held one - season tenures as host in 2013 and 2014 respectively; and Chris Harrison, who became host in the fall of 2015.
The Australian version of the show debuted on the Nine Network on 18 April 1999, and was hosted by Eddie McGuire until he became the CEO of the Nine Network, a position that required him to sacrifice his on - air commitments. The final episode of the original Australian series aired on 3 April 2006; however, after his resignation as Nine Network CEO, McGuire resumed his duties as Millionaire host for subsequent versions. Millionaire returned to Australia in 2007, as six episodes with a new format aired during October and November of that year. This was followed by an abbreviated version called Millionaire Hot Seat which debuted on 20 April 2009.
An Indian version of the program, titled Kaun Banega Crorepati ("Who will become a millionaire ''), debuted on 3 July 2000, with Amitabh Bachchan hosting in his first appearance on Indian television. Subsequent seasons of the show aired in 2005 -- 06, 2007, and every year since 2010. The Indian version was immortalised by director Danny Boyle in his 2008 drama film Slumdog Millionaire, adapted from the 2005 Indian novel Q & A by Vikas Swarup, which won eight U.S. Academy Awards (including Best Picture and Best Director) and seven BAFTA Awards.
A Filipino version of Millionaire was broadcast from 2000 to 2002 by the government - sequestered Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation, produced by Viva Television, and was hosted by Christopher de Leon. On 23 May 2009, the show returned with a new home on TV5, with Vic Sotto as the new host. The show aired its season finale on 7 October 2012 to give way to another game show hosted by Sotto, The Million Peso Money Drop (the Philippine version of The Million Pound Drop Live created by Endemol). However, the show returned to the air on 15 September 2013 for a new season together with Pinoy Explorer and Wow Mali! Pa Rin after the cancellation of the talent show Talentadong Pinoy (which would be revived just one year later).
A Russian version of Millionaire debuted as О, счастливчик! ("Oh, lucky man!!! '') on NTV from 1 October 1999 to 28 January 2001. On 19 February 2001, the show was relaunched as Кто хочет стать миллионером? ("Who wants to become a millionaire? ''), which aired on Channel One and was hosted by Maxim Galkin before 2008, and Dmitry Dibrov after that. A Dutch version of the show, titled Lotto Weekend Miljonairs, first aired on SBS 6 from 1999 to 2006 with Robert ten Brink as its host, then was moved to RTL 4, where it aired until 2008 (later to be revived in 2011) with Jeroen van der Boom hosting. A Japanese version called Quiz $ Millionaire, hosted by Monta Mino, was launched by Fuji Television on 20 April 2000; it was a regular weekly programme for its first seven years, after which it only aired in occasional specials.
Millionaire has also existed in many other countries, including a Chinese version aired in 2007 and 2008 with Lǐ Fán as its host; a French version on TF1, which debuted on 3 July 2000 and is hosted by Jean - Pierre Foucault; a German version launched by RTL Television on 3 September 1999, hosted by Günther Jauch; a Hong Kong version called Baak Maan Fu Yung, which was broadcast by Asia Television from 2001 to 2005, with actor Kenneth Chan as its host; and a Sri Lankan version called Sirasa Lakshapathi, which premiered in 2010 on Sirasa TV of Maharaja Network. In total, over 100 different international variations of Millionaire have been produced since the original UK version made its 1998 debut.
In March 2006, original producer Celador announced that it was seeking to sell the worldwide rights to Millionaire, together with the rest of its British programme library, as the first phase of a sell - off of the company 's format and production divisions. Millionaire and all of Celador 's other programmes were ultimately acquired by Dutch company 2waytraffic. Two years later, Sony Pictures Entertainment purchased 2waytraffic for £ 137.5 million. The format of the show is currently owned and licensed by Sony Pictures Television; however, the U.S. version is distributed not by Sony but by the Walt Disney Company 's in - home sales and content distribution firm, Disney -- ABC Domestic Television.
The idea to transform the UK programme into a global franchise was conceived by British television producer Paul Smith. He laid out a series of rules that the international variants in the franchise were to follow: for example, all hosts were required to appear on - screen wearing Armani suits, as Tarrant did in the UK; producers were forbidden from hiring local composers to create original music, instead using the same music cues used by the British version; and the lighting system and set design were required to adhere faithfully to the way they were presented on the British version. However, some of Smith 's rules have been slightly relaxed over the years as the franchise 's history has progressed.
The format of the show was created by David Briggs, Mike Whitehill and Steven Knight, who had earlier created a number of the promotional games for Tarrant 's morning show on Capital FM radio, such as the bong game. Tentatively known as Cash Mountain, the show takes its finalised title from a song written by Cole Porter for the 1956 film High Society, in which it was sung by Frank Sinatra and Celeste Holm.
Since the original version launched, several individuals have claimed that they originated the format and that Celador had breached their copyright. Sponsored by the Daily Mail, Mike Bull, a Southampton - based journalist, took Celador to the High Court in March 2002, claiming authorship of the lifelines, but Celador settled out of court with a confidentiality clause. In 2003, Sydney resident John J. Leonard claimed to have originated a format substantially similar to that of Millionaire, but without the concept of lifelines. In 2004, Alan Melville sued ITV for using the opening phrase "Who wants to be a millionaire? '' from his ideas for a game show based on the lottery, called Millionaires ' Row, for which he had sent his documents to Granada Television; ITV counter-claimed, and the parties reached an out - of - court agreement / settlement.
In 2002, John Bachini started a claim against Celador, ITV, and five individuals who claimed that they had created Millionaire. Bachini claimed they had used ideas from his 1982 board game format, a two - page TV format concept known as Millionaire dating from 1990, and the telephone mechanics from another of his concepts, BT Lottery, also dating from 1990. Bachini submitted his documents to Paul Smith, from a sister company of Celador 's, in March 1995 and again in January 1996, and to Claudia Rosencrantz of ITV in January 1996. Bachini claimed that they used 90 % of his Millionaire format, which contained all of the same procedures as the actual British Millionaire 's pilot: twenty questions, three lifelines, two safe havens (£ 1,000 and £ 32,000), and even starting from £ 1.00. Bachini 's lifelines were known by different names; he never claimed he coined the phrase phone - a-friend, but Bull and Tim Boone claimed they did. Celador claimed the franchise originated from a format known as The Cash Mountain, a five - page document created by either Briggs or his wife Jo Sandilands in October 1995. The defendants brought Bachini to a summary hearing, and lost. Bachini won the right to go to trial, but could not continue at trial due to serious illness, so Celador reached an out - of - court settlement with Bachini.
The musical score most commonly associated with the franchise was composed by father - and - son duo Keith and Matthew Strachan. The Strachans ' score provides drama and tension, and unlike older game show musical scores, Millionaire 's musical score was created to feature music playing almost throughout the entire show. The Strachans ' main Millionaire theme song takes inspiration from the "Mars '' movement of Gustav Holst 's The Planets, and their question cues from the £ 2,000 to the £ 32,000 / £ 25,000 level, and then from the £ 64,000 / £ 50,000 level onwards, take the pitch up a semitone for each subsequent question, in order to increase tension as the contestant progressed through the game. On Game Show Network (GSN) 's Gameshow Hall of Fame special, the narrator described the Strachan tracks as "mimicking the sound of a beating heart '', and stated that as the contestant works their way up the money ladder, the music is "perfectly in tune with their ever - increasing pulse ''.
The Strachans ' Millionaire soundtrack was honoured by the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers with numerous awards, the earliest of them awarded in 2000. The original music cues were given minor rearrangements for the U.S. version 's clock format in 2008; for example, the question cues were synced to the "ticking '' sounds of the game clock. Even later, the Strachan score was removed from the U.S. version altogether for the introduction of the shuffle format in 2010, in favour of a new musical score with cues written by Jeff Lippencott and Mark T. Williams, co-founders of the Los Angeles - based company Ah2 Music.
The basic set design used in the Millionaire franchise was conceived by British production designer Andy Walmsley, and is the most reproduced scenic design in television history. Unlike older game shows whose sets are or were designed to make the contestant (s) feel at ease, Millionaire 's set was designed to make the contestant feel uncomfortable, so that the programme feels more like a movie thriller than a typical quiz show. The floor is made of Plexiglas beneath which lies a huge dish covered in mirror paper. The main game typically has the contestant and host sit in "Hot Seats '', which are slightly - modified, 3 foot (0.91 m) - high Pietranera Arco All chairs situated in the center of the stage; an LG computer monitor directly facing each seat displays questions and other pertinent information.
The lighting system is programmed to darken the set as the contestant progresses further into the game. There are also spotlights situated at the bottom of the set area that zoom down on the contestant when they answer a major question; to increase the visibility of the light beams emitted by such spotlights, oil is vaporised, creating a haze effect. Media scholar Dr. Robert Thompson, a professor at Syracuse University, stated that the show 's lighting system made the contestant feel as though they were outside a prison while an escape was in progress.
When the U.S. Millionaire introduced its shuffle format, the Hot Seats and corresponding monitors were replaced with a single podium and as a result, the contestant and host stand throughout the game and are also able to walk around the stage. According to Vieira, the Hot Seat was removed because it was decided that the seat, which was originally intended to make the contestant feel nervous, actually ended up having contestants feel so comfortable in it that it did not service the production team any longer. Also, two video screens were installed -- one that displays the current question in play, and another that displays the contestant 's cumulative total and progress during the game. In September 2012, the redesigned set was improved with a modernised look and feel, in order to take into account the show 's transition to high - definition broadcasting, which had just come about the previous year. The two video screens were replaced with two larger ones, having twice as many projectors as the previous screens; the previous contestant podium was replaced with a new one; and light - emitting diode (LED) technology was integrated into the lighting system to give the lights more vivid colours and the set and gameplay experience a more intimate feel.
Millionaire has made catchphrases out of several lines used on the show. The most well - known of these catchphrases is the host 's question "Is that your final answer? '', asked whenever a contestant 's answer needs to be verified. The question is asked because the rules require that the contestants must clearly indicate their choices before they are made official, the nature of the game allowing them to ponder the options before committing to an answer. Regularly on tier - three questions, a dramatic pause occurs between the contestant 's statement of their answer and the host 's acknowledgement of whether or not it is correct.
Many parodies of Millionaire have capitalised on the "final answer '' catchphrase. In the United States, the phrase was popularised by Philbin during his tenure as the host of that country 's version, to the extent that TV Land listed it in its special 100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catchphrases, which aired in 2006.
On the Australian versions, McGuire replaces the phrase with "Lock it in? ''; likewise, the Indian version 's hosts have used varying "lock '' catchphrases. There are also a number of other non-English versions of Millionaire where the host does not ask "(Is that your) final answer? '' or a literal translation thereof. Besides the "final answer '' question, other catchphrases used on the show include the contestants ' requests to use lifelines, such as "I 'd like to phone a friend ''; and a line that Tarrant spoke whenever a contestant was struggling with a particular question, "Some questions are only easy if you know the answer. ''
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? has been credited with single - handedly reviving interest in, and breaking new ground for, the television game show. It revolutionised the look and feel of game shows with its unique lighting system, dramatic music cues, and futuristic set. The show also became one of the most popular game shows in television history, and is credited by some with paving the way for the phenomenon of reality programming.
In 2000, the British Film Institute honoured the UK version of Millionaire by ranking it number 23 on its "BFI TV 100 '' list, which compiled what British television industry professionals believed were the greatest programmes to have ever originated from that country. The UK Millionaire also won the 1999 British Academy Television Award for Best Entertainment Programme, and four National Television Awards for Most Popular Quiz Programme from 2002 to 2005.
The original primetime version of the U.S. Millionaire won two Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show in 2000 and 2001. Philbin was honoured with a Daytime Emmy in the category of Outstanding Game Show Host in 2001, while Vieira received one in 2005 and another in 2009, making her the second woman to win an Emmy Award for hosting a game show, and the first to win multiple times. TV Guide ranked the U.S. Millionaire No. 7 on its 2001 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and later ranked it No. 6 on its 2013 "60 Greatest Game Shows '' list. GSN ranked Millionaire No. 5 on its August 2006 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and later honoured the show in January 2007 on its first, and so far only, Gameshow Hall of Fame special.
In April 2003, British Army Major Charles Ingram, his wife Diana, and college lecturer Tecwen Whittock were convicted of using fraudulent means to win £ 1 million on the UK version of the show when Ingram was a contestant on the show in September 2001. The allegation was that when Tarrant asked a question, Whittock, one of that episode 's nine other Fastest Finger First contestants, would cough to guide Ingram to the correct answer. Ingram won the £ 1 million top prize, but members of the production staff raised suspicions over Whittock 's coughing along with the Ingrams ' behaviour after the recording, and the police were called in to investigate. The defence claimed that Whittock simply suffered from allergies; however, all three were found guilty and given suspended sentences. After the trial, ITV aired a documentary about the scandal, along with Ingram 's entire game, complete with Whittock 's coughing sounds. As a joke, Benylin cough syrup paid to have the first commercial shown during the programme 's commercial break.
In 2006, a screenshot from the UKGameshows.com site was digitally altered and used in a piece on the satire site BS News. The image was also widely circulated as an email in which it was purported to show contestant Fiona Wheeler from the UK version, failing to answer her £ 100 question correctly after using all three lifelines because she was too sceptical of the assistance that was given; the image was actually a digitally altered screenshot of Wheeler 's answering a different question from a higher tier. The hoax might have been inspired by an infamous moment from the French version of the show, in which a contestant requested help from the audience on a € 3,000 question which asked which celestial body orbits the Earth: the Sun, the Moon, Mars or Venus. The majority of the audience provided the answer of "the Sun '', although the correct answer is the Moon, and the contestant ended up leaving with only € 1,500 as a result. The hoax also borrows elements from a number of infamous moments on the U.S. version, where numerous unlucky contestants won nothing after submitting a wrong answer to one of the first five questions.
Three board game adaptations of the UK Millionaire were released by Upstarts in 1998, and a junior edition recommended for younger players was introduced in 2001. The U.S. version also saw two board games of its own, released by Pressman Toy Corporation in 2000. Other Millionaire board games have included a game based on the Australian version 's Hot Seat format, which was released by UGames; a game based on the Italian version released by Hasbro; and a game based on the French version which was released by TF1 's games division.
An electronic tabletop version of the game was released by Tiger Electronics in 2000. Six different DVD games based on the UK Millionaire, featuring Tarrant 's likeness and voice, were released by Zoo Digital Publishing and Universal Studios Home Entertainment between 2002 and 2008. In 2008, Imagination Games released a DVD game based on the U.S. version, based on the 2004 -- 08 format and coming complete with Vieira 's likeness and voice, as well as a quiz book and a 2009 desktop calendar.
The UK Millionaire saw five video game adaptations for personal computers and Sony 's PlayStation consoles, produced by Hothouse Creations and Eidos Interactive. Between 1999 and 2001, Jellyvision produced five games based on the U.S. network version for PCs and the PlayStation, all of them featuring Philbin 's likeness and voice. The first of these adaptations was published by Disney Interactive, while the later four were published by Buena Vista Interactive which had just been spun off from DI when it reestablished itself in attempts to diversify its portfolio. Of the five games, three featured general trivia questions, one was sports - themed, and another was a "Kids Edition '' featuring easier questions. Two additional U.S. Millionaire games were released by Ludia in conjunction with Ubisoft in 2010 and 2011; the first of these was a game for Nintendo 's Wii console and DS handheld system based on the 2008 -- 10 clock format, with the Wii version offered on the show as a consolation prize to audience contestants during the 2010 -- 11 season. The second, for Microsoft 's Xbox 360, was based on the shuffle format and was offered as a consolation prize during the next season (2011 -- 12).
Ludia also made a Facebook game based on Millionaire available to players in North America from 2011 to 2016. This game featured an altered version of the shuffle format, condensing the number of questions to twelve -- eight in round one and four in round two. Contestants competed against eight other Millionaire fans in round one, with the top three playing round two alone. There was no "final answer '' rule; the contestant 's responses were automatically locked in. Answering a question correctly earned a contestant the value of that question, multiplied by the number of people who responded incorrectly. Contestants were allowed to use two of their Facebook friends as Jump the Question lifelines in round one, and to use the Ask the Audience lifeline in round two to invite up to 50 such friends of theirs to answer a question for a portion of the prize money of the current question.
A theme park attraction based on the show, known as Who Wants to Be a Millionaire -- Play It!, appeared at Disney 's Hollywood Studios (when it was known as Disney - MGM Studios) at the Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida and at Disney California Adventure Park in Anaheim, California. Both the Florida and California Play It! attractions opened in 2001; the California version closed in 2004, and the Florida version closed in 2006 and was replaced by Toy Story Midway Mania!
The format in the Play It! attraction was very similar to that of the television show that inspired it. When a show started, a "Fastest Finger '' question was given, and the audience was asked to put the four answers in order; the person with the fastest time was the first contestant in the Hot Seat for that show. However, the main game had some differences: for example, contestants competed for points rather than dollars, the questions were set to time limits, and the Phone - a-Friend lifeline became Phone a Complete Stranger which connected the contestant to a Disney cast member outside the attraction 's theatre who would find a guest to help. After the contestant 's game was over, they were awarded anything from a collectible pin, to clothing, to a Millionaire CD game, to a 3 - night Disney Cruise.
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who did rick mayall play in the young ones | The Young Ones (TV series) - wikipedia
The Young Ones is a British sitcom, broadcast in the United Kingdom from 1982 to 1984 in two six - part series. Shown on BBC2, it featured anarchic, offbeat humour which helped bring alternative comedy to British television in the 1980s and made household names of its writers and performers. In 1985, it was shown on MTV, one of the first non-music television shows on the fledgling channel. In a 2004 poll, it ranked at number 31 in the BBC 's list of Britain 's Best Sitcoms. The show 's title relates to the song of the same name, written by Sid Tepper and Roy C. Bennett, and sung by Cliff Richard and The Shadows, which was a No. 1 UK hit single.
The Young Ones originated on London 's comedy club circuit in the early 1980s, where most of the show 's cast had gained popularity at The Comedy Store. Alexei Sayle was the prominent act, drawing attention as the manic, aggressive compere. Adrian Edmondson and Rik Mayall worked as the double act 20th Century Coyote, which later became The Dangerous Brothers. Nigel Planer was also in a double act with Peter Richardson called "The Outer Limits ''.
As The Comedy Store became popular, Sayle, 20th Century Coyote, and The Outer Limits, with French and Saunders and Arnold Brown, set up their own club called The Comic Strip in the Raymond Revuebar club in Soho. The Comic Strip became one of the most popular comedy venues in London, and came to the attention of Jeremy Isaacs of Channel 4. Peter Richardson then negotiated a deal for six self - contained half - hour films, using the group as comedy actors rather than stand - up performers. In response, the BBC began negotiations with Edmondson, Mayall, Richardson, Planer and Sayle to star in a sitcom in a similar style. Paul Jackson was installed as a producer. Richardson 's project, The Comic Strip Presents..., aired on Channel 4 's opening night on 2 November 1982, with The Young Ones following a week later on BBC2.
The series was written by Mayall, his then - girlfriend Lise Mayer, and Ben Elton (who had attended the University of Manchester with Mayall and Edmondson). Richardson was originally set to play Mike, but clashed with Jackson. He was replaced by Christopher Ryan, the only member of the group who was not a stand - up comedian. The show was voted number 31 in the BBC 's Best Sitcom poll in 2004.
The main characters were four undergraduate students who were sharing a house: aggressive punk medical student, Vyvyan Basterd (Adrian Edmondson); conceited wannabe anarchist sociology student, Rick (Rik Mayall), oppressed paranoid hippie peace studies student, Neil Wheedon Watkins Pye (Nigel Planer); and the suave, charming would - be underground mob boss, Mike The - Cool - Person (Christopher Ryan). It also featured Alexei Sayle, who played various members of the Balowski family -- most often Jerzei Balowski, the quartet 's landlord -- and occasional independent characters, such as the train driver in "Bambi '' and the Mussolini - lookalike Police Chief in "Cash ''.
The show combined traditional sitcom style with violent slapstick, non-sequitur plot turns, and surrealism. These older styles were mixed with the working and lower - middle class attitudes of the growing 1980s alternative comedy boom, in which all the principal performers except Ryan had been involved. Every episode except one featured a live performance by a band, including Madness, Motörhead, and The Damned. This was a device used to qualify the series for a larger budget, as "variety '' shows attracted higher fees than "comedy ''.
Stories were set in a squalid house where the students lived during their time at the fictional Scumbag College. It can be classified as a comedy of manners.
When it was first broadcast, the show gained attention for its violent slapstick, for which Edmondson and Mayall had been using in 20th Century Coyote for some time. The show also featured surreal elements, such as puppets playing talking animals or objects. Confusion was added with lengthy cutaways with no relation to the main plot. Throughout the series, the fourth wall was frequently broken for comedic effect by all characters at various parts of the show. The wall was usually broken as either a punchline to a joke or to make a plot point more obvious. On several occasions, Alexei Sayle broke both the fourth wall and character to address the audience in his real - life Liverpudlian accent.
The series featured a wide variety of guest appearances by comedians, actors, and singers, including co-creator Ben Elton, Dawn French, Jennifer Saunders, Hale and Pace, Stephen Fry, Hugh Laurie, Mark Arden, Stephen Frost, Jools Holland, Mel Smith, Griff Rhys Jones, Terry Jones, Chris Barrie, Norman Lovett, Lenny Henry, David Rappaport, Robbie Coltrane, Tony Robinson, Andy De La Tour and Emma Thompson.
Episodes in the second series sometimes included "flash frames '' (three frames, equivalent to one eighth of a second), but these were edited out of some repeats. These were included as a mockery of the public 's fear of subliminal messages in television and music. Unlike original flash frames, which lasted only one frame, these were long enough to be noticeable without being identifiable. The images included the end caption of Carry On Cowboy, a rusty dripping tap, a leaping frog, a dove in flight, a skier, and a hand making pottery. The episodes lasted 35 minutes, and episodes were often edited to half - hour when repeated on the BBC or satellite channels.
In the United States, The Young Ones started airing on MTV on 5 June 1985. The show also ran on PBS, USA Network 's Night Flight, Comedy Central in 1994, and BBC America in the early 2000s.
In New Zealand, the show premièred late at night on 30 August 1985, after TVNZ purchased the broadcast rights.
In the Netherlands, the show was aired in 1985 by public broadcaster VPRO.
In Catalonia, public broadcaster TV3 began airing the show in February 1986 on a Sunday evening slot. The show became very popular and got several re-runs in successive years. In 2016, indeed, Nigel Planer appeared in a show involving foreign travelers visiting Catalonia. One of the characteristics of the Catalan dubbing is that Vyvyan speaks with a thick Catalan rural accent, totally opposed to his urban environment in the series.
The series ' theme song featured the cast singing Cliff Richard and The Shadows ' UK No. 1 song "The Young Ones '' (1961), the title song from the film of the same name. Throughout the series there are many references to Richard, as Mayall 's character is a fan.
The theme over the end credits was written by Peter Brewis, who also created the incidental music on many episodes.
In 1984, after the second series, Planer (in character as Neil) reached No. 2 in the UK charts with a version of Traffic 's "Hole in My Shoe ''. The accompanying Neil 's Heavy Concept Album, a loose collection of songs and spoken comedy, included appearances by The Young Ones alumni Dawn French and Stephen Fry.
In 1986, the cast sang "Living Doll '' with Cliff Richard and Hank Marvin for Comic Relief. The song, a reworking of his 1959 hit, reached the top of the UK, Australian, and New Zealand Charts.
Eleven of the twelve episodes had a musical guest performing in the house or street. By including the groups, the show qualified as variety rather than light entertainment by the BBC and was allocated a bigger budget than a sitcom. Groups that appeared included Dexys Midnight Runners, Motörhead, The Damned and Madness, who appeared in two episodes. The one episode that featured no musical act still fulfilled the variety criteria by including a lion tamer, whose presence also directly contributed to the plot.
Some of these performances were omitted from DVD release for copyright reasons. Some musical acts were also edited out for similar reasons on some satellite reruns.
Portrayed by Christopher Ryan
Mike is the assumed leader of the group (within which Vyvyan is his enforcer) who frequently makes puns, which are either deliberately cheap or humorous. These confusing, profound - sounding phrases baffle the others (for example, when asked by Rick if he stole his half an apple, Mike replies; "Well, if you 're gon na sin you might as well be original. '') Mike is supposedly the ' ladies ' man ' and often brags of his prowess with women, although he is shown to share his bed with an inflatable sex doll and practically admitted his virginity to the others in "Nasty ''. He makes every attempt at wooing the opposite sex, being both forward and unsuccessful. During "Boring '', however, he has an encounter with (and also instigated by) Vyvyan 's mother, where (until after a comment made by Rick), he makes progress, although her direct approach initially worries Mike.
Mike is a con artist: he always has some kind of plan to make quick money such as renting out Rick 's bedroom as a roller disco and taking bids for the unexploded atomic bomb that fell into the house. He also fancies himself to be a rising underground mob boss. Mike attends Scumbag College only nominally as he has blackmailed his tutor and the Dean of the school for grants and successful grades. This is shown in the title sequence of series 1 in which he is seen to pay a bribe in exchange for a qualification. In "Summer Holiday '' he muses, "I think I 'll ask for one of those PhDs next year. '' While it was n't mentioned what he was studying at the college, when it once came up, in "Sick '', by Mrs. Wheedon Watkins Pye when Neil was introducing him, he answers her, "I 'm in, what you 'd call, a school of life, Mrs. Pye '' (before groping her).
While Mike often does things at the expense of, or to the detriment of, his housemates, he rarely expresses the sort of open hostility that Rick and Vyvyan do, and seems to cause his housemates trouble only when it benefits him, rather than out of sadistic joy. While it is rare for him to be victim to violence, he has been on a few occasions; such as when he was flirting with a Christian, this resulted in her repeatedly kneeing Mike in the crotch. At the end of the "Living Doll '' song with Cliff Richard, Vyvyan hit Mike and everyone else over the head with a hammer, knocking them out. Also when Mike was trying to nail plates to the dining table, he managed to nail his own legs to the table in the process. On another occasion, Mike accidentally knocked Neil out during a game of cricket.
Mike has been shown to be helpful to the others on occasion; if any situation becomes problematic he does what he can to try and restore calm. He also tried to teach Vyvyan how to tell time in "Bambi '' and in the final episode "Summer Holiday '', he comforts Vyvyan when he bursts into tears after crashing his car and when SPG dies. He also appears to have more sense than the others, while he frequently says odd things and does little to stop his housemates causing chaos, he can be very rational if his own life is at risk or if he feels it 's gone to far. Examples of this include trying to stop Vyvyan detonating the bomb, being concerned that Neil might suffocate when sick, forcing Vyvyan to stop using the dangerously modified vacuum cleaner and being the only one to have a (not very good) plan thought out when they rob the bank. Perversely, when it is not of personal interest, he often pretends to misunderstand things that people say or make up nonsense for his own amusement or convenience.
Although generally aloof and laid back, Mike loses his cool when his authority is questioned, however small. For example, in "Summer Holiday '' when Vyvyan tells everyone to shut up he was very indignant that this included him. Mike is the shortest member of the four, and the best - dressed and groomed of all of them. In the final episode, Summer Holiday, Mike admits that he came from very poor beginnings out on the streets, and had sworn that he would never again go back to that life, thus his leap into a con artist 's life in the first place.
Mike 's surname is ambiguous, The Bachelor Boys book refers to him as "The Cool Person '' several times, but in different styles including quotes.
Portrayed by Rik Mayall
Rick is a self - proclaimed anarchist who is studying sociology and / or domestic sciences (depending on the episode). Rick writes bad poetry, and styles himself "The People 's Poet '', believing himself to be the "spokesperson for a generation ''. He is in fact a hypocritical, tantrum - throwing, attention - seeking Cliff Richard fan, or, as Vyvyan describes him, "The classic example of an only child! '' Rick tries to impress the others using wit and humour, despite not having any discernible talent. He insults Neil at every opportunity, using Neil as a target and an outlet, picks fights and bickers with Vyvyan and attempts to impress Mike. He is portrayed as being so self - absorbed that he believes he is the "most popular member of the flat '' despite being disliked by virtually everyone he knows; even though his housemates hate him, he says that they "really are terrific friends ''. This is further emphasised in the episode "Bambi '' when Neil reads graffiti aloud from Rick 's History ' O ' Level text book; "Prick is a wonker - signed, The Rest of the Class '' which Rick dismisses as banter until Neil further reads "I agree with the rest of the class -- signed, Teacher. ''
He ca n't say the "R '' sound correctly and instead enunciates a mixture of a "W '' and a "R '' sound. In the episode "Bomb '', he dictates his name to a woman who looks up in confusion and repeats it back as "Wick? ''. Vyvyan, for his own amusement, describes Rick 's name as being spelled "with a silent P '', as he wrote it on Rick 's name card during the University Challenge against Footlights College in the episode "Bambi ''.
Rick 's political beliefs vary, depending on how they benefit his particular situation, but can usually be categorised as radical. While Rick sees himself as both a revolutionary and follower of Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky, in reality he has little understanding of the political ideals he purports to follow, and aspirations that far exceeds his reach. During "Cash '' he is shown with a copy of Marx 's Das Kapital, seemingly having fallen asleep while trying to read it.
He greatly dislikes Margaret Thatcher, as is noted by his threatening to blow up England with an atomic bomb in the episode "Bomb '' if she "does n't do something to help the kids, by this afternoon '', and from negative references to Thatcher and the Conservative Party mentioned in The Young Ones book Bachelor Boys. However, Rick sometimes displays a markedly conservative mindset, contrary to the image he has adopted, as again in "Bomb '' while talking to an old man at the DHSS office (which he has mistaken for a post office), and in Summer Holiday comments "That 's one thing I 'll say for Thatcher, she definitely has put this country back on its feet ''.
Rick is vegetarian, agnostic, and wishes all men to love each other like brothers, except for Neil, whom he hates. This hatred is ironic as technically he and Neil in theory share many values such as a longing for a peaceful world and a hatred for meat and alcohol. However unlike Neil Rick has been known to both drink (see time sbd interesting) and is occasionally physically violent therefore his hatred of Neil merely shows his hypocrisy. Despite this he claims to care for the people but nearly everything he does is hypocritical and self - serving.
Rick exaggerates or lies about his political activism and class background, which is exposed in the final episode, "Summer Holiday '', when it is suggested he comes from a well off family with Conservative beliefs. He is a closet - transvestite, as during "Nasty '' Neil finds a dress in Rick 's wardrobe with his name stitched in it. In the episode "Cash '', Rick admits to Mike that he is unable to tell the time, a trait that he shares with Vyvyan.
In an interview for the BBC series Comedy Connections, Ben Elton described Rick 's character as the "try - hard wan na - be Leftie '' typically found on university campuses.
Portrayed by Adrian Edmondson
Vyvyan, often referred to as "Vyv '', is a psychopathic punk medical student. He has spiked red hair and four metal stars seemingly embedded into his forehead. He wears a denim waistcoat over a black T - shirt, a black studded belt across his denim jeans and bovver boots. In the episode "Interesting '', he drinks a pint of blue liquid which makes his hair fall out and the number 666 is visible on the side of his head. He is extremely violent and regularly attacks Neil and Rick with pieces of wood, cricket bats, other large objects or simply his fists. For some reason he looks up to Mike, whom he never attacks and often addresses as "Michael ''. He despises Rick more than he does Neil; for example when Rick, Mike and Neil meet his mother at a bar in the episode "Boring '', he calls both Neil and Mike his friends, but refers to Rick as "a complete bastard. '' Ironically, this antagonistic relationship between Rick and Vyvyan makes them virtually inseparable, as the two spend by far more time together than with the other housemates, albeit this time is spent fighting.
Vyvyan owns a talking Glaswegian hamster named Special Patrol Group ("SPG '' for short) of whom he is very fond, although SPG is also frequently subjected to Vyvyan 's extreme violence. This is usually provoked, such as when SPG bit Vyvyan and made him destroy his cardboard submarine in "Flood '' or plugging in the TV after Vyvyan swallowed it in "Bomb ''. Vyvyan 's mother is a barmaid and former shoplifter, who before "Boring '' had not seen Vyvyan in ten years and has no idea who his father is. Neil revealed that Vyvyan has more friends than the other housemates but "... apparently he does n't like any of them. ''
Vyvyan occasionally displays feats of superhuman strength and resilience, such as surviving a pickaxe through his head, moving entire walls with his bare hands, lifting Neil above his head in a fight with Rick, biting through a brick (making the comment that some of the house 's bricks explode) and even being decapitated and re-attaching his own head. He eats just about anything from televisions and dead rats to caviar and cornflakes with ketchup.
Regardless of his violent and mostly simple - minded nature, Vyvyan seems to be the smartest of the group and he has on a couple of occasions demonstrated his talent as a medical student. In the episode "Flood '', he develops a potion to transform a person into an "axe - wielding homicidal maniac '', claiming that "it 's basically a cure... for not being an axe - wielding homicidal maniac... the potential market 's enormous! ''. He also managed to create a bomb using only his pyjama sleeve and a bottle of vodka. On occasion, he has made several eloquent statements regarding subjects ranging from Rick 's manifest personality problems to the inherent dullness of "The Good Life '', and the end of "Oil '' implies he manipulated the rest of the household, possibly for amusement. Vyvyan also appears to have good knowledge of electrics and technology; on one occasion he wired the doorbell to a bomb "to pep it up a bit '' so the housemates would be able to hear it, and he also added a small car engine to the vacuum cleaner as previously it "looked a bit on the tentative side '' which then proceeds to suck up the carpet, the floorboards and a friend of Neil 's. The vacuum also prompted one of the few clashes between Vyvyan and Mike; when Mike admonished Vyvyan and told him not to use it any more, Vyvyan replied by calling him a "poof ''. In the episode "Nasty '', the boys trap a vampire in their bathroom, and when he denies being a vampire, Vyvyan successfully tricks him into admitting that he is. In "Bambi '' Vyvyan displays impressive mathematical talent as he worked out instantly that he has worn his three pairs of knickers 269 times each since their last wash. However, like Rick, he can not tell the time from a watch.
Although Vyvyan is constantly unruly, he does possess a compassionate side; primarily in the episode "Cash '', when he thought he was pregnant he was considering names to call his baby and he also patted his "bump '' saying "that 's my boy! '' when it hit Rick in the face and knocked him into the fireplace. Also when Vyvyan began having "contractions '' he appealed to the other housemates for help, this led to Neil getting a job in the police force (it was later revealed that he just had a really bad case of built - up gas). On another occasion, in the last episode "Summer Holiday '' Vyvyan dissolved into tears because he crashed his car and also because it caused SPG 's death while he was asleep on the car 's radiator.
Vyvyan is the only member of the group who owns a car, a yellow Ford Anglia with red flames painted along the sides and has "Vyv '' written across the back window. He also appears to have exceptional knowledge of driving and road awareness. This was in fact how he managed to trick the vampire in "Nasty '' to admitting he was really a vampire rather than a driving instructor as he had initially said. Vyvyan is not the only house member who can drive, however, during the last episode Rick is briefly seen driving the stolen AEC Routemaster double - decker bus.
Portrayed by Nigel Planer, Neil Pye, the hippie
A morose, pacifist, vegetarian environmentalist working toward a Peace Studies degree. He is frequently victimised by the other housemates and forced to do the housework, shopping, cleaning and cooking. He is never acknowledged for it unless it goes wrong. He normally provides tea to drink and cornflakes or lentils for his housemates to eat.
Neil is a pessimist and believes everyone and everything hates him, although he does have three hippie friends; one also named Neil, one named Warlock and a female hippie named Stonehenge. This makes him the second most sociable character behind Vyvyan and also the only character to have a female friend. He dislikes most forms of technology except for televisions and video recorders. He is also an insomniac, believing that sleep causes cancer. He shown in the episode "Boring '' to merely be standing at his window waiting for dawn. Neil frequently demonstrates a very literal interpretation of terms and phrases. For example, when Vyvyan says that his mother used to be a shoplifter, Neil responds "She does n't look strong enough... to lift shops ''.
Neil wants the others to feel sorry for him, or just acknowledge his presence. He claims "the most interesting thing that ever happens to me is sneezing '', the force of which is sufficient to blow a door off its hinges.
In the pilot episode "Demolition '', Neil is shown to have suicidal tendencies, attempting to kill himself at least three times. However, this was not carried through for the rest of the series, with the exception of the episode "Boring '', in which he attempts to kill himself in a desperate attempt at relieving boredom. On only two occasions has Neil shown any form of aggression; this was when Rick insulted Neil 's flares in the episode ' Nasty '. He also seemed to enjoy hitting people with his truncheon when he became a police officer in "Cash '' and did the same to his housemates when he thought they had committed a robbery.
In the episode "Sick '' in the second series, Neil 's parents are introduced as upper middle class Tories who look down on Neil for starring in such a disreputable comedy series. His father wonders why his son can not be in a nice comedy, such as the ones Neil 's mother likes e.g. The Good Life. This provokes an angry tirade from Vyvyan, on his hatred of that show, followed by a parody episode of The Good Life where Neil is killed by Rick and covered with garden fertiliser only for several of him to emerge from the ground later on.
As established in Neil 's Heavy Concept Album, Neil comes from Twickenham (his name punning on Eel Pie Island). His middle names are revealed in Neil 's Book of the Dead.
He is a fan of Hawkwind, Marillion and Steve Hillage. More information about his musical tastes was revealed when the character ' guest v - jayed ' on the still young MTV network in ca. 1985, playing several videos (e.g. T. Rex, "Get It On ''), including his own hit "Hole in My Shoe '', a cover version of the Traffic song which Nigel Planer, as his character "neil '' (with a small ' n '), took to number 2 in the UK singles chart in July 1984.
Throughout the two series, Alexei Sayle routinely appeared as many different characters, interjecting his own material into the programme in ways that emulated his comedy routines. His main role was that of the flat 's landlord Jerzei (Jeremy) Balowski, which was the only character he reprised, appearing in "Demolition '', "Flood '' and "Summer Holiday ''. The rest of the time, he was billed as playing various male members of "The Balowski Family '', including nephew "Alexei Yuri Gagarin Siege of Stalingrad Glorious Five Year Plan Sputnik Tractor Moscow Dynamo Back Four Balowski '' (a protest singer), son Reggie Balowski (an international arms dealer), brother Billy Balowski (a lunatic who believed he was a taxi driver), cousin Tommy Balowski (a drunk), escaped convict Brian Damage Balowski, and a medieval jester "Jester Balowski '' (with Helen Lederer as his sidekick).
Jerzei was apparently Russian; however, several times during the series he would break character, or in one case the fourth wall and declare directly to the camera "I 'm not really foreign, you know -- I just do it to appear more sophisticated! '' Also during a discussion between the guys about his nationality Vyv comments "He certainly knows a lot about the Mersey Sound. '' -- implying he is in fact from Liverpool, although he is so worried when Mike lies about a visit from Moscow Dynamo ice hockey squad that he allows the gang to renege on their monthly rent.
In the second series, Sayle 's characters also included a train driver, a Benito Mussolini look - alike (by day the head of the local police force, by night an entrant in the Eurovision Song Contest), "Harry the Bastard '' (manager of the local Rumbelows electrical goods store, disguised as a South African vampire) and, very briefly in an aside sketch that deliberately bore no relevance to the plot, a man in a bowler hat asking if he was in a cheese shop (a reference to the Monty Python Cheese Shop sketch).
Mike is the natural "leader '' of the house. Always trying to make himself appear more important and exciting than he really is, he does appear to have done some of the things he claims to have done (such as getting Bambi the "Babycham '' Advert in "Bambi ''). He experiences little hostility from the other members of the house. If there is any "fruitful '' or amicable relationship in the house it is between Mike and Vyvyan. Vyvyan accepts Mike 's role as the house leader whereas Mike needs Vyvyan 's physique and willingness to act forcibly to enforce his own authority (as was literally shown in "Oil '' when Vyvyan became ' Col. Vyvyan ', the right - hand - man to Mike 's ' El Presidente ').
Neil is unpopular, although he is the only one who performs any kind of household chores and is therefore needed by the other three.
Rick is the most disliked although he thinks very highly of himself. He tells poor jokes and stories (but finds them hilarious himself), is a would - be anarchist (although deep - down he is quite conservative), and frequently acts like a child when he does not get his way. He generally vents his frustration (when trying to impress the others) on Neil, since Neil never sticks up for himself and is ignored by the others. The majority of his anger is generated in endless battles with Vyvyan, which he invariably loses.
Rik Mayall once opined that the characters in The Young Ones form the basis of a classic nuclear family, comprising Neil as the mother figure, Mike as the father figure and Vyvyan and Rick as the children, Vyvyan the boy and Rick the girl.
In the first six episodes of the series, a person whose hair covers their face appears in the background of some scenes, such as to the left when Neil gets hit by Vyvyan with a kettle in "Bomb ''. In the episode Demolition he appears slumped against the back wall when Rick is watching TV. These rumours of a mysterious fifth housemate have been the subject of fan speculation on the internet. In 2016 journalist Peter Farquhar sent members of the cast and crew email enquiries about this unnamed character. Writer Ben Elton replied saying "I have no idea what you are talking about I 'm afraid... '' but Geoff Posner, one of the directors of the series replied saying that he and Paul Jackson "thought it would be fun to have some ghostly figure in the background of some scenes that was never explained or talked about... ''
During an event at the Bristol Slapstick Festival 2018, Ade Edmondson was asked about the fifth housemate during an audience question session and named the person playing the ' fifth housemate ' as his university friend Mark Dewison. Mark also played a speaking role as Neil 's friend (also called ' Neil ') during series one episode "Interesting ''. He emerges out of Vivian 's full vacuum cleaner bag and ends up being shoved into the fridge by Rick.
In the final episode, the four students steal a red AEC Routemaster after robbing a bank (Special Patrol Group dies during their escape), only to drive it through a billboard with a picture of Cliff Richard on it and then over a cliff, which the bus tumbles down until it comes to rest at the bottom, at which point they proclaim -- in unison -- "Phew! That was close! '', after which the bus explodes. Although Vyvyan and some of the others have had (what should have been) fatal accidents before without suffering any real effects, this time it really signified the end of the series. Even so, it did not stop The Young Ones from occasionally appearing on TV afterwards for charity, such as in Comic Relief in 1986 with a video clip and live performance of Living Doll.
Although the series was set in north London, many external scenes were filmed in Bristol, namely the suburb of Bishopston, where the student house is situated at the top of Codrington Road. Other locations include the Fascist Pig Bank, the Launderette and the Army Careers Office, all around the corner on Gloucester Road. The pub in which Vyvyan 's mum works, the Kebab and Calculator in the series, was the Cock of the North (since renamed the Westbury Park Tavern) in Northumbria Drive, Bristol. A brief scene in a pharmacy was filmed outside GK Chemists, now taken over by Lloyds Pharmacy, in St Johns Lane, Bedminster. The shop was renamed "OK Chemists '' for the scene, in which Mike goes to buy cough medicine, but orders £ 180 worth of Durex condoms instead - "Force of habit ''.
All four characters attended the fictional Scumbag College. As Neil sometimes wore a University of London T - shirt, it seems likely that Scumbag is one of the University of London 's constituent colleges, although they were never seen attending the institution and were rarely seen studying.
The end of the series was not the last appearance of The Young Ones. For the British charity television appeal Comic Relief, the four recorded a song and video for Cliff Richard 's "Living Doll '', accompanied by Richard and Shadows guitarist Hank B. Marvin. Alexei Sayle was not involved, as he felt collaborating with Richard was against the alternative ethos of the show, but had already achieved chart success in 1984 with "' Ullo John! Gotta New Motor? ''.
In 1984, Planer released an album of music and skits in character as Neil, entitled Neil 's Heavy Concept Album. Musical direction was by Canterbury scene keyboardist Dave Stewart. It featured Stewart 's alums Barbara Gaskin, Jakko Jakszyk, Pip Pyle, Gavin Harrison, Jimmy Hastings and Rick Biddulph. "Hole in My Shoe '', a single taken from the LP, reached number 2. Soulwax used "Hello Vegetables '' to kick off their Radio Soulwax mix "Introversy. ''
In 1985, MTV aired edited versions of the episodes.
At the 1986 Comic Relief stage shows, The Young Ones performed "Living Doll '' live (following a short skit which involved Rick doing a comic song about showing his underwear and bodily parts, before being ejected from the group by Mike, and Vyvyan supposedly having backstage sex with Kate Bush with Neil as his contraceptive). The skit climaxed with Neil claiming Cliff Richard could not perform with them as he was "doing time '' (the musical Time was premiering the following week) and John Craven had been booked as a replacement, only for Cliff to then appear. However he was only available to appear on the second night of the run, with Bob Geldof replacing him on the other two nights.
On one occasion, Edmondson, Mayall and Planer as their "Young Ones '' characters did a parody of the song "My Generation '' by The Who.
Mayall, Planer, and Edmondson reunited in 1986 for the Elton - written Filthy Rich & Catflap. The series had many of the same characteristics as The Young Ones as did Mayall and Edmondson 's next sitcom Bottom. Ryan, for his part, was regularly recruited to play roles on associated series (such as Happy Families, Bottom and Absolutely Fabulous). Mayall, Edmondson and Planer have also appeared in episodes of Blackadder.
Both series were repeated consecutively over twelve weeks in early 1985, but went unrepeated for four years, when the second series was shown on BBC2. In the mid-1990s all twelve episodes of The Young Ones were shown on BBC2 in a 30 - minute revised format, missing scenes and dialogue. The series was also shown on digital channel UK Gold throughout the 1990s. A mix of both the edited and unedited versions was shown in the 2000s (decade) on UKTV G2.
DVD releases were initially very basic: Only the US "Every Stoopid Episode '' edition featured excerpts from existing documentaries, and no extra footage was included. Musical references proved difficult to clear so "The Sounds of Silence '' (one line) and "Subterranean Homesick Blues '' were excised from the US editions. A new DVD release of all episodes ("Extra Stoopid Edition '') was launched in November 2007, containing new documentaries and two commentary tracks. This edition restores the line from "The Sounds of Silence '' and "Subterranean Homesick Blues ''. The music video "Living Doll '' featuring Cliff Richard has not been included on any edition, and neither is the live performance done for comic relief in 1986.
A pilot episode was filmed of an American version of The Young Ones, titled Oh, No! Not THEM!. It featured Planer as Neil and Jackie Earle Haley, and had a claymation opening credit sequence. The Fox network did not pick up the series. It was produced by David Mirkin.
Robert Llewellyn wrote in his book The Man in the Rubber Mask (1994):
The Young Ones was taken over the Atlantic in the mid eighties, and Nigel (Planer) was the only member of the British cast to go. He had experienced a fairly hideous time, worried sick that he was going to have to stay there for six years with a group of people he hated who managed to make The Young Ones into a sort of grubby Benny Hill Show. He was hugely relieved when the pilot was a flop and he was released from his contract.
In the episode "Bambi '', the housemates appeared on University Challenge, where they played against Footlights College, Oxbridge, a reference to the Footlights drama club at Cambridge University. The Footlights College team was played by show writer Ben Elton and three actors who were once members of the real Cambridge Footlights: Emma Thompson, Hugh Laurie and Stephen Fry, the last of whom had actually appeared on the quiz show while at Cambridge. The episode title is a reference to the show 's presenter, Bamber Gascoigne, impersonated by Griff Rhys Jones.
In the episode "Sick '', the quartet enter a scenario parodying The Good Life, after Neil 's mother says the sitcom should be more like The Good Life and Vyvyan has an outburst against it.
Mayall and Edmondson elaborated on some of the series ' concepts later in their sitcoms Filthy Rich & Catflap (written by Elton, with additional material by Mayall) and Bottom (written by Mayall and Edmondson. Christopher Ryan also made appearances as the character "Dave Hedgehog '').
Most of the regular cast (and several of the guests) also appeared in Channel 4 and BBC2 's The Comic Strip Presents comedy shows. All four main actors went on to gain reputations as both dramatic and comic actors.
In 1990, ITV puppet series Spitting Image made reference to The Young Ones when four members of the Margaret Thatcher cabinet reminisced about their younger days, with all four playing one Young Ones character each -- Cecil Parkinson as Mike, Douglas Hurd as Vyvyan, Michael Heseltine as Rick and Geoffrey Howe as Neil.
When originally broadcast, episodes were shown on BBC2 Tuesdays at 9 pm.
Both series of The Young Ones have both been released on DVD individually and in a special edition boxset in both regions 2 and 4. Region 1 has two boxsets, one being just series 1 & 2, the other being series 1 & 2 special edition. The entire series is also available for download on iTunes,
The original VHS releases were in a set of 4, each tape containing 3 episodes. Though the Series 1 and 2 DVDs are rated 15 and three of the VHS releases were rated PG. There was also complete series 1 and complete series 2 VHS releases.
The Young Ones is a video game based on the British comedy television series of the same name.
The game takes place in the students ' home. The player can choose to play as either Mike, Neil, Vyvyan or Rick to explore the house and enter different rooms. The other characters become computer - controlled players. All characters can move around the house, pick up and drop objects, as well as break and fix things. The characters often talk, giving the player clues as to what the character is intended to do. The aim of the game is to try and move out of the house with all the character 's belongings in the shortest time possible. This is not so easy, because these possessions are typically not in their preferred condition, or are hidden around the house, and players need various tools to get to them. The other characters will move around the house, behaving in - character, occasionally moving around or further damaging the possessions - making the task harder.
The game was published by Orpheus Software, based in Hatley St George in Bedfordshire. The Young Ones characters were licensed from the owners of the BBC TV series, Rik Mayall, Ben Elton and Lise Mayer.
Due to difficulty in licensing the original series music from the BBC, an alternative music sound track was commissioned to sound similar to the original theme. Over 10,000 copies of the game were sold, mainly through Boots stores, Woolworths, and independent computer stores. Due to obscure bugs in the software, it was impossible to solve the game, although few users realised this at the time. Orpheus ceased trading before the problems could be remedied.
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what's wrong with elise in mr nobody | Mr. Nobody (film) - wikipedia
Mr. Nobody is a 2009 science fiction drama film written and directed by Jaco Van Dormael and starring Jared Leto, Sarah Polley, Diane Kruger, Linh Dan Pham, Rhys Ifans, Natasha Little, Toby Regbo and Juno Temple. The film tells the life story of Nemo Nobody, a 118 - year - old man who is the last mortal on Earth after the human race has achieved quasi-immortality. Nemo, memory fading, refers to his three main loves and to his parents ' divorce and subsequent hardships endured at three critical junctions in his life: at age nine, fifteen, and thirty - four. Alternate life paths branching out from each of those critical junctions are examined. The speculative narrative often changes course with the flick of a different possible decision at each of those ages. The film uses nonlinear narrative and the multiverse hypothesis style.
Mr. Nobody had its world premiere at the 66th Venice International Film Festival where it received the Golden Osella and the Biografilm Lancia Award. Critical response was generally strong and the film was nominated for seven Magritte Awards, winning six, including Best Film and Best Director for Van Dormael. The film was mostly funded through European financiers and was released in Belgium on 13 January 2010. Since its original release, Mr. Nobody has become a cult film, noted for its philosophy and cinematography, personal characters and Pierre Van Dormael 's soundtrack.
In 2092, humanity has conquered mortality through the endless renewal of cells. The world watches in fascination as the 118 - year - old Nemo Nobody, the last mortal on Earth, edges towards death. Curious to know of life before quasi-immortality, they interview Nemo. Dr. Feldheim, a psychiatrist, uses hypnosis to help Nemo recall some of his memories, while Nemo relates other memories to a journalist. As he is prodded, Nemo makes contradictory statements. He recounts his life at three primary points: at age 9, when his parents divorced, at age 15 when he fell in love, and at age 34 as an adult. All three unfold into their many possible outcomes.
Nemo explains that before birth, children remember everything that will happen in their lives. At the moment of conception, the Angels of Oblivion erase their memory. The Angels, however, forget about Nemo, allowing him to "remember '' different possible futures for himself. At age 9, at a railway station, he is forced to choose as his mother leaves on a train while his father stays on the platform. In one case, he manages to board the train while in another he stays with his father.
A rebellious Nemo lives with his mother and her new partner, Harry, in Montreal. He sees a new girl, Anna, in his school and is immediately smitten. One day on the beach, Anna asks if he would like to swim with her and her friends. Nemo insults her friends and they barely see each other again.
In an alternate story line, Nemo admits to Anna he can not swim; the two spend time together and fall in love. Anna turns out to be Harry 's daughter and the two step siblings begin an affair. They pledge their lives to one another. When Harry and Nemo 's mother break up, Anna goes to New York with her father, and they lose touch. Years later, Nemo works as a pool cleaner, hoping to run into Anna by chance. They finally see one another at the train station and immediately recognize each other in a crowd of passers - by. After a passionate reunion, Anna announces she is not ready to immediately resume the relationship. She gives him her number, asks him to call her in two days and meet at the lighthouse. However, he loses her number when a sudden downpour makes her note illegible. Nemo waits at the lighthouse every day, but Anna does not come.
In a different storyline, Anna and Nemo are married with children. Nemo works at a television studio narrating educational videos. One evening, while returning home, he hits a bird, loses control of his car, plummets into a lake and drowns.
Nemo stays with his father, who later becomes disabled. He works in a shop and spends his free time at home at the typewriter, writing a science fiction story about a journey to Mars. At a school dance, he meets Elise and falls in love. A few days later, Nemo goes to Elise 's house but sees her with her 22 - year - old boyfriend. Frustrated, he speeds away on his motorcycle, has an accident and is hospitalized in a vegetative state. Though he can perceive the world through his senses, Nemo can not move or speak. He detects his parents ' reunion at his bedside. Nemo tries to remember the movement of his fingers on the typewriter keyboard and eventually manages to lift a finger as this story line comes to a close.
In yet another alternate timeline, Nemo speaks with Elise at her house, and learns that she is still in love with her boyfriend, Stefano. Nemo does not back down and keeps assuring her of his feelings. Finally, Elise gives in and a few years later, they get married. In one version of the story line, Elise dies in an accident on the return from the wedding. Nemo keeps her ashes, having promised her to spread them on Mars. In a far future, Nemo carries Elise 's ash to Mars and spreads them on the planet 's surface. Aboard the spacecraft traveling back to Earth, he meets Anna. Before they can say much to each other, the ship is destroyed by meteoroids. In an alternate version of events, he works at the same television studio but his assistant drowns instead. The assistant 's widow is Anna, whom he recognizes. Another storyline has Nemo and Elise married with three children. However, their marriage is unhappy as Elise suffers from borderline personality disorder and chronic depression. She has attacks of hysteria and, despite Nemo 's attempts to save their marriage, ultimately leaves him to pursue Stefano.
Alternatively, after being rejected by Elise, Nemo resolves to marry the first girl who will dance with him at the school prom. That night, he dances with Jeanne. While taking her home, Nemo pledges to marry her and be successful. Despite being successful and having two children, Nemo is unhappy and bored with his life. Nemo writes over all his possessions to Jeanne and leaves his family. Now making all of his decisions randomly via coin toss, he goes to the airport, and pretends to be a passenger named Daniel Jones and is taken to a hotel by a waiting chauffeur. At Jones ' hotel room, Nemo is murdered while taking a bath, and his body is dumped in the woods.
Running throughout all the many paths his life could take or has taken, the adult Nemo recurringly awakens in a surrealistic world dominated by argyle patterns. This setting seems artificial, like a movie set, and often appears to bleed over into his other lives. Following clues that he finds scattered throughout this city, he ultimately arrives at a crumbling, abandoned wooden - framed house. He stumbles upon a DVD player hooked up to a television screen. In the strangely interactive video, the 118 - year - old Nemo converses with the 34 - year - old one. He explains that the younger man does not exist. This is a universe where Nemo Nobody was never born, and his consciousness is stuck in some sort of limbo. He states that he is experiencing the story from the end and that he must stay alive until 5: 50 AM on 12 February 2092.
Before his death, Mr. Nobody tells the journalist that neither of them exist. They are figments in the mind of the 9 - year - old Nemo at the train station, as he was forced to make an impossible choice. The young boy tries to find the correct decision, following each choice to its conclusion. Eventually, the boy takes a third option: to not make the choice at all. He leaves both parents and runs away towards an unknown future. This ambiguous choice somehow leads to him and Anna reuniting happily. The film returns to old Nemo on his death bed. The calculated time arrives and Mr. Nobody 's last words are watched by the world. The expansion of the universe comes to a halt and time appears to reverse. The universe ceases to dissipate, and finally begins contracting. Consequently, Nemo 's life simplifies itself. He is able to return to his childhood, watch his parents get back together and be with Anna. The 118 - year - old man cackles triumphantly as he springs back into awareness with the realization that his younger self has finally found his one true love and life.
Director Jaco Van Dormael makes a cameo appearance as the Brazilian man.
Belgian director Jaco Van Dormael began seeking to film Mr. Nobody in 2001, an attempt that lasted six years before the director was able to make his English - language feature debut in 2007. Van Dormael 's project differed from other Belgian productions in being filmed in English instead of in one of Belgium 's main languages. The director explained, "The story came to me in English. It 's a story set over very long distances and time frames. One of the strands of the plot is about a kid who must choose between living with his mother in Canada or his father in England. There are also some incredible English - speaking actors I wanted to work with. '' Mr. Nobody is Van Dormael 's first feature film since the Belgian film Le huitième jour (The Eighth Day) in 1996. Van Dormael began preparing production of Mr. Nobody in February 2007 with actress Sarah Polley the first to be cast in the film. Actor Jared Leto was later cast into the primary role of Nemo Nobody.
The production budget for Mr. Nobody was € 33 million (US $47 million), ranking it the most expensive Belgian film to date. The budget was approved before casting was done, based on the prominence of the director 's name and the strength of his script. Half of the budget was provided by the film 's French producer Philippe Godeau through his production company Pan-Européenne, and the other half was financed by distributors Wild Bunch and Pathé. Production took place throughout 2007, lasting 120 days and filming in Belgium, Germany, and Canada. Scenes were filmed on location in Montreal, Canada and at Babelsberg Studios in Berlin, Germany. Van Dormael said, "I think the film needed that for these multiple lives. Each time a new style of setting is required. And each life is filmed in a different style, with a different grammar for the camera, the colours, the decor. At the same time, if all the styles have to be very contrasted, they knock together by fusing. '' The three lives that Nemo Nobody experiences were separated by color - coding and musical cues. Each life 's design was also based on the work of British photographer Martin Parr.
The idea of parallel lives has been explored before in films such as Run Lola Run (1998) and Sliding Doors (1998) which influenced Van Dormael 's writing. Unlike any of those, Mr. Nobody has philosophical underpinning inspired by scientific tomes on chaos theory and the butterfly effect, pigeon superstition, and the space - time continuum. Van Dormael stated, "My starting point was a 12 - minute short I made in 1982 called È pericoloso sporgersi. A kid runs behind a train with two possible choices: to go with his mother or with his father. From there we follow two possible futures. I started one version based on the fact that a woman jumps or does n't jump on a train. Then Sliding Doors by Peter Howitt came out, followed by Run Lola Run by Tom Tykwer. I had to find something else. And that 's when I realised that the story I was trying to tell was not binary, that I was above all interested by the multiplicity and complexity of choices. With this screenplay I wanted to make the viewer feel the abyss that is the infinity of possibilities. Beyond this, I wanted to find a different way of telling a story. I wanted the gaze of the child on his future to meet the gaze of the old man he has become on his past. I wanted to talk about complexity through cinema, which is a simplifying medium. While reality around us is more and more complex, the information is more and more succinct, political speeches are more and more simplistic. What interests me is complexity. Not the simple answers, which are reassuring but bound to be false. ''
While producing the film, Van Dormael took the unique step of publishing his screenplay. The director described the scale of the film, "My producers do n't like me saying it, but it 's really a big - budget experimental film about the many different lives one person can live, depending on the choices he makes. It 's about the infinite possibilities facing any person. There are no good or bad choices in life. It 's simply that each choice will create another life for you. What 's interesting is to be alive. ''
Jaco Van Dormael hired visual effects supervisor Louis Morin, known for his work in Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004), to create visual effects for Mr. Nobody. All five hundred visual effects shots were produced in Quebec by Quebec companies. Modus FX announced having delivered 121 digital visual effects shots for the film. The company was entrusted with complex sequences which could not be captured on film, involving the digital reproduction of entire cities, villages and other - worldly settings. Modus FX also worked on several complex transitions between the different worlds and multiple lives of Nemo Nobody. Modus FX 's post-production contributions involved 37 digital artists and technicians across a six - month period. A long list of software, including Autodesk 's Softimage and Maya, Side Effects ' Houdini and The Foundry 's Nuke, and the creation of a multitude of in - house tools, programs and techniques was required for the shots delivered.
Like Jaco Van Dormael 's previous films, the score for Mr. Nobody was written by Pierre Van Dormael. He worked on simple themes and out of synch loops, "a mixture of superficial simplicity and underlying complexity. '' He wrote themes that overlapped to form new ones, each theme continuing to exist while being mixed with the others. The director did not want the music to be overtly emotional, so he and Pierre chose a minimalist orchestration, more often than not just a single guitar. Jaco said, "We wanted the instrument and the player to be felt. This stance actually sums up the whole adventure: a maximalist project with a minimalist approach. '' Mr. Nobody is the last film of composer Pierre Van Dormael before his death in 2008. His music won the Magritte Award for Best Original Score in 2012.
The soundtrack features songs by Pierre Van Dormael, Buddy Holly, Hans Zimmer, Otis Redding, Eurythmics, Pixies, Wallace Collection, Nena, Ella Fitzgerald, and The Andrew Sisters, as well as versions of "Mr. Sandman '' performed by The Chordettes, The King Brothers, Emmylou Harris, and Gob, and recordings of compositions by Erik Satie and Benjamin Britten, among others.
Mr. Nobody is a tale about choice. Nemo, a nine - year - old boy, has been thrust into a position where he must make an impossible decision -- to choose between his mother and father. In the seconds preceding the rest of his life, he wonders where each choice will take him. The forces of the universe working to bring about total chaos are counteracted by this boy 's overactive imagination. The dilemma that causes the film 's main problem (not knowing the future) once solved makes it all the more difficult -- "I do n't know the future, therefore I can not make a decision. Now that I know the future I still can not make one. '' The eloquent interplay between philosophical lifestyle and what forges reality, is epitomized by the constant change in storyline, between young boy, adolescent, and mature man. The film takes a four - dimensionalists view of the nature and existence of life in the universe. Each decision thus branching off creating an entirely separate alternative universe. Mr. Nobody raises many ontological arguments about the subjective nature of time. How actions have universal consequences, how the past inevitably shapes the future in a very impacting way -- every single choice, irrespective of its simplicity or complexity can make, alter or change a lifetime.
The film also makes substantial use of chaos theory, string theory, and the butterfly effect to accentuate the lack of control that humanity as individuals possesses. Often at each stage of his life there is a scene where Nemo is subject to the whims of chance, often plunging into water, a place where humans lack all control. This is a visual symbol of the powerlessness attributed to the human condition. The theories are used to compound reality in the film, it is why the smoke never goes back into the cigarette, time is always moving in one direction. At the end when it assumes that the universe is on the precipice of ultimate chaos, making use of the Big Crunch theory, time halts, and it begins to reverse. Thus signalling the absolute freedom Nemo had been seeking -- being able to live a life without choice, for while you never choose all things remain possible. The tale of Nemo Nobody reflects a life of choices, whether or not we made the correct choice and what would happen if we could go back and change them. In the reveal Mr. Nobody age 118 states that it does n't matter what we choose, because each choice, once made has just as much significance as any alternate choice. The film portrays a life where we are all subject to chance, to the dimensions by which we construct our reality (height, length, width and time), and to the imagination of our former selves. And once the boy Nemo knows the outcomes of either choice, he instinctively opts for another.
The different colors used in the film have symbolic meanings. Each of the three main storylines has its own unique hue that highlights their originality and unlikeness to each other. Color differentiation can be traced as far back as Nemo 's childhood, where three girls sit on a bench. They are his possible future wives: Jeanne, Elise, and Anna; one in yellow, the other in blue, and the third in a red dress. In his life with Elise, Nemo experiences the consequences of depression and despair, themes associated with the color blue. Choosing Jeanne, Nemo seeks material well - being and independence: yellow -- the color of life and wealth -- emphasizes this. The true love and passionate relationship between Nemo and Anna is symbolized by the red color of Anna 's dress. It is noteworthy that the unborn Nemo is shown living in a white world. White contains all colors of the visible spectrum; this supports the allegorical message of the film that all things are possible until a choice is made. By the end of his life, Nemo is a decrepit old man and lives in a white surrounding (room, clothes, doctor). This way we can see that the fate of the protagonist leads him back to the origins from where he started, the point at which everything is possible.
An earlier, longer, work - in - progress version of the film was rejected for competition by the Cannes Film Festival, which offered that cut of Mr. Nobody an out - of - competition berth. Producer Philippe Godeau turned that down. The decision by the Cannes Film Festival not to exhibit the film created a national controversy. Eventually, the studio held the film 's world premiere at the 66th Venice International Film Festival on 12 September 2009. Six days later, Mr. Nobody screened as a special presentation during the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival. Additionally, the film was screened at the Sitges Film Festival and the Stockholm International Film Festival before its theatrical release. Mr. Nobody had its American premiere on 25 June 2011, at the Los Angeles Film Festival, nearly two years since its original debut. It was among more than 200 feature films, short projects, and music videos, from more than 30 countries, to be shown at the festival. The Consul General of Belgium, Geert Criel, held a second United States screening of Mr. Nobody on 21 December 2011, at the Aero Theatre in Santa Monica.
Mr. Nobody initially opened in 36 theaters in Belgium in its opening weekend and grossed USD $227,917, placing fourth and posting a per - theater average of $6,331. Over the second weekend, the film dropped 21.9 % in revenue, earning $178,098. Grossing nearly $1 million, it became one of the ten highest - grossing 2010 films in Belgium. The film was released in France on 13 January 2010, opening in 150 theaters and had a disappointing opening weekend due to the mixed response from French critics. It finished eighth on its first weekend of release earning $640,517, and by its second weekend of release had dropped to the bottom of the top ten with a total of $1,051,211. Magnolia Pictures released the film in the United States in select theaters on 1 November 2013.
Mr. Nobody was released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc in France on 21 July 2010, through Pathé, in two formats: a single - disc wide - screen version which special features include a trailer, making - of and a photo gallery; and a two - disc wide - screen special edition. The latter contains the director 's cut of the film which has 1 re-cut, 23 extended scenes and 12 additional scenes integrated into the original footage, running about 16 minutes longer than the theatrical version. The Warner Home Video Dutch release includes new specials features: interactive menu, scene access, a making - of, a behind the scenes, deleted scenes and a photo gallery. On 11 January 2011, it was released in Canada through Entertainment One on DVD and Blu - ray Disc, with a making - of featurette, behind the scenes footage and deleted scenes. Optimum Home Entertainment released Mr. Nobody to the British market on DVD and Blu - ray Disc on 12 September 2011, with few special features. It contains a making - of with Leto interview and a trailer of the film.
Upon its premiere at the 66th Venice International Film Festival, Mr. Nobody was positively received with a ten - minute standing ovation from the audience. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film garnered a 67 % approval rating from 30 critics and a weighted average rating of 6.7 / 10. With its consensus saying, "Mr. Nobodys narrative tangles may bedevil as much as they entertain, but its big ambitions and absorbing visuals make for an intriguing addition to director Jaco Van Dormael 's filmography. '' At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film received a score of 63, based on 10 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Jennie Punter of The Globe and Mail praised the film, stating "Van Dormael holds this fractured fairy tale together by giving it an emotional core and delivers two hours of time travel with a playful spirit and at a mostly hyperkinetic pace, sprinkling it with amusing side journeys and sometimes letting a scene unfold at a more natural tempo. '' Bruce Kirkland of Jam! gave the film four stars out of five and wrote, "Expect the unexpected. Try to answer the unanswerable question that writer - director Van Dormael poses. It is a worthwhile exercise. '' He also described Leto 's acting as a "marvelously full - blooded, brain - spinning, tour - de-force performance. '' Ken Eisner from The Georgia Straight summarized the film as "a dazzling feat of philosophical fancy, and it attempts nothing less than the summing up of an entire life, and an epoch or two, with its free - spinning take on recent human history as projected into possible futures. ''
Niels Matthijs, writing for Twitch Film, stated that "It 's astounding how van Dormael turns each scene into a unique little cinematic event. There is hardly filler here, no scenes to drag out the running time or to fill some gaps in between other climaxes. Every scene matters and every scene is made to look like it matters. The director uses all means to his disposal to keep the viewer engaged and interested in the life of the main protagonist, Nemo Nobody. '' Fred Topel, writing for Screen Junkies, praised the film 's artistry, saying "All of Nemo 's lives are painful. No matter what he chooses, he experiences heartbreak, death of loved ones, his own death, and clinical depression. My future seems brighter, but the film makes the strong point that every experience is worthwhile. The goal is n't to choose the easiest path. It 's to live. '' Chris Holt from Starburst magazine wrote that "Mr. Nobody is a film that is remarkable by its very existence and that in itself is something to be happy about. You may love it you may hate it, but you can bet that you will never forget it. '' Exclaim! 's Robert Bell called the film "a powerful movie about what it means to be alive. ''
Boyd van Hoeij of Variety magazine was more critical, writing "Though a lot of it is well written and directed and, quite often, funny or poignant, the individual scenes rarely become part of a larger whole. '' He praises Leto 's acting, stating "The closest the film comes to having a gravitational center are in the scenes set in 2092. What makes them soar is not the imaginative staging of the future, but Leto 's performance. His acting talent really comes into full view in his scenes as the last dying man on Earth. '' He also praised Regbo and Temple, saying "Regbo, as the teenage Nemo, and Juno Temple, as the teenage Anna, are impressive, bringing the hormonal battles of adolescence vividly to life. '' Film critic Eric Lavallée listed Regbo as one of his "Top 10 New Faces & Voices '' of 2009 Toronto International Film Festival. He notes that "newbie Toby Regbo might easily be Mr. Nobody 's most "alive '' character. Playing Nemo at age 16, the actor is mostly paired with Juno Temple -- their unique love story is the film 's heart pumping portions and plays a lot better than the artery clogging other brushes of romance. ''
AlloCiné, a French cinema website, gave the film an average of three out of five stars, based on a survey of 24 reviews. Xavier Leherpeur from Le Nouvel Observateur described it as "a fiction of sterile ramifications, weighed down by a script the labyrinthine constructions of which poorly conceal the poverty of inspiration ''. Pierre Fornerod from Ouest - France wrote that "Van Dormael plays with chance and coincidence. The demonstration is long and heavy, but aesthetically, is superb. ''
Mr. Nobody was nominated for and won multiple awards from numerous film organizations and festivals. It was nominated for seven Magritte Awards and was awarded six at the 1st Magritte Awards: Best Film, Best Director and Best Screenplay for Jaco Van Dormael, Best Cinematography for Christophe Beaucarne, Best Original Score for Pierre Van Dormael, and Best Editing for Matyas Veress. Emmanuel de Boissieu, Frédéric Demolder and Dominique Warnier lost the award for Best Sound to A Town Called Panic. In addition, the film was named Best Film of 2010 by the Belgian Film Critics Association winning the André Cavens Award, and was awarded Best Film at the 2010 Fonske Awards. It also received the People 's Choice Award for Best European Film at the 23rd European Film Awards, and won the Audience Award at the Biografilm Festival.
At the 66th Venice International Film Festival, Sylvie Olivé was awarded the Golden Osella for Outstanding Technical Contribution and the film received the Biografilm Lancia Award. It was also nominated for the Golden Lion but lost to Lebanon. Jared Leto was nominated for the Volpi Cup for Best Actor. Christophe Beaucarne received Best Cinematography at the 20th Stockholm International Film Festival and Kaatje Van Damme won Best Makeup at the 42nd Sitges Film Festival. Mr. Nobody has appeared on many critics top ten lists of 2010 and is frequently considered to be one of the greatest films of the year. Kurt Halfyard, a film critic for Twitch Film, listed Van Dormael 's film among the best science fiction films of the 21st century. The American Film Institute listed Mr. Nobody as one of the best European films of 2010.
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who plays the female terminator in terminator 3 | Kristanna Loken - Wikipedia
Kristanna Loken (born October 8, 1979) is an American actress and model. She is best known for her roles in the films Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003), BloodRayne (2005) and Bounty Killer (2013) and on the TV series Painkiller Jane (2007), The L Word (2007 -- 2008) and Burn Notice (2011 -- 2012).
Loken was born in Ghent, New York, the daughter of Rande (née Porath), a model, and Merlin "Chris '' Loken, a writer and apple farmer. She is of half German and half Norwegian ancestry. Her parents were from Wisconsin. She grew up on her parents ' fruit farm in Upstate New York.
After her mother encouraged her to become a model, Loken participated at the 1994 Elite Model Look in which she placed 3rd runner - up. Loken started her acting career in 1994 as the third actress to play Danielle ' Dani ' Andropoulos on an episode of As the World Turns. She later appeared in several television shows and films, including regular appearances on the television shows Philly, Unhappily Ever After and Boy Meets World.
In 1998 she starred in Mortal Kombat: Conquest as Taja. She is probably best known for her performance as the cyborg T-X (Terminatrix) in the 2003 movie Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines. In 2004, she appeared in a German television movie, Die Nibelungen (also known as "Dark Kingdom: The Dragon King '' or "Sword of Xanten ''), which aired as a 2 - part mini-series and set a ratings record. She starred as the leading character in the 2006 film version of the video game BloodRayne, and appeared in director Uwe Boll 's film version of the video game Dungeon Siege, called In the Name of the King.
She appeared in 10 episodes of the fourth season of The L Word, which debuted in January 2007. Additionally, she starred as the title character in the Sci - Fi Channel 's series Painkiller Jane which aired from April to September 2007. In December 2011, Loken appeared in the fifth - season finale of the USA Network TV series Burn Notice as CIA agent Rebecca Lang, and would reprise that role in three sixth - season episodes during mid-2012.
In 2014, she starred in the action movie Mercenaries, alongside Cynthia Rothrock, Brigitte Nielsen, Vivica A. Fox, Zoë Bell and Nicole Bilderback.
Loken has a sister named Tanya.
She stated in an interview with Curve magazine: "I have dated and have had sex with men and women, and have to say that the relationships I have had with certain women have been much more fulfilling, sexually and emotionally, than of those with certain men... I connect with an aura, with energy. And if the person with whom I connect happens to be a female, that 's just the way it is. That 's what makes my wheels turn. ''
On January 17, 2008, Loken announced on her website that she had become engaged to her Painkiller Jane co-star Noah Danby. The couple were married at her family 's farm on May 10, 2008. In an interview published on November 16, 2009, she announced that she had separated from Danby and was dating a woman.
Loken gave birth to a son, Thor, in May 2016.
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when is the movie second act coming out | Second Act (film) - wikipedia
Second Act is an upcoming American romantic comedy film directed by Peter Segal and written by Elaine Goldsmith - Thomas and Justin Zackham. It stars Jennifer Lopez, Leah Remini, Annaleigh Ashford, Vanessa Hudgens, Dan Bucatinsky, Freddie Stroma, Milo Ventimiglia, Treat Williams and Larry Miller. It is scheduled to be released in the United States on November 21, 2018.
Stuck in a low - paying job, a woman gets a chance to fulfill her career ambitions when a private finance firm is misled into believing that she 's an accomplished consultant and hire her to handle a major business deal.
In June 2017, Jennifer Lopez signed on to star. In October 2017, Leah Remini, Annaleigh Ashford, Vanessa Hudgens, Dan Bucatinsky and Freddie Stroma joined the cast of the film. In November 2017, Milo Ventimiglia, Treat Williams, Larry Miller, Dave Foley, Charlyne Yi and Alan Aisenberg joined the cast of the film.
Principal photography began on October 23, 2017, in Queens, New York and has continued in The Bronx and Manhattan, including Michael Jordan 's Steakhouse in Grand Central Terminal. Filming wrapped on December 15, 2017.
The film is scheduled to be released by STXfilms on November 21, 2018.
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which of these region(s) on the map were a source of conflict between the u.s. and great britain | War of 1812 - Wikipedia
Treaty of Ghent
United States
United Kingdom
Bourbon Spain
2,200 -- 3,721 killed in action
British Empire: 1,160 - 1,960 killed in action
Native allies: 10,000 dead from all causes (warriors and civilians)
East Coast
Great Lakes / Saint Lawrence River
West Indies / Gulf Coast
Pacific Ocean
The War of 1812 was a conflict fought between the United States, the United Kingdom, and their respective allies from June 1812 to February 1815. Historians in Britain often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars; in the United States and Canada, it is seen as a war in its own right.
From the outbreak of war with Napoleonic France, Britain had enforced a naval blockade to choke off neutral trade to France, which the United States contested as illegal under international law. To man the blockade, Britain impressed American merchant sailors into the Royal Navy. Incidents such as the Chesapeake -- Leopard affair inflamed anti-British sentiment in the United States. In 1811, the British were in turn outraged by the Little Belt affair, in which 11 British sailors died. The British supplied Indians who conducted raids on American settlers on the frontier, which hindered American expansion and also provoked resentment. Historians remain divided on whether the desire to annex some or all of British North America contributed to the American decision to go to war. On June 18, 1812, United States President James Madison, after receiving heavy pressure from the War Hawks in Congress, signed the American declaration of war into law.
With the majority of their army in Europe fighting Napoleon, the British adopted a defensive strategy. American prosecution of the war effort suffered from its unpopularity, especially in New England, where it was derogatorily referred to as "Mr. Madison 's War ''. American defeats at the Siege of Detroit and the Battle of Queenston Heights thwarted attempts to seize Upper Canada, improving British morale. American attempts to invade Lower Canada and capture Montreal also failed. In 1813, the Americans won the Battle of Lake Erie, gaining control of the lake, and at the Battle of the Thames defeated Tecumseh 's Confederacy, securing a primary war goal. At sea, the powerful Royal Navy blockaded American ports, cutting off trade and allowing the British to raid the coast at will. In 1814, one of these raids burned the capital, Washington, although the Americans subsequently repulsed British attempts to invade New England and capture Baltimore.
At home, the British faced mounting opposition to wartime taxation and demands to reopen trade with America. With the abdication of Napoleon, the blockade of France ended and the British ceased impressment, rendering the issue of the impressment of American sailors moot. The British were then able to increase the strength of the blockade on the United States coast, annihilating American maritime trade and bringing the United States government near to bankruptcy. Peace negotiations began in August 1814 and the Treaty of Ghent was signed on December 24 as neither side wanted to continue fighting. News of the peace did not reach America for some time. Unaware that the treaty had been signed, British forces invaded Louisiana and were defeated at the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815. These late victories were viewed by Americans as having restored national honour, leading to the collapse of anti-war sentiment and the beginning of the Era of Good Feelings, a period of national unity. News of the treaty arrived shortly thereafter, halting military operations. The treaty was unanimously ratified by the United States on February 17, 1815, ending the war with status quo ante bellum (no boundary changes).
Historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States.
As Risjord (1961) notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake -- Leopard affair. H.W. Brands says, "The other war hawks spoke of the struggle with Britain as a second war of independence; (Andrew) Jackson, who still bore scars from the first war of independence, held that view with special conviction. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also about vindication of American identity. '' Americans at the time and historians since have often called it the United States ' "Second War of Independence ''.
The British were also offended by what they considered insults such as the Little Belt affair. This gave the British a particular interest in capturing the United States flagship President, which they succeeded in doing in 1815.
In 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via the Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, which Britain was then fighting in the Napoleonic Wars. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law. Historian Reginald Horsman states, "a large section of influential British opinion, both in the government and in the country, thought that America presented a threat to British maritime supremacy. ''
The American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80 % of U.S. cotton and 50 % of other U.S. exports. The British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States ' view was that Britain 's restrictions violated its right to trade with others.
During the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. While the Royal Navy could man its ships with volunteers in peacetime, it competed in wartime with merchant shipping and privateers for a small pool of experienced sailors and turned to impressment from ashore and foreign or domestic shipping when it could not operate its ships with volunteers alone.
The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U.S. citizens. Britain did not recognize a right whereby a British subject could relinquish his status as a British subject, emigrate and transfer his national allegiance as a naturalized citizen to any other country. This meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and the widespread use of unofficial or forged identity or protection papers by sailors. This made it difficult for the Royal Navy to distinguish Americans from non-Americans and led it to impress some Americans who had never been British. Some gained freedom on appeal. Thus while the United States recognized British - born sailors on American ships as Americans, Britain did not. It was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805. U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin stated that 9,000 U.S. sailors were born in Britain. Moreover, a great number of these British born sailors were Irish. An investigation by Captain Isaac Chauncey in 1808 found that 58 % of sailors based in New York City were either naturalized citizens or recent immigrants, the majority of these foreign born sailors (134 of 150) being from Britain. Moreover, 80 of the 134 British sailors were Irish.
American anger at impressment grew when British frigates were stationed just outside U.S. harbours in view of U.S. shores and searched ships for contraband and impressed men while within U.S. territorial waters. Well publicized impressment actions such as the Leander affair and the Chesapeake -- Leopard affair outraged the American public.
The British public in turn were outraged by the Little Belt affair, in which a larger American ship clashed with a small British sloop, resulting in the deaths of 11 British sailors. Both sides claimed the other fired first, but the British public in particular blamed the U.S. for attacking a smaller vessel, with calls for revenge by some newspapers, while the U.S. was encouraged by the fact they had won a victory over the Royal Navy. The U.S. Navy also forcibly recruited British sailors but the British government saw impressment as commonly accepted practice and preferred to rescue British sailors from American impressment on a case - by - case basis.
The Northwest Territory, which consisted of the modern states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, was the battleground for conflict between the Native American Nations and the United States. The British Empire had ceded the area to the United States in the Treaty of Paris in 1783, both sides ignoring the fact that the land was already inhabited by various Native American nations. These included the Miami, Winnebago, Shawnee, Fox, Sauk, Kickapoo, Delaware and Wyandot. Some warriors, who had left their nations of origin, followed Tenskwatawa, the Shawnee Prophet and the brother of Tecumseh. Tenskwatawa had a vision of purifying his society by expelling the "children of the Evil Spirit '': the American settlers. The Indians wanted to create their own state in the Northwest to end the American threat forever as it became clear that the Americans wanted all of the land in the Old Northwest for themselves. Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh formed a confederation of numerous tribes to block American expansion. The British saw the Native American nations as valuable allies and a buffer to its Canadian colonies and provided arms. Attacks on American settlers in the Northwest further aggravated tensions between Britain and the United States. Raiding grew more common in 1810 and 1811; Westerners in Congress found the raids intolerable and wanted them permanently ended. British policy towards the Indians of the Northwest was torn between the desire to keep the Americans fighting in the Northwest, and to preserve a region that provided rich profits for Canadian fur traders, versus the fear that too much support for the Indians would cause a war with the United States. Through Tecumseh 's plans for an Indian state in the Northwest would benefit British North America by making it more defensible, at the same time, the defeats suffered by Tecumseh 's confederation had the British leery of going too far to support what was probably a losing cause. In the months running up to the war, British diplomats attempted to defuse tensions on the frontier.
The confederation 's raids, and its very existence, hindered American expansion into rich farmlands in the Northwest Territory. Pratt writes:
There is ample proof that the British authorities did all in their power to hold or win the allegiance of the Indians of the Northwest with the expectation of using them as allies in the event of war. Indian allegiance could be held only by gifts, and to an Indian no gift was as acceptable as a lethal weapon. Guns and ammunition, tomahawks and scalping knives were dealt out with some liberality by British agents.
However, according to the U.S. Army Center of Military History, the "land - hungry frontiersmen '', with "no doubt that their troubles with the Native Americans were the result of British intrigue '', exacerbated the problem by "(circulating stories) after every Native American raid of British Army muskets and equipment being found on the field ''. Thus, "the westerners were convinced that their problems could best be solved by forcing the British out of Canada ''.
The British had the long - standing goal of creating a large, "neutral '' Native American state to cover much of Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan. They made the demand as late as the fall of 1814 at the peace conference, but lost control of western Ontario in 1813 at key battles on and around Lake Erie. These battles destroyed the Indian confederacy which had been the main ally of the British in that region, weakening its negotiating position. Although much of the area remained under British or British - allied Native Americans ' control until the end of the war, the British, at American insistence and with higher priorities, dropped the demands.
American expansion into the Northwest Territory was being obstructed by various Indian tribes since the end of the Revolution, who were supplied and encouraged by the British. Americans on the western frontier demanded that interference be stopped. There is dispute, however, over whether or not the American desire to annex Canada brought on the war. Several historians believe that the capture of Canada was intended only as a means to secure a bargaining chip, which would then be used to force Britain to back down on the maritime issues. It would also cut off food supplies for Britain 's West Indian colonies, and temporarily prevent the British from continuing to arm the Indians. However, many historians believe that a desire to annex Canada was a cause of the war. This view was more prevalent before 1940, but remains widely held today. Congressman Richard Mentor Johnson told Congress that the constant Indian atrocities along the Wabash River in Indiana were enabled by supplies from Canada and were proof that "the war has already commenced... I shall never die contented until I see England 's expulsion from North America and her territories incorporated into the United States. ''
Madison believed that British economic policies designed to foster imperial preference were harming the American economy and that as British North America existed, here was a conduit for American strugglers who were undercutting his trade policies, which thus required that the United States annex British North America. Furthermore, Madison believed that the Great Lakes - St. Lawrence trade route might become the main trade route for the export of North American goods to Europe at the expense of the U.S. economy, and if the United States controlled the resources of British North America like timber which the British needed for their navy, then Britain would be forced to change its maritime policies which had so offended American public opinion. Many Americans believed it was only natural that their country should swallow up North America with one Congressman, John Harper saying in a speech that "the Author of Nature Himself had marked our limits in the south, by the Gulf of Mexico and on the north, by the regions of eternal frost ''. Upper Canada (modern southern Ontario) had been settled mostly by Revolution - era exiles from the United States (United Empire Loyalists) or postwar American immigrants. The Loyalists were hostile to union with the United States, while the immigrant settlers were generally uninterested in politics and remained neutral or supported the British during the war. The Canadian colonies were thinly populated and only lightly defended by the British Army. Americans then believed that many men in Upper Canada would rise up and greet an American invading army as liberators. That did not happen. One reason American forces retreated after one successful battle inside Canada was that they could not obtain supplies from the locals. But the Americans thought that the possibility of local support suggested an easy conquest, as former President Thomas Jefferson believed: "The acquisition of Canada this year, as far as the neighborhood of Quebec, will be a mere matter of marching, and will give us the experience for the attack on Halifax, the next and final expulsion of England from the American continent. ''
Annexation was supported by American border businessmen who wanted to gain control of Great Lakes trade.
Carl Benn noted that the War Hawks ' desire to annex the Canadas was similar to the enthusiasm for the annexation of Spanish Florida by inhabitants of the American South; both expected war to facilitate expansion into long - desired lands and end support for hostile Indian tribes (Tecumseh 's Confederacy in the North and the Creek in the South).
Tennessee Congressman Felix Grundy considered it essential to acquire Canada to preserve domestic political balance, arguing that annexing Canada would maintain the free state - slave state balance, which might otherwise be thrown off by the acquisition of Florida and the settlement of the southern areas of the new Louisiana Purchase.
Historian Richard Maass argued in 2015 that the expansionist theme is a myth that goes against the "relative consensus among experts that the primary U.S. objective was the repeal of British maritime restrictions ''. He argues that consensus among scholars is that the United States went to war "because six years of economic sanctions had failed to bring Britain to the negotiating table, and threatening the Royal Navy 's Canadian supply base was their last hope. '' Maass agrees that theoretically expansionism might have tempted Americans, but finds that "leaders feared the domestic political consequences of doing so. Notably, what limited expansionism there was focused on sparsely populated western lands rather than the more populous eastern settlements (of Canada). '' Nevertheless, Maas notes that many historians continue to believe that expansionism was a cause.
Horsman argued expansionism played a role as a secondary cause after maritime issues, noting that many historians have mistakenly rejected expansionism as a cause for the war. He notes that it was considered key to maintaining sectional balance between free and slave states thrown off by American settlement of the Louisiana Territory, and widely supported by dozens of War Hawk congressmen such as John A. Harper, Felix Grundy, Henry Clay, and Richard M. Johnson, who voted for war with expansion as a key aim.
In disagreeing with those interpretations that have simply stressed expansionism and minimized maritime causation, historians have ignored deep - seated American fears for national security, dreams of a continent completely controlled by the republican United States, and the evidence that many Americans believed that the War of 1812 would be the occasion for the United States to achieve the long - desired annexation of Canada... Thomas Jefferson well - summarized American majority opinion about the war... to say "that the cession of Canada... must be a sine qua non at a treaty of peace ''.
However, Horsman states that in his view "the desire for Canada did not cause the War of 1812 '' and that "The United States did not declare war because it wanted to obtain Canada, but the acquisition of Canada was viewed as a major collateral benefit of the conflict. ''
Historian Alan Taylor says that many Democratic - Republican congressmen, such as Richard M. Johnson, John A. Harper and Peter B. Porter, "longed to oust the British from the continent and to annex Canada. '' A few Southerners opposed this, fearing an imbalance of free and slave states if Canada was annexed, while anti-Catholicism also caused many to oppose annexing mainly Catholic Lower Canada, believing its French - speaking inhabitants "unfit... for republican citizenship ''. Even major figures such as Henry Clay and James Monroe expected to keep at least Upper Canada in the event of an easy conquest. Notable American generals, like William Hull were led by this sentiment to issue proclamations to Canadians during the war promising republican liberation through incorporation into the United States; a proclamation the government never officially disavowed. General Alexander Smyth similarly declared to his troops that when they invaded Canada "You will enter a country that is to become one of the United States. You will arrive among a people who are to become your fellow - citizens. '' A lack of clarity about American intentions undercut these appeals, however.
David and Jeanne Heidler argue that "Most historians agree that the War of 1812 was not caused by expansionism but instead reflected a real concern of American patriots to defend United States ' neutral rights from the overbearing tyranny of the British Navy. That is not to say that expansionist aims would not potentially result from the war. ''
However, they also argue otherwise, saying that "acquiring Canada would satisfy America 's expansionist desires '', also describing it as a key goal of western expansionists, who, they argue, believed that "eliminating the British presence in Canada would best accomplish '' their goal of halting British support for Indian raids. They argue that the "enduring debate '' is over the relative importance of expansionism as a factor, and whether "expansionism played a greater role in causing the War of 1812 than American concern about protecting neutral maritime rights. ''
While the British government was largely oblivious to the deteriorating North American situation because of its involvement in a continent - wide European war, the U.S. was in a period of significant political conflict between the Federalist Party (based mainly in the Northeast), which favoured a strong central government and closer ties to Britain, and the Democratic - Republican Party (with its greatest power base in the South and West), which favoured a weak central government, preservation of states ' rights (including slavery), expansion into Indian land, and a stronger break with Britain. By 1812, the Federalist Party had weakened considerably, and the Republicans, with James Madison completing his first term of office and control of Congress, were in a strong position to pursue their more aggressive agenda against Britain. Throughout the war, support for the U.S. cause was weak (or sometimes non-existent) in Federalist areas of the Northeast. Few men volunteered to serve; the banks avoided financing the war. The negativism of the Federalists, especially as exemplified by the Hartford Convention of 1814 -- 15, ruined its reputation and the Party survived only in scattered areas. By 1815 there was broad support for the war from all parts of the country. This allowed the triumphant Democratic - Republicans to adopt some Federalist policies, such as a national bank, which Madison reestablished in 1816.
The United States Navy (USN) had 7,250 sailors and Marines in 1812. The American Navy was well trained and a professional force that fought well against the Barbary pirates and France in the Quasi-War. The USN had 13 ocean - going warships, three of them "super-frigates '' and its principal problem was a lack of funding as many in Congress did not see the need for a strong navy. The American warships were all well - built ships that were equal, if not superior to British ships of a similar class (British shipbuilding emphasized quantity over quality). However, the biggest ships in the USN were frigates, and the Americans had no ships - of - the - line capable of engaging in a fleet action with the Royal Navy at sea.
On the high seas, the Americans could only pursue a strategy of commerce raiding, taking British merchantmen with their frigates and privateers. Before the war, the USN was largely concentrated on the Atlantic coast and at the war 's outbreak had only two gunboats on Lake Champlain, one brig on Lake Ontario and another brig in Lake Erie.
The United States Army was much larger than the British Army in North America, and the soldiers well trained and brave. However, leadership in the American officer corps was inconsistent; some officers proved themselves to be outstanding but many others inept, owing their positions to political favors. Congress was hostile to a standing army, and during the war, the U.S. government called out 450,000 men from the state militas, a number that was slightly smaller than the entire population of British North America. However, the state militias were poorly trained, armed, and led. After the Battle of Bladensburg in 1814, in which the Maryland and Virginia militias were soundly defeated by the British Army, President Madison commented: "I could never have believed so great a difference existed between regular troops and a militia force, if I not witnessed the scenes of this day. ''
The British Royal Navy was a well - led, professional force, considered the world 's most powerful navy. However, as long as the war with France continued, North America was a secondary concern. In 1813, France had 80 ships - of - the - line while building another 35. Therefore, containing the French fleet had to be the main British naval concern. In Upper Canada, the British had the Provincial Marine was essential for keeping the army supplied since the roads in Upper Canada were abysmal. On Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence, the Royal Navy had two schooners while the Provincial Marine maintained four small warships on Lake Erie. The British Army in North America was a very professional and well trained force, but suffered from being outnumbered.
The militias of Upper Canada and Lower Canada had a much lower level of military effectiveness. Nevertheless, Canadian militia (and locally recruited regular units known as "Fencibles '') were often more reliable than American militia, particularly when defending their own territory. As such they played pivotal roles in various engagements, including at the Battle of the Chateauguay where Canadian and Indian forces alone stopped a much larger American force despite not having assistance from regular British units.
Because of their lower population compared to whites, and lacking artillery, Indian allies of the British avoided pitched battles and instead relied on irregular warfare, including raids and ambushes. Given their low population, it was crucial to avoid heavy losses and, in general, Indian chiefs sought to fight only under favorable conditions; any battle that promised heavy losses was avoided if possible. The main Indian weapons were a mixture of tomahawks, knives, swords, rifles, clubs, arrows and muskets. Indian warriors were brave, but the need to avoid heavy losses meant that they fought only under the most favorable conditions and their tactics favored a defensive as opposed to offensive style.
In the words of Benn, those Indians fighting with the Americans provided the U.S. with their "most effective light troops '' while the British desperately needed the Indian tribes to compensate for their numerical inferiority. The Indians, regardless of which side they fought for, saw themselves as allies, not subordinates and Indian chiefs did what they viewed as best for their tribes, much to the annoyance of both American and British generals, who often complained about their unreliability.
On June 1, 1812, President James Madison sent a message to Congress recounting American grievances against Great Britain, though not specifically calling for a declaration of war. After Madison 's message, the House of Representatives deliberated for four days behind closed doors before voting 79 to 49 (61 %) in favor of the first declaration of war. The Senate concurred in the declaration by a 19 to 13 (59 %) vote in favour. The conflict began formally on June 18, 1812, when Madison signed the measure into law and proclaimed it the next day. This was the first time that the United States had declared war on another nation, and the Congressional vote was the closest vote to formally declare war in American history. The Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 1991, while not a formal declaration of war, was a closer vote. None of the 39 Federalists in Congress voted in favour of the war; critics of war subsequently referred to it as "Mr. Madison 's War. ''
Earlier in London on May 11, an assassin had killed Prime Minister Spencer Perceval, which resulted in Lord Liverpool coming to power. Liverpool wanted a more practical relationship with the United States. On June 23, he issued a repeal of the Orders in Council, but the United States was unaware of this, as it took three weeks for the news to cross the Atlantic. On June 28, 1812, HMS Colibri was despatched from Halifax under a flag of truce to New York. On July 9, she anchored off Sandy Hook, and three days later sailed on her return with a copy of the declaration of war, in addition to transporting the British ambassador to the United States, Mr. Foster and consul, Colonel Barclay. She arrived in Halifax, Nova Scotia eight days later. The news of the declaration took even longer to reach London.
However, the British commander in Upper Canada received news of the American declaration of war much faster. In response to the U.S. declaration of war, Isaac Brock issued a proclamation alerting the citizenry in Upper Canada of the state of war and urging all military personnel "to be vigilant in the discharge of their duty '' to prevent communication with the enemy and to arrest anyone suspected of helping the Americans. He also issued orders to the commander of the British post at Fort St. Joseph to initiate offensive operations against U.S. forces in northern Michigan, who it turned out, were not yet aware of their own government 's declaration of war. The resulting Siege of Fort Mackinac on July 17 was the first major land engagement of the war, and ended in an easy British victory.
The war was conducted in three theatres:
Although the outbreak of the war had been preceded by years of angry diplomatic dispute, neither side was ready for war when it came. Britain was heavily engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, most of the British Army was deployed in the Peninsular War (in Portugal and Spain), and the Royal Navy was compelled to blockade most of the coast of Europe. The number of British regular troops present in Canada in July 1812 was officially stated to be 6,034, supported by Canadian militia. Throughout the war, the British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies was Earl Bathurst. For the first two years of the war, he could spare few troops to reinforce North America and urged the commander - in - chief in North America (Lieutenant General Sir George Prévost) to maintain a defensive strategy. The naturally cautious Prévost followed these instructions, concentrating on defending Lower Canada at the expense of Upper Canada (which was more vulnerable to American attacks) and allowing few offensive actions.
The United States was not prepared to prosecute a war, for Madison had assumed that the state militias would easily seize Canada and that negotiations would follow. In 1812, the regular army consisted of fewer than 12,000 men. Congress authorized the expansion of the army to 35,000 men, but the service was voluntary and unpopular; it offered poor pay, and there were few trained and experienced officers, at least initially. The militia objected to serving outside their home states, were not open to discipline, and performed poorly against British forces when outside their home states. American prosecution of the war suffered from its unpopularity, especially in New England, where anti-war speakers were vocal. "Two of the Massachusetts members (of Congress), Seaver and Widgery, were publicly insulted and hissed on Change in Boston; while another, Charles Turner, member for the Plymouth district, and Chief - Justice of the Court of Sessions for that county, was seized by a crowd on the evening of August 3, (1812) and kicked through the town ''. The United States had great difficulty financing its war. It had disbanded its national bank, and private bankers in the Northeast were opposed to the war. The United States was able to obtain financing from London - based Barings Bank to cover overseas bond obligations. The failure of New England to provide militia units or financial support was a serious blow. Threats of secession by New England states were loud, as evidenced by the Hartford Convention. Britain exploited these divisions, blockading only southern ports for much of the war and encouraging smuggling.
While the London government was well administered, in terms of its army, navy, and financial offices, the government in Washington was badly organized, with inexperience, incompetence and confusion the main hallmarks. The federal government 's management system was designed to minimize the federal role before 1812. The Republicans in power deliberately wanted to downsize the power and roles of the federal government; when the war began, the Federalist opposition worked hard to sabotage operations. Problems multiplied rapidly in 1812, and all the weaknesses were magnified, especially regarding the Army and the Treasury. There were no serious reforms before the war ended. In financial matters, the decentralizing ideology of the Republicans meant they wanted the First Bank of the United States to expire in 1811, when its 20 - year charter ran out. Its absence made it much more difficult to handle the financing of the war, and cause special problems in terms of moving money from state to state, since state banks were not allowed to operate across state lines. The bureaucracy was terrible, often missing deadlines. On the positive side, over 120 new state banks were created all over the country, and they issued notes that financed much of the war effort, along with loans raised by Washington. Some key Republicans, especially Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin realized the need for new taxes, but the Republican Congress was very reluctant and only raised small amounts. The whole time, the Federalists in Congress and especially the Federalist - controlled state governments in the Northeast, and the Federalist - aligned financial system in the Northeast, was strongly opposed to the war and refused to help in the financing. Indeed, they facilitated smuggling across the Canadian border, and sent large amounts of gold and silver to Canada, which created serious shortages in the US. Across the two and half years of the war, 1812 -- 1815, the federal government took in more money than it spent. Cash out was $119.5 million, cash in was $154.0 million. Two - thirds of the income was borrowing that had to be paid back in later years; the national debt went from $56.0 million in 1812 to $127.3 million in 1815. Out of the GDP (gross domestic product) of about $925 million (in 1815), this was not a large burden for a national population of 8 million people. A new Second Bank of the United States was set up in 1816, and after that the financial system performed very well, even though there was still a shortage of gold and silver.
U.S. leaders assumed that Canada could be easily overrun. Former President Jefferson optimistically referred to the conquest of Canada as "a matter of marching ''. Many Loyalist Americans had migrated to Upper Canada after the Revolutionary War. There was also significant non-Loyalist American immigration to the area due to the offer of land grants to immigrants, and the U.S. assumed the latter would favour the American cause, but they did not. In prewar Upper Canada, General Prévost was in the unusual position of having to purchase many provisions for his troops from the American side. This peculiar trade persisted throughout the war in spite of an abortive attempt by the U.S. government to curtail it. In Lower Canada, which was much more populous, support for Britain came from the English elite with strong loyalty to the Empire, and from the French - speaking Canadien elite, who feared American conquest would destroy the old order by introducing Protestantism, Anglicization, republican democracy, and commercial capitalism; and weakening the Catholic Church. The Canadien inhabitants feared the loss of a shrinking area of good lands to potential American immigrants.
In 1812 -- 13, British military experience prevailed over inexperienced American commanders. Geography dictated that operations take place in the west: principally around Lake Erie, near the Niagara River between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and near the Saint Lawrence River area and Lake Champlain. This was the focus of the three - pronged attacks by the Americans in 1812. Although cutting the St. Lawrence River through the capture of Montreal and Quebec would have made Britain 's hold in North America unsustainable, the United States began operations first in the western frontier because of the general popularity there of a war with the British, who had sold arms to the Native Americans opposing the settlers.
The British scored an important early success when their detachment at St. Joseph Island, on Lake Huron, learned of the declaration of war before the nearby American garrison at the important trading post at Mackinac Island in Michigan. A scratch force landed on the island on July 17, 1812, and mounted a gun overlooking Fort Mackinac. After the British fired one shot from their gun, the Americans, taken by surprise, surrendered. This early victory encouraged the natives, and large numbers moved to help the British at Amherstburg. The island totally controlled access to the Old Northwest, giving the British nominal control of this area, and, more vitally, a monopoly on the fur trade.
An American army under the command of William Hull invaded Canada on July 12, with his forces chiefly composed of untrained and ill - disciplined militiamen. Once on Canadian soil, Hull issued a proclamation ordering all British subjects to surrender, or "the horrors, and calamities of war will stalk before you ''. This led many of the British forces to defect. John Bennett, printer and publisher of the York Gazette & Oracle, was a prominent defector. Andrew Mercer, who had the publication 's production moved to his house, lost the press and type destroyed during American occupation, an example of what happened to resisters. He also threatened to kill any British prisoner caught fighting alongside a native. The proclamation helped stiffen resistance to the American attacks. Hull 's army was too weak in artillery and badly supplied to achieve its objectives, and had to fight just to maintain its own lines of communication.
The senior British officer in Upper Canada, Major General Isaac Brock, felt that he should take bold measures to calm the settler population in Canada, and to convince the aboriginals who were needed to defend the region that Britain was strong. He moved rapidly to Amherstburg near the western end of Lake Erie with reinforcements and immediately decided to attack Detroit. Hull, fearing that the British possessed superior numbers and that the Indians attached to Brock 's force would commit massacres if fighting began, surrendered Detroit without a fight on August 16. Knowing of British - instigated indigenous attacks on other locations, Hull ordered the evacuation of the inhabitants of Fort Dearborn (Chicago) to Fort Wayne. After initially being granted safe passage, the inhabitants (soldiers and civilians) were attacked by Potowatomis on August 15 after travelling only 2 miles (3.2 km) in what is known as the Battle of Fort Dearborn. The fort was subsequently burned.
Brock promptly transferred himself to the eastern end of Lake Erie, where American General Stephen Van Rensselaer was attempting a second invasion. An armistice (arranged by Prévost in the hope the British renunciation of the Orders in Council to which the United States objected might lead to peace) prevented Brock from invading American territory. When the armistice ended, the Americans attempted an attack across the Niagara River on October 13, but suffered a crushing defeat at Queenston Heights. Brock was killed during the battle. While the professionalism of the American forces improved by the war 's end, British leadership suffered after Brock 's death. A final attempt in 1812 by American General Henry Dearborn to advance north from Lake Champlain failed when his militia refused to advance beyond American territory.
In contrast to the American militia, the Canadian militia performed well. French Canadians, who found the anti-Catholic stance of most of the United States troublesome, and United Empire Loyalists, who had fought for the Crown during the American Revolutionary War, strongly opposed the American invasion. Many in Upper Canada were recent settlers from the United States who had no obvious loyalties to the Crown; nevertheless, while there were some who sympathized with the invaders, the American forces found strong opposition from men loyal to the Empire.
After Hull 's surrender of Detroit, General William Henry Harrison was given command of the U.S. Army of the Northwest. He set out to retake the city, which was now defended by Colonel Henry Procter in conjunction with Tecumseh. A detachment of Harrison 's army was defeated at Frenchtown along the River Raisin on January 22, 1813. Procter left the prisoners with an inadequate guard, who could not prevent some of his North American aboriginal allies from attacking and killing perhaps as many as sixty Americans, many of whom were Kentucky militiamen. The incident became known as the River Raisin Massacre. The defeat ended Harrison 's campaign against Detroit, and the phrase "Remember the River Raisin! '' became a rallying cry for the Americans.
In May 1813, Procter and Tecumseh set siege to Fort Meigs in northwestern Ohio. American reinforcements arriving during the siege were defeated by the natives, but the fort held out. The Indians eventually began to disperse, forcing Procter and Tecumseh to return north to Canada. A second offensive against Fort Meigs also failed in July. In an attempt to improve Indian morale, Procter and Tecumseh attempted to storm Fort Stephenson, a small American post on the Sandusky River, only to be repulsed with serious losses, marking the end of the Ohio campaign.
On Lake Erie, American commander Captain Oliver Hazard Perry fought the Battle of Lake Erie on September 10, 1813. His decisive victory at "Put - in - Bay '' ensured American military control of the lake, improved American morale after a series of defeats, and compelled the British to fall back from Detroit. This paved the way for General Harrison to launch another invasion of Upper Canada, which culminated in the U.S. victory at the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813, in which Tecumseh was killed.
Because of the difficulties of land communications, control of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River corridor was crucial. When the war began, the British already had a small squadron of warships on Lake Ontario and had the initial advantage. To redress the situation, the Americans established a Navy yard at Sackett 's Harbor in northwestern New York. Commodore Isaac Chauncey took charge of the large number of sailors and shipwrights sent there from New York; they completed the second warship built there in a mere 45 days. Ultimately, almost 3,000 men worked at the naval shipyard, building eleven warships and many smaller boats and transports. Having regained the advantage by their rapid building program, Chauncey and Dearborn attacked York, on the northern shore of the lake, the capital of Upper Canada, on April 27, 1813. The Battle of York was a "pyrrhic '' American victory, marred by looting and the burning of the small Provincial Parliament buildings and a library (resulting in a spirit of revenge by the British / Canadians led by Gov. George Prévost, who later demanded satisfaction encouraging the British Admiralty to issue orders to their officers later operating in the Chesapeake Bay region to exact similar devastation on the American Federal capital village of Washington the following year). However, Kingston was strategically much more valuable to British supply and communications routes along the St. Lawrence corridor. Without control of Kingston, the U.S. Navy could not effectively control Lake Ontario or sever the British supply line from Lower Canada.
On May 25, 1813 the guns of the American Lake Ontario squadron joined by Fort Niagara began bombarding Fort George. On May 27, 1813, an American amphibious force from Lake Ontario assaulted Fort George on the northern end of the Niagara River and captured it without serious losses. The British also abandoned Fort Erie and headed towards the Burlington Heights. With the British position in Upper Canada on the verge of collapse, the Iroquois Indians living along the banks of the Grand River considered changing side and ignored a British appeal to come to their aid. The retreating British forces were not pursued, however, until they had largely escaped and organized a counteroffensive against the advancing Americans at the Battle of Stoney Creek on June 5. With Upper Canada on the line, the British launched a surprise attack at Stoney Creek at 2: 00 am, leading to much confused fighting. Through tactically a draw, the battle was a strategic British victory as the Americans pulled back to Forty Mile Creek rather than continuing their advance into Upper Canada. At this point, the Six Nations living on the Grand River began to come out to fight for the British as an American victory no longer seemed inevitable. The Iroquis ambushed an American patrol at Forty Mile Creek while the Royal Navy squadron based in Kingston came to bombard the American camp, leading to General Dearborn to retreat back to Fort George as he now mistakenly believed he was outnumbered and outgunned. The British commander, General John Vincent was heartened by the fact that more and more First Nations warriors were now arriving to assist him, providing about 800 additional men. On June 24, with the help of advance warning by Laura Secord, another American force was forced to surrender by a much smaller British and native force at the Battle of Beaver Dams, marking the end of the American offensive into Upper Canada. The British commander General Francis de Rottenberg did not have the strength to retake Fort George, so he built a blockade, hoping to starve the Americans into surrender. Meanwhile, Commodore James Lucas Yeo had taken charge of the British ships on the lake and mounted a counterattack, which was nevertheless repulsed at the Battle of Sackett 's Harbor. Thereafter, Chauncey and Yeo 's squadrons fought two indecisive actions, neither commander seeking a fight to the finish.
Late in 1813, the Americans abandoned the Canadian territory they occupied around Fort George. They set fire to the village of Newark (now Niagara - on - the - Lake) on December 10, 1813, incensing the Canadians and politicians in control. Many of the inhabitants were left without shelter, freezing to death in the snow. This led to British retaliation following the Capture of Fort Niagara on December 18, 1813. Early the next morning on December 19, the British and their native allies stormed the neighbouring town of Lewiston, New York, torching homes and buildings and killing about a dozen civilians. As the British were chasing the surviving residents out of town, a small force of Tuscarora natives intervened and stopped the pursuit, buying enough time for the locals to escape to safer ground. It is notable in that the Tuscaroras defended the Americans against their own Iroquois brothers, the Mohawks, who sided with the British. Later, the British attacked and burned Buffalo on December 30, 1813.
In 1814, the contest for Lake Ontario turned into a building race. Naval superiority shifted between the opposing fleets as each built new, bigger ships. However, neither was able to bring the other to battle when in a position of superiority, leaving the Engagements on Lake Ontario a draw. At war 's end, the British held the advantage with the 112 - gun HMS St Lawrence, but the Americans had laid down two even larger ships. The majority of these ships never saw action and were decommissioned after the war.
The British were potentially most vulnerable over the stretch of the St. Lawrence where it formed the frontier between Upper Canada and the United States. During the early days of the war, there was illicit commerce across the river. Over the winter of 1812 and 1813, the Americans launched a series of raids from Ogdensburg on the American side of the river, which hampered British supply traffic up the river. On February 21, Sir George Prévost passed through Prescott on the opposite bank of the river with reinforcements for Upper Canada. When he left the next day, the reinforcements and local militia attacked. At the Battle of Ogdensburg, the Americans were forced to retire.
For the rest of the year, Ogdensburg had no American garrison, and many residents of Ogdensburg resumed visits and trade with Prescott. This British victory removed the last American regular troops from the Upper St. Lawrence frontier and helped secure British communications with Montreal. Late in 1813, after much argument, the Americans made two thrusts against Montreal. Taking Montreal would have cut off the British forces in Upper Canada and thus potentially changed the war. The plan eventually agreed upon was for Major General Wade Hampton to march north from Lake Champlain and join a force under General James Wilkinson that would embark in boats and sail from Sackett 's Harbor on Lake Ontario and descend the St. Lawrence. Hampton was delayed by bad roads and supply problems and also had an intense dislike of Wilkinson, which limited his desire to support his plan. On October 25, his 4,000 - strong force was defeated at the Chateauguay River by Charles de Salaberry 's smaller force of Canadian Voltigeurs and Mohawks. Salaberry 's force of Lower Canada militia and Indians numbered only 339, but had a strong defensive position. Wilkinson 's force of 8,000 set out on October 17, but was also delayed by bad weather. After learning that Hampton had been checked, Wilkinson heard that a British force under Captain William Mulcaster and Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Wanton Morrison was pursuing him, and by November 10, he was forced to land near Morrisburg, about 150 kilometres (90 mi) from Montreal. On November 11, Wilkinson 's rear guard, numbering 2,500, attacked Morrison 's force of 800 at Crysler 's Farm and was repulsed with heavy losses. After learning that Hampton could not renew his advance, Wilkinson retreated to the U.S. and settled into winter quarters. He resigned his command after a failed attack on a British outpost at Lacolle Mills. Had the Americans taken Montreal as planned, Upper Canada would have certainly been lost and the failure of the campaign ended in the greatest British defeat in the Canadas during the war.
Rather than trying to take Montreal or Kingston, the Americans chose again to invade the Niagara frontier to take Upper Canada. The Americans had occupied southwestern Upper Canada after their victory in Moraviantown, and they believed taking the rest of the province would force the British to cede it to them. The end of the war in Europe in April 1814 meant the British could now redeploy their Army to North America, so the Americans were anxious to secure Upper Canada to negotiate from a position of strength. They planned to invade via the Niagara frontier while sending another force to recapture Mackinac; the British were supplying the Indians in the Old Northwest from Montreal via Mackinac. By the middle of 1814, American generals, including Major Generals Jacob Brown and Winfield Scott, had drastically improved the fighting abilities and discipline of the army. The Americans renewed their attack on the Niagara peninsula and quickly captured Fort Erie on July 3, 1814, with the garrison of 170 quickly surrendering to the 5,000 Americans. General Phineas Riall rushed towards the frontier and, unaware of Fort Erie 's fall or the size of the American force, chose to engage in battle. Winfield Scott then gained a victory over an inferior British force at the Battle of Chippawa on July 5. The Americans brought out overwhelming firepower against the attacking British, who lost about 600 dead to the 350 dead on the American side. An attempt to advance further ended with a hard - fought but inconclusive Battle of Lundy 's Lane on July 25. Both sides stood their ground, but after the battle, the American commander, General Jacob Brown, pulled back to Fort George and the British did not pursue them.
The outnumbered Americans withdrew but withstood a prolonged Siege of Fort Erie. The British tried to storm Fort Erie on August 14, 1814, but suffered heavy losses, losing 950 killed, wounded and captured compared to only 84 dead and wounded on the American side. The British were further weakened by exposure and shortage of supplies in their siege lines. Eventually they raised the siege, but American Major General George Izard took over command on the Niagara front and followed up only halfheartedly. An American raid along the Grand River destroyed many farms and weakened British logistics. In October 1814 the Americans advanced into Upper Canada and engaged in skirmishes at Cook 's Mill, but pulled back when they heard that the new British warship, HMS St. Lawrence -- armed with 104 guns and launched in Kingston that September -- was on its way. The Americans lacked provisions, and eventually destroyed the Fort Erie and retreated across the Niagara.
Meanwhile, following the abdication of Napoleon, 15,000 British troops were sent to North America under four of Wellington 's ablest brigade commanders. Fewer than half were veterans of the Peninsula and the rest came from garrisons. Prévost was ordered to neutralize American power on the lakes by burning Sackets Harbor to gain naval control of Lake Erie, Lake Ontario and the Upper Lakes, and to defend Lower Canada from attack. He did defend Lower Canada but otherwise failed to achieve his objectives. Given the late season, he decided to invade New York State. His army outnumbered the American defenders of Plattsburgh, but he was worried about his flanks, so he decided he needed naval control of Lake Champlain. On the lake, the British squadron under Captain George Downie and the Americans under Master Commandant Thomas Macdonough were more evenly matched.
Upon reaching Plattsburgh, Prévost delayed the assault until the arrival of Downie in the hastily completed 36 - gun frigate HMS Confiance. Prévost forced Downie into a premature attack, but then unaccountably failed to provide the promised military backing. Downie was killed and his naval force defeated at the naval Battle of Plattsburgh in Plattsburgh Bay on September 11, 1814. The Americans now had control of Lake Champlain; Theodore Roosevelt later termed it "the greatest naval battle of the war ''. The successful land defence was led by Alexander Macomb. To the astonishment of his senior officers, Prévost then turned back, saying it was too hazardous to remain on enemy territory after the loss of naval supremacy. Prévost was recalled and in London, a naval court - martial decided that defeat had been caused principally by Prévost 's urging the squadron into premature action and then failing to afford the promised support from the land forces. Prévost died suddenly, just before his own court - martial was to convene. Prévost 's reputation sank to a new low, as Canadians claimed that their militia under Brock did the job and he failed. Recently, however, historians have been more kindly, measuring him not against Wellington but against his American foes. They judge Prévost 's preparations for defending the Canadas with limited means to be energetic, well - conceived, and comprehensive; and against the odds, he had achieved the primary objective of preventing an American conquest.
To the east, the northern part of Massachusetts, soon to be Maine, was invaded. Fort Sullivan at Eastport was taken by Sir Thomas Hardy on July 11. Castine, Hampden, Bangor, and Machias were taken, and Castine became the main British base till April 15, 1815, when the British left, taking £ 10,750 in tariff duties, the "Castine Fund '' which was used to found Dalhousie University. Eastport was not returned to the United States till 1818.
The Mississippi River valley was the western frontier of the United States in 1812. The territory acquired in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 contained almost no U.S. settlements west of the Mississippi except around Saint Louis and a few forts and trading posts. Fort Belle Fontaine, an old trading post converted to a U.S. Army post in 1804, served as regional headquarters. Fort Osage, built in 1808 along the Missouri was the western-most U.S. outpost, it was abandoned at the start of the war. Fort Madison, built along the Mississippi in what is now Iowa, was also built in 1808, and had been repeatedly attacked by British - allied Sauk since its construction. In September 1813 Fort Madison was abandoned after it was attacked and besieged by natives, who had support from the British. This was one of the few battles fought west of the Mississippi. Black Hawk played a leadership role.
Little of note took place on Lake Huron in 1813, but the American victory on Lake Erie and the recapture of Detroit isolated the British there. During the ensuing winter, a Canadian party under Lieutenant Colonel Robert McDouall established a new supply line from York to Nottawasaga Bay on Georgian Bay. When he arrived at Fort Mackinac with supplies and reinforcements, he sent an expedition to recapture the trading post of Prairie du Chien in the far west. The Siege of Prairie du Chien ended in a British victory on July 20, 1814.
Earlier in July, the Americans sent a force of five vessels from Detroit to recapture Mackinac. A mixed force of regulars and volunteers from the militia landed on the island on August 4. They did not attempt to achieve surprise, and at the brief Battle of Mackinac Island, they were ambushed by natives and forced to re-embark. The Americans discovered the new base at Nottawasaga Bay, and on August 13, they destroyed its fortifications and the schooner Nancy that they found there. They then returned to Detroit, leaving two gunboats to blockade Mackinac. On September 4, these gunboats were taken unawares and captured by British boarding parties from canoes and small boats. These Engagements on Lake Huron left Mackinac under British control.
The British garrison at Prairie du Chien also fought off another attack by Major Zachary Taylor. In this distant theatre, the British retained the upper hand until the end of the war, through the allegiance of several indigenous tribes that received British gifts and arms, enabling them to take control of parts of what is now Michigan and Illinois, as well as the whole of modern Wisconsin. In 1814 U.S. troops retreating from the Battle of Credit Island on the upper Mississippi attempted to make a stand at Fort Johnson, but the fort was soon abandoned, along with most of the upper Mississippi valley.
After the U.S. was pushed out of the Upper Mississippi region, they held on to eastern Missouri and the St. Louis area. Two notable battles fought against the Sauk were the Battle of Cote Sans Dessein, in April 1815, at the mouth of the Osage River in the Missouri Territory, and the Battle of the Sink Hole, in May 1815, near Fort Cap au Gris.
At the conclusion of peace, Mackinac and other captured territory was returned to the United States. At the end of the war, some British officers and Canadians objected to handing back Prairie du Chien and especially Mackinac under the terms of the Treaty of Ghent. However, the Americans retained the captured post at Fort Malden, near Amherstburg, until the British complied with the treaty.
Fighting between Americans, the Sauk, and other indigenous tribes continued through 1817, well after the war ended in the east.
In 1812, Britain 's Royal Navy was the world 's largest, with over 600 cruisers in commission and some smaller vessels. Although most of these were involved in blockading the French navy and protecting British trade against (usually French) privateers, the Royal Navy still had 85 vessels in American waters, counting all British Navy vessels in North American and the Caribbean waters. However, the Royal Navy 's North American squadron based in Halifax, Nova Scotia (which bore the brunt of the war), numbered one small ship of the line, seven frigates, nine smaller sloops and brigs along with five schooners. By contrast, the United States Navy comprised 8 frigates, 14 smaller sloops and brigs, and no ships of the line. The U.S. had embarked on a major shipbuilding program before the war at Sackets Harbor, New York and continued to produce new ships. Three of the existing American frigates were exceptionally large and powerful for their class, larger than any British frigate in North America. Whereas the standard British frigate of the time was rated as a 38 gun ship, usually carrying up to 50 guns, with its main battery consisting of 18 - pounder guns; USS Constitution, President, and United States, in comparison, were rated as 44 - gun ships, carrying 56 -- 60 guns with a main battery of 24 - pounders.
The British strategy was to protect their own merchant shipping to and from Halifax, Nova Scotia, and the West Indies, and to enforce a blockade of major American ports to restrict American trade. Because of their numerical inferiority, the American strategy was to cause disruption through hit - and - run tactics, such as the capture of prizes and engaging Royal Navy vessels only under favourable circumstances. Days after the formal declaration of war, however, it put out two small squadrons, including the frigate President and the sloop Hornet under Commodore John Rodgers, and the frigates United States and Congress, with the brig Argus under Captain Stephen Decatur. These were initially concentrated as one unit under Rodgers, who intended to force the Royal Navy to concentrate its own ships to prevent isolated units being captured by his powerful force.
Large numbers of American merchant ships were returning to the United States with the outbreak of war, and if the Royal Navy was concentrated, it could not watch all the ports on the American seaboard. Rodgers ' strategy worked, in that the Royal Navy concentrated most of its frigates off New York Harbor under Captain Philip Broke, allowing many American ships to reach home. But, Rodgers ' own cruise captured only five small merchant ships, and the Americans never subsequently concentrated more than two or three ships together as a unit.
Both American and British naval honor had been challenged in the leadup to the war. The Chesapeake -- Leopard affair had left the United States insulted by the Royal Navy 's impressment of sailors. Given that honor was at stake, the appropriate method for the United States Navy to redeem itself was by dueling. Similarly, British honor was challenged in the Little Belt affair where the British sloop HMS Little Belt was fired upon by the United States frigate President after President had mistaken Little Belt for the British frigate HMS Guerriere. Captain James Dacres of Guerriere began a cycle of frigate duels by challenging USS President to a single ship duel to avenge the losses aboard Little Belt. Commodore John Rodgers of USS President declined the challenge because he feared the intervention of the rest of British squadron under Commodore Philip Broke that Guerriere was part of.
Meanwhile, USS Constitution, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, sailed from the Chesapeake Bay on July 12. On July 17, Commodore Broke 's British squadron which included Guerriere gave chase off New York, but Constitution evaded her pursuers after two days. Constitution briefly called at Boston to replenish water. Commodore Borke detached Guerriere from his squadron to seek out repairs as Guerriere being a French - built ship had weak scantlings (beams fastened with a thickened clamp rather than vertical and horizontal knees) and had, therefore, become leaky and rotten. Furthermore, she had been struck by lightning severely damaging her masts. Constitution encountered and engaged engaged Guerriere in a duel to redeem American honor. Captain Dacres was eager to engage the American frigate as Constitution was the sister ship of President and would serve equally well as ship to duel against to redeem British honor. USS Constitution had nearly 50 percent more men, more firepower, heavier tonnage and heavier scantlings (which determine how much damage enemy shot does to a ship) than Guerriere. Unsurprisingly, Constitution emerged the victor. After a 35 - minute battle, Guerriere had been dis - masted and captured, and was later burned. Constitution earned the nickname "Old Ironsides '' following this battle as many of the British cannonballs were seen to bounce off her hull due to Constitution 's heavy scantlings. Hull returned to Boston with news of this significant victory.
Similarly, On October 25, USS United States, commanded by Captain Decatur, captured the British frigate HMS Macedonian, which he then carried back to port. At the close of the month, Constitution sailed south, now under the command of Captain William Bainbridge. On December 29, off Bahia, Brazil, she met the British frigate HMS Java. After a battle lasting three hours, Java struck her colors and was burned after being judged unsalvageable. Constitution, at first seemed relatively undamaged in the battle, but it was later determined that Java had successfully hit Constitution 's masts with 18 - pounder shot, but the mast had n't fallen due to its immense diameter. Constitution 's fell while she was docked. United States, Constitution and President were all almost 50 percent larger by tonnage, crew, firepower, and scantling size than the Macedonian, Guerriere and Java (Guerriere was rotten and had lightning damage as well as being weakly built as a French ship; Java had extra marines onboard making the disparity in crew more similar although she too was a French - built ship; Macedonian fitted the 50 percent statistic near perfectly).
The United States Navy 's sloops had also won several victories over Royal Navy sloops of approximately equal armament. The American sloops Hornet, Wasp (1807), Peacock, Wasp (1813), and Frolic were all ship - rigged while the British Cruizer - class sloops they encountered were brig rigged, which gave the Americans a significant advantage. Ship rigged vessels are more maneuverable in battle because they have a wider variety of sails the can back allowing ship - rigged vessels to wear as well as heave to. More significantly, if some spars are shot away on a brig because it is more difficult to wear, the brig loses the ability to steer, while a ship could adjust its more diverse canvas as if to wear to compensate for the imbalance caused by damage in battle. Furthermore, ship - rigged vessels which three masts simply have more masts to shoot away than brigs with two masts before the vessel is unmanagable. In addition While the American ships had experienced and well - drilled volunteer crews, the enormous size of the overstretched Royal Navy meant that many ships were shorthanded and the average quality of crews suffered and the constant sea duties of those serving in North America interfered with their training and exercises. The only engagement between two brig - sloops was between the British Cruizer - class brig Pelican (1812) and the United States ' Argus where Pelican emerged the victor as she had greater firepower and tonnage, despite having fewer crew. Although not a sloop, the gun - brig Boxer was taken by the brig - sloop Enterprise in a bloody battle where Enterprise emerged the victor again due to superior force.
It was clear that in single ship battles, superior force was the most significant factor. In response to the majority of the American ships being of greater force than the British ships of the same class, Britain constructed five 40 - gun, 24 - pounder heavy frigates and two "spar - decked '' frigates (the 60 - gun HMS Leander and HMS Newcastle) and to razee three old 74 - gun ships of the line to convert them to heavy frigates. To counter the American sloops of war, the British constructed the Cyrus - class ship - sloops of 22 guns. The British Admiralty also instituted a new policy that the three American heavy frigates should not be engaged except by a ship of the line or frigates in squadron strength.
Commodore Philip Broke had lost Guerriere to Constitution from his very own squadron. He knew that Dacres of Guerriere intended to duel the American frigate to avenge the losses on Little Belt caused by USS President in 1811. Since, Constitution had taken Guerriere, Broke intended to redeem Dacres ' honor by taking Constitution, which was undergoing repairs in Boston in early 1813. Broke found that Constitution was not ready for sea. Instead, he decided to challenge Chesapeake as Broke was short on water and provisions and could not wait for Constitution. Captain James Lawrence of Chesapeake was misguided by propaganda intended to boost American morale (and successfully did) that claimed that the three frigate duels of 1812 were of equal force leading Lawrence to believe taking Broke 's Shannon (1806) would be easy. Lawrence even went to the extent of preemptively arranging for a banquet to be held for his victorious crew. Broke, on the other hand, had spent years training his crew and developing artillery innovations on his ship, making Shannon particularly well prepared for battle. On June 1, 1813, Shannon took Chesapeake in a duel that lasted less than fifteen minutes in Boston Harbor. Lawrence was mortally wounded and famously cried out, "Tell the men to fire faster! Do n't give up the ship! '' The two frigates were of near - identical armament and length. Chesapeake 's crew was larger, had greater tonnage and was of greater scantling strength (which led to the British claiming she was overbuilt), but many of her crew had not served or trained together. Shannon had been at sea for a long time, and her hull had begun to rot, further exaggerating the disparity in scantling strength. Nevertheless, this engagement proved to the only single - ship action where both ships were of essentially equal force during the War of 1812. British citizens reacted with celebration and relief that the run of American victories had ended. Notably, this action was by ratio one of the bloodiest contests recorded during this age of sail due to the close - range engagement, the boarding (hand - to - hand combat) and Broke 's philosophy of artillery being "Kill the men and the ship is yours '', with more dead and wounded than HMS Victory suffered in four hours of combat at Trafalgar. Captain Lawrence was killed, and Captain Broke was so badly wounded that he never again held a sea command. The Americans then did as the British had done in 1812 and banned single - ship duels after this engagement.
In January 1813, the American frigate Essex, under the command of Captain David Porter, sailed into the Pacific to harass British shipping. Many British whaling ships carried letters of marque allowing them to prey on American whalers, and they nearly destroyed the industry. Essex challenged this practice. She inflicted considerable damage on British interests. Essex consort USS Essex Junior (armed with twenty guns) were captured off Valparaíso, Chile, by the British frigate HMS Phoebe and the sloop HMS Cherub on March 28, 1814 in what statistically appeared to be a battle of equal force as Essex and Phoebe were of similar tonnage, scantling, and broadside weight as well as Cherub and Essex Junior (with the exception of scantling, which Essex Junior was much more lightly built than Cherub). Once again the Americans had more men. Nevertheless, Phoebe was armed with long guns which none of the other ships engaged had. Furthermore, Captain Hillyar had used Phillip Broke 's methods of artillery on Phoebe and Cherub with tangent and dispart sights. This gave the British ships a significant advantage at the range at which the battle was fought. Once again proving that superior force was the deciding factor.
To conclude the cycle of duels cause by the Little Belt affair, USS President was finally captured in January 1815. Unlike the previous engagements, President was not taken in a duel. Following the both Royal Navy 's requirements, President was pursued by a squadron consisting of four frigates, one being a 56 - gun razee. President was an extremely fast ship and successfully outsailed the fast British squadron with the exception of HMS Endymion which has been regarded as the fastest ship in the age of fighting sail. Captain Henry Hope of Endymion had fitted his ship with Phillip Broke 's technology as Captain Hillyar had done on Phoebe. This gave him the slight advantage at range and slowed President. Commodore Decatur on President had the advantage in scantling strength, firepower, crew, and tonnage, but not in maneuverability. Despite having fewer guns, Endymion was armed with 24 - pounders just like President. This meant that Endymion shot could pierce the hull of President unlike Guerriere 's which bounced of Constitution 's hull or Java 's that failed to cut through Constitution 's mast. Following Broke 's philosophy of "Kill the man and the ship is your 's '', Endymion fired into President 's hull severely damaging her (shot holes below the waterline, 10 / 15 starboard guns on the gundeck disabled, water in the hold, and shot from Endymion found inside President 's magazine.). Decatur knew his only hope was to dismantle Endymion and sail away from the rest of the squadron. When he failed, he surrendered his ship to "the captain of the black frigate (Endymion) ''. Decatur took advantage of the fact Endymion had no boats that were intact and attempted to sneak away under the cover of night, only to be caught up by HMS Pomone. Decatur surrendered without a fight. Decatur had surrendered the United States finest frigate and flagship President to a smaller ship, but part of a squadron of greater force.
Decatur gave unreliable accounts of the battle stating that President was already "severely damaged '' by a grounding before the engagement, but undamaged after the engagement with Endymion. He stated Pomone caused "significant '' losses aboard President, although President 's crew claim they were below deck gathering their belongings as they had already surrendered. Despite saying "I surrender my ship to the captain of the black frigate '', Decatur also writes that he said, "I surrender to the squadron ''. Nevertheless, many historians such as Ian Toll, Theodore Roosevelt, and William James quote Decatur 's remarks to either enforce that Endymion alone took President or that President surrendered to the whole squadron, when actually it was something in - between. These arguments show the significance to honor of last frigate engagement 's of the War of 1812 as the question as to how President was taken is only significant to honor as the outcome is maintained that President was taken. British honor was finally redeemed as President was taken and Little Belt was avenged. Furthermore, President was used as an example to prove to the British that the American 44 - gun frigates were nowhere near evenly matched to the standard British 38 - gun frigates which had been taken in 1812. Nevertheless, this was not a duel (which was stressed by Decatur) and the United States still maintained greater success in frigate duels, and American honor was maintained. Both countries therefore emerged with the sense that they had redeemed their honor.
Success in single ship battles raised American morale after the repeated failed invasion attempts in Upper and Lower Canada. However, these victories had no military effect on the war at sea as they did not alter the balance of naval power, impede British supplies and reinforcements, or even raise insurance rates for British trade. During the war, the United States Navy captured 165 British merchantmen (although privateers captured many more), while the Royal Navy captured 1,400 American merchantmen. More significantly, the British blockade of the Atlantic coast caused the majority warships to be unable to put to sea and devastated the United States economy.
The operations of American privateers proved a more significant threat to British trade than the U.S. Navy. They operated throughout the Atlantic and continued until the close of the war, most notably from ports such as Baltimore. American privateers reported taking 1300 British merchant vessels, compared to 254 taken by the U.S. Navy. although the insurer Lloyd 's of London reported that only 1,175 British ships were taken, 373 of which were recaptured, for a total loss of 802. The Canadian historian Carl Benn wrote that American privateers took 1, 344 British ships, of which 750 were retaken by the British. However the British were able to limit privateering losses by the strict enforcement of convoy by the Royal Navy and by capturing 278 American privateers. Due to the massive size of the British merchant fleet, American captures only affected 7.5 % of the fleet, resulting in no supply shortages or lack of reinforcements for British forces in North America. Of 526 American privateers, 148 were captured by the Royal Navy and only 207 ever took a prize.
Due to the large size of their navy, the British did not rely as much on privateering. The majority of the 1,407 captured American merchant ships were taken by the Royal Navy. The war was the last time the British allowed privateering, since the practice was coming to be seen as politically inexpedient and of diminishing value in maintaining its naval supremacy. However privateering remained popular in British colonies. It was the last hurrah for privateers in Bermuda who vigorously returned to the practice after experience in previous wars. The nimble Bermuda sloops captured 298 American ships. Privateer schooners based in British North America, especially from Nova Scotia took 250 American ships and proved especially effective in crippling American coastal trade and capturing American ships closer to shore than the Royal Navy cruisers.
The naval blockade of the United States began informally in 1812 and expanded to cut off more ports as the war progressed. Twenty ships were on station in 1812 and 135 were in place by the end of the conflict. In March 1813, the Royal Navy punished the Southern states, who were most vocal about annexing British North America, by blockading Charleston, Port Royal, Savannah and New York city was well. However, as additional ships were sent to North America in 1813, the Royal Navy was able to tighten the blockade and extend it, first to the coast south of Narragansett by November 1813 and to the entire American coast on May 31, 1814. In May 1814, following the abdication of Napoleon, and the end of the supply problems with Wellington 's army, New England was blockaded.
The British government, having need of American foodstuffs for its army in Spain, benefited from the willingness of the New Englanders to trade with them, so no blockade of New England was at first attempted. The Delaware River and Chesapeake Bay were declared in a state of blockade on December 26, 1812. Illicit trade was carried on by collusive captures arranged between American traders and British officers. American ships were fraudulently transferred to neutral flags. Eventually, the U.S. government was driven to issue orders to stop illicit trading; this put only a further strain on the commerce of the country. The overpowering strength of the British fleet enabled it to occupy the Chesapeake and to attack and destroy numerous docks and harbours.
The blockade of American ports later tightened to the extent that most American merchant ships and naval vessels were confined to port. The American frigates USS United States and USS Macedonian ended the war blockaded and hulked in New London, Connecticut. USS United States and USS Macedonian attempted to set sail to raid British shipping in the Caribbean, but were forced to turn back when confronted with a British squadron, and by the end of the war, the United States had six frigates and four ships - of - the - line sitting in port. Some merchant ships were based in Europe or Asia and continued operations. Others, mainly from New England, were issued licences to trade by Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren, commander in chief on the American station in 1813. This allowed Wellington 's army in Spain to receive American goods and to maintain the New Englanders ' opposition to the war. The blockade nevertheless resulted in American exports decreasing from $130 million in 1807 to $7 million in 1814. Most of these were food exports that ironically went to supply their enemies in Britain or British colonies. The blockade had a devastating effect on the American economy with the value of American exports and imports falling from $114 million in 1811 down to $20 million by 1814 while the US Customs took in $13 million in 1811 and $6 million in 1814, despite the fact that Congress had voted to double the rates. The British blockade further damaged the American economy by forcing merchants to abandon the cheap and fast coastal trade to the slow and more expensive inland roads. In 1814, only 1 out of 14 American merchantmen risked leaving port as a high probability that any ship leaving port would be seized.
As the Royal Navy base that supervised the blockade, Halifax profited greatly during the war. From that base British privateers seized many French and American ships and sold their prizes in Halifax.
The British Royal Navy 's blockades and raids allowed about 4,000 African Americans to escape slavery by fleeing American plantations to find freedom aboard British ships, migrants known, as regards those who settled in Canada, as the Black Refugees. The blockading British fleet in Chesapeake Bay received increasing numbers of enslaved black Americans during 1813. By British government order they were treated as free persons when reaching British hands. Alexander Cochrane 's proclamation of April 2, 1814, invited Americans who wished to emigrate to join the British, and though not explicitly mentioning slaves was taken by all as addressed to them. About 2,400 of the escaped slaves and their families who were carried on ships of the Royal Navy following their escape settled in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick during and after the war. From May 1814, younger men among the volunteers were recruited into a new Corps of Colonial Marines. They fought for Britain throughout the Atlantic campaign, including the Battle of Bladensburg and the attacks on Washington, D.C. and Battle of Baltimore, later settling in Trinidad after rejecting British government orders for transfer to the West India Regiments, forming the community of the Merikins. The slaves who escaped to the British represented the largest emancipation of African Americans before the American Civil War.
Maine, then part of Massachusetts, was a base for smuggling and illegal trade between the U.S. and the British. Until 1813 the region was generally quiet except for privateer actions near the coast. In September 1813, there was a notable naval action when the U.S. Navy 's brig Enterprise fought and captured the Royal Navy brig Boxer off Pemaquid Point. The first British assault came in July 1814, when Sir Thomas Masterman Hardy took Moose Island (Eastport, Maine) without a shot, with the entire American garrison of Fort Sullivan -- which became the British Fort Sherbrooke -- surrendering. Next, from his base in Halifax, Nova Scotia, in September 1814, Sir John Coape Sherbrooke led 3,000 British troops in the "Penobscot Expedition ''. In 26 days, he raided and looted Hampden, Bangor, and Machias, destroying or capturing 17 American ships. He won the Battle of Hampden (losing two killed while the Americans lost one killed). Retreating American forces were forced to destroy the frigate Adams. The British occupied the town of Castine and most of eastern Maine for the rest of the war, re-establishing the colony of New Ireland. The Treaty of Ghent returned this territory to the United States, though Machias Seal Island has remained in dispute. The British left in April 1815, at which time they took ₤ 10,750 obtained from tariff duties at Castine. This money, called the "Castine Fund '', was used to establish Dalhousie University, in Halifax, Nova Scotia.
The strategic location of the Chesapeake Bay near America 's new national capital, Washington, D.C. on the major tributary of the Potomac River, made it a prime target for the British. Starting in March 1813, a squadron under Rear Admiral George Cockburn started a blockade of the mouth of the Bay at Hampton Roads harbour and raided towns along the Bay from Norfolk, Virginia, to Havre de Grace, Maryland.
On July 4, 1813, Commodore Joshua Barney, a Revolutionary War naval hero, convinced the Navy Department to build the Chesapeake Bay Flotilla, a squadron of twenty barges powered by small sails or oars (sweeps) to defend the Chesapeake Bay. Launched in April 1814, the squadron was quickly cornered in the Patuxent River, and while successful in harassing the Royal Navy, they were powerless to stop the British campaign that ultimately led to the "Burning of Washington ''. This expedition, led by Cockburn and General Robert Ross, was carried out between August 19 and 29, 1814, as the result of the hardened British policy of 1814. As part of this, Admiral Warren had been replaced as commander in chief by Admiral Alexander Cochrane, with reinforcements and orders to coerce the Americans into a favourable peace.
A force of 2,500 soldiers under General Ross had just arrived in Bermuda aboard HMS Royal Oak, three frigates, three sloops and ten other vessels. Released from the Peninsular War by victory, the British intended to use them for diversionary raids along the coasts of Maryland and Virginia. In response to Prévost 's request, they decided to employ this force, together with the naval and military units already on the station, to strike at the national capital.
On August 24, U.S. Secretary of War John Armstrong Jr. insisted that the British were going to attack Baltimore rather than Washington, even when British army and naval units were obviously on their way to Washington. The inexperienced state militia was easily routed in the Battle of Bladensburg, opening the route to Washington. While First Lady Dolley Madison saved valuables from what is now the "White House '', senior officials fled to Virginia. Secretary of the Navy William Jones ordered setting fire to the Washington Navy Yard to prevent the capture of supplies. The nation 's public buildings were destroyed by the British (and by a furious thunderstorm that ruined a great deal of property, although it did quench the flames). American morale was challenged, and many Federalists swung around and rallied to a patriotic defense of their homeland.
The British moved on to their major target, the heavily fortified major city of Baltimore. They delayed their movement allowing Baltimore an opportunity to strengthen the fortifications and bring in new federal troops and state militia units. The "Battle for Baltimore '' began with the British landing on September 12, 1814, at North Point, where they were met by American militia further up the "Patapsco Neck '' peninsula. An exchange of fire began, with casualties on both sides. The British Army commander Major Gen. Robert Ross was killed by snipers. The British paused, then continued to march northwestward to face the stationed Maryland and Baltimore City militia units at "Godly Wood. '' The Battle of North Point was fought for several afternoon hours in a musketry and artillery duel. The British also planned to simultaneously attack Baltimore by water on the following day, September 13, to support their military facing the massed, heavily dug - in and fortified American units of approximately 15,000 with about a hundred cannon gathered along the eastern heights of the city named "Loudenschlager 's Hill '' (later "Hampstead Hill '' -- now part of Patterson Park). The Baltimore defences had been planned in advance and overseen by the state militia commander, Maj. Gen. Samuel Smith. The Royal Navy was unable to reduce Fort McHenry at the entrance to Baltimore Harbor in support of an attack from the northeast by the British Army.
The British naval guns, mortars and new "Congreve rockets '' had a longer range than the American cannon onshore. The ships mostly stood out of range of the Americans, who returned very little fire. The fort was not heavily damaged except for a burst over a rear brickwall knocking out some fieldpieces but with few casualties. The British eventually realized that they could not force the passage to attack Baltimore in coordination with the land force. A last ditch night feint and barge attack during a heavy rain storm was led by Capt. Charles Napier around the fort up the Middle Branch of the river to the west. Split and misdirected partly in the storm, it turned back after suffering heavy casualties from the alert gunners of Fort Covington and Battery Babcock. The British called off the attack and sailed downriver to pick up their army, which had retreated from the east side of Baltimore. All the lights were extinguished in Baltimore the night of the attack, and the fort was bombarded for 25 hours. The only light was given off by the exploding shells over Fort McHenry, illuminating the flag that was still flying over the fort. The defence of the fort inspired the American lawyer Francis Scott Key to write "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', a poem that was later set to music as "The Star - Spangled Banner ''.
Before 1813, the war between the Creeks (or Muscogee) had been largely an internal affair sparked by the ideas of Tecumseh farther north in the Mississippi Valley. A faction known as the Red Sticks, so named for the color of their war stics, had broken away from the rest of the Creek Confederacy, which wanted peace with the United States. The Red Sticks were allied with Tecumseh, who about a year before 1813 had visited the Creeks and encouraged greater resistance to the Americans. The Creek Nation was a trading partner of the United States, actively involved with Spanish and British trade as well. The Red Sticks, as well as many southern Muscogeean people like the Seminole, had a long history of alliance with the Spanish and British Empires. This alliance helped the North American and European powers protect each other 's claims to territory in the south.
The Battle of Burnt Corn, between Red Sticks and U.S. troops, occurred in the southern parts of Alabama on July 27, 1813. It prompted the state of Georgia as well as the Mississippi territory militia to immediately take major action against Creek offensives. The Red Sticks chiefs gained power in the east along the Alabama, Coosa, and Tallapoosa Rivers -- Upper Creek territory. The Lower Creek lived along the Chattahoochee River. Many Creeks tried to remain friendly to the United States, and some were organized by federal Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins to aid the 6th Military District under General Thomas Pinckney and the state militias. The United States combined forces were large. At its peak the Red Stick faction had 4,000 warriors, only a quarter of whom had muskets.
On August 30, 1813, Red Sticks, led by chiefs Red Eagle and Peter McQueen, attacked Fort Mimms, north of Mobile, the only American - held port in the territory of West Florida. The attack on Fort Mimms resulted in the death of 400 settlers and became an ideological rallying point for the Americans.
The Indian frontier of western Georgia was the most vulnerable but was partially fortified already. From November 1813 to January 1814, Georgia 's militia and auxiliary Federal troops -- from the Creek and Cherokee Indian nations and the states of North Carolina and South Carolina -- organized the fortification of defences along the Chattahoochee River and expeditions into Upper Creek territory in present - day Alabama. The army, led by General John Floyd, went to the heart of the "Creek Holy Grounds '' and won a major offensive against one of the largest Creek towns at Battle of Autosee, killing an estimated two hundred people. In November, the militia of Mississippi with a combined 1200 troops attacked the "Econachca '' encampment ("Battle of Holy Ground '') on the Alabama River. Tennessee raised a militia of 5,000 under Major General Andrew Jackson and Brigadier General John Coffee and won the battles of Tallushatchee and Talladega in November 1813.
Jackson suffered enlistment problems in the winter. He decided to combine his force with that of the Georgia militia. However, from January 22 -- 24, 1814, while on their way, the Tennessee militia and allied Muscogee were attacked by the Red Sticks at the Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek. Jackson 's troops repelled the attackers, but outnumbered, were forced to withdraw to his base at Fort Strother.
In January Floyd 's force of 1,300 state militia and 400 Creek Indians moved to join the U.S. forces in Tennessee, but were attacked in camp on the Calibee Creek by Tukabatchee Indians on the 27th.
Jackson 's force increased in numbers with the arrival of U.S. Army soldiers and a second draft of Tennessee state militia and Cherokee and Creek allies swelled his army to around 5,000. In March 1814 they moved south to attack the Creek. On March 27, Jackson decisively defeated the Creek Indian force at Horseshoe Bend, killing 800 of 1,000 Creeks at a cost of 49 killed and 154 wounded out of approximately 2,000 American and Cherokee forces. The American army moved to Fort Jackson on the Alabama River. On August 9, 1814, the Upper Creek chiefs and Jackson 's army signed the "Treaty of Fort Jackson ''. The most of western Georgia and part of Alabama was taken from the Creeks to pay for expenses borne by the United States. The Treaty also "demanded '' that the "Red Stick '' insurgents cease communicating with the Spanish or British, and only trade with U.S. - approved agents.
British aid to the Red Sticks arrived after the end of the Napoleonic Wars in April 1814 and after Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane assumed command from Admiral Warren in March. The Creek promised to join any body of ' troops that should aid them in regaining their lands, and suggesting an attack on the tower off Mobile. ' In April 1814 the British established an outpost on the Apalachicola River (see Prospect Bluff Historic Sites). Cochrane sent a company of Royal Marines, the vessels HMS Hermes and HMS Carron, commanded by Edward Nicolls, and further supplies to meet the Indians. In addition to training the Indians, Nicolls was tasked to raise a force from escaped slaves, as part of the Corps of Colonial Marines.
In July 1814, General Jackson complained to the Governor of Pensacola, Mateo González Manrique, that combatants from the Creek War were being harboured in Spanish territory, and made reference to the British presence on Spanish soil. Although he gave an angry reply to Jackson, Manrique was alarmed at the weak position he found himself in. He appealed to the British for help, with Woodbine arriving on July 28, and Nicolls arriving at Pensacola on August 24.
The first engagement of the British and their Creek allies against the Americans on the Gulf Coast was the attack on Fort Bowyer September 14, 1814. Captain William Percy tried to take the U.S. fort, hoping to then move on Mobile and block U.S. trade and encroachment on the Mississippi. After the Americans repulsed Percy 's forces, the British established a military presence of up to 200 Marines at Pensacola. In November, Jackson 's force of 4,000 men took the town. This underlined the superiority of numbers of Jackson 's force in the region. The U.S. force moved to New Orleans in late 1814. Jackson 's army of 1,000 regulars and 3,000 to 4,000 militia, pirates and other fighters, as well as civilians and slaves built fortifications south of the city.
American forces under General James Wilkinson, who was himself earning $4,000 per year as a Spanish secret agent, took the Mobile area -- formerly part of West Florida -- from the Spanish in March 1813; this was the only territory permanently gained by the U.S. during the war. The Americans built Fort Bowyer, a log and earthenwork fort with 14 guns, on Mobile Point.
At the end of 1814, the British launched a double offensive in the South weeks before the Treaty of Ghent was signed. On the Atlantic coast, Admiral George Cockburn was to close the Intracoastal Waterway trade and land Royal Marine battalions to advance through Georgia to the western territories. On the Gulf coast, Admiral Alexander Cochrane moved on the new state of Louisiana and the Mississippi Territory. Admiral Cochrane 's ships reached the Louisiana coast December 9, and Cockburn arrived in Georgia December 14.
On January 8, 1815, a British force of 8,000 under General Edward Pakenham attacked Jackson 's defences in New Orleans. The Battle of New Orleans was an American victory, as the British failed to take the fortifications on the East Bank. The British suffered high casualties: 291 dead, 1262 wounded, and 484 captured or missing whereas American casualties were 13 dead, 39 wounded, and 19 missing. It was hailed as a great victory across the U.S., making Jackson a national hero and eventually propelling him to the presidency. The American garrison at Fort St. Philip endured ten days of bombardment from Royal Navy guns, which was a final attempt to invade Louisiana; British ships sailed away from the Mississippi River on January 18. However, it was not until January 27, 1815, that the army had completely rejoined the fleet, allowing for their departure.
After New Orleans, the British tried to take Mobile a second time; General John Lambert laid siege for five days and took the fort, winning the Second Battle of Fort Bowyer on February 12, 1815. HMS Brazen brought news of the Treaty of Ghent the next day, and the British abandoned the Gulf coast.
In January 1815, Admiral Cockburn succeeded in blockading the southeastern coast by occupying Camden County, Georgia. The British quickly took Cumberland Island, Fort Point Peter, and Fort St. Tammany in a decisive victory. Under the orders of his commanding officers, Cockburn 's forces relocated many refugee slaves, capturing St. Simons Island as well, to do so. During the invasion of the Georgia coast, an estimated 1,485 people chose to relocate in British territories or join the military. In mid-March, several days after being informed of the Treaty of Ghent, British ships finally left the area.
By 1814, both sides had either achieved their main war goals or were weary of a costly war that offered little but stalemate. They both sent delegations to a neutral site in Ghent, Flanders (now part of Belgium). The negotiations began in early August and concluded on December 24, when a final agreement was signed; both sides had to ratify it before it could take effect. Meanwhile, both sides planned new invasions.
In 1814 the British began blockading the United States, and brought the American economy to near bankruptcy, forcing it to rely on loans for the rest of the war. American foreign trade was reduced to a trickle. The parlous American economy was thrown into chaos with prices soaring and unexpected shortages causing hardship in New England which was considering secession. The Hartford Convention led to widespread fears that the New England states might attempt to leave the Union, which was exaggerated as most New Englanders did not wish to leave the Union and merely wanted an end to a war which was bringing much economic hardship, suggested that the continuation of the war might threaten the union. But also to a lesser extent British interests were hurt in the West Indies and Canada that had depended on that trade. Although American privateers found chances of success much reduced, with most British merchantmen now sailing in convoy, privateering continued to prove troublesome to the British, as shown by high insurance rates. British landowners grew weary of high taxes, and colonial interests and merchants called on the government to reopen trade with the U.S. by ending the war.
At last in August 1814, peace discussions began in the neutral city of Ghent. Both sides began negotiations warily. The British diplomats stated their case first, demanding the creation of an Indian barrier state in the American Northwest Territory (the area from Ohio to Wisconsin). It was understood the British would sponsor this Indian state. The British strategy for decades had been to create a buffer state to block American expansion. Britain demanded naval control of the Great Lakes and access to the Mississippi River. The Americans refused to consider a buffer state and the proposal was dropped. Although Article IX of the treaty included provisions to restore to Natives "all possessions, rights and privileges which they may have enjoyed, or been entitled to in 1811 '', the provisions were unenforceable; the British did not try and the Americans simply broke the treaty. The Americans (at a later stage) demanded damages for the burning of Washington and for the seizure of ships before the war began.
American public opinion was outraged when Madison published the demands; even the Federalists were now willing to fight on. The British had planned three invasions. One force burned Washington but failed to capture Baltimore, and sailed away when its commander was killed. In northern New York State, 10,000 British veterans were marching south until a decisive defeat at the Battle of Plattsburgh forced them back to Canada. Nothing was known of the fate of the third large invasion force aimed at capturing New Orleans and southwest. The Prime Minister wanted the Duke of Wellington to command in Canada and take control of the Great Lakes. Wellington said that he would go to America but he believed he was needed in Europe. Wellington emphasized that the war was a draw and the peace negotiations should not make territorial demands:
I think you have no right, from the state of war, to demand any concession of territory from America... You have not been able to carry it into the enemy 's territory, notwithstanding your military success and now undoubted military superiority, and have not even cleared your own territory on the point of attack. You can not on any principle of equality in negotiation claim a cessation of territory except in exchange for other advantages which you have in your power... Then if this reasoning be true, why stipulate for the uti possidetis? You can get no territory: indeed, the state of your military operations, however creditable, does not entitle you to demand any.
The Prime Minister, Lord Liverpool, aware of growing opposition to wartime taxation and the demands of Liverpool and Bristol merchants to reopen trade with America, realized Britain also had little to gain and much to lose from prolonged warfare especially after the growing concern about the situation in Europe. After months of negotiations, against the background of changing military victories, defeats and losses, the parties finally realized that their nations wanted peace and there was no real reason to continue the war. The main focus on British foreign policy was the Congress of Vienna, during which British diplomats had clashed with Russian and Prussian diplomats over the terms of the peace with France, and there were fears at the Britain might have go to war with Russia and Prussia. Now each side was tired of the war. Export trade was all but paralyzed and after Napoleon fell in 1814 France was no longer an enemy of Britain, so the Royal Navy no longer needed to stop American shipments to France, and it no longer needed to impress more seamen. It had ended the practices that so angered the Americans in 1812. The British were preoccupied in rebuilding Europe after the apparent final defeat of Napoleon.
British negotiators were urged by Lord Liverpool to offer a status quo and dropped their demands for the creation of an Indian barrier state, which was in any case hopeless after the collapse of Tecumseh 's alliance. This allowed negotiations to resume at the end of October. British diplomats soon offered the status quo to the U.S. negotiators, who accepted them. Prisoners were to be exchanged and captured slaves returned to the United States or paid for by Britain. At this point, the number of slaves was approximately 6,000. Britain eventually refused the demand, allowing many to either emigrate to Canada or Trinidad.
On December 24, 1814 the diplomats had finished and signed the Treaty of Ghent. The treaty was ratified by the British three days later on December 27 and arrived in Washington on February 17, where it was quickly ratified and went into effect, thus finally ending the war. The terms called for all occupied territory to be returned, the prewar boundary between Canada and the United States to be restored, and the Americans were to gain fishing rights in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.
The Treaty of Ghent failed to secure official British acknowledgement of American maritime rights or ending impressment. However, in the century of peace until World War I these rights were not seriously violated. The defeat of Napoleon made irrelevant all of the naval issues over which the United States had fought. The Americans had achieved their goal of ending the Indian threat; furthermore the American armies had scored enough victories (especially at New Orleans) to satisfy honour and the sense of becoming fully independent from Britain.
British losses in the war were about 1,160 killed in action and 3,679 wounded; 3,321 British died from disease. American losses were 2,260 killed in action and 4,505 wounded. While the number of Americans who died from disease is not known, it is estimated that about 15,000 died from all causes directly related to the war. These figures do not include deaths among Canadian militia forces or losses among native tribes.
There have been no estimates of the cost of the American war to Britain, but it did add some £ 25 million to the national debt. In the U.S., the cost was $105 million, about the same as the cost to Britain. The national debt rose from $45 million in 1812 to $127 million by the end of 1815, although by selling bonds and treasury notes at deep discounts -- and often for irredeemable paper money due to the suspension of specie payment in 1814 -- the government received only $34 million worth of specie. Stephen Girard, the richest man in America at the time, was one of those who personally funded the United States government involvement in the war.
In addition, at least 3,000 American slaves escaped to the British lines. Many other slaves simply escaped in the chaos of war and achieved their freedom on their own. The British settled some of the newly freed slaves in Nova Scotia. Four hundred freedmen were settled in New Brunswick. The Americans protested that Britain 's failure to return the slaves violated the Treaty of Ghent. After arbitration by the Tsar of Russia the British paid $1,204,960 in damages to Washington, which reimbursed the slaveowners.
In the United States, the economy grew every year 1812 -- 1815, despite a large loss of business by East Coast shipping interests. Prices were 15 % higher -- inflated -- in 1815 compared to 1812, an annual rate of 4.8 %. The national economy grew 1812 -- 1815 at the rate of 3.7 % a year, after accounting for inflation. Per capita GDP grew at 2.2 % a year, after accounting for inflation. Hundreds of new banks were opened; they largely handled the loans that financed the war since tax revenues were down. Money that would have been spent on foreign trade was diverted to opening new factories, which were profitable since British factory - made products were not for sale. This gave a major boost to the Industrial Revolution in the U.S., as typified by the Boston Associates. The Boston Manufacturing Company, built the first integrated spinning and weaving factory in the world at Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1813.
During the 19th century the popular image of the war in the United States was of an American victory, and in Canada, of a Canadian victory. Each young country saw its self - perceived victory as an important foundation of its growing nationhood. The British, on the other hand, who had been preoccupied by Napoleon 's challenge in Europe, paid little attention to what was to them a peripheral and secondary dispute, a distraction from the principal task at hand.
In British North America, the War of 1812 was seen by Loyalists as a victory, as they had claimed they had successfully defended their country from an American takeover.
A long - term consequence of the Canadian militia 's success was the view widely held in Canada at least until the First World War that Canada did not need a regular professional army. While Canadian militia units had played instrumental roles in several engagements, such as at the Battle of the Chateauguay, it was the regular units of the British Army, including its "Fencible '' regiments which were recruited within North America, which ensured that Canada was successfully defended.
The U.S. Army had done poorly, on the whole, in several attempts to invade Canada, and the Canadians had fought bravely to defend their territory. But the British did not doubt that the thinly populated territory would remain vulnerable in a third war. "We can not keep Canada if the Americans declare war against us again '', Admiral Sir David Milne wrote to a correspondent in 1817, although the Rideau Canal was built for just such a scenario.
By the 21st century it was a forgotten war in Britain, although still remembered in Canada, especially Ontario. In a 2009 poll, 37 % of Canadians said the war was a Canadian victory, 9 % said the U.S. won, 15 % called it a draw, and 39 % said they knew too little to comment. A 2012 poll found that in a list of items that could be used to define Canadians ' identity, the belief that Canada successfully repelled an American invasion in the War of 1812 places second (25 %).
Today, American popular memory includes the British capture and the burning of Washington in August 1814, which necessitated its extensive renovation. The fact that before the war, many Americans wanted to annex British North America, was swiftly forgotten, and instead American popular memory focused on the victories at Baltimore, Plattsburg and New Orleans to present the war as a successful effort to assert American national honour, the "second war of independence '' that saw the mighty British empire humbled and humiliated. In a speech before Congress on February 18, 1815, President Madison proclaimed the war a complete American victory. This interpretation of the war was and remains the dominant American view of the war The American newspaper the Niles Register in an editorial on September 14, 1816, announced that the Americans had crushed the British, declaring "... we did virtually dictate the treaty of Ghent to the British ''. A minority of Americans, mostly associated with the Federalists, saw the war as a defeat and an act of folly on Madison 's part, caustically asking if the Americans were "dictating '' the terms of the treaty of Ghent, why the British Crown did not cede British North America to the United States? However, the Federalist view of the war is not the mainstream American memory of the war. The view of Congressman George Troup, who stated in a speech in 1815 that the Treaty of Ghent was "the glorious termination of the most glorious war ever waged by any people '', is the way that most Americans remembered the war. Another memory is the successful American defence of Fort McHenry in September 1814, which inspired the lyrics of the U.S. national anthem, "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. The successful captains of the U.S. Navy became popular heroes with plates with the likeness of Decatur, Steward, Hull, and others becoming popular items. Ironically, many were made in England. The navy became a cherished institution, lauded for the victories that it won against all odds. After engagements during the final actions of the war, U.S. Marines had acquired a well - deserved reputation as excellent marksmen, especially in ship - to - ship actions.
Historians have differing and complex interpretations of the war. In recent decades the view of the majority of historians has been that the war ended in stalemate, with the Treaty of Ghent closing a war that had become militarily inconclusive. Neither side wanted to continue fighting since the main causes had disappeared and since there were no large lost territories for one side or the other to reclaim by force. Insofar as they see the war 's resolution as allowing two centuries of peaceful and mutually beneficial intercourse between the U.S., Britain and Canada, these historians often conclude that all three nations were the "real winners '' of the War of 1812. These writers often add that the war could have been avoided in the first place by better diplomacy. It is seen as a mistake for everyone concerned because it was badly planned and marked by multiple fiascoes and failures on both sides, as shown especially by the repeated American failures to seize parts of Canada, and the failed British attack on New Orleans and upstate New York.
However, other scholars hold that the war constituted a British victory and an American defeat. They argue that the British achieved their military objectives in 1812 (by stopping the repeated American invasions of Canada) and retaining their Canadian colonies. By contrast, they say, the Americans suffered a defeat when their armies failed to achieve their war goal of seizing part or all of Canada. Additionally, they argue the U.S. lost as it failed to stop impressment, which the British refused to repeal until the end of the Napoleonic Wars, arguing that the U.S. actions had no effect on the Orders in Council, which were rescinded before the war started.
Historian Troy Bickham, author of The Weight of Vengeance: The United States, the British Empire, and the War of 1812, sees the British as having fought to a much stronger position than the United States.
Even tied down by ongoing wars with Napoleonic France, the British had enough capable officers, well - trained men, and equipment to easily defeat a series of American invasions of Canada. In fact, in the opening salvos of the war, the American forces invading Upper Canada were pushed so far back that they ended up surrendering Michigan Territory. The difference between the two navies was even greater. While the Americans famously (shockingly for contemporaries on both sides of the Atlantic) bested British ships in some one - on - one actions at the war 's start, the Royal Navy held supremacy throughout the war, blockading the U.S. coastline and ravaging coastal towns, including Washington, D.C. Yet in late 1814, the British offered surprisingly generous peace terms despite having amassed a large invasion force of veteran troops in Canada, naval supremacy in the Atlantic, an opponent that was effectively bankrupt, and an open secessionist movement in New England.
He considers that the British offered the United States generous terms, in place of their initially harsh terms (which included massive forfeiture of land to Canada and the American Indians), because the "reigning Liverpool ministry in Britain held a loose grip on power and feared the war - weary, tax - exhausted public ''. The war was also technically a British victory "because the United States failed to achieve the aims listed in its declaration of war ''.
A second minority view is that both the U.S. and Britain won the war -- that is, both achieved their main objectives, as the U.S. restored its independence and honor, and opened the way to westward expansion, while Britain defeated Napoleon and ruled the seas. American historian Norman K. Risjord argues that the main motivation was restoring the nation 's honor in the face of relentless British Aggression toward American neutral rights on the high seas, and in the Western lands. The Results in terms of honor satisfied the War Hawks. American historian Donald Hickey asks, "Did the cost in blood and treasure justify the U.S. decision to go to war? Most Republicans thought it did. In the beginning they called the contest a "second war of independence '', and while Britain 's maritime practices never truly threatened the Republic 's independence, the war did in a broad sense vindicate U.S. sovereignty. But it ended in a draw on the battlefield. '' Historians argue that it was an American success to end the threat of Indian raids, kill the British plan for a semi-independent Indian sanctuary, and hereby to open an unimpeded path for westward expansion. Winston Churchill concluded:
The lessons of the war were taken to heart. Anti-American feeling in Great Britain ran high for several years, but the United States were never again refused proper treatment as an independent power.
American naval historian George C. Daughan argues that the US achieved enough of its war goals to claim a victorious result of the conflict, and subsequent impact it had on the negotiations in Ghent. Daughan uses official correspondences from President Madison to the delegates at Ghent strictly prohibiting negotiations with regards to maritime law, stating:
Madison 's latest dispatches (arrived July 25 -- 27, 1814) permitted them (the delegates) to simply ignore the entire question of maritime rights. Free trade with liberated Europe had already been restored, and the Admiralty no longer needed impressment to man its warships. The president felt that with Europe at peace the issues of neutral trading rights and impressment could safely be set aside in the interests of obtaining peace... Thus, from the start of the negotiations, the disagreements that started the war and sustained it were acknowledged by both parties to be no longer important.
The British permanently stopped impressing Americans, although they never publicly rescinding the possibility of resuming that practice. The US delegates at the meeting understood it to be a dead issue after the 1814 surrender of Napoleon. In addition, the successful defence of Baltimore, Plattsburgh, and Fort Erie (a strategic fortress located in Upper Canada on the Niagara River, and occupied during the 3rd and most successful offensive into Canada) had very favorable influence on the negotiations for the Americans and prompted several famous responses from both sides. Henry Clay wrote to the delegates in October 1814, "for in our own country, my dear sir, at last must we conquer the peace. '' With growing pressure in Britain, The Duke of Wellington when asked to command the forces in America wrote to Liverpool on November 9, 1814 "I confess that I think you have no right, from the state of the war, to demand any concession of territory from America... You have not been able to carry... (the war) into the enemy 's territory, notwithstanding your military success and now undoubted military superiority, and have not even cleared your own territory on the point of attack (Fort Erie)... Why Stipulate for uti possidetis? '' The argument that the US failed to capture any Canadian territory that influenced the negotiations is an outdated and highly criticized position, argues Daughan. He cites the Edinburgh Review, a British newspaper who had remained silent about the war with America for two years wrote "the British government had embarked on a war of conquest, after the American government had dropped its maritime demands, and the British had lost. It was folly to attempt to invade and conquer the United States. To do so would result in the same tragedy as the first war against them, and with the same result. ''
Historians have different views on who won the War of 1812, and there is an element of national bias to this. British and Canadian historians follow the view that the war was a British victory, and some US historians also support this view. The opposing position, held by most US historians along with some Canadians and British, is that the result was a stalemate. Only US historians follow the minority view that the US was the victorious party in the war. Similarly, a survey of school textbooks found that historians from Canada, Britain, and the United States emphasize different aspects of the war according to their national narratives; some British texts will scarcely mention the war.
Historians generally agree that the real losers of the War of 1812 were the Indians (called First Nations in Canada). Hickey says:
The big losers in the war were the Indians. As a proportion of their population, they had suffered the heaviest casualties. Worse, they were left without any reliable European allies in North America... The crushing defeats at the Thames and Horseshoe Bend left them at the mercy of the Americans, hastening their confinement to reservations and the decline of their traditional way of life.
The Indians of the Old Northwest (the modern Midwest) had hoped to create an Indian state to be a British protectorate. American settlers into the Middle West had been repeatedly blocked and threatened by Indian raids before 1812, and that now came to an end. Throughout the war the British had played on terror of the tomahawks and scalping knives of their Indian allies; it worked especially at Hull 's surrender at Detroit. By 1813 Americans had killed Tecumseh and broken his coalition of tribes. Jackson then defeated the Creek in the Southwest. Historian John Sugden notes that in both theatres, the Indians ' strength had been broken prior to the arrival of the major British forces in 1814. The one campaign that the Americans had decisively won was the campaign in the Old Northwest, which put the British in a weak hand to insist upon an Indian state in the Old Northwest.
Notwithstanding the sympathy and support from commanders (such as Brock, Cochrane and Nicolls), the policymakers in London reneged in assisting the Indians, as making peace was a higher priority for the politicians. At the peace conference the British demanded an independent Indian state in the Midwest, but, although the British and their Indian allies maintained control over the territories in question (i.e. most of the Upper Midwest), British diplomats did not press the demand after an American refusal, effectively abandoning their Indian allies. The withdrawal of British protection gave the Americans a free hand, which resulted in the removal of most of the tribes to Indian Territory (present - day Oklahoma). In that sense according to historian Alan Taylor, the final victory at New Orleans had "enduring and massive consequences ''. It gave the Americans "continental predominance '' while it left the Indians dispossessed, powerless, and vulnerable.
The Treaty of Ghent technically required the United States to cease hostilities and "forthwith to restore to such Tribes or Nations respectively all possessions, rights and privileges which they may have enjoyed, or been entitled to in 1811 ''; the United States ignored this article of the treaty and proceeded to expand into this territory regardless; Britain was unwilling to provoke further war to enforce it. A shocked Henry Goulburn, one of the British negotiators at Ghent, remarked:
Till I came here, I had no idea of the fixed determination which there is in the heart of every American to extirpate the Indians and appropriate their territory.
The Creek War came to an end, with the Treaty of Fort Jackson being imposed upon the Indians. About half of the Creek territory was ceded to the United States, with no payment made to the Creeks. This was, in theory, invalidated by Article 9 of the Treaty of Ghent. The British failed to press the issue, and did not take up the Indian cause as an infringement of an international treaty. Without this support, the Indians ' lack of power was apparent and the stage was set for further incursions of territory by the United States in subsequent decades.
Neither side lost territory in the war, nor did the treaty that ended it address the original points of contention -- and yet it changed much between the United States of America and Britain.
The Treaty of Ghent established the status quo ante bellum; that is, there were no territorial losses by either side. The issue of impressment was made moot when the Royal Navy, no longer needing sailors, stopped impressment after the defeat of Napoleon in spring 1814 ended the war. (Napoleon unexpectedly returned in 1815, after the final end of the war of 1812.) Except for occasional border disputes and some tensions during the American Civil War, relations between the U.S. and Britain remained peaceful for the rest of the 19th century, and the two countries became close allies in the 20th century.
The Rush -- Bagot Treaty between the United States and Britain was enacted in 1817. It demilitarized the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain, where many British naval arrangements and forts still remained. The treaty laid the basis for a demilitarized boundary. It remains in effect to this day.
Although Britain had defeated the American invasions she was in no mood to have more conflicts with the United States since her attention was to her growing Indian possessions. Indicative of forbearance, or at least improved relations, Britain never seriously challenged the US over land claims after 1846: she had hoped to keep Texas out of the US and had designs of taking California. From the 1880s, because of the burgeoning industrial power of the US, Britain had designs on getting the US on her side in a hypothetical European war. Border adjustments between the U.S. and British North America were made in the Treaty of 1818. Eastport, Massachusetts, was returned to the U.S. in 1818; it became part of the new State of Maine in 1820. A border dispute along the Maine -- New Brunswick border was settled by the 1842 Webster -- Ashburton Treaty after the bloodless Aroostook War, and the border in the Oregon Country was settled by splitting the disputed area in half by the 1846 Oregon Treaty. A further dispute about the line of the border through the island in the Strait of Juan de Fuca resulted in another almost bloodless standoff in the Pig War of 1859. The line of the border was finally settled by an international arbitration commission in 1872.
The U.S. suppressed the Native American resistance on its western and southern borders. The nation also gained a psychological sense of complete independence as people celebrated their "second war of independence ''. Nationalism soared after the victory at the Battle of New Orleans. The opposition Federalist Party collapsed, and the Era of Good Feelings ensued.
No longer questioning the need for a strong Navy, the U.S. built three new 74 - gun ships of the line and two new 44 - gun frigates shortly after the end of the war. (Another frigate had been destroyed to prevent it being captured on the stocks.) In 1816, the U.S. Congress passed into law an "Act for the gradual increase of the Navy '' at a cost of $1,000,000 a year for eight years, authorizing 9 ships of the line and 12 heavy frigates. The Captains and Commodores of the U.S. Navy became the heroes of their generation in the U.S. Decorated plates and pitchers of Decatur, Hull, Bainbridge, Lawrence, Perry, and Macdonough were made in Staffordshire, England, and found a ready market in the United States. Several war heroes used their fame to win election to national office. Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison both took advantage of their military successes to win the presidency, while Richard Mentor Johnson used his wartime exploits to help attain the vice presidency.
During the war, New England states became increasingly frustrated over how the war was being conducted and how the conflict was affecting them. They complained that the U.S. government was not investing enough in the states ' defences militarily and financially, and that the states should have more control over their militias. The increased taxes, the British blockade, and the occupation of some of New England by enemy forces also agitated public opinion in the states. As a result, at the Hartford Convention (December 1814 -- January 1815) Federalist delegates deprecated the war effort and sought more autonomy for the New England states. They did not call for secession but word of the angry anti-war resolutions appeared at the same time that peace was announced and the victory at New Orleans was known. The upshot was that the Federalists were permanently discredited and quickly disappeared as a major political force.
This war enabled thousands of slaves to escape to British lines or ships for freedom, despite the difficulties. The planters ' complacency about slave contentment was shocked by their seeing slaves, who risked so much to be free.
After the decisive defeat of the Creek Indians at the battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, some Indian warriors escaped to join the Seminoles in Florida. The remaining Creek chiefs signed away about half their lands, comprising 23,000,000 acres, covering much of southern Georgia and two thirds of modern Alabama. The Creeks were now separated from any future help from the Spanish in Florida, or from the Choctaw and Chickasaw to the west. During the war the United States seized Mobile, Alabama, which was a strategic location providing oceanic outlet to the cotton lands to the north. Jackson invaded Florida in 1818, demonstrating to Spain that it could no longer control that territory with a small force. Spain sold Florida to the United States in 1819 in the Adams -- Onís Treaty following the First Seminole War. Pratt concludes:
Thus indirectly the War of 1812 brought about the acquisition of Florida... To both the Northwest and the South, therefore, the War of 1812 brought substantial benefits. It broke the power of the Creek Confederacy and opened to settlement a great province of the future Cotton Kingdom.
Pro-British leaders demonstrated a strong hostility to American influences in western Canada (Ontario) after the war and shaped its policies, including a hostility to American - style republicanism. Immigration from the U.S. was discouraged, and favour was shown to the Anglican Church as opposed to the more Americanized Methodist Church.
The Battle of York showed the vulnerability of Upper and Lower Canada. In the 1820s, work began on La Citadelle at Quebec City as a defence against the United States. Additionally, work began on the Halifax citadel to defend the port against foreign navies. From 1826 to 1832, the Rideau Canal was built to provide a secure waterway not at risk from American cannon fire. To defend the western end of the canal, the British Army also built Fort Henry at Kingston.
The Native Americans allied to the British lost their cause. The British proposal to create a "neutral '' Indian zone in the American West was rejected at the Ghent peace conference and never resurfaced. After 1814 the natives, who lost most of their fur - gathering territory, became an undesirable burden to British policymakers who now looked to the United States for markets and raw materials. British agents in the field continued to meet regularly with their former American Indian partners, but they did not supply arms or encouragement and there were no American Indian campaigns to stop U.S. expansionism in the Midwest. Abandoned by their powerful sponsor, American Great Lakes - area Indians ultimately migrated or reached accommodations with the American authorities and settlers.
Bermuda had been largely left to the defences of its own militia and privateers before U.S. independence, but the Royal Navy had begun buying up land and operating from there in 1795, as its location was a useful substitute for the lost U.S. ports. It originally was intended to be the winter headquarters of the North American Squadron, but the war saw it rise to a new prominence. As construction work progressed through the first half of the 19th century, Bermuda became the permanent naval headquarters in Western waters, housing the Admiralty and serving as a base and dockyard. The military garrison was built up to protect the naval establishment, heavily fortifying the archipelago that came to be described as the "Gibraltar of the West ''. Defence infrastructure remained the central leg of Bermuda 's economy until after World War II.
The war is seldom remembered in Great Britain. The massive ongoing conflict in Europe against the French Empire under Napoleon ensured that the War of 1812 against America was never seen as more than a sideshow to the main event by the British. Britain 's blockade of French trade had been entirely successful and the Royal Navy was the world 's dominant nautical power (and remained so for another century). While the land campaigns had contributed to saving Canada, the Royal Navy had shut down American commerce, bottled up the U.S. Navy in port and heavily suppressed privateering. British businesses, some affected by rising insurance costs, were demanding peace so that trade could resume with the U.S. The peace was generally welcomed by the British, though there was disquiet at the rapid growth of the U.S. However, the two nations quickly resumed trade after the end of the war and, over time, a growing friendship.
Hickey argues that for Britain:
the most important lesson of all (was) that the best way to defend Canada was to accommodate the United States. This was the principal rationale for Britain 's long - term policy of rapprochement with the United States in the nineteenth century and explains why they were so often willing to sacrifice other imperial interests to keep the republic happy.
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where does the light reaction of photosynthesis take place | Light - dependent reactions - wikipedia
In photosynthesis, the light - dependent reaction takes place on the thylakoid membranes. The inside of the thylakoid membrane is called the lumen, and outside the thylakoid membrane is the stroma, where the light - independent reactions take place. The thylakoid membrane contains some integral membrane protein complexes that catalyze the light reactions. There are four major protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane: Photosystem II (PSII), Cytochrome b6f complex, Photosystem I (PSI), and ATP synthase. These four complexes work together to ultimately create the products ATP and NADPH.
The four photosystems absorb light energy through pigments -- primarily the chlorophylls, which are responsible for the green color of leaves. The light - dependent reactions begin in photosystem II. When a chlorophyll a molecule within the reaction center of PSII absorbs a photon, an electron in this molecule attains a higher energy level. Because this state of an electron is very unstable, the electron is transferred from one to another molecule creating a chain of redox reactions, called an electron transport chain (ETC). The electron flow goes from PSII to cytochrome b6f to PSI. In PSI, the electron gets the energy from another photon. The final electron acceptor is NADP. In oxygenic photosynthesis, the first electron donor is water, creating oxygen as a waste product. In anoxygenic photosynthesis various electron donors are used.
Cytochrome b6f and ATP synthase work together to create ATP. This process is called photophosphorylation, which occurs in two different ways. In non-cyclic photophosphorylation, cytochrome b6f uses the energy of electrons from PSII to pump protons from the stroma to the lumen. The proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane creates a proton - motive force, used by ATP synthase to form ATP. In cyclic photophosphorylation, cytochrome b6f uses the energy of electrons from not only PSII but also PSI to create more ATP and to stop the production of NADPH. Cyclic phosphorylation is important to create ATP and maintain NADPH in the right proportion for the light - independent reactions.
The net - reaction of all light - dependent reactions in oxygenic photosynthesis is:
2H 2O + 2NADP + + 3ADP + 3P → O 2 + 2NADPH + 3ATP
The two photosystems are protein complexes that absorb photons and are able to use this energy to create an electron transport chain. Photosystem I and II are very similar in structure and function. They use special proteins, called light - harvesting complexes, to absorb the photons with very high effectiveness. If a special pigment molecule in a photosynthetic reaction center absorbs a photon, an electron in this pigment attains the excited state and then is transferred to another molecule in the reaction center. This reaction, called photoinduced charge separation, is the start of the electron flow and is unique because it transforms light energy into chemical forms.
The reaction center is in the thylakoid membrane. It transfers light energy to a dimer of chlorophyll pigment molecules near the periplasmic (or thylakoid lumen) side of the membrane. This dimer is called a special pair because of its fundamental role in photosynthesis. This special pair is slightly different in PSI and PSII reaction center. In PSII, it absorbs photons with a wavelength of 680 nm, and it is therefore called P680. In PSI, it absorbs photons at 700 nm, and it is called P700. In bacteria, the special pair is called P760, P840, P870, or P960. Where "P '' means pigment, and the number following it is the wavelength of light absorbed.
If an electron of the special pair in the reaction center becomes excited, it can not transfer this energy to another pigment using resonance energy transfer. In normal circumstances, the electron should return to the ground state, but, because the reaction center is arranged so that a suitable electron acceptor is nearby, the excited electron can move from the initial molecule to the acceptor. This process results in the formation of a positive charge on the special pair (due to the loss of an electron) and a negative charge on the acceptor and is, hence, referred to as photoinduced charge separation. In other words, electrons in pigment molecules can exist at specific energy levels. Under normal circumstances, they exist at the lowest possible energy level they can. However, if there is enough energy to move them into the next energy level, they can absorb that energy and occupy that higher energy level. The light they absorb contains the necessary amount of energy needed to push them into the next level. Any light that does not have enough or has too much energy can not be absorbed and is reflected. The electron in the higher energy level, however, does not want to be there; the electron is unstable and must return to its normal lower energy level. To do this, it must release the energy that has put it into the higher energy state to begin with. This can happen various ways. The extra energy can be converted into molecular motion and lost as heat. Some of the extra energy can be lost as heat energy, while the rest is lost as light. (This re-emission of light energy is called fluorescence.) The energy, but not the e - itself, can be passed onto another molecule. (This is called resonance.) The energy and the e - can be transferred to another molecule. Plant pigments usually utilize the last two of these reactions to convert the sun 's energy into their own.
This initial charge separation occurs in less than 10 picoseconds (10 seconds). In their high - energy states, the special pigment and the acceptor could undergo charge recombination; that is, the electron on the acceptor could move back to neutralize the positive charge on the special pair. Its return to the special pair would waste a valuable high - energy electron and simply convert the absorbed light energy into heat. In the case of PSII, this backflow of electrons can produce reactive oxygen species leading to photoinhibition. Three factors in the structure of the reaction center work together to suppress charge recombination nearly completely.
Thus, electron transfer proceeds efficiently from the first electron acceptor to the next, creating an electron transport chain that ends if it has reached NADPH.
The photosynthesis process in chloroplasts begins when an electron of P680 of PSII attains a higher - energy level. This energy is used to reduce a chain of electron acceptors that have subsequently lowered redox - potentials. This chain of electron acceptors is known as an electron transport chain. When this chain reaches PS I, an electron is again excited, creating a high redox - potential. The electron transport chain of photosynthesis is often put in a diagram called the z - scheme, because the redox diagram from P680 to P700 resembles the letter z.
The final product of PSII is plastoquinol, a mobile electron carrier in the membrane. Plastoquinol transfers the electron from PSII to the proton pump, cytochrome b6f. The ultimate electron donor of PSII is water. Cytochrome b6f proceeds the electron chain to PSI through plastocyanin molecules. PSI is able to continue the electron transfer in two different ways. It can transfer the electrons either to plastoquinol again, creating a cyclic electron flow, or to an enzyme called FNR (Ferredoxin -- NADP (+) reductase), creating a non-cyclic electron flow. PSI releases FNR into the stroma, where it reduces NADP + to NADPH.
Activities of the electron transport chain, especially from cytochrome b6f, lead to pumping of protons from the stroma to the lumen. The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.
The overall process of the photosynthetic electron transport chain in chloroplasts is:
PS II is an extremely complex, highly organized transmembrane structure that contains a water - splitting complex, chlorophylls and carotenoid pigments, a reaction center (P680), pheophytin (a pigment similar to chlorophyll), and two quinones. It uses the energy of sunlight to transfer electrons from water to a mobile electron carrier in the membrane called plastoquinone:
Plastoquinone, in turn, transfers electrons to cyt b 6, which feeds them into PS I.
The step H 2O → P680 is performed by a poorly understood structure embedded within PS II called the water - splitting complex or the oxygen - evolving complex. It catalyzes a reaction that splits water into electrons, protons and oxygen:
The electrons are transferred to special chlorophyll molecules (embedded in PS II) that are promoted to a higher - energy state by the energy of photons.
The excitation P680 → P680 of the reaction center pigment P680 occurs here. These special chlorophyll molecules embedded in PS II absorb the energy of photons, with maximal absorption at 680 nm. Electrons within these molecules are promoted to a higher - energy state. This is one of two core processes in photosynthesis, and it occurs with astonishing efficiency (greater than 90 %) because, in addition to direct excitation by light at 680 nm, the energy of light first harvested by antenna proteins at other wavelengths in the light - harvesting system is also transferred to these special chlorophyll molecules.
This is followed by the step P680 → pheophytin, and then on to plastoquinone, which occurs within the reaction center of PS II. High - energy electrons are transferred to plastoquinone before it subsequently picks up two protons to become plastoquinol. Plastoquinol is then released into the membrane as a mobile electron carrier.
This is the second core process in photosynthesis. The initial stages occur within picoseconds, with an efficiency of 100 %. The seemingly impossible efficiency is due to the precise positioning of molecules within the reaction center. This is a solid - state process, not a chemical reaction. It occurs within an essentially crystalline environment created by the macromolecular structure of PS II. The usual rules of chemistry (which involve random collisions and random energy distributions) do not apply in solid - state environments.
When the chlorophyll passes the electron to pheophytin, it obtains an electron from P. In turn, P can oxidize the Z (or Y) molecule. Once oxidized, the Z molecule can derive electrons from the oxygen - evolving complex.
PS II is a transmembrane structure found in all chloroplasts. It splits water into electrons, protons and molecular oxygen. The electrons are transferred to plastoquinone, which carries them to a proton pump. Molecular oxygen is released into the atmosphere.
The emergence of such an incredibly complex structure, a macromolecule that converts the energy of sunlight into potentially useful work with efficiencies that are impossible in ordinary experience, seems almost magical at first glance. Thus, it is of considerable interest that, in essence, the same structure is found in purple bacteria.
PS II and PS I are connected by a transmembrane proton pump, cytochrome b 6 complex (plastoquinol -- plastocyanin reductase; EC 1.10. 99.1). Electrons from PS II are carried by plastoquinol to cyt b 6, where they are removed in a stepwise fashion (reforming plastoquinone) and transferred to a water - soluble electron carrier called plastocyanin. This redox process is coupled to the pumping of four protons across the membrane. The resulting proton gradient (together with the proton gradient produced by the water - splitting complex in PS II) is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.
The similarity in structure and function between cytochrome b 6 (in chloroplasts) and cytochrome bc 1 (Complex III in mitochondria) is striking. Both are transmembrane structures that remove electrons from a mobile, lipid - soluble electron carrier (plastoquinone in chloroplasts; ubiquinone in mitochondria) and transfer them to a mobile, water - soluble electron carrier (plastocyanin in chloroplasts; cytochrome c in mitochondria). Both are proton pumps that produce a transmembrane proton gradient.
PS I accepts electrons from plastocyanin and transfers them either to NADPH (noncyclic electron transport) or back to cytochrome b 6 (cyclic electron transport):
PS I, like PS II, is a complex, highly organized transmembrane structure that contains antenna chlorophylls, a reaction center (P700), phylloquinine, and a number of iron - sulfur proteins that serve as intermediate redox carriers.
The light - harvesting system of PS I uses multiple copies of the same transmembrane proteins used by PS II. The energy of absorbed light (in the form of delocalized, high - energy electrons) is funneled into the reaction center, where it excites special chlorophyll molecules (P700, maximum light absorption at 700 nm) to a higher energy level. The process occurs with astonishingly high efficiency.
Electrons are removed from excited chlorophyll molecules and transferred through a series of intermediate carriers to ferredoxin, a water - soluble electron carrier. As in PS II, this is a solid - state process that operates with 100 % efficiency.
There are two different pathways of electron transport in PS I. In noncyclic electron transport, ferredoxin carries the electron to the enzyme ferredoxin NADP + oxidoreductase (FNR) that reduces NADP + to NADPH. In cyclic electron transport, electrons from ferredoxin are transferred (via plastoquinone) to a proton pump, cytochrome b 6. They are then returned (via plastocyanin) to P700.
NADPH and ATP are used to synthesize organic molecules from CO 2. The ratio of NADPH to ATP production can be adjusted by adjusting the balance between cyclic and noncyclic electron transport.
It is noteworthy that PS I closely resembles photosynthetic structures found in green sulfur bacteria, just as PS II resembles structures found in purple bacteria.
PS II, PS I, and cytochrome b 6 are found in chloroplasts. All plants and all photosynthetic algae contain chloroplasts, which produce NADPH and ATP by the mechanisms described above. In essence, the same transmembrane structures are also found in cyanobacteria.
Unlike plants and algae, cyanobacteria are prokaryotes. They do not contain chloroplasts. Rather, they bear a striking resemblance to chloroplasts themselves. This suggests that organisms resembling cyanobacteria were the evolutionary precursors of chloroplasts. One imagines primitive eukaryotic cells taking up cyanobacteria as intracellular symbionts in a process known as endosymbiosis.
Cyanobacteria contain structures similar to PS II and PS I in chloroplasts. Their light - harvesting system is different from that found in plants (they use phycobilins, rather than chlorophylls, as antenna pigments), but their electron transport chain
is, in essence, the same as the electron transport chain in chloroplasts. The mobile water - soluble electron carrier is cytochrome c 6 in cyanobacteria, plastocyanin in plants.
Cyanobacteria can also synthesize ATP by oxidative phosphorylation, in the manner of other bacteria. The electron transport chain is
where the mobile electron carriers are plastoquinone and cytochrome c 6, while the proton pumps are NADH dehydrogenase, b 6 and cytochrome aa 3.
Cyanobacteria are the only bacteria that produce oxygen during photosynthesis. Earth 's primordial atmosphere was anoxic. Organisms like cyanobacteria produced our present - day oxygen - containing atmosphere.
The other two major groups of photosynthetic bacteria, purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria, contain only a single photosystem and do not produce oxygen.
Purple bacteria contain a single photosystem that is structurally related to PS II in cyanobacteria and chloroplasts:
This is a cyclic process in which electrons are removed from an excited chlorophyll molecule (bacteriochlorophyll; P870), passed through an electron transport chain to a proton pump (cytochrome bc 1 complex, similar but not identical to cytochrome bc 1 in chloroplasts), and then returned to the chlorophyll molecule. The result is a proton gradient, which is used to make ATP via ATP synthase. As in cyanobacteria and chloroplasts, this is a solid - state process that depends on the precise orientation of various functional groups within a complex transmembrane macromolecular structure.
To make NADPH, purple bacteria use an external electron donor (hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur, sulfite, or organic molecules such as succinate and lactate) to feed electrons into a reverse electron transport chain.
Green sulfur bacteria contain a photosystem that is analogous to PS I in chloroplasts:
There are two pathways of electron transfer. In cyclic electron transfer, electrons are removed from an excited chlorophyll molecule, passed through an electron transport chain to a proton pump, and then returned to the chlorophyll. The mobile electron carriers are, as usual, a lipid - soluble quinone and a water - soluble cytochrome. The resulting proton gradient is used to make ATP.
In noncyclic electron transfer, electrons are removed from an excited chlorophyll molecule and used to reduce NAD to NADH. The electrons removed from P840 must be replaced. This is accomplished by removing electrons from H 2S, which is oxidized to sulfur (hence the name "green sulfur bacteria '').
Purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria occupy relatively minor ecological niches in the present day biosphere. They are of interest because of their importance in precambrian ecologies, and because their methods of photosynthesis were the likely evolutionary precursors of those in modern plants.
The first ideas about light being used in photosynthesis were proposed by Colin Flannery in 1779 who recognized it was sunlight falling on plants that was required, although Joseph Priestley had noted the production of oxygen without the association with light in 1772. Cornelius Van Niel proposed in 1931 that photosynthesis is a case of general mechanism where a photon of light is used to photo decompose a hydrogen donor and the hydrogen being used to reduce CO 2. Then in 1939, Robin Hill showed that isolated chloroplasts would make oxygen, but not fix CO 2 showing the light and dark reactions occurred in different places. Although they are referred to as light and dark reactions, both of them take place only in the presence of light. This led later to the discovery of photosystems I and II.
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freedom of speech and of the press have a special place in american system because | Freedom of the press - wikipedia
Freedom of the press or freedom of the media is the freedom of communication and expression through various mediums, such as electronic media and published materials. Wherever such freedom exists mostly implies the absence of interference from an overreaching state; its preservation may be sought through constitutional or other legal protections.
With respect to governmental information, any government may distinguish which materials are public or protected from disclosure to the public. State materials are protected due to either of two reasons: the classification of information as sensitive, classified or secret, or the relevance of the information to protecting the national interest. Many governments are also subject to sunshine laws or freedom of information legislation that are used to define the ambit of national interest.
The United Nations ' 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights states: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference, and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers ''.
This philosophy is usually accompanied by legislation ensuring various degrees of freedom of scientific research (known as scientific freedom), publishing, and press. The depth to which these laws are entrenched in a country 's legal system can go as far down as its constitution. The concept of freedom of speech is often covered by the same laws as freedom of the press, thereby giving equal treatment to spoken and published expression.
Freedom of the press is construed as an absence of interference by outside entities, such as a government or religious organization, rather than as a right for authors to have their works published by other people. This idea was famously summarized by the 20th century American journalist, A.J. Liebling, who wrote, "Freedom of the press is guaranteed only to those who own one ''. Freedom of the press gives the printer or publisher exclusive control over what the publisher chooses to publish, including the right to refuse to print anything for any reason. If the author can not reach a voluntary agreement with a publisher to produce the author 's work, then the author must turn to self - publishing.
Beyond legal definitions, several non-governmental organizations use other criteria to judge the level of press freedom around the world:
Every year, Reporters Without Borders establishes a ranking of countries in terms of their freedom of the press. The worldwide Press Freedom Index list is based on responses to surveys sent to journalists that are members of partner organisations of the RWB, as well as related specialists such as researchers, jurists and human rights activists. The survey asks questions about direct attacks on journalists and the media as well as other indirect sources of pressure against the free press, such as non-governmental groups. RWB is careful to note that the index only deals with press freedom, and does not measure the quality of journalism.
In 2016, the countries where press was the most free were Finland, Netherlands, Norway, Denmark and New Zealand, followed by Costa Rica, Switzerland, Sweden, Ireland and Jamaica. The country with the least degree of press freedom was Eritrea, followed by North Korea, Turkmenistan, Syria, China, Vietnam and Sudan.
The problem with media in India, the world 's largest democracy, is enormous. India does n't have a model for a democratic press. The Canadian Journalists for Free Expression (CJFE) has published a report on India stating that Indian journalists are forced -- or feel compelled for the sake of job security -- to report in ways that reflect the political opinions and corporate interests of shareholders. The report written by Ravi S Jha says "Indian journalism, with its lack of freedom and self - regulation, can not be trusted now -- it is currently known for manipulation and bias. ''
Freedom of the Press is a yearly report by US - based non-governmental organization Freedom House, measuring the level of freedom and editorial independence enjoyed by the press in every nation and significant disputed territories around the world. Levels of freedom are scored on a scale from 1 (most free) to 100 (least free). Depending on the basics, the nations are then classified as "Free '', "Partly Free '', or "Not Free ''.
In 2009 Iceland, Norway, Finland, Denmark, and Sweden topped the list with North Korea, Turkmenistan, Myanmar (Burma), Libya, Eritrea at the bottom.
According to Reporters Without Borders, more than a third of the world 's people live in countries where there is no press freedom. Overwhelmingly, these people live in countries where there is no system of democracy or where there are serious deficiencies in the democratic process. Freedom of the press is an extremely problematic problem / concept for most non-democratic systems of government since, in the modern age, strict control of access to information is critical to the existence of most non-democratic governments and their associated control systems and security apparatus. To this end, most non-democratic societies employ state - run news organizations to promote the propaganda critical to maintaining an existing political power base and suppress (often very brutally, through the use of police, military, or intelligence agencies) any significant attempts by the media or individual journalists to challenge the approved "government line '' on contentious issues. In such countries, journalists operating on the fringes of what is deemed to be acceptable will very often find themselves the subject of considerable intimidation by agents of the state. This can range from simple threats to their professional careers (firing, professional blacklisting) to death threats, kidnapping, torture, and assassination.
Reporters Without Borders reports that, in 2003, 42 journalists lost their lives pursuing their profession and that, in the same year, at least 130 journalists were in prison as a result of their occupational activities. In 2005, 63 journalists and 5 media assistants were killed worldwide. Examples include:
Central, Northern and Western Europe has a long tradition of freedom of speech, including freedom of the press. After World War II, Hugh Baillie, the president of United Press wire service based in the U.S., promoted freedom of news dissemination. In 1966 he called for an open system of news sources and transmission, and minimum of government regulation of the news. His proposals were aired at the Geneva Conference on Freedom of Information in 1948, but were blocked by the Soviets and the French.
Media freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens, as defined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights as well as the European Convention on Human Rights. Within the EU enlargement process, guaranteeing media freedom is named a "key indicator of a country 's readiness to become part of the EU ''.
According to the New York Times, "Britain has a long tradition of a free, inquisitive press '', but "(u) nlike the United States, Britain has no constitutional guarantee of press freedom. '' Freedom of the press was established in Great Britain in 1695, with Alan Rusbridger, former editor of The Guardian, stating: "When people talk about licensing journalists or newspapers the instinct should be to refer them to history. Read about how licensing of the press in Britain was abolished in 1695. Remember how the freedoms won here became a model for much of the rest of the world, and be conscious how the world still watches us to see how we protect those freedoms. ''
Until 1694, England had an elaborate system of licensing; the most recent was seen in the Licensing of the Press Act 1662. No publication was allowed without the accompaniment of a government - granted license. Fifty years earlier, at a time of civil war, John Milton wrote his pamphlet Areopagitica (1644). In this work Milton argued forcefully against this form of government censorship and parodied the idea, writing "when as debtors and delinquents may walk abroad without a keeper, but unoffensive books must not stir forth without a visible jailer in their title. '' Although at the time it did little to halt the practice of licensing, it would be viewed later a significant milestone as one of the most eloquent defences of press freedom.
Milton 's central argument was that the individual is capable of using reason and distinguishing right from wrong, good from bad. In order to be able to exercise this ration right, the individual must have unlimited access to the ideas of his fellow men in "a free and open encounter. '' From Milton 's writings developed the concept of the open marketplace of ideas, the idea that when people argue against each other, the good arguments will prevail. One form of speech that was widely restricted in England was seditious libel, and laws were in place that made criticizing the government a crime. The King was above public criticism and statements critical of the government were forbidden, according to the English Court of the Star Chamber. Truth was not a defense to seditious libel because the goal was to prevent and punish all condemnation of the government.
Locke contributed to the lapse of the Licensing Act in 1695, whereupon the press needed no license. Still, many libels were tried throughout the 18th century, until "the Society of the Bill of Rights '' led by John Horne Tooke and John Wilkes organised a campaign to publish Parliamentary Debates. This culminated in three defeats of the Crown in the 1770 cases of Almon, of Miller and of Woodfall, who all had published one of the Letters of Junius, and the unsuccessful arrest of John Wheble in 1771. Thereafter the Crown was much more careful in the application of libel; for example, in the aftermath of the Peterloo Massacre, Burdett was convicted, whereas by contrast the Junius affair was over a satire and sarcasm about the non-lethal conduct and policies of government.
In Britain 's American colonies, the first editors discovered their readers enjoyed it when they criticized the local governor; the governors discovered they could shut down the newspapers. The most dramatic confrontation came in New York in 1734, where the governor brought John Peter Zenger to trial for criminal libel after the publication of satirical attacks. The defense lawyers argued that according to English common law, truth was a valid defense against libel. The jury acquitted Zenger, who became the iconic American hero for freedom of the press. The result was an emerging tension between the media and the government. By the mid-1760s, there were 24 weekly newspapers in the 13 colonies, and the satirical attack on government became common features in American newspapers.
John Stuart Mill in 1869 in his book On Liberty approached the problem of authority versus liberty from the viewpoint of a 19th - century utilitarian: The individual has the right of expressing himself so long as he does not harm other individuals. The good society is one in which the greatest number of persons enjoy the greatest possible amount of happiness. Applying these general principles of liberty to freedom of expression, Mill states that if we silence an opinion, we may silence the truth. The individual freedom of expression is therefore essential to the well - being of society. Mill wrote:
Between September 4, 1770 and October 7, 1771 the kingdom of Denmark -- Norway had the most unrestricted freedom of press of any country in Europe. This occurred during the regime of Johann Friedrich Struensee, whose second act was to abolish the old censorship laws. However, due to the great amount of mostly anonymous pamphlets published that was critical and often slanderous towards Struensee 's own regime, he reinstated some restrictions regarding the freedom of press a year later, October 7, 1771.
After the Italian unification in 1861, the Albertine Statute of 1848 was adopted as the constitution of the Kingdom of Italy. The Statute granted the freedom of the press with some restrictions in case of abuses and in religious matters, as stated in Article 28:
The press shall be free, but the law may suppress abuses of this freedom. However, Bibles, catechisms, liturgical and prayer books shall not be printed without the prior permission of the Bishop.
After the abolition of the monarchy in 1946 and the abrogation of the Statute in 1948, the Constitution of the Republic of Italy guarantees the freedom of the press, as stated in Article 21, Paragraphs 2 and 3:
The press may not be subjected to any authorisation or censorship. Seizure may be permitted only by judicial order stating the reason and only for offences expressly determined by the law on the press or in case of violation of the obligation to identify the persons responsible for such offences.
The Constitution allows the warrantless confiscation of periodicals in cases of absolute urgency, when the Judiciary can not timely intervene, on the condition that a judicial validation must be obtained within 24 hours. Article 21 also gives restrictions against those publications considered offensive by public morality, as stated in Paragraph 6:
Publications, performances, and other exhibits offensive to public morality shall be prohibited. Measures of preventive and repressive measure against such violations shall be established by law.
In 1933 freedom of the press was suppressed in Nazi Germany by the Reichstag Fire Decree of President Paul Von Hindenburg, just as Adolf Hitler was coming to power. Hitler largely suppressed freedom of the press through Joseph Goebbels ' Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. The Ministry acted as a central control - point for all media, issuing orders as to what stories could be run and what stories would be suppressed. Anyone involved in the film industry -- from directors to the lowliest assistant -- had to sign an oath of loyalty to the Nazi Party, due to opinion - changing power Goebbels perceived movies to have. (Goebbels himself maintained some personal control over every single film made in Nazi Europe.) Journalists who crossed the Propaganda Ministry were routinely imprisoned.
One of the world 's first freedom of the press acts was introduced in Sweden in 1766, mainly due to classical liberal member of parliament, Ostrobothnian priest, Anders Chydenius. Excepted and liable to prosecution was only vocal opposition to the King and the Church of Sweden. The Act was largely rolled back after King Gustav 's coup d'état in 1772, restored after the overthrowing of his son, Gustav IV of Sweden in 1809, and fully recognized with the abolition of the king 's prerogative to cancel licenses in the 1840s.
The First Amendment of the United States Constitution states:
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
Section 2 (b) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states that everyone has "the freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication. ''
The open court principle ensures the freedom of the press by requiring that court proceedings presumptively be open and accessible to the public and to the media.
The Indian Constitution, while not mentioning the word "press '', provides for "the right to freedom of speech and expression '' (Article 19 (1) a). However this right is subject to restrictions under sub clause (2), whereby this freedom can be restricted for reasons of "sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, preserving decency, preserving morality, in relation to contempt, court, defamation, or incitement to an offense ''. Laws such as the Official Secrets Act and Prevention of Terrorist Activities Act (PoTA) have been used to limit press freedom. Under PoTA, person could be detained for up to six months for being in contact with a terrorist or terrorist group. PoTA was repealed in 2006, but the Official Secrets Act 1923 continues.
For the first half - century of independence, media control by the state was the major constraint on press freedom. Indira Gandhi famously stated in 1975 that All India Radio is "a Government organ, it is going to remain a Government organ... '' With the liberalization starting in the 1990s, private control of media has burgeoned, leading to increasing independence and greater scrutiny of government.
It ranks poorly at 136th rank out of 179 listed countries in the Press Freedom Index 2013 released by Reporters Without Borders (RWB). Analytically India 's press freedom, as could be deduced by the Press Freedom Index, has constantly reduced since 2002, when it culminated in terms of apparent freedom, achieving a rank of 80 among the reported countries.
Many of the traditional means of delivering information are being slowly superseded by the increasing pace of modern technological advance. Almost every conventional mode of media and information dissemination has a modern counterpart that offers significant potential advantages to journalists seeking to maintain and enhance their freedom of speech. A few simple examples of such phenomena include:
Naturally, governments are responding to the challenges posed by new media technologies by deploying increasingly sophisticated technology of their own (a notable example being China 's attempts to impose control through a state - run internet service provider that controls access to the Internet) but it seems that this will become an increasingly difficult task as journalists continue to find new ways to exploit technology and stay one step ahead of the generally slower - moving government institutions that attempt to censor them.
In May 2010, U.S. President Barack Obama signed legislation intended to promote a free press around the world, a bipartisan measure inspired by the murder in Pakistan of Daniel Pearl, the Wall Street Journal reporter, shortly after the September 11 attacks in 2001. The legislation, called the Daniel Pearl Freedom of the Press Act, requires the United States Department of State to expand its scrutiny of news media restrictions and intimidation as part of its annual review of human rights in each country. In 2012 the Obama Administration collected communication records from 20 separate home and office lines for Associated Press reporters over a two - month period, possibly in an effort to curtail government leaks to the press. The surveillance caused widespread condemnation by First Amendment experts and free press advocates, and led 50 major media organizations to sign and send a letter of protest to American attorney general Eric Holder.
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how does limited government support ideas in the preamble | Limited government - wikipedia
In political philosophy, limited government is where the government is empowered by law from a starting point of having no power, or where governmental power is restricted by law, usually in a written constitution. It is a key concept in the history of liberalism. The United States Constitution presents an example of the federal government not possessing any power except what is delegated to it by the Constitution - with the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution specifically stating that powers not specifically delegated to the federal government is reserved for the people and the states. The Magna Carta and the United States Constitution also represents important milestones in the limiting of governmental power. The earliest use of the term limited government dates back to King James VI and I in the late 16th century. Limited government put into practice often involves the protection of individual liberty from government intrusion.
The reasons why the authors of the Constitution saw fit to limit the power of the government are set forth in the Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson. Here, Jefferson outlines three basic assumptions widely held in the American colonies that supporters of the Declaration believed were not held by the English monarchy. In other words, Colonists felt that the British had treated them unfairly. In order to prevent this from happening again the framers made limited government a principle in the constitution. These assumptions are that all men are created equal, they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights and governments are instituted in order to preserve these rights. It was the fact that the English government was not adhering to these premises that the colonies saw fit to establish their own government in which all three would be respected.
The Preamble to the Constitution serves to communicate the goals sought to be accomplished by specifically enumerating the powers of the United States government -- the promotion of "the general Welfare '' is one of these goals. The Preamble does not grant any power to the government, rather it serves to explain the limits of the delegated powers listed later in the Constitution. This is to say, in the case of the general welfare clause, that the government is not allowed to exercise its powers on a whim, rather they must be exercised for the general welfare of the country.
With the ratification of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights came a new era of government in which the powers and restrictions of government were both explicitly outlined. The Bill of Rights added to the American Constitution, along with other constitutional amendments, limits the power of government in two ways. First, it restricts the range of governmental authority by prohibiting the government from intruding in certain areas, like religious worship or freedom of speech, and grants the government authority over specifically enumerated aspects of life, like regulating the economy and collecting taxes. Second, it sets certain procedures the government must follow when dealing with the people. Examples of this include the protection from unreasonable search and seizure of property and protection from cruel and unusual punishment for crimes for which one is convicted. The explicit outline of what the government is permitted to do and barred from doing combined with the power of common people to seek repairs for breaches of their constitutional rights is what protects the rights of the people.
The Ninth and Tenth Amendments to the Constitution are examples of how the government acknowledges it does n't have complete dominion over every facet of the people 's lives, and that the federal government is not the only entity with governmental power in the United States. The Ninth Amendment reads "The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others held by the people. '' This shows the federal government does n't have the ability to infringe upon the rights of the people in any circumstance, even if the rights are n't explicitly protected by the Constitution.
The Tenth Amendment states "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. '' This limits the authority of the United States government to those powers listed in the Constitution and concedes the premise that individual States retain the powers not granted to the national government but that are also not barred to the States by the Constitution. Also, it grants that the people themselves retain power under this system of government as well. These are key points of the concept of limited government established by the Constitution in the United States because they overtly state the power of the federal government is not unlimited.
Where the government oversteps its authority, the people have the right, as listed in the Constitution, to make their grievances known through petition and through public elections for government office. It is the implementation of republicanism that allows citizens to perpetuate the idea that the government must not only adhere to the Constitution, it must also listen to the will of the people. If the public becomes disenchanted with the actions of those in power and the rules that have been created, they have the ability to put new people in power who will better represent the public interest. Since, under the Constitution, the government is ultimately held accountable by the people, the public always has the opportunity to keep the government 's power in check.
The Constitution also partially prevents the government from expanding its own power by creating a system of checks and balances through the separation of powers. Articles One, Two, and Three of the Constitution create three separate branches of government, equal in level power, but different in responsibility, that all control the government. In assuming each branch would want to expand its powers, it was necessary that each have the ability to fend off power grabs from other branches. The three branches -- legislative, executive, and judicial -- compete with each other through certain powers that allow them to "check '' the others and "balance '' the government. Examples of this include the legislative branch 's power to override Presidential Vetoes and the judicial branch 's power to declare laws created by the legislative branch unconstitutional. James Madison writes in Federalist No. 51 "But the great security against a gradual concentration of the several powers in the same department, consists in giving to those who administer each department, the necessary constitutional means, and personal motives, to resist encroachments of the others. '' Without the capacity of each branch to check the others, power would concentrate with a small minority and could potentially allow the minority to infringe upon the rights of the people. This would be antithetical to the purpose of the Constitution, hence a system of checks and balances was set in place.
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3. give some reasons why caches are useful. describe cache coherence problem | Cache coherence - wikipedia
In computer architecture, cache coherence is the uniformity of shared resource data that ends up stored in multiple local caches. When clients in a system maintain caches of a common memory resource, problems may arise with incoherent data, which is particularly the case with CPUs in a multiprocessing system.
In the illustration on the right, consider both the clients have a cached copy of a particular memory block from a previous read. Suppose the client on the bottom updates / changes that memory block, the client on the top could be left with an invalid cache of memory without any notification of the change. Cache coherence is intended to manage such conflicts by maintaining a coherent view of the data values in multiple caches.
In a shared memory multiprocessor system with a separate cache memory for each processor, it is possible to have many copies of shared data: one copy in the main memory and one in the local cache of each processor that requested it. When one of the copies of data is changed, the other copies must reflect that change. Cache coherence is the discipline which ensures that the changes in the values of shared operands (data) are propagated throughout the system in a timely fashion.
The following are the requirements for cache coherence:
Theoretically, coherence can be performed at the load / store granularity. However, in practice it is generally performed at the granularity of cache blocks.
Coherence defines the behavior of reads and writes to a single address location.
In a multiprocessor system, consider that more than one processor has cached a copy of the memory location X. The following conditions are necessary to achieve cache coherence:
The above conditions satisfy the Write Propagation criteria required for cache coherence. However, they are not sufficient as they do not satisfy the Transaction Serialization condition. To illustrate this better, consider the following example:
A multi-processor system consists of four processors - P1, P2, P3 and P4, all containing cached copies of a shared variable S whose initial value is 0. Processor P1 changes the value of S (in its cached copy) to 10 following which processor P2 changes the value of S in its own cached copy to 20. If we ensure only write propagation, then P3 and P4 will certainly see the changes made to S by P1 and P2. However, P3 may see the change made by P1 after seeing the change made by P2 and hence return 10 on a read to S. P4 on the other hand may see changes made by P1 and P2 in the order in which they are made and hence return 20 on a read to S. The processors P3 and P4 now have an incoherent view of the memory.
Therefore, in order to satisfy Transaction Serialization, and hence achieve Cache Coherence, the following condition along with the previous two mentioned in this section must be met:
The alternative definition of a coherent system is via the definition of sequential consistency memory model: "the cache coherent system must appear to execute all threads ' loads and stores to a single memory location in a total order that respects the program order of each thread ''. Thus, the only difference between the cache coherent system and sequentially consistent system is in the number of address locations the definition talks about (single memory location for a cache coherent system, and all memory locations for a sequentially consistent system).
Another definition is: "a multiprocessor is cache consistent if all writes to the same memory location are performed in some sequential order ''.
Rarely, but especially in algorithms, coherence can instead refer to the locality of reference.
The two most common mechanisms of ensuring coherency are snooping and directory - based, each having their own benefits and drawbacks. Snooping based protocols tend to be faster, if enough bandwidth is available, since all transactions are a request / response seen by all processors. The drawback is that snooping is n't scalable. Every request must be broadcast to all nodes in a system, meaning that as the system gets larger, the size of the (logical or physical) bus and the bandwidth it provides must grow. Directories, on the other hand, tend to have longer latencies (with a 3 hop request / forward / respond) but use much less bandwidth since messages are point to point and not broadcast. For this reason, many of the larger systems (> 64 processors) use this type of cache coherence.
Distributed shared memory systems mimic these mechanisms in an attempt to maintain consistency between blocks of memory in loosely coupled systems.
Coherence protocols apply cache coherence in multiprocessor systems. The intention is that two clients must never see different values for the same shared data.
The protocol must implement the basic requirements for coherence. It can be tailor - made for the target system or application.
Protocols can also be classified as snoopy or directory - based. Typically, early systems used directory - based protocols where a directory would keep a track of the data being shared and the sharers. In snoopy protocols, the transaction requests (to read, write, or upgrade) are sent out to all processors. All processors snoop the request and respond appropriately.
Write propagation in snoopy protocols can be implemented by either of the following methods:
If the protocol design states that whenever any copy of the shared data is changed, all the other copies must be "updated '' to reflect the change, then it is a write - update protocol. If the design states that a write to a cached copy by any processor requires other processors to discard or invalidate their cached copies, then it is a write - invalidate protocol.
However, scalability is one shortcoming of broadcast protocols.
Various models and protocols have been devised for maintaining coherence, such as MSI, MESI (aka Illinois), MOSI, MOESI, MERSI, MESIF, write - once, Synapse, Berkeley, Firefly and Dragon protocol. In 2011, ARM Ltd proposed the AMBA 4 ACE for handling coherency in SoC s.
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how did little rock ar get its name | Little Rock, Arkansas - Wikipedia
Little Rock is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Arkansas. It is also the county seat of Pulaski County. It was incorporated on November 7, 1831, on the south bank of the Arkansas River close to the state 's geographic center. The city derives its name from a rock formation along the river, named "la petite roche '' by the French explorer Jean - Baptiste Bénard de la Harpe in the 1720s. The capital of the Arkansas Territory was moved to Little Rock from Arkansas Post in 1821. The city 's population was 193,524 at the 2010 census. The six county Little Rock - North Little Rock - Conway, AR Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) is ranked 75th in terms of population in the United States with 724,385 residents according to the 2013 estimate by the United States Census Bureau.
Little Rock is a cultural, economic, government, and transportation center within Arkansas and the South. Several cultural institutions are in Little Rock, such as the Arkansas Arts Center, the Arkansas Repertory Theatre, and the Arkansas Symphony Orchestra, in addition to the hiking, boating, and other outdoor recreational opportunities. Little Rock 's history is available through history museums, historic districts or neighborhoods like the Quapaw Quarter, and historic sites such as Little Rock Central High School. The city is the headquarters of Dillard 's, Windstream Communications, Acxiom, Stephens Inc., University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Heifer International, the Clinton Foundation, and the Rose Law Firm. Other large corporations, such as Dassault Falcon Jet and LM Wind Power have large operations in the city. State government is a large employer, with many offices being in downtown Little Rock. Two Interstate highways, Interstate 30 and Interstate 40, meet in Little Rock, with the Port of Little Rock serving as a shipping hub.
Little Rock derives its name from a small rock formation on the south bank of the Arkansas River called "le petit rocher '' (French: "the little rock ''). The "little rock '' was used by early river traffic as a landmark and became a well - known river crossing. The "little rock '' is across the river from "big rock, '' a large bluff at the edge of the river, which was once used as a rock quarry.
Archeological artifacts provide evidence of Native Americans inhabiting Central Arkansas for thousands of years before Europeans arrived. The early inhabitants may have been the Folsom people, Bluff Dwellers, and Mississippian culture peoples who built earthwork mounds recorded in 1541 by Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto. Historical tribes of the area were the Caddo, Quapaw, Osage, Choctaw, and Cherokee.
Little Rock was named for a stone outcropping on the bank of the Arkansas River used by early travelers as a landmark. Le Petit Rocher (French for "the Little Rock ''), named in 1722 by French explorer and trader Jean - Baptiste Bénard de la Harpe, marked the transition from the flat Mississippi Delta region to the Ouachita Mountain foothills. Travelers referred to the area as "the Little Rock. '' Though there was an effort to officially name the city "Arkopolis '' upon it 's founding in the 1820s, and that name did appear on a few maps made by the US Geological Survey, the name Little Rock is eventually what stuck.
Little Rock is located at 34 ° 44 ′ 10 '' N 92 ° 19 ′ 52 '' W / 34.73611 ° N 92.33111 ° W / 34.73611; - 92.33111 (34.736009, − 92.331122).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 116.8 square miles (303 km), of which, 116.2 square miles (301 km) of it is land and 0.6 square miles (1.6 km) of it (0.52 %) is water.
Little Rock is located on the south bank of the Arkansas River in Central Arkansas. Fourche Creek and Rock Creek run through the city, and flow into the river. The western part of the city is located in the foothills of the Ouachita Mountains. Northwest of the city limits are Pinnacle Mountain and Lake Maumelle, which provides Little Rock 's drinking water.
The city of North Little Rock is located just across the river from Little Rock, but it is a separate city. North Little Rock was once the 8th ward of Little Rock. An Arkansas Supreme Court decision on February 6, 1904, allowed the ward to merge with the neighboring town of North Little Rock. The merged town quickly renamed itself Argenta (the local name for the former 8th Ward), but returned to its original name in October 1917.
The 2013 U.S. Census population estimate for the Little Rock - North Little Rock - Conway, AR Metropolitan Statistical Area was 724,385. The MSA covers the following counties: Pulaski, Faulkner, Grant, Lonoke, Perry, and Saline. The largest cities are Little Rock, North Little Rock, Conway, Jacksonville, Benton, Sherwood, Cabot, Maumelle, and Bryant.
Little Rock lies in the humid subtropical climate zone, with hot, humid summers and mild winters, with usually little snow. It has experienced temperatures as low as − 12 ° F (− 24 ° C), which was recorded on February 12, 1899, and as high as 114 ° F (46 ° C), which was recorded on August 3, 2011.
As of the 2005 -- 2007 American Community Survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau, White Americans made up 52.7 % of Little Rock 's population; of which 49.4 % were non-Hispanic whites, down from 74.1 % in 1970. Blacks or African Americans made up 42.1 % of Little Rock 's population, with 42.0 % being non-Hispanic blacks. American Indians made up 0.4 % of Little Rock 's population while Asian Americans made up 2.1 % of the city 's population. Pacific Islander Americans made up less than 0.1 % of the city 's population. Individuals from some other race made up 1.2 % of the city 's population; of which 0.2 % were non-Hispanic. Individuals from two or more races made up 1.4 % of the city 's population; of which 1.1 % were non-Hispanic. In addition, Hispanics and Latinos made up 4.7 % of Little Rock 's population.
As of the 2010 census, there were 193,524 people, 77,352 households, and 46,488 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,576.0 people per square mile (608.5 / km2). There were 84,793 housing units at an average density of 729.7 per square mile (281.7 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 48.9 % White, 42.3 % Black, 0.3 % Native American, 1.7 % Asian, 0.03 % Pacific Islander, 1.28 % from other races, and 1.28 % from two or more races. 2.7 % of the population is Hispanic or Latino.
There were 77,352 households, out of which 28.6 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.5 % were married couples living together, 16.1 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.9 % were non-families. 33.8 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9.1 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.98.
In the city, the population was spread out with 24.7 % under the age of 18, 10.0 % from 18 to 24, 31.7 % from 25 to 44, 22.0 % from 45 to 64, and 11.6 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 89.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $37,572, and the median income for a family was $47,446. Males had a median income of $35,689 versus $26,802 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,209. 14.3 % of the population is below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 20.9 % of those under the age of 18 and 9.0 % of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.
In the late 1980s, Little Rock experienced a 51 % increase in murder arrests of children under 17, and a 40 % increase in among 18 - to 24 - year - olds. From 1988 to 1992, murder arrests of youths under 18 increased by 256 %. By the end of 1992, Little Rock reached a record of 61 homicides, but in 1993 surpassed it with 76. It was one of the highest per - capita homicide rates in the country, placing Little Rock fifth in Money Magazine 's 1994 list of most dangerous cities. In July 2017, a shootout occurred at the Power Ultra Lounge nightclub in downtown Little Rock. Although there were no deaths, twenty - eight people were injured and one hospitalized.
Dillard 's Department Stores, Windstream Communications and Acxiom, Simmons Bank, Bank of the Ozarks, Rose Law Firm, Central Flying Service and large brokerage Stephens Inc. are headquartered in Little Rock.
Large companies headquartered in other cities but with a large presence in Little Rock are Dassault Falcon Jet near Little Rock National Airport in the eastern part of the city, Fidelity National Information Services in northwestern Little Rock, and Welspun Corp in Southeast Little Rock.
Little Rock and its surroundings are the headquarters for some of the largest non-profit organizations in the world, such as Winrock International, Heifer International, the Association of Community Organizations for Reform Now, Clinton Foundation, Lions World Services for the Blind, Clinton Presidential Center, Winthrop Rockefeller Foundation, FamilyLife, Audubon Arkansas, and The Nature Conservancy.
Associations, such as the American Taekwondo Association, Arkansas Hospital Association, and the Quapaw Quarter Association.
Arkansas Blue Cross and Blue Shield, Baptist Health Medical Center, Entergy, Dassault Falcon Jet, Siemens, AT&T Mobility, Kroger, Euronet Worldwide, L'Oréal Paris, Timex, and UAMS are employers throughout Little Rock.
One of the largest public employers in the state with over 10,552 employees, the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS) and its healthcare partners -- Arkansas Children 's Hospital and the Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System -- have a total economic impact in Arkansas of about $5 billion per year. UAMS receives less than 11 % of its funding from the state. Its operation is funded by payments for clinical services (64 %), grants and contracts (18 %), philanthropy and other (5 %), and tuition and fees (2 %).
The Little Rock port is an intermodal river port with a large industrial business complex. It is designated as Foreign Trade Zone 14. International corporations such as Danish manufacturer LM Glasfiber have established new facilities adjacent to the port.
Along with Louisville and Memphis, Little Rock has a branch of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis.
Many cultural sites are located in Little Rock, including:
Founded in 1976, the Arkansas Repertory Theatre is the state 's largest nonprofit professional theatre company. A member of the League of Resident Theatres (LORT D), The Rep has produced more than 300 productions, such as 40 world premieres, in its building located in downtown Little Rock. Producing Artistic Director, Robert Hupp leads a resident staff of designers, technicians and administrators in the creation of eight to ten productions for an annual audience in excess of 70,000 for MainStage productions, educational programming and touring. The Rep produces works that range from contemporary comedies and dramas to world premiers and the classics of dramatic literature.
Outside magazine named Little Rock one of its 2013 Best Towns. Dozens of parks such as Pinnacle Mountain State Park are located in Little Rock.
The city has operated under the city manager form of government since November 1957. In 1993, voters approved changes from seven at - large city directors (who rated the position of mayor among themselves) to a popularly elected mayor, seven ward directors and three at - large directors. The position of mayor remained a part - time position until August 2007. At that point, voters approved making the mayor 's position a full - time position with veto power. The current Mayor is Mark Stodola, a former Little Rock City Attorney and prosecuting attorney. The current City Manager is Bruce T. Moore, who is the longest - serving City Manager in Little Rock history. The city employs over 2,500 individuals in 14 different departments, including the Police Department, the Fire Department, Parks and Recreation, and the Zoo.
Most Pulaski County government offices are located in the city of Little Rock, including the Quorum, Circuit, District, and Juvenile Courts; and the Assessor, County Judge, County Attorney, and Public Defenders offices.
Both the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Arkansas and the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit have judicial facilities in Little Rock. The city is served by the Little Rock Police Department.
Little Rock is home to two universities that are part of the University of Arkansas System: the campuses of the University of Arkansas at Little Rock and the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences are located in the city. A pair of smaller, historically black colleges, Philander Smith College, affiliated with the United Methodist Church, and Arkansas Baptist College, are also located in Little Rock.
The University of Arkansas at Little Rock was founded in 1927 as Little Rock Junior College, under the supervision of the city Board of Education. In its first semester, there were eight instructors and about 100 students. The college is accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools, a status it has kept since 1929. Housed originally in public school buildings, the college moved in 1949 to another location between University Ave and Fair Park Blvd, North of Asher Ave., on land donated by Raymond Rebsamen, a Little Rock businessman. The college was the sole beneficiary of a continuing trust established by former Governor George W. Donaghey at the time. In 1957, the institution began a four - year degree program, became independent and privately supported under a separate board of trustees, and took the name Little Rock University.
In September 1969, The Little Rock University merged into the University of Arkansas System, to create the University of Arkansas at Little Rock. The University of Arkansas System merger began a period of steady growth, which saw UALR go from about 3,500 students and 75 full - time faculty members in 1969 to about 10,000 students and over 400 full - time faculty members in the 1998 academic year. The university consists of 54 undergraduate major programs, an extensive schedule of night, weekend, and off - campus classes, and various community educational services. UALR began offering graduate and professional work in 1975. Besides the juris doctor offered at the William H. Bowen School of Law, UALR has three doctoral programs and 29 graduate and professional programs, and joint programs with other campuses of the University of Arkansas System.
The University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS) is part of the University of Arkansas System. UAMS has about 2,200 students in six academic units: the Colleges of Medicine, Pharmacy, Nursing, Health Related Professions, and Public Health and the Graduate School. UAMS also has more than 660 resident physicians completing their training at UAMS or at one of the seven Area Health Education Centers around the state. UAMS provides hospital and outpatient care, and houses the Winthrop P. Rockefeller Cancer Institute, Harvey and Bernice Jones Eye Institute, Donald W. Reynolds Institute on Aging, Myeloma Institute for Research and Therapy, and Jackson T. Stephens Spine and Neurosciences Institute. Arkansas Children 's Hospital and the Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System are affiliates of UAMS.
The outreach efforts of UAMS has seven Area Health Education Centers (AHECs) in Fayetteville, Pine Bluff, El Dorado, Texarkana, Fort Smith, Jonesboro, and Helena, Arkansas; networks of senior health centers and centers for young children with special health care needs; and interactive video education and medical consultation services to community hospitals around the state. UAMS is the state 's largest basic and applied research institution with programs in multiple melanoma, aging, and other areas.
Located in downtown is the Clinton School of Public Service, a branch of the University of Arkansas System, which offers master 's degrees in public service.
Pulaski Technical College has two locations in Little Rock. The Pulaski Technical College Little Rock - South site is located at 13000 Interstate 30 in the former Little Rock Expo building near the Pulaski and Saline County line.
Almost half of the building 's 159,000 square feet houses the Pulaski Technical College Transportation Technology Center programs in automotive technology, collision repair technology, commercial driver training, diesel technology, small engine repair technology and motorcycle / all - terrain vehicle repair technology.
The Pulaski Technical College Culinary Arts and Hospitality Management Institute and The Finish Line Cafe are located in Little Rock - South. Breakfast and lunch are offered weekdays.
Pulaski Tech offers general and developmental education courses at its Little Rock - South location.
There is a Missionary Baptist Seminary in Little Rock associated with the American Baptist Association. The school began as Missionary Baptist College in Sheridan in Grant County.
Little Rock is home to both the Arkansas School for the Blind (ASB) and the Arkansas School for the Deaf (ASD), which are state - run schools operated by the Board of Trustees of the ASB -- ASD. In addition, eStem Public Charter High School and LISA Academy provide tuition - free public education as charter schools.
The city 's comprehensive public school system is operated by the Little Rock School District (LRSD). As of 2012, the district consists of 64 schools with more schools being built. As of the 2009 -- 2010 school year, the district has enrollment of 25,685. It has 5 high schools, 8 middle schools, 31 elementary schools, 1 early childhood (pre-kindergarten) center, 2 alternative schools, 1 adult education center, 1 accelerated learning center, 1 career - technical center, and about 3,800 employees.
LRSD public high schools include:
The Pulaski County Special School District (PCSSD) serves parts of Little Rock. PCSSD high schools are located in the city such as:
Various private schools are located in Little Rock, such as:
Little Rock previously had a Catholic high school for African - Americans, St. Bartholomew High School; it closed in 1964. The Catholic grade school St. Bartholomew School, also established for African - Americans, closed in 1974. The Our Lady of Good Counsel School closed in 2006.
The Central Arkansas Library System comprises the main building downtown and numerous branches throughout the city, Jacksonville, Maumelle, Perryville, Sherwood and Wrightsville. The Pulaski County Law Library is at the William H. Bowen School of Law.
Little Rock is home to the Arkansas Travelers. They are the AA professional Minor League Baseball affiliate of the Seattle Mariners in the Texas League. The Travelers played their last game in Little Rock at Ray Winder Field on September 3, 2006, and moved into Dickey - Stephens Park in nearby North Little Rock in April 2007.
Little Rock was also home to the Arkansas Twisters (later Arkansas Diamonds) of Arena Football 2 and Indoor Football League and the Arkansas RimRockers of the American Basketball Association and NBA Development League. Both of these teams played at Verizon Arena in North Little Rock.
The city is also home to the Little Rock Trojans, the athletic program of the University of Arkansas at Little Rock. The majority of the school 's athletic teams are housed in the Jack Stephens Center, which opened in 2005. The Trojans play in the Sun Belt Conference, where the Arkansas State Red Wolves are their chief rival.
Little Rock 's War Memorial Stadium plays host to at least one University of Arkansas Razorback football game each year. The stadium is known for being in the middle of a golf course. Each fall, the city closes the golf course on Razorback football weekends for fans to tailgate. It is estimated that over 80,000 people are present for the tailgating activities on these weekends. War Memorial also hosts the Arkansas High School football state championships, and starting in the fall of 2006 hosts one game apiece for the University of Central Arkansas and the University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff. Arkansas State University also plays at the stadium from time to time.
Little Rock was a host of the First and Second Rounds of the 2008 NCAA Men 's Basketball Tournament. It has also been a host of the SEC Women 's Basketball Tournament.
The now defunct Arkansas RiverBlades and Arkansas GlacierCats, both minor - league hockey teams, were located in the Little Rock area. The GlacierCats of the now defunct Western Professional Hockey League (WPHL) played in Little Rock at Barton Coliseum while the RiverBlades of the ECHL played at the Verizon Arena.
Hubert "Geese '' Ausbie played basketball at Philander Smith College in Little Rock, where he earned All - Conference and All - American honors. He later gained fame as a member of the Harlem Globetrotters.
John Kocinski, 250 cc and World Superbike motorcycle racing champion, is from Little Rock.
World Champion Middleweight Boxer Jermain Taylor and NBA players Derek Fisher and Joe Johnson were born and / or have roots in Little Rock.
Little Rock is home to the Grande Maumelle Sailing Club. Established in 1959, the club hosts multiple regattas during the year on both Lake Maumelle and the Arkansas River.
The Arkansas Democrat Gazette is the largest newspaper in the city, as well as the state. As of March 31, 2006, Sunday circulation is 275,991 copies, while daily (Monday - Saturday) circulation is 180,662, according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations. The newspaper also published the free tabloid Sync Weekly and the monthly magazine Arkansas Life.
Daily legal and real estate news is also provided Monday through Friday in the Daily Record. Healthcare news covered by Healthcare Journal of Little Rock. Entertainment and political coverage is provided weekly in Arkansas Times and monthly in the Little Rock Free Press. Business and economics news is published weekly in Arkansas Business. Entertainment, Political, Business, and Economics news is published Monthly in "Arkansas Talks '' www.Arkansastalks.org
In addition to area newspapers, the Little Rock market is served by a variety of magazines covering diverse interests. The publications are:
Many television networks have local affiliates in Little Rock, in addition to numerous independent stations. As for cable TV services, Comcast has a monopoly over Little Rock and much of Pulaski County. Some suburbs have the option of having Comcast, Charter or other cable companies.
Television stations in the Little Rock area are:
AM radio Stations in the Little Rock area are:
FM radio stations in the Little Rock area are:
Hospitals in Little Rock include:
Little Rock is served by two primary Interstate Highways and four auxiliary Interstates. I - 40 passes through North Little Rock to the north, and I - 30 enters the city from the south, terminating at I - 40 in the north of the Arkansas River. Shorter routes designed to accommodate the flow of urban traffic across town include I - 430, which bypasses the city to the west, I - 440, which serves the eastern part of Little Rock including Clinton National Airport, and I - 630 which runs east -- west through the city, connecting west Little Rock with the central business district. I - 530 runs southeast to Pine Bluff as a spur route.
US 70 parallels I - 40 into North Little Rock before multiplexing with I - 30 at the Broadway exit (Exit 141B). US 67 and US 167 share the same route from the northeast before splitting. US 67 and US 70 multiplex with Interstate 30 to the southwest. US 167 multiplexes with US 65 and I - 530 to the southeast.
Amtrak serves the city twice daily via the Texas Eagle, with northbound service to Chicago and southbound service to San Antonio, as well as numerous intermediate points. Through service to Los Angeles and intermediate points operates three times a week. The train carries coaches, a sleeping car, a dining car, and a Sightseer Lounge car. Reservations are required.
Six airlines serve 14 national / international gateway cities, e.g. Atlanta, Dallas, Chicago, Charlotte, Orlando etc. from Clinton National Airport. In 2006 they carried approximately 2.1 million passengers on approximately 116 daily flights to and from Little Rock. In July 2017, a seventh airline, Frontier Airlines, announced that they would be resuming scheduled operations to Denver in 2018.
Greyhound Lines serves Dallas and Memphis, as well as intermediate points, with numerous connections to other cities and towns. Jefferson Lines serves Fort Smith, Kansas City, and Oklahoma City, as well as intermediate points, with numerous connections to other cities and towns. These carriers operate out of the North Little Rock bus station.
Within the city, public bus service is provided by the Rock Region Metro, which until 2015 was named the Central Arkansas Transit Authority (CATA). As of January 2010, CATA operated 23 regular fixed routes, 3 express routes, as well as special events shuttle buses and paratransit service for disabled persons. Of the 23 fixed - route services, 16 offer daily service, 6 offer weekday service with limited service on Saturday, and one route runs exclusively on weekdays. The three express routes run on weekday mornings and afternoons. Since November 2004, downtown areas of Little Rock and North Little Rock have been additionally served by the Metro Streetcar system (formerly the River Rail Electric Streetcar), also operated by Rock Region Metro. The Streetcar is a 3.4 - mile (5.5 km) - long heritage streetcar system that runs from the North Little Rock City Hall and throughout downtown Little Rock before crossing over to the William J. Clinton Presidential Library. The streetcar line has fourteen stops and a fleet of five cars with a daily ridership of around 350.
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when is the olympics coming to the us | 2024 Summer Olympics - wikipedia
The 2024 Summer Olympics (French: Jeux olympiques d'été de 2024), officially known as the Games of the XXXIII Olympiad, and commonly known as Paris 2024, is a forthcoming international multi-sport event that is scheduled to take place from 26 July to 11 August 2024 in Paris, France.
Having previously hosted both the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics, Paris will become only the second city to host the Olympic Games three times, after London (1908, 1948 and 2012). The 2024 Games also mark the centennial of the 1924 Games, which were the last Summer Olympics to be held in Paris. They will be the sixth overall Olympic Games held in France (including summer and winter Games).
Bidding to host these Games began in 2015 with five candidate cities in contention, but Hamburg, Rome and Budapest withdrew, leaving Paris and Los Angeles as the only two candidates remaining. A proposal to elect the 2024 and 2028 Olympic host cities at the same time was approved by an Extraordinary IOC Session on 11 July 2017 in Lausanne. On 31 July 2017, the IOC made a deal with Los Angeles to host the 2028 Summer Olympics, making Paris the host of the 2024 Summer Olympics. The formal announcement of the hosts for both Olympiads took place at the 131st IOC Session in Lima, Peru, on 13 September 2017.
Paris, Hamburg, Budapest, Rome, and Los Angeles were the five candidate cities. However, the process was hit by withdrawals, with political uncertainty and cost cited as deterring bidding cities. Hamburg withdrew its bid on 29 November 2015 after holding a referendum. Rome withdrew its bid on 21 September 2016 citing fiscal difficulties. On 22 February 2017, Budapest withdrew its bid after a petition against the bid collected more signatures than necessary for a referendum.
Following these withdrawals, the IOC Executive Board met in Lausanne, Switzerland to discuss the 2024 and 2028 bid processes on 9 June 2017. The International Olympic Committee formally proposed electing the 2024 and 2028 Olympic host cities at the same time in 2017, a proposal which was approved by an Extraordinary IOC Session on 11 July 2017 in Lausanne. The IOC set up a process whereby the LA 2024 and Paris 2024 bid committees would meet with the IOC to discuss who would host the 2024 Games, who would host the 2028 Games, and whether it were actually possible to select the host city for both at the same time.
Following the decision to award the 2024 and 2028 Games simultaneously, Paris was understood to be the preferred host for the 2024 Games. On 31 July 2017, the IOC announced Los Angeles as the sole candidate for the 2028 Games, opening Paris up to be confirmed as hosts for the 2024 Games. Both decisions were ratified at the 131st IOC Session on 13 September 2017.
Paris was elected as the host city on September 13, 2017 at the 131st IOC Session in Lima, Peru. The two French IOC members, Guy Drut and Tony Estanguet were ineligible to vote in this host city election under the rules of the Olympic Charter.
In 2007, the IOC established the concept of Olympics including 28 sports: 25 permanent ' core ' sports with 3 additional sports selected for each individual Games. On 8 September 2013, IOC added wrestling to the Olympic programme for the 2020 and 2024 Games, representing one of these additional sports. FILA (now known as United World Wrestling) changed freestyle and Greco - Roman wrestling weight classes for men and decreased to 6 categories in order to add more weights for women. However, in August 2016, the IOC added five sports to the 2020 Olympics, with plans to separately evaluate the existing 28 sports. No indication was given how this would affect the number of sports in 2024.
The Paris organizers are also in discussions with the IOC and various professional eSport organizations to introduce eSports as a medal - winning sport during the Olympics. Tony Estanguet of the Paris committee said that introducing eSports would help to make the Olympics more relevant to the younger generations: "The youth, yes they are interested in esport and this kind of thing. Let 's look at it. Let 's meet them. Let 's try if we can find some bridges. '' The final decision as to whether video games will be featured in the 2024 Olympics will be made in 2020.
During the Lima Session, the IOC approved the Rio 2016 sports program for Paris 2024. New sports will be chosen during the 134th IOC Session in 2019 in Milan, Italy.
The 2024 Summer Olympic programme is scheduled to feature 28 sports encompassing 306 events, though this is likely to change depending on success of the five additional sports added to the Tokyo Olympics. This means there could be up to 33 sports, and any new sports which are added to the Olympic programme. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses.
Most of the Olympic events will be held in and around Paris, including the suburbs of Saint - Denis, Le Bourget, Nanterre, Versailles, and Vaires - sur - Marne which is just outside the city environs. The sailing and surfing events will be held in the remote coastal resorts of Marseille and Biarritz respectively. Football will be hosted in various cities around France.
The emblem of the 2024 Games will be unveiled in December 2018.
The mascot (s) for the 2024 Games will be announced in 2022.
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where are the headwaters for the mississippi river | Mississippi River - wikipedia
The Mississippi River is the chief river of the second - largest drainage system on the North American continent, second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system. Flowing entirely in the United States (although its drainage basin reaches into Canada), it rises in northern Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for 2,320 miles (3,730 km) to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi 's watershed drains all or parts of 31 U.S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth - longest and fifteenth - largest river in the world by discharge. The river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana.
Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Most were hunter - gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the native way of life as first explorers, then settlers, ventured into the basin in increasing numbers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. In the 19th century, during the height of the ideology of manifest destiny, the Mississippi and several western tributaries, most notably the Missouri, formed pathways for the western expansion of the United States.
Formed from thick layers of the river 's silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country, which resulted in the river 's storied steamboat era. During the American Civil War, the Mississippi 's capture by Union forces marked a turning point towards victory due to the river 's importance as a route of trade and travel, not least to the Confederacy. Because of substantial growth of cities and the larger ships and barges that supplanted riverboats, the first decades of the 20th century saw the construction of massive engineering works such as levees, locks and dams, often built in combination.
Since modern development of the basin began, the Mississippi has also seen its share of pollution and environmental problems -- most notably large volumes of agricultural runoff, which has led to the Gulf of Mexico dead zone off the Delta. In recent years, the river has shown a steady shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta; a course change would be an economic disaster for the port city of New Orleans.
The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi - ziibi (Great River).
In the 18th century, the river was the primary western boundary of the young United States, and since the country 's expansion westward, the Mississippi River has been widely considered a convenient if approximate dividing line between the Eastern, Southern, and Midwestern United States, and the Western United States. This is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase "Trans - Mississippi '' as used in the name of the Trans - Mississippi Exposition.
It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, such as "the highest peak east of the Mississippi '' or "the oldest city west of the Mississippi ''. The FCC also uses it as the dividing line for broadcast callsigns, which begin with W to the east and K to the west, mixing together in media markets along the river.
The geographical setting of the Mississippi River includes considerations of the course of the river itself, its watershed, its outflow, its prehistoric and historic course changes, and possibilities of future course changes. The New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway and its adjacent lands.
The Mississippi River can be divided into three sections: the Upper Mississippi, the river from its headwaters to the confluence with the Missouri River; the Middle Mississippi, which is downriver from the Missouri to the Ohio River; and the Lower Mississippi, which flows from the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico.
The Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. It is divided into two sections:
The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca, 1,475 feet (450 m) above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, Minnesota. The name "Itasca '' was chosen to designate the "true head '' of the Mississippi River as a combination of the last four letters of the Latin word for truth (veritas) and the first two letters of the Latin word for head (caput). However, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams.
From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, the waterway 's flow is moderated by 43 dams. Fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all contain locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river. Taken as a whole, these 43 dams significantly shape the geography and influence the ecology of the upper river. Beginning just below Saint Paul, Minnesota, and continuing throughout the upper and lower river, the Mississippi is further controlled by thousands of wing dikes that moderate the river 's flow in order to maintain an open navigation channel and prevent the river from eroding its banks.
The head of navigation on the Mississippi is the Coon Rapids Dam in Coon Rapids, Minnesota. Before it was built in 1913, steamboats could occasionally go upstream as far as Saint Cloud, Minnesota, depending on river conditions.
The uppermost lock and dam on the Upper Mississippi River is the Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in Minneapolis. Above the dam, the river 's elevation is 799 feet (244 m). Below the dam, the river 's elevation is 750 feet (230 m). This 49 - foot (15 m) drop is the largest of all the Mississippi River locks and dams. The origin of the dramatic drop is a waterfall preserved adjacent to the lock under an apron of concrete. Saint Anthony Falls is the only true waterfall on the entire Mississippi River. The water elevation continues to drop steeply as it passes through the gorge carved by the waterfall.
After the completion of the St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in 1963, the river 's head of navigation moved upstream, to the Coon Rapids Dam. However, the Locks were closed in 2015 to control the spread of invasive Asian carp, making Minneapolis once again the site of the head of navigation of the river.
The Upper Mississippi has a number of natural and artificial lakes, with its widest point being Lake Winnibigoshish, near Grand Rapids, Minnesota, over 11 miles (18 km) across. Lake Onalaska, created by Lock and Dam No. 7, near La Crosse, Wisconsin, is more than 4 miles (6.4 km) wide. Lake Pepin, a natural lake formed behind the delta of the Chippewa River of Wisconsin as it enters the Upper Mississippi, is more than 2 miles (3.2 km) wide.
By the time the Upper Mississippi reaches Saint Paul, Minnesota, below Lock and Dam No. 1, it has dropped more than half its original elevation and is 687 feet (209 m) above sea level. From St. Paul to St. Louis, Missouri, the river elevation falls much more slowly, and is controlled and managed as a series of pools created by 26 locks and dams.
The Upper Mississippi River is joined by the Minnesota River at Fort Snelling in the Twin Cities; the St. Croix River near Prescott, Wisconsin; the Cannon River near Red Wing, Minnesota; the Zumbro River at Wabasha, Minnesota; the Black, La Crosse, and Root rivers in La Crosse, Wisconsin; the Wisconsin River at Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin; the Rock River at the Quad Cities; the Iowa River near Wapello, Iowa; the Skunk River south of Burlington, Iowa; and the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. Other major tributaries of the Upper Mississippi include the Crow River in Minnesota, the Chippewa River in Wisconsin, the Maquoketa River and the Wapsipinicon River in Iowa, and the Illinois River in Illinois.
The Upper Mississippi is largely a multi-thread stream with many bars and islands. From its confluence with the St. Croix River downstream to Dubuque, Iowa, the river is entrenched, with high bedrock bluffs lying on either side. The height of these bluffs decreases to the south of Dubuque, though they are still significant through Savanna, Illinois. This topography contrasts strongly with the Lower Mississippi, which is a meandering river in a broad, flat area, only rarely flowing alongside a bluff (as at Vicksburg, Mississippi).
The Mississippi River is known as the Middle Mississippi from the Upper Mississippi River 's confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri, for 190 miles (310 km) to its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.
The Middle Mississippi is relatively free - flowing. From St. Louis to the Ohio River confluence, the Middle Mississippi falls 220 feet (67 m) over 180 miles (290 km) for an average rate of 1.2 feet per mile (23 cm / km). At its confluence with the Ohio River, the Middle Mississippi is 315 feet (96 m) above sea level. Apart from the Missouri and Meramec rivers of Missouri and the Kaskaskia River of Illinois, no major tributaries enter the Middle Mississippi River.
The Mississippi River is called the Lower Mississippi River from its confluence with the Ohio River to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about 1,000 miles (1,600 km). At the confluence of the Ohio and the Middle Mississippi, the long - term mean discharge of the Ohio at Cairo, Illinois is 281,500 cubic feet per second (7,970 cubic metres per second), while the long - term mean discharge of the Mississippi at Thebes, Illinois (just upriver from Cairo) is 208,200 cu ft / s (5,900 m / s). Thus, by volume, the main branch of the Mississippi River system at Cairo can be considered to be the Ohio River (and the Allegheny River further upstream), rather than the Middle Mississippi.
In addition to the Ohio River, the major tributaries of the Lower Mississippi River are the White River, flowing in at the White River National Wildlife Refuge in east central Arkansas; the Arkansas River, joining the Mississippi at Arkansas Post; the Big Black River in Mississippi; and the Yazoo River, meeting the Mississippi at Vicksburg, Mississippi. The widest point of the Mississippi River is in the Lower Mississippi portion where it exceeds 1 mile (1.6 km) in width in several places.
Deliberate water diversion at the Old River Control Structure in Louisiana allows the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana to be a major distributary of the Mississippi River, with 30 % of the Mississippi flowing to the Gulf of Mexico by this route, rather than continuing down the Mississippi 's current channel past Baton Rouge and New Orleans on a longer route to the Gulf. Although the Red River is commonly thought to be a tributary, it is actually not, because its water flows separately into the Gulf of Mexico through the Atchafalaya River.
The Mississippi River has the world 's fourth - largest drainage basin ("watershed '' or "catchment ''). The basin covers more than 1,245,000 square miles (3,220,000 km), including all or parts of 31 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The drainage basin empties into the Gulf of Mexico, part of the Atlantic Ocean. The total catchment of the Mississippi River covers nearly 40 % of the landmass of the continental United States. The highest point within the watershed is also the highest point of the Rocky Mountains, Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet (4,400 m).
In the United States, the Mississippi River drains the majority of the area between the crest of the Rocky Mountains and the crest of the Appalachian Mountains, except for various regions drained to Hudson Bay by the Red River of the North; to the Atlantic Ocean by the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River; and to the Gulf of Mexico by the Rio Grande, the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, the Chattahoochee and Appalachicola rivers, and various smaller coastal waterways along the Gulf.
The Mississippi River empties into the Gulf of Mexico about 100 miles (160 km) downstream from New Orleans. Measurements of the length of the Mississippi from Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico vary somewhat, but the United States Geological Survey 's number is 2,320 miles (3,730 km). The retention time from Lake Itasca to the Gulf is typically about 90 days.
The Mississippi River discharges at an annual average rate of between 200 and 700 thousand cubic feet per second (7,000 -- 20,000 m / s). Although it is the fifth - largest river in the world by volume, this flow is a small fraction of the output of the Amazon, which moves nearly 7 million cubic feet per second (200,000 m / s) during wet seasons. On average, the Mississippi has only 8 % the flow of the Amazon River.
Fresh river water flowing from the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico does not mix into the salt water immediately. The images from NASA 's MODIS (to the right) show a large plume of fresh water, which appears as a dark ribbon against the lighter - blue surrounding waters. These images demonstrate that the plume did not mix with the surrounding sea water immediately. Instead, it stayed intact as it flowed through the Gulf of Mexico, into the Straits of Florida, and entered the Gulf Stream. The Mississippi River water rounded the tip of Florida and traveled up the southeast coast to the latitude of Georgia before finally mixing in so thoroughly with the ocean that it could no longer be detected by MODIS.
Before 1900, the Mississippi River transported an estimated 400 million metric tons of sediment per year from the interior of the United States to coastal Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico. During the last two decades, this number was only 145 million metric tons per year. The reduction in sediment transported down the Mississippi River is the result of engineering modification of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers and their tributaries by dams, meander cutoffs, river - training structures, and bank revetments and soil erosion control programs in the areas drained by them.
Over geologic time, the Mississippi River has experienced numerous large and small changes to its main course, as well as additions, deletions, and other changes among its numerous tributaries, and the lower Mississippi River has used different pathways as its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico across the delta region.
Through a natural process known as avulsion or delta switching, the lower Mississippi River has shifted its final course to the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico every thousand years or so. This occurs because the deposits of silt and sediment begin to clog its channel, raising the river 's level and causing it to eventually find a steeper, more direct route to the Gulf of Mexico. The abandoned distributaries diminish in volume and form what are known as bayous. This process has, over the past 5,000 years, caused the coastline of south Louisiana to advance toward the Gulf from 15 to 50 miles (24 to 80 km). The currently active delta lobe is called the Birdfoot Delta, after its shape, or the Balize Delta, after La Balize, Louisiana, the first French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi.
The current form of the Mississippi River basin was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet of the most recent Ice Age. The southernmost extent of this enormous glaciation extended well into the present - day United States and Mississippi basin. When the ice sheet began to recede, hundreds of feet of rich sediment were deposited, creating the flat and fertile landscape of the Mississippi Valley. During the melt, giant glacial rivers found drainage paths into the Mississippi watershed, creating such features as the Minnesota River, James River, and Milk River valleys. When the ice sheet completely retreated, many of these "temporary '' rivers found paths to Hudson Bay or the Arctic Ocean, leaving the Mississippi Basin with many features "oversized '' for the existing rivers to have carved in the same time period.
Ice sheets during the Illinoian Stage about 300,000 to 132,000 years before present, blocked the Mississippi near Rock Island, Illinois, diverting it to its present channel farther to the west, the current western border of Illinois. The Hennepin Canal roughly follows the ancient channel of the Mississippi downstream from Rock Island to Hennepin, Illinois. South of Hennepin, to Alton, Illinois, the current Illinois River follows the ancient channel used by the Mississippi River before the Illinoian Stage.
Timeline of outflow course changes
In March 1876, the Mississippi suddenly changed course near the settlement of Reverie, Tennessee, leaving a small part of Tipton County, Tennessee, attached to Arkansas and separated from the rest of Tennessee by the new river channel. Since this event was an avulsion, rather than the effect of incremental erosion and deposition, the state line still follows the old channel. The town of Kaskaskia, Illinois once stood on a peninsula at the confluence of the Mississippi and Kaskaskia (Okaw) Rivers. Founded as a French colonial community, it later became the capital of the Illinois Territory and was the first state capital of Illinois until 1819. Beginning in 1844, successive flooding caused the Mississippi River to slowly encroach east. A major flood in 1881 caused it to overtake the lower 10 miles of the Kaskaskia River, forming a new Mississippi channel and cutting off the town from the rest of the state. Later flooding destroyed most of the remaining town, including the original State House. Today, the remaining 2,300 acre island and community of 14 residents is known as an enclave of Illinois and is accessible only from the Missouri side.
The New Madrid Seismic Zone, along the Mississippi River near New Madrid, Missouri, between Memphis and St. Louis, is related to an aulacogen (failed rift) that formed at the same time as the Gulf of Mexico. This area is still quite active seismically. Four great earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at approximately 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, had tremendous local effects in the then sparsely settled area, and were felt in many other places in the midwestern and eastern U.S. These earthquakes created Reelfoot Lake in Tennessee from the altered landscape near the river.
The Mississippi River runs through or along 10 states, from Minnesota to Louisiana, and was used to define portions of these states ' borders, with Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi along the east side of the river, and Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas along its west side. Substantial parts of both Minnesota and Louisiana are on either side of the river, although the Mississippi defines part of the boundary of each of these states.
In all of these cases, the middle of the riverbed at the time the borders were established was used as the line to define the borders between adjacent states. In various areas, the river has since shifted, but the state borders have not changed, still following the former bed of the Mississippi River as of their establishment, leaving several small isolated areas of one state across the new river channel, contiguous with the adjacent state. Also, due to a meander in the river, a small part of western Kentucky is contiguous with Tennessee, but isolated from the rest of its state.
Many of the communities along the Mississippi River are listed below; most have either historic significance or cultural lore connecting them to the river. They are sequenced from the source of the river to its end.
The road crossing highest on the Upper Mississippi is a simple steel culvert, through which the river (locally named "Nicolet Creek '') flows north from Lake Nicolet under "Wilderness Road '' to the West Arm of Lake Itasca, within Itasca State Park.
The earliest bridge across the Mississippi River was built in 1855. It spanned the river in Minneapolis, Minnesota where the current Hennepin Avenue Bridge is located. No highway or railroad tunnels cross under the Mississippi River.
The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi was built in 1856. It spanned the river between the Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois and Davenport, Iowa. Steamboat captains of the day, fearful of competition from the railroads, considered the new bridge a hazard to navigation. Two weeks after the bridge opened, the steamboat Effie Afton rammed part of the bridge, setting it on fire. Legal proceedings ensued, with Abraham Lincoln defending the railroad. The lawsuit went to the Supreme Court of the United States, which ruled in favor of the railroad.
Below is a general overview of selected Mississippi bridges which have notable engineering or landmark significance, with their cities or locations. They are sequenced from the Upper Mississippi 's source to the Lower Mississippi 's mouth.
A clear channel is needed for the barges and other vessels that make the main stem Mississippi one of the great commercial waterways of the world. The task of maintaining a navigation channel is the responsibility of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, which was established in 1802. Earlier projects began as early as 1829 to remove snags, close off secondary channels and excavate rocks and sandbars.
Steamboats entered trade in the 1820s, so the period 1830 -- 1850 became the golden age of steamboats. As there were few roads or rails in the lands of the Louisiana Purchase, river traffic was an ideal solution. Cotton, timber and food came down the river, as did Appalachian coal. The port of New Orleans boomed as it was the trans - shipment point to deep sea ocean vessels. As a result, the image of the twin stacked, wedding cake Mississippi steamer entered into American mythology. Steamers worked the entire route from the trickles of Montana, to the Ohio River; down the Missouri and Tennessee, to the main channel of the Mississippi. Only with the arrival of the railroads in the 1880s did steamboat traffic diminish. Steamboats remained a feature until the 1920s. Most have been superseded by pusher tugs. A few survive as icons -- the Delta Queen and the River Queen for instance.
A series of 29 locks and dams on the upper Mississippi, most of which were built in the 1930s, is designed primarily to maintain a 9 - foot - deep (2.7 m) channel for commercial barge traffic. The lakes formed are also used for recreational boating and fishing. The dams make the river deeper and wider but do not stop it. No flood control is intended. During periods of high flow, the gates, some of which are submersible, are completely opened and the dams simply cease to function. Below St. Louis, the Mississippi is relatively free - flowing, although it is constrained by numerous levees and directed by numerous wing dams.
On the lower Mississippi, from Baton Rouge to the mouth of the Mississippi, the navigation depth is 45 feet (14 m), allowing container ships and cruise ships to dock at the Port of New Orleans and bulk cargo ships shorter than 150 - foot (46 m) air draft that fit under the Huey P. Long Bridge to traverse the Mississippi to Baton Rouge. There is a feasibility study to dredge this portion of the river to 50 feet (15 m) to allow New Panamax ship depths.
In 1829, there were surveys of the two major obstacles on the upper Mississippi, the Des Moines Rapids and the Rock Island Rapids, where the river was shallow and the riverbed was rock. The Des Moines Rapids were about 11 miles (18 km) long and just above the mouth of the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. The Rock Island Rapids were between Rock Island and Moline, Illinois. Both rapids were considered virtually impassable.
In 1848, the Illinois and Michigan Canal was built to connect the Mississippi River to Lake Michigan via the Illinois River near Peru, Illinois. The canal allowed shipping between these important waterways. In 1900, the canal was replaced by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal. The second canal, in addition to shipping, also allowed Chicago to address specific health issues (typhoid fever, cholera and other waterborne diseases) by sending its waste down the Illinois and Mississippi river systems rather than polluting its water source of Lake Michigan.
The Corps of Engineers recommended the excavation of a 5 - foot - deep (1.5 m) channel at the Des Moines Rapids, but work did not begin until after Lieutenant Robert E. Lee endorsed the project in 1837. The Corps later also began excavating the Rock Island Rapids. By 1866, it had become evident that excavation was impractical, and it was decided to build a canal around the Des Moines Rapids. The canal opened in 1877, but the Rock Island Rapids remained an obstacle. In 1878, Congress authorized the Corps to establish a 4.5 - foot - deep (1.4 m) channel to be obtained by building wing dams which direct the river to a narrow channel causing it to cut a deeper channel, by closing secondary channels and by dredging. The channel project was complete when the Moline Lock, which bypassed the Rock Island Rapids, opened in 1907.
To improve navigation between St. Paul, Minnesota, and Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, the Corps constructed several dams on lakes in the headwaters area, including Lake Winnibigoshish and Lake Pokegama. The dams, which were built beginning in the 1880s, stored spring run - off which was released during low water to help maintain channel depth.
In 1907, Congress authorized a 6 - foot - deep (1.8 m) channel project on the Mississippi, which was not complete when it was abandoned in the late 1920s in favor of the 9 - foot - deep (2.7 m) channel project.
In 1913, construction was complete on Lock and Dam No. 19 at Keokuk, Iowa, the first dam below St. Anthony Falls. Built by a private power company (Union Electric Company of St. Louis) to generate electricity (originally for streetcars in St. Louis), the Keokuk dam was one of the largest hydro - electric plants in the world at the time. The dam also eliminated the Des Moines Rapids. Lock and Dam No. 1 was completed in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917. Lock and Dam No. 2, near Hastings, Minnesota, was completed in 1930.
Before the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the Corps 's primary strategy was to close off as many side channels as possible to increase the flow in the main river. It was thought that the river 's velocity would scour off bottom sediments, deepening the river and decreasing the possibility of flooding. The 1927 flood proved this to be so wrong that communities threatened by the flood began to create their own levee breaks to relieve the force of the rising river.
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1930 authorized the 9 - foot (2.7 m) channel project, which called for a navigation channel 9 feet (2.7 m) feet deep and 400 feet (120 m) wide to accommodate multiple - barge tows. This was achieved by a series of locks and dams, and by dredging. Twenty - three new locks and dams were built on the upper Mississippi in the 1930s in addition to the three already in existence.
Until the 1950s, there was no dam below Lock and Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois. Chain of Rocks Lock (Lock and Dam No. 27), which consists of a low - water dam and an 8.4 - mile - long (13.5 km) canal, was added in 1953, just below the confluence with the Missouri River, primarily to bypass a series of rock ledges at St. Louis. It also serves to protect the St. Louis city water intakes during times of low water.
U.S. government scientists determined in the 1950s that the Mississippi River was starting to switch to the Atchafalaya River channel because of its much steeper path to the Gulf of Mexico. Eventually the Atchafalaya River would capture the Mississippi River and become its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico, leaving New Orleans on a side channel. As a result, the U.S. Congress authorized a project called the Old River Control Structure, which has prevented the Mississippi River from leaving its current channel that drains into the Gulf via New Orleans.
Because the large scale of high - energy water flow threatened to damage the structure, an auxiliary flow control station was built adjacent to the standing control station. This $300 million project was completed in 1986 by the Corps of Engineers. Beginning in the 1970s, the Corps applied hydrological transport models to analyze flood flow and water quality of the Mississippi. Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois, which had structural problems, was replaced by the Mel Price Lock and Dam in 1990. The original Lock and Dam 26 was demolished.
The Corps now actively creates and maintains spillways and floodways to divert periodic water surges into backwater channels and lakes, as well as route part of the Mississippi 's flow into the Atchafalaya Basin and from there to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. The main structures are the Birds Point - New Madrid Floodway in Missouri; the Old River Control Structure and the Morganza Spillway in Louisiana, which direct excess water down the west and east sides (respectively) of the Atchafalaya River; and the Bonnet Carré Spillway, also in Louisiana, which directs floodwaters to Lake Pontchartrain (see diagram). Some experts blame urban sprawl for increases in both the risk and frequency of flooding on the Mississippi River.
Some of the pre-1927 strategy is still in use today, with the Corps actively cutting the necks of horseshoe bends, allowing the water to move faster and reducing flood heights.
The area of the Mississippi River basin was first settled by hunting and gathering Native American peoples and is considered one of the few independent centers of plant domestication in human history. Evidence of early cultivation of sunflower, a goosefoot, a marsh elder and an indigenous squash dates to the 4th millennium BCE. The lifestyle gradually became more settled after around 1000 BCE during what is now called the Woodland period, with increasing evidence of shelter construction, pottery, weaving and other practices. A network of trade routes referred to as the Hopewell interaction sphere was active along the waterways between about 200 and 500 CE, spreading common cultural practices over the entire area between the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes. A period of more isolated communities followed, and agriculture introduced from Mesoamerica based on the Three Sisters (maize, beans and squash) gradually came to dominate. After around 800 CE there arose an advanced agricultural society today referred to as the Mississippian culture, with evidence of highly stratified complex chiefdoms and large population centers. The most prominent of these, now called Cahokia, was occupied between about 600 and 1400 CE and at its peak numbered between 8,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, larger than London, England of that time. At the time of first contact with Europeans, Cahokia and many other Mississippian cities had dispersed, and archaeological finds attest to increased social stress.
Modern American Indian nations inhabiting the Mississippi basin include Cheyenne, Sioux, Ojibwe, Potawatomi, Ho - Chunk, Fox, Kickapoo, Tamaroa, Moingwena, Quapaw and Chickasaw.
The word Mississippi itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi - ziibi (Great River). The Ojibwe called Lake Itasca Omashkoozo - zaaga'igan (Elk Lake) and the river flowing out of it Omashkoozo - ziibi (Elk River). After flowing into Lake Bemidji, the Ojibwe called the river Bemijigamaag - ziibi (River from the Traversing Lake). After flowing into Cass Lake, the name of the river changes to Gaa - miskwaawaakokaag - ziibi (Red Cedar River) and then out of Lake Winnibigoshish as Wiinibiigoonzhish - ziibi (Miserable Wretched Dirty Water River), Gichi - ziibi (Big River) after the confluence with the Leech Lake River, then finally as Misi - ziibi (Great River) after the confluence with the Crow Wing River. After the expeditions by Giacomo Beltrami and Henry Schoolcraft, the longest stream above the juncture of the Crow Wing River and Gichi - ziibi was named "Mississippi River ''. The Mississippi River Band of Chippewa Indians, known as the Gichi - ziibiwininiwag, are named after the stretch of the Mississippi River known as the Gichi - ziibi. The Cheyenne, one of the earliest inhabitants of the upper Mississippi River, called it the Máʼxe - éʼometaaʼe (Big Greasy River) in the Cheyenne language. The Arapaho name for the river is Beesniicíe. The Pawnee name is Kickaátit.
The Mississippi was spelled Mississipi or Missisipi during French Louisiana and was also known as the Rivière Saint - Louis.
On May 8, 1541, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto became the first recorded European to reach the Mississippi River, which he called Río del Espíritu Santo ("River of the Holy Spirit ''), in the area of what is now Mississippi. In Spanish, the river is called Río Mississippi.
French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi in the 17th century. Marquette traveled with a Sioux Indian who named it Ne Tongo ("Big river '' in Sioux language) in 1673. Marquette proposed calling it the River of the Immaculate Conception.
When Louis Jolliet explored the Mississippi Valley in the 17th century, natives guided him to a quicker way to return to French Canada via the Illinois River. When he found the Chicago Portage, he remarked that a canal of "only half a league '' (less than 2 miles (3.2 km), 3 km) would join the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. In 1848, the continental divide separating the waters of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley was breached by the Illinois and Michigan canal via the Chicago River. This both accelerated the development, and forever changed the ecology of the Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes.
In 1682, René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Henri de Tonti claimed the entire Mississippi River Valley for France, calling the river Colbert River after Jean - Baptiste Colbert and the region La Louisiane, for King Louis XIV. On March 2, 1699, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi, following the death of La Salle. The French built the small fort of La Balise there to control passage.
In 1718, about 100 miles (160 km) upriver, New Orleans was established along the river crescent by Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, with construction patterned after the 1711 resettlement on Mobile Bay of Mobile, the capital of French Louisiana at the time.
Following Britain 's victory in the Seven Years War the Mississippi became the border between the British and Spanish Empires. The Treaty of Paris (1763) gave Great Britain rights to all land east of the Mississippi and Spain rights to land west of the Mississippi. Spain also ceded Florida to Britain to regain Cuba, which the British occupied during the war. Britain then divided the territory into East and West Florida.
Article 8 of the Treaty of Paris (1783) states, "The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States ''. With this treaty, which ended the American Revolutionary War, Britain also ceded West Florida back to Spain to regain the Bahamas, which Spain had occupied during the war. In 1800, under duress from Napoleon of France, Spain ceded an undefined portion of West Florida to France. When France then sold the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. in 1803, a dispute arose again between Spain and the U.S. on which parts of West Florida exactly had Spain ceded to France, which would in turn decide which parts of West Florida were now U.S. property versus Spanish property. These aspirations ended when Spain was pressured into signing Pinckney 's Treaty in 1795.
France reacquired ' Louisiana ' from Spain in the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800. The United States then secured effective control of the river when it bought the Louisiana Territory from France in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The last serious European challenge to U.S. control of the river came at the conclusion of War of 1812 when British forces mounted an attack on New Orleans -- the attack was repulsed by an American army under the command of General Andrew Jackson.
In the Treaty of 1818, the U.S. and Great Britain agreed to fix the border running from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains along the 49th parallel north. In effect, the U.S. ceded the northwestern extremity of the Mississippi basin to the British in exchange for the southern portion of the Red River basin.
So many settlers traveled westward through the Mississippi river basin, as well as settled in it, that Zadok Cramer wrote a guide book called The Navigator, detailing the features and dangers and navigable waterways of the area. It was so popular that he updated and expanded it through 12 editions over a period of 25 years.
The colonization of the area was barely slowed by the three earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at approximately 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, that were centered near New Madrid, Missouri.
Mark Twain 's book, Life on the Mississippi, covered the steamboat commerce which took place from 1830 to 1870 on the river before more modern ships replaced the steamer. The book was published first in serial form in Harper 's Weekly in seven parts in 1875. The full version, including a passage from the then unfinished Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and works from other authors, was published by James R. Osgood & Company in 1885.
The first steamboat to travel the full length of the Lower Mississippi from the Ohio River to New Orleans was the New Orleans in December 1811. Its maiden voyage occurred during the series of New Madrid earthquakes in 1811 -- 12. The Upper Mississippi was treacherous, unpredictable and to make traveling worse, the area was not properly mapped out or surveyed. Until the 1840s only two trips a year to the Twin Cities landings were made by steamboats which suggests it was not very profitable.
Steamboat transport remained a viable industry, both in terms of passengers and freight until the end of the first decade of the 20th century. Among the several Mississippi River system steamboat companies was the noted Anchor Line, which, from 1859 to 1898, operated a luxurious fleet of steamers between St. Louis and New Orleans.
Italian explorer Giacomo Beltrami, wrote about his journey on the Virginia, which was the first steam boat to make it to Fort St. Anthony in Minnesota. He referred to his voyage as a promenade that was once a journey on the Mississippi. The steamboat era changed the economic and political life of the Mississippi, as well as the nature of travel itself. The Mississippi was completely changed by the steamboat era as it transformed into a flourishing tourists trade.
Control of the river was a strategic objective of both sides in the American Civil War. In 1862 Union forces coming down the river successfully cleared Confederate defenses at Island Number 10 and Memphis, Tennessee, while Naval forces coming upriver from the Gulf of Mexico captured New Orleans, Louisiana. The remaining major Confederate stronghold was on the heights overlooking the river at Vicksburg, Mississippi, and the Union 's Vicksburg Campaign (December 1862 to July 1863), and the fall of Port Hudson, completed control of the lower Mississippi River. The Union victory ending the Siege of Vicksburg on July 4, 1863, was pivotal to the Union 's final victory of the Civil War.
The "Big Freeze '' of 1918 -- 19 blocked river traffic north of Memphis, Tennessee, preventing transportation of coal from southern Illinois. This resulted in widespread shortages, high prices, and rationing of coal in January and February.
In the spring of 1927, the river broke out of its banks in 145 places, during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and inundated 27,000 sq mi (70,000 km) to a depth of up to 30 feet (9.1 m).
In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled 3.5 million US gallons (13,000,000 L) of soybean oil into the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers. The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin, creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control water pollution.
On October 20, 1976, the automobile ferry, MV George Prince, was struck by a ship traveling upstream as the ferry attempted to cross from Destrehan, Louisiana, to Luling, Louisiana. Seventy - eight passengers and crew died; only eighteen survived the accident.
In 1988, the water level of the Mississippi fell to 10 feet (3.0 m) below zero on the Memphis gauge. The remains of wooden - hulled water craft were exposed in an area of 4.5 acres (18,000 m) on the bottom of the Mississippi River at West Memphis, Arkansas. They dated to the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The State of Arkansas, the Arkansas Archeological Survey, and the Arkansas Archeological Society responded with a two - month data recovery effort. The fieldwork received national media attention as good news in the middle of a drought.
The Great Flood of 1993 was another significant flood, primarily affecting the Mississippi above its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.
Two portions of the Mississippi were designated as American Heritage Rivers in 1997: the lower portion around Louisiana and Tennessee, and the upper portion around Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota and Missouri. The Nature Conservancy 's project called "America 's Rivershed Initiative '' announced a ' report card ' assessment of the entire basin in October 2015 and gave the grade of D+. The assessment noted the aging navigation and flood control infrastructure along with multiple environmental problems.
In 2002, Slovenian long - distance swimmer Martin Strel swam the entire length of the river, from Minnesota to Louisiana, over the course of 68 days. In 2005, the Source to Sea Expedition paddled the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers to benefit the Audubon Society 's Upper Mississippi River Campaign.
Geologists believe that the lower Mississippi could take a new course to the Gulf. Either of two new routes -- through the Atchafalaya Basin or through Lake Pontchartrain -- might become the Mississippi 's main channel if flood - control structures are overtopped or heavily damaged during a severe flood.
Failure of the Old River Control Structure, the Morganza Spillway, or nearby levees would likely re-route the main channel of the Mississippi through Louisiana 's Atchafalaya Basin and down the Atchafalaya River to reach the Gulf of Mexico south of Morgan City in southern Louisiana. This route provides a more direct path to the Gulf of Mexico than the present Mississippi River channel through Baton Rouge and New Orleans. While the risk of such a diversion is present during any major flood event, such a change has so far been prevented by active human intervention involving the construction, maintenance, and operation of various levees, spillways, and other control structures by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
The Old River Control Structure, between the present Mississippi River channel and the Atchafalaya Basin, sits at the normal water elevation and is ordinarily used to divert 30 % of the Mississippi 's flow to the Atchafalaya River. There is a steep drop here away from the Mississippi 's main channel into the Atchafalaya Basin. If this facility were to fail during a major flood, there is a strong concern the water would scour and erode the river bottom enough to capture the Mississippi 's main channel. The structure was nearly lost during the 1973 flood, but repairs and improvements were made after engineers studied the forces at play. In particular, the Corps of Engineers made many improvements and constructed additional facilities for routing water through the vicinity. These additional facilities give the Corps much more flexibility and potential flow capacity than they had in 1973, which further reduces the risk of a catastrophic failure in this area during other major floods, such as that of 2011.
Because the Morganza Spillway is slightly higher and well back from the river, it is normally dry on both sides. Even if it failed at the crest during a severe flood, the flood waters would have to erode to normal water levels before the Mississippi could permanently jump channel at this location. During the 2011 floods, the Corps of Engineers opened the Morganza Spillway to 1 / 4 of its capacity to allow 150,000 ft / sec of water to flood the Morganza and Atchafalaya floodways and continue directly to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. In addition to reducing the Mississippi River crest downstream, this diversion reduced the chances of a channel change by reducing stress on the other elements of the control system.
Some geologists have noted that the possibility for course change into the Atchafalaya also exists in the area immediately north of the Old River Control Structure. Army Corps of Engineers geologist Fred Smith once stated, "The Mississippi wants to go west. 1973 was a forty - year flood. The big one lies out there somewhere -- when the structures ca n't release all the floodwaters and the levee is going to have to give way. That is when the river 's going to jump its banks and try to break through. ''
Another possible course change for the Mississippi River is a diversion into Lake Pontchartrain near New Orleans. This route is controlled by the Bonnet Carré Spillway, built to reduce flooding in New Orleans. This spillway and an imperfect natural levee about 4 -- 6 meters (12 to 20 feet) high are all that prevents the Mississippi from taking a new, shorter course through Lake Pontchartrain to the Gulf of Mexico. Diversion of the Mississippi 's main channel through Lake Pontchartrain would have consequences similar to an Atchafalaya diversion, but to a lesser extent, since the present river channel would remain in use past Baton Rouge and into the New Orleans area.
The sport of water skiing was invented on the river in a wide region between Minnesota and Wisconsin known as Lake Pepin. Ralph Samuelson of Lake City, Minnesota, created and refined his skiing technique in late June and early July 1922. He later performed the first water ski jump in 1925 and was pulled along at 80 mph (130 km / h) by a Curtiss flying boat later that year.
There are seven National Park Service sites along the Mississippi River. The Mississippi National River and Recreation Area is the National Park Service site dedicated to protecting and interpreting the Mississippi River itself. The other six National Park Service sites along the river are (listed from north to south):
The Mississippi basin is home to a highly diverse aquatic fauna and has been called the "mother fauna '' of North American fresh water.
About 375 fish species are known from the Mississippi basin, far exceeding other North Hemisphere river basin exclusively within temperate / subtropical regions, except the Yangtze. Within the Mississippi basin, streams that have their source in the Appalachian and Ozark highlands contain especially many species. Among the fish species in the basin are numerous endemics, as well as relicts such as paddlefish, sturgeon, gar and bowfin.
Because of its size and high species diversity, the Mississippi basin is often divided into subregions. The Upper Mississippi River alone is home to about 120 fish species, including walleye, sauger, large mouth bass, small mouth bass, white bass, northern pike, bluegill, crappie, channel catfish, flathead catfish, common shiner, freshwater drum and shovelnose sturgeon.
In addition to fish, several species of turtles (such as snapping, musk, mud, map, cooter, painted and softshell turtles), American alligator, aquatic amphibians (such as hellbender, mudpuppy, three - toed amphiuma and lesser siren), and cambarid crayfish (such as the red swamp crayfish) are native to the Mississippi basin.
Numerous introduced species are found in the Mississippi and some of these are invasive. Among the introductions are fish such as Asian carp, including the silver carp that have become infamous for outcompeting native fish and their potentially dangerous jumping behavior. They have spread throughout much of the basin, even approaching (but not yet invading) the Great Lakes. The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources has designated much of the Mississippi River in the state as infested waters by the exotic species zebra mussels and Eurasian watermilfoil.
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where does the united states rank in healthcare in the world | World health Organization ranking of health systems in 2000 - wikipedia
The World Health Organization (WHO) ranked the health systems of its 191 member states in its World Health Report 2000. It provided a framework and measurement approach to examine and compare aspects of health systems around the world. It developed a series of performance indicators to assess the overall level and distribution of health in the populations, and the responsiveness and financing of health care services. It was the organization 's first ever analysis of the world 's health systems.
The rankings are based on an index of five factors:
The WHO rankings have been subject to many and varied criticisms since its publication. Concerns raised over the five factors considered, data sets used and comparison methodologies have led health bodies and political commentators in most of the countries on the list to question the efficacy of its results and validity of any conclusions drawn. Such criticisms of a broad endeavour by the WHO to rank all the world 's healthcare systems must also however be understood in the context of a predisposition to analytical bias commensurate with an individual nation 's demographics, socio - economics and politics. In considering such a disparate global spectrum, ranking criteria, methodology, results and conclusions will always be an area for contention.
In over a decade of discussion and controversy over the WHO Ranking of 2000, there is still no consensus about how an objective world health system ranking should be compiled. Indeed, the 2000 results have proved so controversial that the WHO declined to rank countries in their World Health Reports since 2000, but the debate still rages on. With burgeoning and ageing populations, spiralling costs and the recognition by most national governments that constant vigilance and periodic healthcare reform are necessary, the appetite for a means of measuring national performance in broader world contexts is ever increasing and all the more relevant. With this in mind, and in lieu of any further ranking information from the WHO since 2000, there are many analytical bodies now looking at national healthcare delivery in global contexts and publishing their findings. Bloomberg finds "the U.S. spends the most on health care on a relative cost basis with the worst outcome '' and notes Cubans live longer than Americans, but Americans pay more than fourteen times as much for less effective health care. The Commonwealth Fund ranked seven developed countries on health care, the US ranked lowest (AU, CA, DE, NL, NZ, UK, US).
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which part of potato plant is used as vegetable | Edible plant stem - wikipedia
Edible plant stems are one part of plants that are eaten by humans. Most plants are made up of stems, roots, leaves, flowers, and produce fruits containing seeds. Humans most commonly eat the seeds (e.g. maize, wheat, coffee), fruit (e.g. tomato, apples, bananas), flowers (e.g. dandelion, broccoli, sunflower), leaves (e.g. lettuce, spinach, and cabbage), roots (e.g. carrots, ginger, beets), and stems (e.g. asparagus, rhubarb, leek) of many plants. There are also a few edible petioles (also known as leaf stems) such as celery.
Plant stems have a variety of functions. Stems support the entire plant and have buds, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Stems are also a vital connection between leaves and roots. They conduct water and mineral nutrients through (xylem) tissue from roots upward, and organic compounds and some mineral nutrients through phloem tissue in any direction within the plant. Apical meristems, located at the shoot tip and axillary buds on the stem, allow plants to increase in length, surface, and mass. In some plants, such as cactus, stems are specialized for photosynthesis and water storage.
Typical stems are located above ground, but there are modified stems that can be found either above or below ground. Modified stems located above ground are crowns, stolons, runners, or spurs. Modified stems located below ground are bulbs (which are actually primarily the enlarged base of the plant 's leaves), corms, rhizomes, and tubers.
There are also many wild edible plant stems. In North America, these include the shoots of common milkweed, Solomon 's seal, woodsorrel (usually eaten along with the leaves), blackberry and raspberry (peeled), chickweeds, galinsoga, common purslane, Japanese knotweed, saxifrage, cleavers, wild leeks, wild onion, nodding onion, field garlic, wild garlic, winter cress and other wild mustards, thistles (de-thorned), stinging nettles and wood nettles (cooked), burdock, bellworts, jewelweed, spiderwort, violets, carrion flower, twisted - stalk, amaranth, pine and slippery elm, among many others. Also, some wild plants with edible rhizomes (underground, horizontal stems) can be found, such as cattail, ground nut, Solomon 's seal and false Solomon 's seal. Wild edible tubers include arrowhead, and many more. Wild edible stems, like their domestic relatives, are usually only good when young and growing. Many of these also require preparation (as do many domestic plants, such as the potato), so it is wise to read up on the plant before experimenting with eating it.
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when does yuri on ice the movie come out | Yuri on Ice - Wikipedia
Yuri!!! on Ice (Japanese: ユーリ!!! on ICE) is a sports anime television series about figure skating. The anime was produced by MAPPA, directed by Sayo Yamamoto and written by Mitsurō Kubo. Character design was by Tadashi Hiramatsu, and its music was composed by Taro Umebayashi and Taku Matsushiba. The figure skating was choreographed by Kenji Miyamoto, who also performed routines himself which were recorded and used as skating sound effects. The series premiered on October 6, 2016 and ended on December 22, with a total of 12 episodes. A Yuri on Ice feature film is currently in production. The series revolves around the relationships between Japanese figure skater Yuri Katsuki; his idol, Russian figure - skating champion Victor Nikiforov, and up - and - coming Russian skater Yuri Plisetsky; as Yuri K. and Yuri P. take part in the Figure Skating Grand Prix, with Victor acting as coach to Yuri K.
Released to critical acclaim, Yuri on Ice has been well received in Japan. It won three awards at the Tokyo Anime Award Festival, a Japan Character Award and seven awards in Crunchyroll 's inaugural Anime Awards. In Japan, the series was released in six parts on Blu - Ray and DVD, with all the releases coming No. 1 on the Oricon Animation Blu - Ray disc and Animation DVD disc rankings respectively. It was the second-most successful media franchise in Japan for the first half of 2017. It was popular on social media outlets such as Tumblr, Sina Weibo and Twitter, where it received over a million more tweets that the next most - talked about anime series in the season it was broadcast. It also attracted praise from professional figure skaters.
Yuri on Ice has raised discussion concerning its depiction of a same - sex relationship between its protagonists, with some critics praising it for covering homosexuality in a way that differs from most anime and manga such as yaoi, and for dealing with homosexuality in a country and sport that has present - day issues with homophobia; others criticised its depiction for being unrealistic and ambiguous. The series has also been praised for its depiction of anxiety, and also raised a brief controversy concerning a similar figure skating - based title to be released in the United States in 2017.
After a crushing defeat in the Grand Prix Final and other competition losses, 23 - year - old Japanese figure skater Yuri Katsuki develops mixed feelings about skating and puts his career on hold; returning to his hometown of Hasetsu in Kyushu. Yuri visits his childhood friend, Yuko, at an ice rink (Ice Castle Hasetsu) and perfectly mimics an advanced skating routine performed by his idol: Russian figure skating champion Victor Nikiforov. When secretly - recorded footage of Yuri 's performance is uploaded to the internet, it catches Victor 's attention, and he travels to Kyushu with an offer to coach Yuri and revive his figure - skating career. Later, it is revealed that Victor was already familiar with Yuri, having met him before at a banquet where Yuri got drunk and asked Victor to be his coach.
After learning when about Victor 's career decision, Yuri Plisetsky, a rising 15 - year - old Russian prodigy skater, travels to Hasetsu to make Victor keep a promise made prior to the beginning of the series. Victor had promised he would choreograph a routine specifically for Yuri P. if he won the Junior World Championships, which Yuri P. presumably did. Victor, having forgotten about his promise to Yuri P., makes the two Yuris compete against each other to decide who he will coach. Yuri K. ends up winning, and thus Victor becomes Yuri K. 's coach. Yuri P. returns to Russia, and both Yuris vow to win the Grand Prix championship.
Both Yuri K. and Yuri P. qualify to represent their countries in the Grand Prix series, and then later qualify for the Grand Prix Final in Barcelona. Over the course of the Grand Prix, Yuri K. and Victor become increasingly close, with Yuri K. buying them both gold rings in Barcelona which leads to remarks by Victor about them being "engaged. '' On the eve the final, Yuri K. plans to quit skating so that Victor can return to the sport and tells Victor, but Victor tearfully rejects the idea, and they agree to choose their paths after the tournament has finished. The tournament ends with Yuri P. winning the gold medal and Yuri K. winning silver. As a result, Yuri K. decides to continue skating and moves to St. Petersburg so that he can continue to stay together with Victor, and training alongside Yuri P. and Victor.
The original TV series of Yuri on Ice aired on TV Asahi from October 6 to December 22, 2016. The anime was produced by MAPPA, directed by Sayo Yamamoto and written by Mitsurō Kubo, with character design by Tadashi Hiramatsu, music by Taro Umebayashi and Taku Matsushiba and figure - skating choreography by Kenji Miyamoto. The episodes were made available for streaming by Crunchyroll, and Funimation began streaming an English dub on October 24, 2016, at 10: 00 p.m. ET. Yuri on Ice will have six Blu - ray and DVD sets released in Japan. The first set, containing the first two episodes, was released on December 30, 2016. Each set will include bonus content such as booklets, production audio commentary and costume - design and choreography videos.
Yuri Katsuki 's hometown of Hasetsu, Kyushu is based on Karatsu, Saga. In December 2016, Saga Prefecture 's Sagaprise project announced plans to use Yuri on Ice to promote tourism in the area. According to Akinori Kawakami, president of the Association to Connect Hasetsu and Karatsu, 20 to 30 people visit Karatsu every day on anime pilgrimages. By May 2017, Yuri on Ice helped to attract 20,000 tourists from 27 countries to Karatsu. On February 22, 2017, the Nikkan Sports newspaper featured a collaborative illustration depicting Yuri K., Yuri P. and Victor supporting Sagan Tosu football club, which is based in Saga Prefecture.
According to a Sakura Blog study, Yuri on Ice used more key animators than any other anime series during the fall 2016 season: an average of 48.5 key animators per episode, five more than Flip Flappers (which had the second - highest number of key animators). In the early episodes of the series, each character was handled by a different key animator, meaning that skating style of the characters differed from each other. In the skating scenes, the sound effects were changed to match each venue, according to the building 's capacity and crowd size. The skating sounds for each sequence were recorded separately. No stock sounds were used for the sequences because each part sounds different, and no footage of professional skaters was used because the music in the programmes normally muffles the sounds. Thus the sounds used were recorded and performed by series choreographer Miyamoto, and each skating sequence is unique to the program.
The anime 's opening theme, "History Maker '' by Dean Fujioka, and ending theme, "You Only Live Once '' by Wataru Hatano, were both released as singles. A compilation CD entitled Oh! SkaTra!!! Yuri!!! on ICE (Oh! スケトラ!!! ユーリ!!! on ICE), with the anime 's 24 original songs, was released on December 21, 2016. The insert song "Yuri On Ice '' was included in Piano Solo Chū Jōkyū Figure Skate Meikyoku - shū ~ Hyōyō ni Hibiku Melody ~ 2016 - 2017, a piano book released on January 21, 2017 with music used by figure skaters (including Mao Asada and Yuzuru Hanyu). It was the only anime song in the music book release. An album of the TV soundtrack is to be released on June 28, 2017. At a event celebrating the series called Yuri!!! on Stage, it was announced that production of a film had been commissioned. This movie will not be a compilation film of the TV series.
The series received positive reviews from critics and professional figure skaters. Among critics, in Anime News Network 's "Best and Worst Anime of Fall 2016 '', five out of nine reviewers called Yuri on Ice the season 's best show. In July 2017, the series was named by Eleanor Bley Griffiths of the Radio Times as one of the best anime TV series available to watch in the UK. From professionals, Yuri on Ice was well - received by figure skaters, including Johnny Weir, Evgenia Medvedeva, Denis Ten, Evgeni Plushenko, Masato Kimura, Ryuichi Kihara and Miu Suzaki. and included cameo appearances by skaters Nobunari Oda and Stéphane Lambiel. Weir said in an interview that: "I broke my rule about one episode per day because I physically could n't stop watching. '' The closing scene of the tenth episode, when Yuri K. drunkenly pole dances, was also commended by professional pole dancers for its accuracy.
Yuri on Ice has also been praised for its direction. Critics have commented on Sayo Yamamoto 's diverse range of characters. Brandon Teteruck of Crunchyroll commented: "Yamamoto is subtly crafting a work that embraces diversity and cultural acceptance. Yamamoto does not characterize the foreign skaters as ethnic stereotypes, but rather allows them to act and behave as their own people. '' Teteruck also claims that Yamamoto subverts traditional representations of gender, sexuality, and nationality. He highlights a scene in the sixth episode in which the Thai skater Phichit Chulanont skaters to a piece of music referencing The King and I, of which the 1956 and 1999 film version are both banned in Thailand. However, the plot was criticised for being repetitive. The characters have received positive comment, primarily over the same - sex relationship between Yuri K. and Victor. Critics have praised the character of Yuri K. for being a realistic depiction of someone suffering from anxiety and as, "a textbook example of an unreliable narrator ''. Other characters were also praised, with James Beckett of Anime News Network calling Yuri P. one of 2016 's best anime characters.
The quality of the animation received a mixed reception. The quality of the animation in early episodes was lauded Clover Harker of the UK Anime Network, who said it was, "impressive ''. Kevin Cirugeda of Anime News Network commented that character designer Tadashi Hiramatsu was able to, "make it feel fresh, but also weirdly reminiscent of the past '', comparing the series to FLCL. In later episodes however, there was criticism of the animation skating routines, with one describing it as, "at times painful, or perhaps embarrassing to watch '', while another said that the poor animation was the fault of Yamamoto 's over-ambition. The music gained positive comment, especially the opening theme tune to the series, "History Maker ''. Ian Wolf of Anime UK News commented on its rousing theme; the use of English connecting to the show 's international feel; and the use of both unusual musical instruments such a xylophone in the introduction and of a 6 8 time signature, arguably make the song a fast waltz and thus a dance akin to ballet.
In Crunchyroll 's inaugural The Anime Awards, which are based on an online popular vote, Yuri on Ice received awards in all of its seven nomination categories: Best Boy (Yuri K.), Best Animation, Most Heartwarming Scene ("The Kiss '', episode seven), Best Couple (Yuri K. and Victor), Best Opening, Best Closing, and Anime of the Year. Although some Crunchyroll users complained that the show won awards it did not deserve, notably the award for Best Animation, and accused fans of Yuri on Ice of rigging the vote, others defended the awards, writing that there was no conclusive evidence to prove this, while Crunchyroll stated on Twitter that they had used strong anti-cheating methods. Kun Gao, the general manager and founder of Crunchyroll, wrote "We are thrilled that Yuri!!! on Ice has both captivated passionate anime fans and introduced new viewers to anime, and we are privileged to have had the opportunity to distribute this amazing property to its many viewers outside Japan ''.
At the Tokyo Anime Award Festival in 2017, Yuri on Ice won Animation of the Year: Television Category and the fan - polled Anime Fan Award. Character designer Tadashi Hiramatsu won the award for Best Animator. In the 2017 Japan Character Awards presented by the Character Brand Licensing Association (CBLA), Yuri on Ice won the Japan Character Grand Prize New Face Award. The CBLA gave the show the prize for taking an unusual subject like figure skating and making it appeal to audiences, especially women, and predicted the show, "can continue to grow on a global level. ''
The anime has attracted a large online following. According to the Kadokawa Ascii Research Laboratories content and information trend - analytics company, Yuri on Ice was the most - tweeted anime of the season (collecting 1,440,596 tweets). It had over a million tweets more than its closest rival, the volleyball - based anime Haikyū!! (which had 348,109 tweets). In China, the social media website Sina Weibo recorded 130,000 posts of the Yuri on Ice hashtag, collecting 2 billion views. Since it started to include anime and manga in their statistics, Tumblr Fandometrics revealed that Yuri on Ice is the most talked about anime on their website starting as of May 1, 2017. It was also the fourth most talked about anime on Tumblr in 2016.
Yuri on Ice was listed as the top 2016 anime on Crunchyroll for Poland, the Czech Republic, Sierra Leone, Burkina Faso, Malawi, Botswana, Taiwan, the Philippines, Vietnam, Laos, and Singapore; the most popular 2016 anime series for all countries via Crunchyroll was Re: Zero. Yuri on Ice was one of the three most watched anime on Crunchyroll, the others being JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure: Diamond is Unbreakable and the third season of Sailor Moon Crystal, and was also named the series "Most likely to be watched within an hour of release ''. A poll of 306,568 viewers by the video - hosting service Nico Nico Douga found that Yuri on Ice was the fourth-most - popular TV anime series of the year and the most popular series overall with women, who made up 34 percent of those polled. At the Tokyo Anime Award Festival, an online poll was conducted to construct a list of top 100 anime (10 films and 90 TV anime series) for the year, in which Yuri on Ice topped the TV list with 64,774 out of 480,004 votes. It would later win the festival 's Anime Fan Award from a second fan polling based off the 100 nominees.
In a "mega poll '' of 19,560 readers for Best Anime of 2016 by Anime News Network, Yuri on Ice finished first with 7,400 votes (37.8 percent of the total). A top - 100 poll of users of the Japanese website 2chan named Yuri on Ice the tenth - best anime of 2016. A poll by mobile phone operator NTT DoCoMo of 4,800 users named Yuri on Ice "Most Favourite TV Anime of 2016 '' and the "Most Moe '' series, while another poll by the same company revealed the tenth episode was the eighth most popular "Swimsuit '' episode of anime as chosen by women. A poll of 941 voters on the Japanese anime news aggregator AnimeAnime named Yuri on Ice the best anime of the fall 2016 season. Receiving 20 percent of the female vote, it was the eighth-most - popular show among men. An Akiba Souken poll named the series the most satisfactory anime of fall 2016. A poll by Animage magazine of the top 100 anime characters of 2016 ranked Victor first, Yuri K. second and Yuri P. sixth. According to a Charapedia poll, Victor was 2016 's fourth-most - attractive anime character; Yuri K. finished 12th and Yuri P. 19th in the poll. In a Anime News Network poll asking people which male anime characters they would most like to give Valentine 's Day chocolates to, Victor came top and Yuri K. came second. Another poll reported that women considered the first and fourth episodes of the series to be the best anime epsidoes set at hot springs, while a different Anime News Network poll said that the first episode was the best anime episode set in a hot spring. In 2017, there are over 20 dedicated Yuri on Ice dōjinshi events planned in Japan. An all - night screening of the series and a talk show with writer Mitsurou Kubo and voice actors Toshiyuki Toyonaga, Junichi Suwabe, and Kouki Uchiyama (the voices of Yuri K., Victor and Yuri P., respectively) was held on February 11 at the TOHO cinema in Roppongi Hills, and was relayed live to 47 cinemas in Japan. A screening of the first three episodes was held by the Tokyo Anime Award Festival on March 11, 2017 at Cinema Sunshine in Ikebukuro, Tokyo.
The anime contains references to, and has been referenced by, western animation and comics. In the animated series South Park, the episode "The End of Serialization as We Know It '', Ike Broflovski 's browser history indicates that he searched for the show. The twelfth episode of Yuri on Ice includes a flashback in which a young J.J. Leroy is dressed to resemble South Park 's Eric Cartman. Yuri on Ice is also referenced in the Steven Universe comic by Melanie Gillman and Katy Farina: in the fourth volume, Yuri K., Yuri P., Victor and minor character Otabek Altin are depicted visiting a renaissance faire in Beach City. Two cafés themed around the series have been established in Tokyo: The first was created in December 2016 in Ikebukuro, and the second was established in May 2017 in Shibuya, and is planned to run until July 2, 2017.
Yuri on Ice sales have been high. In the first half of 2017 it was the second-most successful media franchise in Japan, taking ¥ 3,262,936,824 from sales in home video and music releases. It was released in Japan on Blu - Ray and DVD across six volumes, with each release topping that Oricon Animation Blu - Ray disc ranking and the Oricon Animation DVD disc ranking respectively. The first Blu - Ray edition of Yuri on Ice topped the Oricon Animation Blu - Ray disc ranking for two weeks, and was number two in the Oricon general Blu - Ray disc ranking, behind SMAP 's Clip! SMAP! Complete Singles. The first DVD edition topped the Oricon DVD Animation ranking, above limited and standard editions of One Piece Film: Gold, and was number two in the Oricon general DVD ranking. The second Blu - Ray and DVD sets also topped the Oricon charts for two weeks. The third Blu - Ray and DVD collections also topped of the Oricon charts, with the DVD topping the chart for two weeks and Blu - Ray for one week. The fourth Blu - Ray and DVD collections topped the Oricon Blu - Ray and DVD charts of a week. The fifth Blu - Ray collection stayed at No. 1 the Oricon Blu - Ray chart for two weeks and the DVD chart for one week. The sixth DVD and Blu - Ray release was promoted with a deleted scene from the series featuring Yuri P. and Otabek skating in the Barcelona exhibition event, which in the broadcast version of the series only shows Yuri K. and Victor skating at the event. The sixth Blu - Ray and DVD releases also topped the Oricon charts. For the first half of 2017, Yuri on Ice had the highest combined DVD and Blu - Ray sales of an any animated series in Japan.
The anime 's opening song, "History Maker '' by Dean Fujioka, reached number 43 on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 chart. It was named the best opening theme by four of eight Anime News Network critics, and received the Best Opening award at the 2016 The Anime Awards. The ending song, "You Only Live Once '' by Wataru Hatano, peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 and received the Best Ending award at the 2016 The Anime Awards. The Oh! SkaTra!!! Yuri!!! on ICE soundtrack was number three on Oricon 's CD chart in its first week of sales, and topped Oricon 's digital - album chart. The album also became the top selling anime CD album on the Oricon charts for the first half of 2017.
Yuri on Ice was praised for including a same - sex romantic relationship between Yuri K. and Victor. Among moments highlighted by critics are an apparent kiss in the seventh episode, an exchange of gold rings (indicating a marriage or engagement) in the tenth episode, and Victor 's tears when Yuri suggests ending their partnership in the twelfth episode. The kiss won the 2016 The Anime Awards for Most Heartwarming Scene. The exchange of rings between Yuri K. and Victor in the tenth episode is considered the first time such a relationship has been depicted in anime. Gabriella Ekens wrote for Anime News Network, "Yuri on Ice, in depicting a sincere and uncomplicated engagement between two dudes, is unprecedented in anime. There has n't even been a for real gay marriage in Japan, so this show is depicting something that is n't legally possible in its country of origin ''. For Anime UK News, Ian Wolf called the exchange of rings "the best scene in the series ''. According to Wolf, the anime is an example of the Odagiri effect.
Yuri on Ice has highlighted homophobia in figure skating and other areas; the seventh episode features a flashback in which a younger Victor performs in a costume based on those worn by openly - gay figure skater Johnny Weir, who was subject to homophobic comments throughout his career. Weir said in an interview with The Geekiary, "I think all positive imagery of LGBT themes in sport are good. Unfortunately, the majority of people that rule the skating world are conservative and more business minded. I think many of them, while they may love and appreciate the art and the sport, are more interested in the business side of things or power trips. I do n't know if Yuri on Ice will be able to change the perception of gay athletes to a 60 year old businessman, but I am of the school of thought that every little bit helps ''. The series finale features a scene in which Yuri K. and Victor skate together at an exhibition event; something which has not yet occurred in actual competition. Critics have noted that the series depicts two characters from countries with problems concerning LGBT rights.
Yuri on Ice differs from other anime covering same - sex relationships, such as yaoi and yuri. Carli Velocci of Geek.com wrote, "Their relationship exists somewhere beyond any sexuality, meaning it does n't fall into the same traps that a lot of yuri and yaoi relationships do... While this is n't the first anime with a same - sex couple at the forefront, it 's one of the first to present a story that is n't strictly sexual and is mutual. Yuri and Victor complement each other, but both also admit that they 've grown as people because of the presence of the other. The equality in their relationship is revolutionary, even if it was n't the first to depict one. You can assign the "seme '' or "uke '' label to Victor and Yuri, but when it comes to their psychological bond, it 's more equal... Yuri and Victor are n't just another gay anime couple. They 're almost real. ''
A review in Otaku USA has argued that the skaters take on an androgynous appearance when they are performing, saying: "While on ice in the series proper, the main performers often take on an androgynous appearance to feed the show 's substance. Yuri 's evolution in terms of confidence and capabilities is at the core of the plot, but the heart lies in Yuri 's exploration of his feminine side via emotional expression... Gender roles are further addressed via Viktor 's (sic) lines of encouragement to Yuri that, at least as translated, imply both skating direction and romantic suggestion. ''
The relationship has also been criticized as unrealistic, with Yuri K. and Victor not receiving the homophobic abuse they would experience in real life. Others have said that some viewers refused to acknowledge the relationship because the homosexuality was not explicit. Although the "kiss '' is obscured by Victor 's arm, it is implicit. Cecilia D'Anastasio of Kotaku wondered why the "kiss '' was blocked when other anime, such as Shin Sekai Yori, had depicted gay kisses.
Wolf of Anime UK News originally said of the scene that: "I 'm 99.999 % sure the kiss did occur, but that 0.001 % is horribly getting to me. I do n't want to go by what everyone else sees -- I want to see what is actually going on, and share in the reaction of the characters at the same time as them ''. However, by the twelfth episode, he said that the scene in which Victor cries was the proof he wanted: "If the kiss is the initial spark, and the rings the visible sign of love, then the tears are proof that you do n't want it to end. I have been saying all the time that what I wanted was text rather than subtext -- but in end, I think the subtext did actually pay off. ''
In January 2017 the Hallmark Channel announced the release of a TV movie, Love on Ice, about the relationship between a female figure skater in a career slump and her new male coach. It was seen by some fans of Yuri on Ice as plagiarism due to plot similarities, and Hallmark was accused of trying to "straightwash '' the relationship between Yuri Katsuki and Victor Nikiforov. Fans of Yuri on Ice responded to Love on Ice by posting a Change.org petition demanding an explanation of the similarities between the two stories and hijacking Love on Ice 's IMDb page to contain the plot summary of Yuri on Ice. The similarity between the stories is apparently coincidental, since Love on Ice began filming in early November 2016 (about a month after Yuri on Ice began broadcasting). According to Hallmark, no one involved in the making of Love on Ice had heard of Yuri on Ice. Mitsurō Kubo posted on Twitter that she believed the similarities to be a coincidence, and the creator of the Change.org petition acknowledged that Love on Ice was not plagiarism.
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what celebrities will be on dwts season 21 | Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 21) - wikipedia
Season twenty - one of the American television competition series Dancing with the Stars premiered on September 14, 2015.
On November 24, 2015, Bindi Irwin and her partner Derek Hough were crowned champions. Nick Carter and Sharna Burgess finished second, Alek Skarlatos and Lindsay Arnold placed third. This season set records for the total number of perfect scores awarded (23) and the number of stars to receive at least one perfect score with 7 (Bindi Irwin, Nick Carter, Alek Skarlatos, Carlos PenaVega, Tamar Braxton, Alexa PenaVega, and Andy Grammer). Irwin also set a record with 8 perfect scores and became the third youngest winner of the show at 17 years old (after season 8 winner Shawn Johnson, who was 3 days younger at the time of her win, and season 23 winner Laurie Hernandez, who was 16 years old at the time of her win). This also marked Hough 's sixth competitive win, extending his own record for the most wins for a professional dancer on the series.
On August 19, 2015, nine professional dancers were revealed during Good Morning America. Karina Smirnoff, who did not appear in season 20 returned for season 21. Anna Trebunskaya and Louis van Amstel would be returning after a five - season hiatus. Additionally, Lindsay Arnold would also be returning after spending the last four seasons in the troupe. While Peta Murgatroyd (who was to be paired with Andy Grammer) was originally announced as a professional, was sidelined for the season by an ankle injury, Allison Holker replaced her spot in the cast; Artem Chigvintsev and Kym Johnson also did not return. Bindi Irwin was the first celebrity revealed on August 24, on GMA; other celebrities were revealed at different dates through different media. The full cast of celebrities and professional dancers was revealed on September 2, 2015, on GMA.
During the show, two celebrities (Kim Zolciak - Biermann and Tamar Braxton) withdrew during the competition, marking the first time two contestants withdrew in midseason (Nancy O'Dell and Jewel both withdrew from Season 8 before the first episode).
Tom Bergeron and Erin Andrews returned as hosts, while judges Carrie Ann Inaba, Julianne Hough, and Bruno Tonioli all returned this season. After twenty seasons, Len Goodman did not return this season as a judge; in a video message during the finale, Goodman announced he would return for season 22. Season 19 champion Alfonso Ribeiro filled in for Tom Bergeron on October 5, 2015, when Bergeron went to be with his ailing father Raymond Bergeron, who subsequently died on October 12, 2015. Leah Remini filled in as co-host on October 19 and October 26, 2015, while Erin Andrews covered the 2015 World Series with Fox.
This table only counts dances scored on a 30 - point scale; scores by guest judges are excluded. Extra points from the dance - offs are not included.
The best and worst performances in each dance according to the judges ' 30 - point scale (scores by guest judges are excluded) are as follows:
Scores are based upon a potential 30 - point maximum (scores by guest judges are excluded).
Individual judges ' scores in the charts below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Julianne Hough, Bruno Tonioli.
The couples danced the cha - cha - cha, foxtrot, jive, quickstep or salsa.
Couples had to prepare two new dances to be performed on two consecutive nights. On Monday, the couples performed routines that celebrated the hometowns of the celebrities, with one couple being eliminated at the end of the show. On Tuesday, the remaining couples performed routines that celebrated the hometowns of the remaining pro partners, with another couple being eliminated. Charleston, contemporary, jazz, paso doble, rumba, tango, and waltz are introduced.
Individual judges scores in the chart below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Alfonso Ribeiro, Julianne Hough, Bruno Tonioli.
Couples performed one unlearned dance to famous TV theme songs; samba and Viennese Waltz are introduced.
After suffering a mini-stroke, Kim Zolciak - Biermann was able to rehearse, but her doctors refused to clear her for air travel. As a result, she was unable to attend the dress rehearsal and the live show, which, according to the show 's rules, meant she would have to withdraw from the competition. Had she not withdrawn from the competition, either Andy & Allison or Paula & Louis would have been eliminated that night. Her dance partner, Tony Dovolani, performed their routine during the live show with stand - in Jenna Johnson. There was no additional elimination.
Couples performed one unlearned dance to celebrate the most memorable year of their lives.
For the first time in the history of the program, Tom Bergeron did not appear as a host; he was absent to be with his ailing father. Alfonso Ribeiro filled in for Bergeron.
Pro dancer Allison Holker announced that she was pregnant with her second child. She continued to dance with Andy Grammer until their elimination several episodes later.
Individual judges scores in the chart below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Julianne Hough, Maksim Chmerkovskiy, Bruno Tonioli.
Couples performed one unlearned dance with a different partner selected by the general public; due to the nature of the week, no elimination took place. Argentine tango is introduced.
Tom Bergeron also returned to his hosting duties this week; the episode was dedicated to the memory of his father, Raymond, who died earlier in the day.
Individual judges scores in the chart below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Julianne Hough, Olivia Newton - John, Bruno Tonioli.
Couples performed one unlearned dance that paid tribute to iconic dance performances from films and music videos; Leah Remini filled in for Erin Andrews.
Couples performed one unlearned dance and a team dance to Halloween themes and songs; Leah Remini once again filled in for Erin Andrews.
Couples performed one unlearned dance that paid tribute to a personal icon of the celebrity 's; the couple with the highest score earned an immunity from elimination, while the rest of the couples participated in dance - offs for extra points. After a two - week absence covering the World Series for Fox, Erin Andrews returned as co-host.
For each dance - off, the couple with the highest remaining score picked the opponent against whom they wanted to dance; the chosen opponent was allowed to pick the dance style (cha - cha - cha, jive or samba). The winner of each dance - off earned two points. The couple who won immunity, Nick and Sharna, received a three - point bonus. For the first time, the general public helped to determine the winner of each dance - off via the show 's official website.
Couples performed one unlearned dance and a musical theater - inspired team - up dance with another couple, which involved the celebrities dancing side - by - side to the same song and receiving the same set of scores from the judges for the routine.
During dress rehearsals, Tamar Braxton fell ill and was taken to the emergency room. She was unable to return for her contemporary dance; the judges ' scores were based on dress rehearsal footage. Braxton did return just in time for her team - up dance with Nick & Sharna. However, she subsequently withdrew from the competition after her doctors discovered pulmonary embolisms in her lungs.
Couples performed one unlearned dance and a trio dance involving an eliminated pro or a pro from past seasons of the show. Midway through the show, the four couples participated in dance - offs, with the winners receiving three points to be added to their total scores.
Due to the unexpected withdrawal of Tamar Braxton earlier in the week, all four couples advanced directly to the finals.
On the first night, couples danced a previously - learned style to a new song that was coached by one of the three judges, as well as a freestyle routine.
On the second night, the three remaining finalists performed a fusion challenge that was learned in only 24 hours.
The celebrities and professional partners will dance one of these routines for each corresponding week:
There were three guest judges during the course of the season. The first, season 19 champion Alfonso Ribeiro, was a judge for Week 3. Former pro dancer and season 18 champion, Maksim Chmerkovskiy, joined the judging panel for Week 5. The following week, Olivia Newton - John appeared as a guest judge for Famous Dances Night.
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how many bears are there in the united states | Grizzly bear - wikipedia
The grizzly bear (Ursus arctos ssp.) is a large subspecies of brown bear inhabiting North America. Scientists generally do not use the name grizzly bear but call it the North American brown bear.
Multiple morphological forms sometimes recognized as subspecies exist, including the mainland grizzly (Ursus arctos horribilis), Kodiak bear (U. a. middendorffi), peninsular grizzly (U. a. gyas), and the recently extinct California grizzly (U. a. californicus †) and Mexican grizzly bear (U. a. nelsoni †). On average bears near the coast tend to be larger while inland grizzlies tend to be smaller.
The Ussuri brown bear (U. a. lasiotus) inhabiting Russia, Northern China, and Korea is sometimes referred to as black grizzly although it is a different subspecies from the bears in America.
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark first described it as grisley, which could be interpreted as either "grizzly '' (i.e., "grizzled '' -- that is, with golden and grey tips of the hair) or "grisly '' ("fear - inspiring '', now usually "gruesome ''). The modern spelling supposes the former meaning; even so, naturalist George Ord formally classified it in 1815 as U. horribilis, not for its hair, but for its character.
Classification has been revised along genetic lines. There are two morphological forms of Ursus arctos, the grizzly and the coastal brown bears, but these morphological forms do not have distinct mtDNA lineages.
Brown bears originated in Eurasia and traveled to North America approximately 50,000 years ago, spreading into the contiguous United States about 13,000 years ago. In the 19th century, the grizzly was classified as 86 distinct species. However, by 1928 only seven grizzlies remained and by 1953 only one species remained globally. However, modern genetic testing reveals the grizzly to be a subspecies of the brown bear (Ursus arctos). Rausch found that North America has but one species of grizzly. Therefore, everywhere it is the "brown bear ''; in North America, it is the "grizzly '', but these are all the same species, Ursus arctos.
In 1963 Rausch reduced the number of North American subspecies to one, Ursus arctos middendorffi
Further testing of Y - chromosomes is required to yield an accurate new taxonomy with different subspecies.
Coastal grizzlies, often referred to by the popular but geographically redundant synonym of "brown bear '' or "Alaskan brown bear '' are larger and darker than inland grizzlies, which is why they, too, were considered a different species from grizzlies. Kodiak grizzly bears were also at one time considered distinct. Therefore, at one time there were five different "species '' of brown bear, including three in North America.
Most adult female grizzlies weigh 130 -- 180 kg (290 -- 400 lb), while adult males weigh on average 180 -- 360 kg (400 -- 790 lb). Average total length in this subspecies is 198 cm (6.50 ft), with an average shoulder height of 102 cm (3.35 ft) and hindfoot length of 28 cm (11 in). Newborn bears may weigh less than 500 grams (1.1 lb). In the Yukon River area, mature female grizzlies can weigh as little as 100 kg (220 lb). One study found that the average weight for an inland male grizzly was around 272 kilograms (600 lb) and the average weight for a coastal male was around 408 kilograms (900 lb). For a female, these average weights would be 136 kilograms (300 lb) inland and 227 kilograms (500 lb) coastal, respectively. On the other hand, an occasional huge male grizzly has been recorded which greatly exceeds ordinary size, with weights reported up to 680 kg (1,500 lb). A large coastal male of this size may stand up to 3 metres (9.8 ft) tall on its hind legs and be up to 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) at the shoulder.
Although variable in color from blond to nearly black, grizzly bear fur is typically brown with darker legs and commonly white or blond tipped fur on the flank and back. A pronounced hump appears on their shoulders; the hump is a good way to distinguish a grizzly bear from a black bear, as black bears do not have this hump. Aside from the distinguishing hump a grizzly bear can be identified by a "dished in '' profile of their face with short, rounded ears, whereas a black bear has a straight face profile and longer ears. A grizzly bear can also be identified by its rump, which is lower than its shoulders, while a black bear 's rump is higher. A grizzly bear 's front claws measure about 2 - 4 inches in length and a black bear 's measure about 1 - 2 inches in length.
Brown bears are found in Asia, Europe, and North America, giving them the widest ranges of bear species. They also inhabited North Africa and the Middle East. In North America, grizzly bears previously ranged from Alaska down to Mexico and as far east as the western shores of Hudson Bay; the species is now found in Alaska, south through much of western Canada, and into portions of the northwestern United States (including Idaho, Montana, Washington, and Wyoming), extending as far south as Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks. It is most commonly found in Canada. In Canada, there are approximately 25,000 grizzly bears occupying British Columbia, Alberta, the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and the northern part of Manitoba. An article published in 1954 suggested they may be present in the tundra areas of the Ungava Peninsula and the northern tip of Labrador - Quebec. In British Columbia, grizzly bears inhabit approximately 90 % of their original territory. There were approximately 25,000 grizzly bears in British Columbia when the European settlers arrived. However, population size has since significantly decreased due to hunting and habitat loss. In 2003, researchers from the University of Alberta spotted a grizzly on Melville Island in the high Arctic, which is the most northerly sighting ever documented. In 2008, it was estimated there were 16,014 grizzly bears. Population estimates for British Columbia are based on hair - snagging, DNA - based inventories, mark - and - recapture, and a refined multiple regression model. A revised Grizzly bear count in 2012 for British Columbia was 15,075.
The Alaskan population of 30,000 individuals is the highest population of any province / state in North America. Populations in Alaska are densest along the coast, where food supplies such as salmon are more abundant. The Admiralty Island National Monument protects the densest population -- 1,600 bears on a 1,600 - square mile island.
Only about 1,500 grizzlies are left in the lower 48 states of the US. Of these, about 800 live in Montana. About 600 more live in Wyoming, in the Yellowstone - Teton area. There are an estimated 70 -- 100 grizzly bears living in northern and eastern Idaho. Its original range included much of the Great Plains and the southwestern states, but it has been extirpated in most of those areas. Combining Canada and the United States, grizzly bears inhabit approximately half the area of their historical range.
Although the once - abundant grizzly bear (see California grizzly bear) appears prominently on the state flag of California and was the symbol of the Bear Flag Republic before California 's admission to the Union, they are no longer naturally present. The last grizzly in all of California was killed in the Sierra foothills east of Fresno in August 1922.
In September 2007, a hunter produced evidence of one bear in the Selway - Bitterroot Wilderness ecosystem, by killing a male grizzly bear there. In the North Cascades ecosystem of northern Washington, grizzly bear populations are estimated to be less than 20 bears. One sighting of a grizzly bear in 2010 has been recorded. There has been no confirmed sighting of a grizzly in Colorado since 1979.
Other provinces and the United States may use a combination of methods for population estimates. Therefore, it is difficult to say precisely what methods were used to produce total population estimates for Canada and North America, as they were likely developed from a variety of studies. The grizzly bear currently has legal protection in Mexico, European countries, some areas of Canada and in the United States. However, it is expected that repopulating its former range will be a slow process, due to a variety of reasons including the bear 's slow reproductive habits and the effects of reintroducing such a large animal to areas prized for agriculture and livestock. Competition with other predators and predation on cubs are other possible limiting factors for grizzly bear recovery, though grizzly bears also benefit from scavenged carcasses from predators as an easy food source when other food sources decline. There are currently about 55,000 wild grizzly bears total located throughout North America, most of which reside in Alaska.
Grizzly bears hibernate for 5 -- 7 months each year except where the climate is warm, as the California grizzly did not hibernate. During this time, female grizzly bears give birth to their offspring, who then consume milk from their mother and gain strength for the remainder of the hibernation period. To prepare for hibernation, grizzlies must prepare a den, and consume an immense amount of food as they do not eat during hibernation. Grizzly bears do not defecate or urinate throughout the entire hibernation period. The male grizzly bear 's hibernation ends in early to mid-March, while females emerge in April or early May.
In preparation for winter, bears can gain approximately 180 kg (400 lb), during a period of hyperphagia, before going into hibernation. The bear often waits for a substantial snowstorm before it enters its den: such behavior lessens the chances predators will find the den. The dens are typically at elevations above 1,800 m (5,900 ft) on north - facing slopes. There is some debate amongst professionals as to whether grizzly bears technically hibernate: much of this debate revolves around body temperature and the ability of the bears to move around during hibernation on occasion. Grizzly bears can "partially '' recycle their body wastes during this period. Although inland or Rocky Mountain grizzlies spend nearly half of their life in dens, coastal grizzlies with better access to food sources spend less time in dens. In some areas where food is very plentiful year round, grizzly bears skip hibernation altogether.
Except for females with cubs, grizzlies are normally solitary, active animals, but in coastal areas, grizzlies gather around streams, lakes, rivers, and ponds during the salmon spawn. Every other year, females (sows) produce one to four young (usually two) that are small and weigh only about 450 grams (1 lb) at birth. A sow is protective of her offspring and will attack if she thinks she or her cubs are threatened.
Grizzly bears have one of the lowest reproductive rates of all terrestrial mammals in North America. This is due to numerous ecological factors. Grizzly bears do not reach sexual maturity until they are at least five years old. Once mated with a male in the summer, the female delays embryo implantation until hibernation, during which miscarriage can occur if the female does not receive the proper nutrients and caloric intake. On average, females produce two cubs in a litter and the mother cares for the cubs for up to two years, during which the mother will not mate.
Once the young leave or are killed, females may not produce another litter for three or more years, depending on environmental conditions. Male grizzly bears have large territories, up to 4,000 km (1,500 sq mi), making finding a female scent difficult in such low population densities. Population fragmentation of grizzlies may destabilize the population from inbreeding depression. The gestation period for grizzly bears is approximately 180 -- 250 days.
Litter size is between one and four cubs, averaging twins or triplets. Cubs are always born in the mother 's winter den while she is in hibernation. Female grizzlies are fiercely protective of their cubs, being able to fend off predators as large as male bears bigger than they are in defense of the cubs. Cubs feed entirely on their mother 's milk until summer comes, after which they still drink milk but begin to eat solid foods. Cubs gain weight rapidly during their time with the mother -- their weight will have ballooned from 4.5 to 45 kg (10 to 99 lb) in the two years spent with the mother. Mothers may see their cubs in later years but both avoid each other.
The grizzly bear is, by nature, a long - living animal. The average lifespan for a male is estimated at 22 years, with that of a female being slightly longer at 26. Females live longer than males due to their less dangerous life; avoiding the seasonal breeding fights in which males engage. The oldest wild inland grizzly was 34 years old in Alaska; the oldest coastal bear was 39, but most grizzlies die in their first few years of life from predation or hunting. Captive grizzlies have lived as long as 44 years.
The grizzly bear has been observed to be an extraordinarily talented dancer as pictured by David Attenborough in the Planet Earth II series.
Although grizzlies are of the order Carnivora and have the digestive system of carnivores, they are normally omnivores: their diets consist of both plants and animals. They have been known to prey on large mammals, when available, such as moose, elk, caribou, white - tailed deer, mule deer, bighorn sheep, bison, and even black bears; though they are more likely to take calves and injured individuals rather than healthy adults. Grizzly bears feed on fish such as salmon, trout, and bass, and those with access to a more protein - enriched diet in coastal areas potentially grow larger than inland individuals. Grizzly bears also readily scavenge food or carrion left behind by other animals. Grizzly bears will also eat birds and their eggs, and gather in large numbers at fishing sites to feed on spawning salmon. They frequently prey on baby deer left in the grass, and occasionally they raid the nests of raptors such as bald eagles.
Canadian or Alaskan grizzlies are larger than those that reside in the American Rocky Mountains. This is due, in part, to the richness of their diets. In Yellowstone National Park in the United States, the grizzly bear 's diet consists mostly of whitebark pine nuts, tubers, grasses, various rodents, army cutworm moths, and scavenged carcasses. None of these, however, match the fat content of the salmon available in Alaska and British Columbia. With the high fat content of salmon, it is not uncommon to encounter grizzlies in Alaska weighing 540 kg (1,200 lb). Grizzlies in Alaska supplement their diet of salmon and clams with sedge grass and berries. In areas where salmon are forced to leap waterfalls, grizzlies gather at the base of the falls to feed on and catch the fish. Salmon are at a disadvantage when they leap waterfalls because they cluster together at their bases and are therefore easier targets for the grizzlies. Grizzly bears are well - documented catching leaping salmon in their mouths at Brooks Falls in Katmai National Park and Preserve in Alaska. They are also very experienced in chasing the fish around and pinning them with their claws. At such sites such as Brooks Falls and McNeil Falls in Alaska, big male grizzlies fight regularly for the best fishing spots. Grizzly bears along the coast also forage for razor clams, and frequently dig into the sand to seek them. During the spring and fall, directly before and after the salmon runs, berries and grass make up the mainstay of the diets of coastal grizzlies.
Inland grizzlies may eat fish too, most notably in Yellowstone grizzlies eating Yellowstone cutthroat trout. The relationship with cutthroat trout and grizzlies is unique because it is the only example where Rocky Mountain grizzlies feed on spawning salmonid fish. However, grizzly bears themselves and invasive lake trout threaten the survival of the trout population and there is a slight chance that the trout will be eliminated.
Meat, as already described, is an important part of a grizzly 's diet. Grizzly bears occasionally prey on small mammals, such as marmots, ground squirrels, lemmings, and voles. The most famous example of such predation is in Denali National Park and Preserve, where grizzlies chase, pounce on, and dig up Arctic ground squirrels to eat. In some areas, grizzly bears prey on hoary marmots, overturning rocks to reach them, and in some cases preying on them when they are in hibernation. Larger prey includes bison and moose, which are sometimes taken by bears in Yellowstone National Park. Because bison and moose are dangerous prey, grizzlies usually use cover to stalk them and / or pick off weak individuals or calves. Grizzlies in Alaska also regularly prey on moose calves, which in Denali National Park may be their main source of meat. In fact, grizzly bears are such important predators of moose and elk calves in Alaska and in Yellowstone, that they may kill as many as 51 percent of elk or moose calves born that year. Grizzly bears have also been blamed in the decline of elk in Yellowstone National Park when the actual predators were thought to be gray wolves. In northern Alaska, grizzlies are a significant predator of caribou, mostly taking sick or old individuals or calves. Several studies show that grizzly bears may follow the caribou herds year - round in order to maintain their food supply. In northern Alaska, grizzly bears often encounter muskox. Despite the fact that muskox do not usually occur in grizzly habitat and that they are bigger and more powerful than caribou, predation on muskox by grizzlies has been recorded.
Grizzly bears along the Alaskan coast also scavenge on dead or washed up whales. Usually such incidents involve only one or two grizzlies at a carcass, but up to ten large males have been seen at a time eating a dead humpback whale. Dead seals and sea lions are also consumed.
Although the diets of grizzly bears vary extensively based on seasonal and regional changes, plants make up a large portion of them, with some estimates as high as 80 -- 90 %. Various berries constitute an important food source when they are available. These can include blueberries, blackberries (Rubus fruticosus), salmon berries (Rubus spectabilis), cranberries (Vaccinium oxycoccos), buffalo berries (Shepherdia argentea), soapberries (Shepherdia canadensis), and huckleberries (Vaccinium parvifolium), depending on the environment. Insects such as ladybugs, ants, and bees are eaten if they are available in large quantities. In Yellowstone National Park, grizzly bears may obtain half of their yearly caloric needs by feeding on miller moths that congregate on mountain slopes. When food is abundant, grizzly bears will feed in groups. For example, many grizzly bears will visit meadows right after an avalanche or glacier slide. This is due to an influx of legumes, such as Hedysarum, which the grizzlies consume in massive amounts. When food sources become scarcer, however, they separate once again.
The removal of wolves and the grizzly bear in California may have greatly reduced the abundance of the endangered San Joaquin Kit Fox. With the reintroduction of gray wolves to Yellowstone, many visitors have witnessed a once common struggle between a keystone species, the grizzly bear, and its historic rival, the gray wolf. The interactions of grizzly bears with the wolves of Yellowstone have been under considerable study. Typically, the conflict will be in the defense of young or over a carcass, which is commonly an elk killed by wolves. The grizzly bear uses its keen sense of smell to locate the kill. As the wolves and grizzly compete for the kill, one wolf may try to distract the bear while the others feed. The bear then may retaliate by chasing the wolves. If the wolves become aggressive with the bear, it is normally in the form of quick nips at its hind legs. Thus, the bear will sit down and use its ability to protect itself in a full circle. Rarely do interactions such as these end in death or serious injury to either animal. One carcass simply is not usually worth the risk to the wolves (if the bear has the upper hand due to strength and size) or to the bear (if the wolves are too numerous or persistent). While wolves usually dominate grizzly bears during interactions at wolf dens, both grizzly and black bears have been reported killing wolves and their cubs at wolf dens even when the latter was in defense mode.
Black bears generally stay out of grizzly territory, but grizzlies may occasionally enter black bear terrain to obtain food sources both bears enjoy, such as pine nuts, acorns, mushrooms, and berries. When a black bear sees a grizzly coming, it either turns tail and runs or climbs a tree. Black bears are not strong competition for prey because they have a more herbivorous diet. Confrontations are rare because of the differences in size, habitats, and diets of the bear species. When this happens, it is usually with the grizzly being the aggressor. The black bear will only fight when it is a smaller grizzly such as a yearling or when the black bear has no other choice but to defend itself. There is at least one confirmed observation of a grizzly bear digging out, killing and eating a black bear when the latter was in hibernation.
The segregation of black bear and grizzly bear populations is possibly due to competitive exclusion. In certain areas, grizzly bears outcompete black bears for the same resources. For example, many Pacific coastal islands off British Columbia and Alaska support either the black bear or the grizzly, but rarely both. In regions where both species coexist, they are divided by landscape gradients such as age of forest, elevation and openness of land. Grizzly bears tend to favor old forests with high productivity, higher elevations and more open habitats compared with black bears.
The relationship between grizzly bears and other predators is mostly one - sided; grizzly bears will approach feeding predators to steal their kill. In general, the other species will leave the carcasses for the bear to avoid competition or predation. Any parts of the carcass left uneaten are scavenged by smaller animals. Cougars generally give the bears a wide berth. Grizzlies have less competition with cougars than with other predators, such as coyotes, wolves, and other bears. When a grizzly descends on a cougar feeding on its kill, the cougar usually gives way to the bear. When a cougar does stand its ground, it will use its superior agility and its claws to harass the bear, yet stay out of its reach until one of them gives up. Grizzly bears occasionally kill cougars in disputes over kills. There have been several accounts, primarily from the late 19th and early 20th centuries, of cougars and grizzly bears killing each other in fights to the death.
Coyotes, foxes, and wolverines are generally regarded as pests to the grizzlies rather than competition, though they may compete for smaller prey, such as ground squirrels and rabbits. All three will try to scavenge whatever they can from the bears. Wolverines are aggressive enough to occasionally persist until the bear finishes eating, leaving more scraps than normal for the smaller animal. Packs of coyotes have also displaced grizzly bears in disputes over kills.
The grizzly bear has several relationships with its ecosystem. One such relationship is a mutualistic relationship with fleshy - fruit bearing plants. After the grizzly consumes the fruit, the seeds are excreted and thereby dispersed in a germinable condition. Some studies have shown germination success is indeed increased as a result of seeds being deposited along with nutrients in feces. This makes grizzly bears important seed distributors in their habitats.
While foraging for tree roots, plant bulbs, or ground squirrels, bears stir up the soil. This process not only helps grizzlies access their food, but also increases species richness in alpine ecosystems. An area that contains both bear digs and undisturbed land has greater plant diversity than an area that contains just undisturbed land. Along with increasing species richness, soil disturbance causes nitrogen to be dug up from lower soil layers, and makes nitrogen more readily available in the environment. An area that has been dug by the grizzly bear has significantly more nitrogen than an undisturbed area.
Nitrogen cycling is not only facilitated by grizzlies digging for food, it is also accomplished via their habit of carrying salmon carcasses into surrounding forests. It has been found that spruce tree (Picea glauca) foliage within 500 m (1,600 ft) of the stream where the salmon have been obtained contains nitrogen originating from salmon on which the bears preyed. These nitrogen influxes to the forest are directly related to the presence of grizzly bears and salmon.
Grizzlies directly regulate prey populations and also help prevent overgrazing in forests by controlling the populations of other species in the food chain. An experiment in Grand Teton National Park in Wyoming in the United States showed removal of wolves and grizzly bears caused populations of their herbivorous prey to increase. This, in turn, changed the structure and density of plants in the area, which decreased the population sizes of migratory birds. This provides evidence grizzly bears represent a keystone predator, having a major influence on the entire ecosystem they inhabit.
When grizzly bears fish for salmon along the coasts of Alaska and British Columbia, they often only eat the skin, brain and roe of the fish. In doing so, they provide a food source for gulls, ravens, and foxes, all of which eat salmon as well; this benefits both the bear and the smaller predators.
Grizzlies are considered more aggressive compared to black bears when defending themselves and their offspring. Unlike the smaller black bears, adult grizzlies do not climb trees well and respond to danger by standing their ground and warding off their attackers. Mothers defending cubs are the most prone to attacking, and are responsible for 70 % of humans killed by grizzlies.
Grizzly bears normally avoid contact with people. In spite of their obvious physical advantage they rarely actively hunt humans. Most grizzly bear attacks result from a bear that has been surprised at very close range, especially if it has a supply of food to protect, or female grizzlies protecting their offspring. A bear killing a human in a national park may be killed to prevent its attacking again.
Exacerbating this is the fact that intensive human use of grizzly habitat coincides with the seasonal movement of grizzly bears e.g. in the fall, when grizzly bears congregate near streams to feed on salmon when anglers are also intensively using the river.
Increased human -- bear interaction has created "problem bears '': bears adapted to human activities or habitat. Aversive conditioning using rubber bullets, foul - tasting chemicals, or acoustic deterrent devices attempt to condition bears to associate humans with unpleasantness, but is ineffectual when bears have already learned to positively associate humans with food. Such bears are translocated or killed because they pose a threat to humans. The B.C. government kills approximately 50 problem bears each year and overall spends more than one million dollars annually to address bear complaints, relocate bears and kill them.
Bear awareness programs have been developed by numerous towns in British Columbia, Canada, to help prevent conflicts with both black and grizzly bears. The main premise of these programs is to teach humans to manage foods that attract bears. Keeping garbage securely stored, harvesting fruit when ripe, securing livestock behind electric fences, and storing pet food indoors are all measures promoted by bear awareness programs. The fact that grizzly bears are less numerous and even protected in some areas, means that preventing conflict with grizzlies is especially important. Revelstoke, British Columbia is a community that demonstrates the success of this approach. In the ten years preceding the development of a community education program in Revelstoke, 16 grizzlies were destroyed and a further 107 were relocated away from the town. An education program run by Revelstoke Bear Aware was put in place in 1996. Since the program began just four grizzlies have been eliminated and five have been relocated.
For back - country campers, hanging food between trees at a height unreachable to bears is a common procedure, although some grizzlies can climb and reach hanging food in other ways. An alternative to hanging food is to use a bear canister.
Traveling in groups of six or more can significantly reduce the chance of bear - related injuries while hiking in bear country.
Grizzly bears are especially dangerous because of the force of their bite, which has been measured at over 8 megapascals (1160 psi). It has been estimated that a bite from a grizzly could even crush a bowling ball.
The grizzly bear is listed as threatened in the contiguous United States and endangered in parts of Canada. In May 2002, the Canadian Species at Risk Act listed the Prairie population (Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba range) of grizzly bears as extirpated in Canada. As of 2002, grizzly bears were listed as special concern under the COSEWIC registry and considered threatened under the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Within the United States, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service concentrates its effort to restore grizzly bears in six recovery areas. These are Northern Continental Divide (Montana), Yellowstone (Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho), Cabinet - Yaak (Montana and Idaho), Selway - Bitterroot (Montana and Idaho), Selkirk (Idaho and Washington), and North Cascades (Washington). The grizzly population in these areas is estimated at 750 in the Northern Continental Divide, 550 in Yellowstone, 40 in the Yaak portion of the Cabinet - Yaak, and 15 in the Cabinet portion (in northwestern Montana), 105 in Selkirk region of Idaho, 10 -- 20 in the North Cascades, and none currently in Selway - Bitterroots, although there have been sightings. These are estimates because bears move in and out of these areas, and it is therefore impossible to conduct a precise count. In the recovery areas that adjoin Canada, bears also move back and forth across the international boundary.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service claims the Cabinet - Yaak and Selkirk areas are linked through British Columbia, a claim that is disputed. U.S. and Canadian national parks, such as Banff National Park, Yellowstone and Grand Teton, and Theodore Roosevelt National Park are subject to laws and regulations designed to protect the bears.
On 9 January 2006, the US Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to remove Yellowstone grizzlies from the list of threatened and protected species. In March 2007, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service "de-listed '' the population, effectively removing Endangered Species Act protections for grizzlies in the Yellowstone National Park area. Several environmental organizations, including the NRDC, brought a lawsuit against the federal government to relist the grizzly bear. On 22 September 2009, U.S. District Judge Donald W. Molloy reinstated protection due to the decline of whitebark pine tree, whose nuts are an important source of food for the bears. In 1996 the International Union for Conservation of Nature moved the grizzly bear to the lower risk "Least Concern '' status on the IUCN Red List.
Farther north, in Alberta, Canada, intense DNA hair - snagging studies in 2000 showed the grizzly population to be increasing faster than what it was formerly believed to be, and Alberta Sustainable Resource Development calculated a population of 841 bears. In 2002, the Endangered Species Conservation Committee recommended that the Alberta grizzly bear population be designated as threatened due to recent estimates of grizzly bear mortality rates that indicated the population was in decline. A recovery plan released by the provincial government in March 2008 indicated the grizzly population is lower than previously believed. In 2010, the provincial government formally listed its population of about 700 grizzlies as "Threatened ''.
Environment Canada consider the grizzly bear to a "special concern '' species, as it is particularly sensitive to human activities and natural threats. In Alberta and British Columbia, the species is considered to be at risk. In 2008, it was estimated there were 16,014 grizzly bears in the British Columbia population, which was lower than previously estimated due to refinements in the population model.
The Mexican grizzly bear (Ursus arctos nelsoni) is extinct.
Conservation efforts have become an increasingly vital investment over recent decades, as population numbers have dramatically declined. Establishment of parks and protected areas are one of the main focuses currently being tackled to help reestablish the low grizzly bear population in British Columbia. One example of these efforts is the Khutzeymateen Grizzly Bear Sanctuary located along the north coast of British Columbia; at 44,300 hectares (109,000 acres) in size, it is composed of key habitat for this threatened species. Regulations such as limited public access, as well as a strict no hunting policy, have enabled this location to be a safe haven for local grizzlies in the area. When choosing the location of a park focused on grizzly bear conservation, factors such as habitat quality and connectivity to other habitat patches are considered.
The Refuge for Endangered Wildlife located on Grouse Mountain in Vancouver is an example of a different type of conservation effort for the diminishing grizzly bear population. The refuge is a five - acre terrain which has functioned as a home for two orphaned grizzly bears since 2001. The purpose of this refuge is to provide awareness and education to the public about grizzly bears, as well as providing an area for research and observation of this secluded species.
Another factor currently being taken into consideration when designing conservation plans for future generations are anthropogenic barriers in the form of urban development and roads. These elements are acting as obstacles, causing fragmentation of the remaining grizzly bear population habitat and prevention of gene flow between subpopulations (for example, Banff National Park). This, in turn, is creating a decline in genetic diversity, and therefore the overall fitness of the general population is lowered. In light of these issues, conservation plans often include migration corridors by way of long strips of "park forest '' to connect less developed areas, or by way of tunnels and overpasses over busy roads. Using GPS collar tracking, scientists can study whether or not these efforts are actually making a positive contribution towards resolving the problem. To date, most corridors are found to be infrequently used, and thus genetic isolation is currently occurring, which can result in inbreeding and therefore an increased frequency of deleterious genes through genetic drift. Current data suggest female grizzly bears are disproportionately less likely than males to use these corridors, which can prevent mate access and decrease the number of offspring.
In the United States, national efforts have been made since 1982 for the recovery plan of grizzly bears. A lot of the efforts made have been through different organizations efforts to educate the public on grizzly bear safety, habits of grizzly bears and different ways to reduce human - bear conflict. The Interagency Grizzly Bear Recovery Committee is one of many organizations committed to the recovery of grizzly bears in the lower 48 states. There are five recovery zones for grizzly bears in the lower 48 states including the North Cascades ecosystem in Washington state. The National Park Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife initiated the process of an environmental impact statement that started in the fall of 2014 to begin the recovery process of grizzly bears to the North Cascades region. A final plan and environmental impact statement was released in the spring of 2017 with a record of decision to follow.
In early March 2016, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to withdraw Endangered Species Act protections from grizzly bears in and around Yellowstone National Park. The population has risen from 136 bears in 1975 to an estimated 700 in 2017, and was "delisted '' in June 2017.
In the past 20 years in Alaska, ecotourism has boomed. While many people come to Alaska to bear - hunt, the majority come to watch the bears and observe their habits. Some of the best bear viewing in the world occurs on coastal areas of the Alaska Peninsula, including in Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Katmai National Park and Preserve, and the McNeil River State Game Sanctuary and Refuge. Here bears gather in large numbers to feast on concentrated food sources, including sedges in the salt marshes, clams in the nearby tidal flats, salmon in the estuary streams, and berries on the neighboring hillsides.
Katmai National Park and Preserve is one of the best spots to view brown bears. The bear population in Katmai is estimated at a healthy 2,100. The park is located on the Alaskan Peninsula about 480 km (300 mi) southwest of the city of Anchorage. At Brooks Camp, a famous site exists where grizzlies can be seen catching salmon from atop a platform -- you can even view this online from a cam. In coastal areas of the park, such as Hallo Bay, Geographic Harbor, Swikshak Lagoon, American Creek, Big River, Kamishak River, Savonoski River, Moraine Creek, Funnel Creek, Battle Creek, Nantuk Creek, Kukak Bay, and Kaflia Bay you can often watch bears fishing alongside wolves, eagles, and river otters. Coastal areas host the highest population densities year round because there is a larger variety of food sources available, but Brooks Camp hosts the highest population (100 bears).
The McNeil River State Game Sanctuary and Refuge, on the McNeil River, is home to the greatest concentration of brown bears in the world. An estimated 144 individual bears have been identified at the falls in a single summer with as many as 74 at one time; 60 or more bears at the falls is a frequent sight, and it is not uncommon to see 100 bears at the falls throughout a single day. The McNeil River State Game Refuge, containing Chenik Lake and a smaller number of grizzly bears, has been closed to grizzly hunting since 1995. All of the Katmai - McNeil area is closed to hunting except for Katmai National Preserve, where regulated legal hunting takes place. In all, the Katmai - McNeil area has an estimated 2,500 grizzly bears.
Admiralty Island, in southeast Alaska, was known to early natives as Xootsnoowú, meaning "fortress of bears, '' and is home to the densest grizzly population in North America. An estimated 1600 grizzlies live on the island, which itself is only 140 km (90 mi) long. The best place to view grizzly bears in the island is probably Pack Creek, in the Stan Price State Wildlife Sanctuary. 20 to 30 grizzlies can be observed at the creek at one time and like Brooks Camp, visitors can watch bears from an above platform. Kodiak Island, hence its name, is another good place to view bears. An estimated 3,500 Kodiak grizzly bears inhabit the island, 2,300 of these in the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge. The O'Malley River is considered the best place on Kodiak Island to view grizzly bears.
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when does season 6 of yukon gold start | Gold Rush (TV series) - wikipedia
Gold Rush (titled Gold Rush: Alaska for the first season) is a reality television series that airs on Discovery and its affiliates worldwide. The series follows the placer gold mining efforts of various family - run mining companies mostly in the Klondike region of Dawson City, Yukon, Canada, although the prospecting efforts of Todd Hoffman 's 316 Mining company have ranged across both South America and western North America.
The first season (show named Gold Rush: Alaska) featured six men from Sandy, Oregon, a small town 30 miles (48 km) southeast of Portland, who, due to the economic downturn, have lost their jobs. They decided on an all - stakes gamble -- travel to Porcupine Creek, Alaska and prospect for gold. Most of the people on the show have little or no previous placer gold mining experience and must learn on the job.
In season 2, (show renamed to Gold Rush) Todd misses a lease payment on Porcupine Creek and "Dakota '' Fred Hurt buys the claim from owner Earl Foster, not needing to honor the lease due to the missed payment. The season explores the Hoffman crew 's new mine at Quartz Creek, in the Klondike region of Dawson City, Yukon, Canada as well as "Dakota '' Fred 's operation at the site of the original Hoffman mine, Porcupine Creek, and Parker Schnabel 's attempts to mine his grandfather 's property at Big Nugget Mine. Hurt Crew, Porcupine Creek: 80.4 oz (2,280 g) $125,000 Schnabel Crew, Big Nugget Mine: 34 oz (960 g) $55,000 Hoffman Crew, Quartz Creek: 93.5 oz (2,650 g) $150,000
The third season began in October 2012. The Hoffman crew returned to the Klondike to once again mine the Quartz Creek site but also brought on additional crewmen to simultaneously work another site in the area. But, with Hoffman having delays and equipment trouble at his site, they decided to merge. Parker Schnabel returned to the Big Nugget Mine site with larger and more efficient equipment, while "Dakota '' Fred Hurt and his crew returned to the Porcupine Creek site.
The Hoffman crew mined 803oz. of gold earning them over $1.28 million Parker and Dakota Fred mined 191oz. and 163oz, respectively, worth over a quarter million dollars each. This in comparison to the first season where nobody recovered more than 50oz. of gold.
The fourth season began airing August 2013 and started with a pre-season episode called "The Dirt '' featuring interviews with all of the teams featured in season three. "Gold Rush: Guyana South America '' features the Hoffman crew in South America, Parker Schnabel guest - mining on new land with mentor Tony Beets in Dawson City, and "Dakota '' Fred Hurt and his son Dustin mining at Cahoon Creek, a hard - to - reach, post-glacial area mined only with pickaxes in the late 1800s.
The real Season 4 premiere was October 25, 2013.
The Hoffman crew mined barely 2 ounces of gold and were forced to pack up and leave their Guyana mining operation; the Dakota boys mined 280 oz.; Parker and his crew mined 836 ounces by the end of the season. He then stayed and continued mining with Rick and picked up an additional 193, bringing his season total to 1,029 ounces. Parker 's $1.4 million haul not only broke Todd Hoffman 's single - season record of 803 oz., but also eclipsed Hoffman 's entire four - season total.
The two - hour Gold Rush Season 5 premiere kicked off Friday, October 17, 2014, at 9 PM ET / PT with The Dirt airing beforehand at 8 PM ET / PT on the Discovery Channel.
By season 's end, Parker mined 2,538 ounces totaling just under $3 million and the Hoffmans mined 1,349 ounces totaling just over $1.6 million.
The two - hour Gold Rush Season 6 premiere started in the US on October 16, 2015, at 9 PM ET / PT with The Dirt airing beforehand at 8 PM ET / PT on the Discovery Channel, while the UK premiere was on October 20, 2015. By the season 's end, Tony 's dredge pulls out 737 ounces, Parker managed to mine 3,372 ounces worth almost $3.5 million, while the Hoffmans mined 3,032 ounces worth just over $3 million.
Season 7 premiered on October 14, 2016. By the end of season 7, Todd 's mining effort in Oregon had failed, although he finished the summer at a Fairplay, Colorado mine with a break - even total just over 1100 ounces. Tony Beets and family finished with just over 2100 ounces using a refurbished gold mining dredge. Parker Schnabel and his crew finished with just over 4300 ounces, worth just over 5 million dollars.
Season 8 premiered on October 13, 2017. This latest season finds the Hoffman and Schnabel crews wagering 100 ounces of gold to the company that mines the most gold, with both vying for a 5,000 ounce season goal. Meanwhile, Tony Beets is disassembling, transporting, and reassembling another vintage dredge, resurrecting a method of placer mining that has not been in common use in Dawson City, Yukon for half a century. It was announced on Gold Rush Live that Season 8 would be the last season on Gold Rush for the Hoffman Family
Numerous "aftershows '' and specials have been produced that document behind - the - scenes action, additional footage, as well as interviews with miners and crew.
Between the second and third seasons, Todd Hoffman and several crew members traveled to a remote site in Guyana in South America to determine the feasibility of opening up an operation there during the Klondike offseasons. The trip was covered in a single one - hour episode. Although they did discover gold on the claim site, it was not of a sufficient quantity to cover the high expenses of mining the remote site which was accessible only by hiking through a trackless jungle after a harrowing river passage. While the Hoffman crew does go to Guyana for season 4 a year later, given the low probability of profitability, Hoffman chose not to pursue the venture for season 3. The episode ended with doubt about whether they would return.
Between the third and the fourth seasons, Todd Hoffman and several crew members traveled to South America to prospect for gold in Peru, Chile, and Guyana. This was covered in several episodes, in a summer season for Gold Rush.
A spin - off series from Gold Rush, Gold Rush: White Water follows the "Dakota Boys '' -- "Dakota '' Fred and his son Dustin -- as they mine McKinley Creek in Haines Borough, Alaska using an unconventional dredging method, diving into collection pools at the base of high country waterfalls. The first episode of this series premiered on Discovery Channel on January 19, 2018.
Current Cast:
Former Cast:
As of its first - season finale, Gold Rush: Alaska was the most - watched Friday night program in all of US television among males aged 18 to 49 and women aged 25 to 54. For 13 consecutive weeks in its second season, Gold Rush continued to hold Friday 's top rating in the demographic of men aged 18 to 49. With Gold Rush leading the way, Discovery wrapped a dominant first quarter in key male demographics, including a stranglehold among the rankings for top unscripted cable programs.
For the December 28, 2015, to March 27, 2016, ratings period, Discovery stood number one among non-sports cable networks in its target demographic of men aged 25 to 54. It claimed eight of the top ten reality shows in this group, including the top three -- Gold Rush (1.89 million), Fast N ' Loud (1.20 million) and Alaskan Bush People (1.18 million). Discovery also dominated the cable unscripted rankers in other male categories. It claimed seven of the top ten in men aged 18 to 49 and five of the top ten in the younger men aged 18 to 34 demographic, with Gold Rush on top in both.
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is windows defender an antivirus in windows 7 | Windows Defender - wikipedia
Windows Defender, officially called Windows Defender Antivirus in Windows 10 Creators Update, is an anti-malware component of Microsoft Windows. It was first released as a free antispyware program download for Windows XP, shipped with Windows Vista and Windows 7 and made into a full antivirus program replacing Microsoft Security Essentials as part of Windows 8 and later versions.
Before Windows 8, Windows Defender protected against spyware. It included a number of real - time security agents that monitored several common areas of Windows for changes which might have been caused by spyware. It also included the ability to easily remove installed ActiveX software. Windows Defender featured integrated support for Microsoft SpyNet that allows users to report to Microsoft what they consider to be spyware, and what applications and device drivers they allow to be installed on their system. Protection against viruses was added in Windows 8; Windows Defender in Windows 8 resembles Microsoft Security Essentials (MSE) and uses the same virus definitions.
In Windows 10, Windows Defender settings are controlled by the Settings app, and the Settings button opens the Settings app. In the Windows 10 Anniversary Update, toast notifications appear to announce the results of a scan, even if no viruses are found. The same update introduced a new flat logo.
Windows Defender is based on GIANT AntiSpyware, which was originally developed by GIANT Company Software, Inc. The company 's acquisition was announced by Microsoft on December 16, 2004. While the original GIANT AntiSpyware supported older Windows versions, support for the Windows 9x line of operating systems was later dropped.
The first beta version of Microsoft AntiSpyware was released on January 6, 2005 and was basically a repackaged GIANT AntiSpyware. More builds were released in 2005, with the last Beta 1 refresh released on November 21, 2005.
At the 2005 RSA Security conference, Chief Software Architect and co-founder of Microsoft, Bill Gates, announced that Windows Defender (which was known as Microsoft AntiSpyware prior to November 4, 2005) would be made available free of charge to all validly licensed Windows 2000, Windows XP, and Windows Server 2003 users to help secure their systems against the increasing malware threat.
Windows Defender (Beta 2) was released on February 13, 2006. It featured the program 's new name and a significant user interface redesign. The core engine was rewritten in C++, unlike the original GIANT - developed one, which was written in Visual Basic. This improved the application 's performance. Also, since beta 2, the program works as a Windows service, unlike earlier releases, which enables the application to protect the computer even when a user is not logged on. Beta 2 also requires Windows Genuine Advantage validation. However, Windows Defender (Beta 2) did not contain some of the tools found in Microsoft AntiSpyware (Beta 1); Microsoft removed the System Inoculation, Secure Shredder and System Explorer tools found in MSAS (Beta 1) as well as the Tracks Eraser tool, which allowed users to easily delete many different types of temporary files related to Internet Explorer 6, including HTTP cookies, web cache, and Windows Media Player playback history. Microsoft later released German and Japanese versions of Windows Defender (Beta 2).
On October 24, 2006, Microsoft released Windows Defender. It supports Windows XP and Windows Server 2003; however, unlike the betas, it does not run on Windows 2000.
Windows Defender was released with Windows Vista and Windows 7, serving as their built - in antispyware component. In Windows Vista and Windows 7, Windows Defender was superseded by Microsoft Security Essentials, an antivirus product from Microsoft which provided protection against a wider range of malware. Upon installation, Microsoft Security Essentials disabled and replaced Windows Defender. In Windows 8, Microsoft upgraded Windows Defender into an antivirus program very similar to Microsoft Security Essentials for Windows 7 and using the same virus definition updates. MSE itself does not run on Windows versions beyond 7. In Windows 8 and Windows 10, Windows Defender is on by default. It switches itself off upon installation of a third party anti-virus package.
Starting with Windows 10, Microsoft began to transfer the control of Windows Defender out of its native client. Initially, its "Settings '' dialog box was replaced by dedicated page in the Settings app. In Windows 10 Creators Update, Windows Defender is renamed Windows Defender Antivirus to distinguish it from Windows Defender Security Center. The latter has become the default avenue to interface with Windows Defender. While there is no shortcut on the Start menu for Windows Defender 's native client, it can still run.
Windows 10 's Anniversary Update introduced Limited Periodic Scanning, which optionally allows Windows Defender to scan a system periodically if another antivirus app is installed. It also introduced Block at First Sight, which uses machine learning to predict whether a file is malicious.
Windows Defender had additional functionality in Windows Vista which was removed in subsequent versions of Windows.
Windows Defender Offline (formerly known as Standalone System Sweeper Beta) is a bootable standalone antimalware program that runs from a bootable disk and is designed to scan infected systems while their operating systems are offline. Since Windows 10 Anniversary Update, offline functionality is integrated into the regular Windows Defender program.
On 5 May 2017, Tavis Ormandy, a vulnerability researcher for Google, discovered a security vulnerability in the JavaScript analysis module (NScript) of Microsft Antimalware Engine (MsMpEngine) that impacted Windows Defender, Microsoft Security Essentials and System Center Endpoint Protection. By 8 May 2017, Microsoft had released a patch to all affected systems. Ars Technica commended Microsoft for its unprecedented patching speed and said that the disaster had been averted.
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fundamentals of caring what does the boy have | The Fundamentals of Caring - wikipedia
The Fundamentals of Caring is a 2016 American comedy - drama film written and directed by Rob Burnett, based on the 2012 novel The Revised Fundamentals of Caregiving by Jonathan Evison and stars Paul Rudd, Craig Roberts, and Selena Gomez. The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 29, 2016 and was released by Netflix on June 24, 2016.
Ben (Paul Rudd) is a retired writer. Needing a new job, he takes a six - week course to become a caregiver. He gets a job from an English woman named Elsa (Jennifer Ehle), a registered caregiver and an office manager at a bank, whose 18 - year - old son Trevor (Craig Roberts) suffers from Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Trevor is a sardonic, anxious boy with a fascination with American roadside attractions, and Ben suggests one day that they go to see some of them. Trevor initially refuses, and Elsa worries Ben is becoming too close to him, as Trevor 's father left when he was diagnosed, only sending him letters throughout the years. Ben soon finds himself hounded by a court tracker hired by his wife and avoids his visits.
Eventually, Elsa agrees with Ben 's road trip plan, and he and Trevor embark on a journey to the world 's deepest pit. On the way there, Trevor says he wants to see his father, who owns a car dealership in Salt Lake City. Stopping at a gas station, the two meet a girl Trevor 's age named Dot (Selena Gomez), who Trevor develops a crush on. When they encounter her again at a diner later on, they see her attempting to hitchhike, and Ben decides to give her a ride. Dot informs them on the way that she is heading to Denver to restart her life, and that her mother has died. As the three bond, especially she and Trevor, Ben notices a car that has been following them, and tells the two of it at a motel. He believes it is someone sent by his wife.
Further down the highway, the three find a pregnant woman named Peaches (Megan Ferguson), whose car has broken down. She is heading to live with her mother before the baby comes, as the father is currently on his second U.S. military tour. They give her a ride as well, and when they stop for the night, Trevor asks Dot on a date, which she accepts, and the two go to the diner across the street from them. Ben and Peaches watch through from the motel through the diner window, and can see it is going well. The next day, the four make it to Trevor 's father 's car dealership. When he meets with his dad, he informs Trevor he never wrote him letters, and that it was his mother this whole time, and his father stays distant. Outraged, Trevor berates Ben and tells him he wishes to go home, but Dot insists they continue to the world 's deepest pit.
The group eventually makes it there, in awe of the abyss. Trevor, Dot, and Peaches head to the bottom, but Ben notices the car that 's been following them. He walks over, and finds it 's not his wife 's tracker, but Dot 's father, who wishes to make sure she 's safe. Ben then receives a call from Dot, who tells him to quickly come down. When he sees a crowd gathered at the bottom of the pit, he worries and finds Peaches has gone into labor. Despite being tormented by the memory of his son 's death, he successfully helps deliver the baby. Peaches thanks him as she and her newborn son are taken to the hospital. In the parking lot, Dot sees her father and walks up to him, the two reconciling. When she comes back, she tells the two she wishes to go the rest of the journey with her father, and the three say their goodbyes, Dot kissing Trevor before she leaves, promising they 'll text. With the assistance of the ambulance staff, Trevor gets to fulfill his wish peeing standing over the pit railing.
Ben and Trevor make it home safely, and having finally coped with the loss of his son, Ben meets his estranged wife and gives her the divorce papers. He continues writing, his next novel being about Trevor. He narrates his writing the last few lines, informing the audience that he eventually quit as Trevor 's caregiver, but the two remained friends. On Trevor 's 21st birthday, Ben went into his room to find Trevor lying dead on the floor and his new caregiver crying on the floor next to him, only to find out Trevor was faking. The caregiver quit the next day.
On October 11, 2012, Worldwide Pants ' Rob Burnett and Jon Beckerman acquired the film rights to Jonathan Evison 's novel The Revised Fundamentals of Caregiving. Burnett would adapt and direct the film. On January 7, 2015, Paul Rudd was added to the cast to play the male lead, which Donna Gigliotti and James Spies would produce. On January 13, Selena Gomez also joined the film.
On December 7, it was announced that the original title, The Revised Fundamentals of Caregiving, had been changed to The Fundamentals of Caring. It was later revealed Bobby Cannavale and Frederick Weller had been cast in the film.
Filming began on January 22, 2015, in Atlanta, Georgia. In early February filming took place in Cartersville, Georgia. Filming concluded on February 26, 2015, after 26 days of filming.
The film had its world premiere at the 2016 Sundance Film Festival as the Closing Night Film. In January 2016, prior to the film 's premiere at the festival Netflix acquired global distribution rights to the film. It was released on Netflix on June 24, 2016.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 77 %, based on 31 reviews, with an average rating of 6.3 / 10. On Metacritic the film has a score of 55 out of 100, based on 10 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
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who voices lefou in beauty and the beast | Beauty and the Beast (2017 film) - wikipedia
Beauty and the Beast is a 2017 American musical romantic fantasy film directed by Bill Condon from a screenplay written by Stephen Chbosky and Evan Spiliotopoulos, and co-produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Mandeville Films. The film is based on Disney 's 1991 animated film of the same name, itself an adaptation of Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont 's eighteenth - century fairy tale. The film features an ensemble cast that includes Emma Watson and Dan Stevens as the titular characters with Luke Evans, Kevin Kline, Josh Gad, Ewan McGregor, Stanley Tucci, Audra McDonald, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Nathan Mack, Ian McKellen, and Emma Thompson in supporting roles.
Principal photography began at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, United Kingdom on May 18, 2015, and ended on August 21. Beauty and the Beast premiered on February 23, 2017, at Spencer House in London, and was released in the United States on March 17, 2017, in standard, Disney Digital 3 - D, RealD 3D, IMAX and IMAX 3D formats, along with Dolby Cinema. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, with many praising Watson and Stevens ' performances as well as the ensemble cast, faithfulness to the original animated film alongside elements from the Broadway musical, visual style, production design, and musical score, though it received criticism for some of the character designs and its excessive similarity to the original. The film grossed over $1.2 billion worldwide, becoming the highest - grossing live - action musical film, and making it the highest - grossing film of 2017 and the 10th - highest - grossing film of all time.
In Rococo - era France, an enchantress disguised as an old beggar woman arrives at a castle during a ball and offers the host, a coldhearted prince, a rose for shelter. When he refuses, she transforms him into a beast and his servants into household objects, and erases the castle from the memories of their loved ones. She casts a spell on the rose and warns the prince that the curse will never lift unless he learns to love another, and earn their love in return, before the last petal falls.
Some years later in the small town of Villeneuve, Belle dreams of adventure and brushes off advances from Gaston, an arrogant former soldier. Lost in the forest, Belle 's father Maurice seeks refuge in the Beast 's castle, but the Beast imprisons him for stealing a rose from his garden as a birthday gift to Belle. Belle ventures out in search for him and finds him locked in the castle dungeon. The Beast agrees to let her take Maurice 's place.
Belle befriends the castle 's servants, who treat her to a spectacular dinner. When she wanders into the forbidden west wing and finds the rose, the Beast, enraged, scares her into the woods. She is cornered by wolves, but the Beast rescues her and is injured in the process. As Belle nurses his wounds, a friendship develops between them. The Beast shows Belle a gift from the enchantress, a book that transports readers wherever they want. Belle uses it to visit her childhood home in Paris, where she discovers a plague doctor mask and realises that she and her father were forced to leave her mother 's deathbed when her mother succumbed to the plague.
In Villeneuve, Gaston sees rescuing Belle as an opportunity to win her hand in marriage and agrees to help Maurice. When Maurice learns of his ulterior motive and rejects him, Gaston abandons him to the wolves. Maurice is rescued by the herb - wife Agathe, but when he tells the townsfolk of Gaston 's crime but is unable to provide solid evidence, Gaston convinces them to send Maurice to an insane asylum.
After sharing a romantic dance with the Beast, Belle discovers her father 's predicament using a magic mirror. The Beast releases her to save Maurice, giving her the mirror to remember him with. At Villeneuve, Belle proves Maurice 's sanity by revealing the Beast in the mirror to the townsfolk. Realizing that Belle loves the Beast, Gaston has her thrown into the asylum carriage with her father and rallies the villagers to follow him to the castle to slay the Beast. Maurice and Belle escape, and Belle rushes back to the castle.
During the battle, Gaston abandons his companion LeFou, who then sides with the servants to fend off the villagers. Gaston attacks the Beast in his tower, who is too depressed to fight back, but regains his will upon seeing Belle return. He overpowers Gaston but spares his life before reuniting with Belle. However, Gaston fatally shoots the Beast from a bridge, but it collapses when the castle crumbles, and he falls to his death. The Beast dies as the last petal falls and the servants become inanimate. When Belle tearfully professes her love to him, Agathe reveals herself as the enchantress and undoes the curse, repairing the crumbling castle and restoring the Beast 's and servants ' human forms and the villagers ' memories. The Prince and Belle host a ball for the kingdom, where they dance happily.
^ In the initial theatrical release, Mitchell was miscredited as Rudi Gooman in the cast, but listed under his real name in the soundtrack credits.
^ In the initial theatrical release, Turner is miscredited as Henry Garrett in the cast.
Stephen Merchant also appeared in the film as Monsieur Toilette, a servant who was turned into a toilet. This character was cut from the film, but is featured in the deleted scenes.
Previously, Disney had begun work on a film adaptation of the 1994 Broadway musical. However, in a 2011 interview, composer Alan Menken stated the planned film version of the Beauty and the Beast stage musical "was canned ''.
By April 2014, Walt Disney Pictures had already begun developing a new live - action version and remake of Beauty and the Beast after making other live - action fantasy films such as Alice in Wonderland, Maleficent, Cinderella and The Jungle Book. In June 2014, Bill Condon was signed to direct the film from a script by Evan Spiliotopoulos. Later in September of that same year, Stephen Chbosky (who had previously directed Watson in The Perks of Being a Wallflower) was hired to re-write the script.
Before Condon was hired to direct the film, Disney approached him with a proposal to remake the film in a more radical way as Universal Studios had remade Snow White and the Huntsman (2012). Condon later explained that "after Frozen opened, the studio saw that there was this big international audience for an old - school - musical approach. But initially, they said, ' We 're interested in a musical to a degree, but only half full of songs. ' My interest was taking that film and doing it in this new medium -- live - action -- as a full - on musical movie. So I backed out for a minute, and they came back and said, ' No, no, no, we get it, let 's pursue it that way. ' '' Walt Disney Pictures president of production Sean Bailey credited Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn with the decision to make the film as a musical: "We worked on this for five or six years, and for 18 months to two years, Beauty was a serious dramatic project, and the scripts were written to reflect that. It was n't a musical at that time. But we just could n't get it to click and it was Alan Horn who championed the idea of owning the Disney of it all. We realized there was a competitive advantage in the songs. What is wrong with making adults feel like kids again? ''
In January 2015, Emma Watson announced that she would be starring as Belle, the female lead. She was the first choice of Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn, as he had previously overseen Warner Bros. which released the eight Harry Potter films that co-starred Watson as Hermione Granger. Two months later, Luke Evans and Dan Stevens were revealed to be in talks to play Gaston and the Beast respectively, and Watson confirmed their casting the following day through tweets. The rest of the principal cast, including Josh Gad, Emma Thompson, Kevin Kline, Audra McDonald, Ian McKellen, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Ewan McGregor and Stanley Tucci were announced between March and April to play LeFou, Mrs. Potts, Maurice, Madame de Garderobe, Cogsworth, Plumette, Lumière and Cadenza, respectively.
Susan Egan, who originated the role of Belle on Broadway, commented on the casting of Watson as "perfect ''. Paige O'Hara, who voiced Belle in the original animated film and its sequels, offered to help Watson with her singing lessons.
According to The Hollywood Reporter, Emma Watson was reportedly paid $3 million upfront, together with an agreement that her final take - home pay could rise as high as $15 million if the film generated gross box office income similar to Maleficent 's $759 million worldwide gross.
Principal photography on the film began at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, United Kingdom, on May 18, 2015. Filming with the principal actors concluded on August 21. Six days later, co-producer Jack Morrissey confirmed that the film had officially wrapped production.
The Beast was portrayed with a "more traditional motion capture puppeteering for the body and the physical orientation '', where actor Dan Stevens was "in a forty - pound gray suit on stilts for much of the film ''. The facial capture for the Beast was done separately in order to "communicate the subtleties of the human face '' and "(capture the) thought that occurs to him '' which gets "through (to) the eyes, which are the last human element in the Beast. '' The castle servants who are transformed into household objects were created with CGI animation.
Before the release of the film, Bill Condon refilmed one certain sequence in the "Days of the Sun '' number, due to confusion among test audiences caused by actress Harriet Jones, who looked similar to Hattie Morahan, who portrayed Agathe. In the original version of the scene, it was Jones 's character, the Prince 's mother, who sings the first verse of the song, with Rudi Goodman playing the young Prince and Henry Garrett playing his father; but in the reshot version of the scene, the singing part is given to the Prince (now played by Adam Mitchell). The King was also recast to Tom Turner, although Harriet Jones was still the Queen, albeit with dark hair. Both Goodman and Garrett 's names were mistakenly featured in the original theatrical release 's credits, but was later corrected in home releases.
When released in 1991, Beauty and the Beast marked a turning point for Walt Disney Pictures by appealing to millions of fans with its Oscar - winning musical score by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken. In Bill Condon 's opinion, that original score was the key reason he agreed to direct a live - action version of the movie. "That score had more to reveal '', he says, "You look at the songs and there 's not a clunker in the group. In fact, Frank Rich described it as the best Broadway musical of 1991. The animated version was already darker and more modern than the previous Disney fairytales. Take that vision, put it into a new medium, make it a radical reinvention, something not just for the stage because it 's not just being literal, now other elements come into play. It 's not just having real actors do it ''.
Condon initially prepared on only drawing inspiration from the original film, but he also planned to include most of the songs composed by Alan Menken, Howard Ashman and Tim Rice from the Broadway musical, with the intention of making the film as a "straight - forward, live - action, large - budget movie musical ''. Menken returned to score the film 's music, which features songs from the original film by him and Howard Ashman, plus new material written by Menken and Tim Rice. Menken said the film will not include songs that were written for the Broadway musical and instead, created four new songs. However, an instrumental version of the song "Home '', which was written for the musical, is used during the scene where Belle first enters her room in the castle.
On January 19, 2017, it was confirmed by both Disney and Céline Dion -- singer of the original 1991 Beauty and the Beast duet song, with singer Peabo Bryson -- that Dion would be performing one of the new original songs "How Does a Moment Last Forever '' to play over the end titles. She originally had doubts about whether or not to record the song due to the recent death of her husband and manager René Angélil, who had previously helped her secure the 1991 pop duet. While ultimately accepting the opportunity, she said: "(The) first Beauty and the Beast decision was made with my husband. Now I 'm making decisions on my own. It 's a little bit harder. I could n't say yes right away, because I felt like I was kind of cheating in a way ''. She eventually felt compelled to record the song because of the impact Beauty and the Beast has had on her career. According to Dion, "I was at the beginning of my career, it put me on the map, it put me where I am today ''. Also, Josh Groban was announced to be performing the new original song "Evermore '' on January 26, 2017.
The 2017 film features a remake of the 1991 original song Beauty and the Beast recorded as a duet by Ariana Grande and John Legend. Grande and Legend 's updated version of the Beauty and the Beast title song is faithful to the original, Grammy - winning duet, performed by Céline Dion and Peabo Bryson for the 1991 Disney film.
Emma Thompson also performed a rendition of "Beauty and the Beast '', which was performed by Angela Lansbury in the original 1991 animated film release.
Disney debuted the music video for Ariana Grande and John Legend 's interpretation of the title song "Beauty and the Beast '' on Freeform television network on March 5, 2017, and it has since attained over 100 million video views on the Vevo video - hosting service.
On March 16, 2015, Disney announced the film would be released in 3D on March 17, 2017. The first official presentation of the film took place at Disney 's three - day D23 Expo in August 2015.
The world premiere of Beauty and the Beast took place on February 23, 2017, at Spencer House in London, United Kingdom; and the film later premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California, on March 2, 2017. The stream was broadcast onto YouTube.
A sing along version of the film released in over 1,200 US theaters nationwide on April 7, 2017. The United Kingdom received the same version on April 21, 2017.
Disney spent around $140 million for marketing the film worldwide. Following an announcement on May 22, 2016, Disney premiered the first official teaser trailer on Good Morning America the next day. In its first 24 hours, the teaser trailer reached 91.8 million views, which topped the number of views seen in that amount of time in history, including for the teasers for other films distributed by Disney such as Avengers: Age of Ultron, Star Wars: The Force Awakens and Captain America: Civil War. This record has since been broken by Thor: Ragnarok and It. The first official teaser poster was released on July 7, 2016. On November 2, 2016, Entertainment Weekly debuted the first official image on the cover of their magazine for the week along with nine new photos as well. One week later, Emma Watson and Disney debuted a new poster for the film. On November 14, 2016, the first theatrical trailer was released again on Good Morning America. The trailer reached 127.6 million views in its first 24 hours, setting a new record as the trailer with the most views in one day, beating out Fifty Shades Darker. This record has since been broken again by The Fate of the Furious. A TV spot with Watson singing was shown during the 74th Golden Globe Awards. Disney released the final trailer on January 30, 2017. BMW and Mini partnered with the film to promote it globally; including teasers, a television commercial featuring Mini Hatch John Cooper Works, BMW M2, Mini Clubman, BMW M3 and BMW M4, online exclusives, in - store and in - theater advertisements.
Beauty and the Beast was released on Blu - ray, DVD and Digital HD on June 6, 2017. The film debuted at No. 1 on the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart, with all other titles in the top 20, collectively, selling only 40 % as many units as Beauty and the Beast. The movie regained the top spot on the national home video sales charts during its third week of release. The movie became available on Netflix on September 19, 2017.
Beauty and the Beast grossed $504 million in the United States and Canada and $759.4 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $1.263 billion. With a production budget of $160 million, it is the second-most expensive musical ever made; only Hello, Dolly! (1969) with a budget of $25 million ($165 million in 2016 dollars) cost more. In just ten days, it became the highest - grossing live - action musical of all time, beating the nine - year - old record held by Mamma Mia!. It is currently the second - biggest musical ever overall, behind Disney 's Frozen (2013). Worldwide, the film proved to be a global phenomenon, earning a total of $357 million over its four - day opening weekend from 56 markets. Critics said the film was playing like superhero movies amongst women. It was the second biggest March global opening, behind only Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, the thirteenth - biggest worldwide opening ever and the seventh - biggest for Disney. This includes $21 million from IMAX plays on 1,026 screens, a new record for an IMAX PG title. It surpassed the entire lifetime total of the original film in just six days.
Beauty and the Beast is the 300th digitally remastered release in IMAX company 's history, which began with the re-release of Apollo 13 in 2002. Its robust global debut helped push the company past $6 billion for the first time, and led to analysts believing that the film had a shot of passing $1 billion worldwide from theatrical earnings. On April 12, it passed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the first film of 2017, the fourteenth Disney film, and the twenty - ninth film overall to pass the mark. It became the first film since Rogue One (also a Disney property) in December 2016 to make over a billion dollars, and did so on its twenty - ninth day of release. It is currently the highest - grossing film of 2017, the highest - grossing March release, the highest - grossing remake of all - time, and the fifth - biggest Disney film. Even after inflation adjusted, it is still ahead of the $425 million gross ($760 million in 2017 dollars) of the original film.
In the United States and Canada, Beauty and the Beast topped Fandango 's pre-sales and became the fastest - selling family film in the company 's history, topping the studio 's own animated film Finding Dory released the previous year. Early tracking had the film grossing around $100 million in its opening weekend, with some publications predicting it could reach $130 million. By the time the film 's release was 10 days away, analysts raised projections to as high as $150 million. It earned $16.3 million from Thursday previews night, marking the biggest of 2017 (breaking Logan 's record), the biggest ever for a Disney live - action film (breaking Maleficent 's record), the second biggest ever for both a G or PG - rated film (behind the sixth Harry Potter film Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince which also starred Watson), and the third biggest ever in the month of March (behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and The Hunger Games). An estimated 41 % of the gross came from IMAX, 3D and premium large format screenings which began at 6 pm, while the rest -- 59 % -- came from regular 2D shows which began at 7 p.m. The numbers were considered more impressive given that the film played during a school week.
On its opening day, the film made $63.8 million from 4,210 theaters across 9,200 screens, marking the third biggest in the month of March, trailing behind Batman v Superman ($81.5 million) and The Hunger Games ($67 million). It was also the biggest opening day ever for a film that was n't PG - 13, displacing the $58 million opening Wednesday of Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince. Its opening day alone (which includes Thursday 's previews) almost matched the entire opening weekend of previous Disney live - action films, Maleficent ($69.4 million) and Cinderella ($67.9 million). Unlike all previous four Disney live - action films witnessing a hike on their second day, Saturday, Beauty and the Beast actually fell 2 %, but nevertheless, the dip was paltry, and the grosses are so much bigger compared to the other titles. Earning a total of $174.8 million on its opening weekend, it defied all expectations and went on to set numerous notable records. This includes the biggest opening of the year as well as the biggest for the month of March and pre-summer / spring opening, beating Batman v Superman, the biggest start ever for a PG title (also for a family film), surpassing Finding Dory, the biggest debut of all time for a female - fueled film, ahead of The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, the biggest for a Disney live - action adaptation, ahead of Alice in Wonderland and the biggest musical debut ever, supplanting Pitch Perfect 2. Furthermore, it is also Watson 's highest - opening, beating Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 same with Emma Thompson, director Bill Condon 's biggest debut ever ahead of The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2 and the biggest outside of summer, save for Star Wars: The Force Awakens, not accounting for inflation.
It became the forty - third film to debut with over $100 million and the fifteenth film to open above $150 million. Its three - day opening alone surpassed the entire original North American run of the first film ($146 million; before the 3D re-release), instantly becoming the second - biggest film of the year, behind Logan ($184 million), and also the second - highest - grossing musical, behind Grease 's $188 million cumulative gross in 1978. Seventy percent of the total ticket sales came from 2D showings signifying that people who do n't go to theaters frequently came out in bulk to watch the film. About 26 % of the remaining tickets were for 3D. IMAX accounted for 7 % ($12.5 million) of the total weekend 's gross, setting a new record for a PG title, ahead of Alice in Wonderland ($12.1 million) while PLF repped 11 % of the box office. Seventy percent of the film 's opening day demographic was female, dropping to 60 % through the weekend. According polling service PostTrak, about 84 percent of American parents who saw the film on its opening day said they would "definitely '' recommend it for families. The film 's opening was credited to positive word of mouth from audiences, good reviews from critics, effective marketing which sold the title not just as a family film but also as a romantic drama, the cast 's star power (especially Emma Watson), lack of competition, being the first family film since The Lego Batman Movie a month earlier, nostalgia, and the success and ubiquity of the first film and Disney 's brand.
On Monday, its fourth day of release, the film fell precipitously by 72 % earning $13.5 million. The steep fall was due to a limited marketplace where only 11 % K - 12 and 15 % colleges were off per ComScore. Nevertheless, it is the second - biggest March Monday, behind Batman v Superman ($15 million). This was followed by the biggest March and pre-summer Tuesday with $17.8 million, a 32 % increase from its previous day. The same day, the film passed $200 million in ticket sales. It earned $228.6 million in the first week of release, the sixth - biggest seven - day gross of all time. In its second weekend, the film continued to maintain the top positioning and fell gradually by 48 % earning another $90.4 million to register the fourth - biggest second weekend of all time, and the third - biggest for Disney. In terms of percentage drop, its 48 % decline is the third - smallest drop for any film opening above $125 million (behind Finding Dory and The Force Awakens). The hold was notable considering how the film was able to fend off three new wide releases: Power Rangers, Life, and CHiPs. As a result, it passed the $300 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 the pass said mark. The film grossed $45.4 million in its third weekend, finally being overtaken for the top spot by newcomer The Boss Baby ($50.2 million). On April 4, 2017, its nineteenth day of release, it passed the $400 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 to do so. By its fourth weekend, the film began was playing in 3,969 cinemas, a fall of 241 theaters from its previous weekend. Of those, approximately 1,200 cinemas were sing - along versions. It earned $26.3 million (- 48 %) and retained second place. By comparison, previous Disney films Moana (− 8 %) and Frozen (− 2 %) both witnessed mild percentage declines the weekend their sing - alone versions were released. Its seventh weekend of release was in contemporaneous with another Emma Watson - starring new film The Circle. That weekend, The Circle was number four, while Beauty and the Beast was at number six. By May 28, the film had earned over $500 million in ticket sales becoming the first (and currently only) film of 2017, the third female - fueled film (after The Force Awakens and Rogue One: A Star Wars Story followed by Wonder Woman) and the eighth overall film in cinematic history to pass the mark.
It has already become the biggest March release, dethroning The Hunger Games (2012), the biggest musical film (both animated and live - action), as well as the biggest film of 2017.
Internationally, the film began playing on Thursday, March 16, 2017. Through Sunday, March 19, it had a total international opening of $182.3 million from 55 markets, 44 of which were major territories, far exceeding initial estimations of $100 million and opened at No. 1 in virtually all markets except Vietnam, Turkey, and India. Its launch is the second - biggest for the month of March, behind Batman v Superman ($256.5 million). In IMAX, it recorded the biggest debut for a PG title (although it carried varying certificate amongst different markets) with $8.5 million from 649 screens, the second - biggest for a PG title behind The Jungle Book. In its second weekend, it fell just by 35 % earning another $120.6 million and maintaining its first position hold. It added major markets like France and Australia. It topped the international box office for three consecutive weekends before finally being dethroned by Ghost in the Shell and The Boss Baby in its fourth weekend. Despite the fall, the film helped Disney push past the $1 billion thresold internationally for the first time in 2017.
It scored the biggest opening day of the year in Hong Kong and the Philippines, the biggest March Thursday in Italy ($1 million, also the biggest Disney Thursday debut), the biggest March opening day in Austria, and the second - biggest in Germany ($1.1 million), Disney 's biggest March in Denmark, the biggest Disney live - action debut in China ($12.6 million), the UK ($6.2 million), Mexico ($2.4 million) and Brazil ($1.8 million) and the third - biggest in South Korea with $1.2 million, behind only Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End and Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides. In terms of opening weekend, the largest debut came from China ($44.8 million), followed by the UK ($24.3 million), Korea ($11.8 million), Mexico ($11.8 million), Australia ($11.1 million), Brazil ($11 million), Germany ($10.7 million), France ($8.4 million), Italy ($7.6 million), Philippines ($6.3 million), Russia ($6 million) and Spain ($5.8 million).
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the film recorded the biggest opening ever for a PG - rated film, the biggest Disney live - action opening of all time, the biggest March opening weekend, the biggest opening for a musical (ahead of 2012 's Les Misérables), the number one opening of 2017 to date and the fifth - biggest - ever overall with £ 19.7 million ($24.5 million) from 639 theatres and almost twice that of The Jungle Book (£ 9.9 million). This included the second - biggest Saturday ever (£ 7.9 million), only behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens. It witnessed a decline in its second weekend, earning £ 12.33 million ($15.4 million). Though the film was falling at a faster rate than The Jungle Book, it had already surpassed the said film and its second weekend is the third - biggest ever (behind the two James Bond films Skyfall (2012) and Spectre). In India, despite facing heavy competitions from four new Hindi releases, two Tamils films and a Malayalam and a Punjabi release, the film managed to take an occupancy of 15 % on its opening day, an impressive feat despite tremendous competitions. It earned around ₹ 1.5 crore (US $230,000) nett on its opening day from an estimated 600 screens which is more than the three Hindi releases -- Machine, Trapped, and Aa Gaya Hero -- combined. Disney reported a total of ₹ 9.26 crore (US $1.4 million) gross for its opening weekend there. It was ahead of all new releases and second overall behind Bollywood film Badrinath Ki Dulhania. In Russia, despite receiving a restrictive 16 rating, the film managed to deliver a very successful opening with $6 million.
In China, expectations were high for the film. The release date was announced on January 24, giving Disney and local distributor China Film Group Corporation ample time -- around two months -- to market the film nationwide. The release date was strategically chosen to coincide with White Day. Preliminary reports suggested that it could open to $40 -- 60 million in its opening weekend. Largely driven by young women, its opening day pre-sales outpaced that of The Jungle Book. The original film was, however, never widely popular in the country. Although China has occasionally blocked gay - themed content from streaming video services, in this case, Chinese censors decided to leave the gay scene intact. According to local box office tracker Ent Group, the film grossed an estimated $12.1 million on its opening day (Friday), representing 70 % of the total receipts. Including previews, it made a total of $14.5 million from 100,000 screenings, which is 43 % of all screenings in the country. It climbed to $18.5 million on Saturday (102,700 showings) for a three - day total of $42.6 million, securing 60 % of the total marketplace. Disney on the other hand reported a different figure of $44.8 million. Either ways, it recorded the second - biggest opening for a Disney live - action film, with $3.4 million coming from 386 IMAX screens. Japan -- a huge Disney market -- served as the film 's final market and opened there on April 21. It debuted with a better - than - expected $12.5 million on its opening weekend helping the film push past the $1.1 billion threshold. An estimated $1.1 million came from IMAX screenings, the fourth - biggest ever in the country. The two - day gross was $9.7 million, outstripping Frozen 's previous record of $9.5 million. Due to positive reviews, good word - of - mouth and benefitting from the Golden Week, the film saw a 9 % increase on its second weekend. The hold was strong enough to fend off newcomer The Fate of the Furious from securing the top spot. The total there is now over $98 million after seven weekends and is the biggest film release of the year and, overall, the eleventh - biggest of all time. It topped the box office there for eight consecutive weekends.
The only markets where the film did not top the weekend charts were Vietnam (behind Kong: Skull Island), Turkey (with two local movies and Logan ahead) and India (where Badrinath Ki Dulhania retained No. 1). It topped the box office for four straight weekends in Germany, Korea, Austria, Finland, Poland, Portugal, Brazil, Venezuela, Bolivia, Switzerland and the UK (exclusive of previews). In the Philippines, it emerged as the most successful commercial film of all time -- both local and foreign -- with over $13.5 million. In just five weeks, the film became one of the top 10 highest - grossing film of all time in the United Kingdom and Ireland, ahead of all but one Harry Potter film (Deathly Hallows -- Part 2) and all three The Lord of the Rings movies (which also starred Ian McKellen). It is currently the eighth - biggest grosser with £ 70.1 million ($90 million), overtaking Mamma Mia! to become the biggest musical production ever there. The biggest international earning markets following the UK are Japan ($108 million), China ($85.8 million), Brazil ($41.5 million), Korea ($37.5 million), and Australia ($35 million). In Europe alone, the cumulative total is $267 million to become the second - highest - grossing film in the past year (behind Rogue One: A Star Wars Story).
Beauty and the Beast received generally positive reviews, with praise for the faithfulness to the original film with a few elements of the Broadway musical version, cast performances, visuals, Jacqueline Durran 's costume designs, production design, Alan Menken 's musical score and songs, though the designs of the Beast and the servants ' household object forms received mixed reviews... On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71 % based on 299 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "With an enchanting cast, beautifully crafted songs, and a painterly eye for detail, Beauty and the Beast offers a faithful yet fresh retelling that honors its beloved source material. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 65 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "It 's a Michelin - triple - starred master class in patisserie skills that transforms the cinematic equivalent of a sugar rush into a kind of crystal - meth - like narcotic high that lasts about two hours. '' Felperin also praised the performances of Watson and Kline as well the special effects, costume designs and the sets while commended the inclusion of Gad 's character of LeFou as the first LGBT character in Disney. Owen Gleiberman of Variety, in his positive review of the film, wrote: "It 's a lovingly crafted movie, and in many ways a good one, but before that it 's an enraptured piece of old - is - new nostalgia. '' Gleiberman compared Steven 's character of the Beast to a royal version of the titular character in The Elephant Man and the 1946 version of the Beast in Jean Cocteau 's original adaptation. A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised the performances of both Watson and Stevens, and wrote: "It looks good, moves gracefully and leaves a clean and invigorating aftertaste. I almost did n't recognize the flavor: I think the name for it is joy. '' Likewise, The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday complimented Watson 's performance, describing it as "alert and solemn '' while noting her singing ability as "serviceable enough to get the job done ''. Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times awarded the film three and a half stars, lauded the performances of Watson and Thompson which he drew a comparison to Paige O'Hara 's and Angela Lansbury 's performances in the 1991 animated version while appreciating the performances of the other cast and also pointing out on its usage of the combination of motion capture and CGI technology as a big advantage which he stated: "Almost overwhelmingly lavish, beautifully staged and performed with exquisite timing and grace by the outstanding cast ''. Mike Ryan of Uproxx praised the cast, production design and the new songs while noting the film does n't try anything different, saying: "There 's certainly nothing that new about this version of Beauty and the Beast (well, except it is n't a cartoon anymore), but it 's a good recreation of a classic animated film that should leave most die - hards satisfied. '' In her A - review, Nancy Churnin of The Dallas Morning News praised the film 's emotional and thematic depth, remarking: "There 's an emotional authenticity in director Bill Condon 's live - action Beauty and the Beast film that helps you rediscover Disney 's beloved 1991 animated film and 1994 stage show in fresh, stirring ways. '' James Berardinelli of ReelViews described the 2017 version as "enthralling ''.
Brian Truitt of USA Today commended the performances of Evans, Gad, McGregor and Thompson alongside Condon 's affinity with musicals, the production design, visual effects featured in some of the song numbers including new songs made by the composers Alan Menken and Tim Rice, particularly Evermore which he described the new song with a potential for an Academy Award for Best Original Song. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone rated the film three out of four stars which he deemed it as an "exhilarating gift '' while he remarked that "Beauty and the Beast does justice to Disney 's animated classic, even if some of the magic is M.I.A (Missing in Action). '' Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine gave a positive review with a description as "Wild, Vivid and Crazy - Beautiful '' as she wrote "Nearly everything about Beauty and the Beast is larger than life, to the point that watching it can be a little overwhelming. '' and added that "it 's loaded with feeling, almost like a brash interpretive dance expressing the passion and elation little girls (and some boys, too) must have felt upon seeing the earlier version. '' The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick LaSalle struck an affirmative tone, calling it one of the joys of 2017, stating that "Beauty and the Beast creates an air of enchantment from its first moments, one that lingers and builds and takes on qualities of warmth and generosity as it goes along '' while referring the film as "beautiful '' and also praised the film for its emotional and psychological tone as well Steven 's motion capture performance. Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph gave the film four stars out of five and wrote that "It dazzles on this chocolate box of a picture that feels almost greedy yet to make this film work, down to a sugar - rush finale to grasp the nettle and make an out - an - out, bells - and - whistles musical '' while he praised the performances of Watson, McKellen, Thompson, McGregor, Evans and Gad. Mark Hughes of Forbes also similarly praised the film which he wrote that "it could revive the story in a faithful but entirely new and unique way elevating the material beyond expectations, establishing itself as a cinematic equal to the original '' and also complimented the importance of undertaking a renowned yet problematic masterpiece as well addressing changes in the elements of the story while acknowledging the film 's effectiveness in resonating to the audiences.
Several critics regarded the film as inferior to its 1991 animated predecessor. David Sims of The Atlantic wrote that the 2017 film "feels particularly egregious, in part, because it 's so slavishly devoted to the original; every time it falls short of its predecessor (which is quite often), it 's hard not to notice ''. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune said that the 2017 film "takes our knowledge and our interest in the material for granted. It zips from one number to another, throwing a ton of frenetically edited eye candy at the screen, charmlessly. '' Phillips wrote that the film featured some "less conspicuously talented '' performers who are "stuck doing karaoke, or motion - capture work of middling quality '', though he praised Kline 's performance as the "best, sweetest thing in the movie; he brings a sense of calm, droll authority ''. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian praised Watson 's performance and wrote that the film was "lit in that fascinatingly artificial honey - glow light, and it runs smoothly on rails -- the kind of rails that bring in and out the stage sets for the lucrative Broadway touring version. '' In the same newspaper, Wendy Ide criticized the film as "ornate to the point of desperation '' in its attempt to emulate the animated film.
Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B -, writing that while the film looks "exceptionally great '', the new songs were "not transporting ''. He felt the film needed more life and depth, but praised Watson 's and Steven 's performances as the "film 's stronger elements ''. Dana Schwartz of The New York Observer felt that some of the characters, such as Gaston and the Beast, had been watered down from the 1991 film, and that the additional backstory elements failed to "advance the plot or theme in any meaningful way '' while adding considerable bloat. Schwartz considered the singing of the cast to be adequate but felt that their voices should have been dubbed over, especially for the complex songs.
Controversy erupted after director Bill Condon said there was a "gay moment '' in the film, when LeFou briefly waltzes with Stanley, one of Gaston 's friends. Afterwards in an interview with Vulture.com, Condon stated, "Can I just say, I 'm sort of sick of this. Because you 've seen the movie -- it 's such a tiny thing, and it 's been overblown. '' Condon also added that Beauty and the Beast features much more diversity than just the highly talked - about LeFou: "That was so important. We have interracial couples -- this is a celebration of everybody 's individuality, and that 's what 's exciting about it. '' GLAAD president and CEO Sarah Kate Ellis praised the move stating, "It is a small moment in the film, but it is a huge leap forward for the film industry. ''
In Russia, Vitaly Milonov agitated the culture minister for banning the film, but instead it was given a 16 + rating (children under the age of 16 can only be admitted to see it in theaters with accompanying adults). Additionally, a theater in Henagar, Alabama did not screen the film because of the subplot. In Malaysia, the Film Censorship Board insisted the "gay moment '' scene be cut, prompting an indefinite postponement of its release by Disney, followed by their decision to withdraw it completely if it could not be released uncensored. The studio moved the release date to March 30, to allow more time for Malaysia 's censor board to make a decision on whether or not to release the film without changes. The distributors and producers then submitted an appeal to the Film Appeal Committee of Malaysia, which allowed the film to be released without any cuts and a P13 rating on the grounds that the "gay element '' was minor and did not affect the positive elements featured in the film. In Kuwait, the movie was withdrawn from cinemas by National Cinema Company which owns most of the cinemas in the country. A board member of the company stated that the Ministry of Information 's censorship department had requested it to stop its screening and edit it for things deemed offensive by it.
There were also a number of boycotts against the film. A call to boycott on LifePetitions received over 129,000 signatures, while the American Family Association featured a petition to boycott with the film, asking the public to help crowdfund a CGI version of Pilgrim 's Progress instead.
The film also received criticsm over its portrayal of LeFou, as many felt that it relied on stereotypes and was used as a way of teasing LGBT+ viewers without providing adequate representation. LeFou 's status as a sidekick to the main villain brought about criticism over Disney 's queercoding of villains in the past, and his infatuation with Gaston was seen as relying on a stereotype of gay men being predatory towards straight men. Furthermore, the only gay interaction LeFou has is a three second clip of him dancing with another man at the end of the film. Many saw this as Disney cheating its LGBT+ audiences.
Disney has sought to portray Belle as an empowered young woman, but a debate questioning whether it is possible to fall in love with someone who is holding you prisoner, and whether this is a problematic theme, has resulted. As was the case with the original animated film, one argument is that Belle suffers from Stockholm syndrome (a condition that causes hostages to develop a psychological alliance with their captors as a survival strategy during captivity). Emma Watson studied whether Belle is trapped in an abusive relationship with the Beast before signing on and concluded that she does not think the criticism fits this version of the folk tale. Watson described Stockholm Syndrome as "where a prisoner will take on the characteristics of and fall in love with the captor. Belle actively argues and disagrees with (Beast) constantly. She has none of the characteristics of someone with Stockholm Syndrome because she keeps her independence, she keeps that freedom of thought '', also adding that Belle defiantly "gives as good as she gets '' before forming a friendship and romance with the Beast.
Psychiatrist Frank Ochberg, who coined the term "Stockholm syndrome '', said he does not think Belle exhibits the trauma symptoms of prisoners suffering from the syndrome because she does not go through a period of feeling that she is going to die. Some therapists, while acknowledging that the pairing 's relationship does not meet the clinical definition of Stockholm syndrome, argue that the relationship depicted is dysfunctional and abusive and does not model healthy romantic relationships for young viewers. Constance Grady of Vox writes that Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont 's Beauty and the Beast was a fairy tale originally written to prepare young girls in 18th - century France for arranged marriages, and that the power disparity is amplified in the Disney version. Anna Menta of Elite Daily argued that the Beast does not apologize to Belle for imprisoning, hurting, or manipulating her, and his treatment of Belle is not painted as wrong.
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who plays zach in the suite life on deck | Phill Lewis - wikipedia
Phill Lewis (b. 1968) is an American actor, director, and comedian, best known for his role as Mr. Moseby on the Disney Channel series The Suite Life of Zack & Cody and its spin - off, The Suite Life on Deck. Lewis has also made appearances on popular TV shows such as Lizzie Maguire, Friends, and Scrubs.
Lewis was born in 1968 in Uganda. At the time, his father, former U.S. Ambassador Delano Lewis, was serving as the Peace Corps ' associate director and country director for Nigeria and Uganda. Lewis has three brothers.
Lewis was cast in the lead role of the short - lived 1991 CBS situation comedy, Teech. The show was cancelled after four episodes. He appeared in guest parts on various television series including Pacific Blue, JAG, Ally McBeal, Joan of Arcadia, Brothers & Sisters, 8 Simple Rules, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Friends and How I Met Your Mother. Lewis has also had recurring roles on A Different World, The Wayans Bros., Lizzie McGuire, Yes, Dear, Scrubs, and Raising Hope.
Lewis co-starred in the Disney Channel original series The Suite Life of Zack & Cody as Mr. Moseby. In 2008, he had reprised the role on a spin - off The Suite Life on Deck, where he plays the manager of The S.S. Tipton. He has appeared as a guest star on Disney Channel 's That 's So Raven and Phineas and Ferb and also in one of the channel 's original films, Dadnapped. On the children 's show Special Agent Oso he has a recurring role as the voice of Agent Wolfie.
As a television director, he directed several episodes of The Suite Life on Deck, first making his directorial debut with The Suite Life of Zack & Cody episode "I Want My Mummy '' (2007). He has since gone on to direct episodes of the Disney Channel sitcoms A.N.T. Farm, Austin & Ally, Good Luck Charlie, Kickin ' It and Jessie starring his former Suite Life on Deck co-star Debby Ryan. His other television directing credits include Malibu Country, Mike & Molly, 2 Broke Girls, The Soul Man, Sullivan & Son, Melissa & Joey, Young & Hungry, The Odd Couple, and One Day at a Time. He directed the live episode of Undateable in 2015 that secured a third season for the series. In addition to his television work, Lewis has appeared in several films. He made his film debut as Dennis in the 1989 dark comedy Heathers. He has appeared in smaller roles in more than a dozen films, including City Slickers (1991), Bowfinger (1999), I Spy (2002), Surviving Christmas (2004), Kicking & Screaming (2005), and Beverly Hills Chihuahua 2 (2011).
Lewis appeared in an episode of Jessie on March 27, 2015, as Marion Moseby (character that appeared in The Suite Life of Zack & Cody and The Suite Life on Deck).
In late December 1991, Lewis was arrested after he accidentally killed Isabel Duarte, a resident of Bethesda, Maryland, in a car crash. He was charged with manslaughter and driving while intoxicated. His blood alcohol level at the time measured three times the limit for legal intoxication. The court sentenced Lewis to five years in prison, but suspended four, citing Lewis 's work after his arrest with a prison - based theater troupe which performed in jails, schools, and churches, to highlight the consequences of drug abuse. Lewis was also ordered to serve two years ' probation after his release and to perform 350 hours of community service.
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when did the manhattan project began and end | Timeline of the Manhattan Project - wikipedia
The Manhattan Project was a research and development project that produced the first atomic bombs during World War II. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom and Canada. From 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the US Army Corps of Engineers. The Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District; "Manhattan '' gradually became the codename for the entire project. Along the way, the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, Tube Alloys. The Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939, but grew to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US $2 billion (about $27 billion in 2017 dollars). Over 90 % of the cost was for building factories and producing the fissionable materials, with less than 10 % for development and production of the weapons.
Two types of atomic bomb were developed during the war. A relatively simple gun - type fission weapon was made using uranium - 235, an isotope that makes up only 0.7 percent of natural uranium. Since it is chemically identical to the most common isotope, uranium - 238, and has almost the same mass, it proved difficult to separate. Three methods were employed for uranium enrichment: electromagnetic, gaseous and thermal. Most of this work was performed at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. In parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. Reactors were constructed at Oak Ridge and Hanford, Washington, in which uranium was irradiated and transmuted into plutonium. The plutonium was then chemically separated from the uranium. The gun - type design proved impractical to use with plutonium so a more complex implosion - type nuclear weapon was developed in a concerted design and construction effort at the project 's principal research and design laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico.
The following is a timeline of the Manhattan Project. It includes a number of events prior to the official formation of the Manhattan Project, and a number of events after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, until the Manhattan Project was formally replaced by the Atomic Energy Commission in 1947.
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who won gold medal in asian archery championship | 2017 Asian Archery Championships - wikipedia
The 2017 Asian Archery Championships were the 20th edition of the Asian Archery Championships, and were held in Dhaka, Bangladesh from November 25, 2017 to November 30, 2017.
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who plays the main bad guy in mad max fury road | Mad Max: Fury Road - Wikipedia
Mad Max: Fury Road is a 2015 action film co-written, co-produced, and directed by George Miller. Miller collaborated with Brendan McCarthy and Nico Lathouris on the screenplay. The fourth installment and a reboot of the Mad Max franchise, it is a joint Australian - American venture produced by Kennedy Miller Mitchell, RatPac - Dune Entertainment, and Village Roadshow Pictures. The film is set in a post apocalyptic desert wasteland where gasoline and water are scarce commodities. It follows Max Rockatansky (Tom Hardy), who joins forces with Imperator Furiosa (Charlize Theron) to flee from cult leader Immortan Joe (Hugh Keays - Byrne) and his army in an armoured tanker truck, leading to a lengthy road battle. The film also features Nicholas Hoult, Rosie Huntington - Whiteley, Riley Keough, Zoë Kravitz, Abbey Lee, and Courtney Eaton.
Fury Road was in development hell for many years, with pre-production starting as early as 1997. Attempts were made to shoot the film in 2001 and 2003, but were delayed due to the September 11 attacks and the Iraq War. In 2007, after focusing on Happy Feet, Miller decided to pursue producing the film again. He briefly considered producing it as a computer - animated film but abandoned it in favor of live - action. In 2009, Miller announced that filming would begin in early 2011. Hardy was cast as Max in June 2010, with production planned to begin that November. Principal photography was delayed several more times before beginning in July 2012. The film wrapped in December 2012, although additional film footage was shot in November 2013.
The film had its world premiere on 7 May 2015 at the TCL Chinese Theatre. It began a worldwide theatrical release on 14 May 2015, including an out - of - competition screening at the 68th Cannes Film Festival, in 2D, 3D, IMAX 3D, and 4DX. It has grossed over $378 million worldwide, making it the highest - grossing film in the Mad Max franchise. The film was ranked by many critics as the best film of 2015, and is considered one of the greatest action films of all time; acclaim went to its direction, screenplay, action sequences, and ensemble cast. Fury Road won multiple critical and guild awards, and received ten Academy Award nominations including Best Picture and Best Director for George Miller. It won six: Costume Design, Production Design, Makeup and Hairstyling, Film Editing, Sound Editing, and Sound Mixing.
Following a nuclear holocaust, the world has become a desert wasteland and civilization has collapsed. Max Rockatansky, a survivor, is captured by the War Boys, the army of the tyrannical Immortan Joe, and taken to Joe 's Citadel. Designated a universal blood donor, Max is imprisoned and used as a "blood bag '' for a sick War Boy called Nux. Meanwhile, Imperator Furiosa, one of Joe 's lieutenants, is sent in her armoured semi-truck, the "War Rig '', to collect gasoline. When she drives off - route, Joe realizes that his five wives -- women selected for breeding -- are missing, and fleeing with her. Joe leads his entire army in pursuit of Furiosa, calling on the aid of nearby Gas Town and the Bullet Farm.
Nux joins the pursuit with Max strapped to his car to continue supplying blood. A battle ensues between the War Rig and Joe 's forces. Furiosa drives into a sand storm, evading her pursuers, except Nux, who attempts to sacrifice himself to destroy the Rig. Max escapes and restrains Nux, but the car is destroyed. After the storm, Max finds Furiosa repairing the Rig, accompanied by the wives: Capable, Cheedo, Toast, the Dag and the Splendid Angharad, who is heavily pregnant with Joe 's child. Max steals the Rig, but its kill switch disables it. Max reluctantly agrees to let Furiosa and the wives accompany him; Nux climbs on the Rig as it leaves and attempts to kill Furiosa, but is overcome and thrown out, and is picked up by Joe 's army.
Furiosa drives through a biker gang - controlled canyon to barter a deal for safe passage. However, with Joe 's forces pursuing, the gang turns on her, forcing her and the group to flee, while the bikers detonate the canyon walls to block Joe. Max and Furiosa fight pursuing bikers as Joe 's car, with Nux now on board, breaks through the blockade and eventually attacks the War Rig, allowing Nux to board. However, as the Rig escapes, Angharad falls off in an attempt to protect Max and is run over by Joe 's car, killing her and her child. Furiosa explains to Max that they are escaping to the "Green Place '', an idyllic land she remembers from her childhood. Capable finds Nux hiding in the Rig, distraught over his failure, and consoles him. That night, the Rig gets stuck in the mud. Furiosa and Max slow Joe 's forces with mines, but Joe 's ally, the Bullet Farmer, continues pursuing them. Nux helps Max free the Rig while Furiosa shoots and blinds the Bullet Farmer. Max walks into the dark to confront the Bullet Farmer and his men, returning with guns and ammunition.
They drive the War Rig overnight through swampland and desert, coming across a naked woman the next day. Max suspects a trap, though Furiosa approaches the woman and states her history and clan affiliation. The naked woman summons her clan, the Vuvalini, who recognize Furiosa as one of their own who was kidnapped as a child. Furiosa is devastated to learn that the swampland they passed was indeed the Green Place, now uninhabitable. The group then plans to ride motorbikes across immense salt flats in the hope of finding a new home. Max chooses to stay behind, but after seeing visions of a child he failed to save, he convinces them to return to the undefended Citadel, which has ample water and greenery that Joe keeps for himself, and trap Joe and his army in the bikers ' canyon.
The group heads back to the Citadel, but they are attacked en route by Joe 's forces, and Furiosa is seriously wounded. Joe positions his car in front of the War Rig to slow it, while Max fights Joe 's giant son, Rictus Erectus. Joe captures Toast, who manages to distract him long enough for Furiosa to kill him. Nux sacrifices himself by wrecking the Rig, killing Rictus and blocking the canyon, allowing Max, Furiosa, the wives, and the surviving Vuvalini to escape in Joe 's car, where Max transfuses his blood to Furiosa, saving her life.
At the Citadel, the impoverished citizens react to Joe 's death with joy. Furiosa, the wives, and the Vuvalini are cheered by the people and welcomed by the remaining War Boys. Max shares a respectful glance with Furiosa before blending into the crowd and again departing for parts unknown.
The primary theme of Mad Max: Fury Road is survival and retention of humanity in the face of apocalyptic events. The theme of humanity is illustrated by Max beginning the film a feral wanderer, then rediscovering his former dignity by partnering with Furiosa. As the underlying goal for Max, the theme of staying alive has been carried over from the previous installments of the series that also highlight issues such as ecological collapse and moral decadence. "Survival is key '', explained Miller. "I think it 's a reason why the American Western was such a staple for the better part of a century in American cinema. They were allegorical tales with figures in the landscape working these things out ''.
Feminism is another theme that has received notice. Charlize Theron is a "dramatic center for the film. '' Throughout the film, her character demonstrates the physicality of a hero committed to a rescue mission. Sarah Stewart of IndieWire writes: "in the end, the movie... sets up the start of a matriarchal society as an antidote to the barbarian, warlike tribes that came before ''. These elements contrast this film with the male - centered hero in the previous Mad Max films.
Theron 's character, Furiosa, "has a shaved head... a fierce leather outfit... a mechanical arm she jerry - rigged from salvaged tools, '' and "is a sharpshooting powerhouse who can also handle an 18 - wheel war rig charging through the desert. '' She is "a female road warrior. '' Throughout the film, Furiosa "is a character exactly equal to Max. '' Furiosa and Max are presented as protagonist / antagonist.
Kyle Smith of the New York Post said that the title character, Mad Max, is "actually a secondary figure '' in a film that is not about a roaming Max Rockatansky. Instead, the movie is "actually '' about a "feminist revolt led by Imperator Furiosa '' against Immortan Joe.
Further themes pointed out by critics have included vengeance, solidarity, home, and redemption. In his review of Mad Max: Fury Road, film critic A.O. Scott wrote: "The themes of vengeance and solidarity, the wide - open spaces and the kinetic, ground - level movement mark Fury Road as a western, and the filmmakers pay tribute to such masters of the genre as John Ford, Budd Boetticher and, not least, Chuck Jones, whose Road Runner cartoons are models of ingenuity and rigor. '' Similar to the previous Mad Max films, home has been regarded as a central theme in Mad Max: Fury Road as it dominates the motivations of Max, Furiosa, and the Five Wives: his home was destroyed, she was taken from her home, and the wives are in search of a new home to raise their children. The unity of these characters also harnesses a concern for family, a common theme within Miller 's filmography.
Plans for a fourth film in the Mad Max series hit financial difficulties and the project spent several years in "development hell ''. In 1995, George Miller re-acquired the rights to future Mad Max films from Warner Bros. The idea for a fourth instalment occurred to Miller in August 1998 when he was walking in an intersection in Los Angeles. About a year later, while travelling from Los Angeles to Australia, the idea coalesced. Miller conceived a story where "violent marauders were fighting, not for oil or for material goods, but for human beings. '' The film was set to shoot in 2001 through 20th Century Fox, but was postponed because of the September 11 attacks that same year. "The American dollar collapsed against the Australian dollar, and our budget ballooned '', Miller said, adding that he "had to move on to Happy Feet because there was a small window when that was ready ''. Mel Gibson, who starred in the original three previous films, would not return to his role as the lead character. Miller ended up re-casting the role because of controversies surrounding Gibson and because he wanted Max to remain at a younger age, as the "same contemporary warrior ''. Miller announced in 2003 that a script had been written for a fourth film, and that pre-production was in the early stages. The project was given the green light to begin filming in the Australian desert in May 2003 with a budget of US $ 100 million, but the location was ruined by rainfall. Mad Max 4 entered then a hiatus in light of security concerns related to its Namibian shoot because of tightened travel and shipping restrictions at the onset of the Iraq War.
In November 2006, Miller stated that he intended to make Fury Road and that the film was never going to involve Gibson: "There 's a real hope. The last thing I wanted to do is another Mad Max, but this script came along, and I 'm completely carried away with it. '' The film 's screenplay was co-written with cult British comic creator Brendan McCarthy, who also designed many of the new characters and vehicles. Miller again confirmed his intention to make another Mad Max at the 2007 Aurora filmmaker initiative. However, he stated that he thought Gibson would not be interested in the film because of his age. Heath Ledger was reportedly considered for the lead before his death in 2008. On 5 March 2009, it was announced that an R - rated 3D animated feature film was in pre-production and would be taking much of the plot from Fury Road, although Gibson would not be in the film and Miller was looking for a "different route '', a "renaissance '' of the franchise. Miller cited director Akira Kurosawa as an inspiration for what he wanted to do with the franchise. Miller was also developing an action - adventure tie - in video game based on the fourth film, along with God of War II video game designer Cory Barlog. Both projects were expected to take two to two - and - a-half years, according to Miller, with a release date of either 2011 or 2012. Fury Road was going to be produced at Dr. D Studios, a digital art studios founded in 2008 by Miller and Doug Mitchell.
On 18 May 2009, it was reported that location scouting was underway for Mad Max 4. After exploring the possibility of an animated 3D film, Miller decided instead to shoot a 3D live action film. By this time, production had moved to Warner Bros. In October 2009, Miller announced that principal photography on Fury Road would commence at Broken Hill, New South Wales in early 2011, ending years of speculation. This announcement attracted widespread media attention in Australia, with speculation on whether Gibson would return as Max. That same month, British actor Tom Hardy was in negotiations to take the lead role of Max, while it was also announced that Charlize Theron would play a major role in the film. In June 2010, Hardy announced on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross that he would play the title role. In July 2010, Miller announced plans to shoot two Mad Max films back - to - back, entitled Mad Max: Fury Road and Mad Max: Furiosa. Weta Digital was originally involved with the film when it was scheduled for a 2012 release. The company was to be handling visual effects, conceptual designs, speciality make - up effects, and costume designs until production was postponed from its November 2010 start date.
In November 2011, filming was moved from Broken Hill back to Namibia, after unexpected heavy rains caused wildflowers to grow in the desert, inappropriate for the look of the film. Other potential locations scouted included the Atacama Desert in Chile, Chott el Djerid in Tunisia, and Azerbaijan.
In a July 2014 interview at San Diego Comic - Con International, Miller said he designed the film in storyboard form before writing the screenplay, working with five storyboard artists. It came out as about 3,500 panels, almost the same number of shots as in the finished film. He wanted the film to be almost a continuous chase, with relatively little dialogue, and to have the visuals come first. Paraphrasing Alfred Hitchcock, Miller said that he wanted the film to be understood in Japan without the use of subtitles.
Principal photography began on 26 June 2012 in Namibia. Filming also took place at Potts Hill and Penrith Lakes in Western Sydney. In October 2012, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Warner Bros. sent an executive to keep the production on track. Filming wrapped on 17 December 2012 and lasted for 120 days. In February 2013, a leaked draft from the Namibian Coast Conservation and Management group accused the producers of damaging parts of the Namib Desert, endangering a number of plant and animal species. However, the Namibia Film Commission said it had "no reservations '' after visiting the set during production. It disputed claims reported in the media, calling the accusations "unjust rhetoric ''. In September 2013, it was announced that the film would undergo reshoots in November 2013.
Miller said that he did not feel he had to top himself in terms of production design compared to the previous films in the series. Instead, he wanted the production design to harken back to the earlier films and reflect the changes of the past 30 years. Colin Gibson, the production designer, said that they developed an internally consistent history to explain the film 's look and justify its use of hot rods. Gibson designed the film 's vehicles, all of which are fully functional. Construction of some of the vehicles began as early as 2003. The cars were designed to show characterisation and detail in the world, including the characters ' feelings of guilt, loss, and their attempts to recycle the remains of civilisation. Both the Doof Wagon and the Doof Warrior 's guitar are fully functional -- none of his scenes were rendered in CGI.
Cinematographer John Seale came out of retirement to shoot Fury Road. He replaced Dean Semler, the cinematographer of the previous two films, after Semler left. Seale outfitted his camera crew with six Arri Alexa Pluses and four Alexa Ms, as well as a number of Canon EOS 5Ds and Olympus PEN E-P5s that were used as crash cams for the action sequences. It was the first time Seale shot with digital cameras. Because of the fast nature required for edits, Miller asked Seale to keep the focus of the shot centered for each scene, thus allowing the audience to quickly orient towards it.
In July 2014, director George Miller described the film as "a very simple allegory, almost a western on wheels ''. Miller said that 90 % of the effects were practical. Second unit director and supervising stunt coordinator Guy Norris was in charge of over 150 stunt performers, which included Cirque du Soleil performers and Olympic athletes. Miller invited playwright Eve Ensler to act as an on - set adviser. Impressed with the script 's depth and what she saw as feminist themes, she spent a week in Namibia, where she spoke to the actors about issues of violence against women.
Mad Max: Fury Road contains 2,000 visual effects shots. The lead effects company was Iloura, who delivered more than 1,500 effects shots for the film. Additional visual effects studios that worked on the film include Method Studios, Stereo D, 4DMax, BlackGinger, The Third Floor, and Dr. D Studios. Miller recruited his wife, Margaret Sixel, to edit the film, as he felt she could make it stand out from other action films. Sixel had 480 hours of footage to edit; watching it took three months. The film contains about 2,700 cuts of its entire running length, which is equivalent to 22.5 cuts per minute compared to The Road Warrior 's 1,200 cuts of its 90 - minute running time equivalent to 13.33 cuts per minute. The frame rate was also manipulated. "Something like 50 or 60 percent of the film is not running at 24 frames a second, which is the traditional frame rate, '' said Seale. "It 'll be running below 24 frames because George, if he could n't understand what was happening in the shot, he slowed it down until you could. Or if it was too well understood, he 'd shorten it or he 'd speed it up back towards 24. His manipulation of every shot in that movie is intense. '' The Washington Post would later note that the changing frame rate gave the film an "almost cartoonishly jerky '' look.
The extensive effects work included altering lighting and time of day, weather effects, terrain replacement and plate composition. Night scenes were filmed in bright daylight, deliberately overexposed and colour - manipulated. In many shots, the sky was digitally replaced with more detailed or interesting skies. Charlize Theron wore a green cover over her left arm to aid effects artists in digitally removing her arm from her scenes. BAFTA - winning costume designer Jenny Beavan said "As far as I know, the only VFX on our costume was the green glove Charlize wore to hide her arm and they also took out wires from the harnesses. Otherwise, every costume is what it is. It 's costume. It 's their clothing. It 's just made for real! Oh yes and some of the extras -- the wretched -- they were enhanced. Only for the wide shots. ''
Sound designer Mark Mangini stated that he viewed the War Rig as an allegory for Moby - Dick with Immortan Joe playing the role of Captain Ahab. As such, the mechanical truck sounds were layered with whale calls to provide a more animal - like quality to the truck. When the tank is pierced with harpoons and milk sprays out, the sound of whale blow - holes were used. For the final destruction of the War Rig, the only sounds used were slowed down bear growls to symbolise the death of the truck as a living creature.
Both a PG - 13 and R - rated version had been shown separately in different test screenings. The R - rated version was better received by test audiences, leading Warner Bros. to release it.
The musical score for Mad Max: Fury Road was written by the Dutch composer Junkie XL. Prior to Junkie XL 's involvement, Hans Zimmer, John Powell and Marco Beltrami were attached at separate times to score the film. After hearing Junkie XL 's score for 300: Rise of an Empire, Miller met with the composer in Sydney. "I got very inspired and started writing pieces of music for scenes, '' said Junkie XL. "The initial main themes were written in the four weeks after that first meeting and those themes never changed. '' A soundtrack album was released by WaterTower Music on 12 May 2015.
A deluxe edition hardcover collection of art titled Mad Max: Fury Road - Inspired Artists Deluxe Edition inspired by the film was released on 6 May 2015. Mad Max: Fury Road had its world premiere on 7 May 2015 at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles. On 14 May 2015, it screened out - of - competition at the 68th Cannes Film Festival, and then was released in theatres on 15 May 2015. Leading up its release, the film was digitally re-mastered into the IMAX 3D format. It was released into IMAX theatres in select international territories on 13 May 2015. It also received a one - week only IMAX 3D re-release in America starting 11 September 2015. Warner Bros. spent a total of $43.7 million on advertisement for the film. It was re-released in India on March 11, 2016 in 3D and IMAX 3D. Fury Road was however never granted a release in China, the world 's second biggest movie market, due to its intense nature, but it was almost immediately available for legal streaming on various online platforms.
In May 2015, Vertigo began publishing a comic book prequel limited series. Each issue focuses on the backstory of one or two of the film 's characters. The first issue, titled Mad Max: Fury Road - Nux and Immortan Joe # 1, was released on 20 May. The second, Mad Max: Fury Road - Furiosa # 1, was released on 17 June. The third, Mad Max: Fury Road - Mad Max # 1, was released on 8 July. The final issue, Mad Max: Fury Road - Mad Max # 2, was released on 5 August. A single - volume collection containing the stories of all four issues was released on 26 August.
Miller stated that the Blu - ray Disc release would include black - and - white and silent versions of the film, with the latter accompanied by the musical score. Miller described the black - and - white cut as the best version of the film. However, when details for both the United Kingdom and United States releases of the Blu - ray were announced, the alternate cuts were absent. Producer Doug Mitchell in December 2015 confirmed that the black and white version existed and could potentially see a future theatrical release. In January 2016, Miller announced the black - and - white versions would appear in another DVD release.
The film was released on Blu - ray and DVD in the United Kingdom on 5 October 2015. In the United States, the film was released digitally on 11 August 2015, and physically on 1 September. In addition to the stand - alone release, a box set containing all four films and a documentary about the series titled "Madness of Max '' was released the same day. In October 2016, the black and white version of Fury Road, called Mad Max: Black & Chrome debuted in the Mad Max: High Octane anthology; a stand - alone version of the film was also available for streaming at the same time and was released on physical media on December 6, 2016.
Mad Max: Fury Road became a moderate box office success theatrically. When comparing the final theatrical gross to its $200 million budget (including production, marketing and distribution costs), it was an average hit, with Forbes comparing the box office figures of the film to Edge of Tomorrow, calling it "too expensive, but not really a flop. '' The Hollywood Reporter calculated that the loss incurred by the film was around $20 -- 40 million. According to Forbes, one of the reasons the film emerged less successful than hoped was its cancelled release in China; success there could have aided the film in at least passing $400 million. It grossed $153.6 million in North America and $224.8 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $378.4 million. It had a worldwide opening weekend total of $109 million, and went on to become the second highest - grossing Warner Bros. film of 2015 (behind San Andreas), and the nineteenth highest - grossing film of 2015 worldwide overall.
In the United States and Canada, Mad Max: Fury Road opened simultaneously with Pitch Perfect 2. It opened Friday, 15 May 2015, across 3,702 theatres, and earned $16.77 million on its opening day. This included $3.7 million it made from Thursday night run from 3,000 theatres. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $45.4 million, finishing in second at the box office behind Pitch Perfect 2 ($69.2 million). Mad Max: Fury Road, unlike the other seven 2015 Academy Award for Best Picture nominees, became the only film which did not get any box office bump after the nominees were announced in January 2016. However, Fury Road was released eight months prior to the announcement and had ended its theatrical run on September 24, 2015.
Outside North America, it opened on 14 May on 12,000 screens in 48 countries, earning $10.4 million. It opened in 20 more countries on 15 May, earning $14.2 million from 16,700 screens in 68 countries, for a two - day total of $24.6 million. Through Sunday, 17 May, it had an opening weekend total of $65 million from over 9.1 million admissions on nearly 16,900 screens across 68 countries, debuting at second place behind Avengers: Age of Ultron. It went number one in 40 countries. Its highest openings were recorded in the UK ($7 million), South Korea ($6.6 million), France ($6.1 million), Russia and the CIS ($6 million) and Australia ($4.9 million). It opened in its last market, Japan, on June 20, earning $2.2 million from 175,000 admissions in its opening weekend debuting at No. 2 behind local film Love Live! The School Idol Movie. In total earnings, its three largest markets outside of the US and Canada are South Korea ($29.7 million), followed by the UK ($26.9 million) and France ($18.1 million).
Mad Max: Fury Road received widespread critical acclaim. Some critics have named the film one of the greatest action films ever made. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 97 % approval rating and an average rating of 8.6 out of 10 based on 375 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "With exhilarating action and a surprising amount of narrative heft, Mad Max: Fury Road brings George Miller 's post-apocalyptic franchise roaring vigorously back to life. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating, the film has a score of 90 out of 100 based on 51 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade cinema audiences gave the film was a "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph gave the film a full five stars and praised the film for its acting, screenplay, choreography, stunts, humor, and direction calling the film a "spiritual sequel '' and an "eruption of craziness. '' Writing for The Guardian and awarding the film four stars out of five, Peter Bradshaw wrote, "Extravagantly deranged, ear - splittingly cacophonous, and entirely over the top, George Miller has revived his Mad Max punk - western franchise as a bizarre convoy chase action - thriller in the post-apocalyptic desert. '' The New York Times wrote, "Miller has reminded us that blockbusters have the potential to not only be art, but radically visionary -- even the fourth in a series. What a lovely day, indeed. '' Scott Mendelson of Forbes gave the film 10 out of 10 stars and wrote, "Mad Max: Fury Road is a remarkable and glorious motion picture, not just one of the great action movies of our time but also a great and timely film, period. '' Alonso Duralde of TheWrap wrote, "In the same way that the original 1979 Mad Max was the Citizen Kane of gut - bucket Australian exploitation cinema, Mad Max: Fury Road may well be the Götterdämmerung of drive - in movies. It has its roots in the Western and the post-apocalyptic road - rage action saga (...), where Miller dares anyone else to follow in his tire treads. '' IGN reviewer Scott Collura gave the film 9.2 out of 10, saying: "The over-the - top stunts and eccentric characters and designs are all hugely important to Fury Road,... but it 's the overriding sense of the film 's uniqueness, its striving to be something more than just another action movie, that is most impressive. ''
The film has also been praised by scholars on several fronts. Feminist critics have praised the dominant role taken by Furiosa and the range of atypical female roles including the wives and the gun - toting Vuvalini, and disability studies scholars have commended the film for its positive, non-stigmatizing portrayals of physical and psychological disabilities.
Mad Max: Fury Road was named one of the best films of 2015 by numerous critics and publications, including ranked first on the rogerebert.com Ten Best Films of 2015, and was Rotten Tomatoes ' best scoring film of 2015. The film topped Metacritic 's tally of film critics year - end best film lists, with 58 critics naming it their best film of the year.
Mad Max: Fury Road was named the nineteenth - greatest film of the 21st century in a 2016 BBC critics ' poll. In 2017, it was named the nineteenth "Best Film of the 21st Century So Far '' by The New York Times.
The film won many critical and guild awards, and received ten Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture and Best Director, the second most - nominated film of the 88th Academy Awards after The Revenant, also starring Hardy. It is the first film of the Mad Max franchise to receive Academy Award recognition, and one of the few sequels to be nominated for Best Picture. The film won six Academy Awards for Best Film Editing, Best Production Design, Best Costume Design, Best Makeup and Hairstyling, Best Sound Mixing, and Best Sound Editing, surpassing all other films at the awards ceremony, and broke the record for the most wins for an Australian film, previously held by The Piano (1993), which won three Oscars.
In 2011, Miller and McCarthy found during the writing process for Fury Road that they had enough story material for two additional scripts. One of these, entitled Mad Max: Furiosa, had already been completed, and Miller hoped to film it after the release of Fury Road. In March 2015, during an interview with Esquire, Hardy revealed that he was attached to star in three more Mad Max films following Fury Road. In May 2015, Miller told Wired: "Should Fury Road be successful, I 've got two other stories to tell. '' Later in May, Miller revealed that plans for the sequel had changed and the fifth film in the franchise will instead be titled Mad Max: The Wasteland. In October 2015, Miller 's team had two scripts for sequels which they ended up with during the writing process. Later that month, he clarified that Mad Max: The Wasteland was a working title for the sequel. Miller reaffirmed his intent to continue the franchise after reports to the contrary surfaced following an interview in January 2016. In November 2017, it was reported that a lawsuit filed by Miller 's production company against Warner Bros. over a disputed $7 million bonus was likely to delay the production of any sequels.
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the states of manipur tripura and meghalya were formed in the year | Meghalaya - wikipedia
Meghalaya (/ meɪɡˈɑːləjə / or US: / ˌmeɪɡəˈleɪə /; / meːɡɦaːləj (ə) /) is a state in Northeast India. The name means "the abode of clouds '' in Sanskrit. The population of Meghalaya as of 2016 is estimated to be 3,211,474. Meghalaya covers an area of approximately 22,430 square kilometers, with a length to breadth ratio of about 3: 1.
The state is bounded to the south by the Bangladeshi divisions of Mymensingh and Sylhet, to the west by the Bangladeshi division of Rangpur, and to the north and east by India 's State of Assam. The capital of Meghalaya is Shillong. During the British rule of India, the British imperial authorities nicknamed it the "Scotland of the East ''. Meghalaya was previously part of Assam, but on 21 January 1972, the districts of Khasi, Garo and Jaintia hills became the new state of Meghalaya. English is the official language of Meghalaya. The other principal languages spoken include Khasi, Pnar, Hajong, Tiwa (lalung), Rabha, Garo and Biate. Unlike many Indian states, Meghalaya has historically followed a matrilineal system where the lineage and inheritance are traced through women; the youngest daughter inherits all wealth and she also takes care of her parents.
The state is the wettest region of India, recording an average of 12,000 mm (470 in) of rain a year. About 70 % of the state is forested. The Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion encompasses the state; its mountain forests are distinct from the lowland tropical forests to the north and south. The forests are notable for their biodiversity of mammals, birds, and plants.
Meghalaya has predominantly an agrarian economy with a significant commercial forestry industry. The important crops are potatoes, rice, maize, pineapples, bananas, papayas, spices, etc. The service sector is made up of real estate and insurance companies. Meghalaya 's gross state domestic product for 2012 was estimated at ₹ 16,173 crore (US $2.5 billion) in current prices. The state is geologically rich in minerals, but it has no significant industries. The state has about 1,170 km (730 mi) of national highways. It is also a major logistical center for trade with Bangladesh.
Meghalaya, along with neighboring Indian states, have been of archeological interest. People have lived here since neolithic era. Neolithic sites discovered so far are located in areas of high elevation such as in Khasi Hills, Garo Hills and neighboring states. Here neolithic style jhum or shifting cultivation is practiced even today. The highland plateaus fed by abundant rains provided safety from floods and a rich soil. The importance of Meghalaya is its possible role in human history through domestication of rice. One of the competing theories for the origin of rice, is from Ian Glover, who states, "India is the center of greatest diversity of domesticated rice with over 20,000 identified species and Northeast India is the most favorable single area of the origin of domesticated rice. '' The limited archeology done in the hills of Meghalaya suggest human settlement since ancient times.
Meghalaya was formed by carving out two districts from the state of Assam: the United Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills, and the Garo Hills on 21 January 1972. Before attaining full statehood, Meghalaya was given semi-autonomous status in 1970.
The Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia tribes had their own kingdoms until they came under British administration in the 19th century. Later, the British incorporated Meghalaya into Assam in 1835. The region enjoyed semi-independent status by virtue of a treaty relationship with the British Crown. When Bengal was partitioned on 16 October 1905 by Lord Curzon, Meghalaya became a part of the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. However, when the partition was reversed in 1912, Meghalaya became a part of the province of Assam. On 3 January 1921 in pursuance of Section 52A of the Government of India Act of 1919, the governor - general - in - council declared the areas now in Meghalaya, other than the Khasi states, as "backward tracts. '' Subsequently, the British administration enacted the Government of India Act of 1935, which regrouped the backward tracts into two categories: "excluded '' and "partially excluded '' areas.
At the time of Indian independence in 1947, present day Meghalaya constituted two districts of Assam and enjoyed limited autonomy within the state of Assam. A movement for a separate Hill State began in 1960. The Assam Reorganisation (Meghalaya) Act of 1969 accorded an autonomous status to the state of Meghalaya. The Act came into effect on 2 April 1970, and an autonomous state of Meghalaya was born out of Assam. The autonomous state had a 37 - member legislature in accordance with the Sixth schedule to the Indian constitution.
In 1971, the Parliament passed the North - Eastern Areas (Reorganization) Act, 1971, which conferred full statehood on the autonomous state of Meghalaya. Meghalaya attained statehood on 21 January 1972, with a Legislative Assembly of its own.
Meghalaya is one of the Seven Sister States of northeast India. The state of Meghalaya is mountainous, with stretches of valley and highland plateaus, and it is geologically rich. It consists mainly of Archean rock formations. These rock formations contain rich deposits of valuable minerals like coal, limestone, uranium and sillimanite.
Meghalaya has many rivers. Most of these are rainfed and seasonal. The important rivers in the Garo Hills region are Daring, Sanda, Bandra, Bhogai, Dareng, Simsang, Nitai and the Bhupai. In the central and eastern sections of the plateau, the important rivers are Khri, Digaru, Umiam, Kynshi (Jadukata), Mawpa, Umiam or Barapani, Umngot and Myntdu. In the southern Khasi Hills region, these rivers have created deep gorges and several beautiful waterfalls.
The elevation of the plateau ranges between 150 m (490 ft) to 1,961 m (6,434 ft). The central part of the plateau comprising the Khasi Hills has the highest elevations, followed by the eastern section comprising the Jaintia Hills region. The highest point in Meghalaya is Shillong Peak, which is a prominent IAF station in the Khasi Hills overlooking the city of Shillong. It has an altitude of 1961 m. The Garo Hills region in the western section of the plateau is nearly plain. The highest point in the Garo Hills is Nokrek Peak with an altitude of 1515 m.
With average annual rainfall as high as 12,000 mm (470 in) in some areas, Meghalaya is the wettest place on earth. The western part of the plateau, comprising the Garo Hills region with lower elevations, experiences high temperatures for most of the year. The Shillong area, with the highest elevations, experiences generally low temperatures. The maximum temperature in this region rarely goes beyond 28 ° C (82 ° F), whereas sub-zero winter temperatures are common.
The town of Sohra (Cherrapunji) in the Khasi Hills south of capital Shillong holds the world record for most rain in a calendar month, while the village of Mawsynram, near Sohra (Cherrapunji), holds the record for the most rain in a year.
About 70 % of the state is forested, of which 9,496 km (3,666 sq mi) is dense primary subtropical forest. The Meghalayan forests are considered to be among the richest botanical habitats of Asia. These forests receive abundant rainfall and support a vast variety of floral and faunal biodiversity. A small portion of the forest area in Meghalaya is under what are known as "sacred groves '' (see Sacred groves of India). These are small pockets of ancient forest that have been preserved by the communities for hundreds of years due to religious and cultural beliefs. These forests are reserved for religious rituals and generally remain protected from any exploitation. These sacred groves harbour many rare plant and animal species. The Nokrek Biosphere Reserve in the West Garo Hills and the Balphakram National Park in the South Garo Hills are considered to be the most biodiversity - rich sites in Meghalaya. In addition, Meghalaya has three wildlife sanctuaries. These are the Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary, the Siju Sanctuary and the Bhagmara Sanctuary, which is also the home of the insect eating pitcher plant Nepenthes khasiana.
Due to diverse climatic and topographic conditions, Meghalayan forests support a vast floral diversity, including a large variety of parasites, epiphytes, succulent plants and shrubs. Two of the most important tree varieties are Shorea robusta (sal tree) and Tectona grandis (teak). Meghalaya is also the home to a large variety of fruits, vegetables, spices and medicinal plants. Meghalaya is also famous for its large variety of orchids -- nearly 325 of them. Of these the largest variety is found in the Mawsmai, Mawmluh and Sohrarim forests in the Khasi hills.
Meghalaya also has a large variety of mammals, birds, reptiles and insects. The important mammal species include elephants, bear, red pandas, civets, mongooses, weasels, rodents, gaur, wild buffalo, deer, wild boar and a number of primates. Meghalaya also has a large variety of bats. The limestone caves in Meghalaya such as the Siju Cave are home to some of the nation 's rarest bat species. The hoolock gibbon is found in all districts of Meghalaya.
Common reptiles in Meghalaya are lizards, crocodiles and tortoises. Meghalaya also has a number of snakes including the python, copperhead, green tree racer, Indian cobra, king cobra, coral snake and vipers.
Meghalaya 's forests host 660 species of birds, many of which are endemic to Himalayan foothills, Tibet and southeast Asia. Of the birds found in Meghalaya forests, 34 are on worldwide threatened species list and 9 are on critically endangered list. Prominent birds spotted in Meghalaya include those from the families of Phasianidae, Anatidae, Podicipedidae, Ciconiidae, Threskiornithidae, Ardeidae, Pelecanidae, Phalacrocoracidae, Anhingidae, Falconidae, Accipitridae, Otididae, Rallidae, Heliornithidae, Gruidae, Turnicidae, Burhinidae, Charadriidae, Glareolidae, Scolopacidae, Jacanidae, Columbidae, Psittacidae, Cuculidae, Strigidae, Caprimulgidae, Apodidae, Alcedinidae, Bucerotidae, Ramphastidae, Picidae, Campephagidae, Dicruridae, Corvidae, Hirundinidae, Cisticolidae, Pycnonotidae, Sylviidae, Timaliidae, Sittidae, Sturnidae, Turdidae, Nectariniidae and Muscicapidae. Each of these families have many species. The great Indian hornbill is the largest bird in Meghalaya. Other regional birds found include the grey peacock pheasant, the large Indian parakeet, the common green pigeon and the blue jay. Meghalaya is also home to over 250 species of butterflies, nearly a quarter of all butterfly species found in India.
Tribal people make up the majority of Meghalaya 's population. The Khasis are the largest group, followed by the Garos then The Jaintias. These were among those known to the British as "hill tribes. '' Other groups include the Biates, the Koch, the related Rajbongshi, the Boro, Hajong, Dimasa, Kuki, Lakhar, Tiwa (Lalung), Karbi, Rabha and Nepali.
Meghalaya recorded the highest decennial population growth of 27.82 % among all the seven north - eastern states, as per the provisional report of census 2011. The population of Meghalaya as of 2011 has been estimated at 2,964,007 of which females comprise 1,492,668 and males 1,471,339. As per the census of India 2011, the sex ratio in the state was 986 females per 1,000 males which was far higher than the national average of 940. The urban female sex ratio of 985 was higher than the rural sex ratio of 972.
Religion in Meghalaya (2011)
Meghalaya is one of three states in India to have a Christian majority. About 75 % of the population practices Christianity, with Presbyterians, Baptist and Catholics the more common denominations. The religion of the people in Meghalaya is closely related to their ethnicity. Close to 90 % of the Garo tribe and nearly 80 % of the Khasi are Christian, while more than 97 % of the Hajong, 98.53 % of the Koch, and 94.60 % of the Rabha tribes are Hindu.
Out of the 689,639 Garo living in Meghalaya, most were Christians as of 2001 Census, 49,917 follow their original religion (Songsarek), 9,129 were Hindu, 8,980 Muslims and 999 were Buddhist. Out of the 1,123,490 Khasi, most were Christians, 202,978 followed the indigenous Niam Khasi / Shnong / Niamtre, 17,641 of the Khasi were Hindu and 2,977 were Muslim. A number of minor tribes live in Meghalaya, including Hajong (31,381 -- 97.23 % Hindu), Koch (21,381 -- 98.53 % Hindu), Rabha (28,153 -- 94.60 % Hindu), Mikir (11,399 -- 52 % Christian and 30 % Hindu), Tiwa (Lalung) (8,438 - 96.15 % Christian) and Biate (10,085 -- 97.3 % Christian).
Conversion from indigenous to Christianity began in the 19th century under the British era. In 1830s, American Baptist Foreign Missionary Society had become active in Northeast to convert indigenous tribes to Christianity. Later, they were offered to expand and reach into Cherrapunji Meghalaya, but they lacked the resources to do so and declined. Welsh Presbyterian Mission took the offer and they began work at the Cherrapunji mission field. By early 1900s, other Protestant sects of Christianity were active in Meghalaya. The outbreak of World Wars forced the preachers to return home to Europe and America. It is during this period that Catholicism took root in Meghalaya and neighboring region. In 20th century, Union Christian College started operations at Barapani, Shillong. Currently, Presbyterians and Catholics are two most common Christian sects found in Meghalaya.
Languages of Meghalaya in 2001
English is the official and widely spoken language of the state. The other principal languages in Meghalaya are Khasi and Garo.
Khasi (also spelled Khasia, Khassee, Cossyah and Kyi) is a branch of the Mon -- Khmer family of the Austroasiatic stock and according to 2001 census, Khasi is spoken by about 1,128,575 people residing in Meghalaya. Many words in the Khasi language have been borrowed from Indo - Aryan languages such as Nepali, Bengali and Assamese. Moreover, the Khasi language originally had no script of its own. The Khasi language is one of the very few surviving Mon -- Khmer languages in India today.
The Garo language has a close affinity with the Koch and Bodo languages, a small family of Tibeto - Burman languages. Garo, spoken by the majority of the population, is spoken in many dialects such as Abeng or Ambeng, Atong, Akawe (or Awe), Matchi Dual, Chibok, Chisak Megam or Lyngngam, Ruga, Gara - Ganching and Matabeng.
Several other languages are spoken in Meghalaya. For example, Pnar language is spoken by many people of the Jaintia Hills. The language is related to the Khasi language. The Pnar, or Jaintia, language is spoken, along with Khasi, by the Khynriam, Bhoi, Pnar and War tribal groups. Tiwa language spoken by Tiwa peoples of Ri - Bhoi district. Another example is the Biate language spoken by a large number of people inhabiting the south - eastern part of Meghalaya bordering Assam. Nepali is found in almost all parts of the state.
English is spoken as a common language across the diverse ethnic and demographic groups. In urban centres most of the people can speak English; rural residents vary in their ability.
Meghalaya currently has 11 districts.
Jaintia Hills:
Khasi Hills Division:
Garo Hills Division:
The Jaintia Hills district was created on 22 February 1972. It has a total geographical area of 3,819 square kilometres (1,475 sq mi) and a population of 295,692 as per the 2001 census. The district headquarters is in Jowai. Jaintia Hills district is the largest producer of coal in the state. Coal mines can be seen all over the district. Limestone production in the state is increasing, as there is high demand from cement industries.
The East Khasi Hills district was carved out of the Khasi Hills on 28 October 1976. The district has covers an area of 2,748 square kilometres (1,061 sq mi) and has a population of 660,923 as per the 2001 census. The headquarters of East Khasi Hills are located in Shillong.
The Ri - Bhoi district was formed by further division of East Khasi Hills district on 4 June 1992. It has an area of 2,448 square kilometres (945 sq mi). The total population of the district was 192,795 in the 2001 census. The district headquarters is at Nongpoh. It has a hilly terrain, and a large part of the area is covered with forests. The Ri - Bhoi district is famous for its pineapples and is the largest producer of pineapples in the state.
The West Khasi Hills district is the largest district in the state with a geographical area of 5,247 square kilometres (2,026 sq mi). The district was carved out of Khasi Hills District on 28 October 1976. The district headquarters are located at Nongstoin.
The East Garo Hills district was formed in 1976 and has a population of 247,555 as per the 2001 census. It covers an area of 2,603 square kilometres (1,005 sq mi). The District Headquarters are at Williamnagar, earlier known as Simsangiri. Nongalbibra, a town in this district, has a large number of coal mines. The coal is transported to Goalpara and Jogighopa via NH62.
The West Garo Hills district lies in the western part of the state and covers a geographical area of 3,714 square kilometres (1,434 sq mi). The population of the district is 515,813 as per the 2001 census. The district headquarters are located at Tura.
The South Garo Hills district came into existence on 18 June 1992 after the division of the West Garo Hills district. The total geographical area of the district is 1,850 square kilometres (710 sq mi). As per the 2001 census the district has a population of 99,100. The district headquarters are at Baghmara.
As of 2012, there are 11 districts, 16 towns and an estimated 6,026 villages in Meghalaya.
Meghalaya schools are run by the state government or by private organisations, including religious institutions. Instruction is only in English. Other Indian languages like Assamese, Bengali, Hindi, Garo, Khasi, Mizo, Nepali & Urdu are taught as optional subjects. The secondary schools are affiliated with the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), the National Institute of Open School (NIOS) or the Meghalaya Board of School Education.
Under the 10 + 2 + 3 plan, after completing secondary school, students typically enroll for two years in a junior college, also known as pre-university, or in schools with a higher secondary facility affiliated with the Meghalaya Board of School Education or any central board. Students choose from one of three streams: liberal arts, commerce or science. Upon completing the required coursework, students may enroll in general or professional degree programs.
Universities
Some institutes like Indian Institute of Management, Shillong, Regional Institute of Science and Technology, North Eastern Indira Gandhi Regional Institute of Health and Medical Sciences, National Institute of Technology, Meghalaya, Indian Institute of Professional Studies, National Institute of Fashion Technology, North Eastern Institute of Ayurveda and Homeopathy are also present.
Meghalaya has Governor Ganga Prasad as the head of the state.
The Meghalaya Legislative Assembly has 60 members at present. Meghalaya has two representatives in the Lok Sabha, one each from Shillong and Tura. It also has one representative in the Rajya Sabha.
Since the creation of the state the Gauhati High Court has jurisdiction in Meghalaya. A Circuit Bench of the Guwahati High Court has been functioning at Shillong since 1974. However recently in March 2013 the Meghalaya High Court was separated from the Gauhati High Court and now the state has its own High Court.
In order to provide local self - governance machinery to the rural population of the country, provisions were made in the Constitution of India; accordingly, the Panchayati Raj institutions were set up. However, on account of the distinct customs and traditions prevailing in the northeast region, it was felt necessary to have a separate political and administrative structure in the region. Some of the tribal communities in the region had their own traditional political systems, and it was felt that Panchayati Raj institutions may come into conflict with these traditional systems. The Sixth Schedule was appended to the Constitution on the recommendations of a subcommittee formed under the leadership of Gopinath Bordoloi, and the constitution of Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) is provided in certain rural areas of the northeast including areas in Meghalaya. The ADCs in Meghalaya are the following:
Meghalaya is predominantly an agrarian economy. Agriculture and allied activities engage nearly two - thirds of the total work force in Meghalaya. However, the contribution of this sector to the State 's NSDP is only about one - third. Agriculture in the state is characterised by low productivity and unsustainable farm practices. Despite the large percentage of population engaged in agriculture, the state imports food from other Indian states. Infrastructural constraints have also prevented the economy of the state from creating high income jobs at a pace commensurate with that of the rest of India.
Meghalaya 's gross state domestic product for 2012 was estimated at ₹ 16,173 crore (US $2.5 billion) in current prices. As of 2012, according to the Reserve Bank of India, about 12 % of total state population is below poverty line, with 12.5 % of the rural Meghalaya population is below the poverty line; while in urban areas, 9.3 % are below the poverty line.
Meghalaya is basically an agricultural state with about 80 % of its population depending entirely on agriculture for their livelihood. Nearly 10 % of the geographical area of Meghalaya is under cultivation. Agriculture in the state is characterised by limited use of modern techniques, low yields and low productivity. As a result, despite the vast majority of the population being engaged in agriculture, the contribution of agricultural production to the state 's GDP is low, and most of the population engaged in agriculture remain poor. A portion of the cultivated area is under the traditional shifting agriculture known locally as Jhum cultivation.
Meghalaya produced 230,000 tonnes of food grains in 2001. Rice is the dominant food grain crop accounting for over 80 % of the food grain production in the state. Other important food grain crops are maize, wheat and a few other cereals and pulses. Besides these, potato, ginger, turmeric, black pepper, areca nut, tezpatta (Cinnamomum tamala), betelvine, short - staple cotton, jute, mesta, mustard and rapeseed etc. are some of the important cash crops. Besides the major food crops of rice and maize, the state is renowned for its horticultural crops like orange, lemon, pineapple, guava, litchi, banana, jack fruits and fruits such as plum, pear and peach.
Grains and staples production covers about 60 % of the land area dedicated to crops. With the introduction of different crops of high yielding varieties in the mid-1970s, remarkable increase in food grain production has been made. A major break through was achieved when high yielding varieties of paddy such as Masuri, Pankaj IR 8, RCPL and other improved varieties series -- especially IR 36 which is suitable for Rabi season -- allowing three crops to be grown every year. Another milestone was reached when Megha I and Megha II, which are cold tolerant rice varieties developed by the ICAR North East Region at Umroi near Shillong, was released in 1991 -- 92 for the higher altitude regions where there was no high yielding rice varieties earlier. Today the state can claim that about 42 % area under paddy have been covered with high yielding varieties with the average productivity of 2,300 kg / ha (2,100 lb / acre). As is the case with maize and wheat where the productivity have increased tremendously with the introduction of HYV from 534 kg / ha (476 lb / acre) during 1971 -- 72 to 1,218 kg / ha (1,087 lb / acre) of maize and from 611 kg / ha (545 lb / acre) to 1,490 kg / ha (1,330 lb / acre) of wheat.
Oilseeds such as rapeseed, mustard, linseed, soybean, castor and sesame are grown on nearly 100 km (39 sq mi). Rape and mustard are the most important oilseeds accounting for well over two - thirds of the oilseed production of nearly 6.5 thousand tonnes. Fibre crops such as cotton, jute and mesta are among the only cash crops in Meghalaya, grown in Garo Hills. These have been losing popularity in recent years as indicated by their declining yield and area under cultivation.
Climatic conditions in Meghalaya permit a large variety of horticulture crops including fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, mushrooms and medicinal plants. These are considered to be higher value crops, but home food security concerns have prevented farmers at large from embracing them. The important fruits grown include citrus fruits, pineapples, papayas, and bananas. In addition to this, a large variety of vegetables are grown in the state, including cauliflower, cabbages and radishes.
Areca nut plantations can be seen all over the state, especially around the road from Guwahati to Shillong. Other plantation crops like tea, coffee and cashews have been introduced lately and are becoming popular. A large variety of spices, flowers, medicinal plants and mushrooms are grown in the state.
Meghalaya has a rich base of natural resources. These include minerals such as coal, limestone, sillimanite, Kaolin and granite among others. Meghalaya has a large forest cover, rich biodiversity and numerous water bodies. The low level of industrialisation and the relatively poor infrastructure base acts as an impediment to the exploitation of these natural resources in the interest of the state 's economy. In recent years two large cement manufacturing plants with production capacity more than 900 MTD have come up in Jaintia Hills district and several more are in pipeline to use the rich deposit of very high quality limestone available in this district.
Meghalaya with its high mountains, deep gorges and abundant rains has a large, unused hydroelectric potential. The assessed generation capacity exceeds 3000 MW. The current installed capacity in the state is 185 MW, but the state itself consumes 610 MW. In other words, it imports electricity. The economic growth of the state suggests rising demand for electricity. The state has the potential to export net hydroelectric - generated electricity and earn income for its internal development plans. The state also has large deposits of coal, thus being a candidate for thermal power plants.
Several projects are under works. The proposed Garo Hills thermal project at Nangalbibra is expected to generate an additional 751 MW of power. There is a proposal for setting up a 250 MW thermal power plant in West Khasi Hills. The State Government aims to increase its power generation output by about 2000 - 2500 MW, of which 700 - 980 MW will be thermal based while 1400 - 1520 MW will be hydro electricity. The State Government has outlined a cost - shared public - private partnership model to accelerate private sector investments in its power sector. The generation transmission, transformation and distribution of electricity is entrusted to the Meghalaya Energy Corporation Limited which was constituted under the Electricity Supply Act, 1948. At present there are five hydel power stations and one mini hydel including Umiam Hydel Project, Umtrew Hydel Project, Myntdu - Leshka - I Hydel Project and the Sunapani Micro Hydel (SESU) Project.
For the 12th five - year plan of India, there is a proposal to set up more hydel power projects in the state: Kynshi (450MW), Umngi − 1 (54MW), Umiam - Umtru - V (36MW), Ganol (25MW), Mawphu (120MW), Nongkolait (120MW), Nongnaw (50MW), Rangmaw (65MW), Umngot (260MW), Umduna (57MW), Myntdu - Leshka - II (60MW), Selim (170MW) and Mawblei (140MW). Of these, Jaypee Group has committed itself to building the Kynshi and Umngot projects in Khasi hills.
Meghalaya has a literacy rate of 62.56 as per the 2001 census and is the 27th most literate state in India. This increased to 75.5 in 2011. As of 2006, the state had 5851 primary schools, 1759 middle schools, and 655 higher secondary schools respectively. In 2008, 518,000 students were enrolled in its primary schools, and 232,000 in upper primary schools. The state monitors its school for quality, access, infrastructure and teachers training.
Institution for higher studies like Indian Institute of Management, the University of Technology and Management which is in Shillong is the first Indian university to introduce cloud computing engineering as a field of study, in collaboration with IBM and the University of Petroleum and Energy Studies. IIM Shillong is one of the top ranked management institutes in the country.
The state has 13 state government dispensaries, 22 community health centres, 93 primary health centres, 408 sub-centres. There were 378 doctors, 81 pharmacists, 337 staff nurses and 77 lab technicians as of 2012. A special program has been launched by the state government for the treatment of tuberculosis, leprosy, cancer and mental diseases. Though there has been a steady decline in the death rate, improvement in life expectancy and an increase in health infrastructure, about 42.3 % of the state 's population is still uncovered by health care, according to the status paper prepared by the Health Department. There are numerous hospitals being set up, both private and government, some of them are Civil Hospital, Ganesh Das Hospital, KJP Synod Hospital, NEIGRIHMS, North Eastern Institute of Ayurveda & Homoeopathy (NEIAH), RP Chest Hospital, Wood Land Hospital, Nazareth Hospital, Christian Hospital etc.
The main tribes in Meghalaya are the Khasis, the Garos, and the Jaintias. Each tribe has its own culture, traditions, dress and language.
The majority of population and the major tribal groups in Meghalaya follow a matrilineal system where lineage and inheritance are traced through women. The youngest daughter inherits all the property and she is the caretaker of aged parents and any unmarried siblings. In some cases, such as when there is no daughter in the family or other reasons, the parents may nominate another girl such as a daughter in law as the heir of house and all other property they may own.
The Khasi and Jaintia tribesmen follow the traditional matrilineal norm, wherein the Khun Khatduh (or the youngest daughter) inherits all the property and responsibilities for the family. However, the male line, particularly the mother 's brother, may indirectly control the ancestral property since he may be involved in important decisions relating to property including its sale and disposal. In case a family has no daughters, the Khasi and Jaintia (also called Syntengs) have the custom of ia rap iing, where the family adopts a girl from another family, perform religious ceremonies with the community, and she then becomes ka trai iing (head of the house).
In the Garo lineage system, the youngest daughter inherits the family property by default, unless another daughter is so named by the parents. She then becomes designated as nokna meaning ' for the house or home '. If there are no daughters, a chosen daughter - in - law (bohari) or an adopted child (deragata) comes to stay in the house and inherit the property.
Meghalaya has one of the world 's largest surviving matrilineal cultures.
All the three major ethnic tribal groups, namely, the Khasis, Jaintias and the Garos also have their own traditional political institutions that have existed for hundreds of years. These political institutions were fairly well developed and functioned at various tiers, such as the village level, clan level and state level.
In the traditional political system of the Khasis, each clan had its own council known as the Dorbar Kur which was presided over by the clan headman. The council or the Dorbar managed the internal affairs of the clan. Similarly, every village had a local assembly known as the Dorbar Shnong, i.e. village Durbar or council, which was presided over by the village headman. The inter-village issues were dealt with through a political unit comprising adjacent Khasi Villages. The local political units were known as the raids, under by the supreme political authority known as the Syiemship. The Syiemship was the congregation of several raids and was headed an elected chief known as the Syiem or Siem (the king). The Siem ruled the Khasi state through an elected State Assembly, known as the Durbar Hima. The Siem also had his mantris (ministers) whose counsel he would use in exercising executive responsibilities. Taxes were called pynsuk, and tolls were called khrong, the latter being the primary source of state income. In early 20th century, Raja Dakhor Singh was the Siem of Khymir.
The Jaintias also had a three tier political system somewhat similar to the Khasis, including the Raids and the Syiem. The raids were headed by Dolois, who were responsible for performing the executive and ceremonial functions at the Raid level. At the lowest level were the village headmen. Each administrative tier had its own elected councils or durbars.
In the traditional political system of the Garos a group of Garo villages comprised the A king. The A king functioned under the supervision of the Nokmas, which was perhaps the only political and administrative authority in the political institution of the Garos. The Nokma performed both judicial and legislative functions. The Nokmas also congregated to address inter-A king issues. There were no well - organized councils or durbars among the Garos.
Dance is central to the culture of Khasi life, and a part of the rites of passage. Dances are performed in Shnong (village), a Raid (group of villages), and a Hima (conglomeration of Raids). Some festivals includes Ka Shad Suk Mynsiem, Ka Pom - Blang Nongkrem, Ka - Shad Shyngwiang - Thangiap, Ka - Shad - Kynjoh Khaskain, Ka Bam Khana Shnong, Umsan Nongkharai, Shad Beh Sier.
Festivals of the Jaintia Hills, like others, is integral to the culture of people of Jaintia Hills. It celebrates nature, balance and solidarity among its people. Festivals of Jaintias includes Behdienkhlam, Laho Dance, Sowing Ritual Ceremony.
For Garos, festivals sustain their cultural heritage. They were often dedicated to religious events, nature and seasons as well as community events such as stages of jhum cultivation. The main festivals of Garos are Den Bilsia, Wangala, Rongchu gala, Mi Amua, Mangona, Grengdik BaA, Jamang Sia, Ja Megapa, Sa Sat Ra Chaka, Ajeaor Ahaoea, Dore Rata Dance, Chambil Mesara, Do'KruSua, Saram Cha'A, A Se Mania or Tata which celebrated.
Hajongs follow Hindu rites and customs. Every Hajong family has a temple for worship called ' Deo Ghor ' and they offer prayers in the morning and evening. Hajongs live in groups and the area of a group is called a ' Para ' or ' Gaon '. A Hajong village is like an autonomous Kingdom. Every Hajong man compulsory to takes membership of a ' Gaon. ' Hajong men wear bhiza gamsa and women wear Ranga Pathin and Phula Aargon, a standard size piece of cloth, with broad and medium borders with a typical color combination (with red is the main colour). Hajong Folk Dance / Folk Music: Liwa - Tana Chorkhila Thubâ - Maga Gupini Gahen Kâtkâ Gahen Puilâ Gusa / Ruwa - Laga Gahen Gitlu Gahen
The Biates have many kinds of festivals; Nûlding Kût, Pamchar Kût, Lebang Kût, Favang Kût etc. for different occasion. However, unlike in the past, they no longer practise or observe those festivals except ' Nûlding Kût. ' The Nûlding Kût ("renewal of life '') festival is observed every January, with singing, dancing, and traditional games -- after the Priest (Thiampu) pray to Chung Pathian to bless them in every sphere of life.
In southern Meghalaya, located in Mawsynram, is the Mawjymbuin cave. Here a massive stalagmite has been shaped by nature into a Shivalinga. According to legend, from the 13th century, this Shivalinga (called Hatakeswarat) has existed in the Jaintia Hills under the reign of Ranee Singa. Tens of thousands of the Jaintia tribe members participate over the Hindu festival of Shivratri (Night of Lord Shiva) every year.
The practice of creating Living root bridges can be found in Meghalaya. Here, functional, living, architecture is created by slowly training the Aerial root s of the Ficus elastica tree. Examples of these structures can be found as far west as the valley east of Mawsynram, and as far east as the East Jaintia Hills District, meaning that they are made by both Khasis and Jaintias. Large numbers of these man - made living structures exist in the mountainous terrain along the southern border of the Shillong Plateau, though as a cultural practice they are fading, with many individual examples having disappeared recently, either falling in landslides or floods or being replaced with more standard steel bridges.
The partition of the country in 1947 created severe infrastructural constraints for the Northeastern region, with merely 2 % of the perimeter of the region adjoining the rest of the country. A narrow strip of land, often called the Siliguri Corridor or the Chicken 's Neck, connects the region with the state of West Bengal. Meghalaya is a landlocked state with a large number of small settlements in remote areas. Road is the only means of transport. While the capital Shillong is relatively well connected, road connectivity in most other parts is relatively poor. A significant portion of the roads in the state are still unpaved. Most of the arrivals into the Meghalaya take place through Guwahati in neighbouring Assam, which is nearly 103 km away. Assam has a major railhead as well as an airport with regular train and air services to the rest of the country.
When Meghalaya was carved out of Assam as an autonomous state in 1972, it inherited a total road length of 2786.68 km including 174 km of National Highways with road density of 12.42 km per 100 square kilometre. By 2004, total road length has reached up to 9,350 km out of which 5,857 km were surfaced. The road density had increased to 41.69 km per 100 square kilometre by March 2011. However, Meghalaya is still far below the national average of 75 km per 100 km. In order to provide better services to the people of the state, the Meghalaya Public Works Department is taking steps for improvement and up - gradation of the existing roads and bridges in phased manner
Meghalaya has a road network of around 7,633 km, out of which 3,691 km is black - topped and the remaining 3942 km is gravelled. Meghalaya is also connected to Silchar in Assam, Aizawl in Mizoram, and Agartala in Tripura through national highways. Many private buses and taxi operators carry passengers from Guwahati to Shillong. The journey takes from 3 to 4 hours. Day and night bus services are available from Shillong to all major towns of Meghalaya and also other capitals and important towns of Assam and the northeastern states.
Meghalaya has a railhead at Mendipathar and regular train service connecting Mendipathar in Meghalaya and Guwahati in Assam, has started on November 30, 2014. The Cherra Companyganj State Railways was a former mountain railway through the state. Guwahati (103 kilometres (64 mi) from Shillong) is the nearest major railway station connecting the north - east region with the rest of the country through a broad gauge track network. There is a plan for extending the rail link from Guwahati to Byrnihat (20 kilometres (12 mi) from Guwahati) within Meghalaya and further extending it up to state capital Shillong.
State capital Shillong has an airport at Umroi 30 kilometres (19 mi) from Shillong on the Guwahati - Shillong highway. A new terminal building was built at a cost of ₹ 30 crore (US $4.7 million) and inaugurated in June 2011. Air India Regional operates flights to Kolkata from this airport. There is also a helicopter service connecting Shillong to Guwahati and Tura. Baljek Airport near Tura became operational in 2008. The Airports Authority of India (AAI) is developing the airport for operation of ATR 42 / ATR 72 type of aircraft. Other nearby airports are in Assam, with Borjhar, Guwahati airport (IATA: GAU), about 124 kilometres (77 mi) from Shillong.
Earlier, foreign tourists required special permits to enter the areas that now constitute the state of Meghalaya. However, the restrictions were removed in 1955. Meghalaya is compared to Scotland for its highlands, fog and scenery. Meghalaya has some of the thickest primary forests in the country and therefore constitutes one of the most important ecotourism circuits in India. The Meghalayan subtropical forests support a vast variety of flora and fauna. Meghalaya has 2 National Parks and 3 Wildlife Sanctuaries.
Meghalaya also offers many adventure tourism opportunities in the form of mountaineering, rock climbing, trekking and hiking, caving (spelunking) and water sports. The state offers several trekking routes, some of which also afford an opportunity to encounter rare animals. The Umiam Lake has a water sports complex with facilities such as rowboats, paddleboats, sailing boats, cruise - boats, water - scooters and speedboats.
Cherrapunji is one of the popular tourist locations in north - east of India. It lies to the south of the capital Shillong. A rather scenic 50 kilometre long road connects Cherrapunji with Shillong.
Living root bridges are also an important tourist draw, with many examples located near Cherrapunji. The famous Double - Decker root bridge, along with several others, is found in the village of Nongriat, which is tourist friendly. Many other root bridges can be found nearby, in the villages of Nongthymmai, Mynteng, and Tynrong. Other areas with root bridges include Riwai village, near the tourist village of Mawlynnong, Pynursla, especially the villages of Rangthyllaing and Mawkyrnot, and the area around Dawki, in the West Jaintia Hills district, where there are many living root bridges scattered throughout the nearby villages.
The popular waterfalls in the state are the Elephant Falls, Shadthum Falls, Weinia falls, Bishop Falls, Nohkalikai Falls, Langshiang Falls and Sweet Falls. The hot springs at Jakrem near Mawsynram are believed to have curative and medicinal properties.
Nongkhnum Island located in the West Khasi Hills district is the biggest river island in Meghalaya and the second biggest in Asia. It is 14 kilometres from Nongstoin. The island is formed by the bifurcation of Kynshi River into the Phanliang River and the Namliang River. Adjacent to the sandy beach the Phanliang River forms a very beautiful lake. The river then moves along and before reaching a deep gorge, forms a pretty waterfall about 60 meters high called Shadthum Fall.
Meghalaya is also known for its "sacred groves ''. They are small or large areas of forests or natural vegetation that are usually dedicated to local folk deities or tree spirits or some religious symbolism over many generations, often since ancient times. These spaces are found all over India, are protected by local communities, and in some cases the locals would neither touch leaves or fruits or in other ways damage the forest, flora or fauna taking refuge in them. This guardianship creates a sacred area where nature and wildlife thrive. The Mawphlang sacred forest, also known as "Law Lyngdoh, '' is one of the most famous sacred forests in Meghalaya. It 's located about 25 kilometres from Shillong. It 's a scenic nature destination, and one can find the sacred Rudraksha tree here.
Meghalaya rural life and villages offer a glimpse in northeast mountain life. The Mawlynnong village located near the India - Bangladesh border is one such village. It has been featured by travel magazine Discover India. The village is geared for tourism and has a Living Root Bridges, hiking trails and rock formations.
Meghalaya also has many natural and manmade lakes. The Umiam Lake (popularly known as Bara Pani meaning Big water) on the Guwahati - Shillong road is a major tourism attraction for tourist. Meghalaya has several parks; Thangkharang Park, the Eco-park, the Botanical Garden and Lady Hydari Park to name a few. Dawki, which is located at about 96 Kilometres from Shillong is the gateway to Bangladesh and affords a scenic view of some of the tallest mountain ranges in Meghalaya and the Bangladesh border lands.
Balpakram National Park with its pristine habitat and scenery is a major attraction. The Nokrek National Park, also in Garo Hills has its own charm with lot of wildlife.
Meghalaya has an estimated 500 natural limestone and sandstone caves spread over the entire state including most of the longest and deepest caves in the sub-continent. Krem Liat Prah is the longest cave, and Synrang Pamiang is the deepest cave. Both are located in the Jaintia Hills. Cavers from United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Ireland and the United States have been visiting Meghalaya for over a decade exploring these caves. Not many of these have however been developed or promoted adequately for major tourist destinations.
Living root bridges
Meghalaya is famous for its living root bridges, a kind of suspension bridge made over rivers using intertwined roots of Ficus elastica trees planted on opposite banks of the river or hill slopes. These bridges can be seen around Cherrapunji and Nongtalang (War - Jaintia). A double - decker bridge exists in Nongriat village.
Shillong Golf Course, one of the oldest golf courses of India
Nohkalikai Falls
Meghalaya has many limestone caves. Above are in Jaintia Hills
Other important places of tourism interest Meghalaya include:
The significant issues in the state include illegal migrants from Bangladesh, incidences of violence, political instability and deforestation from traditional cut - and - burn shift farming practices. There are several clashes between Khasi people and Bangladeshi Muslims in Meghalaya.
Illegal immigration has become a major issue in Indian states that surround Bangladesh -- West Bengal to the west, Meghalaya and Assam to the north, and Tripura, Mizoram and Manipur to the east. Millions of Bangladeshis have poured into India as Indian economy has prospered. The influx of Bangladeshi people is stated to be an effort to escape violence, to escape poverty or to escape religious persecution of Hindus in an overwhelmingly Islamic Bangladesh. In Meghalaya, dozens of political and civic groups have demanded that this migration be stopped or controlled to manageable levels. The border between Meghalaya and Bangladesh is about 440 kilometers long, of which some 350 is fenced; but the border is not continuously patrolled and is porous. Efforts are underway to fence it completely and introduce means to issue ID cards.
Chief Minister Mukul Sangma, in August 2012, called upon Government of India to take corrective measures to stop the illegal immigration of Bangladeshis into the northeast of the country before the situation goes out of hand.
Between 2006 and 2013, between 0 and 28 civilians have died per year in Meghalaya (or about 0 to 1 per 100,000 people), which the state authorities have classified as terror - related intentional violence. The world 's average annual death rate from intentional violence, in recent years, has been 7.9 per 100,000 people. The terror - related deaths are from conflicts primarily between different tribal groups and against migrants from Bangladesh. Along with political resolution and dialogue, various Christian organizations have taken the initiative to prevent violence and help the process of discussion between groups.
The state has had 23 state governments since its inception in 1972, with a median life span of less than 18 months. Only three governments have survived more than three years. Political instability has affected the state 's economy in the past. Over recent years, there has been increasing political stability. The last state assembly elections were held in 2013, after a five - year government that was elected in 2008.
Jhum farming, or cut - and - burn shift cultivation, is an ancient practice in Meghalaya. It is culturally engrained through folklores. One legend states the god of wind with the god of hail and storm shook off seeds from the celestial tree, which were picked up and sown by a bird known as do ' amik. These were the seeds of rice. The god gave the human beings some of those celestial seeds, provided instruction on shift agriculture and proper rice cultivation practice, with the demand that at every harvest a portion of the first harvest must be dedicated to him. Another folktale is from the Garo Hills of Meghalaya where a man named Bone - Neripa - Jane - Nitepa harvested rice and millet from a patch of land he cleared and cultivated near the rock named misi - Kokdok. He then shared this knowledge with others, and named the different months of the year, each of which is a stage of shifting cultivation.
In modern times, shift cultivation is a significant threat to the biodiversity of Meghalaya. A 2001 satellite imaging study showed that shift cultivation practice continues and patches of primary dense forests are lost even from areas protected as biosphere. Jhum farming is a threat not only for natural biodiversity, it is also a low yield unproductive method of agriculture. It is a significant issue in Meghalaya, given majority of its people rely on agriculture to make a living. Shift farming is a practice that is not unique to northeastern Indian states such as Meghalaya, but the issue is found throughout southeast Asia.
Some major media outlets in the state are:
Over the years there have been several weeklies and Dailies that have come up. To name a few:
Weekly Employment Newsletter which is distributed throughout the state:
Government
General information
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what is the meaning of troll on facebook | Internet troll - Wikipedia
In Internet slang, a troll (/ troʊl, trɒl /) is a person who sows discord on the Internet by starting quarrels or upsetting people, by posting inflammatory, extraneous, or off - topic messages in an online community (such as a newsgroup, forum, chat room, or blog) with the intent of provoking readers into an emotional response or of otherwise disrupting normal, on - topic discussion, often for the troll 's amusement.
This sense of both the noun and the verb "troll '' is associated with Internet discourse, but also has been used more widely. Media attention in recent years has equated trolling with online harassment. For example, the mass media have used "troll '' to mean "a person who defaces Internet tribute sites with the aim of causing grief to families ''. In addition, depictions of trolling have been included in popular fictional works, such as the HBO television program The Newsroom, in which a main character encounters harassing persons online and tries to infiltrate their circles by posting negative sexual comments.
Application of the term troll is subjective. Some readers may characterize a post as trolling, while others may regard the same post as a legitimate contribution to the discussion, even if controversial. Like any pejorative term, it can be used as an ad hominem attack, suggesting a negative motivation.
As noted in an OS News article titled "Why People Troll and How to Stop Them '' (25 January 2012), "The traditional definition of trolling includes intent. That is, trolls purposely disrupt forums. This definition is too narrow. Whether someone intends to disrupt a thread or not, the results are the same if they do. '' Others have addressed the same issue, e.g., Claire Hardaker, in her Ph. D. thesis "Trolling in asynchronous computer - mediated communication: From user discussions to academic definitions. '' Popular recognition of the existence (and prevalence) of non-deliberate, "accidental trolls '', has been documented widely, in sources as diverse as Nicole Sullivan 's keynote speech at the 2012 Fluent Conference, titled "Do n't Feed the Trolls '' Gizmodo, online opinions on the subject written by Silicon Valley executives and comics.
Regardless of the circumstances, controversial posts may attract a particularly strong response from those unfamiliar with the robust dialogue found in some online, rather than physical, communities. Experienced participants in online forums know that the most effective way to discourage a troll is usually to ignore it, because responding tends to encourage trolls to continue disruptive posts -- hence the often - seen warning: "Please do not feed the trolls ''.
The "trollface '' is an image occasionally used to indicate trolling in Internet culture.
At times, the word can be abused to refer to anyone with controversial opinions they disagree with. Such usage goes against the ordinary meaning of troll in multiple ways. While psychologists have determined that the dark triad traits are common among Internet trolls, some observers claim trolls do n't actually believe the controversial views they claim. Farhad Manjoo criticises this view, noting that if the person really is trolling, they are more intelligent than their critics would believe.
There are competing theories of where and when "troll '' was first used in Internet slang, with numerous unattested accounts of BBS and UseNet origins in the early 1980s or before.
The English noun "troll '' in the standard sense of ugly dwarf or giant dates to 1610 and comes from the Old Norse word "troll '' meaning giant or demon. The word evokes the trolls of Scandinavian folklore and children 's tales: antisocial, quarrelsome and slow - witted creatures which make life difficult for travellers.
In modern English usage, "trolling '' may describe the fishing technique of slowly dragging a lure or baited hook from a moving boat whereas trawling describes the generally commercial act of dragging a fishing net. Early non-Internet slang use of "trolling '' can be found in the military: by 1972 the term "trolling for MiGs '' was documented in use by US Navy pilots in Vietnam. It referred to use of "... decoys, with the mission of drawing... fire away... ''
The contemporary use of the term is said to have appeared on the Internet in the late 1980s, but the earliest known attestation according to the Oxford English Dictionary is in 1992.
The context of the quote cited in the Oxford English Dictionary sets the origin in Usenet in the early 1990s as in the phrase "trolling for newbies '', as used in alt. folklore. urban (AFU). Commonly, what is meant is a relatively gentle inside joke by veteran users, presenting questions or topics that had been so overdone that only a new user would respond to them earnestly. For example, a veteran of the group might make a post on the common misconception that glass flows over time. Long - time readers would both recognize the poster 's name and know that the topic had been discussed repeatedly, but new subscribers to the group would not realize, and would thus respond. These types of trolls served as a practice to identify group insiders. This definition of trolling, considerably narrower than the modern understanding of the term, was considered a positive contribution. One of the most notorious AFU trollers, David Mikkelson, went on to create the urban folklore website Snopes.com.
By the late 1990s, alt. folklore. urban had such heavy traffic and participation that trolling of this sort was frowned upon. Others expanded the term to include the practice of playing a seriously misinformed or deluded user, even in newsgroups where one was not a regular; these were often attempts at humor rather than provocation. The noun troll usually referred to an act of trolling -- or to the resulting discussion -- rather than to the author, though some posts punned on the dual meaning of troll.
In Chinese, trolling is referred to as bái mù (Chinese: 白目; literally: "white eye ''), which can be straightforwardly explained as "eyes without pupils '', in the sense that whilst the pupil of the eye is used for vision, the white section of the eye can not see, and trolling involves blindly talking nonsense over the Internet, having total disregard to sensitivities or being oblivious to the situation at hand, akin to having eyes without pupils. An alternative term is bái làn (Chinese: 白 爛; literally: "white rot ''), which describes a post completely nonsensical and full of folly made to upset others, and derives from a Taiwanese slang term for the male genitalia, where genitalia that is pale white in colour represents that someone is young, and thus foolish. Both terms originate from Taiwan, and are also used in Hong Kong and mainland China. Another term, xiǎo bái (Chinese: 小 白; literally: "little white '') is a derogatory term that refers to both bái mù and bái làn that is used on anonymous posting Internet forums. Another common term for a troll used in mainland China is pēn zi (Chinese: 噴 子; literally: "sprayer, spurter '').
In Japanese, tsuri (釣り) means "fishing '' and refers to intentionally misleading posts whose only purpose is to get the readers to react, i.e. get trolled. arashi (荒らし) means "laying waste '' and can also be used to refer to simple spamming.
In Icelandic, þurs (a thurs) or tröll (a troll) may refer to trolls, the verbs þursa (to troll) or þursast (to be trolling, to troll about) may be used.
In Korean, nak - si (낚시) means "fishing '', and is used to refer to Internet trolling attempts, as well as purposefully misleading post titles. A person who recognizes the troll after having responded (or, in case of a post title nak - si, having read the actual post) would often refer to himself as a caught fish.
In Portuguese, more commonly in its Brazilian variant, troll (produced (ˈtɾɔw) in most of Brazil as spelling pronunciation) is the usual term to denote Internet trolls (examples of common derivate terms are trollismo or trollagem, "trolling '', and the verb trollar, "to troll '', which entered popular use), but an older expression, used by those which want to avoid anglicisms or slangs, is complexo do pombo enxadrista to denote trolling behavior, and pombos enxadristas (literally, "chessplayer pigeons '') or simply pombos are the terms used to name the trolls. The terms are explained by an adage or popular saying: "Arguing with fulano (i.e., John Doe) is the same as playing chess with a pigeon: the pigeon defecates on the table, drop the pieces and simply fly, claiming victory. ''
In Thai, the term krian (เกรียน) has been adopted to address Internet trolls. According to the Royal Institute of Thailand, the term, which literally refers to a closely cropped hairstyle worn by schoolboys in Thailand, is from the behaviour of these schoolboys who usually gather to play online games and, during which, make annoying, disruptive, impolite, or unreasonable expressions. The term top krian (ต บ เกรียน; "slap a cropped head '') refers to the act of posting intellectual replies to refute and cause the messages of Internet trolls to be perceived as unintelligent.
In the Sinhala language, this is called ala kireema (අල කිරීම), which means "turning it into potatoes (Sabotage) ''. Sometimes it is used as ala vagaa kireema (අල වගා කිරීම) -- "planting potatoes ''. People or profiles who do trolling often are called "potato planters '' -- ala vagaakaruvan (අල වගාකරුවන්). This seems to have originated with the university slang ala væda (අල වැඩ), which means "potato business '' and is used to refer to violations of university codes.
Early incidents of trolling were considered to be the same as flaming, but this has changed with modern usage by the news media to refer to the creation of any content that targets another person. The Internet dictionary NetLingo suggests there are four grades of trolling: playtime trolling, tactical trolling, strategic trolling, and domination trolling. The relationship between trolling and flaming was observed in open - access forums in California, on a series of modem - linked computers. CommuniTree was begun in 1978 but was closed in 1982 when accessed by high school teenagers, becoming a ground for trashing and abuse. Some psychologists have suggested that flaming would be caused by deindividuation or decreased self - evaluation: the anonymity of online postings would lead to disinhibition amongst individuals Others have suggested that although flaming and trolling is often unpleasant, it may be a form of normative behavior that expresses the social identity of a certain user group According to Tom Postmes, a professor of social and organisational psychology at the universities of Exeter, England, and Groningen, The Netherlands, and the author of Individuality and the Group, who has studied online behavior for 20 years, "Trolls aspire to violence, to the level of trouble they can cause in an environment. They want it to kick off. They want to promote antipathetic emotions of disgust and outrage, which morbidly gives them a sense of pleasure. ''
The practice of trolling has been documented by a number of academics as early as the 1990s. This included Steven Johnson in 1997 in the book Interface Culture, and a paper by Judith Donath in 1999. Donath 's paper outlines the ambiguity of identity in a disembodied "virtual community '' such as Usenet:
In the physical world there is an inherent unity to the self, for the body provides a compelling and convenient definition of identity. The norm is: one body, one identity... The virtual world is different. It is composed of information rather than matter.
Donath provides a concise overview of identity deception games which trade on the confusion between physical and epistemic community:
Trolling is a game about identity deception, albeit one that is played without the consent of most of the players. The troll attempts to pass as a legitimate participant, sharing the group 's common interests and concerns; the newsgroups members, if they are cognizant of trolls and other identity deceptions, attempt to both distinguish real from trolling postings, and upon judging a poster a troll, make the offending poster leave the group. Their success at the former depends on how well they -- and the troll -- understand identity cues; their success at the latter depends on whether the troll 's enjoyment is sufficiently diminished or outweighed by the costs imposed by the group.
Trolls can be costly in several ways. A troll can disrupt the discussion on a newsgroup, disseminate bad advice, and damage the feeling of trust in the newsgroup community. Furthermore, in a group that has become sensitized to trolling -- where the rate of deception is high -- many honestly naïve questions may be quickly rejected as trollings. This can be quite off - putting to the new user who upon venturing a first posting is immediately bombarded with angry accusations. Even if the accusation is unfounded, being branded a troll is quite damaging to one 's online reputation.
Susan Herring and colleagues in "Searching for Safety Online: Managing ' Trolling ' in a Feminist Forum '' point out the difficulty inherent in monitoring trolling and maintaining freedom of speech in online communities: "harassment often arises in spaces known for their freedom, lack of censure, and experimental nature ''. Free speech may lead to tolerance of trolling behavior, complicating the members ' efforts to maintain an open, yet supportive discussion area, especially for sensitive topics such as race, gender, and sexuality.
In an effort to reduce uncivil behavior by increasing accountability, many web sites (e.g. Reuters, Facebook, and Gizmodo) now require commenters to register their names and e-mail addresses.
Investigative journalist Sharyl Attkisson is one of several in the media who has reported on the trend for organizations to utilize trolls to manipulate public opinion as part and parcel of an astroturfing initiative. Teams of sponsored trolls, sometimes referred to as sockpuppet armies, swarm a site to overwhelm any honest discourse and denigrate any who disagree with them. A 2012 Pew Center on the States presentation on "effective messaging '' included two examples of social media posts by a recently launched "rapid response team '' dedicated to promoting fluoridation of community water supplies. That same presentation also emphasized changing the topic of conversation as a winning strategy.
A 2016 study by Harvard political scientist Gary King reported that the Chinese government 's 50 Cent Party creates 440 million pro-government social media posts per year. The report said that government employees were paid to create pro-government posts around the time of national holidays to avoid mass political protests. The Chinese Government ran an editorial in the state - funded Global Times defending censorship and 50 Cent Party trolls.
A 2016 study for the NATO Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence on hybrid warfare notes that the Russian military intervention in Ukraine "demonstrated how fake identities and accounts were used to disseminate narratives through social media, blogs, and web commentaries in order to manipulate, harass, or deceive opponents. '' The NATO report describes that a "Wikipedia troll '' uses a type of message design where a troll does not add "emotional value '' to reliable "essentially true '' information in re-posts, but presents it "in the wrong context, intending the audience to draw false conclusions. '' For example, information, without context, from Wikipedia about the military history of the United States "becomes value - laden if it is posted in the comment section of an article criticizing Russia for its military actions and interests in Ukraine. The Wikipedia troll is ' tricky ', because in terms of actual text, the information is true, but the way it is expressed gives it a completely different meaning to its readers. '' Unlike "classic trolls, '' Wikipedia trolls "have no emotional input, they just supply misinformation '' and are one of "the most dangerous '' as well as one of "the most effective trolling message designs. '' Even among people who are "emotionally immune to aggressive messages '' and apolitical, "training in critical thinking '' is needed, according to the NATO report, because "they have relatively blind trust in Wikipedia sources and are not able to filter information that comes from platforms they consider authoritative. '' While Russian - language hybrid trolls use the Wikipedia troll message design to promote anti-Western sentiment in comments, they "mostly attack aggressively to maintain emotional attachment to issues covered in articles. '' Discussions about topics, other than International sanctions during the Ukrainian crisis, "attracted very aggressive trolling '' and became polarized according to the NATO report, which "suggests that in subjects in which there is little potential for re-educating audiences, emotional harm is considered more effective '' for pro-Russian Latvian - language trolls.
Researcher Ben Radford wrote about the phenomenon of clowns in history and modern day in his book Bad Clowns and found that bad clowns have evolved into Internet trolls. They do not dress up as traditional clowns but, for their own amusement, they tease and exploit "human foibles '' in order to speak the "truth '' and gain a reaction. Like clowns in make - up, Internet trolls hide behind "anonymous accounts and fake usernames. '' In their eyes they are the trickster and are performing for a nameless audience via the Internet.
A concern troll is a false flag pseudonym created by a user whose actual point of view is opposed to the one that the troll claims to hold. The concern troll posts in Web forums devoted to its declared point of view and attempts to sway the group 's actions or opinions while claiming to share their goals, but with professed "concerns ''. The goal is to sow fear, uncertainty and doubt within the group. This is a particular case of sockpuppeting.
An example of this occurred in 2006 when Tad Furtado, a staffer for then - Congressman Charles Bass (R - NH), was caught posing as a "concerned '' supporter of Bass 's opponent, Democrat Paul Hodes, on several liberal New Hampshire blogs, using the pseudonyms "IndieNH '' or "IndyNH ''. "IndyNH '' expressed concern that Democrats might just be wasting their time or money on Hodes, because Bass was unbeatable. Hodes eventually won the election.
Although the term "concern troll '' originated in discussions of online behavior, it now sees increasing use to describe similar behaviors that take place offline. For example, James Wolcott of Vanity Fair accused a conservative New York Daily News columnist of "concern troll '' behavior in his efforts to downplay the Mark Foley scandal. Wolcott links what he calls concern trolls to what Saul Alinsky calls "Do - Nothings '', giving a long quote from Alinsky on the Do - Nothings ' method and effects:
These Do - Nothings profess a commitment to social change for ideals of justice, equality, and opportunity, and then abstain from and discourage all effective action for change. They are known by their brand, ' I agree with your ends but not your means '.
The Hill published an op - ed piece by Markos Moulitsas of the liberal blog Daily Kos titled "Dems: Ignore ' Concern Trolls ' ''. The concern trolls in question were not Internet participants but rather Republicans offering public advice and warnings to the Democrats. The author defines "concern trolling '' as "offering a poisoned apple in the form of advice to political opponents that, if taken, would harm the recipient ''.
While many webmasters and forum administrators consider trolls a scourge on their sites, some websites welcome them. For example, a New York Times article discussed troll activity at 4chan and at Encyclopedia Dramatica, which it described as "an online compendium of troll humor and troll lore ''. 4chan 's / b / board is recognized as "one of the Internet 's most infamous and active trolling hotspots. '' This site and others are often used as a base to troll against sites that their members can not normally post on. These trolls feed off the reactions of their victims because "their agenda is to take delight in causing trouble ''.
Mainstream media outlets have focused their attention on the willingness of some Internet users to go to extreme lengths to participate in organized psychological harassment.
In February 2010, the Australian government became involved after users defaced the Facebook tribute pages of murdered children Trinity Bates and Elliott Fletcher. Australian communications minister Stephen Conroy decried the attacks, committed mainly by 4chan users, as evidence of the need for greater Internet regulation, stating, "This argument that the Internet is some mystical creation that no laws should apply to, that is a recipe for anarchy and the wild west. '' Facebook responded by strongly urging administrators to be aware of ways to ban users and remove inappropriate content from Facebook pages. In 2012, the Daily Telegraph started a campaign to take action against "Twitter trolls '', who abuse and threaten users. Several high - profile Australians including Charlotte Dawson, Robbie Farah, Laura Dundovic, and Ray Hadley have been victims of this phenomenon.
Newslaundry covered the phenomenon of "Twitter Trolling '' in its Criticles. It has also been characterising Twitter trolls in its weekly podcasts.
In the United Kingdom, contributions made to the Internet are covered by the Malicious Communications Act 1988 as well as Section 127 of the Communications Act 2003, under which jail sentences were, until 2015, limited to a maximum of six months. In October 2014, the UK 's Justice Secretary, Chris Grayling, said that "Internet trolls '' would face up to two years in jail, under measures in the Criminal Justice and Courts Bill that extend the maximum sentence and time limits for bringing prosecutions. The House of Lords Select Committee on Communications had earlier recommended against creating a specific offence of trolling. Sending messages which are "grossly offensive or of an indecent, obscene or menacing character '' is an offence whether they are received by the intended recipient or not. Several people have been imprisoned in the UK for online harassment.
Trolls of the testimonial page of Georgia Varley faced no prosecution due to misunderstandings of the legal system in the wake of the term trolling being popularized. In October 2012, a twenty - year - old man was jailed for twelve weeks for posting offensive jokes to a support group for friends and family of April Jones.
On 31 March 2010, the Today Show ran a segment detailing the deaths of three separate adolescent girls and trolls ' subsequent reactions to their deaths. Shortly after the suicide of high school student Alexis Pilkington, anonymous posters began performing organized psychological harassment across various message boards, referring to Pilkington as a "suicidal slut '', and posting graphic images on her Facebook memorial page. The segment also included an exposé of a 2006 accident, in which an eighteen - year - old fatally crashed her father 's car into a highway pylon; trolls emailed her grieving family the leaked pictures of her mutilated corpse.
In 2007, the media was fooled by trollers into believing that students were consuming a drug called Jenkem, purportedly made of human waste. A user named Pickwick on TOTSE posted pictures implying that he was inhaling this drug. Major news corporations such as Fox News Channel reported the story and urged parents to warn their children about this drug. Pickwick 's pictures of Jenkem were fake and the pictures did not actually feature human waste.
In August 2012, the subject of trolling was featured on the HBO television series The Newsroom. The character of Neal Sampat encounters harassing individuals online, particularly looking at 4chan, and he ends up choosing to post negative comments himself on an economics - related forum. The attempt by the character to infiltrate trolls ' inner circles attracted debate from media reviewers critiquing the series.
The publication of the 2015 non-fiction book The Dark Net: Inside the Digital Underworld by Jamie Bartlett, a journalist and a representative of the British think tank Demos, attracted some attention for its depiction of misunderstood sections of the Internet, describing interactions on encrypted sites such as those accessible with the software Tor. Detailing trolling - related groups and the harassment created by them, Bartlett advocated for greater awareness of them and monitoring of their activities. Professor Matthew Wisnioski wrote for The Washington Post that a "league of trolls, anarchists, perverts and drug dealers is at work building a digital world beyond the Silicon Valley offices where our era 's best and brightest have designed a Facebook - friendly '' surface and agreed with Bartlett that the activities of trolls go back decades to the Usenet ' flame wars ' of the 1990s and even earlier.
As reported on 8 April 1999, investors became victims of trolling via an online financial discussion regarding PairGain, a telephone equipment company based in California. Trolls operating in the stock 's Yahoo Finance chat room posted a fabricated Bloomberg News article stating that an Israeli telecom company could potentially acquire PairGain. As a result, PairGain 's stock jumped by 31 %. However, the stock promptly crashed after the reports were identified as false.
So - called Gold Membership trolling originated in 2007 on 4chan boards, when users posted fake images claiming to offer upgraded 4chan account privileges; without a "Gold '' account, one could not view certain content. This turned out to be a hoax designed to fool board members, especially newcomers. It was copied and became an Internet meme. In some cases, this type of troll has been used as a scam, most notably on Facebook, where fake Facebook Gold Account upgrade ads have proliferated in order to link users to dubious websites and other content.
The case of Zeran v. America Online, Inc. resulted primarily from trolling. Six days after the Oklahoma City bombing, anonymous users posted advertisements for shirts celebrating the bombing on AOL message boards, claiming that the shirts could be obtained by contacting Mr. Kenneth Zeran. The posts listed Zeran 's address and home phone number. Zeran was subsequently harassed.
Anti-Scientology protests by Anonymous, commonly known as Project Chanology, are sometimes labeled as "trolling '' by media such as Wired, and the participants sometimes explicitly self - identify as "trolls ''.
Neo-Nazi website The Daily Stormer orchestrates what it calls a "Troll Army '', and has encouraged trolling of Jewish MP Luciana Berger and Muslim activist Mariam Veiszadeh.
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where should a person in the heat escape lessening position place their hands | Heat escape lessening position - wikipedia
The heat escape lessening position (HELP) is a way to position oneself to reduce heat loss while immersed in cold water. It is taught as part of the curriculum in Australia, North America, and Ireland for lifeguard and boating safety training. It involves essentially positioning one 's knees together and hugging them close to the chest using one 's arms. Furthermore, groups of people can huddle together in this position to conserve body heat, offer moral support, and provide a larger target for rescuers.
The HELP is an attempt to reduce heat loss enough to lessen the effect of hypothermia. Hypothermia is essentially a condition where bodily temperature drops too low to perform normal voluntary or involuntary functions. Cold water causes "immersion hypothermia '', which can cause damage to extremities or the body 's core, including unconsciousness or death.
The HELP reduces exposure of high heat loss areas of the body. Wearing a personal flotation device allows a person to draw their knees to their chest and arms to their sides, while still remaining able to breathe.
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who played rick's wife in the walking dead | Sarah Wayne Callies - wikipedia
Sarah Wayne Callies (born June 1, 1977) is an American actress. She is best known for her portrayals of Sara Tancredi in Fox 's Prison Break, Lori Grimes in AMC 's The Walking Dead and Katie Bowman in USA Network 's Colony.
Callies was born in La Grange, Illinois, the daughter of Valerie Wayne and David E. Callies, respectively English and Law professors at the University of Hawaii, Manoa. At age one, Callies moved to Honolulu, Hawaii with her family. Throughout her youth, she expressed an interest in acting through participating in various school plays at the independent Punahou School. After graduating from high school, she entered Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. In conjunction with her studies, Callies remained involved in theatre. She continued her education at the National Theatre Conservatory, where she obtained her Master of Fine Arts degree in 2002.
Callies moved to New York in 2003 and then quickly landed her first television role as Kate O'Malley, a recurring part on the short - lived CBS show Queens Supreme. Her first starring role was as Detective Jane Porter on The WB 's Tarzan.
After making various guest appearances on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, Dragnet (2003), and NUMB3RS, Callies gained a starring role on Fox 's Prison Break as Sara Tancredi. She played the role in the first two seasons, but her character was killed off for the third season before being brought back for the fourth season. According to Prison Break 's executive producer Matt Olmstead, although the writers, the network, Callies herself, and he all wanted her to stay on the show, the character was written out related to contract disputes. She stated through a spokesperson to TV Guide in fall 2007:
However, in March 2008, Olmstead stated that the character of Sara is still alive and would return in season four. Though the character Sara Tancredi appeared to have a violent death, Olmstead stated "... we realized that there was actually a way she could still be alive. '' Executive Producer Matt Olmstead admitted the fans ' overwhelming response to her death had influenced the decision to bring the character, and Callies, back to the show.
In 2010, Callies was cast in the major role of Lori Grimes on the AMC horror / drama series The Walking Dead, based on the comic - book series of the same name. The drama became the highest - rated show in that cable channel 's history. Callies played the role from the show 's start until season three. Grimes, her family, and friends are forced to fight relentless evil in the form of both flesh - eating zombies and the few surviving humans. Callies convinced the show 's writers to kill her character because that is what had occurred in the comic - book version.
Callies has also starred in two feature films - Universal Pictures ' Whisper and an independent film, The Celestine Prophecy. In April 2010, she appeared on the Fox Television drama House as a patient of the week, whose open marriage fascinates House and the team. In August 2010, Callies ' first screenplay, an adaptation of Campbell Geeslin 's children 's book Elena 's Serenade, was optioned by French production company Fulldawa Films. Callies starred in the Nigerian movie Black Gold (2011) and one of the female lead roles in the Canadian thriller Faces in the Crowd (2011). In 2015, she co-starred with Nicolas Cage in Uli Edel 's thriller film Pay the Ghost. In 2016, she returned to television in the lead role of Katie Bowman in Colony.
On July 21, 2002, Callies married Josh Winterhalt, whom she met at Dartmouth. On January 23, 2007, her publicist announced that the couple were expecting their first child. Their daughter Keala was born on July 20, 2007. Their second child, an adopted son, Oakes Wayne, was born in August 2013.
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why is there very little evidence now of motte and bailey castles | Motte - and - bailey castle - wikipedia
A motte - and - bailey castle is a fortification with a wooden or stone keep situated on a raised earthwork called a motte, accompanied by an enclosed courtyard, or bailey, surrounded by a protective ditch and palisade. Relatively easy to build with unskilled, often forced, labour, but still militarily formidable, these castles were built across northern Europe from the 10th century onwards, spreading from Normandy and Anjou in France, into the Holy Roman Empire in the 11th century. The Normans introduced the design into England and Wales following their invasion in 1066. Motte - and - bailey castles were adopted in Scotland, Ireland, the Low Countries and Denmark in the 12th and 13th centuries. By the end of the 13th century, the design was largely superseded by alternative forms of fortification, but the earthworks remain a prominent feature in many countries.
A motte - and - bailey castle was made up of two structures, a motte, a type of mound -- often artificial -- topped with a wooden or stone structure known as a keep; and at least one bailey, a fortified enclosure built next to the motte. The term "motte and bailey '' is a relatively modern one, and is not medieval in origin. The word "motte '' is the French version of the Latin mota, and in France the word motte was initially an early word for a turf; it then became used to refer to a turf bank, and by the 12th century was used to refer to the castle design itself. The word "bailey '' comes from the Norman - French baille, or basse - cour, referring to a low yard. In medieval sources, the Latin term castellum was used to describe the bailey complex within these castles.
One contemporary account of these structures comes from Jean de Colmieu around 1130, describing the Calais region in northern France. De Colmieu described how the nobles would build "a mound of earth as high as they can and dig a ditch about it as wide and deep as possible. The space on top of the mound is enclosed by a palisade of very strong hewn logs, strengthened at intervals by as many towers as their means can provide. Inside the enclosure is a citadel, or keep, which commands the whole circuit of the defences. The entrance to the fortress is by means of a bridge, which, rising from the outer side of the moat and supported on posts as it ascends, reaches to the top of the mound. '' At Durham Castle, contemporaries described how the motte - and - bailey superstructure arose from the "tumulus of rising earth '' with a keep rising "into thin air, strong within and without '' with a "stalwart house... glittering with beauty in every part ''.
Mottes were made out of earth and flattened on top, and it can be very hard to determine whether a mound is artificial or natural without excavation. Some were also built over older artificial structures, such as Bronze Age barrows. The size of mottes varied considerably, with these mounds being 3 metres to 30 metres in height (10 feet to 100 feet), and from 30 to 90 metres (98 to 295 ft) in diameter. This minimum height of 3 metres (9.8 feet) for mottes is usually intended to exclude smaller mounds which often had non-military purposes. In England and Wales, only 7 % of mottes were taller than 10 metres (33 feet) high; 24 % were between 10 and 5 metres (33 and 16 ft), and 69 % were less than 5 metres (16 feet) tall. A motte was protected by a ditch around it, which would typically have also been a source of the earth and soil for constructing the mound itself.
A keep and a protective wall would usually be built on top of the motte. Some walls would be large enough to have a wall - walk around them, and the outer walls of the motte and the wall - walk could be strengthened by filling in the gap between the wooden walls with earth and stones, allowing it to carry more weight; this was called a garillum. Smaller mottes could only support simple towers with room for a few soldiers, whilst larger mottes could be equipped with a much grander building. Many wooden keeps were designed with a bretasche, a square building that overhung from the upper floors of the building, enabling better defences and a more sturdy structural design. The early 12th - century chronicler Lambert of Ardres described the wooden keep on top of the motte at the castle of Ardres, where the "first storey was on the surface of the ground, where were cellars and granaries, and great boxes, tuns, casks, and other domestic utensils. In the storey above were the dwelling and common living - rooms of the residents in which were the larders, the rooms of the bakers and butlers, and the great chamber in which the lord and his wife slept... In the upper storey of the house were garret rooms... In this storey also the watchmen and the servants appointed to keep the house took their sleep ''. Wooden structures on mottes could be protected by skins and hides to prevent them being easily set alight during a siege.
The bailey was an enclosed courtyard overlooked by the motte and surrounded by a wooden fence called a palisade and another ditch. The bailey was often kidney - shaped to fit against a circular motte, but could be made in other shapes according to the terrain. The bailey would contain a wide number of buildings, including a hall, kitchens, a chapel, barracks, stores, stables, forges or workshops, and was the centre of the castle 's economic activity. The bailey was linked to the motte either by a flying bridge stretching between the two, or, more popularly in England, by steps cut into the motte. Typically the ditch of the motte and the bailey joined, forming a figure of eight around the castle. Wherever possible, nearby streams and rivers would be dammed or diverted, creating water - filled moats, artificial lakes and other forms of water defences.
In practice, there was a wide number of variations to this common design. A castle could have more than one bailey: at Warkworth Castle an inner and an outer bailey was constructed, or alternatively, several baileys could flank the motte, as at Windsor Castle. Some baileys had two mottes, such as those at Lincoln. Some mottes could be square instead of round, such as at Cabal Trump. Instead of single ditches, occasionally double - ditch defences were built, as seen at Berkhamsted. Local geography and the intent of the builder produced many unique designs.
Various methods were used to build mottes. Where a natural hill could be used, scarping could produce a motte without the need to create an artificial mound, but more commonly much of the motte would have to be constructed by hand. Four methods existed for building a mound and a tower: the mound could either be built first, and a tower placed on top of it; the tower could alternatively be built on the original ground surface and then buried within the mound; the tower could potentially be built on the original ground surface and then partially buried within the mound, the buried part forming a cellar beneath; or the tower could be built first, and the mound added later.
Regardless of the sequencing, artificial mottes had to be built by piling up earth; this work was undertaken by hand, using wooden shovels and hand - barrows, possibly with picks as well in the later periods. Larger mottes took disproportionately more effort to build than their smaller equivalents, because of the volumes of earth involved. The largest mottes in England, such as Thetford, are estimated to have required up to 24,000 man - days of work; smaller ones required perhaps as little as 1,000. Contemporary accounts talk of some mottes being built in a matter of days, although these low figures have led to suggestions by historians that either these figures were an underestimate, or that they refer to the construction of a smaller design than that later seen on the sites concerned. Taking into account estimates of the likely available manpower during the period, historians estimate that the larger mottes might have taken between four and nine months to build. This contrasted favourably with stone keeps of the period, which typically took up to ten years to build. Very little skilled labour was required to build motte and bailey castles, which made them very attractive propositions if forced peasant labour was available, as was the case after the Norman invasion of England. Where the local workforce had to be paid -- such as at Clones in Ireland, built in 1211 using imported labourers -- the costs would rise quickly, in this case reaching £ 20.
The type of soil would make a difference to the design of the motte, as clay soils could support a steeper motte, whilst sandier soils meant that a motte would need a more gentle incline. Where available, layers of different sorts of earth, such as clay, gravel and chalk, would be used alternatively to build in strength to the design. Layers of turf could also be added to stabilise the motte as it was built up, or a core of stones placed as the heart of the structure to provide strength. Similar issues applied to the defensive ditches, where designers found that the wider the ditch was dug, the deeper and steeper the sides of the scarp could be, making it more defensive. Although militarily a motte was, as Norman Pounds describes it, "almost indestructible '', they required frequent maintenance. Soil wash was a problem, particularly with steeper mounds, and mottes could be clad with wood or stone slabs to protect them. Over time, some mottes suffered from subsidence or damage from flooding, requiring repairs and stabilisation work.
Although motte - and - bailey castles are the best known castle design, they were not always the most numerous in any given area. A popular alternative was the ringwork castle, involving a palisade being built on top of a raised earth rampart, protected by a ditch. The choice of motte and bailey or ringwork was partially driven by terrain, as mottes were typically built on low ground, and on deeper clay and alluvial soils. Another factor may have been speed, as ringworks were faster to build than mottes. Some ringwork castles were later converted into motte - and - bailey designs, by filling in the centre of the ringwork to produce a flat - topped motte. The reasons for why this decision was taken are unclear; motte - and - bailey castles may have been felt to be more prestigious, or easier to defend; another theory is that like the terpen in Netherlands, or Vorburg and Hauptburg in Lower Rhineland, raising the height of the castle was done to create a drier site.
The motte - and - bailey castle is a particularly northern European phenomenon, most numerous in Normandy and Britain, but also seen in Denmark, Germany, Southern Italy and occasionally beyond. European castles first emerged in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes and local territories became threatened by the Magyars and the Norse. Against this background, various explanations have been put forward to explain the origins and spread of the motte - and - bailey design across northern Europe; there is often a tension among the academic community between explanations that stress military and social reasons for the rise of this design. One suggestion is that these castles were built particularly in order to protect against external attack -- the Angevins, it is argued, began to build them to protect against the Viking raids, and the design spread to deal with the attacks along the Slav and Hungarian frontiers. Another argument is that, given the links between this style of castle and the Normans, who were of Viking descent, it was in fact originally a Viking design, transported to Normandy and Angers. The motte - and - bailey castle was certainly effective against assault, although as historian André Debord suggests, the historical and archaeological record of the military operation of motte - and - bailey castles remains relatively limited.
An alternative approach focuses on the links between this form of castle and what can be termed a feudal mode of society. The spread of motte - and - bailey castles was usually closely tied to the creation of local fiefdoms and feudal landowners, and areas without this method of governance rarely built these castles. Yet another theory suggests that the design emerged as a result of the pressures of space on ringworks, and that the earliest motte - and - baileys were converted ringworks. Finally, there may be a link between the local geography and the building of motte - and - bailey castles, which are usually built on low - lying areas, in many cases subject to regular flooding. Regardless of the reasons behind the initial popularity of the motte - and - bailey design, however, there is widespread agreement that the castles were first widely adopted in Normandy and Angevin territory in the 10th and 11th centuries.
The earliest purely documentary evidence for motte - and - bailey castles in Normandy and Angers comes from between 1020 and 1040, but a combination of documentary and archaeological evidence pushes the date for the first motte and bailey castle, at Vincy, back to 979. The castles were built by the more powerful lords of Anjou in the late 10th and 11th centuries, in particular Fulk III and his son, Geoffrey II, who built a great number of them between 987 and 1060. Many of these earliest castles would have appeared quite crude and rustic by later standards, belying the power and prestige of their builders. William the Conqueror, as the Duke of Normandy, is believed to have adopted the motte - and - bailey design from neighbouring Anjou. Duke William went on to prohibit the building of castles without his consent through the Consuetudines et Justicie, with his legal definition of castles centring on the classic motte - and - bailey features of ditching, banking and palisading.
By the 11th century, castles were built throughout the Holy Roman Empire, which then spanned central Europe. They now typically took the form of an enclosure on a hilltop, or, on lower ground, a tall, free - standing tower (German Bergfried.) The largest castles, known in German as Hohenburgen, had well - defined inner and outer courts, but no mottes. The motte - and - bailey design began to spread into Alsace and the northern Alps from France during the first half of the 11th century, spreading further into Bohemia and Austria in the subsequent years. This form of castle was closely associated with the colonisation of newly cultivated areas within the Empire, as new lords were granted lands by the emperor and built castles close to the local gród, or town. Motte - and - bailey castle building substantially enhanced the prestige of local nobles, and it has been suggested that their early adoption was because they were a cheaper way of imitating the still more prestigious hohenburgen, but this is usually regarded as unlikely. In many cases, bergfrieds were converted into motte and bailey designs by burying existing castle towers within the mounds.
In England, William invaded from Normandy in 1066, resulting in three phases of castle building in England, around 80 % of which were in the motte - and - bailey pattern. The first of these was the establishment by the new king of royal castles in key strategic locations, including many towns. These urban castles could make use of the existing town 's walls and fortification, but typically required the demolition of local houses to make space for them. This could cause extensive damage: records suggest that in Lincoln 166 houses were destroyed, with 113 in Norwich and 27 in Cambridge. The second and third waves of castle building in the late - 11th century were led by the major magnates and then the more junior knights on their new estates. Some regional patterns in castle building can be seen -- relatively few castles were built in East Anglia compared to the west of England or the Marches, for example; this was probably due to the relatively settled and prosperous nature of the east of England and reflected a shortage of unfree labour for constructing mottes. In Wales, the first wave of the Norman castles were again predominantly made of wood in a mixture of motte - and - bailey and ringwork designs. The Norman invaders spread up the valleys, using this form of castle to occupy their new territories. After the Norman conquest of England and Wales, the building of motte - and - bailey castles in Normandy accelerated as well, resulting in a broad swath of these castles across the Norman territories, around 741 motte - and - bailey castles in England and Wales alone.
Having become well established in Normandy, Germany and Britain, motte - and - bailey castles began to be adopted elsewhere, mainly in northern Europe, during the 12th and 13th centuries. Conflict through the Low Countries encouraged castle building in a number of regions from the late 12th century to the 14th century. In Flanders, the first motte and bailey castles began relatively early at the end of the 11th century. The rural motte - and - bailey castles followed the traditional design, but the urban castles often lacked the traditional baileys, using parts of the town to fulfil this role instead. Motte - and - bailey castles in Flanders were particularly numerous in the south along the Lower Rhine, a fiercely contested border. Further along the coast in Friesland, the relatively decentralised, egalitarian society initially discouraged the building of motte and bailey castles, although terpen, raised "dwelling mounds '' which lacked towers and were usually lower in height than a typical motte, were created instead. By the end of the medieval period, however, the terpen gave way to hege wieren, non-residential defensive towers, often on motte - like mounds, owned by the increasingly powerful nobles and landowners. On Zeeland the local lords had a high degree of independence during the 12th and 13th centuries, owing to the wider conflict for power between neighbouring Flanders and Friesland. The Zeeland lords had also built terpen mounds, but these gave way to larger werven constructions -- effectively mottes -- which were later termed bergen. Sometimes both terpen and werven are called vliedburg, or "refuge castles ''. During the 12th and 13th centuries a number of terpen mounds were turned into werven mottes, and some new werven mottes were built from scratch. Around 323 known or probable motte and bailey castles of this design are believed to have built within the borders of the modern Netherlands.
In neighbouring Denmark, motte - and - bailey castles appeared somewhat later in the 12th and 13th centuries and in more limited numbers than elsewhere, due to the less feudal society. Except for a handful of mote and bailey castles in Norway, built in the first half of the 11th century and including the royal residence in Oslo, the design did not play a role further north in Scandinavia.
The Norman expansion into Wales slowed in the 12th century but remained an ongoing threat to the remaining native rulers. In response, the Welsh princes and lords began to build their own castles, frequently motte - and - bailey designs, usually in wood. There are indications that this may have begun from 1111 onwards under Prince Cadwgan ap Bleddyn, with the first documentary evidence of a native Welsh castle being at Cymmer in 1116. These timber castles, including Tomen y Rhodywdd, Tomen y Faerdre, Gaer Penrhôs, were of equivalent quality to the equivalent Norman fortifications in the area, and it can prove difficult to distinguish the builders of some sites from the archaeological evidence alone.
Motte - and - bailey castles in Scotland emerged as a consequence of the centralising of royal authority in the 12th century. David I encouraged Norman and French nobles to settle in Scotland, introducing a feudal mode of landholding and the use of castles as a way of controlling the contested lowlands. The quasi-independent polity of Galloway, which had resisted the rule of David and his predecessors, was a particular focus for this colonisation. The size of these Scottish castles, primarily wooden motte and bailey constructions, varied considerably, from larger designs such as the Bass of Inverurie to smaller castles like Balmaclellan.
Motte - and - bailey castles were introduced to Ireland following the Norman invasion of Ireland that began between 1166 and 1171 under first Richard de Clare and then Henry II of England, with the occupation of southern and eastern Ireland by a number of Anglo - Norman barons. The rapid Norman success depended on key economic and military advantages; their cavalry enabled Norman successes in battles, and castles enabled them to control the newly conquered territories. The new lords rapidly built castles to protect their possessions; most of these were motte - and - bailey constructions, many of them strongly defended. Unlike Wales, the indigenous Irish lords do not appear to have constructed their own castles in any significant number during the period. Between 350 and 450 motte - and - bailey castles are believed to remain today, although the identification of these earthwork remains can be contentious.
A small number of motte - and - bailey castles were built outside of northern Europe. In the late - 12th century, the Normans invaded southern Italy and Sicily; although they had the technology to build more modern designs, in many cases wooden motte - and - bailey castles were built instead for reasons of speed. The Italians came to refer to a range of different castle types as motta, however, and there may not have been as many genuine motte - and - bailey castles in southern Italy as was once thought on the basis of the documentary evidence alone. In addition, there is evidence of the Norman crusaders building a motte and bailey using sand and wood in Egypt in 1221 during the Fifth Crusade.
Motte - and - bailey castles became a less popular design in the mid-medieval period. In France, they were not built after the start of the 12th century, and mottes ceased to be built in most of England after around 1170, although they continued to be erected in Wales and along the Marches. Many motte - and - bailey castles were occupied relatively briefly; in England many had been abandoned or allowed to lapse into disrepair by the 12th century. In the Low Countries and Germany, a similar transition occurred in the 13th and 14th centuries.
One factor was the introduction of stone into castle building. The earliest stone castles had emerged in the 10th century, with stone keeps being built on mottes along the Catalonia frontier and several, including Château de Langeais, in Angers. Although wood was a more powerful defensive material than was once thought, stone became increasingly popular for military and symbolic reasons. Some existing motte - and - bailey castles were converted to stone, with the keep and the gatehouse usually the first parts to be upgraded. Shell keeps were built on many mottes, circular stone shells running around the top of the motte, sometime protected by a further chemise, or low protective wall, around the base. By the 14th century, a number of motte and bailey castles had been converted into powerful stone fortresses.
Newer castle designs placed less emphasis on mottes. Square Norman keeps built in stone became popular following the first such construction in Langeais in 994. Several were built in England and Wales after the conquest; by 1216 there were around 100 in the country. These massive keeps could be either erected on top of settled, well established mottes, or could have mottes built around them -- so - called "buried '' keeps. The ability of mottes, especially newly built mottes, to support the heavier stone structures, was limited, and many needed to be built on fresh ground. Concentric castles, relying on several lines of baileys and defensive walls, made increasingly little use of keeps or mottes at all.
Across Europe, motte - and - bailey construction came to an end. At the end of the 12th century the Welsh rulers began to build castles in stone, primarily in the principality of North Wales and usually along the higher peaks where mottes were unnecessary. In Flanders, decline came in the 13th century as feudal society changed. In the Netherlands, cheap brick started to be used in castles from the 13th century onwards in place of earthworks, and many mottes were levelled, to help develop the surrounding, low - lying fields; these "levelled mottes '' are a particularly Dutch phenomenon. In Denmark, motte and baileys gave way in the 14th century to a castrum - curia model, where the castle was built with a fortified bailey and a fortified mound, somewhat smaller than the typical motte. By the 12th century, the castles in Western Germany began to thin in number, due to changes in land ownership, and various mottes were abandoned. In Germany and Denmark, motte - and - bailey castles also provided the model for the later wasserburg, or "water castle '', a stronghold and bailey construction surrounded by water, and widely built in the late medieval period.
In England, motte - and - bailey earthworks were put to various uses over later years; in some cases, mottes were turned into garden features in the 18th century, or reused as military defences during the Second World War. Today, almost no mottes of motte - and - bailey castles remain in regular use in Europe, with one of the few exceptions being that at Windsor Castle, converted for the storage of royal documents. The landscape of northern Europe remains scattered with their earthworks, and many form popular tourist attractions as part of the European heritage industry.
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who used the scientific discoveries of the 1800s as a basis for his philosophy | Age of Enlightenment - wikipedia
The Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason; in French: le Siècle des Lumières, lit. ' "the Century of Lights '' '; and in German: Aufklärung, "Enlightenment '') was an intellectual and philosophical movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, "The Century of Philosophy ''.
The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy -- and came to advance ideals like liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government and separation of church and state. In France the central doctrines of the Enlightenment philosophers were individual liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to an absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church. The Enlightenment was marked by an emphasis on the scientific method and reductionism along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy -- an attitude captured by the phrase Sapere aude, "Dare to know ''.
French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715 (the year that Louis XIV died) and 1789 (the beginning of the French Revolution). Some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. Les philosophes (French for "the philosophers '') of the period widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffee houses and printed books and pamphlets. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church -- and paved the way for the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of 19th - century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment.
The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution. Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke and Baruch Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean - Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith and Immanuel Kant. Some European rulers, including Catherine II of Russia, Joseph II of Austria and Frederick II of Prussia, tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as enlightened absolutism. Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence (1776). One of his peers, James Madison, incorporated these ideals into the United States Constitution during its framing in 1787.
The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie (Encyclopaedia). Published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty - five volumes, it was compiled by Denis Diderot, Jean le Rond d'Alembert (until 1759) and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It helped spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. Other landmark publications were Voltaire 's Dictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary; 1764) and Letters on the English (1733); Rousseau 's Discourse on Inequality (1754) and The Social Contract (1762); Adam Smith 's The Wealth of Nations (1776); and Montesquieu 's The Spirit of the Laws (1748). The ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by the intellectual movement known as Romanticism.
René Descartes ' rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking. His attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Locke 's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) and David Hume 's writings in the 1740s. His dualism was challenged by Spinoza 's uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus (1670) and Ethics (1677).
These laid down two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: the moderate variety, following Descartes, Locke and Christian Wolff which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith and the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression and eradication of religious authority The moderate variety tended to be deistic whereas the radical tendency separated the basis of morality entirely from theology. Both lines of thought were eventually opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment, which sought a return to faith.
In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean - Jacques Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. While the Philosophes of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the Old Regime and shaping the French Revolution.
Francis Hutcheson, a moral philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers ''. Much of what is incorporated in the scientific method (the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a major figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy.
Immanuel Kant (1724 -- 1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason. Kant 's work continued to shape German thought and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century. Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England 's earliest feminist philosophers. She argued for a society based on reason and that women as well as men should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791).
Science played an important role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought. Scientific progress during the Enlightenment included the discovery of carbon dioxide (fixed air) by the chemist Joseph Black, the argument for deep time by the geologist James Hutton and the invention of the steam engine by James Watt. The experiments of Lavoisier were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris and the experiments of the Montgolfier Brothers enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a hot - air balloon on 21 November 1783 from the Château de la Muette, near the Bois de Boulogne.
Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of natural philosophy, was divided into physics and a conglomerate grouping of chemistry and natural history, which included anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy and zoology. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally: Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier. Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population. Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire and Émilie du Châtelet. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science. However, the century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics and physics; the development of biological taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.
Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. During the Enlightenment, some societies created or retained links to universities, but contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university 's utility was in the transmission of knowledge while societies functioned to create knowledge. As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state in order to provide technical expertise. Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members and the administration of the society. After 1700, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe and by 1789 there were over seventy official scientific societies. In reference to this growth, Bernard de Fontenelle coined the term "the Age of Academies '' to describe the 18th century.
The influence of science also began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature during the Enlightenment. Some poetry became infused with scientific metaphor and imagery, while other poems were written directly about scientific topics. Sir Richard Blackmore committed the Newtonian system to verse in Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books (1712). After Newton 's death in 1727, poems were composed in his honour for decades. James Thomson (1700 -- 1748) penned his "Poem to the Memory of Newton '', which mourned the loss of Newton, but also praised his science and legacy.
Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a "science of man '', which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement and Hume 's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the U.S. Constitution) and as popularised by Dugald Stewart, would be the basis of classical liberalism.
In 1776, Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations, often considered the first work on modern economics as it had an immediate impact on British economic policy that continues into the 21st century. It was immediately preceded and influenced by Anne - Robert - Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune drafts of Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth (Paris, 1766). Smith acknowledged indebtedness and possibly was the original English translator.
Cesare Beccaria, a jurist, criminologist, philosopher and politician and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), later translated into 22 languages, which condemned torture and the death penalty and was a founding work in the field of penology and the Classical School of criminology by promoting criminal justice. Another prominent intellectual was Francesco Mario Pagano, who wrote important studies such as Saggi Politici (Political Essays, 1783), one of the major works of the Enlightenment in Naples; and Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law.
The Enlightenment has long been hailed as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture. The Enlightenment brought political modernization to the West, in terms of introducing democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. This thesis has been widely accepted by Anglophone scholars and has been reinforced by the large - scale studies by Robert Darnton, Roy Porter and most recently by Jonathan Israel.
John Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy in social contract theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes ushered in this new debate with his work Leviathan in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative '' and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.
Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in Two Treatises of Government and Discourse on Inequality, respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government 's authority lies in the consent of the governed, is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the state of nature as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law, in which all men are born equal and with the right to life, liberty and property. However, when one citizen breaks the Law of Nature both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge '' or common authority, such as courts, to appeal to. Contrastingly, Rousseau 's conception relies on the supposition that "civil man '' is corrupted, while "natural man '' has no want he can not fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with private property is established. Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the general will, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens.
Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property '' and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke, Anthony Ashley - Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn ''. Locke 's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the United States Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly 's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
The philosophes argued that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the market mechanism and capitalism, the scientific method, religious tolerance and the organization of states into self - governing republics through democratic means. In this view, the tendency of the philosophes in particular to apply rationality to every problem is considered the essential change.
Though much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, both David Hume and Adam Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume 's essay Of the Original Contract argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen and civil government is grounded in a ruler 's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler 's authority over-and - against the subject, that the subject tacitly consents and Hume says that the subjects would "never imagine that their consent made him sovereign '', rather the authority did so. Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767 An Essay on the History of Civil Society, Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was very popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing '' a social contract.
Both Rousseau and Locke 's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of natural rights, which are not a result of law or custom, but are things that all men have in pre-political societies and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from John Locke in his Second Treatise, when he introduces the state of nature. For Locke, the law of nature is grounded on mutual security or the idea that one can not infringe on another 's natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, as well as the right to preserve life and property. Locke also argued against slavery on the basis that enslaving yourself goes against the law of nature because you can not surrender your own rights, your freedom is absolute and no one can take it from you. Additionally, Locke argues that one person can not enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying that enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one 's natural rights.
The leaders of the Enlightenment were not especially democratic, as they more often look to absolute monarchs as the key to imposing reforms designed by the intellectuals. Voltaire despised democracy and said the absolute monarch must be enlightened and must act as dictated by reason and justice -- in other words, be a "philosopher - king ''.
In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots '' by historians. They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing many reforms that had little support so that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors and nearly all his programs were reversed. Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year before the nation was partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.
Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick 's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained: "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit ''.
The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consent of the governed '' philosophy as delineated by Locke in Two Treatises of Government (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under feudalism known as the "divine right of kings ''. In this view, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully and therefore violent revolution was the result. Clearly a governance philosophy where the king was never wrong was in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government.
Alexis de Tocqueville described the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that was both all - powerful and without real power ''. This illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion '', born when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the bourgeoisie from the political sphere. The "literary politics '' that resulted promoted a discourse of equality and was hence in fundamental opposition to the monarchical regime. De Tocqueville "clearly designates... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exercise of power ''. Nevertheless, it took another century before cultural approach became central to the historiography, as typified by Robert Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the Encyclopédie, 1775 -- 1800 (1979).
Jonathan Israel asserts: "The prevailing view about the French Revolution not being caused by books and ideas in the first place may be very widely influential, but it is also, on the basis of the detailed evidence, totally indefensible. Indeed, without referring to Radical Enlightenment nothing about the French Revolution makes the slightest sense or can even begin to be provisionally explained ''.
Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the Thirty Years ' War. Theologians of the Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its generally non-confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare while still maintaining a true faith in God. For moderate Christians, this meant a return to simple Scripture. John Locke abandoned the corpus of theological commentary in favor of an "unprejudiced examination '' of the Word of God alone. He determined the essence of Christianity to be a belief in Christ the redeemer and recommended avoiding more detailed debate. In the Jefferson Bible, Thomas Jefferson went further and dropped any passages dealing with miracles, visitations of angels and the resurrection of Jesus after his death, as he tried to extract the practical Christian moral code of the New Testament.
Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of organized religion and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war. Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g., disregarding Judaic law). Moses Mendelssohn advised affording no political weight to any organized religion, but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing. A good religion based in instinctive morals and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.
A number of novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including deism and talk of atheism. According to Thomas Paine, deism is the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead, the deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his creed, which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time. Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and Reill note: "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of orthodox belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism ''. Some followed Pierre Bayle and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men. Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined. That is, since atheists gave themselves to no Supreme Authority and no law and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were far more likely to disrupt society. Bayle (1647 -- 1706) observed that in his day that "prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of (religion) '' and he believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self - interest to create and interact in society. Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law, the result would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his actions ''.
The "Radical Enlightenment '' promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that is often credited to English philosopher John Locke (1632 -- 1704). According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority.
These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonies and the drafting of the United States Constitution. Thomas Jefferson called for a "wall of separation between church and state '' at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the Church of England in Virginia and authored the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Jefferson 's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of John Locke, Francis Bacon and Isaac Newton whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived.
The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes and where it expressed a spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches. Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile and the philosophes fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government for the most part ignored the Enlightenment 's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Isaac Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office.
The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been hotly debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks on British history make little or no mention of an English Enlightenment. Some surveys of the entire Enlightenment include England and others ignore it, but do include has enlightenment intellectuals such representative Englishmen as Newton, Locke and Jonathan Swift, although they do include coverage of such major intellectuals as Joseph Addison, Edward Gibbon, John Locke, Isaac Newton, Alexander Pope, Joshua Reynolds and Jonathan Swift. Roy Porter argues that the reason for the neglect was the assumption that the movement was primarily French - inspired, that it was largely a-religious or anti-clerical and it stood in outspoken defiance to the established order. Porter admits that after the 1720s England could claim few thinkers to equal Diderot, Voltaire or Rousseau. Indeed, its leading intellectuals such as Edward Gibbon, Edmund Burke and Samuel Johnson were all quite conservative and supported of the standing order. Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England and had succeeded so that the culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism and religious toleration of the sort that intellectuals on the continent had to fight for against powerful odds. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal of enlightenment
In the Scottish Enlightenment, Scotland 's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and ' design ' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment ''. In France, Voltaire said that "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization ''. The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen, physician and chemist; James Anderson, an agronomist; Joseph Black, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.
Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland (1670 -- 1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656 -- 1733). During the Enlightenment there was a great emphasis upon liberty, republicanism and religious tolerance. There was no respect for monarchy or inherited political power. Deists reconciled science and religion by rejecting prophecies, miracles and Biblical theology. Leading deists included Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason and by Thomas Jefferson in his short Jefferson Bible -- from which all supernatural aspects were removed.
Prussia took the lead among the German states in sponsoring the political reforms that Enlightenment thinkers urged absolute rulers to adopt. There were important movements as well in the smaller states of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover and the Palatinate. In each case, Enlightenment values became accepted and led to significant political and administrative reforms that laid the groundwork for the creation of modern states. The princes of Saxony, for example, carried out an impressive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country 's strong urban structure and influential commercial groups and modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles.
Before 1750, the German upper classes looked to France for intellectual, cultural and architectural leadership, as French was the language of high society. By the mid-18th century, the Aufklärung (The Enlightenment) had transformed German high culture in music, philosophy, science and literature. Christian Wolff (1679 -- 1754) was the pioneer as a writer who expounded the Enlightenment to German readers and legitimized German as a philosophic language.
Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744 -- 1803) broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the Sturm und Drang movement of proto - Romanticism. Weimar Classicism (Weimarer Klassik) was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical and Enlightenment ideas. The movement (from 1772 until 1805) involved Herder as well as polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749 -- 1832) and Friedrich Schiller (1759 -- 1805), a poet and historian. Herder argued that every folk had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller 's plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero 's struggle against social pressures and the force of destiny.
German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers Johann Sebastian Bach (1685 -- 1750), Joseph Haydn (1732 -- 1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 -- 1791).
In remote Königsberg, philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724 -- 1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority. Kant 's work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought -- and indeed all of European philosophy -- well into the 20th century.
The German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats and the middle classes and it permanently reshaped the culture. However, there was a conservatism among the elites that warned against going too far.
In the 1780s, Lutheran ministers Johann Heinrich Schulz and Karl Wilhelm Brumbey got in trouble with their preaching as they were attacked and ridiculed by Immanuel Kant, Wilhelm Abraham Teller and others. In 1788, Prussia issued an "Edict on Religion '' that forbade preaching any sermon that undermined popular belief in the Holy Trinity and the Bible. The goal was to avoid skepticism, deism and theological disputes that might impinge on domestic tranquility. Men who doubted the value of Enlightenment favoured the measure, but so too did many supporters. German universities had created a closed elite that could debate controversial issues among themselves, but spreading them to the public was seen as too risky. This intellectual elite was favoured by the state, but that might be reversed if the process of the Enlightenment proved politically or socially destabilizing.
The Enlightenment played a distinctive, if small, role in the history of Italy. Although most of Italy was controlled by conservative Habsburgs or the pope, Tuscany had some opportunities for reform. Leopold II of Tuscany abolished the death penalty in Tuscany and reduced censorship. From Naples, Antonio Genovesi (1713 - 69) influenced a generation of southern Italian intellectuals and university students. His textbook "Diceosina, o Sia della Filosofia del Giusto e dell'Onesto '' (1766) was a controversial attempt to mediate between the history of moral philosophy on the one hand and the specific problems encountered by 18th - century commercial society on the other. It contained the greater part of Genovesi 's political, philosophical and economic thought -- guidebook for Neapolitan economic and social development. Science flourished as Alessandro Volta and Luigi Galvani made break - through discoveries in electricity. Pietro Verri was a leading economist in Lombardy. Historian Joseph Schumpeter states he was "the most important pre-Smithian authority on Cheapness - and - Plenty ''. The most influential scholar on the Italian Enlightenment has been Franco Venturi.
In Russia, the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences in the mid-18th century. This era produced the first Russian university, library, theatre, public museum and independent press. Like other enlightened despots, Catherine the Great played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences and education. She used her own interpretation of Enlightenment ideals, assisted by notable international experts such as Voltaire (by correspondence) and in residence world class scientists such as Leonhard Euler and Peter Simon Pallas. The national Enlightenment differed from its Western European counterpart in that it promoted further modernization of all aspects of Russian life and was concerned with attacking the institution of serfdom in Russia. The Russian enlightenment centered on the individual instead of societal enlightenment and encouraged the living of an enlightened life. A powerful element was prosveshchenie which combined religious piety, erudition and commitment to the spread of learning. However, it lacked the skeptical and critical spirit of the European Enlightenment.
Enlightenment ideas (oświecenie) emerged late in Poland, as the Polish middle class was weaker and szlachta (nobility) culture (Sarmatism) together with the Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth political system (Golden Liberty) were in deep crisis. The political system was built on republicanism, but was unable to defend itself against powerful neighbors Russia, Prussia and Austria as they repeatedly sliced off regions until nothing was left of independent Poland. The period of Polish Enlightenment began in the 1730s -- 1740s and especially in theatre and the arts peaked in the reign of King Stanisław August Poniatowski (second half of the 18th century). Warsaw was a main centre after 1750, with an expansion of schools and educational institutions and the arts patronage held at the Royal Castle. Leaders promoted tolerance and more education. They included King Stanislaw II Poniatowski and reformers Piotr Switkowski, Antoni Poplawski, Josef Niemcewicz and Jósef Pawlinkowski, as well as Baudouin de Cortenay, a Polonized dramatist. Opponents included Florian Jaroszewicz, Gracjan Piotrowski, Karol Wyrwicz and Wojciech Skarszewski.
The movement went into decline with the Third Partition of Poland (1795) -- a national tragedy inspiring a short period of sentimental writing -- and ended in 1822, replaced by Romanticism.
The Enlightenment has always been contested territory. According to Keith Thomas, its supporters "hail it as the source of everything that is progressive about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought, rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political liberty, scientific achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for the future ''. Thomas adds that its detractors accuse it of shallow rationalism, naïve optimism, unrealistic universalism and moral darkness. From the start, conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attacked materialism and skepticism as evil forces that encouraged immorality. By 1794, they pointed to the Terror during the French Revolution as confirmation of their predictions. As the Enlightenment was ending, Romantic philosophers argued that excessive dependence on reason was a mistake perpetuated by the Enlightenment because it disregarded the bonds of history, myth, faith and tradition that were necessary to hold society together.
The term "Enlightenment '' emerged in English in the later part of the 19th century, with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term Lumières (used first by Dubos in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Immanuel Kant 's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung? '' ("Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment? ''), the German term became Aufklärung (aufklären = to illuminate; sich aufklären = to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of the Enlightenment, or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms like les Lumières (French), illuminismo (Italian), ilustración (Spanish) and Aufklärung (German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late nineteenth century did English scholars agree they were talking about "the Enlightenment ''.
Enlightenment historiography began in the period itself, from what Enlightenment figures said about their work. A dominant element was the intellectual angle they took. D'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse of l'Encyclopédie provides a history of the Enlightenment which comprises a chronological list of developments in the realm of knowledge -- of which the Encyclopédie forms the pinnacle. In 1783, Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason. Immanuel Kant called Enlightenment "man 's release from his self - incurred tutelage '', tutelage being "man 's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another ''. "For Kant, Enlightenment was mankind 's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance ''. The German scholar Ernst Cassirer called the Enlightenment "a part and a special phase of that whole intellectual development through which modern philosophic thought gained its characteristic self - confidence and self - consciousness ''. According to historian Roy Porter, the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance is the epitome of what the Age of Enlightenment was trying to capture.
Bertrand Russell saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development which began in antiquity and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals throughout that time. Russell said that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of the Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation and that philosophical views such as affinity for democracy against monarchy originated among 16th - century Protestants to justify their desire to break away from the Catholic Church. Though many of these philosophical ideals were picked up by Catholics, Russell argues that by the 18th century the Enlightenment was the principal manifestation of the schism that began with Martin Luther.
Jonathan Israel rejects the attempts of postmodern and Marxian historians to understand the revolutionary ideas of the period purely as by - products of social and economic transformations. He instead focuses on the history of ideas in the period from 1650 to the end of the 18th century and claims that it was the ideas themselves that caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century. Israel argues that until the 1650s Western civilization "was based on a largely shared core of faith, tradition and authority ''.
There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment, though the beginning of the 18th century (1701) or the middle of the 17th century (1650) are often used as epochs. French historians usually place the period, called the Siècle des Lumières ("Century of Enlightenments ''), between 1715 and 1789, from the beginning of the reign of Louis XV until the French Revolution. If taken back to the mid-17th century, the Enlightenment would trace its origins to Descartes ' Discourse on the Method, published in 1637. In France, many cited the publication of Isaac Newton 's Principia Mathematica in 1687. It is argued by several historians and philosophers that the beginning of the Enlightenment is when Descartes shifted the epistemological basis from external authority to internal certainty by his cogito ergo sum published in 1637. As to its end, most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution of 1789 or the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1804 -- 1815) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment.
In the 1944 book Dialectic of Enlightenment, Frankfurt School philosophers Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno argued:
Enlightenment, understood in the widest sense as the advance of thought, has always aimed at liberating human beings from fear and installing them as masters. Yet the wholly enlightened earth radiates under the sign of disaster triumphant.
In the 1970s, study of the Enlightenment expanded to include the ways Enlightenment ideas spread to European colonies and how they interacted with indigenous cultures and how the Enlightenment took place in formerly unstudied areas such as Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Poland, Hungary and Russia.
Intellectuals such as Robert Darnton and Jürgen Habermas have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere '' in 18th - century Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange. Habermas said that the public sphere was bourgeois, egalitarian, rational and independent from the state, making it the ideal venue for intellectuals to critically examine contemporary politics and society, away from the interference of established authority. While the public sphere is generally an integral component of the social study of the Enlightenment, other historians have questioned whether the public sphere had these characteristics.
In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and 18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes that occurred in European society and culture. This approach studies the process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the Enlightenment.
One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the public sphere, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture '', in the late 17th century and 18th century. Elements of the public sphere included: it was egalitarian, it discussed the domain of "common concern '' and argument was founded on reason. Habermas uses the term "common concern '' to describe those areas of political / social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is critical) and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts.
The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long - term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of capitalism. The modern nation state, in its consolidation of public power, created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society 's autonomy and self - awareness, as well as an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions and the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the Republic of Letters. In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy 's move from the King 's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings.
The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: "Economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century ''. Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas ''.
The word "public '' implies the highest level of inclusivity -- the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public '' with that of the people: Condorcet contrasted "opinion '' with populace, Marmontel "the opinion of men of letters '' with "the opinion of the multitude '' and d'Alembert the "truly enlightened public '' with "the blind and noisy multitude ''. Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes. Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.
Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts. Emphasis on learning, art and music became more widespread, especially with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature, philosophy, science and the fine arts increasingly explored subject matter that the general public in addition to the previously more segregated professionals and patrons could relate to.
As musicians depended more and more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers ' and composers ' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of Haydn and Mozart, with their Viennese Classical styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.
The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Jean - Jacques Rousseau 's Dictionnaire de musique (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century. This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was Charles Burney 's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time. Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, Rose Rosengard Subotnik 's Deconstructive Variations (subtitled Music and Reason in Western Society) compares Mozart 's Die Zauberflöte (1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment ''.
As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers and increased their presence in the amateur performers ' scene, especially with keyboard music. Music publishers begin to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard and chamber ensemble. After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur - friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.
The philosophes spent a great deal of energy disseminating their ideas among educated men and women in cosmopolitan cities. They used many venues, some of them quite new.
The term "Republic of Letters '' was coined in 1664 by Pierre Bayle in his journal Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres. Towards the end of the 18th century, the editor of Histoire de la République des Lettres en France, a literary survey, described the Republic of Letters as being:
In the midst of all the governments that decide the fate of men; in the bosom of so many states, the majority of them despotic... there exists a certain realm which holds sway only over the mind... that we honour with the name Republic, because it preserves a measure of independence, and because it is almost its essence to be free. It is the realm of talent and of thought.
The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power. It was a forum that supported "free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation ''. Immanuel Kant considered written communication essential to his conception of the public sphere; once everyone was a part of the "reading public '', then society could be said to be enlightened. The people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot 's Encyclopédie arguably formed a microcosm of the larger "republic ''.
Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment, due to the role they played as salonnières in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male philosophes. The salon was the principal social institution of the republic and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment ''. Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of (the) potentially unruly discourse '' that took place within. While women were marginalized in the public culture of the Ole Regime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.
In France, the established men of letters (gens de lettres) had fused with the elites (les grands) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, Grub Street, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would - be authors ''. These men came to London to become authors, only to discover that the literary market simply could not support large numbers of writers, who in any case were very poorly remunerated by the publishing - bookselling guilds.
The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the libelle. Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the libelles "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself ''. Le Gazetier cuirassé by Charles Théveneau de Morande was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment. According to Darnton, more importantly the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit '' once displayed by the philosophes and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral and religious authority in France.
The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social '' Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers and journals -- "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes ''. Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation. However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the Bibliothèque Bleue. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century. Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one - tenth of the total.
Reading underwent serious changes in the 18th century. In particular, Rolf Engelsing has argued for the existence of a Reading Revolution. Until 1750, reading was done intensively: people tended to own a small number of books and read them repeatedly, often to small audience. After 1750, people began to read "extensively '', finding as many books as they could, increasingly reading them alone. This is supported by increasing literacy rates, particularly among women.
The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library and while most of the state - run "universal libraries '' set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the Bibliothèque Bleue, a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the Enlightenment 's penetration into the lower classes, the Bibliothèque Bleue represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability. Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear and occasionally bookstores would offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals and sometimes even popular novels to their customers. The Tatler and The Spectator, two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city. This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained, read, discussed and even produced on the premises.
It is extremely difficult to determine what people actually read during the Enlightenment. For example, examining the catalogs of private libraries gives an image skewed in favor of the classes wealthy enough to afford libraries and also ignores censured works unlikely to be publicly acknowledged. For this reason, a study of publishing would be much more fruitful for discerning reading habits.
Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. For example, the Encyclopédie narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes, the man in charge of the French censure. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small - time peddlers. The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice. In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, "general works '' (those books "that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority '') demonstrated a high demand for generally low - brow subversive literature. However, these works never became part of literary canon and are largely forgotten today as a result.
A healthy, and legal, publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. For example, the Encyclopédie condemned not only by the King, but also by Clement XII, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law. However, many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany and North America indicate that more than 70 percent of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1 percent of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity.
A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René - Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur 's Histoire naturelle des insectes and Jacques Gautier d'Agoty 's La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain (1746). Outside ancien régime France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology. As shown by Matthew Daniel Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.
The target audience of natural history was French polite society, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to polite society 's desire for erudition -- many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was often a political affair. As Emma Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social ''. The idea of taste (le goût) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of polite society. In this way natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time, but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class. From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works.
The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian Journal des Sçavans, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the Continent, which was echoed by England 's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market -- such as Danish, Spanish and Portuguese -- found journal success more difficult and more often than not a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin 's status as the lingua franca of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.
Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture. They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public '' away from established authorities to novelty and innovation and instead promoted the "enlightened '' ideals of toleration and intellectual objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments and religious authorities. They also advanced Christian enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God - ordained authority '' -- the Bible -- in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.
Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th - century encyclopedic dictionaries. The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers ' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology.
Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines. Commenting on alphabetization, the historian Charles Porset has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment ''. For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and hierarchical systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of egalitarianism. Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Enlightenment as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply. In the later half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution (1780 -- 1789). Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions.
The first technical dictionary was drafted by John Harris and entitled Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Harris ' book avoided theological and biographical entries and instead it concentrated on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial arithmetic along with the physical sciences and navigation. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris ' model, including Ephraim Chambers ' Cyclopaedia (1728), which included five editions and was a substantially larger work than Harris '. The folio edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as engraving, brewing and dyeing.
In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The Marperger Curieuses Natur -, Kunst -, Berg -, Gewerkund Handlungs - Lexicon (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) was better known than the Handlungs - Lexicon and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine while geometry and logic were allocated only twenty - two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons.
However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. The most well - known of these works is Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert 's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of thirty - five volumes and over 71 000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high - quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, the work 's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined:
The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge ''. The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment 's desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree 's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour. As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25 000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution. The extensive, yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.
One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific learning. The new literate population was due to a high rise in the availability of food. This enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education. Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people ''. As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies. More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Sir Isaac Newton 's celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular.
The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle 's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter 's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New '' that would include "short and easie (sic) Rules and Astronomical Tables ''. The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738. Émilie du Châtelet 's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton 's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. Writing for a growing female audience, Francesco Algarotti published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Pemberton. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton 's Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works themselves. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years after in eleven editions.
Most work on the Enlightenment emphasizes the ideals discussed by intellectuals, rather than the actual state of education at the time. Leading educational theorists like England 's John Locke and Switzerland 's Jean Jacques Rousseau both emphasized the importance of shaping young minds early. By the late Enlightenment, there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American and French Revolutions.
The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism, the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self - determination and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society. Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance.
Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain 's North American colonies and later the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh 's medical also led the way in chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology. In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.
The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists ' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens ''. Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13 percent). The presence of the French academies in the public sphere can not be attributed to their membership, as although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people ''. For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of mesmerism.
The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the concours académiques (roughly translated as "academic contests '') they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment. The practice of contests dated back to the Middle Ages and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and / or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry and painting. However, by roughly 1725 this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime ''. Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women 's education and justice in France.
More importantly, the contests were open to all and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority '' of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary and the medical profession ''), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays and even winning. Similarly, a significant number of women participated -- and won -- the competitions. Of a total of 2,300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49 -- perhaps a small number by modern standards, but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women 's education.
In England, the Royal Society of London also played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662. The Society played a large role in spreading Robert Boyle 's experimental philosophy around Europe and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange. Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate '' and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a "collective act '' and the Royal Society 's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations. However, not just any witness was considered to be credible: "Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants ''. Two factors were taken into account: a witness 's knowledge in the area and a witness 's "moral constitution ''. In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle 's public.
Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If classes were to join together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all - encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and because of their size might be able to carry out successful revolts. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially those concerning foreign affairs -- rulers thought political affairs to be their business only, a result of their supposed divine right to rule.
Coffeehouses represent a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities. Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought, for the first time, to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought - provoking matters, especially those regarding philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free - thinking and self - discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, a great deal were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including not only the educated wealthy but also members of the bourgeoisie and the lower class. While it may seem positive that patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, etc. represented almost all classes, the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who sought to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse claimed that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat '' and was therefore compared to Noah 's Ark, receiving all types of animals, clean or unclean. This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism when Joseph Addison and Richard Steele recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published The Spectator (1711), a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, both to entertain and to provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters.
The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities '', offering a locus of learning that was less formal than structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the virtuosi, who conducted their research on some of the resulting premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like - minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far different order than any university tutorial ''.
The Café Procope was established in Paris in 1686 and by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the Encyclopédie. The cafés were one of the various "nerve centers '' for bruits publics, public noise or rumour. These bruits were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.
The debating societies are an example of the public sphere during the Enlightenment. Their origins include:
In the late 1770s, popular debating societies began to move into more "genteel '' rooms, a change which helped establish a new standard of sociability. The backdrop to these developments was "an explosion of interest in the theory and practice of public elocution ''. The debating societies were commercial enterprises that responded to this demand, sometimes very successfully. Some societies welcomed from 800 to 1,200 spectators a night.
The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around "confessional '' -- that is, Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist) or Anglican issues and the main aim of these debates was to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the "monopoly of truth and a God - given title to authority ''. After this date, everything thus previously rooted in tradition was questioned and often replaced by new concepts in the light of philosophical reason. After the second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century, a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in '' and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating contest between faith and incredulity ''.
In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. However, it is important to note that the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government. In other words, the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the status quo. From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public, as women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside, spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.
Historians have long debated the extent to which the secret network of Freemasonry was a main factor in the Enlightenment. The leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Lessing, Pope, Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin and George Washington. Norman Davies said that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of liberalism in Europe from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists.
During the Age of Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like - minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals originated in Scotland around 1600 and spread first to England and then across the Continent in the eighteenth century. They fostered new codes of conduct -- including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability -- "liberty, fraternity and equality ''. Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism. Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France -- by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations. The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden and Russia. One example was the Illuminati founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons, but was never part of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.
Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self - government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives ''. In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles. Furthermore, freemasons all across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. For example, in French lodges the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened '' was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened ''. This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.
German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed: "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges ''. Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right ''. Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs. Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought. On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism and he argues that the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds. The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption '' that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.
The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.
For up to Descartes... a particular sub-iectum... lies at the foundation of its own fixed qualities and changing circumstances. The superiority of a sub-iectum... arises out of the claim of man to a... self - supported, unshakeable foundation of truth, in the sense of certainty. Why and how does this claim acquire its decisive authority? The claim originates in that emancipation of man in which he frees himself from obligation to Christian revelational truth and Church doctrine to a legislating for himself that takes its stand upon itself.
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how many episodes are there in permanent roommates season 2 | Permanent Roommates - wikipedia
Permanent Roommates is an Indian web series created by The Viral Fever (TVF) and Biswapati Sarkar. This series revolves around a young couple, Tanya and Mikesh, who after being in a long distance relationship for 3 years, face the prospect of marriage. The first season had its premiere on YouTube on October 29, 2014. The second season broadcast on TVF Play, The Viral Fever 's premium online video streaming medium, on February 14, 2016. Permanent Roommates has been renewed for a third season, which will premiere in 2018.
Permanent Roommates follows the story of commitment - wary Tanya, and Mikesh, her overeager long - distance boyfriend who returns to India from the United States of America to surprise Tanya and to ask her to marry him. Acting upon the advice of her roommate and her own reluctance to get married to someone who barely knows her, Tanya refuses, but gives in to Mikesh 's persistence. The two eventually strike a compromise, opting to move in together first. The subsequent events - a fallout, followed by a conciliation, and Tanya 's premarital pregnancy end in the two of them planning their wedding, with unforeseen consequences.
TVF Permanent Roommates has been well received by the internet audience. The first episode has more than 4.5 million views. The series, hosted on TVF 's official YouTube channel, has since gathered over 1 million views for each episode.
Permanent Roommates on IMDb
Permanent Roommates on BolDal India
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who voices the stranger in the new god of war | God of War (2018 video game) - Wikipedia
God of War is a third - person action - adventure game developed by Santa Monica Studio and published by Sony Interactive Entertainment (SIE). Released on April 20, 2018, for the PlayStation 4 (PS4) console, it is the eighth installment in the God of War series, the eighth chronologically, and the sequel to 2010 's God of War III. Unlike previous games, which were loosely based on Greek mythology, this game is loosely based on Norse mythology. The main protagonists are Kratos, the former Greek God of War, and his young son Atreus. Following the death of Kratos ' second wife and Atreus ' mother, they journey to fulfill her promise and spread her ashes at the highest peak of the nine realms. Kratos keeps his troubled past a secret from Atreus, who is unaware of his divine nature. Along their journey, they encounter monsters and gods of the Norse world.
Described by creative director Cory Barlog as a reimagining of the franchise, a major gameplay change is that Kratos prominently uses a magical battle axe instead of his signature double - chained blades. God of War also uses an over-the - shoulder free camera, with the game in one shot, as opposed to the fixed cinematic camera of the previous entries. The game includes role - playing video game elements, and Kratos ' son Atreus provides assistance in combat. The majority of the original game 's development team worked on God of War and designed the game to be accessible and grounded. A separate short text - based game, God of War: A Call from the Wilds released in February 2018, follows Atreus on his first adventure.
God of War received universal acclaim from critics, being praised for its narrative, world design, art direction, graphics, characters, and combat system. It received perfect scores from multiple reviewers, making it the highest - rated game in the God of War series, as well the third highest - rated PS4 game, on Metacritic. The game performed well commercially, selling five million copies within a month of release.
The gameplay is vastly different from the previous installments, as it was rebuilt from the ground up. Although the previous main installment, Ascension (2013), introduced multiplayer to the series, this installment is single - player - only. The game features a third - person, over-the - shoulder free camera, a departure from the previous installments, which featured a third - person, fixed cinematic camera (with the exception of 2007 's 2D side - scroller Betrayal). Cinematographically, the game is presented in a continuous shot, with no camera cuts. The game is open, but it is not open - world. Due to it being open, players can fast travel to different locations through Mystic Gateways. As the ability to swim was cut from the game, players instead use a boat to traverse bodies of water. Just like previous entries, there are puzzles for players to solve to progress through parts of the game. Enemies in the game stem from Norse mythology, such as variants of trolls, ogres, dark elves and their king, wolves, wulvers, nightmares, draugrs, tatzelwurms, as well as Gullveig and the revenants, beings warped by seiðr magic, among other original creatures. Valkyries appear as optional boss battles, and players can free the dragons Fáfnir, Otr, and Reginn -- dwarfs that were turned into dragons -- in addition to battling a dragon called Hræzlyr.
A major change is that Kratos no longer uses his signature double - chained blades, the Blades of Chaos, as his default weapon. Instead, he uses a magical battle axe, called the Leviathan Axe, which is infused with ice elemental magic. The axe can be thrown at enemies and magically summoned back to his hand (similar to Thor 's hammer Mjölnir). Larger enemies have precision targets and throwing the axe at those targets stuns the enemy. The weapon can also be thrown at environmental objects to trigger a damaging explosion and it can freeze objects and some enemies in place for puzzle solving until the axe is summoned back to Kratos ' hand. The axe has standard light and heavy attacks, and over time, it can be upgraded with runes to allow for special runic attacks, with one slot being for a light runic attack and the other for heavy. This provides players with a variety of options to cater to their own play style. For example, one of the light runic attacks allows Kratos to charge the axe and let out a burst of energy and one of the heavy runic attacks allows Kratos to summon a swirling ice storm. Another new weapon that Kratos utilizes is the Guardian Shield. When not in use, it folds up and appears like armor on Kratos ' left forearm. When summoned, the shield can be used offensively and defensively, similar to the Golden Fleece in previous games. Kratos also utilizes hand - to - hand combat, a feature originally introduced in Ascension. The Blades of Chaos are acquired late into the game via a plot device and perform similarly as they did in previous installments, but can also be upgraded with light and heavy runic attacks.
Similar to previous games, there is a "Rage '' ability called Spartan Rage. Like the previous versions, the Rage ability has a meter that gradually fills during combat. With this ability, Kratos uses powerful bare - handed attacks, as opposed to weapons, to greatly damage enemies. The game also features elements similar to role - playing video games (RPGs). There are crafting resources for the player to find that allow them to create new or upgrade existing armor with better perks. Players will also accumulate a currency called Hacksilver, a key component in crafting and purchasing new items. Experience points (XP) are used for learning new combat skills. Throughout the game world, players find chests containing random items, such as Hacksilver and enchantments for improving armor and weapons, as well as two special items, Iðunn 's Apples and Horns of Blood Mead, which increase the maximum length of the health and rage meters, respectively. Quick time events have changed from previous games. Enemies display two meters above their heads, one for health and the other for stun. Filling up the stun meter helps to defeat more difficult enemies. When the stun meter is full, a grab - prompt will appear. Depending on the enemy, Kratos may rip it in half or grab them and throw them into other enemies, among other possible outcomes.
Although the game is played entirely as Kratos, there are times when the player may choose to passively control Kratos ' son, Atreus. One button is dedicated to Atreus and its use depends on the context. For example, if the player needs assistance, they can look at an enemy, press the button, and Atreus will use his Talon Bow to shoot arrows at the enemy. The arrows have little effect on an enemy 's health, but do increase the stun meter. Over the course of the game, Atreus helps in combat, traversal, exploration, and puzzle - solving. When facing a large number of enemies, he distracts the weaker ones as Kratos fights the stronger ones. If too many enemies gang up on Atreus, he is knocked out for the remainder of that combat. Just like Kratos, Atreus acquires new skills, armor, special arrows, such as lightning arrows, as well as runic attacks for his Talon Bow, but it only has one slot instead of two. Atreus ' runic attacks summon different spectral animals with different abilities. For example, one summons a wolf that attacks enemies, while another summons the squirrel Ratatoskr that will dig up orbs to replenish Kratos ' health or rage meters.
While the first seven games were loosely based on Greek mythology, this installment takes the series to Norse mythology, but predates the Vikings. Six of the nine realms of Norse mythology can be explored. The majority of the game takes place in the realm of Midgard, inhabited by humans and other creatures and is the same realm that the Greek world had existed in. As more creatures began appearing, many humans fled. Other realms visited as part of the story include Alfheim, the mystical home of the light and dark elves, Helheim, the icy land of the dead, and Jötunheim, the mountainous land of the giants. Other explorable realms include Niflheim, a realm of poisonous fog with a maze - like structure of rewards, and the fire realm Muspelheim, featuring the six Trials of Muspelheim; completing each trial grants rewards and advances Kratos and Atreus closer to the top of a large volcano. Access to the other three realms -- Asgard, home of the Æsir gods, Vanaheim, home of the Vanir gods, and Svartalfheim, home of the dwarves -- have been blocked by the ruler of Asgard and the Æsir gods, Odin. At the center of the realms is the mythical tree Yggdrasil, which connects each realm together. Although each realm is a different world, they simultaneously exist in the same space. Travel to and from realms can be done by the use of the Bifröst from a root of Yggdrasil contained within a temple located at the center of the Lake of the Nine. The temple was created by the now dead Týr, a peaceful God of War who had traveled to other lands and learned about their mythologies; Odin had him killed as he believed Týr was secretly aiding the giants and would try to overthrow him.
The protagonists of the game are Kratos (voiced by Christopher Judge) and his young son Atreus (Sunny Suljic). Kratos is a warrior originally from Sparta who became the Greek God of War and is the son of Zeus. After ending up in Midgard, he met his second and now deceased wife, Laufey (addressed as Faye), and they bore their son, Atreus, who does not know about Kratos ' past or his divine nature, but can hear other beings ' thoughts. The main antagonist is the Æsir god Baldur (Jeremy Davies), the brother of Thor, whose sons Modi and Magni (Nolan North and Troy Baker, respectively) assist Baldur. His parents are Odin and the Vanir god Freya (Danielle Bisutti). Freya tried leaving Odin, as she did not truly love him, and Odin had her banished to Midgard, after which she became known as the Witch of the Woods. To protect her son from a prophecy that foretold his death, Freya cast a spell of immortality on Baldur, which also caused him to not feel pain or any feeling of pleasure, which he resented her for. The only thing that she could not prevent from breaking the spell was mistletoe, which she kept secret. Other characters include Mímir (Alastair Duncan), who claims to be the smartest man alive, and the Huldra Brothers Brok (Roger Craighead) and Sindri (Adam J. Harrington), a pair of dwarves who appear at various points in the world and assist Kratos and Atreus with forging new gear. Their weapons, including Thor 's hammer Mjölnir, were used by the Æsir gods and they also had forged Kratos ' Leviathan Axe, which originally belonged to Faye, who also gifted Kratos his Guardian Shield. The spirit of the Greek goddess Athena (Carole Ruggier) makes a cameo appearance, and Zeus (Corey Burton) appears as an illusion to Kratos in Helheim.
Many years have passed since Kratos took his vengeance against the Olympian gods, and he now lives with his young son Atreus in Midgard. The game opens following the death of Kratos ' second wife and Atreus ' mother, Faye, whose last wish was for her ashes to be spread at the highest peak of the nine realms. Before beginning their journey, Kratos is confronted by a mysterious man with godlike powers. After seemingly killing him, Kratos and Atreus set out on their journey.
Reaching the Lake of the Nine, Kratos and Atreus encounter the friendly World Serpent, Jörmungandr. After running into impenetrable black mist which can only be extinguished with the Light of Alfheim, they receive aid from the Witch of the Woods to use the Bifröst in order to travel to Alfheim and secure the Light. Upon vanquishing the mist and reaching Midgard 's peak, they overhear a conversation between the mysterious man, revealed to be Baldur, his nephews Modi and Magni, and the imprisoned Mímir. After they leave, Kratos and Atreus confront Mímir, who reveals that their goal is actually in Jötunheim, but travel there has been blocked to keep out Odin and Thor. Mímir, however, knows another passage. He instructs Kratos to cut off his head and have it revived by the Witch of the Woods, revealed to be Freya. Kratos immediately distrusts her, but both Freya and Mímir warn him that he must tell Atreus about his true nature.
Kratos, Atreus, and Mímir 's head journey to collect needed components to open Jötunheim 's portal when they are attacked by Modi and Magni. After Kratos kills Magni, Modi flees, but later returns and ambushes them. Atreus collapses ill, which Mímir and Freya explain is a mental contradiction of a god believing himself to be mortal. She tells Kratos that he must retrieve the heart of the Keeper of the Bridge of the Damned in Helheim, but his Leviathan Axe is useless there. Kratos then returns home to unearth his old weapons, the Blades of Chaos, and is haunted by Athena 's spirit, who goads him about his past. After retrieving the heart, he has a haunting vision of Zeus. Atreus is cured and Kratos tells him that he is a god. Atreus then becomes increasingly arrogant on their journey, and he murders a weakened Modi, despite Kratos ordering not to. At Midgard 's peak, they are ambushed by Baldur, resulting in Jötunheim 's portal being destroyed and the group falling into Helheim.
Atreus makes amends with Kratos and they find out about Freya and Baldur 's familial relationship. Returning to Midgard, Mímir realizes there is another way to reach Jötunheim, but it requires recovering his missing eye. After obtaining it from Jörmungandr 's belly, who had inadvertently swallowed it when he ate a statue of Thor, they are attacked by Baldur again, but Freya intervenes in an attempt to protect her son. During the fight, Baldur is pierced by Atreus ' mistletoe arrow, breaking Freya 's spell on him. Baldur is defeated, and although Kratos gives him an opportunity to retreat, he instead attempts to strangle Freya, forcing Kratos to kill him. A grieving Freya swears revenge on Kratos and taunts him about hiding his true nature from Atreus. Kratos finally tells Atreus about his past and how he had killed his fellow Greek gods, including his father, Zeus. Atreus laments if patricide is all that gods are good for. Kratos tells Atreus that they should both learn from their experiences and not repeat the mistakes of their predecessors. A silent Freya leaves with Baldur 's corpse and Mímir hopefully suggests that she will eventually move on from the tragedy and that Kratos did the right thing.
In Jötunheim, they find a temple with a mural depicting their adventures, showing that the giants had foreseen everything that would happen and vaguely foretold what was to come. In addition, they discover that Faye was a giant who decided to stay behind in Midgard, making Atreus part giant, part god, and part mortal. Their fight with Baldur was shown, revealing he was actually after Faye the whole time. It is also revealed that Atreus was named Loki by his mother. Wondering if Faye planned this in advance, Kratos and Atreus fulfill their promise and spread her ashes at the peak. Afterwards, Kratos reveals to Atreus that his given name was also the name of a compassionate Spartan comrade. When they return to Midgard, Mímir warns them that the three - year long Fimbulwinter has started, meaning Ragnarök is soon to follow, which was not supposed to occur for another hundred years.
In the game 's secret ending, Kratos and Atreus return home and slumber. Atreus has a vision that at the end of Fimbulwinter, Thor will arrive at their home to confront them.
At the first annual PlayStation Experience on December 6, 2014, Santa Monica Studios 's creative director Cory Barlog confirmed that a new God of War was in very early development. He said that the game would not be a prequel, but it might be a reboot. In April 2016, Polygon reported that concept art of the next installment had been leaked. The images showed Kratos in the world of Norse mythology; a concept originally considered by series creator David Jaffe after Kratos eliminated the Greek gods. At the 2016 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3), the next installment was officially announced with a gameplay demo and confirmed the concept art to be true. The demo showed a fully bearded Kratos with a son, and Kratos was teaching the boy how to hunt. The pair also battled a troll. The end of the demo showed the title God of War and confirmed it was in development for the PlayStation 4. E3 also confirmed that Barlog had returned to the series as game director for the new installment. Barlog has been a major contributor in the development of the God of War series since the original installment in 2005, with his prior most notable role being game director of God of War II (2007). This new installment was his fifth God of War game.
In naming the game, Barlog stated that it was deliberately titled God of War with no numeral or subtitle because although it is a continuation of the series, "we are reimagining everything. '' Head of Santa Monica Studio Shannon Studstill and Barlog said that Sony Interactive Entertainment had to be convinced to do another God of War game as a lot of people at Sony wanted the series to "sleep and rest '' due to the lackluster response of the previous game, Ascension. In explaining why Barlog was brought back, Studstill said that he knew the series very well, "and bringing in someone that understands that history is the respect the franchise deserves. '' Barlog followed up and said that "You got ta know the rules to break the rules. '' Series creator David Jaffe was also considered, but was unavailable.
In explaining the transition from Greek mythology to Norse mythology, Barlog said: "it 's kind of this BC -- AD change over kind of thing. We 're moving and starting from zero and kind of moving forward on that. '' Before settling on Norse mythology, Egyptian mythology was also considered. Barlog said that half of the team was for it, but since "there 's a lot more about civilization - it 's less isolated, less barren '', he had to make the decision and decided on the Norse setting because they wanted the focus to stay on Kratos: "Having too much around distracts from that central theme of a stranger in a strange land. '' In explaining why Kratos was now in the Norse world, Barlog said that different cultures ' belief systems coexisted, but they were "separated by geography '', suggesting that Kratos traveled from Greece to Norway (Scandinavia) after the conclusion of God of War III; in clarifying the conclusion of that game, Barlog said that Kratos did not destroy what was believed to be the entire world, but only the portion that was ruled over by the Greeks. Barlog said that the new game predates the Vikings; it is the time in which their gods walked the Earth. It was also confirmed that this would not be Kratos ' last game. Barlog said that future games could see the series tackling Egyptian or Mayan mythology, and that although this game focuses on Norse mythology, it alludes to the fact that there are other mythologies co-existing in the world. Barlog also said that he liked the idea of having different directors for each game, seen throughout the first seven games, and although he may not direct another God of War, he would still be at Santa Monica to work on future games.
Most of the development team that worked on the original God of War worked on the new installment. They claimed that they matched the new gameplay with the same level of accessibility as the previous installments. It was confirmed that the game would not feature any morality system or branching story; all players have the same story experience. The developers also confirmed that some of the more controversial mini-games found in previous entries (such as the sex mini-game) would not return. Some gameplay characteristics found in the previous installments were cut, such as jumping, swimming, and instant - death platforming challenges; these were cut due to the camera being closer to Kratos. Although the previous installment, Ascension, introduced multiplayer to the series, the team decided to drop the mode to focus on the single - player experience. In changing the gameplay, Studstill said "I felt like, in order to reinvent, we really needed to turn a lot of things around. '' In regards to the camera change, Barlog said "We wanted a much more intimate experience, a much more up close, and a much more player - controlled experience, so the camera really is a mechanic that (we leaned) into heavily for everything in the game. '' Explaining Kratos ' axe, lead gameplay designer Jason McDonald, who has worked on the series since the original game, said the axe was chosen because they wanted a more grounded direction for the game. Initially, they were unsure how to make it unique, like how the double - chained blades were. After they came up with the concept of throwing the axe and having it return to Kratos, "things started to fall into place. '' McDonald said that combat with the axe is a little slower than what it was with the blades, "but it 's just as fluid and just as brutal as it 's ever been. '' Barlog took inspiration from Dark Souls (2011), which influenced the game 's combat system, particularly its gameplay loop and strategic decision - making, as well as the game 's approach to storytelling. In addition, designers Anthony Dimento and Luis Sanchez revealed how God of War 's level design and exploration was influenced by Bloodborne (2015), as they wanted to "just have the world breathe a little bit '' and expand upon player discovery by including "micro-loops where you 're unlocking paths, unlocking shortcuts... '' that gave purpose.
The entire game was done in a single shot, as in no camera cuts, meaning there are no loading screens or fade - to - black between gameplay and cutscenes. The frame rate was confirmed as 30 frames per second, and the enemy count was increased to up to 100 enemies on - screen; God of War III and Ascension could do up to 50. Unlike the previous games, Santa Monica did not make a demo specifically for public release. Barlog explained that doing so would have delayed the game by a couple of months. He also confirmed that the game was built for the standard PlayStation 4, but the game would "benefit from the power '' of the PlayStation 4 Pro; an updated version of the PlayStation 4 that can render games in 4K and was released a few months after God of War was announced. In late December 2016, Barlog confirmed that the game was playable from start to finish. At the 2017 PlayStation Experience, Barlog said that the game 's story would take 25 - 35 hours to complete, which is significantly more than the previous four main installments, which each took an average of 10 hours to complete.
At E3 2017, a new trailer was shown featuring new gameplay, cinematics, and characters. In the trailer, Kratos was shown using a shield that he could use offensively and defensively. At one point in the trailer, Kratos finds a Greek vase with himself on it, wielding his infamous double - chained blades. During the trailer, an unnamed woman warns Kratos about the Norse gods, as they know what he did to the Greek gods, while a pair of wolves were also shown. The trailer ends with Kratos and Atreus encountering the World Serpent. Atreus was able to translate what it said, which was that it wanted to help the pair. It was confirmed that the game would release in early 2018. Since E3 2017 until the game 's launch, Santa Monica included a section on the God of War website titled "The Lost Pages '', detailing some of the lore of God of War 's Nordic world. In January 2018, the game 's release date was confirmed for April 20, 2018. A trailer was also released that showed that the character Mímir from the mythology would have a role in the game. On March 22, God of War went gold.
During early development, there was talk about having a different protagonist for the game, but it was decided to keep Kratos. Referencing the Nintendo character Mario and the Mario games, Barlog said that just like Mario, "Kratos is intrinsically tied '' to the God of War series. In regards to the new changes, Barlog said that:
I knew I did n't want to simply reboot the franchise, starting over with a retelling of the origin story. I wanted to reimagine the gameplay, give players a fresh perspective and a new tactile experience while delving deeper into the emotional journey of Kratos to explore the compelling drama that unfolds when an immortal demigod makes a decision to change.
Barlog explained that Kratos had to change his cycle of violence and learn how to control his rage. He said that Kratos had made many bad decisions, which led to the destruction of Olympus, and wanted to know what would happen if Kratos made a good decision. The birth of Barlog 's own son influenced the idea of Kratos ' character change. The canceled live - action Star Wars television series was also an influence. The bond between Kratos and his son is at the heart of the game and Barlog said "This game is about Kratos teaching his son how to be a god, and his son teaching Kratos how to be human again. '' Referencing the Marvel Comics character Hulk, Barlog said that in regards to Kratos, "We 've already told the story of The Hulk. We want to tell the story of (Bruce) Banner now. '' One of their goals was to make Kratos "a more nuanced and interesting character. '' In changing the narrative focus, Studstill said "I think we inherently knew the franchise needed to evolve in that emotional beat and be something meatier for the older generation of gamers. ''
Christopher Judge, best known as Teal'c from Stargate SG - 1, replaced T.C. Carson as the voice of Kratos; Carson had voiced Kratos since the original God of War. Commenting in response to the change, Carson said, "Sony went in a new direction. '' Barlog explained that the way the previous games were made, they were able to have someone else do the motion capture instead of the voice actor. Although Carson had done the motion capture for Kratos in Ascension, Barlog said the actor change was made because of the type of camera work they wanted to do. For the new camera work, they needed someone who was closer to Kratos ' size to do the motion capture along with a child. Carson was unsuitable for this because he was much shorter than Kratos, who is over 6 - feet tall: "Offsetting (Carson 's height) for the size of a child, it turned out it was going to be almost impossible to try and actually shoot them and go in and redo the animations. '' Judge was chosen because he was 6 - foot - 3 and had the body of a professional football player. He was also chosen because of the chemistry with his then - 10 - year - old co-star, Sunny Suljic, who plays Kratos ' son Atreus; Suljic 's opinion was also sought in making the decision, and out of all the auditions, he liked Judge the most. The two bonded well, and Judge described his time with Suljic as time he had missed with his own children. In stepping into the role of Kratos, Judge took it as an opportunity to add something new to the character. He researched the character and Carson 's performance, but decided not to imitate it. Since Santa Monica were going in a new direction, he decided to start fresh and go from there. Judge was thrown off when he first read the script, stating it "was a real script '', and not just "a way to get into battles. '' He said "it was really this great story of this relationship and this crazy mythology. '' While Judge did all of Kratos ' motion capture for the cinematic scenes, stuntman Eric Jacobus did all of Kratos ' combat motion capture; Jacobus was found by God of War 's animators on YouTube. Instead of going directly to Santa Monica to audition, Jacobus recorded an audition tape and they immediately hired him.
During E3 2016, GameSpot mistakenly reported that Kratos ' son 's name was Charlie, which Barlog laughingly denied. In January 2017, after a fan downloaded the God of War overture and saw the track 's details that said "An introduction to Kratos and Atreus '', Barlog confirmed on Twitter that Atreus was in fact the son 's name. Barlog said that Atreus was unaware that Kratos was a demigod, and did not know about his past. They did not reveal details of Atreus ' mother prior to release due to her being a critical part of the story. Barlog stated that during gameplay, Atreus would be "like magic, an additional combat resource, and (the player is) training him and teaching him. '' The developers stated that Atreus would not be a burden during gameplay. The team experimented with several different approaches for Atreus to ensure that he was an empowering presence. Barlog said he did not want the game to be an escort - mission where the A.I. caused a problem for the player. Their goal was for Atreus to enhance Kratos ' capabilities without Atreus becoming a liability. This resulted in the developers designating a command button for Atreus as well as for him to act freely. During combat, Atreus was also designed to call out enemy locations, as due to the camera being closer to Kratos, some enemies may be difficult for the player to see. Jason McDonald said it took a lot of iterations with the enemies and Atreus to make it all work together.
Early in development, it was suggested for Atreus to be cut or to significantly minimize his role due to the many developmental challenges and financial expense. Barlog stated that the game could have worked without Atreus, but it would have been completely different, likening it to that of the 2013 film All Is Lost. Barlog said that with just Kratos, it would have been "one character who talks to himself occasionally, but generally, it will be very silent and everyone will talk in old Norse, so that you wo n't understand anything anybody 's saying. '' After hearing Barlog 's case, Sony gave him the freedom to incorporate Atreus. Lead level designer Rob Davis also noted that with Atreus, it allowed for "significant gameplay and storytelling opportunities that might not otherwise (been) possible. ''
Bear McCreary, best known for his work on television shows such as Battlestar Galactica and The Walking Dead, scored God of War and composed themes for the game. McCreary said that he was called into Santa Monica Studio in November 2014 to meet with music producers Peter Scaturro and Keith Leary to discuss "a secret project ''; McCreary had previously collaborated with Scaturro and Leary on 2011 's SOCOM 4: U.S. Navy SEALs. Ideas of folk music, mythology, Nordic ethnic instruments, vocal writing, and classical thematic development were discussed, to which McCreary correctly guessed that the discussions were about a new God of War. He met with Barlog early on, and they discussed Barlog 's narrative vision for the game. After meeting with Barlog, he felt that the franchise was in good hands because God of War II, which Barlog also directed, was his favorite installment.
McCreary 's initial efforts focused on writing the new main theme, or what he called the Kratos Theme. He spent several months working with Barlog, Scaturro, Leary, Sony music director Chuck Doud, and the rest of the development team in making this new theme. McCreary described the Kratos Theme as "arguably one of my most structurally satisfying and catchy melodies. '' The main theme features low orchestral instruments, Icelandic choir, deep male vocals, powerful female vocals (in particular Faroese singer Eivør Pálsdóttir), folk percussion, and Nordic stringed instruments, such as the nyckelharpa and hurdy gurdy. When it was decided that God of War would be revealed at E3 2016, Sony wanted McCreary to perform his original score with a live orchestra at the press conference. McCreary opened the show with the new main theme before the unveiling of God of War, and performed the gameplay demo 's music live during the presentation. On January 13, 2017, a live recording from E3 2016 of God of War 's overture was released for free for a limited time. Barlog released the overture as a thank you to fans for God of War 's E3 2016 trailer reaching fifteen million views on YouTube.
The game was released worldwide on April 20, 2018, for the PlayStation 4. In addition to the standard base game, there were three special editions: the Stone Mason Edition, the Collector 's Edition, and the Digital Deluxe Edition. Only available in the United States and Canada, the Stone Mason Edition came with several physical items, including the base game in a SteelBook case, a 9 - inch (230 mm) statue of Kratos and Atreus that was created by Gentle Giant, 2 - inch (51 mm) carvings of the Huldra Brothers, a horse, and a troll, an exclusive lithograph, a cloth map, a stone mason 's ring, and a keychain of Mímir 's head that talks. There was also various downloadable content (DLC), including an exclusive shield skin, in addition to an armor set and another shield skin for Kratos, a PlayStation 4 dynamic theme, a digital artbook, and God of War # 0 by Dark Horse Comics. The Collector 's Edition came with many of the same items, minus the ring, the keychain, the 2 - inch (51 mm) carvings of the horse and troll, and the exclusive shield skin. The Digital Deluxe Edition comes with all of the digital content, minus the exclusive shield skin. U.S. and Canadian customers also received a Kratos and Atreus pin for pre-ordering the Digital Deluxe Edition. Pre-orders at select retailers received three skins for Kratos ' shield, while pre-orders from GameStop or EB Games also received a "Luck of Ages XP Talisman '', granting increased XP gain, increased Hacksilver gain, and increased ability to trigger perks.
In addition to the special editions of the game, a Limited Edition PlayStation 4 Pro bundle was also available the same day as the game 's release. The bundle included the standard base game, a PlayStation 4 Pro console decorated with the runes as on Kratos ' axe, and a similarly themed DualShock 4 controller with the God of War logo. Game Director Cory Barlog confirmed that God of War would not have microtransactions post-launch, a feature that has become prominent with other recent games and negatively criticized. Since launch, Santa Monica has supported the game via patch updates to address software bugs. Additionally, the developers added a Photo Mode in update patch 1.20, released on May 9, 2018. Photo Mode allows players to take customized in - game screenshots. Players can adjust the field of view, depth of view, filters, borders, the visibility of characters, and the ability to change the facial expressions of Kratos and Atreus.
God of War: A Call from the Wilds is a text - based game playable through Facebook Messenger. To help further promote God of War, Sony partnered with Facebook to develop the play - by - web game, which released on February 1, 2018. Completing the game unlocks downloadable concept art. The short story follows Atreus on his first adventure in the Norse wilds. After archery training and learning runes with his mother, Atreus adventures into the wilderness after telepathically hearing the voice of a dying deer; he finds it covered in blood and stays with it during its final moments. A couple of draugrs appear and Atreus attempts to fight them, but is injured. He is saved by his father, Kratos, who was out hunting. The two then battle a revenant before returning home.
God of War received "universal acclaim '' according to review aggregator Metacritic, tying it with the original God of War for the highest score in the franchise. It has the third highest score of all - time for a PlayStation 4 game, and the highest score for an original, non-remastered PlayStation 4 game. It is the highest rated PlayStation 4 game of 2018, and is tied with the Xbox One version of Celeste for the highest score of 2018, regardless of platform. God of War received particular praise for its art direction, graphics, combat system, music, story, use of Norse mythology, characters, and cinematic feeling. Critics called the game a "technical achievement '' and one of the most impressive - looking games developed for consoles. Many also felt that it had successfully revitalized the series without losing the core identity of its predecessors.
During its release week in the UK, God of War became the fastest - selling entry in the franchise, selling 35 % more physical copies than God of War III. As of 21 May, 2018, the game had remained at the top of the all format sales chart for five consecutive weeks, setting a record for a PlayStation 4 exclusive having the most consecutive weeks at number one. It sold 46,091 copies within its first week on sale in Japan, which placed it at number two on the sales chart.
The game sold over 3 million copies in three days after its release, making it the fastest - selling PlayStation 4 exclusive. The game was the fastest selling game of the month of its release and contributed to the PS4 being the best selling console of that month. In total, the game sold over five million copies in its first month, with 2.1 million in digital sales.
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is season 8 the last of the vampire diaries | The Vampire Diaries (season 8) - Wikipedia
The Vampire Diaries, an American supernatural drama, was renewed for an eighth season by The CW on March 11, 2016. On July 23, 2016, the CW announced that the upcoming season would be the series ' last and would consist of 16 episodes. The season premiered on October 21, 2016 and concluded on March 10, 2017.
Filming for the season began on July 20, 2016. It was announced on July 23, 2016, that season 8 of The Vampire Diaries would be the series ' last. The season would contain 16 episodes. Filming for the season ended on February 8, 2017.
On January 26, 2017, it was announced that Nina Dobrev would return as Elena Gilbert in the series finale. At the end of the episode, "It 's Been a Hell of a Ride '' on February 24, 2017, it was revealed that Dobrev would reprise her role of Katherine Pierce as well.
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who won the pittsburgh steeler baltimore raven game | Ravens -- Steelers rivalry - wikipedia
Super Bowl Championships (4)
Conference Championships (5)
Divisional Championships (15)
The Ravens -- Steelers rivalry is a National Football League (NFL) rivalry between the Baltimore Ravens and the Pittsburgh Steelers. Since the 2000s, it has widely been considered to be one of the greatest and most intense rivalries in the National Football League. Both teams are members of the American Football Conference North division (formerly the AFC Central). Since the Ravens ' inception in 1996, they have played at least twice a year, often for divisional supremacy. Both teams are known for fielding tough, hard - hitting defensive squads, giving their games an extra element of physical intensity.
The two teams have met in the postseason four times, with the Steelers owning a 3 -- 1 advantage. They are the only two teams in the AFC Central / North to have won the Super Bowl, and possess a combined 8 -- 2 record in the game, with the Ravens being 2 -- 0 and the Steelers being 6 -- 2. Both teams have won two Super Bowls since the rivalry began.
In 1996, NFL football returned to Baltimore, 12 years after the original Baltimore Colts moved to Indianapolis. In a strange twist of fate, Art Modell, former owner of the Steelers ' traditional rival, the Cleveland Browns, agreed to suspend the Browns franchise in return for taking his players and personnel to Baltimore. The inter-divisional rivalry carried over with both teams remaining in what was then the AFC Central Division. On September 8, 1996, the Steelers handed Baltimore its first loss as a franchise, 31 -- 17 in Pittsburgh. In December, the Ravens defeated the playoff - bound Steelers by the same score in Baltimore. The Steelers would dominate the rivalry early on, winning six of the first seven meetings. However, since the AFC Central was restructured into the AFC North in 2002, the Ravens and Steelers have mostly dominated the division, whilst battling to a 17 -- 16 record. In 2005, Sports Illustrated ranked the rivalry # 2 on a list of "Top 10 New NFL Rivalries ''. By 2015, Bleacher Report had ranked it the # 1 rivalry in all of the NFL. One of the rivalry 's most memorable moments was Ravens linebacker Terrell Suggs being quoted as saying that a "bounty '' was put out on the head of Steelers wide receiver Hines Ward. The bounty controversy was cleared up when Suggs insisted his words were just meant as a joke. The NFL investigated, and Suggs was cleared of any wrongdoing.
In Baltimore, it has the added element of a small number of former Colts fans in the area becoming Steeler fans after the Colts moved, then retaining their affiliation with the Steelers after the Ravens moved to Baltimore and assumed the Cleveland Browns ' spot in the AFC Central with the Steelers. In Pittsburgh, it is considered the spiritual successor to the Browns -- Steelers rivalry due to the Cleveland Browns relocation controversy as well as the "reactivated '' Browns having a poor record against the Steelers since returning to the league in 1999. Due to its physical nature, it has received comparisons to the rivalry the Steelers had with the Oakland Raiders in the 1970s, when those two teams were among the most physical teams in the league. Both teams have also handed each other their first loss in their current stadiums; the Steelers handed the Ravens their first loss at PSINet Stadium (now M&T Bank Stadium) in 1998, while the Ravens returned the favor by handing the Steelers their first loss at Heinz Field in 2001.
A notable battleground for the rivalry is the Harrisburg, Pennsylvania market area. Harrisburg is officially a secondary market for the Ravens, and so WHP - TV must show all Ravens road games (if played on Sunday afternoon). The Steelers also have a significant fan base in the area, so when the Ravens are at home, the Steelers are shown instead. The Harrisburg area also has a significant fan base for the Philadelphia Eagles, who also have Harrisburg as a secondary market (but are in the NFC as opposed to the Ravens and Steelers being in the AFC, and so the Fox affiliate usually shows the Eagles). The Colts had a number of fans in Harrisburg as well during their stay in Baltimore.
The Ravens and Steelers first met on September 8, 1996, at Three Rivers Stadium in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which resulted in a 31 -- 17 win for the Steelers. Later in the 1996 NFL season, on December 1, the Ravens beat the Steelers by the same score of 31 -- 17 at Memorial Stadium in Baltimore, Maryland. After splitting the games in their first season together, the Steelers would go on to mostly dominate the series in the early years, winning nine of thirteen meetings (including a Divisional Playoff game) before the AFC Central was restructured into the AFC North in 2002. From 2002 to 2007, the rivals split their games 6 -- 6, signaling a more competitive and fierce era for the rivalry.
The rivalry reached a new height of intensity during the 2008 NFL season, when the Ravens and Steelers played three times, the final match being the AFC Championship game. The Steelers won all three games by close margins. In Week 4 at Pittsburgh, the Steelers won on a 46 - yard field goal in overtime. In Week 15 at Baltimore, the Steelers beat the Ravens with a controversial score late in the game, also winning the AFC North championship that game. In the playoff game, a personal foul by special teams player Daren Stone cost the Ravens 25 yards. The game 's last score was an interception that was returned for a touchdown by Troy Polamalu, sealing a 23 -- 14 victory for Pittsburgh. In that same game the Steelers ' Ryan Clark delivered a concussion - inducing, but legal hit on the Ravens ' Willis McGahee that left Clark briefly out cold and forced McGahee to spend the night in a Pittsburgh hospital. The Steelers went on to win Super Bowl XLIII against the Arizona Cardinals.
The bitter rivalry continued in the 2009 NFL season; the Ravens won 20 -- 17 at M&T Bank Stadium and the Steelers won 23 -- 20 at Heinz Field. Both the Ravens and the Steelers finished the season with 9 -- 7 records, but Baltimore won a Wild Card slot over Pittsburgh due to a better division record. The Ravens won the Wild Card game by defeating the New England Patriots 33 -- 14, but lost to the Indianapolis Colts the following game.
In 2010, Steelers head coach Mike Tomlin called the Ravens -- Steelers rivalry the best rivalry in football during a press conference and on the ESPN show Pardon the Interruption. Ravens head coach John Harbaugh later agreed with this assessment. The Ravens and Steelers met three times again in the 2010 NFL season, with the Ravens winning the first game and the Steelers winning the last two, including the Divisional Playoff game. On the opening Sunday of the 2011 NFL season, the Ravens forced seven turnovers and routed the Steelers 35 -- 7 at M&T Bank Stadium to avenge their Divisional Playoff loss to the Steelers from January. During Week 9 of the season, the Steelers were on the verge of winning their game against the Ravens at Heinz Field. The Steelers were ready to potentially increase their lead with a 47 - yard field goal kick by Shaun Suisham, but a five - yard delay of game penalty put them out of field goal range and they instead decided to punt the ball to the Ravens. In the end, Joe Flacco threw a 26 - yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Torrey Smith in the end zone with just eight seconds remaining, giving the Ravens the win and a season sweep of the Steelers. This would mark the last time Ravens linebacker Ray Lewis would play against the Steelers, as he was injured during the teams ' two meetings in 2012 and retired following his win in Super Bowl XLVII.
In the 2012 NFL season, the Ravens and Steelers split their games; the road team won each meeting with a Ravens win at Heinz Field and a Steelers win at M&T Bank Stadium. The rivalry saw a rare moment of peace on September 23, 2012, when Ravens receiver Torrey Smith received news that his brother died in a motorcycle accident early in the morning. Following an inspired, two - touchdown and 127 - yard performance in a 31 -- 30 win over the New England Patriots, Smith noted that several players across the NFL, including members of the Pittsburgh Steelers, had contacted him to express their condolences. The Ravens captured their second consecutive AFC North championship in 2012 (having also won the division in 2011), and won Super Bowl XLVII against the San Francisco 49ers at the end of the season.
On October 20, 2013, at Heinz Field, the Steelers won 19 -- 16 on a Shaun Suisham field goal as time expired after Ben Roethlisberger drove the Steelers into field goal range. Later that year, the two teams met at M&T Bank Stadium for a prime - time match - up on Thanksgiving Day, giving the Ravens their second Thanksgiving game in three years and the Steelers their first Thanksgiving game since the infamous Jerome Bettis coin - toss fiasco in 1998. It was also the first time the two teams played each other on Thanksgiving. The Ravens won the game 22 -- 20 in a nail biter, preventing a last - minute 2 - point conversion and forcing a split between the rivals in the 2013 NFL season. The game included an infamous moment when Steelers head coach Mike Tomlin interfered on the sidelines with what would have possibly been a return touchdown by Jacoby Jones, eventually resulting in a $100,000 fine.
In Week 2 of the 2014 NFL season, the Ravens beat the Steelers 26 -- 6 at M&T Bank Stadium, which marked the first time since 2011 that the Steelers did not score a touchdown in a game. In Week 9, the Steelers defeated the Ravens 43 -- 23 at Heinz Field. Unlike the typical, close games of the rivalry, each team had beaten the other by 20 points at their respective home fields in the regular season. At halftime during the Week 9 game, the Steelers retired Jersey No. 75 in honor of defensive tackle Joe Greene, who had helped lead the legendary "Steel Curtain '' defense of the 1970s. Though the Steelers went on to win the AFC North with an 11 -- 5 record in the 2014 season, the 10 -- 6 Ravens would earn their first playoff victory over their rival on January 3, 2015, with a 30 -- 17 win at Heinz Field in the Wild Card round.
The 2 -- 1 Steelers hosted the 0 -- 3 Ravens at Heinz Field for a prime - time game in Week 4 of the 2015 NFL season. With Roethlisberger injured, the Steelers started Michael Vick in the contest. The Steelers built a 20 -- 7 lead by the third quarter, but the Ravens were able to rally and bring the game into overtime 20 -- 20, with 13 unanswered points by the offense and two missed field goals by Steelers ' kicker Josh Scobee. Ravens ' kicker Justin Tucker won the game on a 52 - yard field goal to give the Ravens their first win of the year, also improving the Ravens ' record to 4 -- 1 against the Steelers in overtime games. The two teams met again at M&T Bank Stadium in Week 16 for their second meeting of the season. The Ravens started Ryan Mallett in the game since Joe Flacco had suffered a season - ending injury several weeks before. Despite being big underdogs due to injuries and a subpar record, the Ravens were able to complete a sweep of the Steelers with a 20 -- 17 upset victory.
In the ninth week of the 2016 NFL season, the 4 -- 3 Steelers and 3 -- 4 Ravens met at M&T Bank Stadium, each team having an opportunity to gain control of the AFC North. Behind a defense that shut out the Steelers for the first three quarters, the Ravens emerged victorious 21 -- 14, taking the lead in the division and evening the teams ' records at 4 -- 4. In the rematch at Heinz Field on Christmas Day, the 9 -- 5 Steelers prevailed over the 8 -- 6 Ravens in a back - and - forth game 31 -- 27, snapping a four - game losing streak to the Ravens. The win secured the AFC North championship for Pittsburgh and eliminated Baltimore from playoff contention. On October 1, 2017, the Steelers beat the Ravens 26 -- 9 at M&T Bank Stadium, which gave the Steelers their first win in Baltimore since 2012. The Steelers completed a sweep of the Ravens in the 2017 NFL season with a 39 -- 38 victory at Heinz Field on December 10, 2017. The victory also clinched the division for the Steelers for the second consecutive season.
The following is a list of results from all of the meetings between the Ravens and Steelers, from their first meeting on September 8, 1996, to the present:
Najeh Davenport tries to escape from the Ravens defense, 2006.
Ben Roethlisberger getting sacked by the Ravens, 2006.
Roethlisberger hands off to Willie Parker, 2006.
Captains from both teams meet for the coin toss, 2006
Tyrone Carter (23) and Anthony Madison (37) prepare to tackle a Raven runner, 2006.
Ben Roethlisberger, Trevor Pryce (90), and Terrell Suggs (55) in 2006.
Hines Ward makes a catch for the Steelers, 2006.
Parker running against Ravens players (left to right) Haloti Ngata, Ray Lewis, and Terrell Suggs, 2006.
Ray Lewis (52) and Terrell Suggs (55) of the Ravens chase down Steelers runningback Parker, 2006.
The Ravens walking off the field after beating the Steelers, 2006.
A game in 2008. For the Ravens, CB Fabian Washington is # 31, and OLB / DE Jarret Johnson is # 95. For the Steelers, WR Santonio Holmes is # 10.
A game in 2008. Visible for the Ravens are CB Corey Ivy (35), LB Bart Scott (57), and CB Chris McAlister (21). Ben Roethlisberger takes the snap.
A game in 2008. Visible for the Steelers are LB Larry Foote (50), LB Lawrence Timmons (94), and DE / LB James Harrison (92). For the Ravens, TE # 86 Todd Heap, FB # 33 LeRon McClain, and QB # 5 Joe Flacco can be seen.
A view of Heinz Field during a September, 2008 game.
A coin toss in 2009.
A game at M&T Bank Stadium in 2012.
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when does sing it start on sky 1 | BBC Radio 1 - Wikipedia
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BBC Radio 1 is a British radio station operated by the British Broadcasting Corporation which also broadcasts internationally, specialising in modern and current popular music and chart hits throughout the day. Radio 1 provides alternative genres after 7: 00 pm, including electronic dance, hip hop, rock, indie or interviews. It was launched in 1967 to meet the demand for music generated by pirate radio stations, when the average age of the UK population was 27. Recently, the BBC claimed that it still targets the 15 -- 29 age group, although the average age of its UK audience in 2008 had risen to 33. BBC Radio 1 started 24 - hour broadcasting on 1 May 1991.
Radio 1 was established in 1967 (along with the more middle of the road BBC Radio 2) as a successor to the BBC Light Programme, which had broadcast popular music and other entertainment since 1945. Radio 1 was conceived as a direct response to the popularity of offshore pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline and Radio London, which had been outlawed by Act of Parliament. Radio 1 was launched at 6: 55 am on Saturday 30 September 1967.
Broadcasts were on 247 metres (1215 kHz) medium wave, using a network of transmitters which had carried the Light Programme. Most were of comparatively low power, at less than 50 kilowatts, leading to patchy coverage of the country.
The first disc jockey to broadcast on the new station was Tony Blackburn, whose cheery style, first heard on Radio Caroline and Radio London, won him the prime slot on what became known as the "Radio 1 Breakfast Show ''. The first words on Radio 1 -- after a countdown by the Controller of Radios 1 and 2, Robin Scott, and a jingle, recorded at PAMS in Dallas, Texas, beginning "The voice of Radio 1 '' -- were:
This was the first use of US - style jingles on BBC radio, but the style was familiar to listeners who were acquainted with Blackburn and other DJs from their days on pirate radio. The reason jingles from PAMS were used was that the Musicians ' Union would not agree to a single fee for the singers and musicians if the jingles were made "in - house '' by the BBC; they wanted repeat fees each time one was played.
The first music to be heard on the station was "Theme One '', specially composed for the launch by George Martin. It was followed by an extract from "Beefeaters '' by Johnny Dankworth. The first complete record played on Radio 1 was "Flowers in the Rain '' by The Move. The second single was "Massachusetts '' by The Bee Gees. The breakfast show remains the most prized slot in the Radio 1 schedule, with every change of breakfast show presenter exciting considerable media interest.
The initial rota of staff included John Peel and a gaggle of others, some transferred from pirate stations, such as Keith Skues, Ed Stewart, Mike Raven, David Ryder, Jim Fisher, Jimmy Young, Dave Cash, Kenny Everett, Simon Dee, Terry Wogan, Duncan Johnson, Doug Crawford, Tommy Vance, Chris Denning, Emperor Rosko, Pete Murray, and Bob Holness. Many of the most popular pirate radio voices, such as Simon Dee, had only a one - hour slot per week ("Midday Spin. '')
Initially, the station was unpopular with some of its target audience who, it is claimed, disliked the fact that much of its airtime was shared with Radio 2 and that it was less unequivocally aimed at a young audience than the offshore stations, with some DJs such as Jimmy Young being in their 40s. The very fact that it was part of an "establishment '' institution such as the BBC was a turn - off for some, and needle time restrictions prevented it from playing as many records as offshore stations had. It also had limited finances (partly because the BBC did not increase its licence fee to fund the new station) and often, as in January 1975, suffered disproportionately when the BBC had to make financial cutbacks, strengthening an impression that it was regarded as a lower priority by senior BBC executives.
Despite this, it gained massive audiences, becoming the most listened - to station in the world with audiences of over 10 million claimed for some of its shows (up to 20 million for some of the combined Radio 1 and Radio 2 shows). In the early - mid-1970s Radio 1 presenters were rarely out of the British tabloids, thanks to the Publicity Department 's high - profile work. The touring summer live broadcasts called the Radio 1 Roadshow -- usually as part of the BBC ' Radio Weeks ' promotions that took Radio 1, 2 and 4 shows on the road -- drew some of the largest crowds of the decade. The station undoubtedly played a role in maintaining the high sales of 45 rpm single records although it benefited from a lack of competition, apart from Radio Luxembourg and Manx Radio in the Isle of Man. (Independent Local Radio did not begin until October 1973 and took many years to cover virtually all of the UK). Alan Freeman 's ' Saturday Rock Show ' was voted ' Best Radio Show ' five years running by readers of a national music publication, and was then axed by controller Derek Chinnery.
Annie Nightingale, who joined in 1970, was Britain 's first female DJ and is now the longest serving presenter, having constantly evolved her musical tastes with the times.
On Thursday 23 November 1978 the station moved to two new medium wave frequencies (275m and 285m) which allowed a major increase in transmitter powers and improved coverage of the UK. 247 metres was passed to Radio 3. The station was on medium wave only until the early 80s, when it took over the Radio 2 FM frequency for a number of hours on weekend afternoons and late weekday evenings. Eventually the BBC set up an FM channel specifically for Radio 1 and after a number of years of parallel broadcasting, relinquished the medium wave frequencies.
In his last few months as controller, Johnny Beerling commissioned a handful of new shows that in some ways set the tone for what was to come under Matthew Bannister. One of these "Loud'n'proud '' was the UK 's first national radio series aimed at a gay audience (made in Manchester and was aired from August 1993). Far from being a parting quirk, the show was a surprise hit and led to the network 's first coverage of the large outdoor Gay Pride event in 1994. Bannister took the reins fully in October 1993. His aim was to rid the station of its ' Smashie and Nicey ' image and make it appeal to the under 25s. Although originally launched as a youth station, by the early 1990s, its loyal listeners (and DJs) had aged with the station over its 25 - year history. Many long - standing DJs, such as Simon Bates, Dave Lee Travis, Alan Freeman, Bob Harris, Gary Davies, and later Steve Wright, Bruno Brookes and Johnnie Walker left the station or were sacked, and in January 1995 old music (typically anything recorded before 1990) was banned from the daytime playlist.
Many listeners rebelled as the first new DJs to be introduced represented a crossover from other parts of the BBC (notably Bannister and Trevor Dann 's former colleagues at the BBC 's London station, GLR) with Emma Freud and Danny Baker. Another problem was that, at the time, Radio 2 was sticking resolutely to a format which appealed mainly to those who had been listening since the days of the Light Programme, and commercial radio, which was targeting the "Radio 1 and a half '' audience, consequently enjoyed a massive increase in its audience share at the expense of Radio 1.
After the departure of Steve Wright, who had been unsuccessfully moved from his long - running afternoon show to the breakfast show in January 1994, Bannister hired Chris Evans to present the prime morning slot in April 1995. Evans was a popular but controversial presenter who was eventually sacked in 1997 after he demanded to present the breakfast show for only four days per week. Evans was replaced from 17 February 1997 by Mark and Lard -- Mark Radcliffe (along with his sidekick Marc Riley), who found the slick, mass - audience style required for a breakfast show did not come naturally to them. They were replaced by Zoë Ball and Kevin Greening eight months later in October 1997, with Greening moving on and leaving Ball as solo presenter. The reinvention of the station happened at a fortuitous time, with the rise of Britpop in the mid-90s -- bands like Oasis, Blur and Pulp were popular and credible at the time and the station 's popularity rose with them. Documentaries like John Peel 's "Lost in Music '' which looked at the influence that the use of drugs have had over popular musicians received critical acclaim but were slated inside Broadcasting House.
Later in the 1990s the Britpop boom declined, and manufactured chart pop (boy bands and acts aimed at sub-teenagers) came to dominate the charts. New - genre music occupied the evenings (indie on weekdays and dance at weekends), with a mix of specialist shows and playlist fillers through late nights. The rise of rave culture through the late 1980s and early 1990s gave the station the opportunity to move into a controversial and youth - orientated movement by bringing in club DJ Pete Tong amongst others. There had been a dance music programme on Radio 1 since 1987 and Pete Tong was the second DJ to present an all dance music show. This quickly gave birth to the Essential Mix where underground DJs mix electronic and club based music in a two - hour slot. Dance music has been a permanent feature on Radio 1 since with club DJs such as Judge Jules, Danny Rampling and Seb Fontaine all having shows as well as Radio 1 hosting an annual weekend in Ibiza.
Listening numbers continued to decline but the station succeeded in targeting a younger age - group and more cross gender groups. Eventually, this change in content was reflected by a rise in audience that is continuing to this day. Notably, the station has received praise for shows such as The Surgery with Aled, Bobby Friction and Nihal, The Evening Session with Steve Lamacq and its successor Zane Lowe. Its website has also been well received. However, the breakfast show and the UK Top 40 continued to struggle. In 2000, Zoë Ball was replaced in the mornings by friend and fellow ladette Sara Cox, but, despite heavy promotion, listening figures for the breakfast show continued to fall. In 2004 Cox was replaced by Chris Moyles. The newly rebranded breakfast show was known as The Chris Moyles Show and it increased its audience, ahead of The Today Programme on Radio 4 as the second most popular breakfast show (after The Chris Evans Breakfast Show hosted by Chris Evans). Moyles continued to use innovative ways to try to tempt listeners from the ' Wake up with Wogan ' show; in 2006, for example, creating a ' SAY NO TO WOGAN ' campaign live on - air. This angered the BBC hierarchy, though the row simmered down when it was clear that the ' campaign ' had totally failed to alter the listening trends of the time -- Wogan still increased figures at a faster rate than Moyles. The chart show 's ratings fell after the departure of long - time host Mark Goodier, amid falling single sales in the UK. Ratings for the show fell in 2002 whilst Goodier was still presenting the show, meaning that commercial radio 's Network Chart overtook it in the ratings for the first time. However, the BBC denied he was being sacked. Before July 2015, when the chart release day was changed to Friday, the BBC show competed with networked commercial radio 's The Big Top 40 Show which was broadcast at the same time.
Many DJs either ousted by Bannister or who left during his tenure (such as Johnnie Walker, Bob Harris and Steve Wright) have joined Radio 2 which has now overtaken Radio 1 as the UK 's most popular radio station, using a style that Radio 1 had until the early 1990s. The success of Moyles ' show has come alongside increased success for the station in general. In 2006, DJs Chris Moyles, Scott Mills and Zane Lowe all won gold Sony Radio Awards, while the station itself came away with the best station award. A new evening schedule was introduced in September 2006, dividing the week by genre. Monday was mainly pop - funkrock - oriented, Tuesday was R&B and hip - hop, Thursdays and Fridays were primarily dance, with specialist R&B and reggae shows. Following the death of John Peel in October 2004, Annie Nightingale is now the longest serving presenter, having worked there since 1970.
The licence - fee funding of Radio 1, alongside Radio 2, is often criticised by the commercial sector. In the first quarter of 2011 Radio 1 was part of an efficiency review conducted by John Myers. His role, according to Andrew Harrison, the chief executive of RadioCentre, was "to identify both areas of best practice and possible savings. ''
The controller of Radio 1 and sister station 1Xtra changed to Ben Cooper on 28 October 2011, following the departure of Andy Parfitt. Ben Cooper answers to the Director of BBC Audio and Music, Tim Davie.
On 7 December 2011, Ben Cooper 's first major changes to the station were announced. Skream & Benga, Toddla T, Charlie Sloth and Friction replaced Judge Jules, Gilles Peterson, Kissy Sell Out and Fabio & Grooverider. A number of shows were shuffled to incorporate the new line - up. On 28 February 2012, further changes were announced. Greg James and Scott Mills swapped shows and Jameela Jamil, Gemma Cairney and Danny Howard joined the station. The new line - up of DJs for In New DJs We Trust was also announced with B. Traits, Mosca, Jordan Suckley and Julio Bashmore hosting shows on a four weekly rotation. This new schedule took effect on Monday, 2 April 2012.
In September 2012, Nick Grimshaw replaced Chris Moyles as host of "Radio 1 's Breakfast Show ''. Grimshaw previously hosted Mon - Thurs 10pm - Midnight, Weekend Breakfast and Sunday evenings alongside Annie Mac. Grimshaw was replaced by Phil Taggart and Alice Levine on the 10pm - Midnight show.
In November 2012, another series of changes were announced. This included the departure of Reggie Yates and Vernon Kay. Jameela Jamil was announced as the new presenter of The Official Chart. Matt Edmondson moved to weekend mornings with Tom Deacon briefly replacing him on Wednesday nights. Dan Howell and Phil Lester, famous YouTubers and video bloggers, joined the station. The changes took effect in January 2013.
Former breakfast presenter Sara Cox hosted her last show on Radio 1 in February 2014 before moving to Radio 2. In March 2014, Gemma Cairney left the weekend breakfast show to host the weekday early breakfast slot, swapping shows with Dev.
In September 2014, Radio 1 operated a series of changes to their output which saw many notable presenters leave the station -- including Edith Bowman, Nihal and Rob da Bank. Huw Stephens gained a new show hosting 10pm - 1am Mon - Wed with Alice Levine presenting weekends 1pm - 4pm. Radio 1 's Residency also expanded with Skream joining the rotational line - up on Thursday nights 10pm - 1am.
From December 2014 to April 2016, Radio 1 included a weekly late night show presented by a well known Internet personality called The Internet Takeover. Shows have been presented by various YouTubers such as Jim Chapman and Hannah Witton.
In January 2015, Clara Amfo replaced Jameela Jamil as host of The Official Chart on Sundays (4pm - 7pm) and in March, Zane Lowe left Radio 1 and was replaced by Annie Mac on the new music evening show.
In May 2015, Fearne Cotton left the station after almost 10 years. Her weekday morning show was taken over by Clara Amfo. Adele Roberts also joined the weekday schedule line - up, hosting the Early Breakfast show.
In July 2015, The Official Chart moved to a Friday from 4pm - 5.45 pm, hosted by Greg James. The move took place in order to take into account the changes to the release dates of music globally. Cel Spellman joined Radio 1 to host Sunday evenings 4pm - 7pm.
From inception for over 20 years, Radio 1 broadcast from an adjacent pair of continuity suites (originally Con A and Con B) in the main control room of Broadcasting House. These cons were configured to allow DJs to operate the equipment themselves and play their own records and jingle cartridges (called self - op). This was a departure from traditional BBC practice, where a studio manager would play in discs from the studio control cubicle. Due to needle time restrictions, much of the music was played from tapes of BBC session recordings. The DJs were assisted by one or more technical operators (TOs) who would set up tapes and control sound levels during broadcasts.
In 1985, Radio 1 moved across the road from Broadcasting House to Egton House. The station moved to Yalding House in 1996, and Egton House was demolished in 2003 to make way for extension to Broadcasting House. This extension would eventually be renamed the Egton Wing, and then the Peel Wing.
Until recently, the studios were located in the basement of Yalding House (near to BBC Broadcasting House) which is on Great Portland Street in central London. They used to broadcast from two main studios in the basement; Y2 and Y3 (there is also a smaller studio, YP1, used mainly for production). These two main studios (Y2 and Y3) are separated by the "Live Lounge '', although it is mainly used as an office; there are rarely live sets recorded from it, as Maida Vale Studios is used instead for larger set - ups. The studios are linked by webcams and windows through the "Live Lounge '', allowing DJs to see each other when changing between shows. Y2 is the studio from where The Chris Moyles Show was broadcast and is also the studio rigged with static cameras for when the station broadcasts on the "Live Cam ''. The station moved there in 1996 from Egton House.
In December 2012, Radio 1 moved from Yalding House to new studios on the 8th floor of the new BBC Broadcasting House, Portland Place, just a few metres away from the "Peel Wing '', formerly the "Egton Wing '', which occupies the land on which Egton House previously stood: it was renamed the "Peel Wing '' in 2012 in honour of the long - serving BBC Radio 1 presenter, John Peel, who broadcast on the station from its launch in 1967 up until his death in 2004.
Programmes have also regularly been broadcast from other regions, notably The Mark and Lard Show, broadcast every weekday from New Broadcasting House, Oxford Road, Manchester for over a decade (October 1993 -- March 2004) -- the longest regular broadcast on the network from outside the capital.
Radio 1 originally broadcast on 1214 kHz medium wave (or 247 metres). On 23 November 1978, the station was moved to 1053 and 1089 kHz (275 and 285 m), but did not broadcast nationally on its own FM frequencies until late 1987. The BBC had been allocated three FM frequency ranges in 1955, for the then Light Programme (now BBC Radio 2), Third Programme (now BBC Radio 3) and Home Service (now BBC Radio 4) stations. Thus when Radio 1 was launched, there was no FM frequency range allocated for the station, the official reason being that there was no space, even though no commercial stations had yet launched on FM. Because of this, from launch until the end of the 1980s Radio 1 was allowed to take over Radio 2 's FM transmitters for a few hours per week. These were Saturday afternoons, Sunday teatime and evening -- most notably for the Top 40 Singles Chart on Sunday afternoons; 10: 00 pm to midnight on weeknights including Sounds of the Seventies until 1975, and thereafter the John Peel show (Mon -- Thurs) and the Friday Rock Show; and most Bank Holiday afternoons, when Radio 2 was broadcasting a Bank Holiday edition of Sport on 2.
To coincide with Radio 1 's 20th birthday, the first full - time FM broadcast began in the London area on 31 October 1987, at low power on 104.8 MHz. A year later the FM frequencies became national after the police communication allocation changed, freeing up what is known today as 97 -- 99 FM, which the BBC acquired. The rollout of Radio 1 on FM began on 1 September 1988, starting with Central Scotland, the Midlands and the north of England. A month later, to coincide with an extension of broadcast hours, Radio 1 stopped broadcasting on Radio 2 's FM frequencies on weeknights and on Sunday evenings and by 1990 all usage of Radio 2 's FM frequencies had ended. Radio 1 made great efforts to promote its new FM service, renaming itself on - air initially to ' Radio 1 FM ' and later as ' 1FM ' until 1995. The engineering programme was initially completed in 1995.
The Conservative government decided to increase competition on AM and disallowed the simulcasting of services on both AM and FM, affecting both BBC and Independent Local Radio. Radio 1 's medium wave frequencies were reallocated to Independent National Radio. Radio 1 's last broadcast on MW was on 1 July 1994, with Stephen Duffy 's "Kiss Me '' being the last record played on MW just before 9: 00 am. For those who continued to listen, just after 9: 00 am, Radio 1 jingles were played in reverse chronological order ending with its first jingle from 30 September 1967. In the initial months after this closure a pre-recorded message with Mark Goodier was played to warn listeners that Radio 1 was now an "FM - only '' station. Around this time, Radio 1 began broadcasting on spare audio subcarriers on Sky Television 's analogue satellite service, initially in mono (on UK Gold) and later in stereo (on UK Living).
The BBC launched its national radio stations on DAB digital radio in 1995, however the technology was expensive at the time and so was not marketed, instead used as a test for future technologies. DAB was "officially '' launched in 2002 as sets became cheaper. Today it can also be heard on UK digital TV services Freeview, Virgin Media, Sky and the Internet as well as FM. In July 2005, Sirius Satellite Radio began simulcasting Radio 1 across the United States as channel 11 on its own service and channel 6011 on Dish Network satellite TV. Sirius Canada began simulcasting Radio 1 when it was launched on 1 December 2005 (also on channel 11). The Sirius simulcasts were time shifted five hours to allow US and Canadian listeners in the Eastern Time Zone to hear Radio 1 at the same time of day as UK listeners. On 12 November 2008, Radio 1 made its debut on XM Satellite Radio in both the US and Canada on channel 29, moving to XM 15 and Sirius 15 on 4 May 2011. Until the full station was removed in August 2011, Radio 1 was able to be heard by approximately 20.6 million listeners in North America on satellite radio alone. BBC Radio 1 can be heard on cable in the Netherlands at 105.10 FM.
At midnight on 9 August 2011, Sirius XM ceased carrying BBC Radio 1 programming with no prior warning. On 10 August 2011 the BBC issued the following statement:
The BBC 's commercial arm BBC Worldwide has been in partnership with SIRIUS Satellite Radio to broadcast Radio 1 on their main network, since 2005. This agreement has now unfortunately come to an end and BBC Worldwide are in current discussions with the satellite radio station to find ways to continue to bring popular music channel, BBC Radio 1, to the US audience. We will keep you posted.
Thousands of angry Sirius XM customers began a campaign on Facebook and other social media to reinstate BBC Radio 1 on Sirius XM Radio. One week later, Sirius and the BBC agreed on a new carriage agreement that saw Radio 1 broadcast on a time - shifted format on the Sirius XM Internet Radio platform only, on channel 815. The channel is still unavailable on the satellite platform of the service.
Starting on 15 January 2012, The Official Chart Show began broadcasting on SiriusXM 20on20 channel 3, at 4pm and 9pm Eastern Standard Time.
On 19 August 2014, SiriusXM again stopped carrying BBC Radio 1 programming with no advanced notice. The stream is no longer available on the Internet Radio platform.
From 1999 until 2012, Radio 1 split the home nations for localised programming in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, to allow the broadcast of a showcase programme for regional talent. Most recently, these shows were under the BBC Introducing brand. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland had their own shows, which were broadcast on a 3 - week rotational basis in England.
From January 2011 until June 2012, Scotland 's show was presented by Ally McCrae. Previously it was hosted by Vic Galloway (who also presents for BBC Radio Scotland); who had presented the show solo since 2004, after his original co-host Gill Mills departed.
Wales 's show was hosted by Jen Long between January 2011 until May 2012. Previously Bethan Elfyn occupied the slot, who had at one time hosted alongside Huw Stephens, until Stephens left to join the national network, although he still broadcasts a show for Wales - a Welsh - language music show on BBC Radio Cymru on Thursday evenings)
Phil Taggart presented the Northern Ireland programme between November 2011 and May 2012. The show was formerly presented by Rory McConnell. Before joining the national network, Colin Murray was a presenter on the Session in Northern Ireland, along with Donna Legge; after Murray 's promotion to the network Legge hosted alone for a time, and on her departure McConnell took her place.
The regional opt - outs originally went out from 8: 00 pm to 10: 00 pm on Thursdays (the Evening Session 's time slot) and were known as the Session in the Nations (the ' Session ' tag was later dropped due to the demise of the Evening Session); they later moved to run from 7: 30 pm to 9: 00 pm, with the first half - hour of Zane Lowe 's programme going out across the whole of the UK. On 18 October 2007 the regional programmes moved to a Wednesday night / Thursday morning slot from 12: 00 am to 2: 00 am under the BBC Introducing banner, allowing Lowe 's Thursday show to be aired across the network; prior to this change Huw Stephens had presented the Wednesday midnight show nationally. In January 2011, BBC Introducing was moved to the new time slot of 00: 00 to 02: 00 on Monday mornings, and the Scottish and Welsh shows were given new presenters in the form of Ally McCrae and Jen Long.
The opt - outs were only available to listeners on the FM frequencies. Because of the way the DAB and digital TV services of Radio 1 are broadcast (a single - frequency network on DAB and a single broadcast feed of Radio 1 on TV platforms), the digital version of the station was not regionalised.
The BBC Trust announced in May 2012 that the regional music programmes on Radio 1 would be replaced with a single programme offering a UK - wide platform for new music as part of a series of cost - cutting measures across the BBC. In June 2012, the regional shows ended and were replaced by a single BBC Introducing show presented by Jen Long and Ally McCrae.
Because of its youth - orientated nature, Radio 1 plays a mix of current songs, including independent / alternative, rap, hip hop, rock, house, electronica, dance, drum and bass, dubstep and pop.
Due to restrictions on the amount of commercial music that could be played on radio in the UK until 1988 (the "needle time '' limitation) the station has recorded many live performances. Studio sessions (recordings of about four tracks made in a single day), also supplemented the live music content, many them finding their way to commercially available LPs and CDs. The sessions recorded for John Peel 's late night programme are particularly renowned.
The station also broadcasts documentaries and interviews. Although this type of programming arose from necessity it has given the station diversity. The needletime restrictions meant the station tended to have a higher level of speech by DJs. While the station is often criticised for "waffling '' by presenters, an experimental "more music day '' in 1988 was declared a failure after only a third of callers favoured it.
Radio 1 has a public service broadcasting obligation to provide news, which it fulfills through Newsbeat bulletins throughout the day. Shared with 1Xtra, short news summaries are provided roughly hourly on the half - hour during daytime hours with two 15 - minute bulletins at 12: 45 and 17: 45 on weekdays. The main presenter is Chris Smith, with Tina Daheley presenting during Radio 1 's breakfast hours.
In recent years, Radio 1 has aimed to include more of its content online in order to relate to the changing nature of its audience. Its YouTube channel now has over 3 million subscribers and many features and events are streamed on both that and the Radio 1 website.
The station also has a heavy presence on social media, with audience interaction now occurring mainly through Facebook and Twitter as well as text messaging.
It was announced in 2013 that Radio 1 had submitted plans to launch its own dedicated video channel on the BBC iPlayer where videos of live performances as well as some features and shows would be streamed in a central location. Plans were approved by the BBC Trust in November 2014 and the channel launched on 10 November 2014.
BBC Radio 1 operates a system that separates all of the DJs between ' Day ' and ' Night ' DJs.
Weekends
Monday to Thursday
Friday evenings feature 11 hours of dance music.
Saturday evenings include 11 hours of urban music 1Xtra Takeover which, since October 2009, has been simulcast entirely on BBC Radio 1Xtra.
Sunday evenings
The breakfast show has been presented by many famous names over the years. Currently this slot is broadcast between 6: 30 am and 10: 00 am, Monday to Friday and is hosted by Nick Grimshaw.
BBC Radio 1 's chart show had aired the UK Singles Chart exclusively on Sunday afternoons since the programme began; but this was moved to Fridays in July 2015. Currently broadcasting from 4: 00 pm until 5: 45 pm, the format, length and starting time have varied over the years. For many years, the show prided itself on playing all 40 singles in the top 40 but this practice ended when Wes Butters took over as presenter in 2003; then only tracks below number 20 to be played were the new entries. The show took its current format on 10 July 2015, being presented by Greg James in his usual drive time slot. Random tracks from 40 - 11 are played and then the top 10 are played in full.
Radio 1 provides alternative programming on some Bank Holidays. Programmes have included ' The 10 Hour Takeover ', a request - based special, in which the DJs on air would encourage listeners to select any available track to play, ' One Hit Wonder Day ' and ' The Chart Of The Decade ' where the 150 biggest selling singles in the last 10 years were counted down and played in full.
On Sunday 30 September 2007, Radio 1 celebrated its 40th birthday. To mark this anniversary Radio 1 hosted a week of special features, including:
On Saturday 30 September 2017, Radio 1 celebrated its 50th birthday. Tony Blackburn recreated the first ever Radio 1 broadcast on Radio 2, simulcast on pop - up station Radio 1 Vintage, followed by The Radio 1 Breakfast Show celebration, tricast on Radio 1, Radio 2 and Radio 1 Vintage, presented by Tony Blackburn and Nick Grimshaw, featuring former presenters Simon Mayo, Sara Cox and Mike Read.
Radio 1 regularly supports charities Comic Relief, Sport Relief and Children in Need.
On 18 March 2011, BBC 's Radio 1 longest serving breakfast DJ Chris Moyles and sidekick Dave Vitty broadcast for 52 hours as part of a Guinness World Record attempt, in aid of Comic Relief. The pair stayed on air for 52 hours in total setting a new world record for ' Radio DJ Endurance Marathon (Team) ' after already breaking Simon Mayo 's 12 - year record for Radio 1 's Longest Show of 37 hours which he set in 1999, also for Comic Relief.
The presenters started on 16 March 2011 and came off air at 10: 30 am on 18 March 2011. During this Fearne Cotton made a bet with DJ Chris Moyles that if they raise over £ 2,000,000 she will appear on the show in a swimsuit. After passing the £ 2,000,000 mark, Cotton appeared on the studio webcam in a stripy monochrome swimsuit. The appearance of Cotton between 10: 10 am and 10: 30 am caused the Radio 1 website to crash due to a high volume of traffic.
In total the event raised £ 2,622,421 for Comic Relief.
In 1981, Radio 1 broadcast a radio adaptation of the space opera film, Star Wars. The 13 - episode serial was adapted for radio by the author Brian Daley and directed by John Madden, and was a co-production between the BBC and the American Broadcaster NPR.
The Radio 1 Roadshow, which usually involved Radio 1 DJs and pop stars travelling around popular UK seaside destinations, began in 1973, hosted by Alan Freeman in Newquay, Cornwall, with the final one held at Heaton Park, Manchester in 1999. Although the Roadshow attracted large crowds and the style changed with the style of the station itself -- such as the introduction of whistlestop audio postcards of each location in 1994 ("2minuteTour '') -- they were still rooted in the older style of the station, and therefore fit for retirement.
In March 2000, Radio 1 decided to change the Roadshow format, renaming it One Big Sunday in the process. Several of these Sundays were held in large city - centre parks. In 2003, the event changed again and was rebranded One Big Weekend, with each event occurring biannually and covering two days. Under this name, it visited Derry in Northern Ireland, as part of the Music Lives campaign, and Perry Park in Birmingham.
The most recent change occurred in 2005 when the event was yet again renamed and the decision taken to hold only one per year, this time as Radio 1 's Big Weekend. Venues under this title have included Herrington Country Park, Camperdown Country Park, Moor Park -- which was the first Weekend to feature a third stage -- Mote Park, Lydiard Park, Bangor and Carlisle Airport.
Tickets for each Big Weekend are given away free of charge, making it the largest free ticketed music festival in Europe.
BBC Radio 1 's Big Weekend was replaced by a larger festival in 2012, named ' Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend ', with a crowd capacity of 100,000. The Hackney Weekend took place over the weekend of 23 -- 24 June 2012 in Hackney Marshes, Hackney, London. The event was to celebrate the 2012 Cultural Olympiad in London and had artists such as Rihanna, Jay - Z and Florence and the Machine.
In 2013, Radio 1 's Big Weekend returned to Derry as part of the City of Culture 2013 celebrations. So far, Derry is the only city to have hosted the Big Weekend twice.
In May 2014, Radio 1 's Big Weekend was held in Glasgow, Scotland. Acts which played at the event included Rita Ora, The 1975, Katy Perry, Jake Bugg and Pharrell Williams. The event was opened on the Friday with a dance set in George Square, featuring Radio 1 Dance DJs such as Danny Howard and Pete Tong, and other well - known acts such as Martin Garrix and Tiesto.
In 2015, the event was held in Norwich and featured performances from the likes of Taylor Swift, Muse, David Guetta, Years & Years and others.
2016 saw the event make its way to Exeter. It was headlined by Coldplay who closed the weekend on the Sunday evening.
The event was in Hull in 2017 and saw performances by artists such as Zara Larsson, Shawn Mendes, Stormzy, Katy Perry, Little Mix, Sean Paul, Rita Ora, The Chainsmokers, Clean Bandit and Kings Of Leon.
Radio 1 has annually held a dance music weekend broadcast live from Ibiza since the 1990s. The weekend is usually the first weekend in August and has performances from world - famous DJs and Radio 1 's own dance music talent such as Pete Tong and Annie Mac.
Since 2008 Radio 1 has held an annual event for teenagers aged 14 to 17 years. Originally named BBC Switch Live, the first event was held on 12 October 2008 at the Hammersmith Apollo. The event has been hosted by various Radio 1 DJs and guest co-hosts.
In 2010 the event was renamed ' BBC Radio 1 's Teen Awards ', and includes awards given to celebrities and particularly inspirational young people. Now hosted at Wembley Arena, the event has included guests such as One Direction, Tinie Tempah, Fall Out Boy and Jessie J.
The 2014 event took place on 19 October and was hosted by Nick Grimshaw and Rita Ora.
The 2015 event took place on 8 November and was hosted by Nick Grimshaw and Demi Lovato at Wembley Arena.
The 2016 event took place on 23 October and was hosted by Nick Grimshaw and Dua Lipa.
The 2017 event took place on 22 October and was hosted by Nick Grimshaw and Rita Ora
Radio 1 often has a presence at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe. Past events have included ' The Fun and Filth Cabaret ' and ' Scott Mills: The Musical '.
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what does the quote i think therefore i am mean | Cogito, ergo sum - wikipedia
Cogito, ergo sum is a Latin philosophical proposition by René Descartes usually translated into English as "I think, therefore I am ''. The phrase originally appeared in French as je pense, donc je suis in his Discourse on the Method, so as to reach a wider audience than Latin would have allowed. It appeared in Latin in his later Principles of Philosophy. As Descartes explained, "we can not doubt of our existence while we doubt... '' A fuller version, articulated by Antoine Léonard Thomas, aptly captures Descartes 's intent: dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum ("I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am ''). The concept is also sometimes known as the cogito.
This proposition became a fundamental element of Western philosophy, as it purported to form a secure foundation for knowledge in the face of radical doubt. While other knowledge could be a figment of imagination, deception, or mistake, Descartes asserted that the very act of doubting one 's own existence served -- at minimum -- as proof of the reality of one 's own mind; there must be a thinking entity -- in this case the self -- for there to be a thought.
Descartes first wrote the phrase in French in his 1637 Discourse on the Method. He referred to it in Latin without explicitly stating the familiar form of the phrase in his 1641 Meditations on First Philosophy. The earliest written record of the phrase in Latin is in his 1644 Principles of Philosophy, where, in a margin note (see below), he provides a clear explanation of his intent: "(W) e can not doubt of our existence while we doubt ''. Fuller forms of the phrase are attributable to other authors.
The phrase first appeared (in French) in Descartes 's 1637 Discourse on the Method in the first paragraph of its fourth part:
(French:) Ainsi, à cause que nos sens nous trompent quelquefois, je voulus supposer qu'il n'y avoit aucune chose qui fût telle qu'ils nous la font imaginer; Et parce qu'il ya des hommes qui se méprennent en raisonnant, même touchant les plus simples matières de Géométrie, et y font des Paralogismes, jugeant que j'étois sujet à faillir autant qu'aucun autre, je rejetai comme fausses toutes les raisons que j'avois prises auparavant pour Démonstrations; Et enfin, considérant que toutes les mêmes pensées que nous avons étant éveillés nous peuvent aussi venir quand nous dormons, sans qu'il y en ait aucune pour lors qui soit vraie, je me résolus de feindre que toutes les choses qui m'étoient jamais entrées en l'esprit n'étoient non plus vraies que les illusions de mes songes. Mais aussitôt après je pris garde que, pendant que je voulois ainsi penser que tout étoit faux, il falloit nécessairement que moi qui le pensois fusse quelque chose; Et remarquant que cette vérité, je pense, donc je suis, étoit si ferme et si assurée, que toutes les plus extravagantes suppositions des Sceptiques n'étoient pas capables de l'ébranler, je jugeai que je pouvois la recevoir sans scrupule pour le premier principe de la Philosophie que je cherchais.
(English:) Accordingly, seeing that our senses sometimes deceive us, I was willing to suppose that there existed nothing really such as they presented to us; And because some men err in reasoning, and fall into Paralogisms, even on the simplest matters of Geometry, I, convinced that I was as open to error as any other, rejected as false all the reasonings I had hitherto taken for Demonstrations; And finally, when I considered that the very same thoughts (presentations) which we experience when awake may also be experienced when we are asleep, while there is at that time not one of them true, I supposed that all the objects (presentations) that had ever entered into my mind when awake, had in them no more truth than the illusions of my dreams. But immediately upon this I observed that, whilst I thus wished to think that all was false, it was absolutely necessary that I, who thus thought, should be something; And as I observed that this truth, I think, therefore I am, was so certain and of such evidence that no ground of doubt, however extravagant, could be alleged by the Sceptics capable of shaking it, I concluded that I might, without scruple, accept it as the first principle of the philosophy of which I was in search.
In 1641, Descartes published (in Latin) Meditations on first philosophy in which he referred to the proposition, though not explicitly as "cogito, ergo sum '' in Meditation II:
(Latin:) hoc pronuntiatum: ego sum, ego existo, quoties a me profertur, vel mente concipitur, necessario esse verum.
(English:) this proposition: I am thinking, therefore I am / exist, whenever it is uttered from me, or conceived by the mind, necessarily is true.
In 1644, Descartes published (in Latin) his Principles of Philosophy where the phrase "ego cogito, ergo sum '' appears in Part 1, article 7:
(Latin:) Sic autem rejicientes illa omnia, de quibus aliquo modo possumus dubitare, ac etiam, falsa esse fingentes, facilè quidem, supponimus nullum esse Deum, nullum coelum, nulla corpora; nosque etiam ipsos, non habere manus, nec pedes, nec denique ullum corpus, non autem ideò nos qui talia cogitamus nihil esse: repugnat enim ut putemus id quod cogitat eo ipso tempore quo cogitat non existere. Ac proinde haec cognitio, ego cogito, ergo sum, est omnium prima & certissima, quae cuilibet ordine philosophanti occurrat.
(English:) While we thus reject all of which we can entertain the smallest doubt, and even imagine that it is false, we easily indeed suppose that there is neither God, nor sky, nor bodies, and that we ourselves even have neither hands nor feet, nor, finally, a body; but we can not in the same way suppose that we are not while we doubt of the truth of these things; for there is a repugnance in conceiving that what thinks does not exist at the very time when it thinks. Accordingly, the knowledge, I think, therefore I am, is the first and most certain that occurs to one who philosophizes orderly.
Descartes 's margin note for the above paragraph is:
(Latin:) Non posse à nobis dubitari, quin existamus dum dubitamus; atque hoc esse primum, quod ordine philosophando cognoscimus.
(English:) That we can not doubt of our existence while we doubt, and that this is the first knowledge we acquire when we philosophize in order.
Descartes, in a lesser - known posthumously published work dated as written ca. 1647 and titled La Recherche de la Vérité par La Lumiere Naturale (The Search for Truth by Natural Light), wrote:
(Latin:)... (S) entio, oportere, ut quid dubitatio, quid cogitatio, quid exsistentia sit antè sciamus, quàm de veritate hujus ratiocinii: dubito, ergo sum, vel, quod idem est, cogito, ergo sum: plane simus persuasi.
(English:)... (I feel that) it is necessary to know what doubt is, and what thought is, (what existence is), before we can be fully persuaded of this reasoning -- I doubt, therefore I am -- or what is the same -- I think, therefore I am.
The proposition is sometimes given as dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum. This fuller form was penned by the eloquent French literary critic, Antoine Léonard Thomas, in an award - winning 1765 essay in praise of Descartes, where it appeared as "Puisque je doute, je pense; puisque je pense, j'existe. '' In English, this is "Since I doubt, I think; since I think, I exist ''; with rearrangement and compaction, "I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am '', or in Latin, "dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum ''.
A further expansion, dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum -- res cogitans ("... -- a thinking thing '') extends the cogito with Descartes 's statement in the subsequent Meditation, "Ego sum res cogitans, id est dubitans, affirmans, negans, pauca intelligens, multa ignorans, volens, nolens, imaginans etiam et sentiens... '', or, in English, "I am a thinking (conscious) thing, that is, a being who doubts, affirms, denies, knows a few objects, and is ignorant of many... ''. This has been referred to as "the expanded cogito ''.
The phrase cogito, ergo sum is not used in Descartes 's Meditations on First Philosophy but the term "the cogito '' is used to refer to an argument from it. In the Meditations, Descartes phrases the conclusion of the argument as "that the proposition, I am, I exist, is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind. '' (Meditation II)
At the beginning of the second meditation, having reached what he considers to be the ultimate level of doubt -- his argument from the existence of a deceiving god -- Descartes examines his beliefs to see if any have survived the doubt. In his belief in his own existence, he finds that it is impossible to doubt that he exists. Even if there were a deceiving god (or an evil demon), one 's belief in their own existence would be secure, for there is no way one could be deceived unless one existed in order to be deceived.
But I have convinced myself that there is absolutely nothing in the world, no sky, no earth, no minds, no bodies. Does it now follow that I, too, do not exist? No. If I convinced myself of something (or thought anything at all), then I certainly existed. But there is a deceiver of supreme power and cunning who deliberately and constantly deceives me. In that case, I, too, undoubtedly exist, if he deceives me; and let him deceive me as much as he can, he will never bring it about that I am nothing, so long as I think that I am something. So, after considering everything very thoroughly, I must finally conclude that the proposition, I am, I exist, is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind. (AT VII 25; CSM II 16 -- 17)
There are three important notes to keep in mind here. First, he claims only the certainty of his own existence from the first - person point of view -- he has not proved the existence of other minds at this point. This is something that has to be thought through by each of us for ourselves, as we follow the course of the meditations. Second, he does not say that his existence is necessary; he says that if he thinks, then necessarily he exists (see the instantiation principle). Third, this proposition "I am, I exist '' is held true not based on a deduction (as mentioned above) or on empirical induction but on the clarity and self - evidence of the proposition. Descartes does not use this first certainty, the cogito, as a foundation upon which to build further knowledge; rather, it is the firm ground upon which he can stand as he works to discover further truths As he puts it:
Archimedes used to demand just one firm and immovable point in order to shift the entire earth; so I too can hope for great things if I manage to find just one thing, however slight, that is certain and unshakable. (AT VII 24; CSM II 16)
According to many Descartes specialists, including Étienne Gilson, the goal of Descartes in establishing this first truth is to demonstrate the capacity of his criterion -- the immediate clarity and distinctiveness of self - evident propositions -- to establish true and justified propositions despite having adopted a method of generalized doubt. As a consequence of this demonstration, Descartes considers science and mathematics to be justified to the extent that their proposals are established on a similarly immediate clarity, distinctiveness, and self - evidence that presents itself to the mind. The originality of Descartes 's thinking, therefore, is not so much in expressing the cogito -- a feat accomplished by other predecessors, as we shall see -- but on using the cogito as demonstrating the most fundamental epistemological principle, that science and mathematics are justified by relying on clarity, distinctiveness, and self - evidence. Baruch Spinoza in "Principia philosophiae cartesianae '' at its Prolegomenon identified "cogito ergo sum '' the "ego sum cogitans '' (I am a thinking being) as the thinking substance with his ontological interpretation. It can also be considered that Cogito ergo sum is needed before any living being can go further in life ".
Although the idea expressed in cogito, ergo sum is widely attributed to Descartes, he was not the first to mention it. Plato spoke about the "knowledge of knowledge '' (Greek νόησις νοήσεως nóesis noéseos) and Aristotle explains the idea in full length:
But if life itself is good and pleasant (...) and if one who sees is conscious that he sees, one who hears that he hears, one who walks that he walks and similarly for all the other human activities there is a faculty that is conscious of their exercise, so that whenever we perceive, we are conscious that we perceive, and whenever we think, we are conscious that we think, and to be conscious that we are perceiving or thinking is to be conscious that we exist... (Nicomachean Ethics, 1170a25 ff.)
Augustine of Hippo in De Civitate Dei writes Si (...) fallor, sum ("If I am mistaken, I am '') (book XI, 26), and also anticipates modern refutations of the concept. Furthermore, in the Enchiridion Augustine attempts to refute skepticism by stating, "(B) y not positively affirming that they are alive, the skeptics ward off the appearance of error in themselves, yet they do make errors simply by showing themselves alive; one can not err who is not alive. That we live is therefore not only true, but it is altogether certain as well '' (Chapter 7 section 20). Another predecessor was Avicenna 's "Floating Man '' thought experiment on human self - awareness and self - consciousness.
The 8th century Hindu philosopher Adi Shankara wrote in a similar fashion, No one thinks, ' I am not ', arguing that one 's existence can not be doubted, as there must be someone there to doubt.. The central idea of cogito, ergo sum is also the topic of Mandukya Upanishad.
Spanish philosopher Gómez Pereira in his 1554 work De Inmortalitate Animae, published in 1749, wrote "nosco me aliquid noscere, & quidquid noscit, est, ergo ego sum '' ("I know that I know something, anyone who knows exists, then I exist '').
In Descartes, The Project of Pure Enquiry, Bernard Williams provides a history and full evaluation of this issue. Apparently, the first scholar who raised the "I '' problem was Pierre Gassendi. He "points out that recognition that one has a set of thoughts does not imply that one is a particular thinker or another. Were we to move from the observation that there is thinking occurring to the attribution of this thinking to a particular agent, we would simply assume what we set out to prove, namely, that there exists a particular person endowed with the capacity for thought ''. In other words, "the only claim that is indubitable here is the agent - independent claim that there is cognitive activity present ''. The objection, as presented by Georg Lichtenberg, is that rather than supposing an entity that is thinking, Descartes should have said: "thinking is occurring. '' That is, whatever the force of the cogito, Descartes draws too much from it; the existence of a thinking thing, the reference of the "I, '' is more than the cogito can justify. Friedrich Nietzsche criticized the phrase in that it presupposes that there is an "I '', that there is such an activity as "thinking '', and that "I '' know what "thinking '' is. He suggested a more appropriate phrase would be "it thinks '' wherein the "it '' could be an impersonal subject as in the sentence "It is raining. ''
The Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard provided a critical response to the cogito. In the Concluding Unscientific Postscript, he writes:
The Cartesian cogito ergo sum has been repeated often enough. If this I in cogito is to be understood as an individual human being, then the proposition proves nothing: I am thinking ergo I am, but if I am thinking, then little wonder that I am; that has already been asserted, and the first proposition accordingly says even more than the second. But then if one understands the I in cogito as meaning a particular existing human being, philosophy shouts: ' Foolishness, foolishness, it is not a question here of your self or my self but of the pure I. ' But surely this pure I can hardly have any other than a pure thought - existence. So what is the sense of the inferential form? There is no conclusion, for the proposition is a tautology. (p. 265; Hannay translation)
Kierkegaard argues that the cogito already presupposes the existence of "I '', and therefore concluding with existence is logically trivial. Kierkegaard 's argument can be made clearer if one extracts the premise "I think '' into two further premises:
Where "x '' is used as a placeholder in order to disambiguate the "I '' from the thinking thing.
Here, the cogito has already assumed the "I '' 's existence as that which thinks. For Kierkegaard, Descartes is merely "developing the content of a concept '', namely that the "I '', which already exists, thinks. As Kierkegaard argues, the proper logical flow of argument is that existence is already assumed or presupposed in order for thinking to occur, not that existence is concluded from that thinking.
Bernard Williams claims that what we are dealing with when we talk of thought, or when we say "I am thinking, '' is something conceivable from a third - person perspective; namely objective "thought - events '' in the former case, and an objective thinker in the latter. He argues, first, that it is impossible to make sense of "there is thinking '' without relativizing it to something. However, this something can not be Cartesian egos, because it is impossible to differentiate objectively between things just on the basis of the pure content of consciousness. The obvious problem is that, through introspection, or our experience of consciousness, we have no way of moving to conclude the existence of any third - personal fact, to conceive of which would require something above and beyond just the purely subjective contents of the mind.
As a critic of Cartesian subjectivity, Heidegger sought to ground human subjectivity in death as that certainty which individualizes and authenticates our being. As he wrote in 1927:
"This certainty, that "I myself am in that I will die, '' is the basic certainty of Dasein itself. It is a genuine statement of Dasein, while cogito sum is only the semblance of such a statement. If such pointed formulations mean anything at all, then the appropriate statement pertaining to Dasein in its being would have to be sum moribundus (I am in dying), moribundus not as someone gravely ill or wounded, but insofar as I am, I am moribundus. The MORIBUNDUS first gives the SUM its sense. ''
The Scottish philosopher John Macmurray rejects the cogito outright in order to place action at the center of a philosophical system he entitles the Form of the Personal. "We must reject this, both as standpoint and as method. If this be philosophy, then philosophy is a bubble floating in an atmosphere of unreality. '' The reliance on thought creates an irreconcilable dualism between thought and action in which the unity of experience is lost, thus dissolving the integrity of our selves, and destroying any connection with reality. In order to formulate a more adequate cogito, Macmurray proposes the substitution of "I do '' for "I think '', ultimately leading to a belief in God as an agent to whom all persons stand in relation.
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when was the modern chinese number system invented | Chinese numerals - Wikipedia
Chinese numerals are words and characters used to denote numbers in Chinese.
Today, speakers of Chinese use three written numeral systems: the system of Arabic numerals used worldwide, and two indigenous systems. The more familiar indigenous system is based on Chinese characters that correspond to numerals in the spoken language. These are shared with other languages of the Chinese cultural sphere such as Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese. Most people and institutions in China and Taiwan primarily use the Arabic or mixed Arabic - Chinese systems for convenience, with traditional Chinese numerals used in finance, mainly for writing amounts on checks, banknotes, some ceremonial occasions, some boxes, and on commercials.
The other indigenous system is the Suzhou numerals, or huama, a positional system, the only surviving form of the rod numerals. These were once used by Chinese mathematicians, and later in Chinese markets, such as those in Hong Kong before the 1990s, but have been gradually supplanted by Arabic (and also Roman) numerals.
The Chinese character numeral system consists of the Chinese characters used by the Chinese written language to write spoken numerals. Similar to spelling - out numbers in English (e.g., "one thousand nine hundred forty - five ''), it is not an independent system per se. Since it reflects spoken language, it does not use the positional system as in Arabic numerals, in the same way that spelling out numbers in English does not.
There are characters representing the numbers zero through nine, and other characters representing larger numbers such as tens, hundreds, thousands and so on. There are two sets of characters for Chinese numerals: one for everyday writing, known as xiǎoxiě (simplified Chinese: 小写; traditional Chinese: 小寫; literally: "small writing, i.e. lower case ''), and one for use in commercial or financial contexts, known as dàxiě (simplified Chinese: 大写; traditional Chinese: 大寫; literally: "big writing, i.e. upper case ''). The latter arose because the characters used for writing numerals are geometrically simple, so simply using those numerals can not prevent forgeries in the same way spelling numbers out in English would. A forger could easily change the everyday characters 三 十 (30) to 五 千 (5000) just by adding a few strokes. That would not be possible when writing using the financial characters 叁 拾 (30) and 伍 仟 (5000). They are also referred to as "banker 's numerals '', "anti-fraud numerals '', or "banker 's anti-fraud numerals ''. For the same reason, rod numerals were never used in commercial records.
T denotes Traditional Chinese characters, while S denotes Simplified Chinese characters.
In the PLA, some numbers will have altered names when used for clearer radio communications. They are:
For numbers larger than 10,000, similarly to the long and short scales in the West, there have been four systems in ancient and modern usage. The original one, with unique names for all powers of ten up to the 14th, is ascribed to the Yellow Emperor in the 6th century book by Zhen Luan, Wujing suanshu (Arithmetic in Five Classics). In modern Chinese only the second system is used, in which the same ancient names are used, but each represents a number 10,000 (myriad, 萬 wàn) times the previous:
Each numeral is 10 (十 shí) times the previous.
Each numeral is 10,000 (萬 (T) or 万 (S) wàn) times the previous.
Starting with 亿, each numeral is 10 (萬 乘 以 萬 (T) or 万 乘 以 万 (S) wàn chéng yǐ wàn, 10000 times 10000) times the previous.
Each numeral is the square of the previous. This is similar to the - yllion system.
In practice, this situation does not lead to ambiguity, with the exception of 兆 (zhào), which means 10 according to the system in common usage throughout the Chinese communities as well as in Japan and Korea, but has also been used for 10 in recent years (especially in mainland China for megabyte). To avoid problems arising from the ambiguity, the PRC government never uses this character in official documents, but uses 万 亿 (wànyì) instead. Partly due to this, combinations of 万 and 亿 are often used instead of the larger units of the traditional system as well, for example 亿 亿 (yìyì) instead of 京. The ROC government in Taiwan uses 兆 (zhào) to mean 10 in official documents.
Numerals beyond 載 zǎi come from Buddhist texts in Sanskrit, but are mostly found in ancient texts. Some of the following words are still being used today, but may have transferred meanings.
The following are characters used to denote small order of magnitude in Chinese historically. With the introduction of SI units, some of them have been incorporated as SI prefixes, while the rest have fallen into disuse.
攸 (T) or 幺 (S) corresponds to the SI prefix yocto -.
介 (T) or 仄 (S) corresponds to the SI prefix zepto -.
阿 corresponds to the SI prefix atto -.
飛 (T) or 飞 (S) corresponds to the SI prefix femto -.
皮 corresponds to the SI prefix pico -.
奈 (T) or 纳 (S) corresponds to the SI prefix nano -.
still in use, corresponds to the SI prefix milli -.
still in use, corresponds to the SI prefix centi -.
In the People 's Republic of China, the translations for the SI prefixes in 1981 were different from those used today. The larger (兆, 京, 垓, 秭, 穰) and smaller Chinese numerals (微, 纖, 沙, 塵, 渺) were defined as translations for the SI prefixes as mega, giga, tera, peta, exa, micro, nano, pico, femto, atto, resulting in the creation of yet more values for each numeral.
The Republic of China (Taiwan) defined 百 萬 as the translation for mega. This translation is widely used in official documents, academic communities, informational industries, etc. However, the civil broadcasting industries sometimes use 兆赫 to represent "megahertz ''.
Today, the governments of both China and Taiwan use phonetic transliterations for the SI prefixes. However, the governments have each chosen different Chinese characters for certain prefixes. The following table lists the two different standards together with the early translation.
Multiple - digit numbers are constructed using a multiplicative principle; first the digit itself (from 1 to 9), then the place (such as 10 or 100); then the next digit.
In Mandarin, the multiplier 兩 (liǎng) is often used rather than 二 (èr) for all numbers 200 and greater with the "2 '' numeral (although as noted earlier this varies from dialect to dialect and person to person). Use of both 兩 (liǎng) or 二 (èr) are acceptable for the number 200. When writing in the Cantonese dialect, 二 (yi) is used to represent the "2 '' numeral for all numbers. In the southern Min dialect of Chaozhou (Teochew), 兩 (no) is used to represent the "2 '' numeral in all numbers from 200 onwards. Thus:
For the numbers 11 through 19, the leading "one '' (一) is usually omitted. In some dialects, like Shanghainese, when there are only two significant digits in the number, the leading "one '' and the trailing zeroes are omitted. Sometimes, the one before "ten '' in the middle of a number, such as 213, is omitted. Thus:
Notes:
In certain older texts like the Protestant Bible or in poetic usage, numbers such as 114 may be written as (100) (10) (4) (百 十 四).
Outside of Taiwan, digits are sometimes grouped by myriads instead of thousands. Hence it is more convenient to think of numbers here as in groups of four, thus 1,234,567,890 is regrouped here as 12, 3456, 7890. Larger than a myriad, each number is therefore four zeroes longer than the one before it, thus 10000 × wàn (萬) = yì (億). If one of the numbers is between 10 and 19, the leading "one '' is omitted as per the above point. Hence (numbers in parentheses indicate that the number has been written as one number rather than expanded):
In Taiwan, pure Arabic numerals are officially always and only grouped by thousands. Unofficially, they are often not grouped, particularly for numbers below 100,000. Mixed Arabic - Chinese numerals are often used in order to denote myriads. This is used both officially and unofficially, and come in a variety of styles:
Interior zeroes before the unit position (as in 1002) must be spelt explicitly. The reason for this is that trailing zeroes (as in 1200) are often omitted as shorthand, so ambiguity occurs. One zero is sufficient to resolve the ambiguity. Where the zero is before a digit other than the units digit, the explicit zero is not ambiguous and is therefore optional, but preferred. Thus:
To construct a fraction, the denominator is written first, followed by 分 之 ("parts of '') and then the numerator. This is the opposite of how fractions are read in English, which is numerator first. Each half of the fraction is written the same as a whole number. Mixed numbers are written with the whole - number part first, followed by 又 ("and ''), then the fractional part.
Percentages are constructed similarly, using 百 (100) as the denominator. The 一 (one) before 百 is omitted.
Decimal numbers are constructed by first writing the whole number part, then inserting a point (simplified Chinese: 点; traditional Chinese: 點; pinyin: diǎn), and finally the decimal expression. The decimal expression is written using only the digits for 0 to 9, without multiplicative words.
半 bàn (half) functions as a number and therefore requires a measure word. Example: 半 杯 水 half a glass of water.
Ordinal numbers are formed by adding 第 dì ("sequence '') before the number.
Negative numbers are formed by adding (simplified Chinese: 负; traditional Chinese: 負, Pinyin: fù, Jyuping: fu6) before the number.
Chinese grammar requires the use of classifiers (measure words) when a numeral is used together with a noun to express a quantity. For example, "three people '' is expressed as 三 个人 sān ge rén, "three GE person '', where 个 ge is a classifier. There exist many different classifiers, for use with different sets of nouns, although 个 is the most common, and may be used informally in place of other classifiers.
Chinese uses cardinal numbers in certain situations in which English would use ordinals. For example, 三 楼 sān lóu (literally "three story '') means "third floor '' ("second floor '' in British numbering). Likewise, 二 十 一 世纪 èrshí yī shìjì (literally "twenty - one century '') is used for "21st century ''.
Numbers of years are commonly spoken as a sequence of digits, as in 二 零 零 一 èr líng líng yī ("two zero zero one '') for the year 2001. Names of months and days (in the Western system) are also expressed using numbers: 一 月 yīyuè ("one month '') for January, etc.; and 星期 一 xīngqīyī ("week one '') for Monday, etc. Only one exception, Sunday is 星期日 xīngqīrì, or informally 星期天 xīngqītiān, literally "week day ''. When meaning "week '', "星期 '' xīngqī and "禮拜 '' lǐbài are interchangeable. And 禮拜 天 lǐbàitiān or 禮拜 日 lǐbàirì, means "day of worship ''. Because Chinese Catholics call the Sunday "主 日 '' zhǔrì, "Lord 's day ''.
Full dates are usually written in the format 2001 年 1 月 20 日 for January 20, 2001 (using 年 nián "year '', 月 yuè "month '', and 日 rì "day '') -- all the numbers are read as cardinals, not ordinals, with no leading zeroes, and the year is read as a sequence of digits. For brevity the year yuè and rì may be dropped to give a date composed of just numbers, so for example 64, in Chinese is six - four, short for month six - day four i.e. June Fourth, a common Chinese shorthand for the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.
In the same way that Roman numerals were standard in ancient and medieval Europe for mathematics and commerce, the Chinese formerly used the rod numerals, which is a positional system. The Suzhou numerals (simplified Chinese: 苏州 花 码; traditional Chinese: 蘇州 花 碼; pinyin: Sūzhōu huāmǎ) system is a variation of the Southern Song rod numerals. Nowadays, the huāmǎ system is only used for displaying prices in Chinese markets or on traditional handwritten invoices.
There is a common method of using of one hand to signify the numbers one to ten. While the five digits on one hand can express the numbers one to five, six to ten have special signs that can be used in commerce or day - to - day communication.
Most Chinese numerals of later periods were descendants of the Shang dynasty oracle numerals of the 14th century BC. The oracle bone script numerals were found on tortoise shell and animal bones. In early civilizations, the Shang were able to express any numbers, however large, with only nine symbols and a counting board.
Some of the bronze script numerals such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 12, and 13 became part of the system of rod numerals.
In this system, horizontal rod numbers are used for the tens, thousands, hundred thousands etc. It 's written in Sunzi Suanjing that "one is vertical, ten is horizontal ''.
The counting rod numerals system has place value and decimal numerals for computation, and was used widely by Chinese merchants, mathematicians and astronomers from the Han dynasty to the 16th century.
Alexander Wylie, Christian missionary to China, in 1853 already refuted the notion that "the Chinese numbers were written in words at length '', and stated that in ancient China, calculation was carried out by means of counting rods, and "the written character is evidently a rude presentation of these ''. After being introduced to the rod numerals, he said "Having thus obtained a simple but effective system of figures, we find the Chinese in actual use of a method of notation depending on the theory of local value (i.e. place - value), several centuries before such theory was understood in Europe, and while yet the science of numbers had scarcely dawned among the Arabs. ''
During the Ming and Qing dynasties (after Arabic numerals were introduced into China), some Chinese mathematicians used Chinese numeral characters as positional system digits. After the Qing period, both the Chinese numeral characters and the Suzhou numerals were replaced by Arabic numerals in mathematical writings.
Traditional Chinese numeric characters are also used in Japan and Korea and were used in Vietnam before the 20th century. In vertical text (that is, read top to bottom), using characters for numbers is the norm, while in horizontal text, Arabic numerals are most common. Chinese numeric characters are also used in much the same formal or decorative fashion that Roman numerals are in Western cultures. Chinese numerals may appear together with Arabic numbers on the same sign or document.
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who has the right to vote in indonesia | Elections in Indonesia - wikipedia
Elections in Indonesia have taken place since 1955 to elect a legislature. At a national level, Indonesian people did not elect a head of state -- the president -- until 2004. Since then, the president is elected for a five - year term, as are the 560 - member People 's Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR) and the 128 - seat Regional Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah).
Members of the People 's Representative Council are elected by proportional representation from multi-candidate constituencies. Currently, there are 77 constituencies in Indonesia and each returns 3 - 10 Members of Parliament based on population. Under Indonesia 's multi-party system, no one party has yet been able to secure an outright victory; parties have needed to work together in coalition governments. Members of the Regional Representative Council are elected by Single Non-Transferable Vote. There, Indonesia 's 34 provinces treated as constituencies and, regardless of the size and population, every provinces return 4 senators.
Starting from the 2015 unified local elections, Indonesia started to elect governors and mayors simultaneously on the same date.
The voting age in Indonesia is 17 but anyone who has an ID card (Indonesian: Kartu Tanda Penduduk (KTP)) can vote, since persons under 17 who are or were married can get a KTP.
Indonesia 's first general election elected members of the DPR and the Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia (Konstituante). The election was organised by the government of Prime Minister Ali Sastroamidjojo. Sastroamidjojo himself declined to stand for election, and Burhanuddin Harahap became Prime Minister.
The election occurred in two stages:
The five largest parties in the election were the National Party of Indonesia (Partai Nasional Indonesia), Masyumi, Nahdlatul Ulama, the Communist Party of Indonesia (Partai Komunis Indonesia, PKI), and the Indonesian Islamic Union Party (Partai Sarekat Islam Indonesia).
The first election after the establishment of the "New Order '' took place on 5 July 1971. Ten political parties participated.
The five largest political parties were Golkar, Nahdlatul Ulama, the Muslim Party of Indonesia (Parmusi), the Indonesian National Party and the Indonesian Islamic Union Party.
Elections following the mergers were held under the government of President Suharto. In accordance with the legislation, these were contested by three groups; Golkar, the PPP and the PDI. All elections in this period were won by Golkar.
To ensure that Golkar always won more than 60 percent of the popular vote, the New Order regime used a number of tactics. These included:
The 1999 election was the first election held after the collapse of the New Order. It was held on 7 June 1999 under the government of Jusuf Habibie. Forty - eight political parties participated.
The six largest parties which passed the electoral threshold of 2 % were the Indonesian Democratic Party - Struggle (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan), the reformed Golkar Party, the United Development Party (Partai Persatuan Pembangunan), the National Awakening Party (Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa), the National Mandate Party (Partai Amanat Nasional), and the Crescent Star Party (Partai Bulan Bintang).
Under the constitution, the new President was elected by members of both houses of Parliament in a joint sitting. This meant that although the Indonesian Democratic Party - Struggle won the largest share of the popular vote, the new President was not its nominee, Megawati Sukarnoputri, but Abdurrahman Wahid from the National Awakening Party. Megawati became Vice-President.
During its 2002 annual session, the People 's Consultative Assembly (MPR) added 14 amendments to the Constitution of Indonesia. Included in these amendments were measures to reorganise the Indonesian legislature. Beginning in 2004, the MPR would be composed of the existing People 's Representative Council (DPR) and a new Regional Representative Council (DPD). Because all the seats in the MPR would be directly elected, this called for the removal of the military from the legislature, whose 38 seats for the 1999 -- 2004 period were all appointed. This change and an amendment for direct election of the President and Vice-President were major steps for Indonesia on the road towards a full democracy.
The 2004 legislative election was held on 5 April 2004. A total of 24 parties contested the election. The Golkar Party won the largest share of the vote, at 21.6 %, followed by the Indonesian Democratic Party - Struggle, the National Awakening Party, the United Development Party and newly formed Democratic Party. 17 parties won legislative seats.
Legislative elections for the Regional Representatives Council and the People 's Representative Council were held in Indonesia on 9 April 2009. The presidential election was held on 8 July, with President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono winning enough of the vote to make the run - off election unnecessary.
Legislative elections for the Regional Representatives Council and the People 's Representative Council were held in Indonesia on 9 April 2014. The presidential election was held on 9 July 2014, with Joko Widodo winning the election.
Notes:
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have the lightning ever won a stanley cup | Tampa Bay Lightning - Wikipedia
The Tampa Bay Lightning are a professional ice hockey team based in Tampa, Florida. It is a member of the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL). The Lightning have one Stanley Cup championship in their history, in 2003 -- 04. The team is often referred to as the Bolts, and the nickname was used on the former third jerseys. The Lightning plays home games in Amalie Arena in Tampa.
The owner of the Lightning is Jeffrey Vinik, while Steve Yzerman serves as general manager. The team is currently coached by Jon Cooper, who has led the team since 2013.
In the late 1980s, the NHL announced it would expand. Two rival groups from the Tampa Bay Area area decided to bid for a franchise: a St. Petersburg - based group fronted by future Hartford Whalers / Carolina Hurricanes owners Peter Karmanos and Jim Rutherford, and a Tampa - based group fronted by two Hall of Famers -- Phil Esposito and his brother Tony.
One of Esposito 's key backers, the Pritzker family, backed out a few months before the bid, to be replaced by a consortium of Japanese businesses headed by Kokusai Green, a golf course and resort operator. On paper, it looked like the Karmanos / Rutherford group was the more stable bid, however, the group wanted to pay only $29 million before starting play, while the Esposito group was one of the few groups willing to pay the $50 million expansion fee up front. The Esposito group would win the expansion franchise, and name the team the Lightning, after Tampa Bay 's status as the "Lightning Capital of North America ''.
After being awarded the franchise, Phil Esposito installed himself as president and general manager, while Tony became chief scout. Terry Crisp, who played for the Philadelphia Flyers when they won two Stanley Cups in the mid-1970s and coached the Calgary Flames to a Stanley Cup in 1989, was tapped as the first head coach. Phil Esposito would also hire former teammates from the Boston Bruins of the 1970s; he hired former linemate Wayne Cashman as an assistant coach, former Bruin trainer John "Frosty '' Forristal as the team 's trainer and the inaugural team photo has him flanked by Cashman and player Ken Hodge, Jr., son of his other Bruins ' linemate.
The team turned heads in the pre-season when Manon Rheaume became the first woman to play in an NHL game, which also made her the first woman to play in any of the major professional North American sports leagues; she played for the Lightning against the St. Louis Blues, and stopped seven of nine shots.
The Lightning 's first regular season game took place on October 7, 1992, playing in Tampa 's tiny 11,000 - seat Expo Hall at the Florida State Fairgrounds. They shocked the visiting Chicago Blackhawks 7 -- 3 with four goals by little - known Chris Kontos. The Lightning shot to the top of the Campbell Conference 's Norris Division within a month, behind Kontos ' initial torrid scoring pace and a breakout season by forward Brian Bradley. However, they buckled under the strain of some of the longest road trips in the NHL -- their nearest division rival, the Blues, were over 1,000 miles away -- and finished in last place with a record of 23 -- 54 -- 7 for 53 points. This was, at the time, one of the best - ever showings by an NHL expansion team. Bradley 's 42 goals gave Tampa Bay fans optimism for the next season; it would be a team record until the 2006 -- 07 season.
The following season saw the Lightning shift to the Eastern Conference 's Atlantic Division, as well as move into the Florida Suncoast Dome (a building originally designed for baseball) in St. Petersburg, which was reconfigured for hockey and renamed "the ThunderDome. '' The team acquired goaltender Daren Puppa, left - wing goal scorer Petr Klima and Denis Savard. While Puppa 's play resulted in a significant improvement in goals allowed (from 332 to 251), Savard was long past his prime and Klima 's scoring was offset by his defensive lapses. The Lightning finished last in the Atlantic Division in 1993 -- 94 with a record of 30 -- 43 -- 11 for 71 points. Another disappointing season followed in the lockout - shortened 1995 season with a record of 17 -- 28 -- 3 for 37 points.
In their fourth season, 1995 -- 96, with Bradley still leading the team in scoring, second - year forward Alexander Selivanov scoring a total of 31 goals, and Roman Hamrlik having an All - Star year on defense, the Lightning finally qualified for the playoffs, nosing out the defending Stanley Cup champion New Jersey Devils with a record of 38 -- 33 -- 12 with 88 points for the eighth spot in the Eastern Conference by a single win. Due to his stellar play in net, Puppa was named a finalist for the Vezina Trophy (losing out to Jim Carey of the Washington Capitals). Set to play the Stanley Cup contending Philadelphia Flyers, the Lighting would split the opening two games in Philadelphia before taking a 2 - 1 series lead in overtime before a ThunderDome crowd of 28,183. This was the largest crowd for an NHL game, a record that stood until the 2003 Heritage Classic in Edmonton. An injury to Puppa in that game, however, would see the Lightning lose the next three games and the series.
The Lightning acquired goalscorer Dino Ciccarelli from the Detroit Red Wings during the 1996 off - season, and he did not disappoint, scoring 35 goals in the 1996 -- 97 season, with Chris Gratton notching another 30 goals. The team moved into a glittering new arena, the Ice Palace (now Amalie Arena), and appeared destined for another playoff spot. However, the Lightning suffered a devastating rash of injuries. Puppa developed back trouble that kept him out of all but four games during the season; he would only play a total of 50 games from 1996 until his retirement in 2000. Bradley also lost time to a series of concussions that would limit him to a total of 49 games from 1996 until his retirement in December 1999. Center John Cullen developed non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and missed the last 12 games of the 1996 -- 97 season; he would eventually be forced to retire in 1999. Decimated by these ailments, the Lightning narrowly missed the playoffs.
Most of the Lightning 's early stars were gone by 1998 due to free agency and a series of ill advised trades. Crisp was fired 11 games into the 1997 -- 98 season and replaced by Jacques Demers. Though Demers had presided over the resurgence of the Detroit Red Wings in the 1980s and helmed a Stanley Cup run with the Montreal Canadiens in 1993, he was unable to change the team 's fortunes and the Lightning ended up losing 55 games.
By most accounts, the Lightning 's plunge to the bottom of the NHL was due to inattentive ownership by Kokusai Green. Rumors abounded as early as the team 's second season that the Lightning were on the brink of bankruptcy and that the team was part of a money laundering scheme for the yakuza (Japanese crime families). Its scouting operation consisted of Tony Esposito and several satellite dishes. The Internal Revenue Service investigated the team in 1994 and 1995, and nearly threatened to put a tax lien on the team for $750,000 in back taxes. The situation led longtime NHL broadcaster and writer Stan Fischler to call the Lightning a "skating vaudeville show ''.
Even in their first playoff season, the team was awash in red ink and Kokusai Green was looking to sell the team, however its asking price of $230 million for the team and the lease with the Ice Palace deterred buyers. A possible sale was further hampered by the team 's murky ownership structure; even some team officials (including Crisp) did not know who really owned the team. Takashi Okubo, the owner of Kokusai Green, had never met with the Espositos or with NHL officials in person prior to being awarded the Lightning franchise, and had never watched his team play or visited the city of Tampa.
Nearly all of Kokusai Green 's investment in the team and the Ice Palace came in the form of loans, leaving the team constantly short of cash. At least one prospective buyer pulled out after expressing doubts that Okubo even existed. In fact, the first time anyone connected with the Lightning or the NHL even saw Okubo was in the spring of 1998. Many of Esposito 's trades came simply to keep the team above water. The team 's financial situation was a considerable concern to NHL officials; rumors surfaced that the league was seriously considering taking control of the team if Okubo failed to find a buyer by the summer of 1998.
Forbes wrote an article in late 1997 calling the Lightning a financial nightmare, with a debt equal to 236 % of its value, the highest of any major North American sports franchise. Even though the Ice Palace was built for hockey and the Lightning were the only major tenant, Forbes called the team 's deal with the arena a lemon since it would not result in much revenue for 30 years. It was also behind on paying state sales taxes and federal payroll taxes.
Finally, in 1998, Kokusai Green found a buyer. Although Detroit Pistons owner William Davidson was thought to be the frontrunner, the buyer turned out to be insurance tycoon and motivational speaker Art Williams, who previously owned the Birmingham Barracudas of the Canadian Football League (CFL). The team was $102 million in debt at the time the sale closed. Williams knew very little about hockey, but was very visible and outspoken, and immediately pumped an additional $6 million into the team 's payroll. He also cleared most of the debt from the Kokusai Green era. After taking control, Williams publicly assured the Espositos that their jobs were safe, only to fire them two games into the 1998 -- 99 season. He then gave Demers complete control of hockey operations as both coach and general manager. The Lightning drafted Vincent Lecavalier in 1998, a player who would be a cornerstone of the team for years to come.
Williams was widely seen as being in over his head and was an easy target for his NHL colleagues, who called him "Jed Clampett '' behind his back due to his thick Southern accent and fundamentalist Christian views. Early in the 1998 -- 99 season, the Lightning lost ten games in a row, all but ending any chance of making the playoffs. They ended up losing 54 games that year, more than the expansion Nashville Predators.
By the spring of 1999, Williams had seen enough. He had not attended a game in some time because "this team broke my heart ''. He lost $20 million in the 1998 -- 99 season alone, as much money in one year as he had estimated he could have reasonably lost in five years. Williams sold the team for $115 million -- $2 million less than he had paid for the team a year earlier -- to Detroit Pistons owner William Davidson, who had almost bought the team a year earlier. Along with the sale, the Lightning acquired a new top minor league affiliate; Davidson also owned the Detroit Vipers of the now - defunct International Hockey League.
Davidson remained in Detroit, but appointed Tom Wilson as team president to handle day - to - day management of the team. Wilson immediately fired Jacques Demers, who despite his best efforts (and fatherly attitude toward Vincent Lecavalier) was unable to overcome the damage from the Kokusai Green ownership. Wilson persuaded Ottawa Senators general manager (and former Vipers GM) Rick Dudley to take over as the Lightning 's new general manager; Dudley, in turn, brought Vipers coach Steve Ludzik in as the team 's new head coach. Wilson, Dudley and Ludzik had helped make the Vipers one of the premier minor league hockey franchises, having won a Turner Cup in only their third season in Detroit (the team had originally been based in Salt Lake City).
However, as had been the case with Demers, the damage from the last few seasons under Kokusai Green was too much for Ludzik to overcome. Even with a wholesale transfer of talent from Detroit to Tampa (a move that eventually doomed the Vipers, which folded along with the IHL in 2001), the Lightning lost 54 games in 1999 -- 2000 and 52 in 2000 -- 01, becoming the first team in NHL history to post four straight 50 - loss seasons. The lone bright spots in those years were the blossoming of Vincent Lecavalier and Brad Richards into NHL stars. Ludzik was replaced in early 2001 by career NHL assistant John Tortorella. The March 5 trade deadline offered another glimmer of hope when the team acquired hold - out goaltender Nikolai Khabibulin from the Phoenix Coyotes for three players and a draft pick.
The 2001 -- 02 season, Tortorella 's first full year behind the bench, saw some improvement. Martin St. Louis was having a breakout season when he broke his leg in game number 47 and was lost for the remainder of the season. Khabibulin recorded a shut out at the NHL All - Star Game but was not named its MVP, by all accounts due to the game 's voting protocol. By mid-February, the Lightning were well out of playoff contention and were sinking under a rash of injuries. Dudley, who had guaranteed a playoff berth before the season, was fired and replaced by his assistant, Jay Feaster. Still the Lightning showed some signs of life, earning more than 60 points for the first time since 1997. Tortorella stripped Lecavalier of the captaincy due to contract negotiations that had made the young center miss the start of the season.
With a young core of players led by Vincent Lecavalier, Brad Richards, Martin St. Louis and Fredrik Modin, the Lightning were thought to be very close to respectability. However, they arrived somewhat earlier than expected in 2002 -- 03. The young team was led by the goaltending of Nikolai Khabibulin and the scoring efforts of Lecavalier, St. Louis, Modin, Richards and Ruslan Fedotenko, and also boasted a new captain, former prolific scorer Dave Andreychuk. Throughout the season, the Lightning battled the Washington Capitals for first place in the Southeast Division. They finished with a record of 36 -- 25 -- 16 for 93 points, breaking the 90 - point barrier for the first time in team history. They won the division by just one point, giving them home - ice advantage in their first round match - up with the Capitals. At season 's end, coach Tortorella was recognized for his efforts by being named a finalist for the Jack Adams Award, losing out to Jacques Lemaire of the Minnesota Wild.
In the first round of the playoffs, the Lightning quickly fell two games behind in the series but followed the two losses with four consecutive wins which advanced them to the Conference Semi-finals for the first time in team history. In the semi-finals, the Lightning won only one game, losing the series to the New Jersey Devils, who went on to win the Stanley Cup.
The Lightning 's dramatic improvement continued through the 2003 -- 04 regular season, finishing with a record of 46 -- 22 -- 8 -- 6 for 106 points, second - best in the NHL after the Western Conference 's Detroit Red Wings -- the first 100 - point season in franchise history. The Lightning went through the season with only 20 - man - games lost to injury. In the first round of the playoffs, the Lightning ousted the Alexei Yashin - led New York Islanders in five games, with solid play from goaltender Nikolai Khabibulin, who posted three shutouts in Games 1, 3 and 4.
In the second round, the Lightning faced the Montreal Canadiens, captained by Saku Koivu; Lecavalier, Richards, and Khabibulin led the team to a four - game sweep of Montreal. They next faced Keith Primeau and his Philadelphia Flyers in the Conference Finals. After a tightly - fought seven - game series in which neither team was able to win consecutive games, Fredrik Modin notched the winning goal of the seventh and deciding game, earning the Eastern Conference championship for the Lightning and their first - ever berth in the Stanley Cup Finals.
Their opponent in the final round was the Calgary Flames, captained by Jarome Iginla. The final round also went the full seven games, with the deciding game played in the St. Pete Times Forum on June 7, 2004. This time, Ruslan Fedotenko was the Game 7 hero, scoring both Lightning goals in a 2 -- 1 victory. Brad Richards, who had 26 points in the post-season, won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the playoffs; the Lightning had won all 31 contests in which he had scored a goal since the opening of the season. Tortorella won the Jack Adams Award as the NHL 's Coach of the Year. Only three years after their last of four consecutive seasons of 50 or more losses, and in only their 12th year of existence, the Lightning became the southernmost team ever to win the Stanley Cup. Martin St. Louis led the team and the NHL with 94 points (his 38 goals were fourth-most after the 41 of tied trio Jarome Iginla, Rick Nash and Ilya Kovalchuk), and won the Hart Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's most valuable player. St. Louis also won the Lester B. Pearson Award for the NHL 's most outstanding player as voted by the NHL Players ' Association, and tied the Vancouver Canucks ' Marek Malik for the NHL Plus / Minus Award. A season of superlatives was capped with one final accolade, as The Sporting News named GM Jay Feaster as the league 's executive of the year for 2003 -- 04.
The Lightning had to wait a year to defend their title due to the 2004 -- 05 NHL lockout, but in 2005 -- 06, they barely made the playoffs with a record of 43 -- 33 -- 6 for 93 points in a conference where six teams notched 100 or more points. They lost to the Ottawa Senators in five games in the first round of the 2006 playoffs.
During the off - season, the Lightning traded Fredrik Modin and Fredrik Norrena to the Columbus Blue Jackets in exchange for goaltender Marc Denis in an effort to replace the departing John Grahame, who had signed with the Carolina Hurricanes. However, free agent Johan Holmqvist would eventually receive the majority of playing time and most of the club 's wins. The first half of 2006 -- 07 was inconsistent for the Lightning, maintaining an 18 -- 19 -- 2 record throughout the first few months. January and February were far better months for the team, going 9 -- 4 -- 0 in January and 9 -- 2 -- 2 in February, driving them back into the playoff race. Fourteen games in March were split even, and on March 16, 2007, Vincent Lecavalier broke the franchise record for most points in a season, with 95 (finishing with 108). The record was previously held by Martin St. Louis, who had set the record in the 2003 -- 04 Stanley Cup - winning year. Lecavalier also broke the franchise 's goal scoring record, finishing with a league - leading 52 goals.
The Lightning were busy during the final weeks before the NHL 's trade deadline, acquiring wingers Kyle Wanvig, Stephen Baby and defenseman Shane O'Brien. Former first round pick Nikita Alexeev was traded on deadline day to the Chicago Blackhawks. Other mid-season additions to the team included Filip Kuba, Luke Richardson and Doug Janik. Veteran Andre Roy, who had won the Stanley Cup with the Lightning in 2004, was claimed off waivers from the Pittsburgh Penguins.
Throughout March, the Lightning had been competing with the Atlanta Thrashers for first place in the Southeast Division. With a chance to overtake the Thrashers one final time and once again become division champions for the third time in team history, on April 6, 2007, in the final week of the regular season, the Lighting suffered a loss to the Florida Panthers, the night before the season finale in Atlanta. That same night, the Thrashers defeated the Carolina Hurricanes and subsequently clinched the division. For the Lightning, this meant having to settle for the seventh seed in the Eastern Conference with a final record of 44 -- 33 -- 5 (93 points).
However, the Lightning were eliminated from playoff competition on April 22 after a 3 -- 2 home loss to the New Jersey Devils in Game 6 of the Eastern Conference Quarterfinals.
Following their playoff exit, on August 7, 2007, Absolute Hockey Enterprises, a group led by Doug MacLean, announced it had signed a purchase agreement for the team and the leasehold on the St. Pete Times Forum. MacLean is the former president and general manager of the Columbus Blue Jackets and former head coach for both the Blue Jackets and the Florida Panthers. The group announced it planned to keep the team in Tampa, but the deal collapsed during the 2007 -- 08 season.
The Lightning struggled to maintain success during the 2007 -- 08 campaign. Although the "Big 3 '' of Vincent Lecavalier, Martin St. Louis and Brad Richards, along with Vaclav Prospal, had performed up to expectations, they had little consistent play from supporting players.
At the start of the All - Star Break on January 25, 2008, the Lightning had a 20 -- 25 -- 5 record, and with 45 points, were in last place in both the Southeast Division and the Eastern Conference. Only the Los Angeles Kings had a lower point total at this time of the season, with 40 points.
On February 13, 2008, it was announced that Palace Sports & Entertainment had agreed to sell the Lightning to OK Hockey LLC, a group headed by Oren Koules, a producer of the Saw horror movies, and Len Barrie, a former NHL player and real estate developer.
The Lightning were active during the trade deadline, similar to the previous season. More notable trades included Vaclav Prospal 's trade to the Philadelphia Flyers in exchange for prospect Alexandre Picard and a conditional draft pick. Additionally, former Conn Smythe Trophy winner Brad Richards and goaltender Johan Holmqvist were traded to the Dallas Stars in exchange for goaltender Mike Smith and forwards Jussi Jokinen and Jeff Halpern, as well as a fourth - round draft pick in 2009. Jan Hlavac, a regular contributor, was also traded, moving to the Nashville Predators in exchange for a seventh - round pick in 2008. Defenseman Dan Boyle was re-signed to a six - year contract extension reportedly worth $40 million.
However, after the trade deadline, the Lightning fared no better than they had throughout the entire season. After the February 26 trade deadline, the Lightning won only five games. Finishing with a 31 -- 42 -- 9 record, with 71 points, they had the highest chance of winning the top overall pick in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft through the draft lottery, which they eventually won on April 7. They would use their first overall pick to select Steven Stamkos of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) 's Sarnia Sting.
The Lightning were the worst team on the road in the NHL, winning only 11 games. Another showing of the team 's poor play was the difference from the previous season 's success in the overtime / shootout periods. In the 2006 -- 07 season, the Lightning had one of the best extra period records, winning 15 games in either overtime or the shootout. However, in the 2007 -- 08 season, they won only three games, losing nine.
Vincent Lecavalier suffered a dislocated shoulder as the result of an open - ice hit from Matt Cooke of the Washington Capitals in the game before the season finale in Atlanta. Lecavalier, who planned on having arthroscopic wrist surgery after the season 's ending, would undergo surgery to repair his right shoulder as well. Cooke was fined $2,500 by the NHL for the hit, as Lecavalier did not have possession of the puck at the time. Perhaps the lone bright spot in the season was Lecavalier 's winning both the King Clancy Memorial Trophy and the NHL Foundation Player Award for work through his foundation, including a $3 million pledge to All Children 's Hospital in St. Petersburg, Florida, for what would become the Vincent Lecavalier Pediatric Cancer and Blood Disorders Center at All Children 's Hospital.
Head coach John Tortorella was fired by the Lightning following their worst season since Tortorella was hired. At the time working as an NHL analyst for ESPN, Barry Melrose stated on June 4 during an episode of Pardon the Interruption that he missed coaching and would entertain any NHL coaching offers. He stated, "I miss not having a dog in the fight. '' On June 23, ESPN reported Melrose had been chosen to be the head coach of the Lightning, beginning in 2008 -- 09. The next day, the Lightning officially introduced him as their new head coach.
On July 4, 2008, Dan Boyle, despite coming off a recent contract extension, was traded (along with Brad Lukowich) to the San Jose Sharks in exchange for Matt Carle, Ty Wishart, a first - round draft pick in 2009 and a fourth - round pick in 2010. Boyle was pressured to waive his no - trade clause by Tampa Bay 's ownership, who said they would otherwise place him on waivers, where he would likely be claimed by the Atlanta Thrashers. In the fallout from the trade, Boyle would call Lightning ownership "liars '' for misrepresenting the aforementioned events to the public, while former coach Tortorella later labeled them as "cowboys '' and said he had zero respect for them. Frustrated at interference in the team 's hockey operations by Barrie and Koules, seven days later, Jay Feaster resigned as general manager, despite having three years remaining on his contract.
The Lightning opened the 2008 -- 09 season in the Czech Republic against the New York Rangers as a part of the NHL 's regular season "Premiere '' that selects several teams to open the regular season in Europe.
Barry Melrose would record his first win as a head coach in over 13 years on October 21, 2008, with a 3 -- 2 victory over the Atlanta Thrashers. However, the Lightning did not get off to a great start as hoped, and Melrose was eventually fired by the Lightning with a 5 -- 7 -- 4 record. Rick Tocchet, who had been hired as assistant coach during the previous off - season, was promoted to interim head coach.
On March 4, veterans Mark Recchi and Olaf Kolzig were traded by the Tampa Bay Lightning to the Boston Bruins and Toronto Maple Leafs, respectively. The Lightning acquired top round picks Matt Lashoff and Martins Karsums from the Bruins.
After the firing of Melrose, the Lightning went 19 -- 33 -- 14 and would finish the season 24 -- 40 -- 18 with 66 points, their lowest point total since the 2000 -- 01 season. With the second overall pick in the 2009 NHL Entry Draft, the Lightning selected Swedish defenseman Victor Hedman.
In the 2009 off - season, the Lightning removed the interim status of Rick Tocchet, making him the full - time head coach and signing him to a multi-year contract. The Lightning had an up - and - down beginning to the 2009 -- 10 campaign. Despite an overmatched roster on paper, and a team that struggled in the first two periods of many games, the Lightning remained competitive in the playoff race until March, when they went 5 -- 10 -- 1 for the month and fell eight points out of a playoff spot. Unable to make a final push for the playoffs, they were officially eliminated from contention within the first week of April. The Lightning finished the season 34 -- 36 -- 12 for 80 points, fourth in the Southeast Division and 12th in the Eastern Conference.
Steven Stamkos scored 51 goals in just his second NHL season, earning himself a share of the Maurice "Rocket '' Richard Trophy by finishing tied for the NHL lead in goals with Pittsburgh Penguins star Sidney Crosby.
During the season, the team was sold to Bostonian investment banker Jeffrey Vinik. Following the late - season collapse, Vinik cleaned house, firing both head coach Rick Tocchet and GM Brian Lawton on April 12, 2010, one day after the season ended.
In May 2010, Vinik hired Steve Yzerman away from the Detroit Red Wings front office to be the new GM, signing him to a five - year contract. Yzerman then hired Guy Boucher away from the Montreal Canadiens organization to succeed Tocchet as the head coach two weeks later.
Yzerman 's first off - season with Tampa Bay began with a splash. With the sixth pick of the 2010 NHL Entry Draft, the Lightning selected forward Brett Connolly despite a history of injuries while playing for the Western Hockey League (WHL) 's Prince George Cougars. When asked about Connolly 's injuries being a factor in the decision to draft him, Yzerman boldly declared, "I think it was a factor that he was available with the 6th pick. Because if he had been healthy all year, based on everything I know, he would not have been available with the 6th pick. '' On July 1, 2010, veteran blueliner Andrej Meszaros was traded to the Philadelphia Flyers in exchange for their second - round pick in 2011. Later that day, the Lightning signed star winger Martin St. Louis to a four - year, $22.5 million contract extension to come into effect on July 1, 2011. On July 19, in another move with the Flyers organization, the Lightning traded defenseman Matt Walker and Tampa Bay 's fourth - round pick in 2011 for high - scoring winger Simon Gagne. Other off - season acquisitions included the signing of forwards Sean Bergenheim, Dominic Moore and Marc - Antoine Pouliot, along with defensemen Brett Clark, Randy Jones and Pavel Kubina and goaltender Dan Ellis, as well as the re-signing of restricted free agent forward Steve Downie to a two - year, $3.7 million deal.
With starting goaltender Mike Smith injured, the Lightning called up Cedrick Desjardins, who played with a. 950 save percentage and a 1.00 goals against average (GAA) in two games. The team then acquired veteran Dwayne Roloson from the New York Islanders for further coverage in net.
The Lightning compiled a 46 -- 25 -- 11 record with 103 points in the 2010 -- 11 season, matching a franchise record for wins in a season. After holding the first place in the Southeast Division for several months, they fell to second after a poor performance in March. However, their record was solid enough for second in the Southeast Division and fifth in the Eastern Conference, and they returned to the playoffs for the first time since the 2006 -- 07 season. Scoring 31 goals and assisting on 68, Martin St. Louis finished second in the NHL in points.
In the playoffs, Tampa Bay drew the Pittsburgh Penguins in the Conference Quarterfinals. After losing Game 4 at home in the second overtime period, they fell behind in the series one game to three. However, the Lightning went on to win the next three games, including a 1 -- 0 Game 7 win on the road, taking their first playoff series since winning the Stanley Cup in 2004. In the Conference Semi-finals, the Lightning swept the top - seeded Washington Capitals.
Tampa Bay went up against the Boston Bruins in the Eastern Conference Finals. In Game 4 of the series, the Lightning trailed 3 -- 0 at the end of the first period. When Dwayne Roloson was pulled for Mike Smith, the Bruins failed to score again, and the Lightning tied the game in the second period by scoring three goals in 3: 58, going on to win the game 5 -- 3 and tying the series at two games apiece. The series went the full seven games, though the Lightning were eliminated by a single goal, as the game was lost (0 -- 1).
The Lightning finished the 2011 -- 12 season with a 38 -- 36 -- 8 record. With only 84 points, they fell short of reaching the playoffs, ending the season third in the Southeast Division and tenth in the Eastern Conference.
Individually, Steven Stamkos scored a franchise - record 60 goals. He won the Maurice "Rocket '' Richard Trophy for the second time in his career, the first time in which he was the unanimous victor. Stamkos was also second in the NHL in points with 97, and was a finalist for both the Hart Memorial Trophy and the Ted Lindsay Award.
As with the 1994 -- 95 NHL lockout, the 2012 -- 13 NHL lockout resulted in a 48 - game season.
Nearing the end of a dismal 18 -- 26 -- 4 season for 40 points, in which the Lightning ended fourth in the Southeast and 14th in the East, GM Steve Yzerman looked to their highly - successful American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Syracuse Crunch. On March 25, 2013, head coach Guy Boucher was dismissed for following a 7 -- 16 -- 1 record. The Lightning announced Jon Cooper would become the eighth head coach in franchise history.
Martin St. Louis won his second Art Ross Trophy with 60 points in the shortened season, as Stamkos finished runner - up 57.
On June 27, 2013, the team announced that they would exercise one of their two "compliance buyouts '' on captain Vincent Lecavalier, as permitted by the collective agreement. This move would make Lecavalier an unrestricted free agent beginning July 5, free to sign with any team except the Lightning. The team stated the move was made not because of Lecavalier 's play on the ice, but simply because of how his contract affected the team 's salary cap, which would have been over $7 million per year until its expiration after the 2019 -- 20 season.
After acquiring goaltender Ben Bishop from the Ottawa Senators in a trade the previous season, the Lightning started the 2013 season with an above average performance. On November 11, 2013, going into the day tied for most goals during the regular season, Steven Stamkos suffered a broken right tibia after crashing into one of the goalposts during play against the Boston Bruins. He would miss 45 games and was not cleared to play again until March 5, 2014.
In January, GM Steve Yzerman, who also served as the general manager for Canada 's team at the 2014 Winter Olympics, elected not to name Lightning captain Martin St. Louis to Canada 's roster, instead choosing the still - injured Stamkos. After Stamkos was not medically cleared to play in Sochi in early February, Yzerman ultimately named St. Louis to Team Canada as an injury replacement. In late February, it was reported St. Louis had requested a trade from Yzerman the month prior. St. Louis, who had a no - move clause in his contract with Tampa Bay, reportedly consented to only being traded to the New York Rangers. On March 5, 2014, St. Louis was sent to New York along with a conditional 2015 second - round pick in exchange for New York captain Ryan Callahan, a 2015 first - round draft pick, a conditional 2014 second - round pick and a 2015 conditional seventh - round pick. The deal came subsequently after Stamkos had been cleared to return to the Lightning 's active roster. St. Louis cited his decision based on his family and thanked Lightning fans for their support during his tenure with the franchise, but would not specify any further about the reasons leading to his request.
On March 6, 2014, Steven Stamkos was named Tampa Bay 's tenth captain in franchise history in his first game back after recovering from his tibia injury.
On April 7, 2014, the team announced it had signed GM Steve Yzerman to a four - year contract extension.
Finishing the season with 101 points, the Lightning placed second in the Atlantic Division, qualifying for the playoffs for the first time since 2011. However, Tampa Bay was eliminated in the first round of the Atlantic divisional semi-finals, losing to the Montreal Canadiens in a four - game sweep.
On June 25, 2014, the Lightning agreed to terms with Ryan Callahan, who was slated to become a free agent in the off - season, signing him to a six - year, $34.8 million contract extension. The same day, the Lightning used its remaining compliance buyout on forward Ryan Malone after his on - ice performance had declined from injuries seasons prior in addition to his off - ice troubles that included a DUI arrest before the end of the season.
Finishing the 2014 -- 15 season with 108 points, the Lightning placed second in the Atlantic Division and qualified for the playoffs for the second - straight season, scoring the most goals out of any team in the NHL. Tampa Bay eliminated the Detroit Red Wings in seven games in the first round of the playoffs before facing Montreal in the second round. The Lightning won the first three games of the series and had a chance to sweep the Canadiens, however Montreal responded with wins in Games 4 and 5 to extend the series to a sixth game. Tampa Bay won the sixth game of the series to eliminate the Canadiens and advance to the Eastern Conference Finals for the first time since 2011, facing the New York Rangers.
In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Lightning and the Rangers split the first two games of the series in New York, with the Lightning winning Game 2 of the series thanks to a Tyler Johnson hat - trick. The series then shifted to Tampa, where the Lightning had a come - from - behind overtime victory in Game 3 but lost Game 4 to even the series at two games apiece. During Game 5 in New York, goaltender Ben Bishop recorded his second shutout of the playoffs in a 2 -- 0 victory, but the Rangers responded in Game 6 by scoring seven goals to tie the series at three games apiece. In Game 7, Bishop recorded his third shutout of the playoffs in another 2 -- 0 victory against the Rangers to lead the Lightning to their first appearance in the Stanley Cup Finals since 2004. The Lightning not only became the first team to defeat the Rangers in a Game 7 at Madison Square Garden, but they also became the first team to successfully defeat three Original Six teams in the first three rounds of the playoffs. The Lightning would face the Chicago Blackhawks in the Stanley Cup Finals, making it the first time a finalist faced four Original Six teams in the playoffs since the four - round format was introduced in 1980. After losing Game 1 at home, the Lightning built a two games to one series lead, though the Blackhawks would win the following three games to win the Stanley Cup in six games at the United Center in Chicago. This made Tampa Bay the first team to beat three of the Original Six teams in the playoffs since the Pittsburgh Penguins completed the feat in 1992. However, they became the first team to lose the Stanley Cup Finals despite beating three Original Six teams.
Despite finishing with 46 wins and 97 points, the Lightning had a very slow start to the 2015 -- 16 season. The 2015 -- 16 season was filled with controversy for the Lightning, starting off with the contractual questions regarding team captain Steven Stamkos and with the former third overall pick Jonathan Drouin publicly requesting a trade and being suspended from the organization. The Lightning picked up their play at the beginning of the year 2016 and set the franchise record to nine consecutive wins on March 5, 2016, when Alex Killorn scored with 42.5 seconds remaining in overtime to propel the Lightning to a 4 -- 3 victory over the Carolina Hurricanes at Amalie Arena. On March 26, 2016, the Lightning announced cornerstone defenseman Anton Stralman had suffered a fractured leg in their game against the New York Islanders at home. Tampa 's fortunes would get even worse when Stamkos shockingly was out of the lineup for the team 's game on April 2 against the New Jersey Devils in Tampa. Lightning GM Steve Yzerman announced after the game that the captain would miss one - to - three months due to a blood clot in his arm. Due to unfortunate circumstances, the team had no other option but to bring Drouin back to the team. The Lightning ended up finishing second in the Atlantic Division and would once again face the third - seeded Detroit Red Wings in the first round of the playoffs.
The Lightning ended up defeating the Red Wings in five games after winning 1 -- 0 at Amalie Arena. Next up, the Islanders would face the Lightning. In Game 1, the Islanders defeated the Bolts 5 -- 3. The Lightning would eventually answer back by winning four consecutive games in the series to defeat the Isles in five games, in large part due to back - to - back road overtime victories with goals scored by Brian Boyle and Jason Garrison. The Lightning were set to play against the Pittsburgh Penguins in the Eastern Conference Finals. In Game 1 at Consol Energy Center, star goaltender Ben Bishop would be added to the list of devastating injuries for the team as he left on a stretcher and did not return for the remainder of the series. Stralman would eventually return in Game 2. A back - and - forth series would eventually lead to a Game 7 showdown in Pittsburgh. Lightning captain Steven Stamkos surprisingly took warmups and was in the Lightning lineup after a long absence from blood clot surgery. However, it was not enough, as the Lightning would fall 2 -- 1 against the Penguins, who went on to defeat the San Jose Sharks and win the Stanley Cup.
With the Lightning under the spotlight in the 2016 off - season, Drouin rescinded his trade request. Steve Yzerman would then announce on June 29 the team re-signed Stamkos to an eight - year, cap - friendly deal. He would then sign star defenseman Victor Hedman to an eight - year contract on July 1, along with a seven - year deal for Alex Killorn and a three - year deal for former first round pick, goaltender Andrei Vasilevskiy.
The Lightning narrowly missed the playoffs in the 2016 -- 17 season. Finishing with 94 points, they were beaten to the second wildcard by the Toronto Maple Leafs, with 95 points. The 2016 -- 17 season for the Lightning was a host of injuries, mainly their captain, Steven Stamkos. Stamkos went down in the 17th game, against the Detroit Red Wings. It was revealed he suffered from a torn left meniscus, which put him out for the rest of the season. During the season, they traded goaltender Ben Bishop to the Los Angeles Kings, center Brian Boyle to the Toronto Maple Leafs, and forward Valtteri Filppula to the Philadelphia Flyers. However, there were positive signs as winger Nikita Kucherov emerged with 40 goals and goaltender Andrei Vasilevskiy stepped up after Bishop left. The Lightning also showcased their young talent with rookie Brayden Point and promising AHL call - ups Yanni Gourde and Jake Dotchin. The Lightning bounced back with this talent in the last third of the season, but it was not enough as they missed the playoffs by one point.
In the off - season, the Lightning made a deal with the Montreal Canadiens to send Jonathan Drouin to their franchise in exchange for defensive prospect Mikhail Sergachev and a second - round pick in the 2018 NHL Entry Draft. They also signed defenseman Dan Girardi for two years and winger Chris Kunitz to a one year deal.
In the 2017 -- 18 season, Steven Stamkos returned from injury, scoring 20 points in the first 10 games and assisting on 9 of Nikita Kucherov 's 11. The Lightning finished the 2017 -- 18 season with a record of 54 -- 23 -- 5, finishing with 113 points. The Lightning won their first Atlantic Division title and first division title since the 2003 -- 04 season, as well as securing the top seed in the Eastern Conference for the 2018 Stanley Cup playoffs. Andrei Vasilevskiy was nominated for the Vezina Trophy. Nikita Kucherov scored 100 points during the regular season, finishing third overall in the league. Steve Yzerman was once again nominated for the NHL General Manager of the Year Award. During the playoffs, the Lightning eliminated the New Jersey Devils in the first round and the Boston Bruins in the second round, both in five games. However, they were defeated in the Eastern Conference Finals by the eventual - Stanley Cup champions, the Washington Capitals, in seven games.
The Lightning radio broadcasts are on WFLA; the play - by - play announcer is Dave Mishkin, known for his energetic style and his tendency to shriek when the Lightning score. Phil Esposito is the color commentator for home games. Matthew Sammon is the pregame and intermission host. The Lightning television broadcasts can be seen on Fox Sports Sun. The television play - by - play announcer is Rick Peckham. The color commentator is Brian Engblom. The studio host is Paul Kennedy. Caley Chelios is the in - arena host and Lightning reporter. Former Lightning player Dave Andreychuk and former color commentator Bobby "The Chief '' Taylor assist with the television pregame and postgame broadcasts.
On December 10, 2014, long - time color commentator Bobby "The Chief '' Taylor announced he would be retiring from the broadcast booth at the end of the 2014 -- 15 season. Taylor had served as the teams color commentator since the 1993 -- 94 season, which was the team 's second year of existence. Taylor cited that he desired to be home with his wife Jan more. Taylor said, "The road was starting to get a little stale, '' and "I 've been traveling since I was 15, and that 's a long time. '' However, Taylor announced that he is not completely stepping away from the team broadcasts. He will continue to serve as a sideline or studio analyst during the games on Fox Sports Sun for both home and away games. Taylor may also see sometime between the benches during broadcasts the following season. The Lightning have begun an immediate search for a replacement for Taylor for the coming season.
On August 11, 2015, Fox Sports Sun, the regional television home of the Lightning, announced Brian Engblom as Taylor 's replacement on color commentary for the 2015 -- 16 season. Prior to joining Sun Sports, Engblom served as "Inside the glass '' analyst on both NBC and NBC Sports Network, as well as the network 's coverage of the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia. Engblom has served as an analyst on NHL Live, and also served as color analyst for Winnipeg Jets Games on TSN in Canada. Prior to being an announcer, Engblom played at the University of Wisconsin, and was Montreal 's third pick, 22nd overall, in the 1975 NHL Entry Draft. He won three Stanley Cups with the Canadiens (1977 -- 1979).
Since 2010, the Lightning colors have been blue, black and white. Their logo has been a stylized lightning bolt. This is the origin of one nickname for the team -- the "Bolts. ''
The original Lightning jerseys featured simple stripes on the sleeves and tail, and contrasting shoulders -- black shoulders over a white jersey, and white shoulders over the black -- with the alternate logo (a lightning bolt over the outline of the state of Florida). The underarm gussets included a feature referred to as "victory stripes '' -- a group of thin stripes, alternating in the team 's colors (black - silver - blue on white, or white - blue - silver on black). For the 1996 -- 97 season, the Lightning added a third jersey, primarily blue with a sublimated wave and rain design on the front and back, lightning bolts down the sleeves, a silver - gray shoulder yoke, and black gussets. The third jersey was retired after the 1998 -- 99 season.
In their first two seasons, the Lightning used a stylized block font for player names, with gaps in the upper loops of letters such as A, B, D, and R. The numbers were standard block numbers with drop shadows. The fonts were vertical in 1992 -- 93, and italicized in 1993 -- 94. The following season, the name font changed to a block font, vertically arched, while the number font changed to a painted style resembling the letters "Tampa Bay '' in the logo. This style was also used on the blue alternate in 1998 -- 99, replacing an "electrified '' number font used from 1996 -- 98. In 2001 -- 02, the old fonts were replaced with traditional block letters and numbers, which have been used ever since. They also darkened their shades of blue that season from a royal blue to a speed (Indy) blue.
As with all NHL teams for the 2007 -- 08 season, the Lightning debuted in new Reebok "Rbk Edge '' jerseys. Also, like several other NHL teams, the Lightning updated their team logo.
The Lightning unveiled their new logo on August 25, 2007. The logo was similar to the inaugural one, but with a more modern look. The new logo also kept the same theme as the previous one, but with the words "Tampa Bay '' across the top now appearing with tall capital initials, and the word "Lightning '' no longer appearing on the bottom of the logo.
The Edge jerseys use the same template adopted by the Ottawa Senators and Pittsburgh Penguins. Unlike those teams, the Lightning 's elbow panels remain the base color of the jersey, and an additional blue panel is added near the cuff of the sleeve. The Edge uniforms retain the underarm gusset "victory stripes '' of their predecessors.
The Lightning then debuted a new "alternate '' or "third '' jersey in the 2008 -- 09 season. The jersey features a dominant "electric blue '' color, with black and silver accents at the end of the sleeves. The logo is removed, and in its place emblazoned across the front of the jersey descending to the lower left of the jersey is the word "BOLTS '' (utilizing a layout similar to that of the Ottawa Senators ' third jersey). The numbers are featured on the back and sleeves only, using white lettering.
It was reported on January 23, 2011, that the Lightning had filed paperwork with the NHL to change their logo and colors, beginning with the 2011 -- 12 season. The new logo, as well as the new home and away jerseys, were unveiled by the team at a press conference at the St. Pete Times Forum on January 31, 2011. The Lightning began to integrate the new logo onto center ice, and even distributed free T - shirts with the simplified logo on February 4, 2011, while still using the old Lightning logo and uniforms.
The current uniforms are made in a traditional hockey sweater design. Initially, the colors that were to be used were simply blue and white, but by popular demand, black was later added as a trim color on the numbers. The victory stripes were also eliminated. Despite the introduction of the new uniforms, the previous third jersey was retained, with the new simplified logo replacing the old logo in the shoulders prior to the 2012 -- 13 season.
For the 2014 -- 15 season, the Lightning announced that a new black third sweater will replace the existing "BOLTS '' sweaters. The new sweaters were unveiled on September 27, 2014. It retained the "BOLTS '' wordmark, while adding white accents in a similar manner as the Los Angeles Kings ' sweaters. The secondary roundel logo also replaced the primary logo on the sleeves, while the city name was enscripted on the collar.
The Lightning made some minor tweaks to their current uniform set following the NHL 's move to Adidas as its uniform provider in the 2017 -- 18 season. The most notable change is the removal of the "TAMPA BAY '' wordmark on the white away sweaters.
Former United States Air Force technical sergeant Sonya Bryson - Kirksey sings the American national anthem at home games and she is accompanied by organist Krystof Srebrakowski.
The Lightning mascot is a lightning bug named ThunderBug. He performs at games and makes appearances in the community. According to the Lightning website, Thunderbug enjoys birthday parties, street hockey, ice hockey and Lightning fans, while his dislikes include flyswatters and bug zappers.
An official dance team known as the Lightning Girls perform at all home games and community events. The Tampa Bay Lightning Girls are a group of dancers who perform in the stands.
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Lightning. For the full season - by - season history, see List of Tampa Bay Lightning seasons
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime Losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against
Updated July 5, 2018
NHL All - Star Team
NHL All - Rookie Team
All - Star Game
NHL YoungStars Game
NHL All - Star Skills Competition (Rookie)
These are the top - ten - point - scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season.
Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games Played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P / G = Points per game
These are the top - ten playoff point - scorers in franchise playoff history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL season.
Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games Played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P / G = Points per game; * = current Lightning player
Stanley Cup
Prince of Wales Trophy
Art Ross Trophy
Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy
Conn Smythe Trophy
Hart Memorial Trophy
Jack Adams Award
James Norris Memorial Trophy
King Clancy Memorial Trophy
Lady Byng Memorial Trophy
Lester B. Pearson Award
Maurice "Rocket '' Richard Trophy
NHL Foundation Player Award
NHL General Manager of the Year Award
NHL Plus / Minus Award
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which film was the biggest box office hit of the 1960s | List of highest - grossing films - wikipedia
Films generate income from several revenue streams, including theatrical exhibition, home video, television broadcast rights and merchandising. However, theatrical box office earnings are the primary metric for trade publications in assessing the success of a film, mostly because of the availability of the data compared to sales figures for home video and broadcast rights, but also because of historical practice. Included on the list are charts of the top box office earners (ranked by both the nominal and real value of their revenue), a chart of high - grossing films by calendar year, a timeline showing the transition of the highest - grossing film record, and a chart of the highest - grossing film franchises and series. All charts are ranked by international theatrical box office performance where possible, excluding income derived from home video, broadcasting rights and merchandise.
Traditionally, war films, musicals and historical dramas have been the most popular genres, but franchise films have been among the best performers in the 21st century. Seven Harry Potter films and five films from Peter Jackson 's Middle - earth series are included in the nominal earnings chart, while the Star Wars and Pirates of the Caribbean franchises feature prominently. There is also continued interest in the superhero genre: Batman and Superman from DC Comics and films based on the Marvel Comics brand, such as Spider - Man, X-Men and films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, have generally done well. The only films in the top ten that are not adapted from a pre-existing property or a sequel are the top two, Avatar and Titanic, both directed by James Cameron. Animated family films have performed consistently well, with Disney films enjoying lucrative re-releases prior to the home - video era. Disney also enjoyed later success with films such as Frozen (the highest - grossing animated film), Zootopia and The Lion King, as well as with its Pixar brand, of which the Toy Story and Finding Nemo films have been the best performers. Beyond Disney and Pixar animation, the Shrek, Ice Age and Despicable Me series have met with the most success.
While inflation has eroded away the achievements of most films from the 1960s and 1970s, there are franchises originating from that period that are still active. Besides the Star Wars and Superman franchises, James Bond and Star Trek films are still being released periodically; all four are among the highest - grossing franchises. Some of the older films that held the record of highest - grossing film still have respectable grosses by today 's standards, but no longer compete numerically against today 's top - earners in an era of much higher individual ticket prices. When properly adjusted for inflation, however, on that comparative scale Gone with the Wind -- which was the highest - grossing film outright for twenty - five years -- is still the highest - grossing film of all time. All grosses on the list are expressed in U.S. dollars at their nominal value, except where stated otherwise.
With a worldwide box - office gross of over $2.7 billion, Avatar is often proclaimed to be the "highest - grossing '' film, but such claims usually refer to theatrical revenues only and do not take into account home video and television income, which can form a significant portion of a film 's earnings. Once revenue from home entertainment is factored in it is not immediately clear which film is the most successful. Titanic earned $1.2 billion from video and DVD sales and rentals, in addition to the $2.2 billion it grossed in theaters. While complete sales data are not available for Avatar, it earned $345 million from the sale of sixteen million DVD and Blu - ray units in North America, and ultimately sold a total of thirty million DVD and Blu - ray units worldwide. After home video income is accounted for, both films have earned over $3 billion. Television broadcast rights will also substantially add to a film 's earnings, with a film often earning as much as 20 -- 25 % of its theatrical box - office for a couple of television runs on top of pay - per - view revenues; Titanic earned a further $55 million from the NBC and HBO broadcast rights, equating to about 9 % of its North American gross.
When a film is highly exploitable as a commercial property, its ancillary revenues can dwarf its income from direct film sales. The Lion King earned over $2 billion in box - office and home video sales, but this pales in comparison to the $6 billion earned at box offices around the world by the stage adaptation. Merchandising can be extremely lucrative too: The Lion King also sold $3 billion of merchandise, while Pixar 's Cars -- which earned $462 million in theatrical revenues and was only a modest hit by comparison to other Pixar films -- generated global merchandise sales of over $8 billion in the five years after its 2006 release. Pixar also had another huge hit with Toy Story 3, which generated almost $10 billion in merchandise retail sales in addition to the $1 billion it earned at the box office.
On this chart, films are ranked by the revenues from theatrical exhibition at their nominal value, along with the highest positions they attained. Thirty - one films in total have grossed in excess of $1 billion worldwide, of which three have grossed over $2 billion, with Avatar ranked in the top position. All of the films have had a theatrical run (including re-releases) in the 21st century, and films that have not played during this period do not appear on the chart because of ticket - price inflation, population size and ticket purchasing trends not being considered.
Box Office Mojo stopped updating its main total for Frozen in August 2014, while it was still in release. The total listed here incorporates subsequent earnings in Japan, Nigeria, Spain, the United Kingdom and Germany up to the end of 2015 but omits earnings in Turkey, Iceland, Brazil, and Australia (2016) which amount to a few hundred thousand dollars. The total is rounded to $1 million to compensate for the numerical inaccuracy. The gross for Toy Story 3 has been corrected to $1,066,969,703, meaning that it finished one place higher at the end of its release. Disney issued an erratum to the gross for The Lion King, correcting its gross from $987.5 million to $968.5 million. This means that Despicable Me 2 finished its run ahead of it and would have ranked one place higher at the end of its release. Finding Nemo finished one place higher at the end of its original release, after taking corrections into account. Its total now stands at $940.3 million, which would put the first run at $871.0 million after deducting the 3D reissue gross of $69.3 million. Meanwhile, the total gross for The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring has been corrected to $871.5 million, which would rank below Finding Nemo 's first run once its 2011 reissue gross is deducted.
Because of the long - term effects of inflation, notably the significant increase of movie theater ticket prices, the list unadjusted for inflation gives far more weight to later films. The unadjusted list, while commonly found in the press, is therefore largely meaningless for comparing films widely separated in time, as many films from earlier eras will never appear on a modern unadjusted list, despite achieving higher commercial success when adjusted for price increases. To compensate for the devaluation of the currency, some charts make adjustments for inflation, but not even this practice fully addresses the issue since ticket prices and inflation do not necessarily parallel one another. For example, in 1970, tickets cost $1.55 or about $6.68 in inflation - adjusted 2004 dollars; by 1980, prices had risen to about $2.69, a drop to $5.50 in inflation - adjusted 2004 dollars. Ticket prices have also risen at different rates of inflation around the world, further complicating the process of adjusting worldwide grosses.
Another complication is release in multiple formats for which different ticket prices are charged. One notable example of this phenomenon is Avatar, which was also released in 3D and IMAX: almost two - thirds of tickets for that film were for 3D showings with an average price of $10, and about one - sixth were for IMAX showings with an average price over $14.50, compared to a 2010 average price of $7.61 for 2D films. Social and economic factors such as population change and the growth of international markets also impact on the number of people purchasing theater tickets, along with audience demographics where some films sell a much higher proportion of discounted children 's tickets, or perform better in big cities where tickets cost more.
The measuring system for gauging a film 's success is based on unadjusted grosses, mainly because historically this is the way it has always been done because of the practices of the film industry: the box office receipts are compiled by theaters and relayed to the distributor, which in turn releases them to the media. Converting to a more representative system that counts ticket sales rather than gross is also fraught with problems because the only data available for older films are the sale totals. As the motion picture industry is highly oriented towards marketing currently released films, unadjusted figures are always used in marketing campaigns so that new blockbuster films can much more easily achieve a high sales ranking, and thus be promoted as a "top film of all time '', so there is little incentive to switch to a more robust analysis from a marketing or even newsworthy point of view.
Despite the inherent difficulties in accounting for inflation, several attempts have been made. Estimates depend on the price index used to adjust the grosses, and the exchange rates used to convert between currencies can also impact upon the calculations, both of which can have an effect on the ultimate rankings of an inflation adjusted list. Gone with the Wind -- first released in 1939 -- is generally considered to be the most successful film, with Guinness World Records in 2014 estimating its adjusted global gross at $3.4 billion. Estimates for Gone with the Wind 's adjusted gross have varied substantially: its owner, Turner Entertainment, estimated its adjusted earnings at $3.3 billion in 2007, a few years earlier than the Guinness estimate; other estimates fall either side of this amount, with one putting its gross just under $3 billion in 2010, while another provided an alternative figure of $3.8 billion in 2006. Which film is Gone with the Wind 's nearest rival depends on the set of figures used: Guinness had Avatar in second place with $3 billion, while other estimates saw Titanic in the runner - up spot with first - run worldwide earnings of almost $2.9 billion at 2010 prices. The only other film that all sources agreed grossed in excess of $2 billion at recent prices is Star Wars; according to Guinness it has earned $2.8 billion at 2014 price levels, while other sources from 2010 / 2011 put its adjusted earnings at $2.2 -- 2.6 billion.
Even though the nominal gross for Star Wars: The Force Awakens surpasses the inflation - adjusted gross for both Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Jaws, inflation has occurred in the interim so it is not possible to rank it until Guinness World Records provide an updated chart of adjusted grosses.
The figure for Titanic is most likely based on the gross from its 1997 theatrical release, and does not incorporate earnings from the 2012 reissue. According to the 2012 edition of Guinness World Records, the adjusted total for Titanic as of 2011 stood at $2,413,800,000, and a re-release in 2012 added a further $343,550,770 to the total. However, the 2015 edition put the adjusted total at $2,516,000,000 -- an increase of just $102,000,000; this is a rise of 4.2 % since 2011, an increase shared by the other adjusted totals in the chart.
The 2015 edition of Guinness World Records does not provide an explicit figure for Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. However, it does state that it is one of only two pre-1955 films -- the other being Gone with the Wind -- that are among the adjusted top ten. It placed tenth in the 2012 edition, and the eleventh highest - grossing film according to the 2015 edition is The Exorcist, which has grossed $1.794 billion adjusted to 2014 prices. The adjusted grosses for the other films on the chart increased by 4.2 percent between 2011 and 2014 according to Guinness, and using this apparent rate of inflation would take the adjusted gross for Snow White from $1.746 billion at 2011 prices to $1.819 billion at 2014 prices.
Audience tastes were fairly eclectic during the 20th century, but several trends did emerge. During the silent era, films with war themes were popular with audiences, with The Birth of a Nation (American Civil War), The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, The Big Parade and Wings (all World War I) becoming the most successful films in their respective years of release, with the trend coming to an end with All Quiet on the Western Front in 1930. With the advent of sound in 1927, the musical -- the genre best placed to showcase the new technology -- took over as the most popular type of film with audiences, with 1928 and 1929 both being topped by musical films. The genre continued to perform strongly in the 1930s, but the outbreak of World War II saw war themed films dominate again during this period, starting with Gone with the Wind (American Civil War) in 1939, and finishing with The Best Years of Our Lives (World War II) in 1946. Samson and Delilah (1949) saw the beginning of a trend of increasingly expensive historical dramas set during Ancient Rome / biblical times throughout the 1950s as cinema competed with television for audiences, with Quo Vadis, The Robe, The Ten Commandments, Ben - Hur and Spartacus all becoming the highest - grossing film of the year during initial release, before the genre started to wane after several high - profile failures. The success of White Christmas and South Pacific in the 1950s foreshadowed the comeback of the musical in the 1960s with West Side Story, Mary Poppins, My Fair Lady, The Sound of Music and Funny Girl all among the top films of the decade. The 1970s saw a shift in audience tastes to high concept films, with six such films made by either George Lucas or Steven Spielberg topping the chart during the 1980s. The 21st century has seen an increasing dependence on franchises and adaptations, with the box office dominance of films based on pre-existing intellectual property at record levels.
Steven Spielberg is the most represented director on the chart with six films to his credit, occupying the top spot in 1975, 1981, 1982, 1984, 1989 and 1993. Cecil B. DeMille (1932, 1947, 1949, 1952 and 1956) and William Wyler (1942, 1946, 1959 and 1968) are in second and third place with five and four films respectively, while D.W. Griffith (1915, 1916 and 1920), George Roy Hill (1966, 1969 and 1973) and James Cameron (1991, 1997 and 2009) all feature heavily with three films apiece. George Lucas directed two chart - toppers in 1977 and 1999, but also served in a strong creative capacity as a producer and writer in 1980, 1981, 1983, 1984 and 1989 as well. The following directors have also all directed two films on the chart: Frank Lloyd, King Vidor, Frank Capra, Michael Curtiz, Leo McCarey, Alfred Hitchcock, David Lean, Stanley Kubrick, Guy Hamilton, Mike Nichols, William Friedkin, Peter Jackson, Gore Verbinski and Michael Bay; Mervyn LeRoy, Ken Annakin and Robert Wise are each represented by one solo credit and one shared credit, and John Ford co-directed two films. Disney films are usually co-directed and some directors have served on several winning teams: Wilfred Jackson, Hamilton Luske, Clyde Geronimi, David Hand, Ben Sharpsteen, Wolfgang Reitherman and Bill Roberts have all co-directed at least two films on the list. Only five directors have topped the chart in consecutive years: McCarey (1944 and 1945), Nichols (1966 and 1967), Spielberg (1981 and 1982), Jackson (2002 and 2003) and Verbinski (2006 and 2007).
Because of release schedules -- especially in the case of films released towards the end of the year -- and different release patterns across the world, many films can do business in two or more calendar years; therefore the grosses documented here are not confined to just the year of release. Grosses are not limited to original theatrical runs either, with many older films often being re-released periodically so the figures represent all the business a film has done since its original release; a film 's first - run gross is included in brackets after the total if known. Because of incomplete data it can not be known for sure how much money some films have made and when they made it, but generally the chart chronicles the films from each year that went on to earn the most. In the cases where estimates conflict both films are recorded, and in cases where a film has moved into first place because of being re-released the previous record - holder is also retained. At least one film every year has generated $100 million in gross revenue at the box office since 1967, and from 2008 each year has succeeded in producing a billion dollar grossing film.
(...) Since grosses are not limited to original theatrical runs, a film 's first - run gross is included in brackets after the total if known.
Canada and U.S. gross only.
Distributor rental.
To be ascertained.
No contemporary sources provide figures for 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, although The Numbers provides a figure of $8,000,000 for the North American box office gross. However, it is possible this figure has been mistaken for the gross of the 1954 remake which also earned $8,000,000 in North American rentals.
Some sources such as The Numbers state that Aloma of the South Seas is the highest grossing film of the year, earning $3 million. However, no contemporary sources provide figures for Aloma of the South Seas, so it is unclear what the $3 million figure relates to. If it were the rental gross then that would have made it not only the highest - grossing film of the year, but one of the highest - grossing films of the silent era, and if that is the case it would be unusual for both International Motion Picture Almanac and Variety to omit it from their lists.
It is not clear if the figure for Sunny Side Up is for North America or worldwide. Other sources put its earnings at $2 million, which may suggest the higher figure is the worldwide rental, given the confusion over international figures during this period.
The figure for It Happened One Night is not truly representative of its success: it was distributed as a package deal along with more than two dozen other Columbia films, and the total earnings were averaged out; the true gross would have been much higher.
Snow White 's $418 million global cume omits earnings outside of North America from 1987 onwards.
It is not absolutely clear how much Gone with the Wind earned from its initial release. Contemporary accounts often list it as earning $32 million in North American rentals and retrospective charts have often duplicated this claim; however, it is likely this was the worldwide rental figure. Trade journals would collate the data by either obtaining it from the distributors themselves, who were keen to promote a successful film, or by surveying theaters and constructing an estimate. Distributors would often report the worldwide rental since the higher figure made the film appear more successful, while estimates were limited to performance in North America; therefore it was not unusual for worldwide and North American rentals to be mixed up. Following the outbreak of World War II, many of the foreign markets were unavailable to Hollywood so it became standard practice to just report on North American box - office performance. In keeping with this new approach, the North American rental for Gone with the Wind was revised to $21 million in 1947 ($11 million lower than the previous figure), and as of 1953 -- following the 1947 re-release -- Variety was reporting earnings of $26 million. Through 1956, MGM reported cumulative North American earnings of $30,015,000 and foreign earnings of $18,964,000, from three releases. Worldwide rentals of $32 million from the initial release is consistent with the revised figures and later reported worldwide figures: they indicate that the film earned $21 million in North America and $11 million overseas from the initial release, and added a further $9 million in North America and $8 million overseas from subsequent re-releases up to 1956.
Mom and Dad does not generally feature in ' high - gross ' lists such as those published by Variety due to its independent distribution. Essentially belonging to the exploitation genre, it was marketed as an educational sex hygiene film in an effort to circumvent censorship laws. Falling foul of the Motion Picture Production Code, Mom and Dad was prevented from obtaining mainstream distribution and restricted to independent and drive - in theaters. It was the biggest hit of its kind, and remained in continual distribution until the 1970s when hardcore pornography eventually took over. At the end of 1947 it had earned $2 million, and by 1949, $8 million; by 1956 it had earned $22 million in rentals, representing a gross of $80 million, and would have easily placed in the top ten films in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Estimates of its total earnings are as high as $100 million.
Chopra - Gant stipulates that the figure given for Unconquered is for North American box - office, but as was common at the time, the chart confuses worldwide and North American grosses. Other sources state that the takings for Forever Amber ($8 million) and Life with Father ($6.5 million) were in fact worldwide rental grosses, so it is possible this is also true of Unconquered.
The Cinerama figures represent gross amounts. Since the Cinerama corporation owned the theaters there were no rental fees for the films, meaning the studio received 100 % of the box - office gross, unlike the case with most other films where the distributor typically receives less than half the gross. Since Variety at the time ranked films by their US rental, they constructed a hypothetical rental figure for the Cinerama films to provide a basis for comparison to other films in their chart: in the case of This Is Cinerama, the $50 million worldwide gross was reconfigured as a $12.5 million US rental gross; this is exactly 25 % of the amount reported by Cinerama, so Variety 's formula seemingly halved the gross to obtain an estimate for the US share, and halved it again to simulate a rental fee. Variety 's ' rental ' amounts are often repeated, but have no basis in the reality of what the films actually earned -- they are hypothetical figures conceived for comparative analysis. All five Cinerama features collectively generated $120 million in worldwide box office receipts.
Variety put the worldwide rental for The Greatest Show on Earth at around $18.35 million (with $12.8 million coming from the United States) a year after its release; however, Birchard puts its earnings at just over $15 million up to 1962. It is likely that Birchard 's figure is just the North American gross rental, and includes revenue from the 1954 and 1960 reissues.
The "first run '' Star Wars grosses do not include revenue from the 1997 special - edition releases; however, the figure does include revenue from the re-releases prior to the special editions.
Production costs were shared with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1.
At least ten films have held the record of ' highest - grossing film ' since The Birth of a Nation assumed the top spot in 1915. Both The Birth of a Nation and Gone with the Wind spent twenty - five consecutive years apiece as the highest - grosser, with films directed by Steven Spielberg holding the record on three occasions and James Cameron -- the current holder -- twice. Spielberg became the first director to break his own record when Jurassic Park overtook E.T., and Cameron emulated the feat when Avatar broke the record set by Titanic.
Some sources claim that The Big Parade superseded The Birth of a Nation as highest - grossing film, eventually being replaced by Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, which in turn was quickly usurped by Gone with the Wind. Exact figures are not known for The Birth of a Nation, but contemporary records put its worldwide earnings at $5.2 million as of 1919. Its international release was delayed by World War I, and it was not released in many foreign territories until the 1920s; coupled with further re-releases in the United States, its $10 million earnings as reported by Variety in 1932 are consistent with the earlier figure. At this time, Variety still had The Birth of a Nation ahead of The Big Parade ($6,400,000) on distributor rentals and -- if its estimate is correct -- Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ($8,500,000) would not have earned enough on its first theatrical run to take the record; although it would have been the highest - grossing ' talkie ', displacing The Singing Fool ($5,900,000). Although received wisdom holds that it is unlikely The Birth of a Nation was ever overtaken by a silent - era film, the record would fall to 1925 's Ben - Hur ($9,386,000) if The Birth of a Nation earned significantly less than its estimated gross. In addition to its gross rental earnings through public exhibition, The Birth of a Nation played at a large number of private, club and organizational engagements which figures are unavailable for. It was hugely popular with the Ku Klux Klan who used it to drive recruitment, and at one point Variety estimated its total earnings to stand at around $50 million. Despite later retracting the claim, the sum has been widely reported even though it has never been substantiated. While it is generally accepted that Gone with the Wind took over the record of highest - grossing film on its initial release -- which is true in terms of public exhibition -- it is likely it did not overtake The Birth of a Nation in total revenue until a much later date, with it still being reported as the highest earner up until the 1960s. Gone with the Wind itself may have been briefly overtaken by The Ten Commandments (1956), which closed at the end of 1960 with worldwide rentals of $58 -- 60 million compared to Gone with the Wind 's $59 million; if it did claim the top spot its tenure there was short - lived, since Gone with the Wind was re-released the following year and increased its earnings to $67 million. Depending on how accurate the estimates are, the 1959 remake of Ben - Hur may also have captured the record from Gone with the Wind: as of the end of 1961 it had earned $47 million worldwide, and by 1963 it was trailing Gone with the Wind by just $2 million with international takings of $65 million, ultimately earning $66 million from its initial release.
Another film purported to have been the highest - grosser is the 1972 pornographic film, Deep Throat. In 1984, Linda Lovelace testified to a United States Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on juvenile justice that the film had earned $600 million; this figure has been the subject of much speculation, since if it is accurate then the film would have made more money than Star Wars, and finished the 1970s as the highest - grossing film. The main argument against this figure is that it simply did not have a wide enough release to sustain the sort of sums that would be required for it to ultimately gross this amount. Exact figures are not known, but testimony in a federal trial in 1976 -- about four years into the film 's release -- showed the film had grossed over $25 million. Roger Ebert has reasoned it possibly did earn as much as $600 million on paper, since mobsters owned most of the adult movie theaters during this period and would launder income from drugs and prostitution through them, so probably inflated the box office receipts for the film.
The Birth of a Nation, Gone with the Wind, The Godfather, Jaws, Star Wars, E.T. and Avatar all increased their record grosses with re-releases. The grosses from their original theatrical runs are included here along with totals from re-releases up to the point that they lost the record; therefore the total for The Birth of a Nation includes income from its reissues up to 1940; the total for Star Wars includes revenue from the late 1970s and early 1980s reissues but not from the 1997 Special Edition; the total for E.T. incorporates its gross from the 1985 reissue but not from 2002; the total for Avatar -- as the current record - holder -- includes all its earnings at the present time. Gone with the Wind is represented twice on the chart: the 1940 entry includes earnings from its staggered 1939 -- 1942 release (roadshow / general release / second - run) along with all of its revenue up to the 1961 reissue prior to losing the record to The Sound of Music in 1966; its 1971 entry -- after it took back the record -- includes income from the 1967 and 1971 reissues but omitting later releases. The Godfather was re-released in 1973 after its success at the 45th Academy Awards, and Jaws was released again in 1976, and their grosses here most likely include earnings from those releases. The Sound of Music, The Godfather, Jaws, Jurassic Park and Titanic increased their earnings with further releases in 1973, 1997, 1979, 2013 and 2012 respectively, but they are not included in the totals here since they had already conceded the record prior to being re-released.
Distributor rental.
Includes revenue from re-releases. If a film increased its gross through re-releases while holding the record, the year in which it recorded its highest gross is also noted in italics.
Prior to 2000, only seven film series had grossed over $1 billion at the box office: James Bond, Star Wars, Indiana Jones, Rocky, Batman, Jurassic Park and Star Trek. Since the turn of the century that number has increased to over fifty (not including one - off hits such as Avatar, Titanic and Frozen). This is partly due to inflation and market growth, but also to Hollywood 's adoption of the franchise model: films that have built - in brand recognition, such as being based on a well known literary source or an established character. The methodology is based on the concept that films associated with things audiences are already familiar with can be more effectively marketed to them, and as such are known as "pre-sold '' films within the industry.
The films in the cross-franchise Marvel Cinematic Universe have collectively grossed the most, amassing over $13 billion at the box office, although the Eon James Bond films have earned over $14 billion in total when adjusted to current prices. The Harry Potter films are the highest - grossing series based on a single property, earning nearly $8 billion at the box office; Harry Potter has also generated at least $3.5 billion in home video revenue, taking total consumer spending on the films to over $11 billion. If ancillary income from merchandise is included, then Star Wars is the most lucrative property; it holds the Guinness world record for the "most successful film merchandising franchise '' and was valued at £ 19.51 billion in 2012 (approximately $30 billion). With four billion - dollar grossers, the Marvel Cinematic Universe is the only series where more than three films have grossed in excess of $1 billion (Star Wars is the only franchise with three such films), and the two Avengers films comprise the only franchise where each installment has grossed over $1 billion. Avengers is also the only franchise to have a series average of over $1 billion per film, although the Star Wars, Pirates of the Caribbean, Jurassic Park and Finding Nemo franchises, Harry Potter films, and Peter Jackson 's Middle - earth adaptation also average over $1 billion adjusted for inflation.
Canada and U.S. gross only.
Distributor rental.
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international council of sport science and physical education | International Council of sport science and physical education - wikipedia
The International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (French: Conseil International pour l'Education Physique et la Science du Sport) is an organization based in Berlin, Germany which originated in Paris, France in 1958.
Its membership consists of government organizations and NGOs that are responsible for sport, sport science, physical education, and sport and recreation in their countries; international sport federations; international organizations in sport science, physical education, recreation, and sport; and research institutes and schools in physical education and sport science.
ICSSPE is recognized as a Formal Associate of UNESCO, is a "Recognized International Organization '', by the IOC and collaborates with WHO on major projects.
ICSSPE 's fundamental objectives are:
The current President of ICSSPE is Prof. Dr. Margaret Talbot.
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when did chelsea win the cup winners cup | 1998 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup final - wikipedia
The 1998 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup Final was a football match that took place on 13 May 1998 at Råsunda Stadium in Stockholm, Sweden to determine the winner of the 1997 -- 98 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup. It was contested by Chelsea of England and VfB Stuttgart of Germany and was the 38th final of what was then Europe 's second largest football competition, the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup.
Both clubs played a total of eight games in four stages to advance to the final. Chelsea had the upper hand in all but one of their encounters, defeating Tromsø with an accumulative score of 9 -- 4 in a two - legged match and edging Vicenza by one goal. Stuttgart also enjoyed an advantage in all but two of their meetings, beating ÍBV 5 -- 2 on aggregate and winning over Slavia Prague and Lokomotiv Moscow by two goals.
A crowd of 30,216 were in attendance to witness Chelsea win the match 1 -- 0, with Gianfranco Zola scoring the winning goal in the second half. As a result, the English club claimed the double, having previously won the League Cup earlier in the campaign. It was Chelsea 's second conquest of the Cup Winners ' Cup, adding to their 1971 victory. By winning the tournament, they also gained qualification for the 1998 UEFA Super Cup.
Chelsea earned automatic qualification as the 1996 -- 97 season winners of England 's yearly competition, the FA Cup. In the first round of the event, they were drawn against Slovan Bratislava. Both matches resulted in 2 -- 0 wins for the English outfit; the first leg took place at Stamford Bridge, and the second at Tehelné pole, as they won 4 -- 0 in total.
Chelsea then faced Tromsø in the second round. They lost the first leg by 2 -- 3 which took place at Alfheim Stadion, with Gianluca Vialli registering a brace. In the home leg, Chelsea thrashed Tromsø with a 7 -- 1 victory, during which Vialli scored a hat - trick; the other goals were scored by Dan Petrescu, who contributed with a double, Gianfranco Zola and Frank Leboeuf to ensure an amassed score of 9 -- 4.
In the quarter - finals, Chelsea clashed with Real Betis. The opening game at Estadio Manuel Ruíz de Lopera was won with 2 -- 1 after a Tore André Flo double, before a 3 -- 1 win at home with goals signed by Frank Sinclair, Roberto Di Matteo and Zola were enough to hand Chelsea an overall 5 -- 2 victory. The final opposition in the semi-finals was Vicenza. Chelsea lost the away fixture 0 -- 1, at Stadio Romeo Menti. They ended the round with a 3 -- 1 home victory, following goals by Gus Poyet, Zola and Mark Hughes to send them through to their second final.
VfB Stuttgart received a place in the tournament, following their celebrations in the 1996 -- 97 campaign, of the German Cup, Germany 's annual cup contest. Starting in the round of 32, the Germans were pitted against ÍBV. They rounded off the first tie, by completing a 3 -- 1 win at Hásteinsvöllur, before a 2 -- 1 victory at the Gottlieb - Daimler - Stadion was enough to see them through with 5 -- 2.
As Stuttgart entered the second round, they were up against Germinal Ekeren. They won the first leg 4 -- 0 at Veltwijckstadion with Fredi Bobic and Jonathan Akpoborie each scoring twice. In the return game, Stuttgart suffered a 2 -- 4 loss, but regardless of this, goals from Frank Verlaat and Gerhard Poschner ensured they won the stage 6 -- 4.
In the quarter - finals, Slavia Prague were Stuttgart 's next opponents. The away leg at Stadion Evžena Rošického ended in a 1 -- 1 draw following a Poschner goal. Back on German soil, Stuttgart won 2 -- 0 after Krasimir Balakov scored two goals, giving them a 3 -- 1 overall win. In the semi-finals, Stuttgart were drawn against Lokomotiv Moscow. The first home leg ended 2 -- 1 to the German side, with Bobic finding the winning goal late; the first was netted by Akpoborie. At Lokomotiv Stadium, Bobic once again managed to score, during the first half, which proved to be decisive as Stuttgart won 1 -- 0 and the concluding tie 3 -- 1 to proceed to the final.
Both Chelsea and Stuttgart ended their seasons in fourth place of their respective leagues, the FA Premier League and the Bundesliga. Chelsea beat Bolton Wanderers 2 -- 0 on the last matchday, while Stuttgart oversaw a 1 -- 0 win over Werder Bremen. Both sides also progressed in their cup competitions -- Chelsea lost against Manchester United with three to five in the 1997 -- 98 FA Cup third round, but found success with a 2 -- 0 victory over Middlesbrough in the 1998 Football League Cup Final. Stuttgart saw themselves overrun 0 -- 2 by Bayern Munich in the 1997 German League Cup Final, only to succumb to Bayern again with a 0 -- 3 deficit in the 1997 -- 98 German Cup semi-final.
Chelsea and Stuttgart faced each other for the first time in European football. The English side were appearing in their second Cup Winners ' Cup final, having won the tournament in 1971, while Stuttgart made their debut. Chelsea had met German clubs once, in the 1965 -- 66 season of the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup against 1860 Munich -- Chelsea advanced to the next round after managing a 2 -- 2 stalemate at the Grünwalder Stadion, and a 1 -- 0 home win.
Stuttgart had been pitted against English clubs on two meetings of the same competition, the former over Burnley in the following season. The Germans were knocked out in the opening stage, after being held 1 -- 1, in the first game at Neckarstadion, before following up with a 0 -- 2 loss at Turf Moor. The latter was opposite Leeds United, in the 1992 -- 93 season of the UEFA Champions League; the club saw themselves be eliminated in the same fashion, as they won 3 -- 0 at home, before losing the second leg 4 -- 1. However, Leeds were awarded an automatic 3 -- 0 win, after Stuttgart were found to have fielded an ineligible player. A play - off in Camp Nou was required to decide the round, which Stuttgart fell with 1 -- 2.
Both teams were each given 12,000 tickets -- the remaining 6,000 tickets were released, for purchase to the Swedish people. However, Stuttgart decided to send 11,000 of their 12,000 tickets back to UEFA, due to the German club 's supporters finding it difficult to make their way to the country, as well as the absence of air flights available. Subsequently, none of the unsold tickets were granted for Chelsea and its followers; the consequences proved worse, when the side announced that they had issued tickets alone for those, who had ordered the more higher - priced package.
Råsunda Stadium was revealed as the official venue of the final in December 1997. Located in Solna, Stockholm, the stadium opened its doors to the public in 1937, and was used by the Sweden national team for their games in the 1958 FIFA World Cup, including the final, as well as most of their general ties. Råsunda also held four of the national team 's fixtures, in the 1992 European Championship, and the 1995 FIFA Women 's World Cup Final; it was also the home base of AIK 's matches, until demolishment plans began in 2012. For the final, Råsunda had a capacity of generally 35,000.
Adidas Tricolore was the match ball of the final. It was the sixteenth edition in the Adidas football series; the name "Tricolore '' translates to "three - coloured '' and contains a tricolour crest and a cockerel, along with French classic themes which were used as influences, for the ball 's construction, to illustrate the nation 's flag. The Tricolore became the first ball available in different colours and was later introduced at that year 's World Cup. It was the last ball to carry the vintage Tango layout.
Stefano Braschi from the Italian Football Federation, was appointed to officiate the final, making it his first time to decide a closing match in a European contest. He was regonised as a professional Serie A referee in 1992. The Italian took charge of his first European fixture in a 1996 UEFA Intertoto Cup group stage meeting between Lierse and Groningen. The same year, Braschi made FIFA 's international referees list; he debuted in February 1997 in a Israel -- Germany friendly. Before the final, he had been the match official in four Champions League and two UEFA Cup matches (including one qualifier), as well as four international friendlies. Braschi was accompanied by an all - Italian team, which was made up of assistant referees Gennaro Mazzei and Pietro Contente -- the reserve referee was unveiled as Livio Bazzoli.
The final was screened in 144 countries worldwide, with over 250 million viewers expected to follow the game. In the United Kingdom, the event was covered by BBC One, after winning the television rights over Channel 5. In German television, ARD were committed to the final; viewer figures were reported to be an estimate 8.9 million. In Sweden, SVT1 and SVT2, the two channels of the television network Sveriges Television, jointly televised the match.
Chelsea centre back Frank Sinclair and left back Graeme Le Saux were both sidelined for the final due to their calf injuries, causing player - manager Vialli to swap them with Michael Duberry, and Danny Granville, who had recovered from an abscess pain. Central midfielder Poyet was also included in the starting line - up to join captain Dennis Wise, after returning from a damaged cruciate ligament. Together with forward and lead goalscorer Vialli, Flo began in the attack, instead of Zola, who was named as a substitute, despite making an improvement from his damaged groin, sustained in a league fixture against Liverpool in April.
Stuttgart suffered from no player injuries, but defenders Frank Verlaat and Martin Spanring 's bans, prevented them from taking part in the game, leading to manager Joachim Löw to replace Verlaat, with midfielder Murat Yakin as libero, and Thomas Berthold taking over Spanring 's role in the middle.
Chelsea 's goalscoring chance came in the fifth minute when Poyet found Di Matteo, who fumbled his opportunity as it went over the goal. Stuttgart almost took the lead through Bobic, who took advantage of Steve Clarke 's poor clearance but Bobic 's attempt went just past the right goalpost. The Germans continued to push forward, as Balakov had a chance on goal, after being found by Poschner, but his shot was kept out by Ed de Goey to mark the first save of the match. Chelsea held on however; a few minutes later, Poyet ran towards the ball to direct a powerful volley on goal following a weak clearing header from Berthold, but a well - placed Franz Wohlfahrt dived to read the attempt. Chelsea had another chance before half time, which saw Wise from a Di Matteo free kick launch another volley, with the successive effort going just off the target.
Prior to the first half, Chelsea continued to dominate possession and round - up more opportunities -- the ball was given to Wise, after cooperation between Petrescu and Vialli, whose shot went just across the left goal. It did not take long, before Granville generated another endeavor for Chelsea to make Wohlfahrt throw himself to the right in order to prevent the shot. The club made its first substitute change in the 71st minute, which saw Flo being replaced by Zola. He made an effect immediately, picking up the ball after a well - timed pass by Wise, and finishing with a half volley in the penalty box, past Wohlfahrt, which found its way straight in the top right corner. As the match went on, Petrescu was sent off for an illegal tackle on Yakin. It did not affect Chelsea as Stuttgart failed to produce anything to turn the final in their favour. Stuttgart 's situation proved worse when they were also reduced to ten men, as Poschner was dismissed after quarrels with referee Braschi.
Man of the Match: Gianfranco Zola (Chelsea)
Assistant referees: Gennaro Mazzei (Italy) Pietro Contente (Italy) Reserve referee: Livio Bazzoli (Italy)
Match rules
Following Chelsea 's victory, player - manager Vialli was satisfied with his club 's performance, commending the substitution of Zola by assistant manager Graham Rix: "He decided he had a feeling and he was right ''. Vialli also praised Zola, but felt that the honours had to be shared by all the players including Vialli himself, who took part in the match: "It was a great first touch -- he put the ball in the net and we won the cup. But the credit has to be shared between all the chaps -- and I am over the moon. '' The Italian further added that their goal now was to win the league championship: "The next step will be the Premier League, fingers crossed. I am still the player - manager and I have to be one next season. We are very happy to win, but we do not want to stop here. We want to keep improving and next season we will start trying to win the Premier League, which is our aim now. ''
Zola himself was happy with his achievements to the Chelsea side, but when asked if his substitution was all projected, he denied it, stating: "It was n't planned. In the moment, I used my positive strength and I got a reward for the passion, the work not only I, but the masseur Mimmo Pezza did together in Rimini. The injury should take one month to heal, Mimmo Pezza helped me be fit in less than half that. I thank this man for a beautiful moment which will be in my heart for as long as I can remember. '' Their victory meant Aston Villa gained a place in the 1998 -- 99 UEFA Cup.
Stuttgart manager Joachim Löw was disappointed with the defeat, but remained confident about his future at the team, as well as the season: "I 'm calmly looking forward to the discussion. The club has to approach me. I have a contract until 1999. There must be some tough words. For me, the season has been positive ''. His word was also shared by Bobic who felt that his team were treated unfairly to the goal, also taking time to defend Löw: "We need to talk about mistakes and learn from them, it does not mean that it is necessary to change the manager ''. He added: "It is bitter to lose by such a goal ''. However, Verlaat dissented, and criticised Stuttgart 's campaign: "The club has to make up its mind finally. We could have done better this season. We carelessly squandered about eight games ''. Yakin agreed and offered his own comments: "You have to talk about many things, you can not work together in the way it was this year. ''
The two teams were drawn against each other again in two legs in the first knockout round of the 2003 -- 04 UEFA Champions League knockout stage. The first match was held in Stuttgart on 25 February 2004 at Gottlieb - Daimler - Stadion, which Chelsea also won 1 -- 0 after an own goal scored by Fernando Meira, while a scoreless draw played on 9 March 2004 in Stamford Bridge was enough for Chelsea to advance to the quarter - finals with a 1 -- 0 aggregate win.
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who is the last person buried in westminster abbey | Burials and memorials in Westminster Abbey - wikipedia
Honouring individuals with Burials and Memorials in Westminster Abbey has a long tradition.
Henry III rebuilt Westminster Abbey in honour of the Royal Saint Edward the Confessor whose relics were placed in a shrine in the sanctuary and now lie in a burial vault beneath the 1268 Cosmati mosaic pavement, in front of the High Altar. Henry III himself was interred nearby in a superb chest tomb with effigial monument. Many of the Plantagenet kings of England, their wives and other relatives, were also buried in the Abbey. From the time of Edward the Confessor until the death of George II in 1760, most Kings and Queens of England were buried here, although there are exceptions (most notably Edward IV, Henry VIII and Charles I who are buried in St George 's Chapel in Windsor Castle). All monarchs who died after George II were buried in Windsor; most were laid to rest in St George 's Chapel, although Queen Victoria and Edward VIII are buried at Frogmore, where the Royal Family also has a private cemetery.
Since the Middle Ages, aristocrats were buried inside chapels, while monks and other people associated with the Abbey were buried in the Cloisters and other areas. One of these was Geoffrey Chaucer, who was buried here as he had apartments in the Abbey where he was employed as master of the King 's Works. Other poets, writers and musicians were buried or memorialised around Chaucer in what became known as Poets ' Corner. These include: W.H. Auden, William Blake, Robert Burns, Lord Byron, Charles Dickens, John Dryden, George Eliot, T.S. Eliot, Thomas Gray, Gerard Manley Hopkins, Samuel Johnson, John Keats, Rudyard Kipling, Jenny Lind, John Masefield, John Milton, Laurence Olivier, Alexander Pope, Nicholas Rowe, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Thomas Shadwell, William Shakespeare, Alfred Lord Tennyson and William Wordsworth. Abbey musicians such as Henry Purcell were also buried in their place of work.
Subsequently, it became one of Britain 's most significant honours to be buried or commemorated here. The practice of burying national figures in the Abbey began under Oliver Cromwell with the burial of Admiral Robert Blake in 1657. The practice spread to include generals, admirals, politicians, doctors and scientists such as Isaac Newton, buried on 4 April 1727 and Charles Darwin buried 19 April 1882.
Eight British Prime Ministers are buried in the Abbey; William Pitt the Elder, William Pitt the Younger, George Canning, Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, William Ewart Gladstone, Bonar Law, Neville Chamberlain and Clement Attlee.
During the early 20th century, for reasons of space, it became increasingly common to bury cremated remains rather than coffins. In 1905 the actor Sir Henry Irving was cremated and his ashes buried in the Abbey, thereby becoming the first person ever to be cremated prior to interment. This marked a milestone as after the death of Sir Joseph Hooker in December 1911, the Dean and Chapter of Westminster Abbey chose to offer Hooker a grave near Charles Darwin 's in the nave but also insisted that he be cremated before. His widow however declined and so Hooker 's body was buried in the churchyard of St. Anne 's Church, Kew. The majority of interments at the Abbey are of cremated remains, but some burials still take place -- Frances Challen, wife of the Rev Sebastian Charles, Canon of Westminster, was buried alongside her husband in the south choir aisle in 2014. Members of the Percy Family have a family vault, "The Northumberland Vault '', in St Nicholas 's chapel, within the Abbey.
In the floor just inside the great west door, in the centre of the nave, is the tomb of The Unknown Warrior, an unidentified British soldier killed on a European battlefield during the First World War. He was buried in the Abbey on 11 November 1920. There are many graves in the floors of the Abbey, but this is the only grave on which it is forbidden to walk.
The following English, Scottish and British Monarchs and their consorts are buried in the Abbey:
The following are buried in the Nave:
The following are buried in the North Transept:
The following are buried in the South Transept which is known as Poets ' Corner:
The following are buried in the Cloisters:
The following are buried in the North Choir Aisle:
The following are buried in the South Choir Aisle:
The following are buried in the Ambulatory Chapels:
List of burials:
The following are buried in Henry VII 's Chapel:
The following are commemorated in the Abbey and / or had their Memorial Service in the Abbey, but were buried elsewhere:
Sixteen Great War poets are commemorated on a slate stone unveiled 11 November 1985, in the South Transept (Poets ' Corner):
Above the Great West Door, ten 20th - century Christian martyrs from across the world are depicted in statues; from left to right:
King Harold I was originally buried in the Abbey, but his body was subsequently exhumed, beheaded, and thrown into a fen in June 1040. The body was later rescued and re-buried in the church of St Clement Danes in Westminster.
A number of Cromwellians were also buried in the Abbey but later removed, in 1661, on the orders of King Charles II, and buried in a pit in St Margaret 's churchyard, adjoining the Abbey. A modern plaque on the exterior wall of the church records the names of those who were disinterred:
In November 1869, at the request of the Dean of Westminster and with the approval of Queen Victoria, the philanthropist George Peabody was given a temporary burial in the Abbey, but later moved and buried in Salem, Massachusetts.
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when did they add lights to wrigley field | History of Wrigley field - wikipedia
The history of Wrigley Field, the home of the Chicago Cubs of Major League Baseball 's National League, begins well before the Cubs played their first game in that venue.
At the turn of the 20th century, the block bounded by Clark, Addison, Waveland, and Sheffield streets was home to the Chicago Lutheran Theological Seminary, with the Hildebrandt Coal Factory across the street to the west. William Passavant, a prominent Lutheran missionary, had inherited the land decades before. Passavant began to develop the land as early as 1868, including the construction of St. Mark 's Church by 1874. In 1891, Passavant helped establish the Chicago Lutheran Seminary on the site.
At the time the Seminary was established, the area was located in a quiet, relatively undeveloped section of the Lake View District of Chicago 's North Side. The seminary started small, holding classes in a small chapel facing Addison Street. The following year, the president 's house was constructed at the corner of Sheffield and Waveland. In 1893, the seminary spent $25,000 to construct the four - story Eliza Hall housing the library, chapel, lecture and student rooms further to the west along Waveland. By 1899, four homes were built for professors from the northwest corner of the block (at Waveland and Stella) stretching south along Stella. The seminary had ambitious plans for expansion. In 1905, it announced plans to build additional buildings on the southwest corner of the block housing dining halls, a gymnasium, and more lecture and student rooms, along with additional professors ' homes on either side of Eliza Hall. The buildings were to be arranged around a central quadrangle.
The seminary, however, was attempting to flourish in the context of a changing community. The extension of the elevated system into the area in 1900 led to rapid development of the surrounding neighborhood. As the area started taking on an increasingly urban character, the seminary abandoned its plans to develop the site and instead sought to sell its land and find a quieter location.
Meanwhile, other developments were coming together to chart a very different future for this plot of land. As early as 1905, rumors had been swirling that minor - league American Association was seeking to locate a franchise in Chicago as part of a strategy to achieve major league status on par with the National League and the recently established American League. The Chicago market was one of the most lucrative in the country, and was already occupied by the NL 's Cubs and the AL 's White Sox. Charles Havenor (owner of the AA Milwaukee Brewers), and brothers Joe Cantillon (manager of the Washington Senators) and Mike Cantillon (owner of the AA Minneapolis Millers), saw an opportunity to make profit by snapping up choice property in the event that the AA decided to move into the Chicago market. Since the White Sox played on the South Side at South Side Park, and the Cubs were firmly ensconced on the West Side at West Side Park, Havenor and the Cantillons looked to the rapidly developing North Side as the best place to situate a team. The Seminary 's location represented the best open land on the North Side. In 1909, the Seminary, eager to move, sold the property to Havenor and the Cantillons for $175,000 and relocated to the suburb of Maywood, Illinois, where it remained until 1967. Havenor and the Cantillons brought in additional investors in 1910, including E.T. Harmon and Edmund Archambault, wealthy Milwaukee businessmen.
The new owners had intended to keep the sale out of the news, but those plans were foiled when members of the Seminary Board complained that the Seminary could have obtained $200,000 in the sale. Havenor was forced to publicly deny any intention on invading the Chicago market. Other AA team owners got cold feet at the prospect of a war with the major leagues, and elected a president that was unwilling to countenance such a scheme. Over the next couple years, Havenor gradually gave up hope of developing the property, selling out his interest to the remaining investors shortly before his death in April 1912. The former Seminary site was not developed any further, and the former Seminary buildings were converted into residential units.
The Federal League began its existence as a minor league in 1913, locating franchises in six cities, including Chicago. The Chicago franchise, known as the Chi - Feds, played its home games at the baseball grounds at DePaul University.
John T. Powers, founder and president of the new Federal League, had ambitions of building the new organization into a premier minor league, on par with the American Association. By the middle of the 1913 season, however, the owners had forced Powers out of his job, sensing that the Federal League had the potential to become a viable major league. Replacing him as president was James A. Gilmore, a wealthy Chicago businessman who had made his fortune in coal. Gilmore had the organizational and political skills necessary to mount a serious challenge to the established major leagues.
Gilmore brought on board two partners to control the key Chicago franchise. One was William Walker, a fish wholesaler. The other was the flamboyant Charles A. Weeghman, known as "Lucky Charlie '', who had made a quick fortune in local lunch counters (a predecessor to fast food). Weeghman became the club president and the main force behind the team from that point onward, with Walker willing to remain in the background, and Gilmore tending to League issues. Weeghman made headlines by landing star shortstop Joe Tinker from the Cincinnati Reds in December 1913. The Tinker acquisition was the shot in the arm that gave the franchise the momentum to think big for the upcoming 1914 season.
Weeghman chose to relocate the franchise from DePaul to the former Seminary grounds at Clark and Addison owned by Archambault and the Cantillions. Although the major leagues threw up a number of roadblocks, including an attempt to secure rights to part of the land on the block, in late December 1913 Weeghman secured a ninety - nine year lease on the property. The lease stipulated, among other things, that improvements on the property could not exceed $70,000. Within several months, however, Weeghman would spend several times that amount in erecting his new ballpark.
Weeghman hired Zachary Taylor Davis, architect of Comiskey Park (which became the home of the White Sox in June 1910), to design the new ballpark. Weeghman wanted the park to rival the Polo Grounds in New York, but in the end the single - decked grandstand as designed bore little resemblance to it.
Work on the property did n't begin until February 23, 1914, exactly two months before the Chi - Feds ' scheduled home opener. After the grounds had been cleared, groundbreaking ceremonies took place on March 4. Under the guidance of the Blome - Sinek company, the lead construction contractor, the park came together over the remainder of March and the first half of April. Despite a brief strike by construction workers in early April, the new park was ready for baseball by the date of the home opener on April 23, 1914.
The new ballpark, known as Weeghman Park, was a modern steel and concrete baseball plant (in the industrial lexicon of the day). It featured a single - decked grandstand sweeping from right field behind home plate to near the left field corner. Perched on top of the grandstand roof behind home plate was a small area for the press.
A modern - day visitor to the original Weeghman Park would have difficulty recognizing the outfield aside from the familiar buildings on the opposite side of Waveland and Sheffield Avenues (which have n't changed much at all). The dimensions of the original playing field along the foul lines were quite short. The distance from home plate to the right field brick fence along Sheffield Avenue was around 300 feet at the foul line. Left field was not much better, partly because several old Seminary buildings stood between the wooden left field fence and Waveland Avenue. The left field fence also featured a large scoreboard. Like most of the parks of the day, the field was essentially angular, as it was shaped by the surrounding grid street pattern. The right and left field walls converged in a corner in deep center field, nearly 450 feet from home plate. Because of the constricted size of much of the outfield near the corners, bleachers were limited to a small jury box in right - center field. All told, Weeghman Park had a seating capacity of 14,000, but this was frequently exceeded by the many standing room only crowds of the day.
After an unusual number of home runs were hit during the Chi - Feds ' first home series against Kansas City in April, Weeghman decided the left field wall was too cozy a target, and had the entire fence moved back some 25 feet. To do this, the front porch had to be removed from the old Seminary building beyond the wall.
Before the start of the 1915 season, Weeghman made additional changes to the outfield. Gone were the jury - box bleachers in right - center field. The old Seminary buildings beyond left field were finally demolished in March. In their place, Weeghman had wooden bleachers erected from the left - field corner to center field, raising the park 's capacity to roughly 18,000. The scoreboard was relocated to center field, where it has remained in one form or another since then (with the exception of the latter part of the 1937 season during construction of the current bleachers).
On the field, the Chi - Feds were renamed the Chicago Whales for the club 's sophomore season. Weeghman Park was fast becoming the best place to watch baseball in Chicago, as the Whales fought their way to the Federal League pennant in one of the closest races in major league history. Additionally, fans enjoyed Weeghman 's high standards for cleanliness and promotion. He was an early champion of Ladies ' Day (every Friday) and in 1916 would become the first baseball owner to allow fans to keep foul balls. And as a successful restaurateur, his food was top - notch. Long before the Wrigley family entered the scene, the park was already famous for its hospitality.
Despite the exciting pennant race and generally high quality of baseball played in the Federal League, the League was hemorrhaging money. In December 1915, the League capitulated to the other major leagues and disbanded. But all was not lost for Weeghman, however. He was allowed to purchase the Cubs franchise for $500,000, and promptly moved his new club out of the dilapidated West Side Park and into his Weeghman Park for the 1916 season. The purchase was in reality a merger between the Whales and the Cubs, as a number of former Whales stars, such as Max Flack and Claude Hendrix, found themselves playing in the same park as Cubs the following season.
The Cubs played their first game at Weeghman Park on April 20, 1916, besting the Cincinnati Reds 7 -- 6 in eleven innings. This proved to be the highlight of an otherwise unremarkable season. After another year in the bottom half of the standings, the Cubs won the National League pennant in 1918 under manager Fred Mitchell. The victory was not without a little outside help, as wartime conditions during the height of American involvement in World War I caused major league baseball to end the regular season on September 1. With the Cubs struggling for cash, Weeghman reluctantly rented the larger capacity Comiskey Park for the Cubs ' home games in the World Series. For the Cubs, the experience was a bust, as the club lost the series to Babe Ruth and the Boston Red Sox in six games to relatively anemic attendance. Such losses may have provided the final push forcing Charlie Weeghman out of management following the season.
Although Weeghman was clearly the most dominant figure in the revamped Cubs organization in 1916, a number of investors had taken up minority shares in the club. One of the new investors was chewing gum magnate William Wrigley. Over the next couple years, as Weeghman 's financial fortunes off the field entered a sharp decline, Wrigley acquired an increasing number of shares in the club and took on a growing role in the team 's affairs. In November 1918, Weeghman gave up his remaining interest to Wrigley, resigned as president, and left baseball for good. Wrigley would acquire complete control of the Cubs by 1921.
With Weeghman out of the picture, starting in 1919 the park was generally referred to as Cubs Park. Although the Cubs featured stars such as pitchers Grover Alexander and Hippo Vaughn, along with a young catcher named Gabby Hartnett, over the next few seasons Cubs Park was the setting for largely also - ran teams.
The fans had even more to be frustrated about off the field. Rumors of thrown games plagued the Cubs during the latter part of the 1920 season gave impetus to the criminal investigations which eventually led to uncovering the infamous Black Sox Scandal across town with the White Sox. In addition, 1920 marked the beginning of prohibition, meaning fans would have to find some other way to quench their thirst during the many hot summer afternoons at Cubs Park.
Although the Cubs teams of the early 1920s were little more than also - rans, the fans still flocked to Cubs Park. In 1922, 542,283 fans went through the turnstiles -- the second - highest attendance in the National League -- to watch a fourth - place club.
By 1922, William Wrigley had decided that after nine seasons, both the seating and the playing field of cozy Cubs Park were ready for a major expansion. Rather than rebuilding the grandstand from scratch, Wrigley hired original architect Zachary Taylor Davis to make the expansion around the existing structure. The grandstand would be sliced into three pieces, with the home plate section placed on rollers and moved roughly 60 feet west (away from right field), and the left field section about 100 feet northwest. Both gaps were to be filled in with more seating, resulting in a significantly longer grandstand and the noticeable "dog leg '' shape of the stands on the first base side visible to this day. Additionally, the foul ground and the height of the fence in front of it would be reduced by additional rows of box seats added in front of the existing grandstand. The diamond and the foul lines would be rotated 3 degrees counterclockwise from their earlier orientation, allowing for those extra box seats. The original location of home plate would now be in front of the Cubs ' dugout near the first base coaching box.
The relocation of the grandstand, even with the additional box seats, would make right field far more spacious than before, even with the addition of new bleachers in right field from the corner to the center field scoreboard. The old wooden bleachers in left field were to be dismantled and replaced with newer steel - framed wooden seats like those being installed in right field. The renovations would boost the park 's capacity from roughly 18,000 to 31,000. Its dimensions would be roughly 320 feet in left field, 318 in right, and 446 feet to straightaway center.
Work on the renovations began in December 1922 and were completed in time for the 1923 season opener. The changes were of such magnitude that many publications of the time referred to the "new '' Cubs Park. Fans flocked to the park, and attendance shot up to 703,705 for the 1923 season, although this was once again only good for second - best in the National League. On the field, however, the Cubs remained also - rans. The team drifted aimlessly through the middle of the standings in 1923 and ' 24. By 1925, the Cubs found themselves commemorating their fiftieth season in the National League by finishing last for the first time (which in 1925 meant eighth place).
The recently renovated Cubs Park, while a hit with the fans, was not without its critics. Their main objection was that the new left field bleachers were simply too easy a target for right - handed hitters. By late July and early August 1925, reporters were frequently griping about games lost to fly balls which would have been easy outs without the left field bleachers. During the Cubs ' first road trip that month, the half of the left field bleachers closest to the foul line was dismantled, leaving a "jury box '' of seats running from deep left - center to the center field scoreboard. The change cost the Cubs over a thousand seats, although that left - field area was sometimes filled with standing - room - only spectators behind ropes, as was the custom of the day. With the left field line now at a substantial 364 feet from home plate, home run production dropped.
By 1926, the Cubs were benefiting handily from the peak of the Roaring Twenties. Nearly 900,000 fans went through the turnstiles at a park with a capacity of just over 30,000. After the close of the season, work began on adding a second deck to the grandstand. The original idea was to have the job completed by the opening of the 1927 season, but by April, only the third - base side of the upper deck had been completed, temporarily giving the park a startlingly asymmetrical appearance.
Cubs Park was formally renamed Wrigley Field prior to the start of the 1927 season.
Despite the half - finished state of the upper deck expansion, the 1927 Cubs drew over 1.1 million fans, becoming the first National League team ever to do so. In addition to the increased capacity of the park, the Cubs helped their own cause by becoming an increasingly competitive team under manager Joe McCarthy.
The upper deck was finally completed in time for the 1928 season, which saw the Cubs break the million mark in attendance yet again. The timing could n't have been more fortuitous. In 1929, the Cubs put together one of the most potent lineups in major league history, and easily walked to the National League pennant with stars like Hack Wilson, Rogers Hornsby, Kiki Cuyler, Charlie Root and Pat Malone. Season attendance soared to nearly 1.5 million fans. This would remain the major league record for seventeen years, a record aided in large part by declining major league attendance during the Great Depression and World War II. The Cubs themselves would not top this mark for another forty years.
As the World Series approached, Wrigley sought to provide even more seating at the park. He contracted to have temporary wooden bleachers erected on both Waveland and Sheffield Avenues, raising the park 's capacity to roughly 50,000. Both streets were closed to traffic. In the end, the bleachers were only needed for games one and two of the 1929 World Series, both of which the Cubs lost on their way to a five - game defeat at the hands of the underdog Philadelphia Athletics.
By the early 1930s, distance markers were posted: left field line, 364 feet; left - center against the outer wall, 372; left center, corner of bleachers, 364; deep center field corner, 440; right center, 354; right field line, 321.
During the 1968 -- 1970 off - seasons, the concrete in the upper deck was stripped and replaced. After 40 years of harsh Chicago winters, the original concrete was showing signs of wear and tear; it was replaced with precast concrete installed over the 1927 steel framework. In 2004, nearly 40 years later, this precast concrete itself began to show deterioration as several chunks of the precast concrete fell, leading to increased safety inspections and the installation of protective netting.
Wrigley Field is known for the Boston ivy (Parthenocissus tricuspidata) planted against the outfield wall in 1937 by Bill Veeck, whose father had been team president until his 1933 death. If the ball is hit into and lost in the ivy, then it is ruled a ground - rule double, provided that the defensive outfielder raises his hands to signify that the ball has been lost in the ivy; if the player attempts to search for the ball, the play is considered live, and no ground - rule double is ruled. Wrigley is also known for the manual scoreboard Veeck also erected. No batted ball has ever hit the scoreboard; indeed, very few home runs have even landed in the "upper deck '' of the center field bleachers. However, Sam Snead did manage to hit the big board with a golf ball teed off from home plate, on April 17, 1951, just prior to the Cubs home opener.
In 1937, the Cubs announced plans to rebuild the bleachers in concrete instead of wood, to be fronted by brick that would soon be covered in ivy, and to build a new scoreboard. To make the outfield look more symmetrical and graceful, the plans called for extending the left field bleachers to a point closer to the corner. The gentle curves between the ends of the left and right field bleachers would become popularly known as the "wells ''. That summer, the Chicago Tribune ran a series of articles about major league ballparks, and the writer sharply criticized the Cubs for a remodeling that he suspected would result in too many "cheap '' home runs. The writer later retracted when he saw that the final plan was somewhat more spacious than originally announced.
Be that as it may, construction went on behind a temporary fence during the summer, and the finished product was unveiled on September 4, in time for the last month of the season. Bill Veeck 's famous ivy was planted not long after, but it would be another year before it fully took hold. According to his own autobiography, Veeck as in Wreck, he planted Bittersweet, which would grow quickly, and also the more famous Boston ivy, which would eventually take over. Another part of the arboretum was to be a series of Chinese elms on the large "stairsteps '' up to the scoreboard, as well as one apiece in the little triangle at the top of each "well ''. According to Veeck 's biography, that plan did not fare so well as the winds kept blowing the leaves off. Management finally gave up "after about twenty tries '', so the trees are long gone, leaving just the large bare steps and (until 2006) the little flat triangular supports at the tops of the "wells ''. According to Veeck, the trees themselves were inexpensive, but the special construction for them in the bleachers cost about $200,000.
Another mistake was constructing bleachers in straightaway center field: The batters could easily lose sight of the ball in the white shirts worn by spectators on sunny days, because the wall was not high enough to provide a full batter 's background by itself. Various methods were tried to get around this. At one time a flat canopy was extended over the area, to try to put the spectators in shadow, but that was ineffective (the 2005 -- 2006 reconstruction would to some extent revisit that concept). For a while in the mid-1960s, a screen was attached to the top of the wall and the ivy twined its way up. Batters and bleacher fans disliked it, and it was removed after a couple of seasons. Later, for a number of years, a green tarp covered those seats.
After generally being closed to spectators sometime in the late 1940s or early 1950s, the last time those three problem sections were used for baseball was during the 1962 All - Star game. The seats continued to be used for other events such as football and soccer, during the years when the Chicago Bears and the Chicago Sting played their games here.
By the 1990s, the area was occupied by juniper plants, which nicely complemented the ivy. Also, the layout was tweaked a bit, to open up a few seats on either side of the straight center field area while still providing a rectangular background from the perspective of the batter.
After the 2005 season, the plants were temporarily removed during reconstruction (see below). Over the following winter, a lounge was constructed in the upper part of this area and new rows of juniper bushes were placed in the lower part.
By the end of 1937, the dimensions were set: 355 feet to the left field corner, a few feet behind where the corner wall tangents the foul pole; 368 to fairly deep left - center; 400 to the deepest part of center (at the right edge of the batters background area); 368 to right center; and 353 to the right field foul pole. There are other intriguing distances that have never been posted. In the original Encyclopedia of Baseball, by Hy Turkin and S.C. Thompson, 1951, measurements of 357 feet to the left field "well '' and 363 to the right field "well '' were revealed. That would put the closest point of the left end of the bleachers no more than about 350 feet from home plate, a fact many pitchers have cursed over the years. Left - center in general is shallow. Straightaway center is probably about 390. Deep center and the right field area in general are better balanced. But the shallowness of the left - center power alley, really too cozy for major league standards, and the resultant increase in home runs in the decades since 1937, suggest that the Chicago Tribune 's original skeptical assessment was correct.
The "basket '', an angling chain - link fence that runs along the top of the outfield wall, was installed at the start of the 1970 season. During the 1969 pennant race, there were several incidents of fans interfering with fly balls and even falling onto the field. There was also the first and only incident of a fan running the field and escaping without prosecution. A famous photograph was taken of the incident and published in the Chicago Sun - Times. The basket was intended to deter or prevent that kind of problem. Security cameras were also installed at that time. The "basket '' angles away from the wall, and is also higher than the wall in order to provide some balance for the pitchers. However, over the years a number of baseballs have been hit "into the basket '' for home runs that previously would have been outs, or off the wall, or possibly interfered with by fans. The basket only exists where there is seating. During the 1980s, when the bleacher seating was extended over the "catwalks '', i.e. the bleacher ramps in extreme left and right fields, the basket was likewise extended.
Lights were scheduled to be added to Wrigley Field in 1942, but after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, then - owner Philip K. Wrigley (son of the late William) donated the necessary materials to the war effort. Baseball boomed after the war, allowing P.K. Wrigley to procrastinate on the issue. He eventually decided never to install lights for a variety of publicly stated reasons, so Wrigley Field remained a bastion of day baseball until the Chicago Tribune Company era, which began in 1981; the first night game was not until 1988.
The Cubs had been run almost like a hobby by the Wrigleys, but the Tribune Company was interested in the Cubs strictly as a business. The new owners started talking lights and began stirring debate on the matter. One of P.K. Wrigley 's stated reasons for not installing lights was that it would upset the neighborhood, and the initial negative reaction to the Tribune Company 's intentions validated P.K. 's prediction.
Resistance to the installation of lights was not limited to those who lived nearby and opposed the lights on the practical grounds of bothersome brightness or the noise and crowds from night games. Many Cubs fans who lived outside Wrigleyville opposed the idea simply due to the fact that the Cubs ' stance as the last team to resist night baseball was a point of pride, as it was seen as a vestige of baseball 's heritage as a pastoral game, played in natural sunlight. Some Cubs fans also had fond associations with Gabby Hartnett 's famous "Homer in the Gloaming, '' in which Hartnett hit a crucial home run in the bottom of the ninth of a game on the verge of being called for darkness, helping the Cubs to win the 1938 pennant.
The City of Chicago had passed an ordinance banning night events at Wrigley Field, due to its presence in the residential Lakeview neighborhood, so Tribune was unable to install lights unless the ordinance was repealed. They compromised by scheduling a significant number of 3: 00 starts, which typically carried games into the evening but did not require lights for games that completed within three hours or so.
This debate continued for several years, and became more intense as the Cubs returned to competitiveness during the early 1980s. When the Cubs won the National League Eastern Division title in 1984, then - commissioner Bowie Kuhn announced that the Cubs would lose home field advantage should they advance to the World Series (home field advantage alternated between the champions of the National League and American League until 2003), since by this time nearly all World Series games were played at night in the Eastern and Central time zones. After winning their two scheduled home (day) games in the National League Championship Series, the Cubs lost all three games in San Diego, so Kuhn 's threat became moot. But the following year, new commissioner Peter Ueberroth announced that because Wrigley Field had no lights, the Cubs would have to play all future postseason games at another ballpark, likely Comiskey Park, Soldier Field, or possibly even St. Louis ' Busch Stadium, or Milwaukee County Stadium. The Cubs fell out of contention for the next several years, however, and the possibility of playing post-season "home '' games in other cities did not arise.
The Cubs, under team president Dallas Green, quickly changed the issue from lights or no lights to Wrigley Field or move out of town. With typical bluntness, Green said, "if there are no lights in Wrigley Field, there will be no Wrigley Field. '' Green seriously considered shuttering Wrigley and playing at Comiskey Park as tenants of the White Sox for a year, in hopes that the neighborhood would feel the loss of revenue and back down. The Cubs also explored moving to several suburban locations, including a site adjacent to Arlington Park in Arlington Heights and another in Schaumburg. There was even talk of a drastic move which involved selling the stadium to local college DePaul University, who would likely tear down Wrigley Field to host its indoor sports or convert it to a full - time football stadium in hopes of returning football to the campus. The Cubs would then likely build a new ballpark near the Rosemont Horizon (now the Allstate Arena, where DePaul plays its home games currently) in suburban Rosemont.
The Cubs ' new stance quickly changed the context of the debate, as even the most adamant opponents of adding lights did n't want to see the Cubs leave for the suburbs. Interestingly, Schaumburg officials were so convinced that the Cubs were actually coming that land was purchased by investors hoping to build a new ballpark off the Elgin - O'Hare Expressway west of I - 355. When the Cubs and the city of Chicago came to an agreement to keep the team on the North Side, the site spawned a ballpark anyway, with field dimensions and shape identical to Wrigley Field, even mimicking the "wells '' along the outfield wall, and the ' dogleg ' in the visitor 's dugout along the first base line. That stadium, Alexian Field, is now home to the (non-affiliated) minor league Schaumburg Boomers.
In the fall of 1987, Chicago mayor Harold Washington proposed a compromise ordinance to the Chicago City Council which allowed the Cubs to install lights, but limited the number of night games. Washington died a week after the compromise was proposed, but the city eventually approved a compromise in February 1988 under interim mayor Eugene Sawyer. Major League Baseball responded by awarding the Cubs the 1990 All - Star Game.
The first major league night game at Wrigley was attempted on August 8 against the Philadelphia Phillies, but was rained out after 31⁄2 innings. During the rain delay, several Cubs players, imitating a scene in the recent film hit, Bull Durham, played "slip - and - slide '' on the tarp. One source says the group included Greg Maddux, Al Nipper, Les Lancaster and Jody Davis. Manager Don Zimmer was not amused, and they were fined $500 apiece.
The first official night game was played the following night, August 9 against the New York Mets (in front of a nationally televised audience watching Vin Scully and Joe Garagiola call the game on NBC), ending a streak of 5,687 consecutive home day games. However, this was not the first night game of any kind at Wrigley, as in the 1940s, some AAGPBL night games were played in Wrigley Field using temporary lighting structures; specifically, the All - Star Game held in July 1943, was the first night baseball game there, according to the Lowry book and the movie A League of Their Own.
Starting with their first full season with lights, in 1989, as part of the compromise with the city, the Cubs were limited to 18 night games within their 81 - game regular season schedule, plus any post-season games that might have to be played at night for TV scheduling reasons. The timing of the lights ' installation proved fortuitous, as the Cubs reached the post-season in 1989. Their first two post-season night games were the first two games of the NLCS, on October 4 and 5. They lost the first game against the San Francisco Giants 11 - 3, and won the second game 9 - 5.
The Cubs ' post-season appearances since 1988 (as well as their one - game regular - season playoff with San Francisco in 1998) have featured mostly night games, the exceptions (as of 2007) being the fourth game of their 2003 NLDS matchup with the Atlanta Braves and third game of the 2007 NLDS against the Arizona Diamondbacks, both of which were Saturday afternoon contests.
In recent years, the Cubs have successfully lobbied for additional regular - season night games (up to a potential 30 per year, as of 2007). However, per their agreement with the city, they still play most of their games during the day. Due to the limited night schedule, night games at Wrigley Field are considered an "event '' and are almost always sold out well in advance. Some observers compare the atmosphere of a Wrigley Field night game to that of Rush and Division streets, the longtime epicenter of Chicago 's nightclub scene.
Wrigley Field has continuously evolved over its 90 - plus seasons. There is relatively little left of the original that is visible to the casual viewer. One of the more obvious originals were the brick portions of the outer bleacher wall, visible in the "back of Wrigley Field '' photo. The Cubs ' bleacher expansion resulted in removal of those bricks, which were later sold to the public individually at a "garage sale '' at the start of the 2006 season.
After lengthy debate, the reconstruction and expansion of the bleachers (by some 1,900 seats) finally began after the close of the 2005 season, although it was strongly opposed by Chicago Mayor Richard Daley. The first part of the process was to remove the outer brick wall, one of the last vestiges of the 1914 structure. Additionally, much of the 1937 construction behind the inner ivy - covered wall was removed (except for the steel supports and the center field upper tier) and the former sidewalk was excavated. The work progressed quickly throughout the winter, aided by the relatively mild Midwestern January.
The original concept called for the bleachers to simply extend out over the sidewalks, supported by open steel columns in cantilevered design, connecting new steel to the existing steel that supported the old bleachers. That plan was altered somewhat when it was feared the area would become an impromptu homeless shelter. Thus the vertical part of the supporting structure for the new bleachers was encased in a wall constructed of new bricks, in a style reminiscent of the original wall, and the sidewalk (repaved in brick) became a few feet narrower. The only part hanging over the sidewalk is the flat walkway behind the bleachers. The upper part of the formerly vacant center field area is occupied by a large luxury suite, fronted by darkened, slanted windows so as not to interfere with the batters ' sight lines, and the lower part by juniper plants that had been temporarily removed. Another notable change to the configuration was to replace the solid door in the right field corner with a chain - link fence gate, so passers - by can see part of the ballfield (an idea borrowed from AT&T Park).
Various Internet sites displayed photos tracking the progress of construction. The results support what management had stated, that the changes would not depart radically from the previous structure.
On March 30, 2006, the Cubs announced the bleachers would be renamed the Bud Light bleachers. A sign to that effect was soon posted over the bleacher entryway which contrasts significantly with its previous look. The Cubs management also announced they would plant ivy on the rebuilt exterior walls, in a soil trough that was provided as part of the construction. Conventional Boston ivy was planted on the east - facing Sheffield wall, which gets a fair amount of sunlight during morning hours. The north - facing wall along Waveland, which receives little direct sunlight in the summer and none in the winter, was to have an "evergreen '' variety, English ivy, which thrives in shade.
The bleacher expansion project was designed by HOK Architecture, of Kansas City Missouri with Osborn Engineering of Cleveland, Ohio serving as the engineer.
On January 4, 2008 the Cubs got permission to add 80 new seats to the ballpark. The Cubs also got permission to add new signs. Wrigley Field will now hold up to 41,198 people after adding the seats.
At the end of the Cubs ' 2007 season, two different efforts were undertaken to upgrade the playing field at the old ballpark. A few years earlier, a Sports Illustrated poll found that the players considered Wrigley 's playing field to be one of the poorest in the Major Leagues. The renovations should go a long way toward fixing that situation.
First, as reported on the Cubs official website and also reported and pictured in the November issue of Chicago Cubs Vine Line, the Cubs official fan magazine (p. 4), the outfield and portions of the infield were replaced by turf purchased from an Oswego, Illinois, firm. This was accomplished in the 13 days between the last home regular season game and the first (and last, as it turned out) post-season game for the year. The project was supervised by Roger Bossard, who is the head groundskeeper for the Chicago White Sox.
Then, following the post-season, as reported on the Cubs website and also reported and pictured in the December issue of Vine Line, a more ambitious project began, to install a state - of - the - art drainage system. The entire playing surface at Wrigley was removed, which required digging down 14 to 28 inches. The underlying base material was replaced by a system of 6,000 feet of piping buried in a special clay. The drainage system capable of holding 60,000 gallons of water was installed, on top of which a new playing surface of Colorado - grown sod was unrolled. This renovation, replacing a system installed in 1935, makes Wrigley the last Major League field to move away from a crown - based water management system. The infield had been at a somewhat raised elevation relative to the shallow part of the outfield and the far edge of the foul ground around the infield, hence the gutters in front of the box seat railings.
As of 2008, the infield now sits lower than it did, by 14 inches, eliminating the slight downhill slope that runners had to contend with upon rounding third base, and also allowing the managers in the dugouts to see the opposite - field outfielder in full, not just his "top half ''. The system allows for much shorter rain delays, while also controlling the flow of water toward the storm sewers. The ballpark sits on a block that has a noticeable downhill slope from the northwest corner to the southeast corner. The left field (northwest) corner of the playing field is several feet below street level. The natural drainage direction is toward the right field (southeast) corner, and the new system directs all the water through an outlet under the right field corner.
As part of the excavation, the crew found and removed the foundations of the goal posts from the Bears ' playing days. The crew also reported that they left a "time capsule '' buried somewhere under the new turf. Lowering the infield by 14 inches also effectively raises the outfield barrier by 14 inches, from the standpoint of the batter. It remains to be seen whether that factor will have any effect on home run production.
Tribune owner Sam Zell announced that he would consider selling the naming rights for Wrigley Field in order to help reduce the Tribune Company 's $13 billion debt. Based on the recent sponsorship deals at the time, it was estimated that naming rights for the park were worth at least $10 million per year. Many Chicago baseball fans though that the park is too historic to have the name changed and some experts projected that naming rights would have commanded a lower cost in comparison to newer parks because of the anticipated fan backlash, to which Zell stated in an interview with Crain 's Chicago Business:
Even if the name of the stadium had changed, the famous Wrigley Field Marquee would have stayed the same. The marquee is protected by the Chicago city council, and declared a local landmark.
With Tribune 's sale of the Cubs (and Wrigley Field) to Thomas S. Ricketts in 2009, further improvements to the park were developed, including construction of the long - discussed "triangle building '' immediately to the west of the park at the intersection of Clark Street and Waveland Avenue, which would house some of the team 's offices as well as a retail concourse and weight room for the players. Ricketts has also stated, "We do n't have any naming - rights discussions going on at all. I think Wrigley is the name we are going to go with. ''
In October 2014 demolition began on a 3 - year renovation project under the ownership of Ricketts. Bleacher expansion, a pair of Daktronics video boards in left and right field, respectively, and five outfield signs were slated to debut by Opening Day 2015, but were hampered by winter weather, and construction extended well into the 2015 season. Construction crews also laid the foundation for a 30,000 - square - foot underground clubhouse, which opened in time for the 2016 season. Other major changes, such as installing a new gate on the west side of the ballpark, relocating bullpens from along foul - lines to underneath the bleachers, and building a new visitor 's clubhouse, are in the works for completion by 2017. Additional significant renovations planned include: "bunker suites '' -- suites that would have no view of the field, but would instead lead to seating areas -- beneath the concourse down the third - base line; restoration of the groundskeeper 's house (which from 1923 to 1957 was the home of the stadium groundskeeper) along Waveland Avenue; some of the ramps to the upper deck to be replaced with stairs; new elevators to comply with Americans with Disabilities Act regulations; and additional signage on the grandstand facade, which could include a ribbon - style board.
Construction of the video screens were controversial and met with resistance by some fans who oppose putting video screens at Wrigley in deference to tradition and is strenuously opposed by the rooftop owners association, owners of 15 rooftop clubs overlooking Wrigley who have a contract with the Cubs that runs through 2023 requiring them to pay the team 17 percent of their gross annual revenue. The association said the new signs would cut down their view of the ballpark and "would absolutely violate our 20 - year contract, just as they violate the spirit of Wrigley 's long - standing landmark status. '' Owners of the rooftop clubs sued the city in August 2014, seeking to block the expansion. However, many of the association owners have sold their properties to the Ricketts family, paving the way for the completion of the bleacher project.
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when is season 5 episode 9 of the originals coming out | The Originals (season 5) - wikipedia
The Originals, a one - hour American supernatural drama, was renewed for a fifth season by The CW on May 10, 2017. The 2016 -- 17 United States television season debut of The Originals was pushed to midseason, as with the fourth season premiere. On July 20, 2017, Julie Plec announced via Twitter that the upcoming season would be the series ' last. The fifth season consists of 13 episodes and debuted on April 18, 2018. The series finale aired on August 1, 2018.
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who was one of the first african american writers to gain fame worldwide | Jack London - wikipedia
John Griffith "Jack '' London (born John Griffith Chaney; January 12, 1876 -- November 22, 1916) was an American novelist, journalist, and social activist. A pioneer in the world of commercial magazine fiction, he was one of the first writers to become a worldwide celebrity and earn a large fortune from writing. He was also an innovator in the genre that would later become known as science fiction.
Some of his most famous works include The Call of the Wild and White Fang, both set in the Klondike Gold Rush, as well as the short stories "To Build a Fire '', "An Odyssey of the North '', and "Love of Life ''. He also wrote about the South Pacific in stories such as "The Pearls of Parlay '' and "The Heathen '', and of the San Francisco Bay area in The Sea Wolf.
London was part of the radical literary group "The Crowd '' in San Francisco and a passionate advocate of unionization, socialism, and the rights of workers. He wrote several powerful works dealing with these topics, such as his dystopian novel The Iron Heel, his non-fiction exposé The People of the Abyss, and The War of the Classes.
Jack London 's mother, Flora Wellman, was the fifth and youngest child of Pennsylvania Canal builder Marshall Wellman and his first wife, Eleanor Garrett Jones. Marshall Wellman was descended from Thomas Wellman, an early Puritan settler in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Flora left Ohio and moved to the Pacific coast when her father remarried after her mother died. In San Francisco, Flora worked as a music teacher and spiritualist, claiming to channel the spirit of a Sauk chief, Black Hawk.
Biographer Clarice Stasz and others believe London 's father was astrologer William Chaney. Flora Wellman was living with Chaney in San Francisco when she became pregnant. Whether Wellman and Chaney were legally married is unknown. Most San Francisco civil records were destroyed by the extensive fires that followed the 1906 earthquake; nobody knows what name appeared on her son 's birth certificate. Stasz notes that in his memoirs, Chaney refers to London 's mother Flora Wellman as having been his "wife ''; he also cites an advertisement in which Flora called herself "Florence Wellman Chaney ''.
According to Flora Wellman 's account, as recorded in the San Francisco Chronicle of June 4, 1875, Chaney demanded that she have an abortion. When she refused, he disclaimed responsibility for the child. In desperation, she shot herself. She was not seriously wounded, but she was temporarily deranged. After giving birth, Flora turned the baby over for care to Virginia Prentiss, an African - American woman and former slave. She was a major maternal figure throughout London 's life. Late in 1876, Flora Wellman married John London, a partially disabled Civil War veteran, and brought her baby John, later known as Jack, to live with the newly married couple. The family moved around the San Francisco Bay Area before settling in Oakland, where London completed public grade school.
In 1897, when he was 21 and a student at the University of California, Berkeley, London searched for and read the newspaper accounts of his mother 's suicide attempt and the name of his biological father. He wrote to William Chaney, then living in Chicago. Chaney responded that he could not be London 's father because he was impotent; he casually asserted that London 's mother had relations with other men and averred that she had slandered him when she said he insisted on an abortion. Chaney concluded by saying that he was more to be pitied than London. London was devastated by his father 's letter; in the months following, he quit school at Berkeley and went to the Klondike during the gold rush boom.
London was born near Third and Brannan Streets in San Francisco. The house burned down in the fire after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake; the California Historical Society placed a plaque at the site in 1953. Although the family was working class, it was not as impoverished as London 's later accounts claimed. London was largely self - educated.
In 1885, London found and read Ouida 's long Victorian novel Signa. He credited this as the seed of his literary success. In 1886, he went to the Oakland Public Library and found a sympathetic librarian, Ina Coolbrith, who encouraged his learning. (She later became California 's first poet laureate and an important figure in the San Francisco literary community).
In 1889, London began working 12 to 18 hours a day at Hickmott 's Cannery. Seeking a way out, he borrowed money from his foster mother Virginia Prentiss, bought the sloop Razzle - Dazzle from an oyster pirate named French Frank, and became an oyster pirate. In his memoir, John Barleycorn, he claims also to have stolen French Frank 's mistress Mamie. After a few months, his sloop became damaged beyond repair. London hired on as a member of the California Fish Patrol.
In 1893, he signed on to the sealing schooner Sophie Sutherland, bound for the coast of Japan. When he returned, the country was in the grip of the panic of ' 93 and Oakland was swept by labor unrest. After grueling jobs in a jute mill and a street - railway power plant, London joined Coxey 's Army and began his career as a tramp. In 1894, he spent 30 days for vagrancy in the Erie County Penitentiary at Buffalo, New York. In The Road, he wrote:
Man - handling was merely one of the very minor unprintable horrors of the Erie County Pen. I say ' unprintable '; and in justice I must also say undescribable. They were unthinkable to me until I saw them, and I was no spring chicken in the ways of the world and the awful abysses of human degradation. It would take a deep plummet to reach bottom in the Erie County Pen, and I do but skim lightly and facetiously the surface of things as I there saw them.
After many experiences as a hobo and a sailor, he returned to Oakland and attended Oakland High School. He contributed a number of articles to the high school 's magazine, The Aegis. His first published work was "Typhoon off the Coast of Japan '', an account of his sailing experiences.
As a schoolboy, London often studied at Heinold 's First and Last Chance Saloon, a port - side bar in Oakland. At 17, he confessed to the bar 's owner, John Heinold, his desire to attend university and pursue a career as a writer. Heinold lent London tuition money to attend college.
London desperately wanted to attend the University of California, Berkeley. In 1896, after a summer of intense studying to pass certification exams, he was admitted. Financial circumstances forced him to leave in 1897 and he never graduated. No evidence suggests that London wrote for student publications while studying at Berkeley.
While at Berkeley, London continued to study and spend time at Heinold 's saloon, where he was introduced to the sailors and adventurers who would influence his writing. In his autobiographical novel, John Barleycorn, London mentioned the pub 's likeness seventeen times. Heinold 's was the place where London met Alexander McLean, a captain known for his cruelty at sea. London based his protagonist Wolf Larsen, in the novel The Sea - Wolf, on McLean.
Heinold 's First and Last Chance Saloon is now unofficially named Jack London 's Rendezvous in his honor.
On July 12, 1897, London (age 21) and his sister 's husband Captain Shepard sailed to join the Klondike Gold Rush. This was the setting for some of his first successful stories. London 's time in the harsh Klondike, however, was detrimental to his health. Like so many other men who were malnourished in the goldfields, London developed scurvy. His gums became swollen, leading to the loss of his four front teeth. A constant gnawing pain affected his hip and leg muscles, and his face was stricken with marks that always reminded him of the struggles he faced in the Klondike. Father William Judge, "The Saint of Dawson '', had a facility in Dawson that provided shelter, food and any available medicine to London and others. His struggles there inspired London 's short story, "To Build a Fire '' (1902, revised in 1908), which many critics assess as his best.
His landlords in Dawson were mining engineers Marshall Latham Bond and Louis Whitford Bond, educated at Yale and Stanford, respectively. The brothers ' father, Judge Hiram Bond, was a wealthy mining investor. The Bonds, especially Hiram, were active Republicans. Marshall Bond 's diary mentions friendly sparring with London on political issues as a camp pastime.
London left Oakland with a social conscience and socialist leanings; he returned to become an activist for socialism. He concluded that his only hope of escaping the work "trap '' was to get an education and "sell his brains ''. He saw his writing as a business, his ticket out of poverty, and, he hoped, a means of beating the wealthy at their own game. On returning to California in 1898, London began working to get published, a struggle described in his novel, Martin Eden (serialized in 1908, published in 1909). His first published story since high school was "To the Man On Trail '', which has frequently been collected in anthologies. When The Overland Monthly offered him only five dollars for it -- and was slow paying -- London came close to abandoning his writing career. In his words, "literally and literarily I was saved '' when The Black Cat accepted his story "A Thousand Deaths '', and paid him $40 -- the "first money I ever received for a story ''.
London began his writing career just as new printing technologies enabled lower - cost production of magazines. This resulted in a boom in popular magazines aimed at a wide public audience and a strong market for short fiction. In 1900, he made $2,500 in writing, about $74,000 in today 's currency. Among the works he sold to magazines was a short story known as either "Diable '' (1902) or "Bâtard '' (1904), two editions of the same basic story; London received $141.25 for this story on May 27, 1902. In the text, a cruel French Canadian brutalizes his dog, and the dog retaliates and kills the man. London told some of his critics that man 's actions are the main cause of the behavior of their animals, and he would show this in another story, The Call of the Wild.
In early 1903, London sold The Call of the Wild to The Saturday Evening Post for $750, and the book rights to Macmillan for $2,000. Macmillan 's promotional campaign propelled it to swift success.
While living at his rented villa on Lake Merritt in Oakland, CA., London met poet George Sterling; in time they became best friends. In 1902, Sterling helped London find a home closer to his own in nearby Piedmont. In his letters London addressed Sterling as "Greek '', owing to Sterling 's aquiline nose and classical profile, and he signed them as "Wolf ''. London was later to depict Sterling as Russ Brissenden in his autobiographical novel Martin Eden (1910) and as Mark Hall in The Valley of the Moon (1913).
In later life London indulged his wide - ranging interests by accumulating a personal library of 15,000 volumes. He referred to his books as "the tools of my trade ''.
London married Elizabeth "Bessie '' Maddern on April 7, 1900, the same day The Son of the Wolf was published. Bess had been part of his circle of friends for a number of years. She was related to stage actresses Minnie Maddern Fiske and Emily Stevens. Stasz says, "Both acknowledged publicly that they were not marrying out of love, but from friendship and a belief that they would produce sturdy children. '' Kingman says, "they were comfortable together... Jack had made it clear to Bessie that he did not love her, but that he liked her enough to make a successful marriage. ''
During the marriage, London continued his friendship with Anna Strunsky, co-authoring The Kempton - Wace Letters, an epistolary novel contrasting two philosophies of love. Anna, writing "Dane Kempton 's '' letters, arguing for a romantic view of marriage, while London, writing "Herbert Wace 's '' letters, argued for a scientific view, based on Darwinism and eugenics. In the novel, his fictional character contrasted two women he had known.
London 's pet name for Bess was "Mother - Girl '' and Bess 's for London was "Daddy - Boy ''. Their first child, Joan, was born on January 15, 1901 and their second, Bessie (later called Becky), on October 20, 1902. Both children were born in Piedmont, California. Here London wrote one of his most celebrated works, The Call of the Wild.
While London had pride in his children, the marriage was strained. Kingman says that by 1903, the couple were close to separation as they were "extremely incompatible ''. "Jack was still so kind and gentle with Bessie that when Cloudsley Johns was a house guest in February 1903 he did n't suspect a breakup of their marriage. ''
London reportedly complained to friends Joseph Noel and George Sterling:
(Bessie) is devoted to purity. When I tell her morality is only evidence of low blood pressure, she hates me. She 'd sell me and the children out for her damned purity. It 's terrible. Every time I come back after being away from home for a night she wo n't let me be in the same room with her if she can help it.
Stasz writes that these were "code words for (Bess 's) fear that (Jack) was consorting with prostitutes and might bring home venereal disease. ''
On July 24, 1903, London told Bessie he was leaving and moved out. During 1904, London and Bess negotiated the terms of a divorce, and the decree was granted on November 11, 1904.
London accepted an assignment of the San Francisco Examiner to cover the Russo - Japanese War in early 1904, arriving in Yokohama on January 25, 1904. He was arrested by Japanese authorities in Shimonoseki, but released through the intervention of American ambassador Lloyd Griscom. After travelling to Korea, he was again arrested by Japanese authorizes for straying too close to the border with Manchuria without official permission, and was sent back to Seoul. Released again, London was permitted to travel with the Imperial Japanese Army to the border, and to observe the Battle of the Yalu.
London asked William Randolph Hearst, the owner of the San Francisco Examiner, to be allowed to transfer to the Imperial Russian Army, where he felt that restrictions on his reporting and his movements would be less severe. However, before this could be arranged, he was arrested for a third time in four months, this time for assaulting his Japanese assistants, whom he accused of stealing the fodder for his horse. Released through the personal intervention of President Theodore Roosevelt, London departed the front in June 1904.
On August 18, 1904, London went with his close friend, the poet George Sterling, to "Summer High Jinks '' at the Bohemian Grove. London was elected to honorary membership in the Bohemian Club and took part in many activities. Other noted members of the Bohemian Club during this time included Ambrose Bierce, Gelett Burgess, Allan Dunn, John Muir, Frank Norris, and Herman George Scheffauer.
Beginning in December 1914, London worked on The Acorn Planter, A California Forest Play, to be performed as one of the annual Grove Plays, but it was never selected. It was described as too difficult to set to music. London published The Acorn Planter in 1916.
After divorcing Maddern, London married Charmian Kittredge in 1905. London was introduced to Kittredge by his MacMillan publisher, George Platt Brett, Sr., while Kittredge served as Brett 's secretary. Biographer Russ Kingman called Charmian "Jack 's soul - mate, always at his side, and a perfect match. '' Their time together included numerous trips, including a 1907 cruise on the yacht Snark to Hawaii and Australia. Many of London 's stories are based on his visits to Hawaii, the last one for 10 months beginning in December 1915.
The couple also visited Goldfield, Nevada, in 1907, where they were guests of the Bond brothers, London 's Dawson City landlords. The Bond brothers were working in Nevada as mining engineers.
London had contrasted the concepts of the "Mother Woman '' and the "Mate Woman '' in The Kempton - Wace Letters. His pet name for Bess had been "Mother - Girl; '' his pet name for Charmian was "Mate - Woman. '' Charmian 's aunt and foster mother, a disciple of Victoria Woodhull, had raised her without prudishness. Every biographer alludes to Charmian 's uninhibited sexuality.
Joseph Noel calls the events from 1903 to 1905 "a domestic drama that would have intrigued the pen of an Ibsen... London 's had comedy relief in it and a sort of easy - going romance. '' In broad outline, London was restless in his first marriage, sought extramarital sexual affairs, and found, in Charmian Kittredge, not only a sexually active and adventurous partner, but his future life - companion. They attempted to have children; one child died at birth, and another pregnancy ended in a miscarriage.
In 1906, London published in Collier 's magazine his eye - witness report of the San Francisco earthquake.
In 1905, London purchased a 1,000 acres (4.0 km) ranch in Glen Ellen, Sonoma County, California, on the eastern slope of Sonoma Mountain, for $26,450. He wrote: "Next to my wife, the ranch is the dearest thing in the world to me. '' He desperately wanted the ranch to become a successful business enterprise. Writing, always a commercial enterprise with London, now became even more a means to an end: "I write for no other purpose than to add to the beauty that now belongs to me. I write a book for no other reason than to add three or four hundred acres to my magnificent estate. ''
Stasz writes that London "had taken fully to heart the vision, expressed in his agrarian fiction, of the land as the closest earthly version of Eden... he educated himself through the study of agricultural manuals and scientific tomes. He conceived of a system of ranching that today would be praised for its ecological wisdom. '' He was proud to own the first concrete silo in California, a circular piggery that he designed. He hoped to adapt the wisdom of Asian sustainable agriculture to the United States. He hired both Italian and Chinese stonemasons, whose distinctly different styles are obvious.
The ranch was an economic failure. Sympathetic observers such as Stasz treat his projects as potentially feasible, and ascribe their failure to bad luck or to being ahead of their time. Unsympathetic historians such as Kevin Starr suggest that he was a bad manager, distracted by other concerns and impaired by his alcoholism. Starr notes that London was absent from his ranch about six months a year between 1910 and 1916, and says, "He liked the show of managerial power, but not grinding attention to detail... London 's workers laughed at his efforts to play big - time rancher (and considered) the operation a rich man 's hobby. ''
London spent $80,000 ($2,180,000 in current value) to build a 15,000 - square - foot (1,400 m) stone mansion called Wolf House on the property. Just as the mansion was nearing completion, two weeks before the Londons planned to move in, it was destroyed by fire.
London 's last visit to Hawaii, beginning in December 1915, lasted eight months. He met with Duke Kahanamoku, Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalaniana'ole, Queen Lili'uokalani and many others, before returning to his ranch in July 1916. He was suffering from kidney failure, but he continued to work.
The ranch (abutting stone remnants of Wolf House) is now a National Historic Landmark and is protected in Jack London State Historic Park.
London witnessed animal cruelty in the training of circus animals, and his subsequent novels Jerry of the Islands and Michael, Brother of Jerry included a foreword entreating the public to become more informed about this practice. In 1918, the Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and the American Humane Education Society teamed up to create the Jack London Club, which sought to inform the public about cruelty to circus animals and encourage them to protest this establishment. Support from Club members led to a temporary cessation of trained animal acts at Ringling - Barnum and Bailey in 1925.
London died November 22, 1916, in a sleeping porch in a cottage on his ranch. London had been a robust man but had suffered several serious illnesses, including scurvy in the Klondike. Additionally, during travels on the Snark, he and Charmian picked up unspecified tropical infections, and diseases, including yaws. At the time of his death, he suffered from dysentery, late - stage alcoholism, and uremia; he was in extreme pain and taking morphine.
London 's ashes were buried on his property not far from the Wolf House. London 's funeral took place on November 26, 1916, attended only by close friends, relatives, and workers of the property. In accordance with his wishes, he was cremated and buried next to some pioneer children, under a rock that belonged to the Wolf House. After Charmian 's death in 1955, she was also cremated and then buried with her husband in the same simple spot that her husband chose. The grave is marked by a mossy boulder. The buildings and property were later preserved as Jack London State Historic Park, in Glen Ellen, California.
Because he was using morphine, many older sources describe London 's death as a suicide, and some still do. This conjecture appears to be a rumor, or speculation based on incidents in his fiction writings. His death certificate gives the cause as uremia, following acute renal colic.
The biographer Stasz writes, "Following London 's death, for a number of reasons, a biographical myth developed in which he has been portrayed as an alcoholic womanizer who committed suicide. Recent scholarship based upon firsthand documents challenges this caricature. '' Most biographers, including Russ Kingman, now agree he died of uremia aggravated by an accidental morphine overdose.
London 's fiction featured several suicides. In his autobiographical memoir John Barleycorn, he claims, as a youth, to have drunkenly stumbled overboard into the San Francisco Bay, "some maundering fancy of going out with the tide suddenly obsessed me ''. He said he drifted and nearly succeeded in drowning before sobering up and being rescued by fishermen. In the dénouement of The Little Lady of the Big House, the heroine, confronted by the pain of a mortal gunshot wound, undergoes a physician - assisted suicide by morphine. Also, in Martin Eden, the principal protagonist, who shares certain characteristics with London, drowns himself.
London was vulnerable to accusations of plagiarism, both because he was such a conspicuous, prolific, and successful writer and because of his methods of working. He wrote in a letter to Elwyn Hoffman, "expression, you see -- with me -- is far easier than invention. '' He purchased plots and novels from the young Sinclair Lewis and used incidents from newspaper clippings as writing material.
In July 1901, two pieces of fiction appeared within the same month: London 's "Moon - Face '', in the San Francisco Argonaut, and Frank Norris ' "The Passing of Cock - eye Blacklock '', in Century Magazine. Newspapers showed the similarities between the stories, which London said were "quite different in manner of treatment, (but) patently the same in foundation and motive. '' London explained both writers based their stories on the same newspaper account. A year later, it was discovered that Charles Forrest McLean had published a fictional story also based on the same incident.
Egerton Ryerson Young claimed The Call of the Wild (1903) was taken from Young 's book My Dogs in the Northland (1902). London acknowledged using it as a source and claimed to have written a letter to Young thanking him.
In 1906, the New York World published "deadly parallel '' columns showing eighteen passages from London 's short story "Love of Life '' side by side with similar passages from a nonfiction article by Augustus Biddle and J. K Macdonald, titled "Lost in the Land of the Midnight Sun ''. London noted the World did not accuse him of "plagiarism '', but only of "identity of time and situation '', to which he defiantly "pled guilty ''.
The most serious charge of plagiarism was based on London 's "The Bishop 's Vision '', Chapter 7 of his novel The Iron Heel (1908). The chapter is nearly identical to an ironic essay that Frank Harris published in 1901, titled "The Bishop of London and Public Morality ''. Harris was incensed and suggested he should receive 1 / 60th of the royalties from The Iron Heel, the disputed material constituting about that fraction of the whole novel. London insisted he had clipped a reprint of the article, which had appeared in an American newspaper, and believed it to be a genuine speech delivered by the Bishop of London.
London was an atheist. He is quoted as saying, "I believe that when I am dead, I am dead. I believe that with my death I am just as much obliterated as the last mosquito you and I squashed. ''
London wrote from a socialist viewpoint, which is evident in his novel The Iron Heel. Neither a theorist nor an intellectual socialist, London 's socialism grew out of his life experience. As London explained in his essay, "How I Became a Socialist '', his views were influenced by his experience with people at the bottom of the social pit. His optimism and individualism faded, and he vowed never to do more hard physical work than necessary. He wrote that his individualism was hammered out of him, and he was politically reborn. He often closed his letters "Yours for the Revolution. ''
London joined the Socialist Labor Party in April 1896. In the same year, the San Francisco Chronicle published a story about the twenty - year - old London giving nightly speeches in Oakland 's City Hall Park, an activity he was arrested for a year later. In 1901, he left the Socialist Labor Party and joined the new Socialist Party of America. He ran unsuccessfully as the high - profile Socialist nominee for mayor of Oakland in 1901 (receiving 245 votes) and 1905 (improving to 981 votes), toured the country lecturing on socialism in 1906, and published two collections of essays about socialism: The War of the Classes (1905) and Revolution, and other Essays (1906).
Stasz notes that "London regarded the Wobblies as a welcome addition to the Socialist cause, although he never joined them in going so far as to recommend sabotage. '' Stasz mentions a personal meeting between London and Big Bill Haywood in 1912.
In his late (1913) book The Cruise of the Snark, London writes about appeals to him for membership of the Snark 's crew from office workers and other "toilers '' who longed for escape from the cities, and of being cheated by workmen.
In his Glen Ellen ranch years, London felt some ambivalence toward socialism and complained about the "inefficient Italian labourers '' in his employ. In 1916, he resigned from the Glen Ellen chapter of the Socialist Party, but stated emphatically he did so "because of its lack of fire and fight, and its loss of emphasis on the class struggle. '' In an unflattering portrait of London 's ranch days, California cultural historian Kevin Starr refers to this period as "post-socialist '' and says "... by 1911... London was more bored by the class struggle than he cared to admit. ''
London shared common concerns among European Americans in California about Asian immigration, described as "the yellow peril ''; he used the latter term as the title of a 1904 essay. This theme was also the subject of a story he wrote in 1910 called "The Unparalleled Invasion ''. Presented as an historical essay set in the future, the story narrates events between 1976 and 1987, in which China, with an ever - increasing population, is taking over and colonizing its neighbors with the intention of taking over the entire Earth. The western nations respond with biological warfare and bombard China with dozens of the most infectious diseases. On his fears about China, he admits, "it must be taken into consideration that the above postulate is itself a product of Western race - egotism, urged by our belief in our own righteousness and fostered by a faith in ourselves which may be as erroneous as are most fond race fancies. ''
By contrast, many of London 's short stories are notable for their empathetic portrayal of Mexican ("The Mexican ''), Asian ("The Chinago ''), and Hawaiian ("Koolau the Leper '') characters. London 's war correspondence from the Russo - Japanese War, as well as his unfinished novel Cherry, show he admired much about Japanese customs and capabilities. London 's writings have been popular among the Japanese, who believe he portrayed them positively.
In "Koolau the Leper '', London describes Koolau, who is a Hawaiian leper -- and thus a very different sort of "superman '' than Martin Eden -- and who fights off an entire cavalry troop to elude capture, as "indomitable spiritually -- a... magnificent rebel ''. This character is based on Hawaiian leper Kaluaikoolau, who in 1893 revolted and resisted capture from forces of the Provisional Government of Hawaii in the Kalalau Valley.
An amateur boxer and avid boxing fan, London reported on the 1910 Johnson - Jeffries fight, in which the black boxer Jack Johnson vanquished Jim Jeffries, known as the "Great White Hope ''. In 1908, London had reported on an earlier fight of Johnson 's, contrasting the black boxer 's coolness and intellectual style, with the apelike appearance and fighting style of his Canadian opponent, Tommy Burns:
' what... (won) on Saturday was bigness, coolness, quickness, cleverness, and vast physical superiority... Because a white man wishes a white man to win, this should not prevent him from giving absolute credit to the best man, even when that best man was black. All hail to Johnson. ' London wrote that Johnson was ' superb. He was impregnable... as inaccessible as Mont Blanc. '
Those who defend London against charges of racism cite the letter he wrote to the Japanese - American Commercial Weekly in 1913:
In reply to yours of August 16, 1913. First of all, I should say by stopping the stupid newspaper from always fomenting race prejudice. This of course, being impossible, I would say, next, by educating the people of Japan so that they will be too intelligently tolerant to respond to any call to race prejudice. And, finally, by realizing, in industry and government, of socialism -- which last word is merely a word that stands for the actual application of in the affairs of men of the theory of the Brotherhood of Man.
In the meantime the nations and races are only unruly boys who have not yet grown to the stature of men. So we must expect them to do unruly and boisterous things at times. And, just as boys grow up, so the races of mankind will grow up and laugh when they look back upon their childish quarrels.
In 1996, after the City of Whitehorse, Yukon, renamed a street in honor of London, protests over London 's alleged racism forced the city to change the name of "Jack London Boulevard '' back to "Two - mile Hill ''.
Western writer and historian Dale L. Walker writes:
London 's true métier was the short story... London 's true genius lay in the short form, 7,500 words and under, where the flood of images in his teeming brain and the innate power of his narrative gift were at once constrained and freed. His stories that run longer than the magic 7,500 generally -- but certainly not always -- could have benefited from self - editing.
London 's "strength of utterance '' is at its height in his stories, and they are painstakingly well - constructed. "To Build a Fire '' is the best known of all his stories. Set in the harsh Klondike, it recounts the haphazard trek of a new arrival who has ignored an old - timer 's warning about the risks of traveling alone. Falling through the ice into a creek in seventy - five - below weather, the unnamed man is keenly aware that survival depends on his untested skills at quickly building a fire to dry his clothes and warm his extremities. After publishing a tame version of this story -- with a sunny outcome -- in The Youth 's Companion in 1902, London offered a second, more severe take on the man 's predicament in The Century Magazine in 1908. Reading both provides an illustration of London 's growth and maturation as a writer. As Labor (1994) observes: "To compare the two versions is itself an instructive lesson in what distinguished a great work of literary art from a good children 's story. ''
Other stories from the Klondike period include: "All Gold Canyon '', about a battle between a gold prospector and a claim jumper; "The Law of Life '', about an aging American Indian man abandoned by his tribe and left to die; "Love of Life '', about a trek by a prospector across the Canadian tundra; "To the Man on Trail, '' which tells the story of a prospector fleeing the Mounted Police in a sled race, and raises the question of the contrast between written law and morality; and "An Odyssey of the North, '' which raises questions of conditional morality, and paints a sympathetic portrait of a man of mixed White and Aleut ancestry.
London was a boxing fan and an avid amateur boxer. "A Piece of Steak '' is a tale about a match between older and younger boxers. It contrasts the differing experiences of youth and age but also raises the social question of the treatment of aging workers. "The Mexican '' combines boxing with a social theme, as a young Mexican endures an unfair fight and ethnic prejudice in order to earn money with which to aid the revolution.
Several of London 's stories would today be classified as science fiction. "The Unparalleled Invasion '' describes germ warfare against China; "Goliath '' is about an irresistible energy weapon; "The Shadow and the Flash '' is a tale about two brothers who take different routes to achieving invisibility; "A Relic of the Pliocene '' is a tall tale about an encounter of a modern - day man with a mammoth. "The Red One '' is a late story from a period when London was intrigued by the theories of the psychiatrist and writer Jung. It tells of an island tribe held in thrall by an extraterrestrial object.
Some nineteen original collections of short stories were published during London 's brief life or shortly after his death. There have been several posthumous anthologies drawn from this pool of stories. Many of these stories were located in the Klondike and the Pacific. A collection of Jack London 's San Francisco Stories was published in October 2010 by Sydney Samizdat Press.
London 's most famous novels are The Call of the Wild, White Fang, The Sea - Wolf, The Iron Heel, and Martin Eden.
In a letter dated Dec 27, 1901, London 's Macmillan publisher George Platt Brett, Sr. said "he believed Jack 's fiction represented ' the very best kind of work ' done in America. ''
Critic Maxwell Geismar called The Call of the Wild "a beautiful prose poem ''; editor Franklin Walker said that it "belongs on a shelf with Walden and Huckleberry Finn ''; and novelist E.L. Doctorow called it "a mordant parable... his masterpiece. ''
The historian Dale L. Walker commented:
Jack London was an uncomfortable novelist, that form too long for his natural impatience and the quickness of his mind. His novels, even the best of them, are hugely flawed.
Some critics have said that his novels are episodic and resemble linked short stories. Dale L. Walker writes:
The Star Rover, that magnificent experiment, is actually a series of short stories connected by a unifying device... Smoke Bellew is a series of stories bound together in a novel - like form by their reappearing protagonist, Kit Bellew; and John Barleycorn... is a synoptic series of short episodes.
Ambrose Bierce said of The Sea - Wolf that "the great thing -- and it is among the greatest of things -- is that tremendous creation, Wolf Larsen... the hewing out and setting up of such a figure is enough for a man to do in one lifetime. '' However, he noted, "The love element, with its absurd suppressions, and impossible proprieties, is awful. ''
The Iron Heel is interesting as an example of a dystopian novel that anticipates and influenced George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty - Four. London 's socialist politics are explicitly on display here. The Iron Heel meets the contemporary definition of soft science fiction. The Star Rover (1915) is also science fiction.
London 's literary executor, Irving Shepard, quoted a Jack London Credo in an introduction to a 1956 collection of London stories:
I would rather be ashes than dust! I would rather that my spark should burn out in a brilliant blaze than it should be stifled by dry - rot. I would rather be a superb meteor, every atom of me in magnificent glow, than a sleepy and permanent planet. The function of man is to live, not to exist. I shall not waste my days in trying to prolong them. I shall use my time.
The biographer Stasz notes that the passage "has many marks of London 's style '' but the only line that could be safely attributed to London was the first. The words Shepard quoted were from a story in the San Francisco Bulletin, December 2, 1916 by journalist Ernest J. Hopkins, who visited the ranch just weeks before London 's death. Stasz notes "Even more so than today journalists ' quotes were unreliable or even sheer inventions '' and says no direct source in London 's writings has been found. However, at least one line, according to Stasz, is authentic, being referenced by London, and written in his own hand, in the autograph book of Australian suffragette Vida Goldstein:
Dear Miss Goldstein: -- Seven years ago I wrote you that I 'd rather be ashes than dust. I still subscribe to that sentiment. Sincerely yours, Jack London Jan. 13, 1909
Furthermore, in his short story "By The Turtles of Tasman '', a character, defending her ne'er - do - well grasshopperish father to her antlike uncle, says: "... my father has been a king. He has lived... Have you lived merely to live? Are you afraid to die? I 'd rather sing one wild song and burst my heart with it, than live a thousand years watching my digestion and being afraid of the wet. When you are dust, my father will be ashes. ''
A short diatribe on "The Scab '' is often quoted within the U.S. labor movement and frequently attributed to London. It opens:
After God had finished the rattlesnake, the toad, and the vampire, he had some awful substance left with which he made a scab. A scab is a two - legged animal with a corkscrew soul, a water brain, a combination backbone of jelly and glue. Where others have hearts, he carries a tumor of rotten principles. When a scab comes down the street, men turn their backs and Angels weep in Heaven, and the Devil shuts the gates of hell to keep him out... ''
In 1913 and 1914, a number of newspapers printed the first three sentences with varying terms used instead of "scab '', such as "knocker '', "stool pigeon '' or "scandal monger ''.
This passage as given above was the subject of a 1974 Supreme Court case, Letter Carriers v. Austin 418 U.S. 264 (1974), in which Justice Thurgood Marshall referred to it as "a well - known piece of trade union literature, generally attributed to author Jack London ''. A union newsletter had published a "list of scabs, '' which was granted to be factual and therefore not libelous, but then went on to quote the passage as the "definition of a scab ''. The case turned on the question of whether the "definition '' was defamatory. The court ruled that "Jack London 's... ' definition of a scab ' is merely rhetorical hyperbole, a lusty and imaginative expression of the contempt felt by union members towards those who refuse to join '', and as such was not libelous and was protected under the First Amendment.
Despite being frequently attributed to London, the passage does not appear at all in the extensive collection of his writings at Sonoma State University 's website. However, in his book The War of the Classes he published a 1903 speech entitled "The Scab '', which gave a much more balanced view of the topic:
To strike at a man 's food and shelter is to strike at his life; and in a society organized on a tooth - and - nail basis, such an act, performed though it may be under the guise of generosity, is none the less menacing and terrible. It is for this reason that a laborer is so fiercely hostile to another laborer who offers to work for less pay or longer hours. To hold his place, (which is to live), he must offset this offer by another equally liberal, which is equivalent to giving away somewhat from the food and shelter he enjoys. (...) When a striker kills with a brick the man who has taken his place, he has no sense of wrong - doing. In the deepest holds of his being, though he does not reason the impulse, he has an ethical sanction. He feels dimly that he has justification, just as the home - defending Boer felt, though more sharply, with each bullet he fired at the invading English. Behind every brick thrown by a striker is the selfish will "to live '' of himself, and the slightly altruistic will "to live '' of his family. The family group came into the world before the State group, and society, being still on the primitive basis of tooth and nail, the will "to live '' of the State is not so compelling to the striker as is the will "to live '' of his family and himself. (...) The laborer who gives more time or strength or skill for the same wage than another, or equal time or strength or skill for a less wage, is a scab. The generousness on his part is hurtful to his fellow - laborers, for it compels them to an equal generousness which is not to their liking, and which gives them less of food and shelter. But a word may be said for the scab. Just as his act makes his rivals compulsorily generous, so do they, by fortune of birth and training, make compulsory his act of generousness. (...) Nobody desires to scab, to give most for least. The ambition of every individual is quite the opposite, to give least for most; and, as a result, living in a tooth - and - nail society, battle royal is waged by the ambitious individuals. But in its most salient aspect, that of the struggle over the division of the joint product, it is no longer a battle between individuals, but between groups of individuals. Capital and labor apply themselves to raw material, make something useful out of it, add to its value, and then proceed to quarrel over the division of the added value. Neither cares to give most for least. Each is intent on giving less than the other and on receiving more.
Source unless otherwise specified: Williams
The Jack London Online Collection
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who plays the mom in a dogs purpose | All Dogs Go to Heaven - Wikipedia
All Dogs Go to Heaven is a 1989 animated musical comedy - drama film directed and produced by Don Bluth, and released by United Artists and Goldcrest Films. It tells the story of Charlie B. Barkin (voiced by Burt Reynolds), a German Shepherd that is murdered by his former friend, Carface (voiced by Vic Tayback, in his final film role), but withdraws from his place in Heaven to return to Earth, where his best friend, Itchy Itchiford (voiced by Dom DeLuise) still lives, and he teams up with a young orphan girl named Anne - Marie (voiced by Judith Barsi, in her final film role), who teaches them an important lesson about kindness, friendship and love.
The film is an Irish, British and American venture, produced by Sullivan Bluth Studios and Goldcrest Films. On its cinema release, it competed directly with Walt Disney Feature Animation 's The Little Mermaid, released on the same day. While it did not repeat the box - office success of Sullivan Bluth 's previous feature films, The Secret of NIMH, An American Tail, and The Land Before Time, it was successful on home video, becoming one of the biggest - selling VHS releases ever. It inspired a theatrical sequel, a television series, and a holiday direct - to - video film.
All Dogs Go to Heaven was released on DVD on November 17, 1998, and as an MGM Kids edition on March 6, 2001. It had a DVD double - feature release with its sequel on March 14, 2006, and January 18, 2011. The film was released in high definition for the first time on Blu - ray on March 29, 2011, without special features except the original theatrical trailer.
In 1939 New Orleans, Charlie B. Barkin and Itchy Itchiford escape from the dog pound and return to a casino riverboat on the bayou, formerly run by Charlie and his business partner, Carface Caruthers. Refusing to share the profits with Charlie, Carface persuades him to leave town with 50 % of the casino 's earnings. Charlie agrees, but is later intoxicated and murdered by Carface. He is sent to Heaven, where he meets a whippet angel, who tells him that a gold watch representing his life has stopped. He steals and winds it, returning to Earth, but is told that if he dies again, he will not return to Heaven. After reuniting with Itchy, they discover that Carface has kidnapped a young orphaned girl named Anne - Marie, who has the ability to talk to animals and gain knowledge of a race 's results beforehand, allowing Carface to rig the odds on the rat races and become rich. They rescue her, intending to use her abilities to get revenge on Carface, though Charlie tells her that they plan to give their winnings to the poor and help her find her parents. The next day at the race track, Charlie steals a wallet from a couple as they talk to Anne - Marie and become alarmed by her unwashed appearance.
Charlie and Itchy use their winnings to build a successful casino in the junkyard where they live. Anne - Marie, upon discovering that she had been used, threatens to leave. To persuade her to stay, Charlie brings pizza to a family of poor puppies and their mother, Flo, at the old abandoned church. While there, Anne - Marie becomes upset at Charlie for stealing the wallet. She goes to the attic and wishes to live with the couple in the future. After a nightmare in which he is sent to Hell for eternity, Charlie wakes up in the room, only to find Anne - Marie gone. The couple, Kate and Harold, welcome Anne - Marie into their home, serving waffles. While they privately discuss adopting her, Charlie arrives and tricks her into leaving with him. Walking home, Charlie is shot by Carface and Killer, but finds that he is unable to be harmed as long as he is wearing the watch. Anne - Marie and Charlie hide in an abandoned building, but the ground breaks and they fall into the lair of King Gator. He and Charlie strike a chord as kindred spirits and he lets them go, but Anne - Marie falls ill with pneumonia.
After beating up Itchy, Carface and his thugs destroy Charlie and Itchy 's casino. Itchy berates Charlie, who seems to care more about Anne - Marie than him. Charlie angrily declares that he is using her and will eventually "dump her in an orphanage ''. Anne - Marie overhears the conversation and tearfully runs away before she is kidnapped by Carface, and Charlie follows them. Flo, hearing Anne - Marie 's scream, sends Itchy to get help from Kate and Harold, and he rouses the dogs of the city by his side. Charlie returns to Carface 's casino, where he is ambushed by Carface and his thugs. They attack Charlie, inadvertently setting an oil fire that soon engulfs the whole structure. King Gator arrives and chases Carface off, eventually eating him. Charlie drops his watch into the water, he pushes Anne - Marie to safety onto some debris, and dives into the water to retrieve it, but it stops before he can get to it. Anne - Marie and a redeemed Killer are discovered by Kate, Harold, and the authorities, as the boat sinks into the water.
Sometime later, Kate and Harold adopt Anne - Marie, who has also adopted Itchy, and Charlie returns in ghost form to apologize to Anne - Marie. The whippet angel appears and tells him that because he sacrificed his life for Anne - Marie, Charlie has earned his place in Heaven. Anne - Marie awakens, and they reconcile. Charlie asks her to take care for Itchy. When Anne - Marie goes to sleep again, Charlie leaves and returns to Heaven.
The earliest idea for the film was conceived by Don Bluth after finishing work on The Secret of NIMH. The treatment was originally about a canine private eye, and one of three short stories making up an anthology film. The character of a shaggy German Shepherd was designed specifically for Burt Reynolds. However, Bluth 's first studio, Don Bluth Productions, was going through a period of financial difficulty, ultimately having to declare bankruptcy, and the idea never made it beyond rough storyboards. The concept was revived by Bluth, John Pomeroy, and Gary Goldman, and rewritten by David N. Weiss, collaborating with the producers from October through December 1987. They built around the title All Dogs Go to Heaven and drew inspiration from films, such as It 's a Wonderful Life, Little Miss Marker, and A Guy Named Joe. The film 's title came from a book read to Bluth 's fourth - grade class, and he resisted suggestions to change it, stating he liked how "provocative '' it sounded, and how people reacted to the title alone.
During the production of their previous feature film, Sullivan Bluth Studios had moved from Van Nuys, California, to a state - of - the - art studio facility in Dublin, Ireland, and the film was their first to begin production wholly at the Irish studio. It was also their first to be funded from sources outside of Hollywood, the previous two feature films, An American Tail and The Land Before Time, had been backed by Amblin Entertainment and Universal Pictures, and executive producers Steven Spielberg and George Lucas (for The Land Before Time only) exercised a degree of control over the content of the films, a situation Bluth found disagreeable. The studio found investment from UK - based Goldcrest Films in a US $70 m deal to produce three animated feature films (though only two, Rock - a-Doodle and it, were completed under the deal). The three founding members of the studio, Bluth, Pomeroy, and Goldman, had all moved to Ireland to set up the new facility, but during the film 's production, John Pomeroy returned to the U.S. to head up a satellite studio which provided some of the animation for the film. Pomeroy also used his presence in the U.S. to generate early publicity for the film, including a presentation at the 1987 San Diego Comic - Con.
The film 's lead voices, Burt Reynolds and Dom DeLuise, had previously appeared together in five films. For this one, they requested them to record their parts in the studio together (in American animation, actors more commonly record their parts solo). Bluth agreed and allowed Reynolds and DeLuise to ad - lib extensively; Bluth later commented, "their ad - libs were often better than the original script ''. However, Reynolds was more complimentary of the draft, warmly quipping, "Great script, kid '', as he left the studio. Another pair of voices, those of Carface and Killer (Vic Tayback and Charles Nelson Reilly, respectively), also recorded together. Loni Anderson, who voices Flo, was Reynolds ' then - wife. Child actress Judith Barsi, who voiced Ducky in Bluth 's previous film The Land Before Time, was selected to voice Anne - Marie; she was killed in an apparent murder - suicide over a year before All Dogs Go to Heaven was released.
As production neared completion, the studio held test screenings and decided that some of the scenes were too intense for younger viewers. Writer and producer Pomeroy decided to shorten Charlie 's nightmare about being condemned. Co-director Gary Goldman also agreed to the cut, recognizing that the concession needed to be made in the name of commercial appeal. Don Bluth owned a private 35 - mm print of the movie with the cut - out scenes and planned to convince Goldcrest Films on releasing a director 's cut of the film after returning from Ireland in the mid-1990s, but the print was eventually stolen from Bluth 's locked storage room, diminishing hopes of this version being released on home media.
The music for All Dogs Go to Heaven was composed by Ralph Burns with lyrics by Charles Strouse, T.J. Kuenster, Joel Hirschhorn, and Al Kasha. An official soundtrack was released on July 1, 1989, by Curb Records on audio cassette and CD featuring 13 tracks, including seven vocal songs performed by various cast members. The end credits theme "Love Survives '' was dedicated to Anne - Marie 's voice actress Judith Barsi, who died before the film 's release.
Track listing
All Dogs Go to Heaven received mixed reviews from critics, maintaining a 50 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 10 reviews, and a 50 out of 100 score from Metacritic. Reviewers often drew unfavorable comparisons to Disney 's offering, criticizing the disjointed narrative, the quality of the animation, and the songs by Charlie Strouse and T.J. Kuenster. The film received a "thumbs down '' from Gene Siskel and a "thumbs up '' from Roger Ebert on a 1989 episode of their television program At the Movies. While Siskel found it to be "surprisingly weak '' given director Don Bluth 's previous works, due largely to its "confusing story '' and "needlessly violent '' scenes, Ebert was a fan of the movie 's "rubbery and kind of flexible '' animation, stating he felt it was a good film despite not being an "animated classic ''.
Some also found the darker subject material objectionable in a family film, given the film 's depictions of death, violence, drinking, smoking, gambling, murder, demons, and images of Hell. Other reviews were mostly positive, with critics praising the film 's emotional qualities, humor, and vibrant color palette. Roger Ebert, who was unimpressed with Bluth 's previous film An American Tail, gave it three out of four stars, remarking that the animation "permits such a voluptuous use of color that the movie is an invigorating bath for the eyes, '' and that although he preferred The Little Mermaid, which opened on the same day, he still found Dogs to be "bright and inventive. '' More recent reviews of the film have generally been less harsh, with Box Office Mojo awarding it a B - rating. However, film critic Leonard Maltin gave it one - and - a-half out of four stars, due to "unappealing characters, confusing storytelling, and forgettable songs. ''
Dissatisfied with the terms imposed by Universal Studios, which had distributed their previous two films, the studio found an alternative distributor in United Artists. Somewhat unusually, production investors Goldcrest Films covered the cost of the release prints and the promotional campaign, in return for a greatly reduced distribution fee from UA. This was similar to the arrangement with United Artists when they distributed Bluth 's first feature film, The Secret of NIMH. Goldcrest Films invested $15 million in printing and promoting the film. Due to contractual issues, very little tie - in merchandise accompanied the film 's theatrical release; a computer game adaptation for the Commodore Amiga 's DOS system (with a free software package) was released, and restaurant chain Wendy 's offered toys with their Kids ' Meals or regular fries.
The film opened in North America on November 17, 1989, which was the same day as Disney 's 28th full - length animated motion picture The Little Mermaid; once again, Sullivan Bluth Studios ' latest feature would be vying for box - office receipts with Disney 's, just as their last two films (An American Tail and The Land Before Time) had. On its theatrical release, while still making its budget of $13.8 million back, the film 's performance fell short of Sullivan Bluth Studios ' previous box - office successes, grossing $27 million in North America alone, just over half of what An American Tail and The Land Before Time each took.
All Dogs Go to Heaven received a nomination for "Best Family Motion Picture: Adventure or Cartoon '' at the 11th annual Youth in Film Awards ceremony, being beaten by Disney 's The Little Mermaid. The home video release received an Award of Excellence from the Film Advisory Board.
All Dogs Go to Heaven was released on VHS, S - VHS, 8mm video and LaserDisc in both regular and special CAV standard play editions by MGM / UA Home Video on August 29, 1990. The film became a sleeper hit due to its home video release; a strong promotional campaign helped it become one of the top - selling VHS releases of all time, selling over 3 million copies in its first month.
A DVD version was made available for the first time on March 6, 2001, under the MGM Kids label and was later released as a double feature with All Dogs Go to Heaven 2 on March 14, 2006. On March 29, 2011, the film made its debut on Blu - ray, which was later included as a bundle with its sequel on October 7, 2014, along with a re-release of the compilation on DVD. The Blu - ray version was also packaged with another Don Bluth film, The Pebble and the Penguin, on October 8, 2013, and again with eight other MGM films as part of the company 's 90th anniversary "Best of Family Collection '' on February 4, 2014.
The success of the film, particularly its performance on home video, prompted several follow - up productions. A theatrical sequel, All Dogs Go to Heaven 2, a television series, All Dogs Go to Heaven: The Series and An All Dogs Christmas Carol, a Christmas television movie based on Charles Dickens ' A Christmas Carol, were made. Don Bluth and his studio had no involvement with any of them, and Burt Reynolds did not reprise his role as Charlie after the first film; he was replaced in the sequel film and television series by Charlie Sheen and Steven Weber, respectively. Charles Nelson Reilly declined to return for the sequel film, but voiced Killer for the television productions. Dom DeLuise played Itchy through the entire franchise.
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can i fly to holland without a passport | Visa requirements for Dutch citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for Dutch citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of the Netherlands, the joint nationality of the four countries within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. As of 1 January 2017, Dutch citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 173 countries and territories, ranking the Dutch passport 4th in terms of travel freedom (tied with the Austrian, Belgian, British, French, Luxembourgish, Norwegian and Singaporean passports) according to the Henley visa restrictions index.
Visa requirements for Dutch citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries and restricted zones:
Holders of various categories of official Dutch passports have additional visa - free access to the following countries - Pakistan (diplomatic passports), Russia (diplomatic passports) and Turkey (diplomatic, official, service or special passports). Holders of diplomatic or service passports of any country have visa - free access to Cape Verde, Ethiopia, Mali and Zimbabwe.
Many countries require passports to be valid for at least 6 months upon arrival. Note that some nations have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the passport validity cut - off period for each other 's citizens.
Countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq (except when arriving at Basra and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah), Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Somaliland, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen and Zimbabwe.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include European Union countries (except Denmark, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, and except for EU / EEA / Swiss citizens), Albania, Belarus, Georgia, Honduras, Iceland, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Moldova, Monaco, Nauru, Panama, Saint Barthélemy, San Marino, Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least 1 month on arrival include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Macao, New Zealand and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay.
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories, will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''.
Upon request, the Republic of Artsakh authorities may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Some countries (for example, Canada) routinely deny entry to foreigners who have a criminal record.
When in a non-EU country where there is no Dutch embassy, Dutch citizens as EU citizens have the right to get consular protection from the embassy of any other EU country present in that country.
See also List of diplomatic missions of Netherlands.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. Partially recognized.
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where was the star spangled banner written and under what conditions | The Star - Spangled Banner - wikipedia
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is the national anthem of the United States of America. The lyrics come from "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', a poem written on September 14, 1814, by the then 35 - year - old lawyer and amateur poet Francis Scott Key after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry by British ships of the Royal Navy in Baltimore Harbor during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812. Key was inspired by the large American flag, with 15 stars and 15 stripes, known as the Star - Spangled Banner, flying triumphantly above the fort during the American victory.
The poem was set to the tune of a popular British song written by John Stafford Smith for the Anacreontic Society, a men 's social club in London. "To Anacreon in Heaven '' (or "The Anacreontic Song ''), with various lyrics, was already popular in the United States. Set to Key 's poem and renamed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', it soon became a well - known American patriotic song. With a range of 19 semitones, it is known for being difficult to sing. Although the poem has four stanzas, only the first is commonly sung today.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' was recognized for official use by the United States Navy in 1889, and by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, and was made the national anthem by a congressional resolution on March 3, 1931 (46 Stat. 1508, codified at 36 U.S.C. § 301), which was signed by President Herbert Hoover.
Before 1931, other songs served as the hymns of American officialdom. "Hail, Columbia '' served this purpose at official functions for most of the 19th century. "My Country, ' Tis of Thee '', whose melody is identical to "God Save the Queen '', the British national anthem, also served as a de facto anthem. Following the War of 1812 and subsequent American wars, other songs emerged to compete for popularity at public events, among them "America the Beautiful ''.
On September 3, 1814, following the Burning of Washington and the Raid on Alexandria, Francis Scott Key and John Stuart Skinner set sail from Baltimore aboard the ship HMS Minden, flying a flag of truce on a mission approved by President James Madison. Their objective was to secure an exchange of prisoners, one of whom was Dr. William Beanes, the elderly and popular town physician of Upper Marlboro and a friend of Key 's who had been captured in his home. Beanes was accused of aiding the arrest of British soldiers. Key and Skinner boarded the British flagship HMS Tonnant on September 7 and spoke with Major General Robert Ross and Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane over dinner while the two officers discussed war plans. At first, Ross and Cochrane refused to release Beanes but relented after Key and Skinner showed them letters written by wounded British prisoners praising Beanes and other Americans for their kind treatment.
Because Key and Skinner had heard details of the plans for the attack on Baltimore, they were held captive until after the battle, first aboard HMS Surprise and later back on HMS Minden. After the bombardment, certain British gunboats attempted to slip past the fort and effect a landing in a cove to the west of it, but they were turned away by fire from nearby Fort Covington, the city 's last line of defense.
During the rainy night, Key had witnessed the bombardment and observed that the fort 's smaller "storm flag '' continued to fly, but once the shell and Congreve rocket barrage had stopped, he would not know how the battle had turned out until dawn. On the morning of September 14, the storm flag had been lowered and the larger flag had been raised.
During the bombardment, HMS Terror and HMS Meteor provided some of the "bombs bursting in air ''.
Key was inspired by the American victory and the sight of the large American flag flying triumphantly above the fort. This flag, with fifteen stars and fifteen stripes, had been made by Mary Young Pickersgill together with other workers in her home on Baltimore 's Pratt Street. The flag later came to be known as the Star - Spangled Banner and is today on display in the National Museum of American History, a treasure of the Smithsonian Institution. It was restored in 1914 by Amelia Fowler, and again in 1998 as part of an ongoing conservation program.
Aboard the ship the next day, Key wrote a poem on the back of a letter he had kept in his pocket. At twilight on September 16, he and Skinner were released in Baltimore. He completed the poem at the Indian Queen Hotel, where he was staying, and titled it "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''.
Much of the idea of the poem, including the flag imagery and some of the wording, is derived from an earlier song by Key, also set to the tune of "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song, known as "When the Warrior Returns '', was written in honor of Stephen Decatur and Charles Stewart on their return from the First Barbary War. Absent elaboration by Francis Scott Key prior to his death in 1843, some have speculated in modern times about the meaning of phrases or verses. According to British historian Robin Blackburn, the words "the hireling and slave '' allude to the thousands of ex-slaves in the British ranks organised as the Corps of Colonial Marines, who had been liberated by the British and demanded to be placed in the battle line "where they might expect to meet their former masters. '' Nevertheless, Professor Mark Clague, a professor of musicology at the University of Michigan, argues that the "middle two verses of Key 's lyric vilify the British enemy in the War of 1812 '' and "in no way glorifies or celebrates slavery. '' Clague writes that "For Key... the British mercenaries were scoundrels and the Colonial Marines were traitors who threatened to spark a national insurrection. '' This harshly anti-British nature of Verse 3 led to its omission in sheet music in World War I, when Britain and the U.S. were allies. Responding to the assertion of writer Jon Schwarz of The Intercept that the song is a "celebration of slavery, '' Clague said that: "The reference to slaves is about the use and in some sense the manipulation, of black Americans to fight for the British, with the promise of freedom. The American forces included African - Americans as well as whites. The term ' freemen, ' whose heroism is celebrated in the fourth stanza, would have encompassed both. ''
Others suggest that "Key may have intended the phrase as a reference to the British Navy 's practice of impressment (kidnapping sailors and forcing them to fight in defense of the crown), or as a semi-metaphorical slap at the British invading force as a whole (which included a large number of mercenaries). ''
Key gave the poem to his brother - in - law Judge Joseph H. Nicholson who saw that the words fit the popular melody "The Anacreontic Song '', by English composer John Stafford Smith. This was the official song of the Anacreontic Society, an 18th - century gentlemen 's club of amateur musicians in London. Nicholson took the poem to a printer in Baltimore, who anonymously made the first known broadside printing on September 17; of these, two known copies survive.
On September 20, both the Baltimore Patriot and The American printed the song, with the note "Tune: Anacreon in Heaven ''. The song quickly became popular, with seventeen newspapers from Georgia to New Hampshire printing it. Soon after, Thomas Carr of the Carr Music Store in Baltimore published the words and music together under the title "The Star Spangled Banner '', although it was originally called "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''. Thomas Carr 's arrangement introduced the raised fourth which became the standard deviation from "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song 's popularity increased and its first public performance took place in October when Baltimore actor Ferdinand Durang sang it at Captain McCauley 's tavern. Washington Irving, then editor of the Analectic Magazine in Philadelphia, reprinted the song in November 1814.
By the early 20th century, there were various versions of the song in popular use. Seeking a singular, standard version, President Woodrow Wilson tasked the U.S. Bureau of Education with providing that official version. In response, the Bureau enlisted the help of five musicians to agree upon an arrangement. Those musicians were Walter Damrosch, Will Earhart, Arnold J. Gantvoort, Oscar Sonneck and John Philip Sousa. The standardized version that was voted upon by these five musicians premiered at Carnegie Hall on December 5, 1917, in a program that included Edward Elgar 's Carillon and Gabriel Pierné 's The Children 's Crusade. The concert was put on by the Oratorio Society of New York and conducted by Walter Damrosch. An official handwritten version of the final votes of these five men has been found and shows all five men 's votes tallied, measure by measure.
The song gained popularity throughout the 19th century and bands played it during public events, such as July 4th celebrations.
A plaque displayed at Fort Meade, South Dakota, claims that the idea of making "The Star Spangled Banner '' the national anthem began on their parade ground in 1892. Colonel Caleb Carlton, Post Commander, established the tradition that the song be played "at retreat and at the close of parades and concerts. '' Carlton explained the custom to Governor Sheldon of South Dakota who "promised me that he would try to have the custom established among the state militia. '' Carlton wrote that after a similar discussion, Secretary of War, Daniel E. Lamont issued an order that it "be played at every Army post every evening at retreat. ''
In 1899, the US Navy officially adopted "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson ordered that "The Star - Spangled Banner '' be played at military and other appropriate occasions. The playing of the song two years later during the seventh - inning stretch of Game One of the 1918 World Series, and thereafter during each game of the series is often cited as the first instance that the anthem was played at a baseball game, though evidence shows that the "Star - Spangled Banner '' was performed as early as 1897 at opening day ceremonies in Philadelphia and then more regularly at the Polo Grounds in New York City beginning in 1898. In any case, the tradition of performing the national anthem before every baseball game began in World War II.
On April 10, 1918, John Charles Linthicum, U.S. Congressman from Maryland, introduced a bill to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. The bill did not pass. On April 15, 1929, Linthicum introduced the bill again, his sixth time doing so. On November 3, 1929, Robert Ripley drew a panel in his syndicated cartoon, Ripley 's Believe it or Not!, saying "Believe It or Not, America has no national anthem ''.
In 1930, Veterans of Foreign Wars started a petition for the United States to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. Five million people signed the petition. The petition was presented to the United States House Committee on the Judiciary on January 31, 1930. On the same day, Elsie Jorss - Reilley and Grace Evelyn Boudlin sang the song to the Committee to refute the perception that it was too high pitched for a typical person to sing. The Committee voted in favor of sending the bill to the House floor for a vote. The House of Representatives passed the bill later that year. The Senate passed the bill on March 3, 1931. President Herbert Hoover signed the bill on March 4, 1931, officially adopting "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem of the United States of America. As currently codified, the United States Code states that "(t) he composition consisting of the words and music known as the Star - Spangled Banner is the national anthem. ''
The song is notoriously difficult for nonprofessionals to sing because of its wide range -- a 12th. Humorist Richard Armour referred to the song 's difficulty in his book It All Started With Columbus.
In an attempt to take Baltimore, the British attacked Fort McHenry, which protected the harbor. Bombs were soon bursting in air, rockets were glaring, and all in all it was a moment of great historical interest. During the bombardment, a young lawyer named Francis Off Key (sic) wrote "The Star - Spangled Banner '', and when, by the dawn 's early light, the British heard it sung, they fled in terror.
Professional and amateur singers have been known to forget the words, which is one reason the song is sometimes pre-recorded and lip - synced. Other times the issue is avoided by having the performer (s) play the anthem instrumentally instead of singing it. The pre-recording of the anthem has become standard practice at some ballparks, such as Boston 's Fenway Park, according to the SABR publication The Fenway Project.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is traditionally played at the beginning of public sports events and orchestral concerts in the United States, as well as other public gatherings. The National Hockey League and Major League Soccer both require venues in both the U.S. and Canada to perform both the Canadian and American national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries (with the "away '' anthem being performed first). It is also usual for both American and Canadian anthems (done in the same way as the NHL and MLS) to be played at Major League Baseball and National Basketball Association games involving the Toronto Blue Jays and the Toronto Raptors (respectively), the only Canadian teams in those two major U.S. sports leagues, and in All Star Games on the MLB, NBA, and NHL. The Buffalo Sabres of the NHL, which play in a city on the Canada -- US border and have a substantial Canadian fan base, play both anthems before all home games regardless of where the visiting team is based.
Two especially unusual performances of the song took place in the immediate aftermath of the United States September 11 attacks. On September 12, 2001, the Queen broke with tradition and allowed the Band of the Coldstream Guards to perform the anthem at Buckingham Palace, London, at the ceremonial Changing of the Guard, as a gesture of support for Britain 's ally. The following day at a St. Paul 's Cathedral memorial service, the Queen joined in the singing of the anthem, an unprecedented occurrence.
The 200th anniversary of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' occurred in 2014 with various special events occurring throughout the United States. A particularly significant celebration occurred during the week of September 10 -- 16 in and around Baltimore, Maryland. Highlights included playing of a new arrangement of the anthem arranged by John Williams and participation of President Obama on Defender 's Day, September 12, 2014, at Fort McHenry. In addition, the anthem bicentennial included a youth music celebration including the presentation of the National Anthem Bicentennial Youth Challenge winning composition written by Noah Altshuler.
The first popular music performance of the anthem heard by the mainstream U.S. was by Puerto Rican singer and guitarist José Feliciano. He created a nationwide uproar when he strummed a slow, blues - style rendition of the song at Tiger Stadium in Detroit before game five of the 1968 World Series, between Detroit and St. Louis. This rendition started contemporary "Star - Spangled Banner '' controversies. The response from many in the Vietnam War - era U.S. was generally negative. Despite the controversy, Feliciano 's performance opened the door for the countless interpretations of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' heard in the years since. One week after Feliciano 's performance, the anthem was in the news again when American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos lifted controversial raised fists at the 1968 Olympics while the "Star - Spangled Banner '' played at a medal ceremony.
Marvin Gaye gave a soul - influenced performance at the 1983 NBA All - Star Game and Whitney Houston gave a soulful rendition before Super Bowl XXV in 1991, which was released as a single that charted at number 20 in 1991 and number 6 in 2001 (along with José Feliciano, the only times the anthem has been on the Billboard Hot 100). In 1993, Kiss did an instrumental rock version as the closing track on their album, Alive III. Another famous instrumental interpretation is Jimi Hendrix 's version, which was a set - list staple from autumn 1968 until his death in September 1970, including a famous rendition at the Woodstock music festival in 1969. Incorporating sonic effects to emphasize the "rockets ' red glare '', and "bombs bursting in air '', it became a late - 1960s emblem. Roseanne Barr gave a controversial performance of the anthem at a San Diego Padres baseball game at Jack Murphy Stadium on July 25, 1990. The comedian belted out a screechy rendition of the song, and afterward, she attempted a gesture of ballplayers by spitting and grabbing her crotch as if adjusting a protective cup. The performance offended some, including the sitting U.S. President, George H.W. Bush. Sufjan Stevens has frequently performed the "Star - Spangled Banner '' in live sets, replacing the optimism in the end of the first verse with a new coda that alludes to the divisive state of the nation today. David Lee Roth both referenced parts of the anthem and played part of a hard rock rendition of the anthem on his song, "Yankee Rose '' on his 1986 solo album, Eat ' Em and Smile. Steven Tyler also caused some controversy in 2001 (at the Indianapolis 500, to which he later issued a public apology) and again in 2012 (at the AFC Championship Game) with a cappella renditions of the song with changed lyrics. A version of Aerosmith 's Joe Perry and Brad Whitford playing part of the song can be heard at the end of their version of "Train Kept A-Rollin ' '' on the Rockin ' the Joint album. The band Boston gave an instrumental rock rendition of the anthem on their Greatest Hits album. The band Crush 40 made a version of the song as opening track from the album Thrill of the Feel (2000).
In March 2005, a government - sponsored program, the National Anthem Project, was launched after a Harris Interactive poll showed many adults knew neither the lyrics nor the history of the anthem.
O say can you see, by the dawn 's early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight 's last gleaming, Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight, O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming? And the rockets ' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there; O say does that star - spangled banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, Where the foe 's haughty host in dread silence reposes, What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? Now it catches the gleam of the morning 's first beam, In full glory reflected now shines in the stream: ' Tis the star - spangled banner, O long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. And where is that band who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle 's confusion, A home and a country, should leave us no more? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps ' pollution. No refuge could save the hireling and slave From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: And the star - spangled banner in triumph doth wave, O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. O thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand Between their loved homes and the war 's desolation. Blest with vict'ry and peace, may the Heav'n rescued land Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation! Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, And this be our motto: ' In God is our trust. ' And the star - spangled banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!
In indignation over the start of the American Civil War, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. added a fifth stanza to the song in 1861, which appeared in songbooks of the era.
When our land is illumined with Liberty 's smile, If a foe from within strike a blow at her glory, Down, down with the traitor that dares to defile The flag of her stars and the page of her story! By the millions unchained who our birthright have gained, We will keep her bright blazon forever unstained! And the Star - Spangled Banner in triumph shall wave While the land of the free is the home of the brave.
In a version hand - written by Francis Scott Key in 1840, the third line reads "Whose bright stars and broad stripes, through the clouds of the fight ''.
Several films have their titles taken from the song 's lyrics. These include two films titled Dawn 's Early Light (2000 and 2005); two made - for - TV features titled By Dawn 's Early Light (1990 and 2000); two films titled So Proudly We Hail (1943 and 1990); a feature (1977) and a short (2005) titled Twilight 's Last Gleaming; and four films titled Home of the Brave (1949, 1986, 2004, and 2006). A 1936 short titled "The Song of a Nation '' from Warner Brothers shows a version of the origin of the song.
When the National Anthem was first recognized by law in 1931, there was no prescription as to behavior during its playing. On June 22, 1942, the law was revised indicating that those in uniform should salute during its playing, while others should simply stand at attention, men removing their hats. (The same code also required that women should place their hands over their hearts when the flag is displayed during the playing of the Anthem, but not if the flag was not present.) On December 23, 1942, the law was again revised instructing men and women to stand at attention and face in the direction of the music when it was played. That revision also directed men and women to place their hands over their hearts only if the flag was displayed. Those in uniform were required to salute. On July 7, 1976, the law was simplified. Men and women were instructed to stand with their hands over their hearts, men removing their hats, irrespective of whether or not the flag was displayed and those in uniform saluting. On August 12, 1998, the law was rewritten keeping the same instructions, but differentiating between "those in uniform '' and "members of the Armed Forces and veterans '' who were both instructed to salute during the playing whether or not the flag was displayed. Because of the changes in law over the years and confusion between instructions for the Pledge of Allegiance versus the National Anthem, throughout most of the 20th century many people simply stood at attention or with their hands folded in front of them during the playing of the Anthem, and when reciting the Pledge they would hold their hand (or hat) over their heart. After 9 / 11, the custom of placing the hand over the heart during the playing of the Anthem became nearly universal.
Since 1998, federal law (viz., the United States Code 36 U.S.C. § 301) states that during a rendition of the national anthem, when the flag is displayed, all present including those in uniform should stand at attention; Non-military service individuals should face the flag with the right hand over the heart; Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute; Military service persons not in uniform should remove their headdress with their right hand and hold the headdress at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart; and Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are in uniform should give the military salute at the first note of the anthem and maintain that position until the last note. The law further provides that when the flag is not displayed, all present should face toward the music and act in the same manner they would if the flag were displayed. Military law requires all vehicles on the installation to stop when the song is played and all individuals outside to stand at attention and face the direction of the music and either salute, in uniform, or place the right hand over the heart, if out of uniform. The law was amended in 2008, and since allows military veterans to salute out of uniform, as well.
The text of 36 U.S.C. § 301 is suggestive and not regulatory in nature. Failure to follow the suggestions is not a violation of the law. This behavioral requirement for the national anthem is subject to the same First Amendment controversies that surround the Pledge of Allegiance. For example, Jehovah 's Witnesses do not sing the national anthem, though they are taught that standing is an "ethical decision '' that individual believers must make based on their "conscience. ''
The 1968 Olympics Black Power salute was a political demonstration conducted by African - American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos during their medal ceremony at the 1968 Summer Olympics in the Olympic Stadium in Mexico City. After having won gold and bronze medals respectively in the 200 - meter running event, they turned on the podium to face their flags, and to hear the American national anthem, "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. Each athlete raised a black - gloved fist, and kept them raised until the anthem had finished. In addition, Smith, Carlos, and Australian silver medalist Peter Norman all wore human rights badges on their jackets. In his autobiography, Silent Gesture, Smith stated that the gesture was not a "Black Power '' salute, but a "human rights salute ''. The event is regarded as one of the most overtly political statements in the history of the modern Olympic Games.
Politically motivated protests of the national anthem began in the National Football League (NFL) after San Francisco 49ers quarterback (QB) Colin Kaepernick sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, in response to police brutality in America, before his team 's third preseason game of 2016. Kaepernick also sat during the first two preseason games, but he went unnoticed.
In November 2017, the California Chapter of the NAACP called on Congress to remove The Star - Spangled Banner as the national anthem. Alice Huffman, California NAACP president said: "it 's racist; it does n't represent our community, it 's anti-black. '' The third stanza of the anthem, which is rarely sung and few know, contains the words, "No refuge could save the hireling and slave, From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: '', which some interpret as racist. The organization was still seeking a representative to sponsor the legislation in Congress at the time of their announcement.
As a result of immigration to the United States and the incorporation of non-English speaking people into the country, the lyrics of the song have been translated into other languages. In 1861, it was translated into German. The Library of Congress also has record of a Spanish - language version from 1919. It has since been translated into Hebrew and Yiddish by Jewish immigrants, Latin American Spanish (with one version popularized during immigration reform protests in 2006), French by Acadians of Louisiana, Samoan, and Irish. The third verse of the anthem has also been translated into Latin.
With regard to the indigenous languages of North America, there are versions in Navajo and Cherokee.
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what symbol displayed on ambulances was replaced with the star of life in the 1970's | Star of Life - wikipedia
The Star of Life is a blue, six - pointed star, outlined with a white border which features the rod of Asclepius in the center, originally designed and governed by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) under the jurisdiction of the United States Department of Transportation, DOT). Traditionally in the United States the logo was used as a stamp of authentication or certification for ambulances, paramedics or other EMS personnel. Internationally, it is a symbol that represents emergency medical services units and personnel.
Originally, many ambulances used a safety orange cross on a square background of reflectorized white to designate them as emergency medical units. This logo was used before national standards for Emergency Medical Personnel or ambulances were established. Designed by Leo R. Schwartz, Chief of the EMS Branch, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), the Star of Life was created after the American Red Cross complained in 1973 that the orange cross too closely resembled their logo, the red cross on a white background; such usage was restricted by the Geneva Conventions.
The newly designed Star of Life was adapted from the Medical Identification Symbol of the American Medical Association, which was trademarked by the American Medical Association (AMA) in 1967. The newly designed logo was trademarked on February 1, 1977 with the Commissioner of Patents and Trade - marks in the name of the National Highway Traffic Safety and Administration (registration number 1058022). The logo was "given '' to the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians (NREMT) for use as the emergency medical technicians (EMT) logo after the trademark expired in 1997.
The snake emblem is a symbol from the biblical account of the bronze snake found in Numbers 21: 4 - 9. The Israelites grumbled against God and Moses for bringing them out of slavery in Egypt and into the desert. Specifically, the text says, "the people grew impatient on the way. '' As a result of their ungratefulness, God sent venomous snakes among them and many that were bitten died.
However, the people came to Moses and repented of their sin and God had mercy upon them. He commanded Moses to make a snake, put it upon a pole, and all who looked upon it would be healed. So Moses fashioned a bronze snake and put it up on a pole for all to see it and live. It was thereafter seen as symbol of healing.
Hundreds of years later, King Hezekiah of Judah (2 Kings 18: 4), destroyed the idols and sacred stones the Israelites had come to worship. He took the bronze snake Moses had made and broke it into pieces because the people burned incense to it. The staff was called Nehushtan.
In the Gospel of John, a New Testament biography of Jesus of Nazareth, John the Disciple would record Jesus saying, "Just as Moses lifted up the snake in the desert, so the Son of Man must be lifted up, that everyone who believes in him may have eternal life. '' (John 3: 14 - 15). Clearly Jesus saw the snake being lifted up to bring life to many as a type, or foreshadowing, of his own crucifixion.
The snake emblem also reflects the Rod of Asclepius, widely used as the symbol of medical care worldwide. There are several theories as to its development; it is named for the Greek mythological figure Asclepius, who was said to have possessed healing power.
It is often incorrectly depicted as a caduceus (a staff with two snakes and a pair of wings), a wand carried by Hermes that, in Greek mythology, saw two serpents entwined in mortal combat. Separating them with his wand he brought about peace between them, and as a result the wand with two serpents came to be seen as a sign of peace and negotiation (not healing).
Alternative theories for this symbol include it being a reference to a traditional treatment of a parasitic nematode called Dracunculus medinensis or Guinea worm. The worm was considered quite painful, as it causes blisters on whatever limb it takes up residence in. To remove the parasite, doctors would cut a slit in the skin right in its path and, when it poked its head from the wound, take a small stick and slowly wrap the worm around it until it was fully removed.
The six branches of the star are symbols of the six main tasks executed by rescuers all through the emergency chain:
While no agency is tasked solely with enforcing its use as a mark of certification, the Star of Life has traditionally been used as a means of identification for medical personnel, equipment, and vehicles. Many ambulance services mark the symbol on their vehicles, and ambulance crews often wear the design as part of their uniform. It appears on various medical textbooks as well as on a wide range of merchandise aimed at the medic market. In hospitals and other buildings, elevators that are marked with the symbol indicate that the elevator is large enough to hold a stretcher.
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who has been captain america in the comics | List of incarnations of Captain America - wikipedia
"Captain America '' is the name of several fictional characters appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The first, and main, character was Steve Rogers, who was created by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby. Other characters have adopted the alias over the years and following Rogers ' death his former sidekick James Buchanan Barnes (Bucky) picked up the mantle. Late 2010s storlines have his sometime crime fighting partner Sam Wilson assuming the role.
Captain Steven Rogers, the 18th century ancestor to the World War 2 Super-Soldier serum recipient. He wore a colorful costume same as his descendant and carried a round cast iron shield as shown in Captain America: Sentinel of Liberty # 6 (March 1999). But Revolutionary War Rogers acted as such before the USA existed formally as an independent country. Thus, while addressed as "Captain America '', Revolutionary War Rogers is largely not considered part of the formal line.
Steve Rogers was a scrawny Army reject who was given the Super-Soldier serum, becoming the only complete success for Project: Rebirth, and the first formal person to be termed as "Captain America '' as created and controlled by the Marvel Universe USA government.
As depicted in the 2003 limited series Truth: Red, White & Black, the World War II Super Soldier program of 1942, which used African American test subjects to re-create the formula that had been used to turn Steve Rogers into Captain America. The clandestine experimentation that empowered Isaiah held similarities with the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Considered to be the "Black Captain America '', Isaiah Bradley became an underground legend among much of the African - American community in the Marvel Universe. Isaiah is also the grandfather of Elijah Bradley (aka Patriot).
After Steven Rogers went MIA and was presumed dead, William Nasland, on appointment by U.S. President Harry S. Truman, became the next Captain America. He is the first replacement, and second character called Captain America. Editorially the story was considered as canon to repair Marvel 's conflicting accounts of Captain America in 1950s and 1960s.
Following the death of William Nasland, Jeffrey Mace assumes the identity of Captain America. He is the second replacement, and third character overall who assumes the Captain America mantle.
After Jeffrey Mace 's retirement, a college professor named William Burnside assumes the identity of Steven Rogers and in response to the threat of a Communist Red Skull, the identity of Captain America. The character along with his Bucky would battle communism throughout the 1950s. Unfortunately, he used a flawed Nazi copy of Project Rebirth to enhance his body which did n't include the treatment 's Vita - Ray component. As a result, he developed a violent paranoia that necessitated him being arrested and put into suspended animation.
Bob Russo wore the star - spangled costume for a single outing in Captain America # 178 after Steven Rogers had abandoned the Captain America identity. Bob never received the iconic shield from Rogers, and abandoned the role after he injured his arm slamming into a wall on his first outing.
Turpin is shown wearing the star - spangled costume for a single fight in Captain America # 179, when Steven Rogers had abandoned the Captain America identity. Seemingly abandoned the role after a severe beating from a street gang called the Road Runners. He also never received the shield from Rogers.
Simmons wore the star - spangled costume during the time Steven Rogers used the new costumed identity of Nomad beginning in Captain America # 181. He was given the shield by Rogers and was the junior partner to Falcon. Killed by the original Red Skull in issue # 183.
After Rogers was stripped of his mantle as Captain America by the U.S. Government, the former Super-Patriot John Walker, was appointed by the government as the new Captain America.
The former partner of Steve Rogers briefly assumed the mantle of Captain America early in his career. Wilson resumed the mantle when Rogers temporarily lost his Super Soldier enhancements. Wilson resumes the role, starting in comics published in late 2014.
Following the death of Steve Rogers, close friend and former sidekick, James Buchanan "Bucky '' Barnes, assumes the position of Captain America.
Dave Rickford is a former special forces soldier who attained an augmentation, giving him superpowers, from Dr. Malus and The Power Broker. He decided to become the new Captain America after Bucky got tangled up in legal problems, and Steve Rogers had returned and assumed position as the head of S.H.I.E.L.D.. He 's kidnapped by A.I.M., then rescued by Rogers who convinces Rickford that the duties of the position are dangerous, thus leading to the end of his time as Captain America.
In an alternate future of the Ultimate Universe, Scott Summers assumes the mantle of Captain America after their reality 's Steve Rogers dies, and leads a small team of X-Men.
Danielle Cage is the daughter of Luke Cage and Jessica Jones who is shown in the role of Captain America in Ultron Forever. Cage operates in a future version of New York City that has been flooded, and battles criminals like the Golden Skull. She utilizes the short - lived magnetic components Steve once used on the shield in order to better control it. It 's also mentioned that she was mentored by an aged version of Black Widow, who goes by the name Madame Natasha. She is currently a member of the U.S. Avengers.
In the Captain America Corps limited series, a future incarnation of Captain America known as Commander A appears as one of the main characters. His real name is Kiyoshi Morales, and he is stated to be of mixed Japanese, African - American, Latino, and Native American ancestry, and he is also implied to be a descendant of Luke Cage. He wields two energy force - field shields similar to the one that had once been used by Steve Rogers, after he temporarily lost vibranium shield.
In the Marvel 2099 line, the new Captain America is a woman named Roberta Mendez. She suffers from an artificially induced split personality, leaving her unaware of her powers or her activities as Captain America. In her day job, she is a receptionist at the Alchemax corporation. She wields energy force - field wings, reminiscent of those used by Sam Wilson, and an energy shield as well.
On Earth - 65, Captain America is an African - American woman named Samantha Wilson. It is revealed that during the 1940s, Samantha underwent Project Rebirth after the other potential candidates (Steve Rogers, Bucky Barnes and Isaiah Bradley) were heavily injured by Nazi saboteurs. She became her reality 's Captain America, but was thought lost after sacrificing her life to stop Arnim Zola. In reality, she was trapped in an alternate reality where time moved differently, and when she escaped, she found that 75 years had passed on her world. In the present, she continues the fight as an agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. under Peggy Carter.
In an alternative future of the Marvel Universe, Shannon Carter (the daughter of Sharon Carter) takes on the costume of Captain America and using a weapon containing miniature shields she becomes the superheroine known as American Dream.
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where does the chief minister of maharashtra live | Devendra Fadnavis - Wikipedia
Devendra Gangadharrao Fadnavis (born 22 July 1970) is an Indian politician and 18th, incumbent Chief Minister of Maharashtra holding the office from 31 October 2014. A member of Bharatiya Janata Party and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, at the age of 44, he became the second youngest Chief Minister of Maharashtra after Sharad Pawar. Fadnavis represents the Nagpur South West constituency in Maharashtra Legislative Assembly.
Fadnavis was born on 22 July 1970 in Nagpur. His father, Gangadhar Fadnavis, served as a member of the Maharashtra Legislative Council from Nagpur. His mother Sarita Fadnavis, who is a descendant of the Kaloti family of Amravati, was the former Director of Vidarbha Housing Credit Society.
Fadnavis received his initial schooling from Indira Convent, named after then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. During the Emergency, Fadnavis ' father, Gangadhar, a member of the Jan Sangh, was incarcerated for participating in anti-government protests. Fadnavis subsequently refused to continue his schooling at Indira Convent, because he did not want to attend a school named after the Prime Minister he held responsible for jailing his father. He then transferred to the Saraswati Vidyalaya school, where he received most of his schooling. After completing ten years of schooling, Fadnavis attended Dharampeth Junior College for his intermediate. After completing his 12th standard, he enrolled at Government Law College, Nagpur, for a five - year integrated law degree, and graduated in 1992.
Fadnavis also has a post-graduate degree in Business Management and a diploma in Methods and Techniques of Project Management from DSE (German Foundation for International Development), Berlin.
As a college student, Fadnavis was an active member of ABVP. In the ABVP, he started as a grassroots worker. He won his first municipal election from Ram Nagar ward. Five years later Fadnavis became the youngest mayor of the Nagpur Municipal Corporation and became the second youngest mayor in the history of India. In 1999, he was elected to the Maharashtra state assembly for the first time. He is currently serving his fourth term as MLA as of 2014. Fadnavis, was selected the legislative party leader by the new BJP MLAs in a meeting at Vidhan Bhavan in the presence of party 's central observers, Union Home minister Rajnath Singh and party 's national general secretary Jagat Prakash Nadda. Fadnavis was sworn in as the chief minister of Maharashtra from the BJP on 31 October 2014. His government won a confidence motion by voice vote on 12 November 2014 allowing it to govern.
Devendra was born in Nagpur
Fadnavis is married to Amruta Fadnavis. The couple have one daughter, Divija Fadnavis.
In April 2016, while addressing a rally in Nashik, Fadnavis said that, every Indian will have to chant ' Bharat Mata ki Jai ' and those who refuse to chant the slogan should not live in the country instead go to Pakistan or China., Day after he said that all Indians to chant ' Bharat Mata ki Jai ', Maharashtra Chief Minister Devendra Fadnavis issued clarification after he found himself embroiled in a controversy over the issue
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who invented the first stock ticket in 1967 | Ticker tape - wikipedia
Ticker tape was the earliest digital electronic communications medium, transmitting stock price information over telegraph lines, in use between around 1870 through 1970. It consisted of a paper strip that ran through a machine called a stock ticker, which printed abbreviated company names as alphabetic symbols followed by numeric stock transaction price and volume information. The term "ticker '' came from the sound made by the machine as it printed.
Paper ticker tape became obsolete in the 1960s, as television and computers were increasingly used to transmit financial information. The concept of the stock ticker lives on, however, in the scrolling electronic tickers seen on brokerage walls and on news and financial television channels.
Ticker tape stock price telegraphs were invented in 1867 by Edward A. Calahan, an employee of the American Telegraph Company.
Although telegraphic printing systems were first invented by Royal Earl House in 1846, early models were fragile, required hand - cranked power, frequently went out of synchronization between sender and receiver, and did not become popular in widespread commercial use. David E. Hughes improved the printing telegraph design with clockwork weight power in 1856, and his design was further improved and became viable for commercial use when George M. Phelps devised a resynchronization system in 1858. The first stock price ticker system using a telegraphic printer was invented by Edward A. Calahan in 1863; he unveiled his device in New York City on November 15, 1867. Early versions of stock tickers provided the first mechanical means of conveying stock prices ("quotes ''), over a long distance over telegraph wiring. In its infancy, the ticker used the same symbols as Morse code as a medium for conveying messages. One of the earliest practical stock ticker machines, the Universal Stock Ticker developed by Thomas Edison in 1869, used alphanumeric characters with a printing speed of approximately one character per second.
Previously, stock prices had been hand - delivered via written or verbal messages. Since the useful time - span of individual quotes is very brief, they generally had not been sent long distances; aggregated summaries, typically for one day, were sent instead. The increase in speed provided by the ticker allowed for faster and more exact sales. Since the ticker ran continuously, updates to a stock 's price whenever the price changed became effective much faster and trading became a more time - sensitive matter. For the first time, trades were being done in what is now thought of as near real - time.
By the 1880s, there were about a thousand stock tickers installed in the offices of New York bankers and brokers. In 1890, members of the exchange agreed to create the New York Quotation Co., buying up all other ticker companies to ensure accuracy of reporting of price and volume activity.
Stock ticker machines are an ancestor of the modern computer printer, being one of the first applications of transmitting text over a wire to a printing device, based on the printing telegraph. This used the technology of the then - recently invented telegraph machines, with the advantage that the output was readable text, instead of the dots and dashes of Morse code. A special typewriter designed for operation over telegraph wires was used at the opposite end of the telegraph wire connection to the ticker machine. Text typed on the typewriter was displayed on the ticker machine at the opposite end of the connection.
The machines printed a series of ticker symbols (usually shortened forms of a company 's name), followed by brief information about the price of that company 's stock; the thin strip of paper on which they were printed was called ticker tape. The word ticker comes from the distinct tapping (or ticking) noise the machines made while printing. Pulses on the telegraph line made a letter wheel turn step by step until the correct symbol was reached and then printed. A typical 32 - symbol letter wheel had to turn on average 15 steps until the next letter could be printed resulting in a very slow printing speed of one character per second. In 1883, ticker transmitter keyboards resembled the keyboard of a piano with black keys indicating letters and the white keys indicating numbers and fractions, corresponding to two rotating type wheels in the connected ticker tape printers.
Newer and more efficient tickers became available in the 1930s, but these newer and better tickers still had an approximate 15 - to - 20 - minute delay. Ticker machines became obsolete in the 1960s, replaced by computer networks; none have been manufactured for use for decades. However, working reproductions of at least one model are now being manufactured for museums and collectors.
Simulated ticker displays, named after the original machines, still exist as part of the display of television news channels and on some websites -- see news ticker. One of the most famous outdoor displays is the simulated ticker scrolling marquee located at One Times Square in New York City.
Ticker tapes then and now contain generally the same information. The ticker symbol is a unique set of characters used to identify the company. The shares traded is the volume for the trade being quoted. Price traded refers to the price per share of a particular trade. Change direction is a visual cue showing whether the stock is trading higher or lower than the previous trade, hence the terms downtick and uptick. Change amount refers to the difference in price from the previous day 's closing. Many today include color to indicate whether a stock is trading higher than the previous day 's (green), lower than previous (red), or has remained unchanged (blue or white).
In the early days of baseball, before electronic scoreboards, manual score turners used a ticker to get the latest scores from around the league. Today, computers and electronic scoreboards have replaced the manual scoreboard and the ticker.
Used ticker tape was cut into a form of confetti, to be thrown from the windows above parades, primarily in lower Manhattan; this became known as a ticker tape parade. Ticker tape parades generally celebrated some significant event, such as the end of World War I and World War II, or the safe return of one of the early astronauts. Ticker tape was also incorporated into some of the innovative weaver Dorothy Liebes ' unusual art textiles.
Ticker tape parades are still held in New York City, specifically in the "Canyon of Heroes '' in Manhattan, most often when local sports teams win a championship. However, actual ticker tape is not used during these parades any longer; often, pieces of paper from paper shredders are used as a convenient source of confetti.
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which set of subjects would share the most similar genetic heredity | Twin study - wikipedia
Twin studies reveal the importance of environmental and genetic influences for traits, phenotypes, and disorders. Twin research is considered a key tool in behavioral genetics and in content fields, from biology to psychology. Twin studies are part of the broader methodology used in behavior genetics, which uses all data that are genetically informative -- siblings studies, adoption studies, pedigree, etc. These studies have been used to track traits ranging from personal behavior to the presentation of severe mental illnesses such as schizophrenia.
Twins are a valuable source for observation because they allow the study of environmental influence and varying genetic makeup: "identical '' or monozygotic (MZ) twins share nearly 100 % of their genes, which means that most differences between the twins (such as height, susceptibility to boredom, intelligence, depression, etc.) are due to experiences that one twin has but not the other twin. "Fraternal '' or dizygotic (DZ) twins share only about 50 % of their genes, the same as any other sibling. Twins also share many aspects of their environment (e.g., uterine environment, parenting style, education, wealth, culture, community) because they are born into the same family. The presence of a given genetic trait in only one member of a pair of identical twins (called discordance) provides a powerful window into environmental effects.
Twins are also useful in showing the importance of the unique environment (specific to one twin or the other) when studying trait presentation. Changes in the unique environment can stem from an event or occurrence that has only affected one twin. This could range from a head injury or a birth defect that one twin has sustained while the other remains healthy.
The classical twin design compares the similarity of monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins. If identical twins are considerably more similar than fraternal twins (which is found for most traits), this implicates that genes play an important role in these traits. By comparing many hundreds of families with twins, researchers can then understand more about the roles of genetic effects, shared environment, and unique environment in shaping behavior.
Modern twin studies have shown that almost all traits are in part influenced by genetic differences, with some characteristics showing a stronger influence (e.g. height), others an intermediate level (e.g. personality traits) and some more complex heritabilities, with evidence for different genes affecting different aspects of the trait -- as in the case of autism.
Twins have been of interest to scholars since early civilization, including the early physician Hippocrates (5th century BCE), who attributed similar diseases in twins to shared material circumstances, and the stoic philosopher Posidonius (1st century BCE), who attributed such similarities to shared astrological circumstances. More recent study is from Sir Francis Galton 's pioneering use of twins to study the role of genes and environment on human development and behavior. Galton, however, was unaware of the difference between identical and DZ twins.
This factor was still not understood when the first study using psychological tests was conducted by Edward Thorndike (1905) using fifty pairs of twins. This paper was an early statement of the hypothesis that family effects decline with age. His study compared twin pairs age 9 - 10 and 13 - 14 to normal siblings born within a few years of one another.
Thorndike incorrectly reasoned that his data supported for there being one, not two, twin types. This mistake was repeated by Ronald Fisher (1919), who argued
The preponderance of twins of like sex, does indeed become a new problem, because it has been formerly believed to be due to the proportion of identical twins. So far as I am aware, however, no attempt has been made to show that twins are sufficiently alike to be regarded as identical really exist in sufficient numbers to explain the proportion of twins of like sex.
An early, and perhaps first, study understanding the distinction is from the German geneticist Hermann Werner Siemens in 1924. Chief among Siemens ' innovations was the polysymptomatic similarity diagnosis. This allowed him to account for the oversight that had stumped Fisher, and was a staple in twin research prior to the advent of molecular markers.
Wilhelm Weinberg and colleagues in 1910 used the identical - DZ distinction to calculate respective rates from the ratios of same - and opposite - sex twins in a maternity population. They partitioned co-variation amongst relatives into genetic and environmental elements, anticipating the later work of Fisher and Wright, including the effect of dominance on similarity of relatives, and beginning the first classic - twin studies.
The power of twin designs arises from the fact that twins may be either monozygotic (identical (MZ): developing from a single fertilized egg and therefore sharing all of their alleles) -- or dizygotic (DZ: developing from two fertilized eggs and therefore sharing on average 50 % of their polymorphic alleles, the same level of genetic similarity as found in non-twin siblings). These known differences in genetic similarity, together with a testable assumption of equal environments for identical and fraternal twins creates the basis for the twin design for exploring the effects of genetic and environmental variance on a phenotype.
The basic logic of the twin study can be understood with very little mathematics beyond an understanding of correlation and the concept of variance.
Like all behavior genetic research, the classic twin study begins from assessing the variance of a behavior (called a phenotype by geneticists) in a large group, and attempts to estimate how much of this is due to:
Typically these three components are called A (additive genetics) C (common environment) and E (unique environment); hence the acronym ACE. It is also possible to examine non-additive genetics effects (often denoted D for dominance (ADE model); see below for more complex twin designs).
The ACE model indicates what proportion of variance in a trait is heritable, versus the proportion due to shared environment or un-shared environment. Research is carried out using SEM programs such as OpenMx, however the core logic of the twin design is the same, as described below:
Monozygotic (identical -- MZ) twins raised in a family share both 100 % of their genes, and all of the shared environment. Any differences arising between them in these circumstances are random (unique). The correlation between identical twins provides an estimate of A + C. Dizygotic (DZ) twins also share C, but share on average 50 % of their genes: so the correlation between fraternal twins is a direct estimate of 1⁄2A+C. If r is correlation, then r and r are simply the correlations of the trait in identical and fraternal twins respectively. For any particular trait, then:
A, therefore, is twice the difference between identical and fraternal twin correlations: the additive genetic effect (Falconer 's formula). C is simply the MZ correlation minus this estimate of A. The random (unique) factor E is 1 − r: i.e., MZ twins differ due to unique environments only. (Jinks & Fulker, 1970; Plomin, DeFries, McClearn, & McGuffin, 2001).
Stated again, the difference between these two sums, then, allows us to solve for A, C, and E. As the difference between the identical and fraternal correlations is due entirely to a halving of the genetic similarity, the additive genetic effect ' A ' is simply twice the difference between the identical and fraternal correlations:
As the identical correlation reflects the full effect of A and C, E can be estimated by subtracting this correlation from 1
Finally, C can be derived:
Beginning in the 1970s, research transitioned to modeling genetic, environmental effects using maximum likelihood methods (Martin & Eaves, 1977). While computationally much more complex, this approach has numerous benefits rendering it almost universal in current research.
An example structural model (for the heritability of height among Danish males) is shown:
Model A on the left shows the raw variance in height. This is useful as it preserves the absolute effects of genes and environments, and expresses these in natural units, such as mm of height change. Sometimes it is helpful to standardize the parameters, so each is expressed as percentage of total variance. Because we have decomposed variance into A, C, and E, the total variance is simply A + C + E. We can then scale each of the single parameters as a proportion of this total, i.e., Standardised -- A = A / (A + C + E). Heritability is the standardised genetic effect.
A principal benefit of modeling is the ability to explicitly compare models: Rather than simply returning a value for each component, the modeler can compute confidence intervals on parameters, but, crucially, can drop and add paths and test the effect via statistics such as the AIC. Thus, for instance to test for predicted effects of family or shared environment on behavior, an AE model can be objectively compared to a full ACE model. For example, we can ask of the figure above for height: Can C (shared environment) be dropped without significant loss of fit? Alternatively, confidence intervals can be calculated for each path.
Multivariate modeling can give answers to questions about the genetic relationship between variables that appear independent. For instance: do IQ and long - term memory share genes? Do they share environmental causes? Additional benefits include the ability to deal with interval, threshold, and continuous data, retaining full information from data with missing values, integrating the latent modeling with measured variables, be they measured environments, or, now, measured molecular genetic markers such as SNPs. In addition, models avoid constraint problems in the crude correlation method: all parameters will lie, as they should, between 0 -- 1 (standardized).
Multivariate, and multiple - time wave studies, with measured environment and repeated measures of potentially causal behaviours are now the norm. Examples of these models include extended twin designs, simplex models, and growth - curve models.
SEM programs such as OpenMx and other applications suited to constraints and multiple groups have made the new techniques accessible to reasonably skilled users.
As MZ twins share both their genes and their family - level environmental factors, any differences between MZ twins reflect E: the unique environment. Researchers can use this information to understand the environment in powerful ways, allowing epidemiological tests of causality that are otherwise typically confounded by factors such as gene - environment covariance, reverse causation and confounding.
An example of a positive MZ discordant effect is shown below on the left. The twin who scores higher on trait 1 also scores higher on trait 2. This is compatible with a "dose '' of trait 1 causing an increase in trait 2. Of course, trait 2 might also be affecting trait 1. Disentangling these two possibilities requires a different design (see below for an example). A null result is incompatible with a causal hypothesis.
Take for instance the case of an observed link between depression and exercise (See Figure above on right). People who are depressed also reporting doing little physical activity. One might hypothesise that this is a causal link: that "dosing '' patients with exercise would raise their mood and protect against depression. The next figure shows what empirical tests of this hypothesis have found: a null result.
Longitudinal discordance designs
As may be seen in the next Figure, this design can be extended to multiple measurements, with consequent increase in the kinds of information that one can learn. This is called a cross-lagged model (multiple traits measured over more than one time).
In the longitudinal discordance model, differences between identical twins can be used to take account of relationships among differences across traits at time one (path A), and then examine the distinct hypotheses that increments in trait1 drive subsequent change in that trait in the future (paths B and E), or, importantly, in other traits (paths C & D). In the example, the hypothesis that the observed correlation where depressed persons often also exercise less than average is causal, can be tested. If exercise is protective against depression, then path D should be significant, with a twin who exercises more showing less depression as a consequence.
It can be seen from the modeling above, the main assumption of the twin study is that of equal environments, also known as the equal environments assumption. This assumption has been directly tested. A special case occurs where parents believe their twins to be non-identical when in fact they are genetically identical. Studies of a range of psychological traits indicate that these children remain as concordant as MZ twins raised by parents who treated them as identical.
Molecular genetic methods of heritability estimation have offered evidence that the equal environments assumption of the classic twin design may be sound.
A particularly powerful technique for testing the twin method was reported by Visscher et al. Instead of using twins, this group took advantage of the fact that while siblings on average share 50 % of their genes, the actual gene - sharing for individual sibling pairs varies around this value, essentially creating a continuum of genetic similarity or "twinness '' within families. Estimates of heritability based on direct estimates of gene sharing confirm those from the twin method, providing support for the assumptions of the method.
Genetic factors may differ between the sexes, both in gene expression and in the range of gene × environment interactions. Fraternal opposite sex twin pairs are invaluable in explicating these effects.
In an extreme case, a gene may only be expressed in one sex (qualitative sex limitation). More commonly, the effects of gene - alleles may depend on the sex of the individual. A gene might cause a change of 100 g in weight in males, but perhaps 150 g in females -- a quantitative gene effect. Such effects are Environments may impact on the ability of genes to express themselves and may do this via sex differences. For instance genes affecting voting behavior would have no effect in females if females are excluded from the vote. More generally, the logic of sex - difference testing can extend to any defined sub-group of individuals. In cases such as these, the correlation for same and opposite sex DZ twins will differ, betraying the effect of the sex difference.
For this reason, it is normal to distinguish three types of fraternal twins. A standard analytic workflow would involve testing for sex - limitation by fitting models to five groups, identical male, identical female, fraternal male, fraternal female, and fraternal opposite sex. Twin modeling thus goes beyond correlation to test causal models involving potential causal variables, such as sex.
Gene effects may often be dependent on the environment. Such interactions are known as G × E interactions, in which the effects of a gene allele differ across different environments. Simple examples would include situations where a gene multiplies the effect of an environment: perhaps adding 1 inch to height in high nutrient environments, but only half an inch to height in low - nutrient environments. This is seen in different slopes of response to an environment for different genotypes.
Often researchers are interested in changes in heritability under different conditions: In environments where alleles can drive large phenotypic effects (as above), the relative role of genes will increase, corresponding to higher heritability in these environments.
A second effect is G × E correlation, in which certain alleles tend to accompany certain environments. If a gene causes a parent to enjoy reading, then children inheriting this allele are likely to be raised in households with books due to GE correlation: one or both of their parents has the allele and therefore will accumulate a book collection and pass on the book - reading allele. Such effects can be tested by measuring the purported environmental correlate (in this case books in the home) directly.
Often the role of environment seems maximal very early in life, and decreases rapidly after compulsory education begins. This is observed for instance in reading as well as intelligence. This is an example of a G * Age effect and allows an examination of both GE correlations due to parental environments (these are broken up with time), and of G * E correlations caused by individuals actively seeking certain environments.
Studies in plants or in animal breeding allow the effects of experimentally randomized genotypes and environment combinations to be measured. By contrast, human studies are typically observational. This may suggest that norms of reaction can not be evaluated.
As in other fields such as economics and epidemiology, several designs have been developed to capitalise on the ability to use differential gene - sharing, repeated exposures, and measured exposure to environments (such as children social status, chaos in the family, availability and quality of education, nutrition, toxins etc.) to combat this confounding of causes. An inherent appeal of the classic twin design is that it begins to untangle these confounds. For example, in identical and fraternal twins shared environment and genetic effects are not confounded, as they are in non-twin familial studies. Twin studies are thus in part motivated by an attempt to take advantage of the random assortment of genes between members of a family to help understand these correlations.
While the twin study tells us only how genes and families affect behavior within the observed range of environments, and with the caveat that often genes and environments will covary, this is a considerable advance over the alternative, which is no knowledge of the different roles of genes and environment whatsoever. Twin studies are therefore often used as a method of controlling at least one part of this observed variance: Partitioning, for instance, what might previously have been assumed to be family environment into shared environment and additive genetics using the experiment of fully and partly shared genomes in twins.
No single design can address all issues. Additional information is available outside the classic twin design. Adoption designs are a form of natural experiment that tests norms of reaction by placing the same genotype in different environments. Association studies, e.g., allow direct study of allelic effects. Mendelian randomization of alleles also provides opportunities to study the effects of alleles at random with respect to their associated environments and other genes.
The basic or classical twin - design contains only identical and fraternal twins raised in their biological family. This represents only a sub-set of the possible genetic and environmental relationships. It is fair to say, therefore, that the heritability estimates from twin designs represent a first step in understanding the genetics of behavior.
The variance partitioning of the twin study into additive genetic, shared, and unshared environment is a first approximation to a complete analysis taking into account gene - environment covariance and interaction, as well as other non-additive effects on behavior. The revolution in molecular genetics has provided more effective tools for describing the genome, and many researchers are pursuing molecular genetics in order to directly assess the influence of alleles and environments on traits.
An initial limitation of the twin design is that it does not afford an opportunity to consider both Shared Environment and Non-additive genetic effects simultaneously. This limit can be addressed by including additional siblings to the design.
A second limitation is that gene - environment correlation is not detectable as a distinct effect. Addressing this limit requires incorporating adoption models, or children - of - twins designs, to assess family influences uncorrelated with shared genetic effects.
While concordance studies compare traits either present or absent in each twin, correlational studies compare the agreement in continuously varying traits across twins.
The Twin Method has been subject to criticism from statistical genetics, statistics, and psychology, with some researchers, such as Burt & Simons (2014), arguing that conclusions reached via this method are ambiguous or meaningless. Core elements of these criticisms and their rejoinders are listed below.
It has been argued that the statistical underpinnings of twin research are invalid. Such statistical critiques argue that heritability estimates used for most twin studies rest on restrictive assumptions that are usually not tested, and if they are, they are often contradicted by the data.
For example, Peter Schonemann has criticized methods for estimating heritability developed in the 1970s. He has also argued that the heritability estimate from a twin study may reflect factors other than shared genes. Using the statistical models published in Loehlin and Nichols (1976), the narrow HR - heritability of responses to the question "did you have your back rubbed '' has been shown to work out to. 92 heritable for males and. 21 heritable for females, and the question "Did you wear sunglasses after dark? '' is 130 % heritable for males and 103 % for females
Before computers, statisticians used methods that were computationally tractable, at the cost of known limitations. Since the 1980s these approximate statistical methods have been discarded: Modern twin methods based on structural equation modeling are not subject to the limitations and heritability estimates such as those noted above are mathematically impossible. Critically, the newer methods allow for explicit testing of the role of different pathways and incorporation and testing of complex effects.
Results of twin studies can not be automatically generalized beyond the population they come from. It is therefore important to understand the particular sample studied, and the nature of twins themselves. Twins are not a random sample of the population, and they differ in their developmental environment. In this sense they are not representative.
For example: Dizygotic (DZ) twin births are affected by many factors. Some women frequently produce more than one egg at each menstrual period and, therefore, are more likely to have twins. This tendency may run in the family either in the mother 's or father 's side of the family, and often runs through both. Women over the age of 35 are more likely to produce two eggs. Women who have three or more children are also likely to have dizygotic twins. Artificial induction of ovulation and in vitro fertilization - embryo replacement can also give rise to fraternal and identical twins.
Twins differ very little from non-twin siblings. Measured studies on the personality and intelligence of twins suggest that they have scores on these traits very similar to those of non-twins (for instance Deary et al. 2006).
Separated twin pairs, identical or fraternal, are generally separated by adoption. This makes their families of origin non-representative of typical twin families in that they adopt their children away. The families they are adopted to are also non-representative of typical twin families in that they are all approved for adoption by children 's protection authorities and that a disproportionally large fraction of them have no biological children. Those who volunteer to studies are not even representative of separated twins in general since not all separated twins agree to be part of twin studies.
There can be some issues of undetected behaviors in the case of behaviors that many people keep secret presently or in their earlier lives. They may not be as willing to reveal behaviors that are discriminated against or stigmatized. If environment played no role in the actual behavior, skewed detection would still make it look like it played a role. For environment to appear to have no role in such cases, there would have to be either a counterproductivity of intolerance in the sense of intolerance causing the behavior it is bigoted against, or a flaw in the study that makes the results scientifically useless. Even if environment does play a role, the numbers would still be skewed.
For a group of twins, pairwise concordance is defined as C / (C + D), where C is the number of concordant pairs and D is the number of discordant pairs.
For example, a group of 10 twins have been pre-selected to have one affected member (of the pair). During the course of the study four other previously non-affected members become affected, giving a pairwise concordance of 4 / (4 + 6) or 4 / 10 or 40 %.
For a group of twins in which at least one member of each pair is affected, probandwise concordance is a measure of the proportion of twins who have the illness who have an affected twin and can be calculated with the formula of 2C / (2C + D), in which C is the number of concordant pairs and D is the number of discordant pairs.
For example, consider a group of 10 twins that have been pre-selected to have one affected member. During the course of the study, four other previously non-affected members become affected, giving a probandwise concordance of 8 / (8 + 6) or 8 / 14 or 57 %.
Several academic bodies exist to support behavior genetic research, including the Behavior Genetics Association, the International Society for Twin Studies, and the International Behavioural and Neural Genetics Society. Behavior genetic work also features prominently in several more general societies, for instance the International Society of Psychiatric Genetics.
Prominent specialist journals in the field include Behavior Genetics, Genes, Brain and Behavior, and Twin Research and Human Genetics.
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who plays the lawyer in parks and rec | List of Parks and Recreation characters - wikipedia
The primary characters of the American television comedy series Parks and Recreation are the employees of the parks department of Pawnee, a fictional Indiana town. The protagonist is Leslie Knope (Amy Poehler), the deputy parks director as well as serving on city council, and the rest of the ensemble cast consists of her friends and co-workers, including nurse Ann Perkins (Rashida Jones), parks director Ron Swanson (Nick Offerman), and parks department employees Tom Haverford (Aziz Ansari), April Ludgate (Aubrey Plaza), Andy Dwyer (Chris Pratt), Jerry Gergich (Jim O'Heir), and Donna Meagle (Retta).
While most of the main cast have been with the series since it debuted in April 2009, actors Rob Lowe and Adam Scott joined the cast late in the second season portraying Chris Traeger and Ben Wyatt, two state auditors who later take permanent jobs in Pawnee. Paul Schneider was a permanent cast member during the first two seasons as city planner Mark Brendanawicz, but he departed at the end of season two. Billy Eichner who portrays Craig Middlebrooks, the "associate administrator '' of the Pawnee parks department, recurred throughout the show 's sixth season until he was promoted to the main cast in the fourth episode of the seventh season. The majority of Parks and Recreation episodes are set in Pawnee, and most of the recurring and supporting characters are friends of the main characters or residents of the town.
Several guest stars have made appearances on the show, including Louis C.K., John Larroquette, Justin Theroux and Parker Posey. Megan Mullally, Offerman 's real - life wife, played his character 's ex-wife Tammy Swanson, and Poehler 's former husband Will Arnett made an appearance as a man on a blind date with Leslie. Several of Poehler 's past colleagues on the sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live have appeared on Parks and Recreation, including Fred Armisen, Will Forte and Andy Samberg.
Each of the following primary characters were played by members of the Parks and Recreation regular cast, rather than guest stars or non-regular supporting cast members.
Leslie Knope (Amy Poehler) is the deputy director of the Pawnee Parks and Recreation Department, and the protagonist of Parks and Recreation. Leslie is a passionate, hard - working and ambitious woman who loves her hometown of Pawnee and, unlike many around her, has not lost her optimism in the face of government bureaucracy. She believes strongly in the mission of her job, sometimes going over-the - top in her dedication to helping people. Her dream is to become the first female President of the United States. During the first two seasons, Leslie seeks to turn a construction pit into a park, despite several government obstacles and red tape. When the parks department is hindered by Pawnee 's budget problems, Leslie successfully relaunches the town 's harvest festival, which makes her department sustainable again. The third season ends with political scouts approaching her about possibly running for elected office, although she declines to inform them of her secret affair with Ben Wyatt, which could prove to be a political scandal. In season four, Leslie furthers her political ambitions when she successfully runs for city council. Season 5 focused mainly on Leslie 's experiences on the Pawnee City Council. In season six, however, she is recalled and returns full - time to work in the Parks and Recreation department.
Ron Swanson (Nick Offerman) is the parks and recreation director, although he allows Leslie to do almost all the real work in the department. Despite working in a government job, Ron is a steadfast libertarian who believes in as little government as possible and feels the parks department should not even run or maintain parks. He advocates for program cuts wherever possible, actively works to make city hall less effective, and especially detests interacting with Pawnee taxpayers. Nevertheless, Ron has a deep respect for Leslie and genuinely cares about his fellow employees, despite his efforts to hide it. Ron has a deadpan, inexpressive personality, and loves meat, hunting and breakfast foods. He has two ex-wives, both named Tammy, both of whom he hates. Ron Swanson has been praised as the show 's breakout character, and some of his traits were based on elements of Offerman 's real - life personality, like their shared affinity for woodworking and saxophone - playing.
Tom Haverford (Aziz Ansari) was an administrator in the parks department for most of the show, although he also became a minor investor in the Snake Hole Lounge and quit at the end of the third season to form an entertainment company with his friend Jean - Ralphio. Tom was Leslie 's immediate subordinate on the parks department and the two would often work together on tasks. The sarcastic Tom seemed to care little for his mid-level government job and seldom showed any initiative or work ethic. This made him a favorite of Ron Swanson, who once quipped, "I like Tom. He does n't do a lot of work around here. He shows zero initiative. He 's not a team player. He 's never one to go that extra mile. Tom is exactly what I 'm looking for in a government employee. '' However, Tom harbors strong aspirations of becoming a media mogul, and sometimes used his parks department job to increase his stature and curry favors with others. Tom considers himself an extremely stylish dresser and smooth pickup artist, and believes he carries himself in the style of rapper Jay - Z. He constantly hits on women, particularly Ann Perkins, but usually to little success. Tom was married to an attractive surgeon named Wendy at the start of the show, but it is eventually revealed to be a green card marriage that amicably ends in divorce.
Ann Perkins (Rashida Jones), Leslie 's best friend, is a nurse who eventually takes a part - time position with Pawnee 's department of public health. Ann and Leslie meet after Ann requests at a town meeting that an abandoned construction pit be filled, and Leslie pushes to have it turned into a park. Even before getting her part - time Pawnee job, Ann often spent time at city hall and helped the parks department on their endeavors due to her friendship with Leslie. Ann was dating Andy Dwyer at the start of the show, but she broke up with him after the first season after learning Andy faked the severity of an injury so that Ann would pamper him. She started dating city planner Mark Brendanawicz, but they split up by the end of the second season. Ann briefly dated Chris Traeger until he broke up with her, leaving Ann emotionally distraught and prompting her to go on a string of dates with multiple men. The two secretly got back together in the sixth season and Ann became pregnant. Shortly after, Ann and Chris moved to Ann Arbor, Michigan. She had a son, Oliver, in Galentine 's Day.
April Ludgate (Aubrey Plaza) is the extremely sarcastic, apathetic and goth - like college student who started the show working as an intern in the parks and recreation department, but is eventually hired as Ron Swanson 's full - time assistant. She always speaks in a deadpan and uninterested tone of voice, often making dry comments or mocking those around her, and expresses little interest in her job. Nevertheless, she secretly has a deep appreciation for Leslie Knope. In contrast to April 's personality, her parents are extremely positive and enthusiastic people. At the start of the show, April was dating her openly gay boyfriend, Derek, who was simultaneously dating his gay boyfriend, Ben. April and Derek eventually broke up, and April harbored a crush on Andy Dwyer for most of the second season. They started dating in the third season and, after a very short period, were married during an impromptu ceremony in the episode "Andy and April 's Fancy Party ''. She also became the manager of Andy 's band, Mouse Rat, previously known as Scarecrow Boat. When Pawnee 's Animal Control division is threatened, April recommends that the Animal Control division should be absorbed into the Parks and Recreation division. She is put in charge as the deputy director of the animal control part of Parks and Recreation. With Ann 's help, she applies and is accepted into veterinary school, which she declines to attend. Eventually she finds enjoyment in a job in Washington D.C. as a career placement counselor.
Andy Dwyer (Chris Pratt) is a goofy and dim - witted but lovable slacker who works as a shoeshiner at Pawnee city hall, and later works for Leslie in the Parks Department. He was dating Ann at the start of the show and, prior to the events of the first episode, he falls into a construction pit and breaks both his legs. This inadvertently caused Ann to meet Leslie after Ann attends a city hall meeting to demand the pit be filled in. Ann broke up with Andy after learning he faked the severity of his injuries so she would pamper him. The unemployed and homeless Andy initially lives in the pit, but became more self - sufficient when Leslie gets him the shoeshiner job. Andy started dating April Ludgate during the third season and, after a very short period, the two got married on a whim in the episode "Andy and April 's Fancy Party ''. Andy is the lead singer and guitarist for his band, Mouse Rat. In the final season, he is shown hosting a children 's TV show as the character "Johnny Karate ''. Andy was originally only meant to appear in the first season, but the Parks and Recreation producers liked Chris Pratt so much that, almost immediately after casting him, they decided to make him a regular cast member.
Ben Wyatt (Adam Scott) is Leslie 's husband. He joined the show in the penultimate second season episode "The Master Plan '' as an Indiana state auditor, but eventually took a job at Pawnee working for Chris. When he was 18, Ben was elected mayor of his Minnesota hometown, but was impeached after two months because he had no government experience and bankrupted the town. He became an auditor as an attempt to redeem himself and prove he can responsibly manage city government. At the start of the show, Ben contrasted Chris ' cheery personality by bluntly describing the need for economic cuts in Pawnee, which caused conflicts between Leslie and Ben. While Ben never previously established roots in a town due to the constant traveling from his job, Ben gradually came to develop a love of Pawnee, which coincided with his developing romantic interest in Leslie herself. The two start dating in the episode "Road Trip '', despite Chris ' strict policy forbidding workplace romances. When he learns Leslie is running for office in the episode "I 'm Leslie Knope '', they break up for fear of jeopardizing Leslie 's chance of winning the election in the event they could get caught and create a scandal. However, they decide to get back together in "Smallest Park ''.
Chris Traeger (Rob Lowe) first appeared in "The Master Plan '', along with Ben Wyatt, as an Indiana state auditor who visits Pawnee to help solve their crippling financial problems. This led to major budget cutbacks and, eventually, a three - month government shutdown. In the episode "Camping '', he took a job as acting city manager after the previous manager, Paul Iaresco, suffered a heart attack. Chris is an extremely positive person who is always upbeat and energetic. Extremely health - conscious, he exercises constantly and eats only healthy foods, and hopes to be the first human being to live 150 years. He briefly dated Ann Perkins, but the two split up in the third season. Chris imposed a strict policy against workplace dating at city hall, which serves as a detriment to Leslie and Ben. Rob Lowe was originally expected to appear in only eight episodes as a guest star, but eventually signed on to remain on the show as a permanent cast member.
Garry "Jerry '' / "Larry '' / "Terry '' / "Gengurch '' / Gergich (Jim O'Heir) is a parks and recreation department employee who is regularly mocked and taunted by his fellow co-workers. Jerry is clumsy, overweight and often mangles his speech while speaking publicly. He is teased so badly that, after falling and dislocating his shoulder in the episode "Park Safety '', he falsely claimed he was robbed just so his co-workers would not make fun of him. However, despite their jokes at his expense, the parks department employees like Jerry, and Jerry himself claims not to mind the jokes because he is nearing retirement with a full pension. Jerry often demonstrates great artistic talent and is an excellent pianist and painter, although his talents are usually overlooked, ignored or even mocked by his colleagues as though they were character faults. Jerry 's personality was not established until the second season, but the producers cast O'Heir at the start of the show because they liked the actor and decided they would develop the character later in the series. In an episode of season 4 during Leslie 's trial for the relationship she had with Ben, Jerry reveals his real first name, Garry, while under oath. He then goes on to explain that he was accidentally called Jerry by a high - ranking employee of the city and thought it was rude to correct him. It was also revealed that he has a Leap Day birthday and is 64 / 16 years old. In contrast to his awkwardness at work, Jerry leads an idyllic family life with his gorgeous wife, Gayle (played by Christie Brinkley), and their children, as shown when he hosts a holiday party in the Season 5 episode "Ron and Diane ''. In season six, his coworkers take to permanently calling him Larry instead of Jerry. In a flash forward sequence in the season six finale, Jerry is shown working for Leslie at her new job three years in the future, with Leslie now calling him Terry. He is named mayor of Pawnee in the second to last episode of season 7. In flash forwards in the series finale, it is revealed that he was elected mayor multiple times before retiring and dying peacefully in Gayle 's arms surrounded by his family on his 100th birthday.
Donna Meagle (Retta) is an employee for the parks and recreation department. Confident and lively, she has been described by NBC as the "parks diva ''. Donna enjoys partying, and often takes two shots of alcohol at once without any problem. She can be extremely competitive, especially when it comes to dating, where she has an every woman for herself philosophy. Nevertheless, Donna helped Ann recover from her bad break - up with Chris by giving her advice and encouraging her to pursue rebound dates. Donna has worked at the parks department longer than Leslie, and is one of the few people who can speak sternly to Ron Swanson. She is the proud owner of a Mercedes, which she is extremely protective of and often brags about. As with Jerry Gergich, the personality for Donna was not established until the second season, but Retta was cast during the first season because the producers liked her, and they decided they would establish her character as the series progressed.
Mark Brendanawicz (Paul Schneider) was a Pawnee city planner who dated Ann Perkins for much of the second season. According to Aziz Ansari 's character, Tom Haverford, "He 's stuck it in some crazy chicks. '' At the start of the show, Mark was an unrequited love interest for Leslie Knope. The two had once had a one - night stand six years earlier and Leslie never got over him, although Mark did not return her affections. Jaded and disillusioned with his job due to government red tape, Mark often pragmatically insisted to Leslie that her ambitions to turn a construction pit into a park were unlikely to succeed. Nevertheless, he admired Leslie 's unwavering optimism in the face of government ineffectiveness and tried to help her. In the first season finale "Rock Show '', a drunken Mark tried to kiss Leslie, but she rejected him and he accidentally falls into the pit. Although Mark is selfish and promiscuous with women at the start of the show, he becomes kinder when he starts dating Ann, and even plans to propose to her. After she broke up with him, Mark left his city hall position for a job in the private sector, marking Schneider 's departure from the series. He did not appear in any episodes after Season 2, and the show pointedly made no references to him ever having been there at all, most notably in the episode where Ann Perkins left Pawnee and the storyline reviewed her many pre-marriage / pregnancy romances but erased Mark from that listing even though they dated for almost all of Season 2. The only remaining references are that the mural mock - up he made hangs in Ron 's office through season 6, and a laptop bag he gives to Ann Perkins appears as a prop through season 5.
Craig Middlebrooks (Billy Eichner) is the former office manager of Eagleton 's parks department, the equivalent of Donna 's position in Pawnee. In the episode "Doppelgangers '', he and other Eagleton employees were brought in to Pawnee 's offices after the Pawnee -- Eagleton city merger. Craig is the one former Eagleton Parks employee not laid off after the merger, and continues to work at the Pawnee offices under the title of "Associate Administrator ''. By 2017, he has replaced Ron Swanson as director of the Pawnee Parks department.
Craig at first seemed to be the polar opposite to Donna 's more laid - back personality (with layoffs imminent, Donna actually suggested to Leslie that Craig should have her job because he was much more passionate). The two of them bonded over their mutual love of the TV series Scandal.
The overdramatic Craig often raises his voice to the point of shouting, and frequently blows things out of proportion, although he proves to be a highly efficient employee who is familiar with city politics and a strong negotiator.
After recurring heavily during the show 's sixth season, Eichner was promoted to a main cast member in the seventh season, beginning with the fourth episode "Leslie and Ron ''.
Dave Sanderson (Louis C.K.) is a former boyfriend of Leslie Knope and ex-police sergeant in Pawnee. Socially awkward, Dave always speaks in an extremely deadpan and technical tone of voice, but has a sweet personality despite his serious and sometimes gruff exterior, with one Pawnee cop telling Leslie that Dave had been the crankiest member of the force until he met her. He first appears in "The Stakeout '', where he arrested Tom after finding him suspiciously lingering in a parked van. Leslie angrily demanded that Dave set Tom free, and Dave immediately found Leslie attractive. He asked her on a date in "Beauty Pageant '' and she accepted, although she initially hesitated when Dave failed to recognize photos of major female political figures hanging in Leslie 's office. Nervous about the upcoming first date, Leslie became drunk in "Practice Date '' and visited Dave 's house in the middle of the night, acting foolish until Dave brought her home. Leslie was humiliated, but Dave comforted her the next day and they continued dating. In "Greg Pikitis '', Dave helped Leslie monitor her nemesis, high school student Greg Pikitis, on Halloween night and ultimately helped catch him in the middle of committing a prank. Dave made what seemed to be his final appearance in "Christmas Scandal '', when he told Leslie he is in the United States Army Reserve and has been called for maintenance work in San Diego. He invited Leslie to move there with him, but she insisted she could not leave her home of Pawnee, so they amicably split up. In "Dave Returns '', Dave comes back to Pawnee for the retirement party of the current police chief. On a whim, Leslie invites Dave out to dinner with her and Ben and while Ben is in the bathroom, Dave reveals to Leslie that he still has feelings for her. He then handcuffed Ben in the bathroom, but Ben had access to his cell phone and called Leslie, who then sat down for a friendly but firm chat with Dave where she said she was in love with Ben. Dave apologized for his behavior and accepted the situation, being glad to know that Leslie is happy. At the end of the episode, he finally convinced Ben to use the bathroom (Ben has a fear of cops) in the form of a command, which Ben gratefully accepts.
Derek (Blake Lee) is April Ludgate 's openly gay ex-boyfriend, who himself had a gay boyfriend named Ben (Josh Duvendeck) while dating her. Like April, both Derek and Ben are cynical and sarcastic, often mocking others around them. The two first appear together in "Pawnee Zoo '', where they and April congratulate Leslie for organizing a publicity stunt that married two homosexual penguins at the local zoo. In "Sweetums '', they begin to notice April is spending more time with Andy Dwyer, and they mock his personality, upsetting and embarrassing April. In "Galentine 's Day '', Derek and Ben attend a senior citizen dance party, where they mock the seniors. Tired of their constantly sarcastic behavior, and growing more romantically interested in Andy, April breaks up with them. Derek and Ben reappear again, in the episode "Andy and April 's Fancy Party '', making brief cameos as flower - men at Andy 's and April 's wedding.
Dr. Harris (Cooper Thornton) is a doctor who works at the hospital with Ann Perkins. He has an extremely sarcastic personality and responds to everything in a deadpan manner. He first appeared in the first season finale "Rock Show '', where he tended to Andy Dwyer, who broke his legs falling into a construction pit. He appeared again in "Greg Pikitis '', where he attended Ann 's Halloween party dressed as a doctor. When the party proves boring, Dr. Harris left early and took the bottle of wine he brought to Ann 's party because no one drank it. Dr. Harris tended to Andy again in "Freddy Spaghetti '', after Andy was struck by a car while riding his motorcycle. When Andy asked whether Dr. Harris can have him fully healed in the next 10 minutes, the doctor sarcastically responded, "Sure, I 'll just advance medical science 30 years. '' He also appeared in the third season finale "Li'l Sebastian '', where he treated Chris Traeger for a case of tendinitis. Chris responded to Dr. Harris ' sarcasm by declaring him "literally the meanest person I have ever met. ''
Jean - Ralphio Saperstein (Ben Schwartz) is the idiotic and cocky friend of Tom Haverford who, like Tom himself, fancies himself a pickup artist and baller, although he is looked upon with contempt by most people around him except Tom. He tries to dress stylishly, makes up and raps spontaneous rhymes and often speaks in slang terms such as variations of the suffix - izzle as popularized by rapper Snoop Dogg. Jean - Ralphio is first introduced in "The Set Up '', when Tom brought him in for an interview to be Ron Swanson 's new assistant; he was quickly rejected. Jean - Ralphio contributed $5,000 when Tom was seeking a $10,000 investment in the Snakehole Lounge nightclub. In the third season finale, "Li'l Sebastian '', Tom quit his city hall job to form an entertainment company with Jean - Ralphio called Entertainment 720. The role of Jean - Ralphio was created specifically for Schwartz because the Parks and Recreation producers liked the actor so much.
Justin Anderson (Justin Theroux) is a lawyer and long - time friend of Ann who briefly dated Leslie. He is very charming, regularly travels around the world and has done many extravagant things, such as mountain climbing. He loves telling entertaining stories, and sometimes seems less interested in the people around him than he is in listening to and learning new stories. Justin and Ann never dated, but she seems to secretly harbor romantic feelings for him, something that caused difficulties between Ann and Andy when they were dating. Justin first appears in "The Set Up '', when he provided legal advice to the Parks and Recreation department, and Leslie developed a romantic interest in him. She asks Ann to set them up, but she hesitated to do so, prompting Mark to accuse her of still having feelings for Justin. Ann finally sets up a date, and the two start dating regularly. Impressed by Justin 's worldliness, Leslie was so determined to impress him with a house party that, in "Leslie 's House '', she abused her government power by recruiting town employees to provide entertainment. Justin made his final appearance in "Galentine 's Day '', when Justin and Leslie tried to find Frank Beckerson, the long - lost love of Leslie 's mother Marlene, and reunite the two. Upon finding him, Leslie quickly realized Frank is too strange and tried to call the plan off, but Justin insisted on going through with it. After the evening ends disastrously, Ron points out to Leslie that Justin is a selfish person who only cares about getting more stories, so she breaks up with him. Tom, who strongly admired Justin 's hipness and idolized him, became extremely disappointed by the break - up and reacted like a child whose parents are divorcing.
Li'l Sebastian is a miniature horse, who debuted at the Pawnee Harvest Festival in 1987, as an instant sensation. That week he was the eighth most photographed item in the United States. He also received an honorary degree from Notre Dame. Leslie brings him back for the Harvest Festival in season three, although he was much older and had many ailments, including cataracts, diabetes, and arthritis. His return brought excitement and joy to all of Pawnee, except for Ben, who did n't understand what made him so special. In the season three finale, Li'l Sebastian dies, and everyone is devastated. Leslie used Tom 's company, Entertainment 720, to give Li'l Sebastian a funeral. Andy then writes the song "5000 Candles in the Wind '' to honor Li'l Sebastian.
Professor Linda Lonegan (Danielle Bisutti) was Andy 's Women 's Studies professor. She first appeared in Smallest Park, where she made an quite an impression on Andy, April, and particularly Ron. Ron even stated "If that woman was n't so violently opposed to marriage, I 'd propose to her ''. When Andy finished the course, Linda went to dinner with them to celebrate, where April tried to set her up with Chris. Although Linda seemed to have a connection with Chris, she went home with Ron, revealing her attraction to him, for the entire night.
Lucy (Natalie Morales) is a bartender at the Snakehole Lounge and the eventual wife of Tom Haverford. Lucy meets Tom in "The Master Plan '' after he came to the bar to settle his tab from the night before, when he unsuccessfully attempted to pick up several girls by buying drinks for them. Rather than try to pick up Lucy like the other girls, he simply acts like himself, and the two end up hitting it off and started dating. Lucy is intelligent and funny, and she freely accepts Tom 's immature and sometimes inappropriate personality. She jokingly claimed to be attracted to Tom because, "You 're cute and you 're small enough for me to throw you around. '' However, it eventually became clear to Lucy that Tom was not over his ex-wife Wendy, particularly due to how upset he got when Ron Swanson starts dating her. In "Time Capsule '', Lucy broke up with Tom, but told him he should call her if he ever gets over Wendy. In "End of the World, '' Lucy attends Tom 's "best party of all time, '' the two have a good time, and she kisses Tom the next morning, hinting at the possibility of their relationship starting up again. Tom and Lucy rekindle their relationship in Season 7, and Tom proposes to Lucy, which she accepts, in "Two Funerals ''.
April Ludgate 's parents, Larry (John Ellison Conlee) and Rita (Terri Hoyos) are, in contrast to April 's sarcastic and apathetic personality, extremely enthusiastic and positive people, who affectionally call their daughter Zuzu. Rita is from Puerto Rico, which April sardonically claims is what makes herself so "lively and colorful ''; otherwise, however, Larry and Rita represent the archetypical Midwesterner couple. Their other daughter and April 's younger sister, Natalie (Minni Jo Mazzola), is much more like April in personality: she is sullen, dismissive of others and seemingly uninterested in everything around her. The Ludgate family is first introduced in "94 Meetings '', when Ron met them after coming to the Ludgate home to speak with April. Larry and Rita were extremely pleased to meet him, and April revealed Rita is a big fan of Ron 's secret jazz saxophonist alter ego, Duke Silver. The family also attended April and Andy 's surprise wedding ceremony in "Andy and April 's Fancy Party '', where they voiced their approval of the marriage. Natalie gave an unsentimental and indifferent speech about her sister during the reception, calling April "lame '', but Andy "sort of cool '', but the speech was still enough to reduce an emotional April to tears, leading to her hugging Natalie.
Marlene Griggs - Knope (Pamela Reed) is Leslie 's mother and a major political figure in Pawnee 's school system. She is a shrewd and cunning politician who is willing to resort to unethical tactics to get her way. Although Leslie has very different standards, she nevertheless sees Marlene as a source of inspiration, and is extremely eager to impress her mother. Marlene has low expectations for her daughter 's ability to succeed, but is ultimately supportive of her, as indicated in "Canvassing '' when Marlene attended Leslie 's public forum in support of her despite privately predicting it would be a "train wreck ''. In "The Banquet '', Marlene encouraged Leslie to use scandalous information to blackmail a Pawnee zoning official into supporting Leslie 's park project. In "The Bubble '', Leslie secretly prepared her boyfriend Ben for a meeting with Marlene with the hopes her mother would be impressed with him. The plan backfired, however, when Marlene became attracted to Ben and made a pass at him.
Mona - Lisa Saperstein (Jenny Slate) is the crazy, outgoing twin sister of Jean - Ralphio Saperstein, described by him as "a klepto, and a nympho, and a pyro ''. She is also the former girlfriend of Tom Haverford. She is partly responsible for the opening of her father 's, Dr. Saperstein 's, store which eventually runs Tom Haverford 's Rent - a-Swag store out of business. She first appeared in season 5 and continued to appear in the final two seasons (particularly Season 6) as an unreformed lunatic who frightened / terrorized anyone in her path. When she appears in Season 7 her father offers an embarrassed explanation for her insanity by telling Ben and April one word: "pills. ''
Dr. Saperstein (Henry Winkler), the father of Jean - Ralphio and Mona - Lisa, is a gynecologist in Pawnee who invests in several area businesses. Though he openly admits his two children are ne'er - do - well leeches, he loves them unconditionally anyway. After Tom and Mona - Lisa break up, Dr. Saperstein opens a store similar to Tom 's Rent - a-Swag directly across the street for the express purpose of ruining Tom and forcing him to sell his store cheaply. He later relents a bit and offers Tom a deal that will let him break even as well as get a small portion of "Tommy 's Closet '' revenues going forward, which Tom glumly accepts. He is also the doctor whom Ann and Chris go to while the former is pregnant. In the season six finale, he shows up to the opening of Tom 's Bistro (Tom is aghast to see him, but Mona - Lisa cluelessly followed up on Tom 's request to bring in big names) and is happy when it appears the restaurant is going to flop. However, he later states the food is incredible and asks Tom if he can be a minority investor, to which Tom coolly replies that he will give Dr. Saperstein 's offer some time and thought.
Orin (Eric Isenhower) is the creepy and intense friend of April Ludgate. He seldom speaks and often stares at people and makes them feel awkward. He first appeared in "April and Andy 's Fancy Party '', where he made Ben feel uncomfortable; at one point Ben said to him, "No, Orin, I do n't know how I 'm going to die. Wait, are you asking me or telling me? '' At that same party, Orin spoke to Chris, but Chris was so positive he overwhelmed Orin. Orin reappeared in an art show at "Jerry 's Painting '', where he stood silently and motionlessly next to his exhibition: a completely blank canvas. Orin was originally mentioned in a throw - away joke in "Time Capsule '', but Parks and Recreation screenwriter Katie Dippold liked the idea of the character so much she worked him into her script for "Andy and April 's Fancy Party ''. When Leslie had everyone bring a potential date for single Ann Perkins to a Valentine 's Day dance, April (who does n't like Ann) brought Orin; Leslie proceeded to insult Orin and then told him she meant every word of it, before lambasting April for bringing someone that unpleasant and unlikable to a romantic dance. This marked the first time someone on the show directly let Orin know they did n't like him. When he applied for the job of Animal Control director in Season 5, his resume contained one word: his name, in regular font. Leslie told him to go away, and after April asked him what qualified him to work in animal control, and he responded, "I studied zoology in college. And I can control animals with my mind '', to which Leslie curtly says he will not be hired and repeats that he needs to get lost, which he does. He appeared briefly in Season 6 twice, in the episode "Ann and Chris '' dressed up as the Easter Bunny at Ann and Chris 's going away party and in the episode "Prom '' pretending to be April 's mom when Andy picked her up to go to the senior prom.
Tammy Swanson (Patricia Clarkson) is the first ex-wife of Ron Swanson. Ron has been married to two different women, both named Tammy, and he hates and fears both of them. Ron explains that Tammy had been present throughout most of his young life: she delivered him as a baby, was his teacher, and she even took his virginity. Tammy returns as an IRS agent who arrives at the end of the third season (although she is not shown to the audience until the fourth season premiere) to audit Ron. Both Ron and his second wife named Tammy panic at the news of her arrival, and Ron attempts to flee before deciding to return to face her. Leslie then enlists Ron 's eccentric mother (also named Tammy) in a drinking contest to drive Tammy I away once and for all. Since Tammy I 's claim she was auditing Ron was a lie designed to let her search for his hidden gold, she ends up leaving with nothing, as Ron had deliberately put a tiny amount of gold out as a decoy, and was happy to sacrifice it in order to get rid of Tammy I.
Tammy Swanson (Megan Mullally) is the second ex-wife of Ron Swanson; Ron has been married to two women named Tammy, and he hates both of them. Tammy is a manipulative woman who uses sex as a weapon, and she constantly tries to make Ron miserable. However, the two maintain a strong sexual attraction to each other. Tammy is director of the Pawnee Library, which is widely considered a horrible place by Leslie Knope and the parks department employees. Tammy is introduced in "Ron and Tammy '', when she approached Leslie in a friendly way under the guise that she wants to talk to Ron and work out her differences with him. Secretly, she was scheming for Ron to give her a lot Leslie wanted to turn into a park, so she can instead turn it into a library branch. Once she and Ron reconnected, the two fight loudly, but quickly began having sex and briefly reunited. Ron eventually realized he was being manipulated and, with Leslie 's help, resisted Tammy 's efforts. Tammy returns in "Ron & Tammy: Part Two '', where she went on a date with Tom to make Ron jealous. Tammy and Ron ended up having a night of drunken sex and mayhem, which ended with the two of them getting remarried. However, when Tom tried to intervene and Tammy brutally beat him up, Ron remembered how horrible Tammy was and ended their marriage again. Tammy briefly appeared in the third season finale, "Li'l Sebastian '', where she and Ron learned together that Ron 's first wife, "Tammy I '', had arrived in town, which made Tammy flee in terror. In Season 5, Tammy turned up during "Ron and Diane '' with plans to seduce Ron at the woodworking show where he was getting an award, leading to much pain for Leslie when she painfully made sure Tammy never got near Ron (Diane was wrongly more worried about Leslie 's friendship with Ron than Tammy 's behavior, and Tammy ended up locking Leslie in the trunk of her own car and taking off in it), but in the end it all worked out: Diane was aware Tammy was psychotic and said if the cops let her go she would happily pummel her, and Ron pressed charges against his criminal ex.
Mullally is the real - life wife of Nick Offerman, who plays Ron. Michael Schur conceived the idea for "Ron and Tammy '', and asked Offerman whether he and Mullally would be opposed to her playing such a terrible character. Offerman was extremely responsive to the idea. Offerman and Mullally improvised many of their on - screen fights, as well as their unusual kissing and sexual encounters. During one scene in "Ron and Tammy '', where the two characters run into a motel to have sex, Mullally removed her top and threw it into the air. Mullally improvised the move and did not tell the crew she planned to do it. Mullally 's performance was well received by viewers, which made the Parks and Recreation producers feel more comfortable about using celebrity guest actors in later episodes.
Tamara "Tammy '' Swanson (Paula Pell) is Ron 's mother. She shares many personality traits with her son, and seems more than aware of the effect his ex-wives have on him. She first appeared in the episode "Ron & Tammys ''. She lives on the farm Ron grew up on, and has an entire room devoted to guns.
Wendy Haverford (Jama Williamson) started the season as the wife of Tom Haverford, although it is later revealed to be a green card marriage that amicably ends in a divorce. Wendy came to Pawnee from Ottawa, Canada and married Tom so she could remain in the country. Introduced in the first season finale "Rock Band '', Wendy is an attractive, outgoing and wealthy pediatric surgeon, and the other characters are surprised she is married to Tom, who often brags about her attractiveness. Although Tom outwardly claims he is fine with the divorce, he secretly harbors romantic feelings for Wendy and wishes for the marriage to continue. When the parks department employees hold a contest in "Practice Date '' about who can find out the biggest secret about the others, Ron learns about the green card marriage, but he keeps it a secret at Tom 's request.
The divorce proceedings begin in "Tom 's Divorce '', and Tom continued to pretend he is alright with the arrangement. However, when Ron asked Tom whether he could ask Wendy out after the divorce, Tom was secretly heartbroken, despite giving Ron his blessing. In "Galentine 's Day '', Tom admitted to Wendy his true feelings for her, but she rejected him, prompting an angry Tom to sue her for alimony in an attempt to blackmail her into going out with him. This effort was short - lived, however, and Tom eventually apologized and the two parted on good terms. A horrified Tom learned in the second season finale, "Freddy Spaghetti '', that Wendy and Ron are indeed dating. Although the pairing caused tension between Ron and Tom, Ron proved so happy in his relationship with Wendy that it allowed him to resist the temptations of his horrible ex-wife Tammy. In "Ron & Tammy: Part Two '', Ron and Wendy broke up after she decided to move back to Canada to take care of her ailing parents.
Diane Elizabeth Lewis (Lucy Lawless) was introduced in the third episode of Season 5, "How a Bill Becomes a Law ''. She is a junior high school vice principal and a single mother of two young girls, Ivy (Sadie Salizar) and Zoey (Rylan Lee). Ron Swanson meets her when he goes to fix a pothole in front of her house (since the Department of Public Works had been ignoring her complaints, Ron decided to simply take the matter into his own hands). Diane is far from Ron 's usual "type ''. She 's not named "Tammy '' and she has two small girls. Ron is not good with children, or more specifically, with little girls (Ron had previously taken teenage and pre-teen boys camping to teach them survival skills, and also coached a basketball team). After he fixes the pothole, Diane 's girls put makeup on Ron and Andy 's faces (Ron had taken Andy with him to help fix the pothole), and have a little girl 's tea party with them, which Ron tolerates surprisingly well. Ron really likes Diane and in episode 5 of season 5 ("Halloween Surprise '') begins a dating relationship with her, deciding that dealing with a single mother and her girls might help him to expand his life experience. Diane, in return, in the episode "Ron and Diane '', shows an impressive level of patience and understanding at Tammy II 's psychotic attempts to ruin her relationship with Ron. In a private conversation with Leslie, Diane admits that she feels more threatened by Leslie than by Tammy II, as she feels that Leslie knows Ron in a way that she never can. When she confesses this fear to Ron, he assures her that, while Leslie is a loyal friend and colleague, he could never have any romantic feelings towards her. Then, to prove his commitment to Diane, he reveals to her his Duke Silver identity (a night club saxophone player, something even Leslie did n't know), and he plays Diane a song, naming her as his "duchess ''. In the same episode, Leslie decides that Diane is a good guardian of Ron 's well - being and a shield against the disruptive antics of Tammy II. Later, during the episode "Women in Garbage '', Ron is babysitting her daughters in the office with Ann, and accidentally allows them to lock themselves in his office with the contents of Ann 's medical bag. The girls cut each other 's hair before Ron and Ann can stop them, which destroys their hairstyles. Ron and Ann are horrified by this, and when Ron considers Diane 's potential reaction, he blurts out to Ann that he has fallen in love with Diane (a statement he immediately tries to take back). Diane, however, is understanding of the accident, saying that it was just kids being kids. She tells him that she is touched by how much he cared, and that she loves him. Ron sheepishly admits that he loves her as well. It is implied at the end of the fifth season that Diane may be pregnant. In the beginning of the first episode of the sixth season, Diane confirms her pregnancy and Ron proposes marriage to which she accepts under one condition: that the wedding is as plain as possible. With that in mind, the two head up to the fourth floor with Leslie and April in tow. Leslie is asked to be the matron of honour and April appoints herself as Ron 's ' Best Man '. The two are married in an extremely fast paced wedding filmed on April 's phone and with highlighter pens acting as a bouquet. Later on in the episode where Leslie, Ron, April and Andy are in London, it is revealed that Diane suggested tagging along to make the trip hers and Ron 's honeymoon, however her morning sickness meant she could n't go and Ron had to take plenty of photos for her. Ron and Diane 's baby, John Swanson, is born later in the season. Although Diane does not appear in Season 7, she is frequently mentioned as still being married to Ron.
Gayle Gergich (Christie Brinkley) is Jerry 's inexplicably gorgeous wife, as well as the mother of Millicent, Miriam, and Gladys. Gayle has a solid and overly - affectionate relationship with Jerry, puzzling to his coworkers. She is referenced until she makes an appearance in "Ron and Diane ''. She also appears again in "Jerry 's retirement. ''
Millicent "Millie '' Gergich (Sarah Wright) is the gorgeous daughter of Gayle and Jerry. She was introduced in season 4 as Chris 's love interest. In "Bowling for Votes '', Chris mentions his plans to move in with Millicent, but she breaks up with him off screen that same episode. In "Ron and Diane '' it 's revealed that Millicent is engaged to a rafting instructor named Carl. She makes another appearance in "Jerry 's Retirement. ''
Gladys Gergich (Katie Gill) is one of Gayle and Jerry 's other daughters. She first appears in "Ron and Diane '', singing Christmas carols with her mother, father, and sister, Miriam. She also appears again in "Jerry 's Retirement. ''
Miriam Gergich (Maliabeth Johnson) is one of Gayle and Jerry 's other daughters. She first appears in "Ron and Diane '', singing Christmas carols with her mother, father, and Gladys. She also appears again in "Jerry 's retirement. ''
Norman "Typhoon '' Montalban (Rodney To) is a hairdresser in Pawnee who marries Craig Middlebrooks (Billy Eichner) in the flash forwards of the season finale. Typhoon was introduced in the 5th episode of Season 6 as Donna 's hairdresser after she recommends him to Ron, following the passing of Ron 's former regular barber. Ron is at first reluctant to take on a new stylist, but bonds with Typhoon over their shared hatred of Europe and bicycles. He appears again in the 7th episode of Season 7 as Donna 's stylist for her wedding, and again in the final episode when he marries Craig. Ron is shown to be the best man at their wedding.
Bill Dexhart (Kevin Symons) is a Pawnee councilman who regularly participates in outrageous sex scandals with multiple partners. His character was inspired by South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford and his 2009 scandal, in which he admitted to a long - time extramarital affair with an Argentinian woman. Dexhart first appeared in "Practice Date '', when he publicly admitted to having participated in a foursome in a Brazil cave under the guise of building houses for the underprivileged. Dexhart was featured prominently in "Christmas Scandal '', which began with Leslie portraying him in a satirical holiday skit in which he discussed his an affair with multiple women that resulted in a love child. Unbeknownst to Leslie, Dexhart turned out to be involved in a sexual arrangement very similar to that one: four - way sex in a hospital room where he has just overseen the birth of his love child. When he confronted her about it, members of the media took pictures of Leslie and Dexhart together and speculated that the two of them were having an affair. Dexhart refused to deny the allegations, and even went so far as to confirm them, because the fictional affair was less scandalous than his actual sexual discretions. As proof of the affair, he claimed Leslie had a mole on her right buttock, but she publicly proved him wrong by dropping her pants on live television and revealing there is no mole. In Season 5 he was something of a swing vote for Leslie on the City Council because he was less likely to fully support her than Howser, but also less likely to thoughtlessly oppose her than either Milton or Jamm. That has changed during the recall campaign against Leslie in Season 6, as Dexhart has cheerfully joined Jamm in blocking any initiatives by her and making it clear they both hope she is booted from office. In the episode "Second Chunce '', Dexhart publicly confesses to "texting, sexting and Tex - Mexting '' approximately one hundred women under a series of implausible pseudonyms, parodying the Anthony Weiner sexting scandals. In fact, "Anthony Weiner '' is the last in the list of pseudonyms Dexhart reads out at a press conference. Leslie briefly considers running for his seat after being impeached, but is dissuaded by Jennifer Barkley. The district that Dexhart is in charge of is a run - down, crime - ridden part of town that he had promised to clean up, but his only action has been to rename it Beach View Terrace.
Carl Lorthner (Andy Samberg) is a park ranger and the head of outdoor security for Pawnee. He constantly talks extremely loudly, speaking at screaming levels even when asked to talk quietly, and works as a ranger because he can not hold down a job that involves working indoors due to his inability to control the volume of his voice. Carl appeared in "Park Safety '', in which Jerry claimed to be mugged in Ramsett Park, which fell under Carl 's territory. Leslie launched efforts to make the parks safer and had Carl take them on a tour of the area; he showed Leslie, Tom and Jerry around on a mobile cart that had been attacked and urinated upon by raccoons. Carl eventually discovered that Jerry was not mugged at all, but accidentally fell into a creek by himself. Angry that Leslie blamed Carl 's security measures for the mugging, he threatened to reveal the truth on Joan Callamezzo 's morning news show, Pawnee Today. Leslie convinced him not to do so at the last minute, and they instead angered Callamezzo by discussing the 2009 film Avatar and whether it lived up to its hype.
George Williams (Biff Yeager) works in the Public Works Department, first seen in the season three episode Jerry 's Painting, although he was referred to as "Lenny ''. In Li'l Sebastian, he worked as a maintenance worker for Li'l Sebastian 's funeral, as witnessed Ben and Leslie kissing. To keep him from revealing their secret, Ben and Leslie give him a $50 spa gift certificate. He reappears in The Trial of Leslie Knope, where it is revealed he is a NASCAR enthusiast. He testifies against Leslie and provides the key evidence against her.
Councilman Howser (Yvans Jourdain) is a Pawnee councilman who repeatedly encounters Leslie in embarrassing or awkward situations around city hall, during which time Leslie nevertheless tries to discuss politics with him. For example, in "94 Meetings '', Leslie ran into Councilman Howser in the men 's bathroom, which she entered while following Ron Swanson and trying to discuss something with him. Afterward, Leslie awkwardly blurted to Howser, "Councilman Howser. I saw your penis. '' That being said, he is depicted as by far the most rational Council member and has consistently supported her proposals and plans since she was elected. In "Filibuster '' he can be seen as visibly pleased that Leslie had successfully filibustered Jamm 's attempt to block former Eagletonians 's right to vote.
Hugh Trumple (Eric Pierpoint) is chief of the Pawnee police department. He has a very serious and gruff personality, and speaks in a dry, monotonic manner. Trumple has great respect for Leslie Knope because of her passion for helping those around her. Chief Trumple first appeared in "Ron & Tammy: Part Two '', when Ron Swanson gets arrested for a night of debauchery with his ex-wife Tammy. The chief agreed to Leslie 's request that he release him to Leslie 's custody. Ben feared Leslie cashing in this favor meant the chief would not agree to provide security for the upcoming harvest festival, but Chief Trumple agreed to do so anyway out of his respect for Leslie, telling Ben he will always do favors for Leslie because she is the kind of person who uses those favors to help people. The chief reappeared in the episode "Eagleton '', where he arrested Leslie when she refused to apologize after getting in a fight with Lindsay Carlisle Shay, her rival from the neighboring city of Eagleton. Trumple retired as police chief in Season 4.
An orthodontist by day, Jamm (Jon Glaser) is a member of the Pawnee City Council, and has made himself Leslie 's major nemesis. He also appears to have a grudge against the entire Parks Department, angry over the fact that Leslie ruined his Paunch Burger plan. Tom shoved him into a swimming pool, Ann refused to sleep with him, and Ron punched him in the mouth. After fighting with Leslie over the use of her private bathroom for her office, he becomes a continual thorn in Leslie 's side for any proposal she makes. His catch phrase, "you just got Jammed, '' is used whenever he one - ups Leslie or any other adversary. He failed to turn Lot 48 into a new Paunch Burger restaurant when Leslie won over the city planning committee and got the Pawnee Commons park project approved, leading to him getting drunk and temporarily ruining Ben and Leslie 's impromptu on - site wedding. Afterward, he was punched by Ron Swanson; both of them were thrown in jail but Ron was quickly released while Jamm was left to sober up in his cell, and the wedding took place at City Hall. He then sued Ron and it looked he would win, but Tom, Andy and April threatened a similarly bogus lawsuit that Jamm knew he would lose, so both sides backed off. When Leslie is under political pressure to resign, Jamm complicates Leslie 's role on the council by teaming up with councilman Dexhart and voting down any proposal Leslie has, to spite her. When Donna Meagle accidentally sends a sexually suggestive tweet from the department Twitter, Jamm uses this as an opportunity to hold public hearings that put Leslie 's ethics into question. After he holds a series of hearings to drag out Leslie 's ordeal, Leslie publicly stands up to Jamm and says that she 's going to get back to work as a councilwoman and wo n't attend any more of the hearings. In the season six finale, Jamm is shown at the Pawnee / Eagleton unity concert leading a secession effort. Jamm reappears in the Season 7 episode "Ron and Jammy '', where he is revealed to be dating Tammy, Ron 's second ex-wife. Leslie and Ron are feuding over the Newport land rights at this time, and Jamm is the swing vote on the issue. Leslie initially sees the relationship as an advantage, since Tammy would influence Jamm to vote against Ron; however, it becomes apparent that being with Tammy is detrimental to Jamm 's physical and mental well - being. Leslie and Ron decide to put aside their differences and successfully coach Jamm into breaking up with her. Jamm then abstains from the land rights vote, leaving the issue deadlocked.
Milton (James Greene) is the longest - serving Pawnee Councilman, having been elected in 1948 as a Dixiecrat largely due to his commitment to de-integrating Major League Baseball, as well as a plan to re-open a former WWII Japanese - American Internment Camp in Pawnee and get it back up to speed. He is generally senile except on matters of racism and sexism, where his memory seems to be intact (he was able to calculate when Leslie Knope 's next menstrual period would start during "Women in Garbage ''), and he has generally -- though not always -- been on the other side of Leslie 's initiatives.
Joe Fantringham (Kirk Fox), also sometimes called "Sewage Joe '', works for the Pawnee sewer department, which he calls the "Toilet Party ''. Despite the nature of his department, Joe regularly hires supermodel - like interns. The parks and sewer departments have an ongoing rivalry and Joe regularly mocks them, much to the confusion of Leslie, who does not understand why he considers the sewer department better than parks and recreation. Joe first appeared in "The Camel '', when the various Pawnee departments competed to design a mural for city hall. Joe was arrogant and bragged to Leslie about his department 's chances at success, and his department ultimately designed a good mural, but the contest ended without a winner. In "Telethon '', Joe made a pass at April. When she rejected him, he insisted he did not care because the sewer department is "waist deep in hot snizz '', a reference to the sewer department interns. Joe also appeared in "Soulmates '', where he made a pass at Leslie, prompting her to wonder why only jerks have recently seemed to be attracted to her. When Leslie asked Joe his standards for women, he replied only that they can not be elderly. Ben Wyatt fired him after Joe sent a cell - phone picture of his penis to everyone in the Pawnee government. Also, Ann noticed from the picture that Joe had the mumps. In Bus Tour, Joe later tried twice to hit Ben in the face with a pie in revenge, failing the first time (at one of Leslie Knope 's campaign rallies, where he hit Jerry) before succeeding (at Bobby Newport 's mansion) due to inept security from Andy 's FBI agent alter - ego ' Bert Macklin ' and then getting arrested. He later appears briefly in the fifth season, at the local sperm bank when he tells Ann and Leslie (Who were there because Ann was trying to have a baby) that he and his friends were regular donors.
Ken Hotate (Jonathan Joss) is the leader of Pawnee 's local Wamapoke Native American tribe. He also runs a casino in the city. He appeared in "Harvest Festival '', where he asked Leslie to relocate her festival because it was taking place on the sacred burial grounds of the Battle of Indian Hill, where his ancestors were killed in a seven - day battle. When Leslie insisted there was nowhere she could move the festival without being offensive due to Pawnee 's extremely bloody history, Ken threatened to place a curse on the festival. He knew the curse to be fake, but believed it would frighten people enough to ruin the festival, insisting, "There are two things I know about white people: they love Matchbox Twenty, and they are terrified of curses. '' Ken 's efforts proved successful, as the local media learned about the curse and reported on it so extensively that the festival was nearly ruined. Leslie and Ken came to a compromise after Leslie agreed to place a Wamapoke history exhibit by the entrance of the festival, and Ken lifted the fake curse during a phony ceremony, where he said nonsense chants including "Doobee doobee do ''. Although Ken enjoyed giving Leslie some tsuris at this point, later on it is shown he fully respects her; when Leslie desperately plants Wamapoke artifacts on the Lots 42 site after Councilman Jamm and the Pawnee Restaurant Association henchwoman have broken an agreement to leave the site alone until a city meeting, Ken first accepts Leslie 's apology and then bluntly threatens reprisals unless the agreement is reinstated, which a cowardly Jamm quickly agrees to do. Jonathan Joss previously voiced John Redcorn in the animated television series King of the Hill, which was co-created by Parks and Recreation co-creator Greg Daniels.
Kyle (Andy Forrest) is a government employee and regular customer at Andy 's shoeshine stand. He is routinely mocked and laughed at, not only by Andy but others at city hall as well, even Jerry Gergich, who himself is usually scorned by his co-workers. For example, in the episode "Camping '', Kyle told Andy that his identity had been stolen and his bank account frozen, and Andy reacted by laughing hysterically. Andy and April have also stolen money from Kyle 's wallet and ejected him from the shoeshine chair (but not before Andy poured Pepto - Bismol on Kyle 's shoes). Kyle also appeared in "Soulmates '', where he was one of the judges in a contest between Chris and Ron to determine whether red or lean meat is better. Kyle complimented the umami taste in one of the burgers, prompting fellow judge Jerry to condemn him for acting pretentious. Ron Swanson also pawned Kyle off on Chris when Chris was trying to be friendly to Ron, with Ron knowing very little about Kyle beyond his first name, and Chris being politely distant to him.
Mayor Gunderson (Bill Murray) is the mayor of Pawnee during most of the show 's run. In the final season, set in 2017, Perd Hapley announces Mayor Gunderson 's death and an open - casket memorial is held in the city council chambers. In a video Gunderson assigned to be shown at his funeral, he remarks at how little attention he had been paying, and that he would take credit if any needed to be taken. He then points out that if there was any blame, it was the citizens ' fault. His last statement is "Goodbye forever. '' This posthumous appearance by Bill Murray as Gunderson, is the only time he is seen on Parks and Recreation, although he had been mentioned in multiple episodes of the show. He was first mentioned in "Christmas Scandal '', when the parks and recreation department held a satirical holiday skit full of inside jokes about Pawnee, and April declared, "That 's crazier than Mayor Gunderson 's dog, Rufus. '' He is also mentioned in the episode "Leslie 's House, '' when Mark asks everyone if they heard about the incident involving his dog, prompting Ron to say, "Oh my god, it was a bloodbath. '' Mark later adds that as a result of the incident, someone from animal services would be fired. The mayor and his dog played a major part in the episode "The Possum '', when Mayor Gunderson 's assistant ordered the parks department to capture an opossum that bit Rufus on a Pawnee golf course. Andy, who helps Leslie capture the opossum, said at one point, "We 're acting under direct orders from Mayor Gunderson 's dog. '' For the funeral scene in the third season finale "Li'l Sebastian '', Michael Schur said the writing staff considered killing off Mayor Gunderson, but they instead went with miniature horse Li'l Sebastian because it was decided having an animal die would be more appropriate and less morbid. Having Bill Murray play the mayor was a long - time goal of the cast and crew of the show. Amy Poehler stated she would love Murray to play Mayor Gunderson and, during an appearance on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, jokingly announced she would pay him $250 if he played the role.
After Gunderson 's death, Gerry Gergich was appointed interim mayor of the town.
Paul Iaresco (Phil Reeves) is the Pawnee city manager, which makes him supervisor of all the departments and staff in city hall. He was first introduced in "Canvassing '', when he asked Ron to fast - track Leslie 's plans to convert a construction pit into a park. This inadvertently led to a disastrous public forum, where most attendees forcefully opposed the project. Paul appeared in several other Parks and Recreation episodes, including "The Master Plan '', where he announced the pending arrival of state auditors Ben Wyatt and Chris Traeger due to Pawnee 's crippling budget problems. In "Camping '', Paul held a press conference to commend Leslie for her successful relaunch of the city 's harvest festival. During the conference, he suffered a massive heart attack and accidentally clutched Leslie 's breast as he fell to the ground; one newspaper 's story about the incident read, "Knope Grope is Last Hope! '' Paul took a leave of absence after an octuple bypass, and Chris Traeger took over as interim city manager.
Scott Braddock (H. Jon Benjamin) is a high - strung Pawnee city attorney who becomes extremely nervous about anything that could lead to a lawsuit. He appeared in "Kaboom '', where Leslie accidentally injured Andy by arranging for a bulldozer to fill in a giant pit, unaware that Andy was inside it. He became hospitalized, and Scott encouraged Leslie not to apologize or admit fault in the incident because it would risk Pawnee getting sued. Scott constantly admonished Leslie when she tries to apologize, at one point shouting, "No miming! '' when she made a motion indicating how badly she feels. Andy did file a lawsuit with the hopes of winning enough money to impress his ex-girlfriend Ann, but it ended with a settlement that resulted in the pit getting filled in.
William (Johnny Sneed) and Elizabeth (Antonia Raftu) first approached Leslie in the third season finale, Li'l Sebastian, about Leslie potentially running for city council. After she agrees, in season four, they start working on her campaign, as her advisors. In Citizen Knope, Leslie gives a Christmas ornament with "Knope 2012 '' written on it, to William as a present, and attempts to give Elizabeth a Knope 2012 menorah because she thinks but is not sure Elizabeth is Jewish (she is n't). When Leslie and Ben turn themselves in, and Ben resigns after Leslie 's trial, William and Elizabeth inform her that she is polling at 1 %, and they will no longer advise her on her campaign. Leslie accuses them of hypocrisy as she believes that they are romantically involved, however Elizabeth bluntly responds "I 'm gay ''. William and Elizabeth make their final appearance in The Comeback Kid, as they tell Leslie that they are looking for other potential candidates.
Ethel Beavers (Helen Slayton - Hughes) is an elderly town employee, who continues to work as the municipal stenographer.
Harris (show writer Harris Wittels) and Brett (Colton Dunn) are the two useless stoner employees of the Animal Control department. They are first seen in the second season episode The Possum; Brett appears in six episodes and Harris in eight. In "Andy and April 's Fancy Party '', Harris and Brett attend the wedding party; despite this, Harris later asks if April is single. In "Operation Ann '' in the fourth season, Harris is one of the men Leslie and Tom set up with Ann during the Valentine 's Day dance. Tom tells her Harris still lives with his parents and has been to at least 200 Phish concerts; Harris informs them he has been to 308.
In the season five episode "Animal Control, '' Chris Traeger fires Brett and Harris after he steps on a coyote trap in the animal control office. Both subsequently reapply for the position and are the only two applicants; by this time they also live together. On his application, Brett lists his love of hamburgers under his qualifications for the job. When April asks why there are so many police outside city hall, the presumably stoned Harris and Brett quickly run off.
In the season seven episode "Pie '', Brett and Harris are revealed to be secretly living in the basement of city hall. Ron, April and Andy ask them the location of the shoeshine stand while searching for a hidden key to Ron 's home.
Crazy Ira (Matt Besser) and Howard "The Douche '' Tuttleman (Nick Kroll) are two shock jocks of a morning zoo - style Pawnee radio program. They serve primarily as a parody of those types of radio shows, especially in a small - town market like Pawnee. The show prominently features fart jokes and "your mom '' insults, as well as constant sound effects from their sound man "China Joe '', who hates his job. Crazy Ira and The Douche are widely admired in Pawnee, especially by Tom Haverford, and are considered much better than their rival radio show, "Tubby Tony and The Papaya '' (who never appear on - screen). They first appeared on "Media Blitz '' when, during an interview with Leslie and Tom about the upcoming harvest festival, they revealed their true motive was to lambast Ben for his failed tenure as a city mayor during his teen years. The interview proved disastrous for Ben, who was so socially awkward he could barely talk, and it led to other Pawnee media taking on the story and nearly ruining the harvest festival. The Douche reappeared in "The Fight '', when he went on a date with Ann to the Snakehole Lounge bar. This came at a time when Ann was regularly going on a string of dates with random, underachieving men, and the date with The Douche led to a major argument between Ann and Leslie because Ann was supposed to be preparing for a job interview Leslie had arranged for her. Later, on his radio show, The Douche dismissed both Ann and Leslie as likely lesbians.
Before his appearance as Crazy Ira, Matt Besser was a comedian with the Upright Citizens Brigade, a sketch comedy show and troupe which also featured Parks and Recreation star Amy Poehler.
During the last seasons of Parks and Recreation, Nick Kroll was dating Amy Poehler (Leslie Knope) in real life and she also starred in his show, "Kroll Show ''
Derry Murbles (Dan Castellaneta) and August Clementine (John Hodgman) are the hosts of the public radio talk show "Thought for your Thoughts. '' The show is known for its particularly boring content and terrible song selections. August Clementine joined the show after the Pawnee - Eagleton merger.
Joan Callamezzo (Mo Collins) is the hostess of Pawnee Today, a local news magazine / talk show that combines elements of NBC 's Today show and news shows like Nancy Grace. She often serves as a parody of the media in her tendency to turn small matters into big stories and her desire to find the most negative possible aspects of any given story. Joan refers to herself as a "legendary newswoman '' and is more intimidating than other members of the Pawnee media, as Leslie declares that she "runs this town ''. However, Leslie also has a tendency of taking over Joan 's show when she appears on it and discussing whatever she wants. In "Christmas Scandal '', Leslie appeared on Pawnee Today to refute accusations that she was having an affair with Councilman Bill Dexhart. When Dexhart himself appeared on the show and offered proof of the affair by claiming Leslie has a mole on her buttock, Leslie pulled her pants down on the show to prove him wrong. Upon realizing Leslie has no mole, Joan called Dexhart 's lies about Leslie "No mole-gate '', named after the Watergate scandal. In "Media Blitz '', Leslie and Ben appeared on Pawnee Today to combat rumors that he was going to bankrupt the town due to his past as a failed teen mayor. Ben was bombarded with angry callers and labeled a "human disaster '' on the show 's subtitles. Joan reappeared in "Harvest Festival '', where she was determined to find a problem with the festival Leslie organized. Initially disappointed to find no problems, she eventually learned about a supposed Indian curse placed upon the harvest festival by a local Pawnee tribe, which she turned into a major scandalous story. In later episodes, Joan has gone through an ugly divorce and become an alcoholic; when Ron Swanson appears on her show, she has just returned from a "singles cruise '' and simply passes out during their taping, leading Ron to take over as host and do such a great job that the on - camera graphics show the episode as "You 're on With Ron ''.
Collins was originally expected to appear only in one Parks and Recreation episode, but returned for subsequent episodes because the writing staff enjoyed her performance.
Perderick L. "Perd '' Hapley (Jay Jackson) is a Pawnee television journalist and host of the television news programs Ya Heard? With Perd! and The Final Word With Perd. He also hosts a news segment called "Are You There Perd - verts? It 's Me Perd, Hosting a New Segment ''. He often speaks in awkward tautologies such as "One more shocking revelation in a story that wo n't stop unfolding '', "The statement this reporter has is a question '', and "Also joining us today is a different person ''. Like other reporters on Parks and Recreation, Perd often serves as a parody of the pack mentality of the media and their tendency to generate scandals. Perd reported on the sex scandal involving Councilman Bill Dexhart in "Practice Date '', the rumors of Leslie 's sexual affair with Dexhart in "Christmas Scandal '', and the supposed Indian curse on the harvest festival in "Harvest Festival ''. He also appears in "Telethon '' as a guest of Leslie 's 24 - hour telethon, where he performed the dance move the worm to "Axel F ''. In "Media Blitz '', Ben Wyatt appeared on Perd Hapley 's show amid a media controversy about Ben 's failed tenure as a child mayor. Although Perd only asked simple questions, the nervous Ben had a complete meltdown, which ended with him angrily referring to Perd Hapley as "Turd Crapley ''. Perd interviewed Leslie and porn star Brandi Maxxxx in "Jerry 's Painting '' to discuss whether a painting featuring Leslie nude can be considered art. In his younger days on Pawnee TV, Perd was a film critic who famously gave E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial only 1 and 1 / 2 stars because "it 's a good story, but it 's just not believable ''. In the final season, he is shown dressed as a judge and hosting a TV show called The Perdples Court, while onscreen subtitles remind viewers that Perd is "not a real judge ''.
Jackson was originally expected to appear only in one Parks and Recreation episode, during which his character was seen only on a television screen. He returned for subsequent episodes, however, because the writing staff enjoyed his performance and liked writing jokes for him.
Shauna Malwae - Tweep (Alison Becker) is a reporter with the local newspaper, The Pawnee Journal. Shauna meets Leslie Knope in "The Reporter '', when she was assigned to write a story about the parks department 's efforts to turn a construction pit into a park. When the interviews went badly, Leslie asked Mark Brendanawicz for help dealing with Shauna, and Mark ended up sleeping with her. Mark told Shauna he does not believe the park will ever be built. Later, Shauna agreed not to publish the story since she and Mark are in a relationship and it would be a conflict. When Mark says he can not commit to a relationship, however, she goes ahead with the story. Shauna returned in "The Possum '', where she interviewed Andy Dwyer for a story about his successful capture of an opossum that had bitten Mayor Gunderson 's dog. During that interview, Andy made Shauna feel awkward by openly discussing her having previously slept with Mark. During scenes cut from the episode "The Master Plan '', Shauna and Andy flirted with each other, but he ultimately rejected her due to his feelings for April, prompting her to declare, "I ca n't even land the shoeshine guy. '' Michael Schur said of the character, "She 's just unlucky in love. '' Shauna also appears in "Time Capsule '', where she initially started writing a story about Leslie 's plans for a Pawnee time capsule. However, after Kelly Larson handcuffed himself to a pipe when she did not include the Twilight novel in the capsule, Shauna wrote that story instead, with the headline, "Parks Department Foiled by Pipe Dreams ''. Shauna also appeared in "Media Blitz '' as one of the many reporters who wrote about Ben Wyatt 's past as a failed teen mayor. In season 5, she briefly dates Chris Traeger. Shauna is increasingly shown throughout the show to have a particularly messy personal life. The season six episode "Galentine 's Day '' revealed that she had recently ended a relationship with a married man, and that she found out in college that her family was actually her father 's secret second family. In the extended edition of the show 's final episode, Leslie reassures Shauna that one day she will find happiness. In a flash - forward, Shauna is shown to have been left at the altar in 2018, crying on a park bench. Bobby Newport walks by and consoles her, and five hours later the two are happily married. Shauna is the only non-main character to appear in every season.
Kim (Jamie Denbo) is an obnoxious, untalented tabloid reporter working at the local rag "Pawnee Sun '' who made her only appearance to date in Season 5 's "Correspondents Lunch ''. Leslie was eager to perform a great skit at the event, but Kim (whose paper has been suspiciously capable of finding and printing embarrassing information about Leslie) ends up delivering all of Leslie 's jokes. Unfortunately for Kim, Leslie and Donna find proof that Kim has illegally hacked into Leslie 's e-mails, when Leslie sends a bait message about "midichlorians '' in the soil near the Pawnee Commons project. Kim asks a question about the "news '' only to have Leslie bluntly tell her that the substance in question is from Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace and she 's just revealed that she 's broken the law. Kim tries to act dismissive, but gets scared out of the room by Donna.
Barney Varmn (John Balma) is an accountant who first appeared in the season 2 episode "Leslie 's House '' where he gives a presentation to Leslie to try and save an accounting class he teaches at the William Percy Recreation Center. He works at an unnamed accounting firm in Pawnee. He has offered Ben Wyatt a job at his accounting firm on multiple occasions, however, Ben always refuses to accept the position. Nonetheless, he is known for laughing raucously when Ben makes accounting puns, often calling in an unseen character named Ted to hear the pun after he laughs at it. He is also a fan of the Cones of Dunshire, a board game that Ben invented in season 6.
Brandi Maxxxx (Mara Marini) is a pornography star who has appeared in more than 200 adult films, despite having been in the business only one year. She appeared in "Jerry 's Painting '' as a guest on the news show Ya Heard? With Perd!, where host Perd Hapley was interviewing Leslie Knope about a painting she appeared nude in. Brandi was also brought on as a guest and, to Leslie 's chagrin, compared Leslie 's painting to pornography and defended them both. She claimed anyone should be allowed to have sex anywhere they wanted, and falsely believed Leslie felt the same way. When Leslie quoted United States Supreme Court Associate Justice Potter Stewart 's famous claim that he can not define pornography but "I know it when I see it '', Brandi was asked to define it and she replied, "For me, it 's when the penis goes in. '' Brandi also invited Leslie to appear in her next film. Tom tried to flirt with Brandi, but his efforts were ruined when she recognized him as the basis of a baby - like cherub in the painting. In the (4X17) episode "Campaign Shake Up '', Brandi Maxxxx is also running for the City Council election, in third place in polls with 8 % of the vote behind Bobby Newport 's 45 % and second place Leslie Knope with 30 %. In the final episode One Last Ride, a flashfoward shows that she eventually becomes the head of the Pawnee City Council, swearing in Garry Gergich for his fourth term as Mayor. Her character may be a reference to adult film star and candidate for Governor of California Mary Carey.
Chris (Will Arnett) is an MRI technologist at the hospital where Ann Perkins works. Ann sets Chris and Leslie up on a blind date in "The Set Up '', which goes extremely poorly. Chris is openly rude to Leslie during the dinner, criticizing Leslie 's alma mater of Indiana University and expressing disappointment that she only works in regular parks rather than amusement parks. Upon learning Leslie has never had an MRI, Chris insists on immediately taking her to the hospital and giving her one, a plan to which she reluctantly agrees. His inappropriate behavior continues at the hospital, where he makes creepy comments about her "industrial - sized '' womb during the MRI and unsubtle comments about expecting to have sex with her later, including asking whether she is having her period. They part on bad terms, with Chris angry that Leslie refused to have sex with him after the date.
At the time of the episode, Arnett was the real - life husband of Amy Poehler, who played Leslie. However, it was not Poehler who arranged for him to be on the show, but rather Michael Schur, who is a good friend of Arnett and felt he would be a good fit for the character.
Jessica Wicks (Susan Yeagley) is a Miss Pawnee beauty pageant winner who became the younger trophy wife of the elderly but wealthy Nick Newport, Sr. Speaking with a slight Southern accent, Jessica is a superficial woman who cares deeply about her own physical appearance and tries hard to charm others around her. She won the Miss Pawnee contest in 1994 primarily based on her looks; her talent during the pageant was packing a suitcase. This was most likely intended by the writers to be an homage to the 1975 beauty pageant film "Smile '', where Miss Imperial Valley packed a suitcase as her talent. Jessica first appeared in "Beauty Pageant '' as a Miss Pawnee panel judge along with Leslie and Tom. When Tom voted for the beautiful Trish Ianetta but Leslie pushed for a smarter but less attractive contestant, the superficial Jessica sided with Tom. She reappeared in "94 Meetings '', where she organized a birthday party for Nick Newport, Sr. by completely renovating and tearing down portions of the historic Turnbill Mansion. Leslie unsuccessfully tried to stop her, while Tom simply flirted with her, acknowledging she was a gold digger but calling himself a "gold digger digger ''. Jessica sang a horribly out - of - key song for her husband with an accompanist on the harp. Her husband, Nick Newport, Sr. dies in Bus Tour, making her a widow. She takes over the family business, "Sweetums, '' making Ben the new Director of Charitable projects.
Kelly Larson (Will Forte) is a Pawnee resident who advocated for Leslie to include the Twilight novel in a time capsule she was organizing. Appearing in "Time Capsule '', Kelly is obsessed with Twilight and knows every detail about the books, the film series and Twilight author Stephenie Meyer. When Kelly visited Leslie 's office to advocate for the novel, she politely refused, and Kelly responded by handcuffing himself to a pipe in her office, promising to stay there until she agrees. He spent three days in the office, where he got Tom interested in Twilight and held book discussions with Tom and Donna. Finally, Leslie revealed she knows Kelly 's true motivations: he had recently gone through a divorce and was trying to impress his teenage daughter, who loves Twilight. Although sympathetic, Leslie can not agree to Kelly 's request or she would have to accept demands from all Pawnee residents. As a compromise, she held a public meeting where she listened to all demands. Ultimately, when the citizens could not agree on anything, Leslie submitted a video tape of that very meeting, which she believed symbolizes the spirit and passion of Pawnee.
Lawrence (Eric Edelstein) is a Pawnee resident who has criticized the parks and recreation department 's plans at public forums, which embodied a recurring Parks and Recreation theme that only citizens opposed to projects bother to attend town meetings. He first appeared in "Canvassing '' at a forum Leslie held to raise support for her proposed park project. Lawrence only complained about the loud music his neighbor Andy played. Andy said in an interview with the documentary crew "Lawrence lives with his uh grandmother, which is pretty awesome. He takes care of her, I guess. But whatever, he 's a douchebag. '' He complained that Andy 's music was "loud,... abusive, and (was) waking up (his) birds, '' causing Lawrence to admit that he had "... nice, pretty, expensive birds... '' Lawrence was also the one who pointed out in the same meeting that April Ludgate had been planted by Leslie as a supporter for the park, having recognized her since she was at his door the day before. He ended the night by telling Leslie, "Hey park lady, you suck, '' to which she proudly replied, "Hear that? He called me park lady. '' The line was originally meant to be said by someone else, but Michael Schur said it was given to Lawrence because the Parks and Recreation crew liked Edelstein so much. Lawrence reappeared in "Boys ' Club '', where he angrily stole Andy 's radio while Andy was bathing himself in a children 's pool in the back yard. This prompted Andy to chase Lawrence through the street naked while using crutches. Lawrence also appeared in a scene that was deleted from "Ron and Tammy '', but included in the second season DVD, in which he mocked Andy 's new city hall job as a shoeshiner by giving him dozens of soiled shoes to clean.
Marcia Langman (Darlene Hunt) is a conservative activist with the Pawnee organization, the Society for Family Stability Foundation. She often serves as an antagonist to Leslie by objecting to her plans and arguing against issues she considers offensive. Marcia uses fear - mongering tactics and often expresses racist and homophobic sentiments. In her first appearance, "Pawnee Zoo '', she objected to Leslie 's marriage of two male penguins during a publicity stunt for the zoo. Offended by what she perceived as a public show of support for same - sex marriage, Marcia demanded Leslie 's resignation and appeared on the morning news program Pawnee Today to debate the matter with Leslie. She next appeared in "Time Capsule '', where Marcia objected to a proposal to include the Twilight novel in a Pawnee time capsule, claiming it included offensive sexual content and went against Christian values. Marcia reappeared in "Jerry 's Painting '', where she demanded the destruction of a painting that depicted Leslie as a bare - chested centaur. Condemning it as "government - funded animal porn '', she took the matter to the city arts commission, which agreed to destroy it because they do not want to offend anybody. Marcia planned to publicly burn the painting, but Leslie had it switched with a decoy painting and kept the original herself. She initially blocked Leslie 's sensible plan to teach safe sexual practices to senior citizens in Season 5, citing city laws that banned anything other than promoting abstinence (which had always only been applied to teenagers) but Leslie ignored the laws and proudly accepted a censure for doing so. One of Marcia 's odd personality quirks is that she seems completely unaware of the fact that her husband, Marshall, is possibly gay or bisexual, as he has a flamboyant personality and speaks with an effeminate voice. Marshall 's sexuality was never confirmed, but, when speaking to Chris Traeger, he smiles in a way that could be interpreted as attraction.
The Newport family are the owners of the Sweetums candy manufacturer in Pawnee and one of the city 's richest and most prominent families. The company has operated and thrived in the city for years, as indicated in the episode "Sweetums '', where Leslie screened 30 - year - old video footage of a then - young Nick Newport, Sr. discussing how corn syrup was used to fatten cattle at farms. By the time of Parks and Recreation, Nick Newport, Sr. (Christopher Murray) is an elderly man in a wheelchair so senile he can barely speak, and the company is run by his son Nick Newport, Jr. (Gary Weeks), who himself appears in Sweetums commercials along with his two children, Dakota (Harley Graham) and Denver (Ryan Hartwig). In "Sweetums '', the company formed a partnership with the city hall to run the concessions stands in Pawnee parks, and Nick Newport, Jr. unveiled their new, supposedly - healthy energy bars Nutriyums. He promotes the energy bars through commercials that use similar propagandistic techniques as the commercials of real - life corn refiners: they feature warm images of Nick Newport, Jr. with his dog Shoelace insisting corn syrup is "fine in moderation ''. Ann and Leslie held public forums to inform people the energy bars are not actually healthy, but the citizenry of Pawnee ultimately rejected their arguments and were won over by the charisma of Nick Newport, Jr. and his family, particularly when Denver announced they should look under their seats for free Sweetums candy. Nick Newport, Sr. appeared in the episode "94 Meetings '', where his young and attractive gold digger wife Jessica Wicks held his 85th birthday party at the Turnbill Mansion. Jessica made major alterations to the historic mansion, and Leslie unsuccessfully tried to intervene to stop her.
Newport (Paul Rudd) is Leslie 's chief opponent in her fourth season campaign for City Council. Bobby would appear to be the second son of Nick Newport, Sr., who paid $250,000 to his campaign manager (Jennifer Barkley) in order to get Bobby elected. Bobby Newport is friendly and superficially charming, but extremely naive and clueless (who at times acts mentally handicapped despite the fact that he is n't), and has gotten everything he ever wanted in life either by fiat or by whining / pleading for those things. When Leslie puts together a viral video that makes him look pathetic and stupid (in lieu of a nasty attack ad she ultimately refused to air), Bobby has a meeting where he complains she hurt his feelings, then asks her to drop out of the election and simply hand the office to him. He also tells Leslie he 'll give her an invitation to his victory party, and even offers to let her do the job for him once he 's elected; Leslie tells him that 's not going to happen, and that he needs to know his stuff or she 'll destroy him when they have a debate. During that debate, Bobby first appears to be in the lead by saying short quips rather than longer speeches, but Leslie eventually attacks his character and wins the debate. Afterwards, Bobby asks her if she would like to come to his house for a party. Later, he spends much of the campaign away from Pawnee, and gets involved in a sex scandal while vacationing in Majorca. He comes to think of Leslie as a really awesome lady, tells reporters people who do n't vote for him should definitely vote for her, and then says on TV that he 's very relieved he lost the election to her. He is later considered a possible candidate for interim mayor after Mayor Gunderson dies. In the extended edition of the series finale, he is revealed to have married Shauna Malwae - Tweep.
Trish Ianetta (April Marie Eden) is an attractive young woman who won the title Miss Pawnee in "Beauty Pageant ''. She gave unintelligent answers during the pageant and displayed no actual talent: during her talent portion, she did a baton twirling act that involved simply moving the baton around without twirling it. In describing herself, she says, "I 've been on YouTube. I love wearing bikinis at the beach with everyone there. '' Trish has been compared to Caitlin Upton, the 2007 Miss South Carolina Teen USA who made an incoherent response during the Miss Teen USA 2007 pageant. Based solely on her physical attractiveness, Trish was favored by the panel of judges, which included Tom Haverford and Jessica Wicks. Only Leslie objected to Trish and unsuccessfully argued for Susan, an intelligent and talented contestant who was less pretty. Trish made another appearance in "The Master Plan '', where she was among the girls Tom tried to flirt with during a night at the Snakehole Lounge bar.
Greg Pikitis (Cody Klop), a teenage boy living in Pawnee, Indiana, is Leslie 's mortal enemy. His first appearance is in "Greg Pikitis, '' where he has a very important role. He is convicted of crimes that Leslie tries to prove him guilty of, but he refuses to admit. Finally, Leslie hunts him down and he is given probation. His second appearance is in "Prom '' in season 6, where he plays the boyfriend of Leslie 's mentee.
Ron Dunn (Sam Elliott) is the former director of Eagleton 's parks department, the equivalent position of Ron Swanson 's in Pawnee. In the Season 6 episode "Doppelgangers '', he was brought over to the Pawnee offices along with other Eagleton employees when the towns merged. Swanson at first took a liking to Dunn, as the latter was mustachioed, taciturn and also named Ron. However, Dunn later revealed himself to be a hippie with New Age ideals, and Swanson found him insufferable. Dunn was laid off along with most other Eagleton employees (excepting Craig), which he took in stride. He reappeared in "Flu Season 2 '', where Swanson and a drunk Ben encounter him at night, and he helps Ben overcome his anger at his parents ' selling their vacation home. His final appearance is in the Season 7 episode "Two Funerals ''.
Tynnyfer (June Diane Raphael) is a former employee of Eagleton 's parks department whose position was the equivalent of April 's. In the Season 6 episode "Doppelgangers '', she was brought over during the Pawnee - Eagleton merger. She is a stereotypical vacuous, rich housewife. With the inevitability of one of them being laid off, April ingratiated herself to Tynnyfer by mirroring her personality and vocal inflections, and encouraged her to quit her job. Tynnyfer replied that she was planning on doing that anyway, as she wanted to move somewhere warmer while her husband served time in prison. April gave her an address in Miami that she claimed was hers, and said Tynnyfer was welcome to climb over the fence and stay there. April then revealed in a cutaway that the house belongs to Dwyane Wade and she got the address off the Internet.
Dr. Richard Nygard is a character who is mentioned several times, but never appears on screen. He is first mentioned to be Chris 's therapist, whom he sees near constantly. Chris 's anxiety improves under his care. Later Leslie recommends Dr. Nygard to a troubled Malwae - Tweep, but then comments that she is not completely certain he is n't an imaginary creation of Chris 's. Later, however, it is confirmed that he is a real person because he also acts as the off - screen therapist to Craig Middlebrooks.
"Pistol Pete '' Disellio (Tuc Watkins) is a local celebrity, only remembered for his last - second game - winning dunk in the annual Pawnee - Eagleton high school basketball game in 1992. As a middle - aged man he resents the fact that everyone in town still sees him this way. He appears in three episodes across Seasons 4 - 6, during which Leslie secures his endorsement for City Council, Ann considers him as a sperm donor, and Pete refuses to endorse Sweetums ' new sports drink.
First appearing in Season 3 's "Indianapolis '', Dennis Feinstein (Jason Mantzoukas) is at The Snakehole Lounge for his "Allergic '' cologne launch party. Tom Haverford attempts to pitch his cologne to Dennis while there. Dennis laughs at him when Tom sprays the cologne, telling him it smells terrible, and dismisses him. Later, Feinstein buys out JJ 's Diner, completely unsympathetic to the townspeople 's protests. He changed his original Italian name to something considered "more exotic in Pawnee. ''
Detlef Schrempf is a real - life retired basketball player for the Indiana Pacers who portrays himself on Parks and Recreation. He first appeared in "Telethon '', where Leslie invited him to make a guest appearance on a 24 - hour diabetes telethon. Tom picked him up from the airport, but first took him for a drink to the Snakehole Lounge, where Detlef proved so popular that bar owner Freddy would not let them leave. After Tom got drunk on two light beers, Detlef took him to the telethon, where he made his scheduled appearance. Detlef made another appearance in the third season finale "Li'l Sebastian '', where Tom and Jean - Ralphio hired him to work for their new entertainment company, Entertainment 720. His only job was to shoot basketballs around the office; Detlef tried giving them business advice, but they disregarded it. In Season 4, he remained at Entertainment 720, and was hanging out with Roy Hibbert, who had the free time to work with them due to the NBA lockout; both men roundly mocked Tom and Jean - Ralphio 's lack of business sense.
Prior to filming "Telethon '', Schrempf 's acting skills had been limited to appearances on the American comedy series Married... with Children and the German soap opera Gute Zeiten, schlechte Zeiten. Michael Schur said of his performance, "For a guy who literally never acted before in his life, he was really funny. ''
Eduardo (Carlo Mendez) was an attractive young Venezuelan man who briefly dated April Ludgate. The two met during April 's vacation to Venezuela and she brought him back to Pawnee, primarily to make Andy jealous. Eduardo, who only spoke Spanish, first appeared in "Go Big or Go Home '', where Andy vowed to continue pursuing April despite her new relationship. When April claimed in Spanish that Andy just described his plans to become a woman, Eduardo encouraged Andy to follow his dreams, surprising Andy. In "Time Capsule '', Andy and Eduardo started bonding, particularly over their mutual appreciation for the Dave Matthews Band. When April learned they were becoming friends, she became frustrated and broke up with Eduardo, who returned to Venezuela.
Frank Beckerson (John Larroquette) is a man who, in his youth, had a passionate love affair with Leslie Knope 's mother, Marlene Griggs - Knope. The two met when Marlene was 18 years old and Frank, a lifeguard, saved her life. They had a two - week affair before going their separate ways. Decades later, Marlene shared the story of her long - lost love with Leslie, and Leslie 's boyfriend Justin Anderson insisted they find Frank and surprise Marlene by reuniting the pair. Leslie was initially pleased with the idea, and together they tracked Frank to his new home in Illinois. However, the older Frank is an eccentric man who has long been unemployed and is extremely socially awkward, repeatedly vomiting in nervousness at the prospect of seeing Marlene. He also embarrassed Leslie by showing her naked photos of Marlene from her youth. Leslie tried to call off the reunion, but Justin insisted on going through with it, and they brought Frank to a Valentine 's Day senior citizen dance to meet Marlene. She was initially pleased to see him, but upon learning his life amounted to nothing, she rejected Frank, who publicly berated Marlene on a dance hall stage before storming off.
Lindsay Carlisle Shay (Parker Posey) is the parks and recreation director of Eagleton, Pawnee 's more upscale neighboring town. Once best friends with Leslie Knope, the two are now bitter rivals. Five years before the events of the third season, Lindsay worked in the Pawnee parks department with Leslie, and the two made a vow they would never leave their hometown. Leslie was offered the parks director job in Eagleton but did not accept it due to this pact. However, the job was subsequently offered to Lindsay and she accepted, which Leslie considered an act of betrayal. Although she does not admit it, Lindsay appears to harbor resentment toward Leslie for having been offered the job first. Since leaving Pawnee, Lindsay lost 35 pounds, had a nose job, adopted a slight aristocratic accent and developed a snobbish, nouveau riche personality. She regularly insults Leslie and others in Pawnee with passive - aggressive, condescending comments, and has condemned Pawnee as "a dirty little nightmare from which you 'll never wake up ''. Lindsay first appears in the episode "Eagleton '', where she built a fence directly through a park Pawnee and Eagleton share to keep the Pawnee children out of her town. Leslie tried to fight this action, culminating in Leslie and Lindsay fighting amid piles of garbage and both getting arrested. Leslie ultimately solved the problem by turning Pawnee 's side of the park into a wiffle ball field and making the fence its home run wall. Lindsay was ultimately impressed with Leslie 's solution and her work ethic, and she seemed to respond positively when Leslie offered a reconciliation.
Posey previously starred with Amy Poehler in the 2009 comedy film Spring Breakdown. She had been in discussions with the Parks and Recreation staff to make a guest appearance since the show debuted, and grew frustrated when it took several months before she received an invitation.
Raul Alejandro Bastilla Pedro de Veloso de Morana (Fred Armisen) most commonly referred to simply as Raul, is a parks official from Baraqua, the Venezuelan sister city of Pawnee. He appeared in the episode "Sister City '', when he and a delegation of Venezuelan officials visited Pawnee, where they were met by Leslie and her fellow parks department employees. Since he comes from a military state, Raul is accustomed to being treated like royalty, so he was unimpressed with the conditions of Pawnee and its citizens, who he treated rudely from the moment he arrived. He was particularly unsettled by Pawnee 's public forums, in which the residents loudly and angrily criticized their government officials; Raul explained he usually holds his meetings in fortresses, citadels or palaces, and that anyone who complains or does anything out of line is immediately thrown in jail. Leslie got annoyed with Raul 's insults, but he eventually offered her a check for $35,000, enough to completely fund her plans to turn a construction pit into a park. However, Raul explained a condition of the check was that Leslie must praise Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez and insult the United States, revealing they are part of what is called the Committee to Humiliate and Shame America. Leslie angrily ripped up the check and sent Raul and his delegation away.
Intern Johnny Quezada (JC Gonzalez) most commonly referred to simply as Johnny, is an internal officer of the official Baraqua Delegation, the Venezuelan sister city of Pawnee. He appeared in the episode "Sister City '', when Raul, Carlos, Johnny and a delegation of Venezuelan officials visited Pawnee, where they were met by Leslie and her fellow parks department employees. Since he comes from a military state, The Venezuelan delegation is accustomed to being treated like royalty, so they were unimpressed with the conditions of Pawnee and its citizens. Johnny is very excited about April Ludgate represented by Aubrey Plaza, Johnny invites her to go with him to his country and attend her like a princess full of luxuries and acts. During his stay, one night Johnny sends a car to April to pick her up and take her to be with him but she uses the car to go to the movies with her friends.
Jennifer Barkley (Kathryn Hahn) is an extremely successful political operative who has taken over the City Council campaign of Bobby Newport after being promised $250,000 by the Newport family. She awed Leslie by appearing in a picture where she 's sharing an egg salad with Colin Powell. Jennifer tells Leslie that she 's bored and took this job for the money, not much caring who wins and finding Bobby to be stupid. While it appears she 's being honest about this, she later trashes Leslie in a TV interview, edits Leslie 's successful YouTube campaign ad to make her sound like an idiot, and swipes Leslie 's building - ramp plan in favor of an electric lifts plan that leads Pawnee senior citizen powerbroker Ned Jones to endorse Bobby. Leslie later confronts Jennifer at her favorite restaurant, where Jennifer says bluntly she likes Leslie but has been hired to defeat her. Jennifer then gives Leslie some genuinely good advice about upcoming decisions, and tells the camera that she is doing so because she has no one to play chess with and "sometimes I need to play against myself ''. Jennifer appears to keep her work and her personal feelings separate, given that she 's able to relate to people when she 's not working a campaign. When Leslie appears on Perd Hapley 's show to reveal that Bobby Newport has been avoiding his hometown in favor of making out with a woman on a Majorca beach, Jennifer says that Bobby is in Europe to get business opportunities for Pawnee and the woman is an anti-landmine advocate. Afterwards, she tells Leslie and Ben that she "mostly '' made all that up, then details how she 'll be able to spin any outrage from them in Bobby 's favor. Leslie and Ben are left completely stunned by Jennifer 's mercenary brilliance. However, Leslie and Ben are finally able to knock her off balance a little bit after Jennifer goes on Perd 's TV show and says Leslie ordered a pet shelter closed (after Leslie had asked a retiring Councilman to reverse a funding cut for the Parks Department); after she 's overjoyed with Leslie 's idea that the Newport family use their wealth to fund the shelter, Leslie explains that she 'll accept the initial funding cut if Jennifer breaks a promise to stop airing "puppy killer '' ads, and that she 's fine with losing a week 's news momentum because she 's debating Bobby Newport after that and she 's going to ruin him. Jennifer 's expression makes it clear Leslie has finally scored some points against her. But after Leslie does score a huge victory over Bobby in the debate and pulls within 2 points of him in the polls, Jennifer strikes back by using the death of Nick Newport (and Leslie 's comments, made before she learned he had died, that Nick was a jerk) to force Leslie into several embarrassing mistakes. However, Jennifer finds out that she might not get any of her promised quarter - million fee due to her handshake deal with Nick, and watches as Bobby manages to tell the press that Leslie is an awesome person. The campaign having ended, Jennifer seeks out Chris Traeger and invites him to have sex with her, and he accepts. On Election Night, she tries and fails to keep pro-Newport voting machines in place, and later is rebuffed when she does n't want an automatic recount to be triggered by Bobby 's initial 21 - vote victory margin. Recognizing Ben 's talent on Leslie 's campaign, she offers Ben a job working with her on a Congressional campaign (he eventually accepts it) and has sex with Chris again but leaves Pawnee without saying goodbye to him. When that campaign successfully ends in Washington D.C., she offers Ben another campaign job for a governor candidate in Florida. She appears again in Season 6 ("Second Chunce '') to convince Leslie (as a paid favor to Ben) not to run for Dexhart 's seat in the city council, but to reach for the stars and to look for a more high - powered job. Leslie said it was the best present she could have received (from Ben). She makes several more appearances in the seventh and final season, encouraging Ben to run for governor of Indiana.
Buddy Wood (Sean Hayes) is a journalist from Indianapolis that does an annual special where he profiles five political candidates from around Indiana. The candidates he profiles tend to get elected, causing him to be described as a "lucky charm '' for people running for office. Buddy interviews Leslie, but this does n't go well because she is drunk, and Wood tries to turn the story to Pawnee not being as great as it once was. Leslie and Ben consider him to be rude, but they still drive to Buddy Wood 's house to beg him for either a second chance for an interview or for him to erase the negative footage; Buddy then sourly reveals that he never aired the interview because his bag was lost in Pawnee, unaware that one of the airport workers, who liked Leslie and was angered by Buddy 's rude attitude, took the interview tape and threw it into a dumpster.
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who got silver medal in rio olympic & in which sport | List of 2016 Summer Olympics medal winners - wikipedia
The 2016 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXXI Olympiad, were held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 5 August 2016 to 21 August 2016.
Approximately 11,000 athletes from 206 nations participated in 306 events in 42 Olympic sport disciplines.
(WR = World Record, OR = Olympic Record)
WR world record AR area record CR championship record GR games record NR national record OR Olympic record PB personal best SB season best WL world leading (in a given season)
* Indicates the athlete only competed in the preliminary heats and received metals.
WR world record AR area record CR championship record GR games record NR national record OR Olympic record PB personal best SB season best WL world leading (in a given season)
* Indicates the athlete only competed in the preliminary heats and received metals.
2016: Women 's RS: X details
2016: Laser Radial details
2016: Women 's 470 details
2016: 49erFX details
2016: Men 's RS: X details
2016: Laser details
2016: Finn details
2016: Men 's 470 details
2016: 49er details
2016: Nacra 17 details
AF African record AM Americas record AS Asian record ER European record OC Oceania record OR Olympic record WJR World Junior record WR World record NR National record (Any world record is necessarily also an Olympic, area, and national record. Area records (for continental regions) are also national records.)
Swimmers who participated in the heats only and received medals.
AF African record AM Americas record AS Asian record ER European record OC Oceania record OR Olympic record WJR World Junior record WR World record NR National record (Any world record is necessarily also an Olympic, area, and national record. Area records (for continental regions) are also national records.)
Swimmers who participated in the heats only and received medals.
On 18 August 2016, Kyrgyz weightlifter Izzat Artykov was stripped of his bronze medal in the men 's 69 kg event after testing positive for strychnine. Luis Javier Mosquera of Colombia, who had been the fourth - place finisher before Artykov 's disqualification, was moved into third place.
On 8 December 2016, the CAS disqualified weightlifter Gabriel Sîncrăian of Romania and boxer Misha Aloian of Russia.
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where does andrew harrison play in the nba | Andrew Harrison (basketball) - wikipedia
Andrew Michael Harrison (born October 28, 1994) is an American professional basketball player for the Memphis Grizzlies of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was considered one of the top recruits for 2013. He attended Travis High School in Fort Bend, Texas, and played college basketball for the University of Kentucky along with his twin brother, Aaron Harrison.
Harrison was widely regarded as a top five player in the class of 2013 with Andrew Wiggins, Jabari Parker, Julius Randle, and brother Aaron. On March 9, 2013, Harrison helped the Fort Bend Travis Tigers defeat South Grand Prairie 46 - 38 to win the Class 5A state title in Texas. The Tigers finished # 16 in the final ESPN 25 Power Rankings. Fort Bend Travis had lost in the Class 5A state title game the year before to Flower Mound Marcus.
Harrison played in both the 2013 Jordan Brand Classic and the 2013 McDonald 's All - American Boys Game.
In his two - year career at Kentucky, Harrison averaged 10.1 points, 2.7 rebounds and 3.8 assists in 79 games. Harrison and his brother, Aaron, helped lead Kentucky to successive Final Fours in 2014 and 2015, but came up empty handed both times after losing in the 2014 title game to Connecticut and 2015 the semi-finals to Wisconsin.
On April 9, 2015, Harrison declared for the NBA draft, forgoing his final two years of college eligibility. He was joined alongside his twin brother Aaron and fellow Kentucky teammates Karl - Anthony Towns, Willie Cauley - Stein, Trey Lyles, Devin Booker, and Dakari Johnson.
On June 25, 2015, Harrison was selected with the 44th overall pick by the Phoenix Suns in the 2015 NBA draft. His rights were then traded to the Memphis Grizzlies in exchange for Jon Leuer. He joined the Grizzlies for the 2015 NBA Summer League and averaged 5.4 points, 2.0 rebounds and 3.0 assists in five games. On October 31, 2015, he was acquired by the Iowa Energy of the NBA Development League, the affiliate team of the Grizzlies. He made his professional debut for the Energy on November 14 in a 98 -- 95 win over the Sioux Falls Skyforce, recording 11 points and seven assists in 29 minutes. On February 16, 2016, he scored a season - high 36 points in a 115 -- 105 loss to the Canton Charge. In 46 games for Iowa in 2015 -- 16, he averaged 18.5 points, 4.3 rebounds, 4.9 assists and 1.5 steals per game.
After re-joining the Memphis Grizzlies for the 2016 NBA Summer League, Harrison signed a multi-year deal with the team on July 12, 2016. On November 30, 2016, he scored a career - high 21 points in a 120 -- 105 loss to the Toronto Raptors. Harrison made his debut in NBA playoffs on April 15, 2017, scoring 10 points in just under 20 minutes off the bench in a 111 -- 82 loss to the San Antonio Spurs.
On February 7, 2018, Harrison scored a career - high 23 points in a 92 -- 88 loss to the Utah Jazz. A week later, he set a new career high with 28 points in a 121 -- 114 loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder. Harrison missed nine games in March 2018 due to a right wrist injury.
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what is the difference between ideomotor and ideational apraxia | Apraxia - wikipedia
Apraxia is a motor disorder caused by damage to the brain (specifically the posterior parietal cortex) in which the individual has difficulty with the motor planning to perform tasks or movements when asked, provided that the request or command is understood and he / she is willing to perform the task. The nature of the brain damage determines the severity, and the absence of sensory loss or paralysis helps to explain the level of difficulty.
The term comes from the Greek ἀ - a -
There are several types of apraxia including:
Apraxia is most often due to a lesion located in the dominant (usually left) hemisphere of the brain, typically in the frontal and parietal lobes. Lesions may be due to stroke, acquired brain injuries, or neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer 's disease or other dementias, Parkinson 's disease, or Huntington 's disease. It is also possible for apraxia to be caused by lesions in other areas of the brain including the non-dominant (usually right) hemisphere.
Ideomotor apraxia is typically due to a decrease in blood flow to the dominant hemisphere of the brain and particularly the parietal and premotor areas. It is frequently seen in patients with corticobasal degeneration.
Ideational apraxia has been observed in patients with lesions in the dominant hemisphere near areas associated with aphasia; however, more research is needed on ideational apraxia due to brain lesions. The localization of lesions in areas of the frontal and temporal lobes would provide explanation for the difficulty in motor planning seen in ideational apraxia as well as its difficulty to distinguish it from certain aphasias.
Constructional apraxia is often caused by lesions of the inferior non-dominant parietal lobe, and can be caused by brain injury, illness, tumor or other condition that can result in a brain lesion.
Although qualitative and quantitative studies exist, there is little consensus on the proper method to assess for apraxia. The criticisms of past methods include failure to meet standard psychometric properties as well as research - specific designs that translate poorly to non-research use.
The Test to Measure Upper Limb Apraxia (TULIA) is one method of determining upper limb apraxia through the qualitative and quantitative assessment of gesture production. In contrast to previous publications on apraxic assessment, the reliability and validity of TULIA was thoroughly investigated. The TULIA consists of subtests for the imitation and pantomime of non-symbolic ("put your index finger on top of your nose ''), intransitive ("wave goodbye '') and transitive ("show me how to use a hammer '') gestures. Discrimination (differentiating between well - and poorly performed tasks) and recognition (indicating which object corresponds to a pantomimed gesture) tasks are also often tested for a full apraxia evaluation.
However, there may not be a strong correlation between formal test results and actual performance in everyday functioning or activities of daily living (ADLs). A comprehensive assessment of apraxia should include formal testing, standardized measurements of ADLs, observation of daily routines, self - report questionnaires and targeted interviews with the patients and their relatives.
As stated above, apraxia should not be confused with aphasia; however, they frequently occur together. It has been stated that apraxia is so often accompanied by aphasia that many believe that if a person displays AOS; it should be assumed that the patient also has some level of aphasia.
Treatment for individuals with apraxia includes speech therapy, occupational therapy, and physical therapy. Generally, treatments for apraxia have received little attention for several reasons, including the tendency for the condition to resolve spontaneously in acute cases. Additionally, the very nature of the automatic - voluntary dissociation of motor abilities that defines apraxia means that patients may still be able to automatically perform activities if cued to do so in daily life. Nevertheless, research shows that patients experiencing apraxia have less functional independence in their daily lives, and that evidence for the treatment of apraxia is scarce. However, a literature review of apraxia treatment to date reveals that although the field is in its early stages of treatment design, certain aspects can be included to treat apraxia. One method is through rehabilitative treatment, which has been found to positively impact apraxia, as well as activities of daily living. In this review, rehabilitative treatment consisted of 12 different contextual cues, which were used in order to teach patients how to produce the same gesture under different contextual situations. Additional studies have also recommended varying forms of gesture therapy, whereby the patient is instructed to make gestures (either using objects or symbolically meaningful and non-meaningful gestures) with progressively less cuing from the therapist. It may be necessary for patients with apraxia to use a form of alternative and augmentative communication depending on the severity of the disorder. In addition to using gestures as mentioned, patients can also use communication boards or more sophisticated electronic devices if needed. No single type of therapy or approach has been proven as the best way to treat a patient with apraxia, since each patient 's case varies. However, one - on - one sessions usually work the best, with the support of family members and friends. Since everyone responds to therapy differently, some patients will make significant improvements, while others will make less progress. The overall goal for treatment of apraxia is to treat the motor plans for speech, not treating at the phoneme (sound) level. Research suggests that individuals with apraxia of speech should receive treatment that focuses on the repetition of target words and rate of speech. Research rerouted that the overall goal for treatment of apraxia should be to improve speech intelligibility, rate of speech and articulation of targeted words.
The prognosis for individuals with apraxia varies. With therapy, some patients improve significantly, while others may show very little improvement. Some individuals with apraxia may benefit from the use of a communication aid. However, many people with apraxia are no longer able to be independent. Those with limb - kinetic and / or gait apraxia should avoid activities in which they might injure themselves or others.
Occupational therapy, physical therapy, and play therapy may be considered as other references to support patients with apraxia. These team members could work along with the SLP to provide the best therapy for people with apraxia. However, because people with limb apraxia may have trouble directing their motor movements, occupational therapy for stroke or other brain injury can be difficult.
No medication has been shown useful for treating apraxia.
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how many contestants have won one million dollars on who wants to be a millionaire | List of who Wants to be a Millionaire? Top prize winners - wikipedia
Below is a list of the winners of the top prize for each international versions of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?. This list contains 221 winners.
Some players had answered the top prize question correctly, but did not actually win the prize because of ineligibility, legal issues, or elimination from a contest.
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what is the complete loss of an allele called | Fixation (population genetics) - wikipedia
In population genetics, fixation is the change in a gene pool from a situation where there exists at least two variants of a particular gene (allele) in a given population to a situation where only one of the alleles remains. In the absence of mutation or heterozygote advantage, any allele must eventually be lost completely from the population or fixed (permanently established at 100 % frequency in the population). Whether a gene will ultimately be lost or fixed is dependent on selection coefficients and chance fluctuations in allelic proportions. Fixation can refer to a gene in general or particular nucleotide position in the DNA chain (locus).
In the process of substitution, a previously non-existent allele arises by mutation and undergoes fixation by spreading through the population by random genetic drift or positive selection. Once the frequency of the allele is at 100 %, i.e. being the only gene variant present in any member, it is said to be "fixed '' in the population.
Similarly, genetic differences between taxa are said to have been fixed in each species.
The earliest mention of gene fixation in published works was found in Kimura 's 1962 paper "On Probability of Fixation of Mutant Genes in a Population ''. In the paper, Kimura uses mathematical techniques to determine the probability of fixation of mutant genes in a population. He showed that the probability of fixation depends on the initial frequency of the allele and the mean and variance of the gene frequency change per generation.
Under conditions of genetic drift alone, every finite set of genes or alleles has a "coalescent point '' at which all descendants converge to a single ancestor (i.e. they ' coalesce '). This fact can be used to derive the rate of gene fixation of a neutral allele (that is, one not under any form of selection) for a population of varying size (provided that it is finite and nonzero). Because the effect of natural selection is stipulated to be negligible, the probability at any given time that an allele will ultimately become fixed at its locus is simply its frequency p (\ displaystyle p) in the population at that time. For example, if a population includes allele A with frequency equal to 20 %, and allele a with frequency equal to 80 %, there is an 80 % chance that after an infinite number of generations a will be fixed at the locus (assuming genetic drift is the only operating evolutionary force).
For a diploid population of size N and neutral mutation rate μ (\ displaystyle \ mu), the initial frequency of a novel mutation is simply 1 / (2N), and the number of new mutations per generation is 2 N μ (\ displaystyle 2N \ mu). Since the fixation rate is the rate of novel neutral mutation multiplied by their probability of fixation, the overall fixation rate is 2 N μ × 1 2 N = μ (\ displaystyle 2N \ mu \ times (\ frac (1) (2N)) = \ mu). Thus, the rate of fixation for a mutation not subject to selection is simply the rate of introduction of such mutations.
For fixed population sizes, the probability of fixation for a new allele with selective advantage s can be approximated using the theory of branching processes. A population with nonoverlapping generations n = 0, 1, 2, 3,..., and with X n (\ displaystyle X_ (n)) genes (or "individuals '') at time n forms a Markov chain under the following assumptions. The introduction of an individual possessing an allele with a selective advantage corresponds to X 0 = 1 (\ displaystyle X_ (0) = 1). The number of offspring of any one individual must follow a fixed distribution and is independently determined. In this framework the generating functions p n (x) (\ displaystyle p_ (n) (x)) for each X n (\ displaystyle X_ (n)) satisfy the recursion relation p n (x) = p 1 (p n − 1 (x)) (\ displaystyle p_ (n) (x) = p_ (1) (p_ (n - 1) (x))) and can be used to compute the probabilities π n = P (X n = 0) (\ displaystyle \ pi _ (n) = P (X_ (n) = 0)) of no descendants at time n. It can be shown that π n = p 1 (π n − 1) (\ displaystyle \ pi _ (n) = p_ (1) (\ pi _ (n - 1))), and furthermore, that the π n (\ displaystyle \ pi _ (n)) converge to a specific value π (\ displaystyle \ pi), which is the probability that the individual will have no descendants. The probability of fixation is then 1 − π ≈ 2 s / σ 2 (\ displaystyle 1 - \ pi \ approx 2s / \ sigma ^ (2)) since the indefinite survival of the beneficial allele will permit its increase in frequency to a point where selective forces will ensure fixation.
Weakly deleterious mutations can fix in smaller populations through chance, and the probability of fixation will depend on rates of drift (~ 1 / N e (\ displaystyle 1 / N_ (e))) and selection (~ s (\ displaystyle s)), where N e (\ displaystyle N_ (e)) is the effective population size. The ratio N e s (\ displaystyle N_ (e) s) determines whether selection or drift dominates, and as long as this ratio is not too negative, there will be an appreciable chance that a mildly deleterious allele will fix. For example, in a diploid population of size N (\ displaystyle N), a deleterious allele with selection coefficient − s (\ displaystyle - s) has a probability fixation equal to (1 − e − 2 N e s / N) / (1 − e − 4 N e s) (\ displaystyle (1 - e ^ (- 2N_ (e) s / N)) / (1 - e ^ (- 4N_ (e) s))). This estimate can be obtained directly from Kimura 's 1962 work. Deleterious alleles with selection coefficients − s (\ displaystyle - s) satisfying 2 N e s ≪ 1 (\ displaystyle 2N_ (e) s \ ll 1) are effectively neutral, and consequently have a probability of fixation approximately equal to 1 / 2 N (\ displaystyle 1 / 2N).
Probability of fixation is also influenced by population size changes. For growing populations, selection coefficients are more effective. This means that beneficial alleles are more likely to become fixed, whereas deleterious alleles are more likely to be lost. In populations that are shrinking in size, selection coefficients are not as effective. Thus, there is a higher probability of beneficial alleles being lost and deleterious alleles being fixed. This is because if a beneficial mutation is rare, it can be lost purely due to chance of that individual not having offspring, no matter the selection coefficient. In growing populations, the average individual has a higher expected number of offspring, whereas in shrinking populations the average individual has a lower number of expected offspring. Thus, in growing populations it is more likely that the beneficial allele will be passed on to more individuals in the next generation. This continues until the allele flourishes in the population, and is eventually fixed. However, in a shrinking population it is more likely that the allele may not be passed on, simply because the parents produce no offspring. This would cause even a beneficial mutation to be lost.
Additionally, research has been done into the average time it takes for a neutral mutation to become fixed. Kimura and Ohta (1969) showed that a new mutation that eventually fixes will spend an average of 4N generations as a polymorphism in the population. Average time to fixation N is the effective population size, the number of individuals in an idealised population under genetic drift required to produce an equivalent amount of genetic diversity. Usually the population statistic used to define effective population size is heterozygosity, but others can be used.
Fixation rates can easily be modeled as well to see how long it takes for a gene to become fixed with varying population sizes and generations. For example, at The Biology Project Genetic Drift Simulation you can model genetic drift and see how quickly the gene for worm color goes to fixation in terms of generations for different population sizes.
Additionally, fixation rates can be modeled using coalescent trees. A coalescent tree traces the descent of alleles of a gene in a population. It aims to trace back to a single ancestral copy called the most recent common ancestor.
In 1969, Schwartz at Indiana University was able to artificially induce gene fixation into maize, by subjecting samples to suboptimal conditions. Schwartz located a mutation in a gene called Adh1, which when homozygous causes maize to be unable to produce alcohol dehydrogenase. Schwartz then subjected seeds, with both normal alcohol dehydrogenase activity and no activity, to flooding conditions and observed whether the seeds were able to germinate or not. He found that when subjected to flooding, only seeds with alcohol dehydrogenase activity germinated. This ultimately caused gene fixation of the Adh1 wild type allele. The Adh1 mutation was lost in the experimented population.
In 2014, Lee, Langley, and Begun conducted another research study related to gene fixation. They focused on Drosophila melanogaster population data and the effects of genetic hitchhiking caused by selective sweeps. Genetic hitchhiking occurs when one allele is strongly selected for and driven to fixation. This causes the surrounding areas to also be driven to fixation, even though they are not being selected for. By looking at the Drosophila melanogaster population data, Lee et al. found a reduced amount of heterogeneity within 25 base pairs of focal substitutions. They accredit this to small - scale hitchhiking effects. They also found that neighboring fixations that changed amino acid polarities while maintaining the overall polarity of a protein were under stronger selection pressures. Additionally, they found that substitutions in slowly evolving genes were associated with stronger genetic hitchhiking effects.
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obsolete term for one who keeps a fish tank | Russian jokes - wikipedia
Russian jokes (Russian: анекдо́ты, translit. anekdoty, lit. ' anecdotes '), the most popular form of Russian humor, are short fictional stories or dialogs with a punch line.
Russian joke culture includes a series of categories with fixed and highly familiar settings and characters. Surprising effects are achieved by an endless variety of plot twists. Russian jokes treat topics found everywhere in the world, including sex, politics, spousal relations, or mothers - in - law. This article discusses Russian joke subjects that are particular to Russian or Soviet culture. A major subcategory is Russian political jokes, which are discussed in a separate article.
Every category has numerous untranslatable jokes that rely on linguistic puns, wordplay, and the Russian language vocabulary of foul language. Below, (L) marks jokes whose humor value critically depends on intrinsic features of the Russian language.
Stierlitz is a fictional Soviet intelligence officer, portrayed by Vyacheslav Tikhonov in the popular Soviet TV series Seventeen Moments of Spring. In the jokes, Stierlitz interacts with various characters, most prominently his nemesis Müller. Usually two - liners spoofing the solemn style of the original TV voice - overs, the plot is resolved in grotesque plays on words or in parodies of the trains of thought and narrow escapes of the "original '' Stierlitz.
Poruchik (First Lieutenant) Dmitry Rzhevsky is a cavalry (Hussar) officer, a straightforward, unsophisticated, and immensely rude military type whose rank and standing nevertheless gain him entrance into high society. In the aristocratic setting of high - society formal balls, and 19th - century social sophistication with widespread use of the French language, Rzhevsky, famous for brisk but usually unintelligent remarks, keeps puncturing the decorum with his vulgarities. In the jokes, he is often seen interacting with characters from the novel War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy. The name is borrowed from a character from a popular 1960s comedy, Hussar Ballad (Russian: "Гусарская баллада ''), bearing little in common with the folklore hero. The 1967 film rendering of War and Peace contributed to the proliferation of the Rzhevsky jokes. Some researchers point out that many jokes of this kind are versions of 19th - century Russian army jokes, retold as a new series of jokes about Rzhevsky.
Rzhevsky (and supposedly all Hussars) has a casual, nonchalant attitude to love and sex:
He also gives his best advice to other Russian gentlemen on love matters. The Poruchik believes that the most straightforward approach is the most effective one:
A series of jokes in which Rzhevsky wants to impress a high society gathering with a witticism, but messes up:
A series of jokes is based on a paradox of vulgarity within a high society setting:
While successful narration of quite a few Russian jokes heavily depends on using sexual vulgarities ("Russian mat ''), Rzhevsky, with all his vulgarity, does not use heavy mat in traditional versions of his tales. One of his favorite words is "arse '' (which is considered rather mild among Russian vulgarities), and there is a series of jokes where Rzhevsky answers "arse '' to some innocent question (it is typical of Rzhevsky to blurt unromantic comments in the most romantic situations):
The essence of Rzhevsky 's peculiarity is captured in the following meta - joke:
This theme culminates in the following joke, sometimes called "the ultimate Hussar joke '':
Rabinovich, is an archetypal Russian Jew. He is a crafty, cynical, sometimes bitter type, skeptical about the Soviet government, and often too smart for his own good. He is sometimes portrayed as an otkaznik ("refusenik ''): someone who is refused permission to emigrate to Israel.
This following example explains Vladimir Putin 's remark about "Comrade Wolf '', describing the policies of the United States, that many non-Russians found cryptic.
Vovochka is the Russian equivalent of "Little Johnny ''. He interacts with his school teacher, Maria Ivanovna (shortened to "Marivanna '', a stereotypical female teacher 's name). "Vovochka '' is a diminutive form of "Vladimir '', creating the "little boy '' effect. His fellow students bear similarly diminutive names. This "little boy '' name is used in contrast with Vovochka 's wisecracking, adult, often obscene statements.
Vasily Ivanovich Chapayev (Russian: Василий Иванович Чапаев), a Red Army hero of the Russian Civil War, in the rank of Division Commander, was featured in a hugely popular 1934 biopic. The most common topics are the war with the monarchist White Army, Chapayev 's futile attempts to enroll into the Frunze Military Academy, and the circumstances of Chapayev 's death (officially, he was gunned down by the Whites while attempting to flee across the Ural River after a lost battle).
Chapayev is usually accompanied by his aide - de-camp Petka (Петька, "Peter ''), as well as Anka the Machine - Gunner (Анка - Пулемётчица), and political commissar Furmanov, all based on real people. (Being well known in Russian popular culture, Chapayev, Petka, and Anka were featured in a series of Russian adventure games released in the late 1990s and 2000s.)
A number of jokes involve characters from the famous short stories by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle about the private detective Sherlock Holmes and his friend Doctor Watson. The jokes appeared and became popular soon after The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson film series was broadcast on Soviet TV in the late 1970s to mid-1980s. In all these movies, the characters were brilliantly played by the same actors -- Vasily Livanov (as Sherlock Holmes) and Vitaly Solomin (as Watson). Quotes from these films are usually included in the jokes ("Элементарно, Ватсон! '' -- "Elementary, my dear Watson! ''). The narrator of such a joke usually tries to mimic the unique husky voice of Vasily Livanov. The standard plot of these jokes is a short dialog where Watson naïvely wonders about something, and Holmes finds a "logical '' explanation to the phenomenon in question. Occasionally the jokes also include other characters -- Mrs Hudson, the landlady of Holmes 's residence on Baker Street; or Sir Henry and his butler Barrymore from The Hound of the Baskervilles; or the detective 's nemesis Professor Moriarty.
The preceding joke won second place in the World 's funniest joke contest.
Some older jokes involve Fantômas, a fictional criminal and master of disguise from the French detective series Fantômas, which were once widely popular in the USSR. His archenemy is Inspector Juve, charged with catching him. Fantômas ' talent for disguise is usually the focus of the joke, allowing for jokes featuring all sorts of other characters:
New Russians (Russian: новые русские, Novye Russkie, the nouveau - riche), a class of arrogant, stupid, poorly - educated post-perestroika businessmen and gangsters, were a very common category of characters in Russian jokes of the 1990s. A common theme is the interaction of a New Russian in his archetypal shiny black Mercedes S600, arguing with a regular Russian in his modest Soviet - era Zaporozhets after their vehicles collide. The New Russian is often a violent criminal or at least speaks criminal argot, with a number of neologisms (or common words with skewed meaning) typical among New Russians. In a way, these anecdotes are a continuation of the Soviet - era series about Georgians, who were then depicted as extremely wealthy. The physical stereotype of the New Russians is often that of overweight men with short haircuts, dressed in thick gold chains and crimson jackets, with their fingers in the horns gesture, cruising around in the "600 Merc '' and showing off their wealth. Jokes about expensive foreign sports cars can be compared to German Manta jokes.
Jokes set in the animal kingdom also feature characters, which draw their roots in the old Slavic fairy tales, where animals are portrayed as sapient beings with a stereotypical behavior, such as the violent Wolf; the sneaky (female) Fox; the cocky, cowardly Hare; the strong, simple - minded Bear; the multi-dimensional Hedgehog; and the Lion, king of the animal kingdom. In the Russian language all objects, animate and inanimate, have a (grammatical) gender -- masculine, feminine, or neuter. The reader should assume that the Wolf, the Bear, the Hare, the Lion, and the Hedgehog are males, whereas the Fox (Vixen) is a female:
Animals in Russian jokes are and were very well aware of politics in the realm of humans:
Animal jokes are often fables, i.e. their punchline is (or eventually becomes) a kind of a maxim.
Aside from mammals, a rather common non-human is the "Golden Fish '', who asks the catcher to release her in exchange for three wishes. The first Russian instance of this appeared in Alexander Pushkin 's The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish. In jokes, the Fisherman may be replaced by a representative of a nationality or ethnicity, and the third wish usually makes the punch line of the joke.
A similar type of joke involves a wish - granting Genie, the main difference being that in the case of the Golden Fish the Fisherman suffers from his own stupidity or greed, while the Genie is known for ingeniously twisting an interpretation of the wish to frustrate the grantee.
These often revolve around the supposition that the vast majority of Russian and Soviet militsioners (policemen, now called politzia) accept bribes. Also, they are not considered to be very bright.
Imperial Russia had been multi-ethnic for many centuries, and this situation continued throughout the Soviet period, and continues still. Throughout history, several ethnic stereotypes have developed, often in common with those views by other ethnicities (usually except for the ethnicity in question, but not always).
Chukchi, the native people of Chukotka, the most remote northeast corner of Russia, are a common minority targeted for generic ethnic jokes in Russia. In jokes, they are depicted as generally primitive, uncivilized, and simple - minded, but clever in a naive kind of way. A propensity for constantly saying odnako (equivalent to "however '', depending on context) is a staple of Chukcha jokes. Often a straight man of the Chukcha in the jokes is a Russian geologist.
Chukchi do not miss their chance to retort:
Chukchi, due to their innocence, often see the inner truth of situations:
Ukrainians are depicted as rustic, stingy, and inordinately fond of salted salo (pork back fat); their accent, which is imitated in jokes, is perceived as funny.
Ukrainians are perceived to bear a grudge against Russians (derided as Moskali by Ukrainians):
Georgians are almost always depicted as stupid, greedy, hot - blooded, or sexually addicted, and in some cases, all four at the same time. A very loud and theatrical Georgian accent, including grammatical errors considered typical of Georgians, and occasional Georgian words are considered funny to imitate in Russian and often becomes a joke in itself.
In some jokes, Georgians are portrayed as rich, because in Soviet times they were also perceived as profiting immensely from black market businesses. There is a humorous expression deriving from the custom in police reports of referring to them as "persons of Caucasian nationality '' (Russian: лицо кавказской национальности). Since the Russian word for "person '' in the formal sense, (Russian: лицо), is the same as the word for "face '', this allows a play on words about "faces of Caucasian nationality ''. In Russia itself, most people see "persons of Caucasian nationality '' mostly at marketplaces selling fruits and flowers. In recent years, many old jokes about rich Georgians are being recast in terms of "New Russians ''.
Estonians and Finns are depicted as having no sense of humor and being stubborn, taciturn, and especially slow. The Estonian accent, especially its sing - song tune and the lack of genders in grammar, forms part of the humor. Their common usage of long vowels and consonants both in speech and orthography (e.g. words such as Tallinn, Saaremaa) also led to the stereotype of being slow in speech, thinking, and action. In the everyday life, a person may be derisively called a "hot - headed Estonian fellow '' (or in similar spirit, a "hot - tempered Finnish bloke '', a phrase popularized by the 1995 Russian comedy Peculiarities of the National Hunt) to emphasize tardiness or lack of temperament. Indeed, Estonians play a similar role in Soviet humor to that of Finns in Scandinavian jokes.
Finnish political scientist Ilmari Susiluoto, also an author of three books on Russian humor, writes that Finns and Russians understand each other 's humor. "Being included in a Russian anecdote is a privilege that Danes or Dutchmen have not attained. These nations are too boring and unvaried to rise into the consciousness of a large country. But the funny and slightly silly, stubborn Finns, the Chukhnas do. ''
Finns share with Chukchi their ability to withstand cold:
Jewish humor is a highly developed subset of Russian humor, largely based on the Russian Jews ' self - image. These Jewish anecdotes are not the same as anti-Semitic jokes. As some Jews say themselves, Jewish jokes are being made by either anti-Semites or the Jews themselves. Instead, whether told by Jews or non-Jewish Russians, these jokes show cynicism, self - irony, and wit that is characteristic of Jewish humor both in Russia and elsewhere in the world (see Jewish humor). The jokes are usually told with a characteristic Jewish accent (stretching out syllables, parodying the uvular trill of "R '', etc.) and some peculiarities of sentence structure calqued into Russian from Yiddish. Many of these jokes are set in Odessa, and to some extent the phrase "Odessa humor '' is synonymous with "Jewish jokes, '' even if the characters do n't have Jewish names and even their religion / ethnicity is never mentioned. To Russians, it is sufficient to begin a joke with: "So, an Odessan woman gets on the bus... '', and her Jewishness is implicitly understood by the listener.
During the 1967 Arab -- Israeli War sympathies of the Soviet Jews were on the side of the Israel despite Egypt under Nasser being officially a Soviet ally, "on the Socialist path of development '':
Common jokes center on the enormous size of the Chinese population, the Chinese language and the perceptions of the Chinese as cunning, industrious, and hard - working. Other popular jokes revolve around the belief that the Chinese are capable of amazing feats by primitive means, such as the Great Leap Forward.
A good many of the jokes are puns based on the fact that a widespread Chinese syllable (written as "hui '' in pinyin) looks very similar to the obscene Russian word for penis. For this reason, since about 1956 the Russian - Chinese dictionaries render the Russian transcription of this syllable as "хуэй '' (huey) (which actually is closer to the correct Chinese pronunciation). The most embarrassing case for the Chinese - Soviet friendship probably is the word "socialism '' (社会 主义; pinyin: shè huì zhǔ yì), rendered previously as шэ - хуй - чжу - и. The following humorous possibilities for the misunderstanding of the Chinese syllable "Hui '' are derived from Aarons 's (2012) text:
Russians are a stereotype in Russian jokes themselves when set next to other stereotyped ethnicities. Thus, the Russian appearing in a triple joke with two Westerners, German, French, American or Englishman, will provide for a self - ironic punchline depicting himself as simple - minded and negligently careless but physically robust, which often ensures that he retains the upper hand over his less naive Western counterparts. Another common plot is a Russian holding a contest with technologically - superior opponents (usually, an American and a Japanese) and winning with sheer brute force or a clever trick.
Like elsewhere in the world, a good many of jokes in Russia are based on puns. Other jokes depend on grammatical and linguistic oddities and irregularities in the Russian language:
A similar story by Mikhail Zoshchenko involves yet another answer: after great care and multiple drafts to get the genitive case correct, including the substitution of "five штук (pieces) '' for "five pokers '', the response comes back: the warehouse has no kocherezhek (fully regular G pl of kocherezhka, "little poker '').
The Russian word for "testicle '' is a diminutive of "egg '', so the slang word is the non-diminutive form (yaitso, cf. Spanish huevo). A large variety of jokes capitalizes on this, ranging from predictably silly to surprisingly elegant:
Some religious jokes make fun of the clergy. They tend to be told in quasi-Church Slavonic, with its archaisms and the stereotypical okanye (a clear pronunciation of the unstressed / o / as / o /; Modern Russian or "Muscovite '' speech reduces unstressed / o / to / a /). Clergymen in these jokes always bear obsolete names of distinctively Greek origin, and speak in basso profundo.
Other jokes touching on religion involve Heaven or Hell.
Probably any nation large enough to have an army has a good many of its own barracks jokes. Other than plays on words, these jokes are usually internationally understandable. In the Soviet Union, military service was universal (for males), so most people could relate to them. In these jokes a praporschik (warrant officer) is an archetypal bully, possessed of limited wit.
A. Dmitriev illustrates his sociological essay "Army Humor '' with a large number of military jokes, mostly of Russian origin.
There is an enormous number of one - liners, supposedly quoting a praporschik:
The punchline "from the fence to lunchtime '' has become a well - known Russian cliché for an assignment with no defined ending (or for doing something forever).
Some of them are philosophical and apply not just to warrant officers:
A persistent theme in Russian military / police / law - enforcement - related jokes is the ongoing conflict between the representatives of the armed forces / law enforcement, and the "intelligentsia '', i.e. well - educated members of society. Therefore, this theme is a satire of the image of military / law - enforcement officers and superiors as dumb and distrustful of "those educated smart - alecks '':
Until shortly before perestroika, all fit male students of higher education had obligatory military ROTC courses from which they graduate as junior officers in the military reserve. A good many of military jokes originated there:
Sometimes, these silly statements can cross over, intentionally or unintentionally, into the realm of actual wit:
There are jokes about Russian nuclear missile forces and worldwide disasters because of lack of basic army discipline:
There is also eternal mutual disdain between servicemen and civilians:
Medical jokes are widespread. Often, they consist of a short dialogue of doctor or nurse with a patient:
The phrase "The doc said ' to the morgue ' -- to the morgue it is! '' (Доктор сказал "в морг '' -- значит в морг!) became a well - known Russian cliché, meaning that something unpleasant must be done.
The life of most Russian university students is characterized by many people coming from small towns and crowded into grim dormitories. State universities (the only type of universities in existence during Soviet times) are notable for not caring about the students ' comfort or the quality of their food. Most jokes make fun of these "interesting '' conditions, inventive evasion by students of their academic duties or lecture attendance, constant shortage of money, and sometimes the alcoholic tendencies of engineering students.
Also, there are a number of funny student obsessions such as zachyotka (a book of grade transcripts, carried by every student), halyava (a chance of getting something (in this context, good or acceptable grades) without any effort), and getting a stipend for good grades.
A large number of jokes are about an exam: these are usually a dialogue between the professor and the student, based on a set of questions written on a bilet (a small sheet of paper, literally "ticket ''), which the student draws at random in the exam room, and is given some time to prepare answers.
Other jokes use the fact that many (or even most) students really study only when the exam is in the imminent future (in one or two days), otherwise spending time with more interesting activities such as parties.
Cowboy jokes are a popular series about a Wild West full of trigger - happy simple - minded cowboys, and the perception that everything is big in Texas. It is often difficult to guess whether these are imported or genuinely Russian inventions:
A joke making fun of American films and their pirated English - to - Russian dubbing:
There is a series of jokes set in mental hospitals, some of which have a political subtext:
A large number of jokes are about distrofiks, people with severe muscular dystrophy. The main themes are the extreme weakness, slowness, gauntness, and emaciation of a dystrophic patient. Some of the jibes originated in jokes about Gulag camps. Alexander Solzhenitsyn, in his Gulag Archipelago, wrote that dystrophy was a typical phase in the life of a Gulag inmate, and quotes the following joke:
The very use of obscene Russian vocabulary, called mat, can enhance the humorous effect of a joke by its emotional impact. Due to the somewhat different cultural attitude to obscene slang, such an effect is difficult to render in English. The taboo status often makes mat itself the subject of a joke. One typical plot goes as follows.
(L) Another series of jokes exploits the richness of the mat vocabulary, which can give a substitute to a great many words of everyday conversation. Other languages often use profanity in a similar way (like the English fuck, for example), but the highly synthetic grammar of Russian provides for the unambiguity and the outstandingly great number of various derivations from a single mat root. Emil Draitser points out that linguists explain that the linguistic properties of the Russian language rich in affixes allows for expression of a wide variety of feelings and notions using only a few core mat words:
As an ultimate joke in this series, the goal is to apply such substitution to as many words of a sentence as possible while keeping it meaningful. The following dialog at a construction site between a foreman and a worker retains a clear meaning even with all of its 14 words being derived from the single obscene word khuy. Russian language proficiency is needed to understand this fully: Word - by - word:
Possible, but incomplete translation:
After this example one may readily believe the following semi-apocryphal story. An inspection was expected at a Soviet plant to award it the Quality Mark, so the administration prohibited the usage of mat. On the next day the productivity dropped abruptly. People 's Control figured out the reason: miscommunication. It turned out that workers knew all the tools and parts only by their mat - based names: khuyovina, pizdyulina, khuynyushka, khuyatina, etc. (all of these are loosely translated as "thing ''); the same went for technological processes: otkhuyachit (to detach, cut, disconnect), zayebenit (to push through, force into), prikhuyachit (to attach, connect, bond, nail), khuynut (to move slightly, throw, pour), zakhuyarit (to throw far away, to put in deeply) etc.
Another story, possibly apocryphal, relates that during the time of the Space Race the CIA placed a bug in a Soviet rocket factory to gain intelligence about the manufacturing process. After six months of careful listening, the Americans had learned that Soviet rockets seemed to consist of khuyevina, pizd'ulina, and a poyeben ' connecting them together, with all three parts being completely interchangeable.
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in what region was art most closely connected with the religions of buddhism and hinduism | Buddhism and Hinduism - wikipedia
Hinduism and Buddhism have common origins in the Ganges culture of northern India during the so - called "second urbanisation '' around 500 BC. They have shared parallel beliefs that have existed side by side, but also pronounced differences.
Buddhism attained prominence in the Indian subcontinent as it was supported by royal courts, but started to decline after the Gupta era, and virtually disappeared from India in the 11th century CE, except in some pockets of India. It has continued to exist outside India and is the major religion in several Asian countries.
Certain Buddhist teachings appear to have been formulated in response to ideas presented in the early Upanishads -- in some cases concurring with them, and in other cases criticizing or re-interpreting them.
The influence of Upanishads, the earliest philosophical texts of Hindus, on Buddhism has been a subject of debate among scholars. While Radhakrishnan, Oldenberg and Neumann were convinced of Upanishadic influence on the Buddhist canon, Eliot and Thomas highlighted the points where Buddhism was opposed to Upanishads.
Buddhism may have been influenced by some Upanishadic ideas, it however discarded their orthodox tendencies. In Buddhist texts he is presented as rejecting avenues of salvation as "pernicious views ''. Later schools of Indian religious thought were influenced by this interpretation and novel ideas of the Buddhist tradition of beliefs.
In later years, there is significant evidence that both Buddhism and Hinduism were supported by Indian rulers, regardless of the rulers ' own religious identities. Buddhist kings continued to revere Hindu deities and teachers, and many Buddhist temples were built under the patronage of Hindu rulers. This was because never has Buddhism been considered an alien religion to that of Hinduism in India, but as only one of the many strains of Hinduism. Kalidas ' work shows the ascension of Hinduism at the expense of Buddhism. By the eighth century, Shiva and Vishnu had replaced Buddha in pujas of royalty.
The Buddha approved many of the terms already used in philosophical discussions of his era; however, many of these terms carry a different meaning in the Buddhist tradition. For example, in the Samaññaphala Sutta, the Buddha is depicted presenting a notion of the "three knowledges '' (tevijja) -- a term also used in the Vedic tradition to describe knowledge of the Vedas -- as being not texts, but things that he had experienced (these are not noble truths). The true "three knowledges '' are said to be constituted by the process of achieving enlightenment, which is what the Buddha is said to have achieved in the three watches of the night of his enlightenment.
Karma (Sanskrit: कर्म from the root kṛ, "to do '') is a word meaning action or activity and often implies its subsequent results (also called karma - phala, "the fruits of action ''). It is commonly understood as a term to denote the entire cycle of cause and effect as described in the philosophies of a number of cosmologies, including those of Buddhism and Hinduism.
Karma is a central part of Buddhist teachings. In Buddha 's teaching, karma is a direct intentional result of a person 's word, thought and / or action in life. In pre-Buddhist Vedic culture, karma has to do with whether or not the ritualistic actions are correctly performed. Little emphasis is placed on moral conduct in the early Vedic conception. In Buddhism, by contrast, a person 's words, thoughts and / or actions form the basis for good and bad karma: sila (moral conduct) goes hand in hand with the development of meditation and wisdom. Buddhist teachings carry a markedly different meaning from pre-Buddhist conceptions of karma.
Dharma (Sanskrit, Devanagari: धर्म or Pāli Dhamma, Devanagari: धम्म) means Natural Law, Reality or Duty, and with respect to its significance for spirituality and religion might be considered the Way of the Higher Truths. A Hindu appellation for Hinduism itself is Sanātana Dharma, which translates as "the eternal dharma. '' Similarly, Buddhadharma is an appellation for Buddhism. The general concept of dharma forms a basis for philosophies, beliefs and practices originating in India. The four main ones are Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism (Jaina Dharma), and Sikhism (Sikha Dharma), all of whom retain the centrality of dharma in their teachings. In these traditions, beings that live in harmony with dharma proceed more quickly toward, according to the tradition, Dharma Yukam, Moksha, or Nirvana (personal liberation). Dharma can refer generally to religious duty, and also mean social order, right conduct, or simply virtue.
The term "Buddha '' too has appeared in Hindu scriptures before the birth of Gautama Buddha. In the Vayu Purana, sage Daksha calls Lord Shiva as Buddha.
A mantra (मन्त्र) is a religious syllable or poem, typically from the Sanskrit language. Their use varies according to the school and philosophy associated with the mantra. They are primarily used as spiritual conduits, words or vibrations that instill one - pointed concentration in the devotee. Other purposes have included religious ceremonies to accumulate wealth, avoid danger, or eliminate enemies. Mantras existed in the historical Vedic religion, Zoroastrianism and the Shramanic traditions, and thus they remain important in Buddhism and Jainism as well as other faiths of Indian origin such as Sikhism.
The practice of Yoga is intimately connected to the religious beliefs and practices of both Hinduism and Buddhism. However, there are distinct variations in the usage of yoga terminology in the two religions.
In Hinduism, the term "Yoga '' commonly refers to the eight limbs of yoga as defined in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, written some time after 100 BCE, and means "yoke '', with the idea that one 's individual atman, or soul, would yoke or bind with the monistic entity that underlies everything (brahman). Yoga in Hinduism also known as being ' complex ', based on yoking (integrating). Yoga defines a specific process, it has an emphasis on knowledge and practice, as well as being known to be ' mature ' and difficult. The most basic meaning of this Sanskrit term is with technique. The technique of the different forms of yoga is what makes the practice meaningful. Yoga is not an easy or simple practice, viyoga is what is described as simple. Yoga is difficult in the fact of displaying the faith and meaning of Hinduism. Many Hindus tend to pick and choose between the five forms of yoga because of the way they live their life and how they want to practice it in the form they are most connected to.
In the Vajrayana Buddhism of Tibet, however, the term "Yoga '' is simply used to refer to any type of spiritual practice; from the various types of tantra (like Kriyayoga or Charyayoga) to ' Deity yoga ' and ' guru yoga '. In the early translation phase of the Sutrayana and Tantrayana from India, China and other regions to Tibet, along with the practice lineages of sadhana, codified in the Nyingmapa canon, the most subtle ' conveyance ' (Sanskrit: yana) is Adi Yoga (Sanskrit). A contemporary scholar with a focus on Tibetan Buddhism, Robert Thurman writes that Patanjali was influenced by the success of the Buddhist monastic system to formulate his own matrix for the version of thought he considered orthodox.
There is a range of common terminology and common descriptions of the meditative states that are seen as the foundation of meditation practice in both Hindu Yoga and Buddhism. Many scholars have noted that the concepts of dhyana and samādhi - technical terms describing stages of meditative absorption -- are common to meditative practices in both Hinduism and Buddhism. Most notable in this context is the relationship between the system of four Buddhist dhyana states (Pali: jhana) and the samprajnata samadhi states of Classical Yoga. Also, many (Tibetan) Vajrayana practices of the generation stage and completion stage work with the chakras, inner energy channels (nadis) and kundalini, called tummo in Tibetan.
Despite the similarities in terminology there exist differences between the two religions. There is no evidence to show that Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste.
The major differences are mentioned below.
Gautama Buddha was very ambiguous about the existence of a Creator Deity Brahman and Eternal Self Atman and rejected them both. Various sources from the Pali Cannon and others suggest that the Buddha taught that belief in a Creator deity was not essential to attaining liberation from suffering, and perhaps chose to ignore theological questions because they were "fascinating to discuss, '' and frequently brought about more conflict and anger than peace. The Buddha did not deny the existence of the popular gods of the Vedic pantheon, but rather argued that these devas, who may be in a more exalted state than humans, are still nevertheless trapped in the same samsaric cycle of suffering as other beings and are not necessarily worthy of veneration and worship. The focus of the Noble Eightfold Path, while inheriting many practices and ideologies from the previous Hindu yogic tradition, deviates from the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita and earlier works of the Dharmic Religions in that liberation (Nirvana or Moksha) is not attained via unity with Brahman (the Godhead), Self - realization or worship. Rather, the Buddha 's teaching centers around what Eknath Easwaran described as a "psychology of desire, '' that is attaining liberation from suffering by extermination of self - will, selfish desire and passions. This is not to say however, that such teachings are absent from the previous Hindu tradition, rather they are singled out and separated from Vedic Theology.
The Buddha (as portrayed in the Pali scriptures, the agamas) set an important trend in nontheism in Buddhism by establishing a somewhat non-theistic view on the notion of an omnipotent God, generally ignoring the issue as being irrelevant to his teachings. Nevertheless, in many passages in the Tripitaka gods (devas in Sanskrit) are mentioned and specific examples are given of individuals who were reborn as a god, or gods who were reborn as humans. Buddhist cosmology recognizes various levels and types of gods, but none of these gods is considered the creator of the world or of the human race.
Buddhist canonical views about God and the priests are:
13. Well then, Vasettha, those ancient sages versed in ancient scriptures, the authors of the verses, the utterers of the verses, whose, ancient form of words so chanted, uttered, or composed, the priests of today chant over again or repeat; intoning or reciting exactly as has been intoned or recited - to wit, Atthaka, Vamaka, Vamadeva, Vessamitta, Yamataggi, Angirasa, Bharadvaja, Vasettha, Kassapa, and Bhagu (11) -- did even they speak thus, saying: "We know it, we have seen it '', where the creator is whence the creator is?
Scholar - monk Walpola Rahula writes that man depends on God "for his own protection, safety, and security, just as a child depends on his parent. '' He describes this as a product of "ignorance, weakness, fear, and desire, '' and writes that this "deeply and fanatically held belief '' for man 's consolation is "false and empty '' from the perspective of Buddhism. He writes that man does not wish to hear or understand teachings against this belief, and that the Buddha described his teachings as "against the current '' for this reason. He also wrote that for self - protection man created God and for self - preservation man created "soul ''.
In later Mahayana literature, however, the idea of an eternal, all - pervading, all - knowing, immaculate, uncreated and deathless Ground of Being (the dharmadhatu, inherently linked to the sattvadhatu, the realm of beings), which is the Awakened Mind (bodhicitta) or Dharmakaya ("body of Truth '') of the Buddha himself, is attributed to the Buddha in a number of Mahayana sutras, and is found in various tantras as well. In some Mahayana texts, such a principle is occasionally presented as manifesting in a more personalised form as a primordial buddha, such as Samantabhadra, Vajradhara, Vairochana, Amitabha and Adi - Buddha, among others.
In later tradition such as Mahayana Buddhism in Japan, the Shingon Fire Ritual (Homa / Yagna) and Urabon (Sanskrit: Ullambana) derives from Hindu traditions. Similar rituals are common in Tibetan Buddhism. Both Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism share common rites, such as the purification rite of Homa (Havan, Yagna in Sanskrit), prayers for the ancestors and deceased (Ullambana in Sanskrit, Urabon in Japanese).
The Buddha repudiated the caste distinctions of the Brahmanical religion, by offering ordination to all regardless of caste.
While the caste system constitutes an assumed background to the stories told in Buddhist scriptures, the sutras do not attempt to justify or explain the system. In Aggañña Sutta, Buddha elaborates that if any of the caste does the following deeds: killing, taking anything which is not given, take part in sexual misconduct, lying, slandering, speaking rough words or nonsense, greedy, cruel, and practice wrong beliefs; people would still see that they do negative deeds and therefore are not worthy or deserving respect. They will even get into trouble from their own deeds, whatever their caste (Brahmin, Khattiya, Vessa, and Sudda) might be.
In Buddhist cosmology, there are 31 planes of existence within samsara. Beings in these realms are subject to rebirth after some period of time, except for realms of the Non-Returners. Therefore, most of these places are not the goal of the holy life in the Buddha 's dispensation. Buddhas are beyond all these 31 planes of existence after parinibbana. Hindu texts mostly mentions the devas in Kamma Loka. Only the Hindu god Brahma can be found in the Rupa loka. There are many realms above the brahma realm that are accessible through meditation. Those in Brahma realms are also subject to rebirth according to the Buddha.
To have an idea of the differences between Buddhism and pre-existing beliefs and practices during this time, we can look into the Samaññaphala Sutta in the Digha Nikaya of the Pali Canon. In this sutra, a king of Magadha listed the teachings from many prominent and famous spiritual teachers around during that time. He also asked the Buddha about his teaching when visiting him. The Buddha told the king about the practices of his spiritual path. The list of various practices he taught disciples as well as practices he does n't encourage are listed. The text, rather than stating what the new faith was, emphasized what the new faith was not. Contemporaneous religious traditions were caricatured and then negated. Though critical of prevailing religious practices and social institutions on philosophical grounds, early Buddhist texts exhibit a reactionary anxiety at having to compete in religiously plural societies. Below are a few examples found in the sutra:
Whereas some priests and contemplatives... are addicted to high and luxurious furnishings such as these -- over-sized couches, couches adorned with carved animals, long - haired coverlets, multi-colored patchwork coverlets, white woolen coverlets, woolen coverlets embroidered with flowers or animal figures, stuffed quilts, coverlets with fringe, silk coverlets embroidered with gems; large woolen carpets; elephant, horse, and chariot rugs, antelope - hide rugs, deer - hide rugs; couches with awnings, couches with red cushions for the head and feet -- he (a bhikkhu disciple of the Buddha) abstains from using high and luxurious furnishings such as these.
Whereas some priests and contemplatives... are addicted to scents, cosmetics, and means of beautification such as these -- rubbing powders into the body, massaging with oils, bathing in perfumed water, kneading the limbs, using mirrors, ointments, garlands, scents,... bracelets, head - bands, decorated walking sticks... fancy sunshades, decorated sandals, turbans, gems, yak - tail whisks, long - fringed white robes -- he abstains from... means of beautification such as these.
Whereas some priests and contemplatives... are addicted to talking about lowly topics such as these -- talking about kings, robbers, ministers of state; armies, alarms, and battles; food and drink; clothing, furniture, garlands, and scents; relatives; vehicles; villages, towns, cities, the countryside; women and heroes; the gossip of the street and the well; tales of the dead; tales of diversity (philosophical discussions of the past and future), the creation of the world and of the sea, and talk of whether things exist or not -- he abstains from talking about lowly topics such as these...
Whereas some priests and contemplatives... are addicted to running messages and errands for people such as these -- kings, ministers of state, noble warriors, priests, householders, or youths (who say), ' Go here, go there, take this there, fetch that here ' -- he abstains from running messages and errands for people such as these.
Whereas some priests and contemplatives... engage in scheming, persuading, hinting, belittling, and pursuing gain with gain, he abstains from forms of scheming and persuading (improper ways of trying to gain material support from donors) such as these. "Whereas some priests and contemplatives... maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as: reading marks on the limbs (e.g., palmistry); reading omens and signs; interpreting celestial events (falling stars, comets); interpreting dreams; reading marks on the body (e.g., phrenology); reading marks on cloth gnawed by mice; offering fire oblations, oblations from a ladle, oblations of husks, rice powder, rice grains, ghee, and oil; offering oblations from the mouth; offering blood - sacrifices; making predictions based on the fingertips; geomancy; laying demons in a cemetery; placing spells on spirits; reciting house - protection charms; snake charming, poison - lore, scorpion - lore, rat - lore, bird - lore, crow - lore; fortune - telling based on visions; giving protective charms; interpreting the calls of birds and animals -- he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.
Whereas some priests and contemplatives... maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as: determining lucky and unlucky gems, garments, staffs, swords, spears, arrows, bows, and other weapons; women, boys, girls, male slaves, female slaves; elephants, horses, buffaloes, bulls, cows, goats, rams, fowl, quails, lizards, long - eared rodents, tortoises, and other animals -- he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.
Whereas some priests and contemplatives... maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as forecasting: the rulers will march forth; the rulers will march forth and return; our rulers will attack, and their rulers will retreat; their rulers will attack, and our rulers will retreat; there will be triumph for our rulers and defeat for their rulers; there will be triumph for their rulers and defeat for our rulers; thus there will be triumph, thus there will be defeat -- he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these. Whereas some priests and contemplatives... maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as forecasting: there will be a lunar eclipse; there will be a solar eclipse; there will be an occultation of an asterism; the sun and moon will go their normal courses; the sun and moon will go astray; the asterisms will go their normal courses; the asterisms will go astray; there will be a meteor shower; there will be a darkening of the sky; there will be an earthquake; there will be thunder coming from a clear sky; there will be a rising, a setting, a darkening, a brightening of the sun, moon, and asterisms; such will be the result of the lunar eclipse... the rising, setting, darkening, brightening of the sun, moon, and asterisms -- he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.
Whereas some priests and contemplatives... maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as forecasting: there will be abundant rain; there will be a drought; there will be plenty; there will be famine; there will be rest and security; there will be danger; there will be disease; there will be freedom from disease; or they earn their living by counting, accounting, calculation, composing poetry, or teaching hedonistic arts and doctrines -- he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.
Whereas some priests and contemplatives... maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as: calculating auspicious dates for marriages, betrothals, divorces; for collecting debts or making investments and loans; for being attractive or unattractive; curing women who have undergone miscarriages or abortions; reciting spells to bind a man 's tongue, to paralyze his jaws, to make him lose control over his hands, or to bring on deafness; getting oracular answers to questions addressed to a mirror, to a young girl, or to a spirit medium; worshipping the sun, worshipping the Great Brahma, bringing forth flames from the mouth, invoking the goddess of luck -- he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.
Whereas some priests and contemplatives... maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as: promising gifts to devas in return for favors; fulfilling such promises; demonology; teaching house - protection spells; inducing virility and impotence; consecrating sites for construction; giving ceremonial mouthwashes and ceremonial bathing; offering sacrificial fires; administering emetics, purges, purges from above, purges from below, head - purges; administering ear - oil, eye - drops, treatments through the nose, ointments, and counter-ointments; practicing eye - surgery (or: extractive surgery), general surgery, pediatrics; administering root - medicines binding medicinal herbs -- he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.
According to the Maha - Saccaka Sutta, the Buddha recalled a meditative state he entered by chance as a child and abandoned the ascetic practices he has been doing:
I thought, "I recall once, when my father the Sakyan was working, and I was sitting in the cool shade of a rose - apple tree, then -- quite secluded from sensuality, secluded from unskillful mental qualities -- I entered & remained in the first jhana: rapture & pleasure born from seclusion, accompanied by directed thought & evaluation. Could that be the path to Awakening? '' Then following on that memory came the realization: "That is the path to Awakening. ''
According to the Upakkilesa Sutta, after figuring out the cause of the various obstacles and overcoming them, the Buddha was able to penetrate the sign and enters 1st - 4th Jhana.
I also saw both the light and the vision of forms. Shortly after the vision of light and shapes disappear. I thought, "What is the cause and condition in which light and vision of the forms disappear? ''
Then consider the following: "The question arose in me and because of doubt my concentration fell, when my concentration fell, the light disappeared and the vision of forms. I act so that the question does not arise in me again. ''
I remained diligent, ardent, perceived both the light and the vision of forms. Shortly after the vision of light and shapes disappear. I thought, "What is the cause and condition in which light and vision of the forms disappear? ''
Then consider the following: "Inattention arose in me because of inattention and my concentration has decreased, when my concentration fell, the light disappeared and the vision of forms. I must act in such a way that neither doubt nor disregard arise in me again. ''
In the same way as above, the Buddha encountered many more obstacles that caused the light to disappear and found his way out of them. These include sloth and torpor, fear, elation, inertia, excessive energy, energy deficient, desire, perception of diversity, and excessive meditation on the ways. Finally, he was able to penetrate the light and entered jhana.
The following descriptions in the Upakkilesa Sutta further show how he find his way into the first four Jhanas, which he later considered samma samadhi.
When Anuruddha, I realized that doubt is an imperfection of the mind, I dropped out of doubt, an imperfection of the mind. When I realized that inattention... sloth and torpor... fear... elation... inertia... excessive energy... deficient energy... desire... perception of diversity... excessive meditation on the ways, I abandoned excessive meditation on the ways, an imperfection of the mind. When Anuruddha, I realized that doubt is an imperfection of the mind, I dropped out of doubt, an imperfection of the mind. When I realized that inattention... sloth and torpor... fear... elation... inertia... excessive energy... deficient energy... desire... perception of diversity... excessive meditation on the ways, I abandoned excessive meditation on the ways, an imperfection of the mind, so I thought, ' I abandoned these imperfections of the mind. ' Now the concentration will develop in three ways... And so, Anuruddha, develop concentration with directed thought and sustained thought; developed concentration without directed thought, but only with the sustained thought; developed concentration without directed thought and without thought sustained, developed with the concentration ecstasy; developed concentration without ecstasy; develop concentration accompanied by happiness, developing concentration accompanied by equanimity... When Anuruddha, I developed concentration with directed thought and sustained thought to the development... when the concentration accompanied by fairness, knowledge and vision arose in me: ' My release is unshakable, this is my last birth, now there are no more likely to be any condition.
According to the early scriptures, the Buddha learned the two formless attainments from two teachers, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta respectively, prior to his enlightenment. It is most likely that they belonged to the Brahmanical tradition. However, he realized that neither "Dimension of Nothingness '' nor "Dimension of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception '' lead to Nirvana and left. The Buddha said in the Ariyapariyesana Sutta:
But the thought occurred to me, "This Dhamma leads not to disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to stilling, to direct knowledge, to Awakening, nor to Unbinding, but only to reappearance in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. '' So, dissatisfied with that Dhamma, I left.
Cessation of feelings and perceptions
The Buddha himself discovered an attainment beyond the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception, the "cessation of feelings and perceptions ''. This is sometimes called the "ninth jhāna '' in commentarial and scholarly literature. Although the "Dimension of Nothingness '' and the "Dimension of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception '' are included in the list of nine Jhanas taught by the Buddha, they are not included in the Noble Eightfold Path. Noble Path number eight is "Samma Samadhi '' (Right Concentration), and only the first four Jhanas are considered "Right Concentration ''. If he takes a disciple through all the Jhanas, the emphasis is on the "Cessation of Feelings and Perceptions '' rather than stopping short at the "Dimension of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception ''.
In the Magga - vibhanga Sutta, the Buddha defines Right Concentration that belongs to the concentration (samadhi) division of the path as the first four Jhanas:
And what is right concentration? There is the case where a monk -- quite withdrawn from sensuality, withdrawn from unskillful (mental) qualities -- enters & remains in the first Jhana: rapture & pleasure born from withdrawal, accompanied by directed thought & evaluation. With the stilling of directed thoughts & evaluations, he enters & remains in the Second Jhana: rapture & pleasure born of composure, unification of awareness free from directed thought & evaluation -- internal assurance. With the fading of rapture, he remains equanimous, mindful, & alert, and senses pleasure with the body. He enters & remains in the Third Jhana, of which the Noble Ones declare, ' Equanimous & mindful, he has a pleasant abiding. ' With the abandoning of pleasure & pain -- as with the earlier disappearance of elation & distress -- he enters & remains in the Fourth Jhana: purity of equanimity & mindfulness, neither pleasure nor pain. This is called right concentration.
The Buddha did not reject the formless attainments in and of themselves, but instead the doctrines of his teachers as a whole, as they did not lead to nibbana. He then underwent harsh ascetic practices that he eventually also became disillusioned with. He subsequently remembered entering jhāna as a child, and realized that, "That indeed is the path to enlightenment. ''
In the suttas, the immaterial attainments are never referred to as jhānas. The immaterial attainments have more to do with expanding, while the Jhanas (1 - 4) focus on concentration. A common translation for the term "samadhi '' is concentration. Rhys Davids and Maurice Walshe agreed that the term '' samadhi '' is not found in any pre-buddhist text. Hindu texts later used that term to indicate the state of enlightenment. This is not in conformity with Buddhist usage. In The Long Discourse of the Buddha: A Translation of the Digha Nikaya (pg. 1700) Maurice Walshe wrote,
Rhys Davids also states that the term samadhi is not found in any pre-Buddhist text. To his remarks on the subject should be added that its subsequent use in Hindu texts to denote the state of enlightenment is not in conformity with Buddhist usage, where the basic meaning of concentration is expanded to cover "meditation '' in general.
Meditation was an aspect of the practice of the yogis in the centuries preceding the Buddha. The Buddha built upon the yogis ' concern with introspection and developed their meditative techniques, but rejected their theories of liberation. In Buddhism, sati and sampajanna are to be developed at all times, in pre-Buddhist yogic practices there is no such injunction. A yogi in the Brahmanical tradition is not to practice while defecating, for example, while a Buddhist monastic should do so.
Another new teaching of the Buddha was that meditative absorption must be combined with a liberating cognition.
Religious knowledge or "vision '' was indicated as a result of practice both within and outside the Buddhist fold. According to the Samaññaphala Sutta this sort of vision arose for the Buddhist adept as a result of the perfection of ' meditation ' (Sanskrit: dhyāna) coupled with the perfection of ' ethics ' (Sanskrit: śīla). Some of the Buddha 's meditative techniques were shared with other traditions of his day, but the idea that ethics are causally related to the attainment of "religious insight '' (Sanskrit: prajñā) was original.
The Buddhist texts are probably the earliest describing meditation techniques. They describe meditative practices and states that existed before the Buddha, as well as those first developed within Buddhism. Two Upanishads written after the rise of Buddhism do contain full - fledged descriptions of yoga as a means to liberation.
While there is no convincing evidence for meditation in pre-Buddhist early Brahminic texts, Wynne argues that formless meditation originated in the Brahminic or Shramanic tradition, based on strong parallels between Upanishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals of the two teachers of the Buddha as recorded in the early Buddhist texts. He mentions less likely possibilities as well. Having argued that the cosmological statements in the Upanishads also reflect a contemplative tradition, he argues that the Nasadiya Sukta contains evidence for a contemplative tradition, even as early as the late Rg Vedic period.
Buddhism does not deny that the Vedas in their true origin were sacred although it maintains that the Vedas have been amended repeatedly by certain Brahmins to secure their positions in society. The Buddha declared that the Veda in its true form was declared by Kashyapa to certain rishis, who by severe penances had acquired the power to see by divine eyes. In the Buddhist Vinaya Pitaka of the Mahavagga (I. 245) section the Buddha names these rishis. The names of the Vedic rishis were "Atthako, Vâmako, Vâmadevo, Vessâmitto, Yamataggi, Angiraso, Bhâradvâjo, Vâsettho, Kassapo, and Bhagu '' but that it was altered by a few Brahmins who introduced animal sacrifices. The Vinaya Pitaka 's section Anguttara Nikaya: Panchaka Nipata says that it was on this alteration of the true Veda that the Buddha refused to pay respect to the Vedas of his time.
The Buddha is recorded in the Canki Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 95) as saying to a group of Brahmins:
O Vasettha, those priests who know the scriptures are just like a line of blind men tied together where the first sees nothing, the middle man nothing, and the last sees nothing.
In the same discourse, he says:
It is not proper for a wise man who maintains truth to come to the conclusion: This alone is Truth, and everything else is false.
He is also recorded as saying:
To be attached to one thing (to a certain view) and to look down upon other things (views) as inferior -- this the wise men call a fetter.
Walpola Rahula writes, "It is always a question of knowing and seeing, and not that of believing. The teaching of the Buddha is qualified as ehi - passika, inviting you to ' come and see, ' but not to come and believe... It is always seeing through knowledge or wisdom, and not believing through faith in Buddhism. ''
In Hinduism, philosophies are classified either as Astika or Nastika, that is, philosophies that either affirm or reject the authorities of the Vedas. According to this tradition, Buddhism is a Nastika school since it rejects the authority of the Vedas. Buddhists on the whole called those who did not believe in Buddhism the "outer path - farers '' (tiirthika).
Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of religious conversion, the issue of whether Hindus evangelize is open to interpretations. Those who view Hinduism as an ethnicity more than as a religion tend to believe that to be a Hindu, one must be born a Hindu. However, those who see Hinduism primarily as a philosophy, a set of beliefs, or a way of life generally believe that one can convert to Hinduism by incorporating Hindu beliefs into one 's life and by considering oneself a Hindu. The Supreme Court of India has taken the latter view, holding that the question of whether a person is a Hindu should be determined by the person 's belief system, not by their ethnic or racial heritage.
Buddhism spread throughout Asia via evangelism and conversion. Buddhist scriptures depict such conversions in the form of lay followers declaring their support for the Buddha and his teachings, or via ordination as a Buddhist monk. Buddhist identity has been broadly defined as one who "takes refuge '' in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, echoing a formula seen in Buddhist texts. In some communities, formal conversion rituals are observed. No specific ethnicity has typically been associated with Buddhism, and as it spread beyond its origin in India immigrant monastics were replaced with newly ordained members of the local ethnic or tribal group.
Upanishadic soteriology is focused on the static Self, while the Buddha 's is focused on dynamic agency. In the former paradigm, change and movement are an illusion; to realize the Self as the only reality is to realize something that has always been the case. In the Buddha 's system by contrast, one has to make things happen.
The fire metaphor used in the Aggi - Vacchagotta Sutta (which is also used elsewhere) is a radical way of making the point that the liberated sage is beyond phenomenal experience. It also makes the additional point that this indefinable, transcendent state is the sage 's state even during life. This idea goes against the early Brahminic notion of liberation at death.
Liberation for the Brahminic yogin was thought to be the permanent realization at death of a nondual meditative state anticipated in life. In fact, old Brahminic metaphors for the liberation at death of the yogic adept ("becoming cool '', "going out '') were given a new meaning by the Buddha; their point of reference became the sage who is liberated in life. The Buddha taught that these meditative states alone do not offer a decisive and permanent end to suffering either during life or after death.
He stated that achieving a formless attainment with no further practice would only lead to temporary rebirth in a formless realm after death. Moreover, he gave a pragmatic refutation of early Brahminical theories according to which the meditator, the meditative state, and the proposed uncaused, unborn, unanalyzable Self, are identical. These theories are undergirded by the Upanishadic correspondence between macrocosm and microcosm, from which perspective it is not surprising that meditative states of consciousness were thought to be identical to the subtle strata of the cosmos. The Buddha, in contrast, argued that states of consciousness come about caused and conditioned by the yogi 's training and techniques, and therefore no state of consciousness could be this eternal Self.
Both the Buddha 's conception of the liberated person and the goal of early Brahminic yoga can be characterized as nondual, but in different ways. The nondual goal in early Brahminism was conceived in ontological terms; the goal was that into which one merges after death. According to Wynne, liberation for the Buddha "... is nondual in another, more radical, sense. This is made clear in the dialogue with Upasiva, where the liberated sage is defined as someone who has passed beyond conceptual dualities. Concepts that might have some meaning in ordinary discourse, such as consciousness or the lack of it, existence and non-existence, etc., do not apply to the sage. For the Buddha, propositions are not applicable to the liberated person, because language and concepts (Sn 1076: vaadapathaa, dhammaa), as well as any sort of intellectual reckoning (sankhaa) do not apply to the liberated sage.
Nirvana (or Nibbana in Pali language) means literally ' blowing out ' or ' quenching '. The term is pre-Buddhist, but its etymology is not essentially conclusive for finding out its exact meaning as the highest goal of early Buddhism. It must be kept in mind that nirvana is one of many terms for salvation that occur in the orthodox Buddhist scriptures. Other terms that appear are ' Vimokha ', or ' Vimutti ', implying ' salvation ' and ' deliverance ' respectively. Some more words synonymously used for nirvana in Buddhist scriptures are ' mokkha / moksha ', meaning ' liberation ' and ' kevala / kaivalya ', meaning ' wholeness '; these words were given a new Buddhist meaning.
The concept of Nirvana has been also found among other religions such as Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
Early Buddhist scriptures do not mention schools of learning directly connected with the Upanishads. Though the earliest Upanishads had been completed by the Buddha 's time, they are not cited in the early Buddhist texts as Upanishads or Vedanta. For the early Buddhists they were likely not thought of as having any outstanding significance in and of themselves, and as simply one section of the Vedas.
The Buddhist texts do describe wandering, mendicant Brahmins who appear to have valued the early Upanishads ' promotion of this lifestyle as opposed to living the life of the householder and accruing wealth from nobles in exchange for performing Vedic sacrifices. Furthermore, the early Buddhist texts mention ideas similar to those expounded in the early Upanishads, before controverting them.
The old Upanishads largely consider Brahman (masculine gender, Brahmā in the nominative case, henceforth "Brahmā '') to be a personal god, and Brahman (neuter gender, Brahma in the nominative case, henceforth "Brahman '') to be the impersonal world principle. They do not strictly distinguish between the two, however. The old Upanishads ascribe these characteristics to Brahmā: first, he has light and luster as his marks; second, he is invisible; third, he is unknowable, and it is impossible to know his nature; fourth, he is omniscient. The old Upanishads ascribe these characteristics to Brahman as well.
In the Buddhist texts, there are many Brahmās. There they form a class of superhuman beings, and rebirth into the realm of Brahmās is possible by pursuing Buddhist practices. In the early texts, the Buddha gives arguments to refute the existence of a creator.
In the Pāli scriptures, the neuter Brahman does not appear (though the word brahma is standardly used in compound words to mean "best '', or "supreme ''), however ideas are mentioned as held by various Brahmins in connection with Brahmā that match exactly with the concept of Brahman in the Upanishads. Brahmins who appear in the Tevijja - suttanta of the Digha Nikaya regard "union with Brahmā '' as liberation, and earnestly seek it. In that text, Brahmins of the time are reported to assert: "Truly every Brahmin versed in the three Vedas has said thus: ' We shall expound the path for the sake of union with that which we do not know and do not see. This is the correct path. This path is the truth, and leads to liberation. If one practices it, he shall be able to enter into association with Brahmā. '' The early Upanishads frequently expound "association with Brahmā '', and "that which we do not know and do not see '' matches exactly with the early Upanishadic Brahman.
In the earliest Upanishad, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Absolute, which came to be referred to as Brahman, is referred to as "the imperishable ''. The Pāli scriptures present a "pernicious view '' that is set up as an absolute principle corresponding to Brahman: "O Bhikkhus! At that time Baka, the Brahmā, produced the following pernicious view: ' It is permanent. It is eternal. It is always existent. It is independent existence. It has the dharma of non-perishing. Truly it is not born, does not become old, does not die, does not disappear, and is not born again. Furthermore, no liberation superior to it exists elsewhere. '' The principle expounded here corresponds to the concept of Brahman laid out in the Upanishads. According to this text the Buddha criticized this notion: "Truly the Baka Brahmā is covered with unwisdom. ''
The Buddha confined himself to what is empirically given. This empiricism is based broadly on both ordinary sense experience and extrasensory perception enabled by high degrees of mental concentration.
Ātman is a Sanskrit word that means ' self '. A major departure from Hindu and Jain philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of a permanent, self - existent soul (Ātman) in favour of anicca or impermanence.
In Hindu philosophy, especially in the Vedanta school of Hinduism, Ātman is the first principle, the true self of an individual beyond identification with phenomena, the essence of an individual. Yajnavalkya (c. 9th century BCE), in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, uses the word to indicate that in which everything exists, which is of the highest value, which permeates everything, which is the essence of all, bliss and beyond description. While, older Upanishads such as the Brihadaranyaka, mention several times that the Self is described as Neti neti or not this -- not this, Upanishads post Buddhism, like the Maitri Upanishad, define Ātman as only the defiled individual self, rather than the universal self. Taittiriya Upanishad defines Ātman or the Self as consisting of five sheaths (kosha): the bodily self consisting of the essence of food (annamaya kosha), the vital breath (pranamaya kosha), the mind or will (manomaya kosha), the intellect or capacity to know (vijnanamaya kosha) and bliss (anandamaya kosha). Knowledge or realization of the Ātman is seen as essential to attain salvation (liberation):
If atman is brahman in a pot (the body), then one need merely break the pot to fully realize the primordial unity of the individual soul with the plenitude of Being that was the Absolute.
Schools of Indian philosophy, such as Advaita (non-dualism) see Ātman within each living entity as being fully identical with Brahman -- the Principle, whereas other schools such as Dvaita (dualism) differentiate between the individual atma in living beings, and the Supreme atma (Paramatma) as being at least partially separate beings. Unlike Advaita, Samkhya holds blissfullness of Ātman as merely figurative. However, both Samkhya and Advaita consider the ego (asmita, ahamkara) rather than the Ātman to be the cause of pleasure and pain. Later Advaitic text Pañcadaśī classifies the degrees of Ātman under three headings: Gauna or secondary (anything other than the personality that an individual identifies with), Mithya or false (bodily personality) and Mukhya or primary (the real Self).
The concept of Ātman was rejected by the Buddha. Terms like anatman (not - self) and shunyata (voidness) are at the core of all Buddhist traditions. The permanent transcendence of the belief in the separate existence of the self is integral to the enlightenment of an Arhat. The Buddha criticized conceiving theories even of a unitary soul or identity immanent in all things as unskillful. In fact, according to the Buddha 's statement in Khandha Samyutta 47, all thoughts about self are necessarily, whether the thinker is aware of it or not, thoughts about the five aggregates or one of them.
Despite the rejection of Ātman by Buddhists there were similarities between certain concepts in Buddhism and Ātman. The Upanishadic "Self '' shares certain characteristics with nibbana; both are permanent, beyond suffering, and unconditioned. Buddhist mysticism is also of a different sort from that found in systems revolving around the concept of a "God '' or "Self '':
If one would characterize the forms of mysticism found in the Pali discourses, it is none of the nature -, God -, or soul - mysticism of F.C. Happold. Though nearest to the latter, it goes beyond any ideas of ' soul ' in the sense of immortal ' self ' and is better styled ' consciousness - mysticism '.
However, the Buddha shunned any attempt to see the spiritual goal in terms of "Self '' because in his framework, the craving for a permanent self is the very thing that keeps a person in the round of uncontrollable rebirth, preventing him or her from attaining nibbana. At the time of the Buddha some philosophers and meditators posited a root: an abstract principle all things emanated from and that was immanent in all things. When asked about this, instead of following this pattern of thinking, the Buddha attacks it at its very root: the notion of a principle in the abstract, superimposed on experience. In contrast, a person in training should look for a different kind of "root '' -- the root of dukkha experienced in the present. According to one Buddhist scholar, theories of this sort have most often originated among meditators who label a particular meditative experience as the ultimate goal, and identify with it in a subtle way.
Adi Shankara in his works refuted the Buddhist arguments against Ātman. He suggested that a self - evident conscious agent would avoid infinite regress, since there would be no necessity to posit another agent who would know this. He further argued that a cognizer beyond cognition could be easily demonstrated from the diversity in self existence of the witness and the notion. Furthermore, Shankara thought that no doubts could be raised about the Self, for the act of doubting implies at the very least the existence of the doubter. Vidyaranya, another Advaita Vedantic philosopher, expresses this argument as:
No one can doubt the fact of his own existence. Were one to do so, who would the doubter be?
The Buddha denies the existence of the cosmic Self, as conceived in the Upanishadic tradition, in the Alagaddupama Sutta (M I 135 - 136). Possibly the most famous Upanishadic dictum is tat tvam asi, "thou art that. '' Transposed into first person, the Pali version is eso ' ham asmi, "I am this. '' This is said in several suttas to be false. The full statement declared to be incorrect is "This is mine, I am this, this is my self / essence. '' This is often rejected as a wrong view. The Alagaduppama Sutta rejects this and other obvious echoes of surviving Upanishadic statements as well (these are not mentioned as such in the commentaries, and seem not to have been noticed until modern times). Moreover, the passage denies that one 's self is the same as the world and that one will become the world self at death. The Buddha tells the monks that people worry about something that is non-existent externally (bahiddhaa asati) and non-existent internally (ajjhattam asati); he is referring respectively to the soul / essence of the world and of the individual. A similar rejection of "internal '' Self and "external '' Self occurs at AN II 212. Both are referring to the Upanishads. The most basic presupposition of early Brahminic cosmology is the identification of man and the cosmos (instances of this occur at TU II. 1 and Mbh XII. 195), and liberation for the yogin was thought to only occur at death, with the adept 's union with brahman (as at Mbh XII. 192.22). The Buddha 's rejection of these theories is therefore one instance of the Buddha 's attack on the whole enterprise of Upanishadic ontology.
The Buddha redefined the word "brahman '' so as to become a synonym for arahant, replacing a distinction based on birth with one based on spiritual attainment. The early Buddhist scriptures furthermore defined purity as determined by one 's state of mind, and refer to anyone who behaves unethically, of whatever caste, as "rotting within '', or "a rubbish heap of impurity ''.
The Buddha explains his use of the word brahman in many places. At Sutta Nipata 1.7 Vasala Sutta, verse 12, he states: "Not by birth is one an outcast; not by birth is one a brahmin. By deed one becomes an outcast, by deed one becomes a brahman. '' An entire chapter of the Dhammapada is devoted to showing how a true brahman in the Buddha 's use of the word is one who is of totally pure mind, namely, an arahant. However, it is very noteworthy that the Bhagavad Gita also defines Brahmin, and other varnas, as qualities and resulting from actions, and does not mention birth as a factor in determining these. In that regard, the chapter on Brahmins in the Dhammapada may be regarded as being entirely in tune with the definition of a Brahmin in Chapter 18 of the Bhagavad Gita. Both say that a Brahmin is a person having certain qualities.
A defining of feature of the Buddha 's teachings is self - sufficiency, so much so as to render the Brahminical priesthood entirely redundant.
In one Purana, the Buddha is described as an incarnation of Vishnu who incarnated in order to delude demons away from the Vedic dharma. The Bhavishya Purana posits:
At this time, reminded of the Kali Age, the god Vishnu became born as Gautama, the Shakyamuni, and taught the Buddhist dharma for ten years. Then Shuddodana ruled for twenty years, and Shakyasimha for twenty. At the first stage of the Kali Age, the path of the Vedas was destroyed and all men became Buddhists. Those who sought refuge with Vishnu were deluded.
Consequently, the word Buddha is mentioned in several of the Puranas that are believed to have been composed after his birth.
According to the biography of the Buddha, he was a Mahapurusha (great being) named Shvetaketu. Tushita Heaven (Home of the Contented gods) was the name of the realm he dwells before taking his last birth on earth as Gautama Buddha. There is no more rebirth for a Buddha. Before leaving the Tushita realm to take birth on earth, he designated Maitreya to take his place there. Maitreya will come to earth as the next Buddha, instead of him coming back again. Krishna was a past life of Sariputra, a chief disciple of the Buddha. He has not attained enlightenment during that life as Krishna. Therefore, he came back to be reborn during the life of the Buddha and reached the first stage of Enlightenment after encountering an enlightened disciple of the Buddha. He reached full Arahantship or full Awakening after became ordained in the Buddha 's sangha.
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan has claimed that the Buddha did not look upon himself as an innovator, but only a restorer of the way of the Upanishads, despite the fact that the Buddha did not accept the Upanishads, viewing them as comprising a pretentious tradition, foreign to his paradigm.
Vivekananda wrote in glowing terms about Buddha, and visited Bodh Gaya several times.
Steven Collins sees such Hindu claims regarding Buddhism as part of an effort -- itself a reaction to Christian proselytizing efforts in India -- to show that "all religions are one '', and that Hinduism is uniquely valuable because it alone recognizes this fact.
Some scholars have written that Buddhism should be regarded as "reformed Brahmanism '', and many Hindus consider Buddhism a sect of Hinduism.
B.R. Ambedkar, the founder of the Dalit Buddhist movement, declared that Buddhism offered an opportunity for low - caste and untouchable Hindus to achieve greater respect and dignity because of its non-caste doctrines. Among the 22 vows he prescribed to his followers is an injunction against having faith in Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh. He also regarded the belief that the Buddha was an incarnation of Vishnu as "false propaganda ''.
Many examples exist of temples dedicated to both faiths. These include the Kaiyuan Temple and Angkor Wat.
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shakespeare all the world is a stage quote | All the world 's a stage - wikipedia
"All the world 's a stage '' is the phrase that begins a monologue from William Shakespeare 's As You Like It, spoken by the melancholy Jaques in Act II Scene VII. The speech compares the world to a stage and life to a play and catalogues the seven stages of a man 's life, sometimes referred to as the seven ages of man: infant, schoolboy, lover, soldier, justice, Pantalone, and old age, facing imminent death. It is one of Shakespeare 's most frequently quoted passages.
All the world 's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages. At first, the infant, Mewling and puking in the nurse 's arms. Then the whining schoolboy, with his satchel And shining morning face, creeping like snail Unwillingly to school. And then the lover, Sighing like furnace, with a woeful ballad Made to his mistress ' eyebrow. Then a soldier, Full of strange oaths and bearded like the pard, Jealous in honour, sudden and quick in quarrel, Seeking the bubble reputation Even in the cannon 's mouth. And then the justice, In fair round belly with good capon lined, With eyes severe and beard of formal cut, Full of wise saws and modern instances; And so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts Into the lean and slippered pantaloon, With spectacles on nose and pouch on side; His youthful hose, well saved, a world too wide For his shrunk shank, and his big manly voice, Turning again toward childish treble, pipes And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all, That ends this strange eventful history, Is second childishness and mere oblivion, Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything.
The comparison of the world to a stage and people to actors long predated Shakespeare. Juvenal, the ancient Roman poet, wrote one of the earliest versions of this line in his "Satire 3 '': "All of Greece is a stage, and every Greek 's an actor. '' Richard Edward 's play Damon and Pythias, written in the year Shakespeare was born, contains the lines, "Pythagoras said that this world was like a stage / Whereon many play their parts; the lookers - on, the sage ''. When it was founded in 1599 Shakespeare 's own theatre, The Globe, may have used the motto Totus mundus agit histrionem (All the world plays the actor), the Latin text of which is derived from a 12th - century treatise. Ultimately the words derive from quod fere totus mundus exercet histrionem (because almost the whole world are actors) attributed to Petronius, a phrase which had wide circulation in England at the time.
In his own earlier work, The Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare also had one of his main characters, Antonio, comparing the world to a stage:
I hold the world but as the world, Gratiano; A stage where every man must play a part, And mine a sad one.
In his work The Praise of Folly, first printed in 1511, Renaissance humanist Erasmus asks, "For what else is the life of man but a kind of play in which men in various costumes perform until the director motions them off the stage. ''
Likewise the division of human life into a series of ages was a commonplace of art and literature, which Shakespeare would have expected his audiences to recognize. The number of ages varied: three and four being the most common among ancient writers such as Aristotle. The concept of seven ages derives from mediaeval philosophy, which constructed groups of seven, as in the seven deadly sins, for theological reasons. The seven ages model dates from the 12th century. King Henry V had a tapestry illustrating the seven ages of man.
According to T.W. Baldwin, Shakespeare 's version of the concept of the ages of man is based primarily upon Palingenius ' book Zodiacus Vitae, a school text he would have studied at the Stratford Grammar School, which also enumerates stages of human life. He also takes elements from Ovid and other sources known to him.
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who did pierce brosnan play in mamma mia | Mamma Mia! (Film) - wikipedia
Mamma Mia! (promoted as Mamma Mia! The Movie) is a British jukebox musical romantic comedy film directed by Phyllida Lloyd and written by Catherine Johnson based on the 1999 musical of the same name, also written by Johnson, which itself is based on the songs of pop group ABBA, including the title song, with additional music composed by ABBA member Benny Andersson. The film features an ensemble cast, including Christine Baranski, Pierce Brosnan, Dominic Cooper, Colin Firth, Amanda Seyfried, Stellan Skarsgård, Meryl Streep and Julie Walters. The plot follows a young bride - to - be who invites three men to her upcoming wedding, each one with the possibility of being her father. The film was an international co-production between Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, and was co-produced by Relativity Media, Playtone and Littlestar Productions.
Principal photography primarily took place on the island of Skopelos, Greece from August to September 2007. The film was distributed by Universal Pictures. Mamma Mia! held its world premiere on June 30, 2008 at Leicester Square in London and premiered on July 4, 2008 in Stockholm, Sweden, with Andersson, Björn Ulvaeus, Anni - Frid Lyngstad and Agnetha Fältskog in attendance. The film was released theatrically on July 10 in the United Kingdom, on July 17 in Germany and on July 18 in the United States. It received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the musical numbers and production values, but criticized the plot and casting of inexperienced singers, in particular Brosnan and Skarsgård. Nonetheless, the film grossed $615 million worldwide on a $52 million budget, becoming the fifth highest - grossing film of 2008. A sequel, titled Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again, was released on July 20, 2018, with most of the main cast returning.
On the Greek island of Kalokairi, 20 - year - old bride - to - be Sophie Sheridan reveals to her bridesmaids, Ali and Lisa, that she has secretly invited three men to her wedding without telling her mother, Donna. They are the men that her mother 's diary reveals could have been her father: Irish - American architect Sam Carmichael, Swedish adventurer and writer Bill Anderson, and British banker Harry Bright. She dreams of being given away by her father at her wedding, and believes that after she spends time with them she will know which is her father.
Sophie 's mother Donna, who owns a villa and runs it not very successfully as a hotel, is ecstatic to reunite with her former Dynamos bandmates, wisecracking author Rosie Mulligan and wealthy multiple divorcée Tanya Chesham - Leigh, and reveals her bafflement at her daughter 's desire to get married. Donna shows off the villa to Rosie and Tanya. The three men arrive and Sophie smuggles them to their room. She does n't reveal that she believes one of them is her father, but does explain that she and not her mother sent the invitations. She begs them to hide so Donna will be surprised by the old friends of whom she "so often '' favorably speaks. They overhear Donna working and swear not to reveal Sophie 's secret.
Donna spies them and is dumbfounded to find herself facing former lovers, demanding they leave. She confides in Tanya and Rosie that she truly does not know which of the three fathered Sophie. Tanya and Rosie rally her spirits by getting her to dance with an all female ensemble of staff and islanders. Sophie finds the men aboard Bill 's yacht, and they sail around Kalokairi, telling stories of Donna 's carefree youth. Sophie plans to tell her fiancé Sky about her ploy, but loses her nerve. Sky and Sophie sing to each other, but Sky is abducted for his bachelor party.
At Sophie 's bachelorette party, Donna, Tanya, and Rosie perform. When Sam, Bill, and Harry arrive, Sophie decides to talk with each of them alone. While her girlfriends dance with the men, Sophie learns from Bill that Donna received the money for her villa from his great - aunt Sofia. Sophie guesses she must be Sofia 's namesake. She asks him to give her away and keep their secret until the wedding. Sophie 's happiness is short - lived as Sam and Harry each pull her aside to tell her they are her father and will give her away. Sophie, overwhelmed by the consequences of raising the hopes of all three "fathers '', faints.
In the morning, Rosie and Tanya assure Donna they will take care of the men. Bill and Harry intend to tell each other what they learned the previous night, but Rosie interrupts them. Donna confronts Sophie, believing Sophie wants the wedding stopped. Sophie says that all she wants is to avoid her mother 's mistakes. Sam accosts Donna, concerned about Sophie getting married so young. Donna confronts him and they realize they still have feelings for each other. Tanya and young Pepper continue flirtations from the previous night. Sophie confesses to Sky and asks for his help. He reacts angrily to Sophie 's deception and she turns to her mother for support. As Donna helps her daughter dress for the wedding, their rift is healed and Donna reminisces about Sophie 's childhood. Donna admits her mother disowned her when she became pregnant. Sophie asks Donna to give her away. As the bridal party walks to the chapel, Sam intercepts Donna, who reveals the pain she felt over losing him.
Sophie and Donna walk down the aisle as the band plays. Donna tells Sophie and all gathered that her father could be any of the three men. Sam reveals that while he left Donna to get married, he did not go through with it, but returned to find Donna with another man. The men do not want paternity confirmed, each agreeing to be one - third of a father for Sophie. She tells Sky they should postpone their wedding and travel the world. Sam proposes to Donna. She accepts and they are married. At the reception, Sam sings to Donna and Rosie makes a play for Bill. The couples proclaim their love. Sophie and Sky sail away.
A soundtrack album was released on July 7, 2008 by Decca and Polydor in the United States and internationally, respectively. The recording was produced by Benny Andersson. The album features sixteen musical numbers within the film, including a hidden track. The album was nominated at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards for Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media. The deluxe edition of the soundtrack album was released on November 25, 2008.
Most of the outdoor scenes were filmed on location at the small Greek island of Skopelos (during August 29 - September 2007), and the seaside hamlet of Damouchari in the Pelion area of Greece. On Skopelos, Kastani beach on the south west coast was the film 's main location site. The producers built a beach bar and jetty along the beach, but removed both set pieces after production wrapped. A complete set for Donna 's Greek villa was built at the 007 stage at Pinewood Studios and most of the film was shot there. Real trees were utilised for the set, watered daily through an automated watering system and given access to daylight in order to keep them growing.
The part of the film where Brosnan 's character, Sam, leaves his New York office to go to the Greek Island was actually filmed at the Lloyd 's Building on Lime Street in the City of London. He dashes down the escalators and through the porte - cochere, where yellow cabs and actors representing New York mounted police were used for authenticity.
The Fernando, Bill Anderson 's yacht (actually a ketch) in the film was the Tai - Mo - Shan built in 1934 by H.S. Rouse at the Hong Kong and Whampoa dockyards.
Meryl Streep took opera singing lessons as a child, and as an adult, she previously sang in several films, including Postcards from the Edge, Silkwood, Death Becomes Her, and A Prairie Home Companion. She was a fan of the stage show Mamma Mia! after seeing it on Broadway in September 2001, when she found the show to be an affirmation of life in the midst of the destruction of 9 / 11.
Though the world premiere of the film occurred elsewhere, most of the media attention was focused on the Swedish premiere, where Anni - Frid Lyngstad and Agnetha Fältskog joined Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson with the cast at the Rival Theatre in Mariatorget, Stockholm, owned by Andersson, on July 4, 2008. It was the first time all four members of ABBA had been photographed together since 1986.
In November 2008, Mamma Mia! became the fastest - selling DVD of all time in the UK, according to Official UK Charts Company figures. It sold 1,669,084 copies on its first day of release, breaking the previous record (held by Titanic) by 560,000 copies. By the end of 2008, the Official UK Charts Company declared that it had become the biggest selling DVD ever in the UK, with one in every four households owning a copy (over 5 million copies sold). The record was previously held by Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl with sales of 4.7 million copies.
In the United States, the DVD made over $30 million on its first day of release. By December 31, 2008, Mamma Mia! became the best - selling DVD of all time in Sweden with 545,000 copies sold.
In the United Kingdom, Mamma Mia! has grossed £ 69.2 million as of January 23, 2009, and is the ninth highest - grossing film of all time at the UK box office. The film opened at # 1 in the U.K, taking £ 6.6 million on 496 screens. It managed to hold onto the top spot for 2 weeks, narrowly keeping Pixar 's WALL - E from reaching # 1 in its second week.
When released on July 3 in Greece, the film grossed $1.6 million in its opening weekend, ranking # 1 at the Greek box office.
Mamma Mia! grossed $144.1 million in the United States and $471.6 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $615.7 million, against a production budget of $52 million. It became the highest grossing live - action musical of all time, until it was surpassed by Bill Condon 's Beauty and the Beast in 2017. It was also the highest - grossing movie directed by a woman, until it was surpassed by Patty Jenkins ' Wonder Woman in 2017. It is the third highest - grossing film of 2008 internationally (i.e., outside North America) with an international total of $458.4 million and the thirteenth highest gross of 2008 in North America (the US and Canada) with $144.1 million.
The film made $9.6 million in its opening day in the United States and Canada, and $27.6 million in its opening weekend, ranking # 2 at the box office, behind The Dark Knight. At the time, it made Mamma Mia! the record - holder for the highest grossing opening weekend for a movie based on a Broadway musical, surpassing Hairspray 's box office record in 2007 and later surpassed by Into the Woods.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 55 % based on 181 reviews, with an average rating of 5.5 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "This jukebox musical is full of fluffy fun but rough singing voices and a campy tone might not make you feel like ' You Can Dance ' the whole 90 minutes. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
BBC Radio 5 Live 's film critic Mark Kermode admitted to enjoying the film, despite describing the experience as ' the closest you get to see A-List actors doing drunken karaoke '. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian was more negative, giving it one star, and expressed a "need to vomit ''. Bob Chipman of Escape to the Movies said it was "so base, so shallow and so hinged on meaningless spectacle, it 's amazing it was n't made for men ''. The Daily Telegraph stated that it was enjoyable but poorly put together: "Finding the film a total shambles was sort of a shame, but I have a sneaking suspicion I 'll go to see it again anyway. '' Angie Errigo of Empire said it was "cute, clean, camp fun, full of sunshine and toe tappers. ''
The casting of actors not known for their singing abilities led to some mixed reviews. Variety stated that "some stars, especially the bouncy and rejuvenated Streep, seem better suited for musical comedy than others, including Brosnan and Skarsgård. '' Brosnan, especially, was savaged by many critics: his singing was compared to "a water buffalo '' (New York Magazine), "a donkey braying '' (The Philadelphia Inquirer) and "a wounded raccoon '' (The Miami Herald), and Matt Brunson of Creative Loafing Charlotte said he "looks physically pained choking out the lyrics, as if he 's being subjected to a prostate exam just outside of the camera 's eye. ''
Because of the film 's financial success, Hollywood studio chief David Linde, the co-chairman of Universal Studios, said that it would take a while, but there would be a sequel. He stated that he would be delighted if Judy Craymer, Catherine Johnson, Phyllida Lloyd, Benny Andersson, and Björn Ulvaeus agreed to the project, noting that there were still plenty of ABBA songs to use. Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again was announced on May 19, 2017, with a planned release date of July 20, 2018. It was written and directed by Ol Parker. It was announced that Seyfried, Cooper, Streep, Firth and Brosnan would be returning. In July 2017, Lily James was confirmed to portray young Donna.
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who was the little girl in brenda's got a baby | Brenda 's got a baby - wikipedia
"Brenda 's Got a Baby '' is the solo debut single by Tupac Shakur, and tenth track from his debut album, 2Pacalypse Now. The song, which features R&B singer Dave Hollister, is about a twelve - year - old girl named Brenda who lives in a ghetto, has a baby, and is incapable of supporting it. The song explores the issue of teen pregnancy and its effect on young mothers and their families. Like many of Shakur 's songs, "Brenda 's Got a Baby '' draws from the plight of the impoverished. Using Brenda to represent young mothers in general, Shakur criticises the low level of support from the baby 's father, the government, and society in general. Shakur wrote the song when he read a newspaper article about a twelve - year - old girl who became pregnant from her cousin and threw the baby in a trash compactor.
The opening consists of a duet singing the song 's title twice. Much of the rest of the song is one long verse performed by Tupac.
The verse begins with Tupac telling a group that he has heard about Brenda 's pregnancy. He also notes that the girl has had virtually no education in her life, and calls this a "damn shame '' because she has little hope of a future. Her family is very poor, and her father is a drug addict. Brenda is impregnated by her unnamed boyfriend, who is also her cousin, but she is successfully able to hide her pregnancy. Tupac explains that it would not matter to her family if she gave birth, as long as they got their cut of the government assistance.
Although she believes that her cousin (the father of her baby) will stay with her and help her raise their child, he is merely a molester, and abandons her before she gives birth to their baby on the bathroom floor. Brenda disposes of the baby by throwing it in a trash bin but later retrieves it when she hears the baby crying. Her mother scolds her severely, and Brenda becomes so ashamed of herself that she runs away from home.
Brenda is now forced to live alone, and unsuccessfully seeks employment. Her attempt to sell crack cocaine results in robbery, and eventually she views prostitution as her only way to earn money and survive. This life path leads to her getting murdered. The fates of the other characters, such as her parents, her cousin, and the baby, are left unexplained. The final minute or so of the song consists of a chorus singing "do n't you know she 's got a baby '' repeatedly.
2Pac has another song which he made late in his career which deals with this same subject called "Mama 's Just a Little Girl ''. The song can be found on his fourth posthumous studio album Better Dayz.
The video of the song is in black - and - white. It was made to visualize what Shakur narrates. The first part shows Shakur and "Brenda '' and then the actual story starts. Ethel "Edy '' Proctor is the leading lady in the video.
The video begins with "based on a true story, '' although the characters themselves are fictitious, Shakur wrote the song after reading a story in the newspaper of a twelve - year - old girl getting pregnant from her cousin and trying to dispose of the baby in a trash can.
Parts of the video were included in Tupac: Resurrection, a 2003 documentary on 2Pac 's life, in a television show later in the music video of Ghetto Gospel, in the music video of Changes and appears as a bonus in its entirety on the film 's DVD. Part of the video and song was played in 2Pac 's biopic film, "All Eyez On Me, '' released June 16th 2017.
The video was directed by the Hughes Brothers.
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who played all the dwarves in the hobbit | List of the Hobbit characters - wikipedia
This article describes all named characters appearing in J.R.R. Tolkien 's book The Hobbit. Creatures as collectives are not included. Characters are categorized by race. Spelling and point of view are given as from The Hobbit; details from sources outside The Hobbit are given only where important to understanding the character within the tale, and with the source noted.
Thorin 's company consisted of the following 13 dwarves; their quest in The Hobbit is the main impetus of the plot. Their quest was joined by Bilbo Baggins (a hobbit) and occasionally by the wizard Gandalf.
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what worm was the first to cause major physical damage to a facility | Stuxnet - Wikipedia
Stuxnet is a malicious computer worm, first uncovered in 2010 by Kaspersky Lab. Thought to have been in development since at least 2005, Stuxnet targets SCADA systems and was responsible for causing substantial damage to Iran 's nuclear program. Although neither country has openly admitted responsibility, the worm is believed to be a jointly built American / Israeli cyberweapon.
Stuxnet specifically targets programmable logic controllers (PLCs), which allow the automation of electromechanical processes such as those used to control machinery on factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or centrifuges for separating nuclear material. Exploiting four zero - day flaws, Stuxnet functions by targeting machines using the Microsoft Windows operating system and networks, then seeking out Siemens Step7 software. Stuxnet reportedly compromised Iranian PLCs, collecting information on industrial systems and causing the fast - spinning centrifuges to tear themselves apart. Stuxnet 's design and architecture are not domain - specific and it could be tailored as a platform for attacking modern supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) and PLC systems (e.g., in factory assembly lines or power plants), the majority of which reside in Europe, Japan and the US. Stuxnet reportedly ruined almost one fifth of Iran 's nuclear centrifuges. Targeting industrial control systems, the worm infected over 200,000 computers and caused 1,000 machines to physically degrade.
Stuxnet has three modules: a worm that executes all routines related to the main payload of the attack; a link file that automatically executes the propagated copies of the worm; and a rootkit component responsible for hiding all malicious files and processes, preventing detection of the presence of Stuxnet. It is typically introduced to the target environment via an infected USB flash drive. The worm then propagates across the network, scanning for Siemens Step7 software on computers controlling a PLC. In the absence of either criterion, Stuxnet becomes dormant inside the computer. If both the conditions are fulfilled, Stuxnet introduces the infected rootkit onto the PLC and Step7 software, modifying the codes and giving unexpected commands to the PLC while returning a loop of normal operations system values feedback to the users.
In 2015, Kaspersky Labs noted that the Equation Group had used two of the same zero - day attacks, prior to their use in Stuxnet, and commented that: "the similar type of usage of both exploits together in different computer worms, at around the same time, indicates that the Equation Group and the Stuxnet developers are either the same or working closely together ''.
Stuxnet, discovered by Sergey Ulasen, initially spread via Microsoft Windows, and targeted Siemens industrial control systems. While it is not the first time that hackers have targeted industrial systems, nor the first publicly known intentional act of cyberwarfare to be implemented, it is the first discovered malware that spies on and subverts industrial systems, and the first to include a programmable logic controller (PLC) rootkit.
The worm initially spreads indiscriminately, but includes a highly specialized malware payload that is designed to target only Siemens supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems that are configured to control and monitor specific industrial processes. Stuxnet infects PLCs by subverting the Step - 7 software application that is used to reprogram these devices.
Different variants of Stuxnet targeted five Iranian organizations, with the probable target widely suspected to be uranium enrichment infrastructure in Iran; Symantec noted in August 2010 that 60 % of the infected computers worldwide were in Iran. Siemens stated that the worm has not caused any damage to its customers, but the Iran nuclear program, which uses embargoed Siemens equipment procured secretly, has been damaged by Stuxnet. Kaspersky Lab concluded that the sophisticated attack could only have been conducted "with nation - state support ''. This was further supported by the F - Secure 's chief researcher Mikko Hyppönen who commented in a Stuxnet FAQ, "That 's what it would look like, yes ''.
In May 2011, the PBS program Need To Know cited a statement by Gary Samore, White House Coordinator for Arms Control and Weapons of Mass Destruction, in which he said, "we 're glad they (the Iranians) are having trouble with their centrifuge machine and that we -- the US and its allies -- are doing everything we can to make sure that we complicate matters for them '', offering "winking acknowledgement '' of US involvement in Stuxnet. According to The Daily Telegraph, a showreel that was played at a retirement party for the head of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), Gabi Ashkenazi, included references to Stuxnet as one of his operational successes as the IDF chief of staff.
On 1 June 2012, an article in The New York Times said that Stuxnet is part of a US and Israeli intelligence operation called "Operation Olympic Games '', started under President George W. Bush and expanded under President Barack Obama.
On 24 July 2012, an article by Chris Matyszczyk from CNET reported how the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran e-mailed F - Secure 's chief research officer Mikko Hyppönen to report a new instance of malware.
On 25 December 2012, an Iranian semi-official news agency announced there was a cyberattack by Stuxnet, this time on the industries in the southern area of the country. The virus targeted a power plant and some other industries in Hormozgan province in recent months.
According to expert Eugene Kaspersky, the worm also infected a nuclear power plant in Russia. Kaspersky noted, however, that since the power plant is not connected to the public Internet, the system should remain safe.
The worm was at first identified by the security company VirusBlokAda in mid-June 2010. Journalist Brian Krebs 's blog posting on 15 July 2010 was the first widely read report on the worm. The original name given by VirusBlokAda was "Rootkit. Tmphider ''; Symantec however called it "W32. Temphid '', later changing to "W32. Stuxnet ''. Its current name is derived from a combination of some keywords in the software (``. stub '' and "mrxnet. sys ''). The reason for the discovery at this time is attributed to the virus accidentally spreading beyond its intended target (the Natanz plant) due to a programming error introduced in an update; this led to the worm spreading to an engineer 's computer that had been connected to the centrifuges, and spreading further when the engineer returned home and connected his computer to the internet.
Kaspersky Lab experts at first estimated that Stuxnet started spreading around March or April 2010, but the first variant of the worm appeared in June 2009. On 15 July 2010, the day the worm 's existence became widely known, a distributed denial - of - service attack was made on the servers for two leading mailing lists on industrial - systems security. This attack, from an unknown source but likely related to Stuxnet, disabled one of the lists and thereby interrupted an important source of information for power plants and factories. On the other hand, researchers at Symantec have uncovered a version of the Stuxnet computer virus that was used to attack Iran 's nuclear program in November 2007, being developed as early as 2005, when Iran was still setting up its uranium enrichment facility.
The second variant, with substantial improvements, appeared in March 2010, apparently because its authors believed that Stuxnet was not spreading fast enough; a third, with minor improvements, appeared in April 2010. The worm contains a component with a build time - stamp from 3 February 2010. In the United Kingdom on 25 November 2010, Sky News reported that it had received information from an anonymous source at an unidentified IT security organization that Stuxnet, or a variation of the worm, had been traded on the black market.
A study of the spread of Stuxnet by Symantec showed that the main affected countries in the early days of the infection were Iran, Indonesia and India:
Iran was reported to have "beefed up '' its cyberwar capabilities following the Stuxnet attack, and has been suspected of retaliatory attacks against US banks.
Unlike most malware, Stuxnet does little harm to computers and networks that do not meet specific configuration requirements; "The attackers took great care to make sure that only their designated targets were hit... It was a marksman 's job. '' While the worm is promiscuous, it makes itself inert if Siemens software is not found on infected computers, and contains safeguards to prevent each infected computer from spreading the worm to more than three others, and to erase itself on 24 June 2012.
For its targets, Stuxnet contains, among other things, code for a man - in - the - middle attack that fakes industrial process control sensor signals so an infected system does not shut down due to detected abnormal behavior. Such complexity is very unusual for malware. The worm consists of a layered attack against three different systems:
Stuxnet attacked Windows systems using an unprecedented four zero - day attacks (plus the CPLINK vulnerability and a vulnerability used by the Conficker worm). It is initially spread using infected removable drives such as USB flash drives, which contain Windows shortcut files to initiate executable code. The worm then uses other exploits and techniques such as peer - to - peer RPC to infect and update other computers inside private networks that are not directly connected to the Internet. The number of zero - day exploits used is unusual, as they are highly valued and malware creators do not typically make use of (and thus simultaneously make visible) four different zero - day exploits in the same worm. Amongst these exploits were remote code execution on a computer with Printer Sharing enabled, and the LNK / PIF vulnerability, in which file execution is accomplished when an icon is viewed in Windows Explorer; negating the need for user interaction. Stuxnet is unusually large at half a megabyte in size, and written in several different programming languages (including C and C++) which is also irregular for malware. The Windows component of the malware is promiscuous in that it spreads relatively quickly and indiscriminately.
The malware has both user - mode and kernel - mode rootkit capability under Windows, and its device drivers have been digitally signed with the private keys of two certificates that were stolen from separate well - known companies, JMicron and Realtek, both located at Hsinchu Science Park in Taiwan. The driver signing helped it install kernel - mode rootkit drivers successfully without users being notified, and therefore it remained undetected for a relatively long period of time. Both compromised certificates have been revoked by Verisign.
Two websites in Denmark and Malaysia were configured as command and control servers for the malware, allowing it to be updated, and for industrial espionage to be conducted by uploading information. Both of these websites have subsequently been taken down as part of a global effort to disable the malware.
According to researcher Ralph Langner, once installed on a Windows system Stuxnet infects project files belonging to Siemens ' WinCC / PCS 7 SCADA control software (Step 7), and subverts a key communication library of WinCC called s7otbxdx. dll. Doing so intercepts communications between the WinCC software running under Windows and the target Siemens PLC devices that the software is able to configure and program when the two are connected via a data cable. In this way, the malware is able to install itself on PLC devices unnoticed, and subsequently to mask its presence from WinCC if the control software attempts to read an infected block of memory from the PLC system.
The malware furthermore used a zero - day exploit in the WinCC / SCADA database software in the form of a hard - coded database password.
The entirety of the Stuxnet code has not yet been disclosed, but its payload targets only those SCADA configurations that meet criteria that it is programmed to identify.
Stuxnet requires specific slave variable - frequency drives (frequency converter drives) to be attached to the targeted Siemens S7 - 300 system and its associated modules. It only attacks those PLC systems with variable - frequency drives from two specific vendors: Vacon based in Finland and Fararo Paya based in Iran. Furthermore, it monitors the frequency of the attached motors, and only attacks systems that spin between 807 Hz and 1,210 Hz. The industrial applications of motors with these parameters are diverse, and may include pumps or gas centrifuges.
Stuxnet installs malware into memory block DB890 of the PLC that monitors the Profibus messaging bus of the system. When certain criteria are met, it periodically modifies the frequency to 1,410 Hz and then to 2 Hz and then to 1,064 Hz, and thus affects the operation of the connected motors by changing their rotational speed. It also installs a rootkit -- the first such documented case on this platform -- that hides the malware on the system and masks the changes in rotational speed from monitoring systems.
Siemens has released a detection and removal tool for Stuxnet. Siemens recommends contacting customer support if an infection is detected and advises installing Microsoft updates for security vulnerabilities and prohibiting the use of third - party USB flash drives. Siemens also advises immediately upgrading password access codes.
The worm 's ability to reprogram external PLCs may complicate the removal procedure. Symantec 's Liam O'Murchu warns that fixing Windows systems may not completely solve the infection; a thorough audit of PLCs may be necessary. Despite speculation that incorrect removal of the worm could cause damage, Siemens reports that in the first four months since discovery, the malware was successfully removed from the systems of 22 customers without any adverse impact.
Prevention of control system security incidents, such as from viral infections like Stuxnet, is a topic that is being addressed in both the public and the private sector.
The US Department of Homeland Security National Cyber Security Division (NCSD) operates the Control System Security Program (CSSP). The program operates a specialized computer emergency response team called the Industrial Control Systems Cyber Emergency Response Team (ICS - CERT), conducts a biannual conference (ICSJWG), provides training, publishes recommended practices, and provides a self - assessment tool. As part of a Department of Homeland Security plan to improve American computer security, in 2008 it and the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) worked with Siemens to identify security holes in the company 's widely used Process Control System 7 (PCS 7) and its software Step 7. In July 2008, INL and Siemens publicly announced flaws in the control system at a Chicago conference; Stuxnet exploited these holes in 2009.
Several industry organizations and professional societies have published standards and best practice guidelines providing direction and guidance for control system end - users on how to establish a control system security management program. The basic premise that all of these documents share is that prevention requires a multi-layered approach, often referred to as "defense - in - depth ''. The layers include policies and procedures, awareness and training, network segmentation, access control measures, physical security measures, system hardening, e.g., patch management, and system monitoring, anti-virus and intrusion prevention system (IPS). The standards and best practices also all recommend starting with a risk analysis and a control system security assessment.
Experts believe that Stuxnet required the largest and costliest development effort in malware history. Developing its many capabilities would have required a team of highly capable programmers, in - depth knowledge of industrial processes, and an interest in attacking industrial infrastructure. Eric Byres, who has years of experience maintaining and troubleshooting Siemens systems, told Wired that writing the code would have taken many man - months, if not years. Symantec estimates that the group developing Stuxnet would have consisted of anywhere from five to thirty people, and would have taken six months to prepare. The Guardian, the BBC and The New York Times all claimed that (unnamed) experts studying Stuxnet believe the complexity of the code indicates that only a nation - state would have the capabilities to produce it. The self - destruct and other safeguards within the code implied that a Western government was responsible, or at least is responsible in the development of it. Software security expert Bruce Schneier initially condemned the 2010 news coverage of Stuxnet as hype, however, stating that it was almost entirely based on speculation. But after subsequent research, Schneier stated in 2012 that "we can now conclusively link Stuxnet to the centrifuge structure at the Natanz nuclear enrichment lab in Iran ''.
Ralph Langner, the researcher who identified that Stuxnet infected PLCs, first speculated publicly in September 2010 that the malware was of Israeli origin, and that it targeted Iranian nuclear facilities. However Langner more recently, in a TED Talk recorded in February 2011, stated that, "My opinion is that the Mossad is involved, but that the leading force is not Israel. The leading force behind Stuxnet is the cyber superpower -- there is only one; and that 's the United States. '' Kevin Hogan, Senior Director of Security Response at Symantec, reported that the majority of infected systems were in Iran (about 60 %), which has led to speculation that it may have been deliberately targeting "high - value infrastructure '' in Iran including either the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant or the Natanz nuclear facility. Langner called the malware "a one - shot weapon '' and said that the intended target was probably hit, although he admitted this was speculation. Another German researcher and spokesman of the German - based Chaos Computer Club, Frank Rieger, was the first to speculate that Natanz was the target.
According to the Israeli newspaper Haaretz, in September 2010 experts on Iran and computer security specialists were increasingly convinced that Stuxnet was meant "to sabotage the uranium enrichment facility at Natanz -- where the centrifuge operational capacity had dropped over the past year by 30 percent. '' On 23 November 2010 it was announced that uranium enrichment at Natanz had ceased several times because of a series of major technical problems. A "serious nuclear accident '' (supposedly the shutdown of some of its centrifuges) occurred at the site in the first half of 2009, which is speculated to have forced the head of Iran 's Atomic Energy Organization Gholam Reza Aghazadeh to resign. Statistics published by the Federation of American Scientists (FAS) show that the number of enrichment centrifuges operational in Iran mysteriously declined from about 4,700 to about 3,900 beginning around the time the nuclear incident WikiLeaks mentioned would have occurred. The Institute for Science and International Security (ISIS) suggests, in a report published in December 2010, that Stuxnet is a reasonable explanation for the apparent damage at Natanz, and may have destroyed up to 1,000 centrifuges (10 percent) sometime between November 2009 and late January 2010. The authors conclude:
The attacks seem designed to force a change in the centrifuge 's rotor speed, first raising the speed and then lowering it, likely with the intention of inducing excessive vibrations or distortions that would destroy the centrifuge. If its goal was to quickly destroy all the centrifuges in the FEP (Fuel Enrichment Plant), Stuxnet failed. But if the goal was to destroy a more limited number of centrifuges and set back Iran 's progress in operating the FEP, while making detection difficult, it may have succeeded, at least temporarily.
The ISIS report further notes that Iranian authorities have attempted to conceal the breakdown by installing new centrifuges on a large scale.
The worm worked by first causing an infected Iranian IR - 1 centrifuge to increase from its normal operating speed of 1,064 hertz to 1,410 hertz for 15 minutes before returning to its normal frequency. Twenty - seven days later, the worm went back into action, slowing the infected centrifuges down to a few hundred hertz for a full 50 minutes. The stresses from the excessive, then slower, speeds caused the aluminum centrifugal tubes to expand, often forcing parts of the centrifuges into sufficient contact with each other to destroy the machine.
According to The Washington Post, IAEA cameras installed in the Natanz facility recorded the sudden dismantling and removal of approximately 900 -- 1,000 centrifuges during the time the Stuxnet worm was reportedly active at the plant. Iranian technicians, however, were able to quickly replace the centrifuges and the report concluded that uranium enrichment was likely only briefly disrupted.
On 15 February 2011, the Institute for Science and International Security released a report concluding that:
Assuming Iran exercises caution, Stuxnet is unlikely to destroy more centrifuges at the Natanz plant. Iran likely cleaned the malware from its control systems. To prevent re-infection, Iran will have to exercise special caution since so many computers in Iran contain Stuxnet.
Although Stuxnet appears to be designed to destroy centrifuges at the Natanz facility, destruction was by no means total. Moreover, Stuxnet did not lower the production of low - enriched uranium (LEU) during 2010. LEU quantities could have certainly been greater, and Stuxnet could be an important part of the reason why they did not increase significantly. Nonetheless, there remain important questions about why Stuxnet destroyed only 1,000 centrifuges. One observation is that it may be harder to destroy centrifuges by use of cyber attacks than often believed.
The Associated Press reported that the semi-official Iranian Students News Agency released a statement on 24 September 2010 stating that experts from the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran met in the previous week to discuss how Stuxnet could be removed from their systems. According to analysts, such as David Albright, Western intelligence agencies had been attempting to sabotage the Iranian nuclear program for some time.
The head of the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant told Reuters that only the personal computers of staff at the plant had been infected by Stuxnet and the state - run newspaper Iran Daily quoted Reza Taghipour, Iran 's telecommunications minister, as saying that it had not caused "serious damage to government systems ''. The Director of Information Technology Council at the Iranian Ministry of Industries and Mines, Mahmud Liaii, has said that: "An electronic war has been launched against Iran... This computer worm is designed to transfer data about production lines from our industrial plants to locations outside Iran. ''
In response to the infection, Iran assembled a team to combat it. With more than 30,000 IP addresses affected in Iran, an official said that the infection was fast spreading in Iran and the problem had been compounded by the ability of Stuxnet to mutate. Iran had set up its own systems to clean up infections and had advised against using the Siemens SCADA antivirus since it is suspected that the antivirus was actually embedded with codes which update Stuxnet instead of eradicating it.
According to Hamid Alipour, deputy head of Iran 's government Information Technology Company, "The attack is still ongoing and new versions of this virus are spreading. '' He reported that his company had begun the cleanup process at Iran 's "sensitive centres and organizations. '' "We had anticipated that we could root out the virus within one to two months, but the virus is not stable, and since we started the cleanup process three new versions of it have been spreading '', he told the Islamic Republic News Agency on 27 September 2010.
On 29 November 2010, Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad stated for the first time that a computer virus had caused problems with the controller handling the centrifuges at its Natanz facilities. According to Reuters, he told reporters at a news conference in Tehran, "They succeeded in creating problems for a limited number of our centrifuges with the software they had installed in electronic parts. ''
On the same day two Iranian nuclear scientists were targeted in separate, but nearly simultaneous car bomb attacks near Shahid Beheshti University in Tehran. Majid Shahriari, a quantum physicist was killed. Fereydoon Abbasi, a high - ranking official at the Ministry of Defense was seriously wounded. Wired speculated that the assassinations could indicate that whoever was behind Stuxnet felt that it was not sufficient to stop the nuclear program. That same Wired article suggested the Iranian government could have been behind the assassinations. In January 2010, another Iranian nuclear scientist, a physics professor at Tehran University, was killed in a similar bomb explosion. On 11 January 2012, a Director of the Natanz nuclear enrichment facility, Mostafa Ahmadi Roshan, was killed in an attack quite similar to the one that killed Shahriari.
An analysis by the FAS demonstrates that Iran 's enrichment capacity grew during 2010. The study indicated that Iran 's centrifuges appeared to be performing 60 % better than in the previous year, which would significantly reduce Tehran 's time to produce bomb - grade uranium. The FAS report was reviewed by an official with the IAEA who affirmed the study.
European and US officials, along with private experts told Reuters that Iranian engineers were successful in neutralizing and purging Stuxnet from their country 's nuclear machinery.
Given the growth in Iranian enrichment capability in 2010, the country may have intentionally put out misinformation to cause Stuxnet 's creators to believe that the worm was more successful in disabling the Iranian nuclear program than it actually was.
Israel, through Unit 8200, has been speculated to be the country behind Stuxnet in many media reports and by experts such as Richard A. Falkenrath, former Senior Director for Policy and Plans within the US Office of Homeland Security. Yossi Melman, who covers intelligence for the Israeli daily newspaper Haaretz and is writing a book about Israeli intelligence, also suspected that Israel was involved, noting that Meir Dagan, the former (up until 2011) head of the national intelligence agency Mossad, had his term extended in 2009 because he was said to be involved in important projects. Additionally, Israel now expects that Iran will have a nuclear weapon in 2014 or 2015 -- at least three years later than earlier estimates -- without the need for an Israeli military attack on Iranian nuclear facilities; "They seem to know something, that they have more time than originally thought '', he added. Israel has not publicly commented on the Stuxnet attack but confirmed that cyberwarfare is now among the pillars of its defense doctrine, with a military intelligence unit set up to pursue both defensive and offensive options. When questioned whether Israel was behind the virus in the fall of 2010, some Israeli officials broke into "wide smiles '', fueling speculation that the government of Israel was involved with its genesis. American presidential advisor Gary Samore also smiled when Stuxnet was mentioned, although American officials have indicated that the virus originated abroad. According to The Telegraph, Israeli newspaper Haaretz reported that a video celebrating operational successes of Gabi Ashkenazi, retiring IDF Chief of Staff, was shown at his retirement party and included references to Stuxnet, thus strengthening claims that Israel 's security forces were responsible.
In 2009, a year before Stuxnet was discovered, Scott Borg of the United States Cyber-Consequences Unit (US - CCU) suggested that Israel might prefer to mount a cyber-attack rather than a military strike on Iran 's nuclear facilities. And, in late 2010 Borg stated, "Israel certainly has the ability to create Stuxnet and there is little downside to such an attack because it would be virtually impossible to prove who did it. So a tool like Stuxnet is Israel 's obvious weapon of choice. '' Iran uses P - 1 centrifuges at Natanz, the design for which A.Q. Khan stole in 1976 and took to Pakistan. His black market nuclear - proliferation network sold P - 1s to, among other customers, Iran. Experts believe that Israel also somehow acquired P - 1s and tested Stuxnet on the centrifuges, installed at the Dimona facility that is part of its own nuclear program. The equipment may be from the United States, which received P - 1s from Libya 's former nuclear program.
Some have also referred to several clues in the code such as a concealed reference to the word "MYRTUS '', believed to refer to the Myrtle tree, or Hadassah in Hebrew. Hadassah was the birth name of the former Jewish queen of Persia, Queen Esther. However, it may be that the "MYRTUS '' reference is simply a misinterpreted reference to SCADA components known as RTUs (Remote Terminal Units) and that this reference is actually "My RTUs '' -- a management feature of SCADA. Also, the number 19790509 appears once in the code and might refer to the date "1979 May 09 '', the day Habib Elghanian, a Persian Jew, was executed in Tehran. Another date that appears in the code is "24 September 2007 '', the day that Iran 's president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad spoke at Columbia University and made comments questioning the validity of the Holocaust. Such data is not conclusive, since, as noted by Symantec, "... attackers would have the natural desire to implicate another party ''.
There has also been testimony on the involvement of the United States and its collaboration with Israel, with one report stating that "there is vanishingly little doubt that (it) played a role in creating the worm. '' It has been reported that the United States, under one of its most secret programs, initiated by the Bush administration and accelerated by the Obama administration, has sought to destroy Iran 's nuclear program by novel methods such as undermining Iranian computer systems. A diplomatic cable obtained by WikiLeaks showed how the United States was advised to target Iran 's nuclear capabilities through ' covert sabotage '. A New York Times article as early as January 2009 credited a then unspecified program with preventing an Israeli military attack on Iran where some of the efforts focused on ways to destabilize the centrifuges. A Wired article claimed that Stuxnet "is believed to have been created by the United States ''.
The fact that John Bumgarner, a former intelligence officer and member of the United States Cyber-Consequences Unit (US - CCU), published an article prior to Stuxnet being discovered or deciphered, that outlined a strategic cyber strike on centrifuges and suggests that cyber attacks are permissible against nation states which are operating uranium enrichment programs that violate international treaties gives some credibility to these claims. Bumgarner pointed out that the centrifuges used to process fuel for nuclear weapons are a key target for cybertage operations and that they can be made to destroy themselves by manipulating their rotational speeds.
In a March 2012 interview with CBS News ' "60 Minutes '', retired USAF General Michael Hayden -- who served as director of both the Central Intelligence Agency and National Security Agency -- while denying knowledge of who created Stuxnet said that he believed it had been "a good idea '' but that it carried a downside in that it had legitimized the use of sophisticated cyber weapons designed to cause physical damage. Hayden said, "There are those out there who can take a look at this... and maybe even attempt to turn it to their own purposes ''. In the same report, Sean McGurk, a former cybersecurity official at the Department of Homeland Security noted that the Stuxnet source code could now be downloaded online and modified to be directed at new target systems. Speaking of the Stuxnet creators, he said, "They opened the box. They demonstrated the capability... It 's not something that can be put back. ''
In April 2011 Iranian government official Gholam Reza Jalali stated that an investigation had concluded that the United States and Israel were behind the Stuxnet attack. Frank Rieger stated that three European countries ' intelligence agencies agreed that Stuxnet was a joint United States - Israel effort. The code for the Windows injector and the PLC payload differ in style, likely implying collaboration. Other experts believe that a US - Israel cooperation is unlikely because "the level of trust between the two countries ' intelligence and military establishments is not high. ''
A Wired magazine article about US General Keith B. Alexander stated: "And he and his cyber warriors have already launched their first attack. The cyber weapon that came to be known as Stuxnet was created and built by the NSA in partnership with the CIA and Israeli intelligence in the mid-2000s. ''
China, Jordan, and France are other possibilities, and Siemens may have also participated. Langner speculated that the infection may have spread from USB drives belonging to Russian contractors since the Iranian targets were not accessible via the Internet.
Sandro Gaycken from the Free University Berlin argued that the attack on Iran was a ruse to distract from Stuxnet 's real purpose. According to him, its broad dissemination in more than 100,000 industrial plants worldwide suggests a field test of a cyber weapon in different security cultures, testing their preparedness, resilience, and reactions, all highly valuable information for a cyberwar unit.
The United Kingdom has denied involvement in the worm 's creation.
Stratfor Documents released by Wikileaks suggest that the International Security Firm ' Stratfor ' believe that Israel is behind Stuxnet -- "But we ca n't assume that because they did Stuxnet that they are capable of doing this blast as well ''.
In July 2013, Edward Snowden claimed that Stuxnet was cooperatively developed by the United States and Israel.
According to a report by Reuters, the NSA also tried to sabotage North Korea 's nuclear program using a version of Stuxnet. The operation was reportedly launched in tandem with the attack that targeted Iranian centrifuges in 2009 -- 10. The North Korean nuclear program shares many similarities with the Iranian, both having been developed with technology transferred by Pakistani nuclear scientist A.Q. Khan. The effort failed, however, because North Korea 's extreme secrecy and isolation made it impossible to introduce Stuxnet into the nuclear facility.
A November 2013 article in Foreign Policy magazine claims existence of an earlier, much more sophisticated attack on the centrifuge complex at Natanz, focused on increasing centrifuge failure rate over a long time period by stealthily inducing uranium hexafluoride gas overpressure incidents. This malware was capable of spreading only by being physically installed, probably by previously contaminated field equipment used by contractors working on Siemens control systems within the complex. It is not clear whether this attack attempt was successful, but it being followed by a different, simpler and more conventional attack is indicative.
On 1 September 2011, a new worm was found, thought to be related to Stuxnet. The Laboratory of Cryptography and System Security (CrySyS) of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics analyzed the malware, naming the threat Duqu. Symantec, based on this report, continued the analysis of the threat, calling it "nearly identical to Stuxnet, but with a completely different purpose '', and published a detailed technical paper. The main component used in Duqu is designed to capture information such as keystrokes and system information. The exfiltrated data may be used to enable a future Stuxnet - like attack. On 28 December 2011, Kaspersky Lab 's director of global research and analysis spoke to Reuters about recent research results showing that the platform Stuxnet and Duqu both originated from in 2007, and is being referred to as Tilded due to the ~ d at the beginning of the file names. Also uncovered in this research was the possibility for three more variants based on the Tilded platform.
In May 2012, the new malware "Flame '' was found, thought to be related to Stuxnet. Researchers named the program "Flame '' after the name of one of its modules. After analysing the code of Flame, Kaspersky Lab said that there is a strong relationship between Flame and Stuxnet. An early version of Stuxnet contained code to propagate infections via USB drives that is nearly identical to a Flame module that exploits the same vulnerability.
In December 2017 it was reported that the safety systems of an unidentified power station, believed to be in Saudi Arabia were compromised when the Triconex industrial safety technology made by Schneider Electric SE was targeted in what is believed to have been a state sponsored attack. The computer security company Symantec claimed that the malware, known as "Triton '' exploited a vulnerability in computers running the Microsoft Windows operating system.
Since 2010, there has been extensive international media coverage on Stuxnet and its aftermath. In early commentary, The Economist pointed out that Stuxnet was "a new kind of cyber-attack. '' On 8 July 2011, Wired then published an article detailing how network security experts were able to decipher the origins of Stuxnet. In that piece, Kim Zetter claimed that Stuxnet 's "cost -- benefit ratio is still in question. '' Later commentators tended to focus on the strategic significance of Stuxnet as a cyber weapon. Following the Wired piece, Holger Stark called Stuxnet the "first digital weapon of geopolitical importance, it could change the way wars are fought. '' Meanwhile, Eddie Walsh referred to Stuxnet as "the world 's newest high - end asymmetric threat. '' Ultimately, some claim that the "extensive media coverage afforded to Stuxnet has only served as an advertisement for the vulnerabilities used by various cybercriminal groups. '' While that may be the case, the media coverage has also increased awareness of cyber security threats.
Alex Gibney 's 2016 documentary Zero Days covers the phenomenon around Stuxnet.
In 2016 it was revealed that General James Cartwright, the former head of the U.S. Strategic Command, had leaked information related to Stuxnet. He later pleaded guilty for lying to FBI agents pursuing an investigation into the leak. On 17 January 2017, he was granted a full pardon in this case by President Obama, thereby expunging his conviction.
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what was the main purpose of the american system | American System (economic plan) - Wikipedia
U.S. Senator from Kentucky
The American System was an economic plan that played an important role in American policy during the first half of the 19th century. Rooted in the "American School '' ideas of Alexander Hamilton, the plan "consisted of three mutually reinforcing parts: a tariff to protect and promote American industry; a national bank to foster commerce; and federal subsidies for roads, canals, and other ' internal improvements ' to develop profitable markets for agriculture ''. Congressman Henry Clay was the plan 's foremost proponent and the first to refer to it as the "American System ''.
A plan to strengthen and unify the nation, the American System, was advanced by the Whig Party and a number of leading politicians including Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun and John Quincy Adams. The System ran counter to federalism and included:
Clay protested that the West, which opposed the tariff, should support it since urban factory workers would be consumers of western foods. In Clay 's view, the South (which also opposed high tariffs) should support them because of the ready market for cotton in northern mills. This last argument was the weak link. The South never strongly supported the American System and had access to plenty of markets for its cotton exports.
Portions of the American System were enacted by the United States Congress. The Second Bank of the United States was rechartered in 1816 for 20 years. High tariffs were first suggested by Alexander Hamilton in his 1791 Report on Manufactures but were not approved by Congress until the Tariff of 1816. Tariffs were subsequently raised until they peaked in 1828 after the so - called Tariff of Abominations. After the Nullification Crisis in 1833, tariffs remained the same rate until the Civil War. However, the national system of internal improvements was never adequately funded; the failure to do so was due in part to sectional jealousies and constitutional squabbles about such expenditures.
The American System did not enjoy overall success, however; in 1830, President Jackson rejected a bill which would allow the federal government to purchase stock in the Maysville, Washington, Paris, and Lexington Turnpike Road Company, which had been organized to construct a road linking Lexington and the Ohio River, the entirety of which would be in the state of Kentucky. Jackson 's Maysville Road veto was due to both his personal conflict with Clay and his ideological objections.
The establishment of a protective tariff, a 20 % -- 25 % tax on imported goods, would protect a nation 's business from foreign competition. Congress passed a tariff in 1816 which made European goods more expensive and encouraged consumers to buy relatively cheap American - made goods.
The establishment of a national bank would promote a single currency, making trade easier, and issue what was called sovereign credit, i.e., credit issued by the national government, rather than borrowed from the private banking system. In 1816, Congress created the Second Bank of the United States.
The improvement of the country 's infrastructure, especially transportation systems, made trade easier and faster for everyone. Poor roads made transportation slow and costly.
This program became the leading tenet of the Whig Party of Henry Clay and Daniel Webster. It was opposed by the Democratic Party of Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren, James K. Polk, Franklin Pierce, and James Buchanan prior to the Civil War, often on the grounds that the points of it were unconstitutional.
Among the most important internal improvements created under the American System was the Cumberland Road.
Henry Clay 's "American System, '' devised in the burst of nationalism that followed the War of 1812, remains one of the most historically significant examples of a government - sponsored program to harmonize and balance the nation 's agriculture, commerce, and industry. This "System '' consisted of three mutually reinforcing parts: a tariff to protect and promote American industry; a national bank to foster commerce; and federal subsidies for roads, canals, and other "internal improvements '' to develop profitable markets for agriculture. Funds for these subsidies would be obtained from tariffs and sales of public lands. Clay argued that a vigorously maintained system of sectional economic interdependence would eliminate the chance of renewed subservience to the free - trade, laissez - faire "British System. ''
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prince i wanna be your lover original | I Wanna Be Your Lover - wikipedia
"I Wanna Be Your Lover '' is a song by American recording artist Prince. It was released on August 24, 1979 as the lead single from his second album, Prince. The song was Prince 's first major hit single in the United States, reaching number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 and peaking at number one on the Billboard Hot Soul Singles chart for two weeks.
"I Wanna Be Your Lover '' was written after Warner Bros. requested a follow - up to Prince 's debut album For You, which had underperformed commercially and neither of its singles crossed over to the pop charts. In response, Prince recorded "I Wanna Be Your Lover. '' Musically, it is a funk song sung exclusively in falsetto, detailing Prince 's love for a woman and how he would treat her better than the men she is with, and frustration that she thinks of him as "a child ''. The single edit stops after 2: 57, but the album version goes off on a jam of keyboards and synthesizers, including a Polymoog, played by Prince. It was later revealed that the song concerned a crush Prince had at the time on pianist and singer Patrice Rushen.
Prince promoted the song by lip - syncing it with his band on The Midnight Special and American Bandstand, where he gave host Dick Clark an awkward interview, answering his questions with one - word answers. Prince claimed to be 19 but was 21 at the time. Clark later said, "That was one of the most difficult interviews I 've ever conducted, and I 've done 10,000 musician interviews. ''
The song was also Prince 's debut single released in the UK; it was successful, reaching No. 41 on the UK Singles Chart. However, when Prince tried to promote it with shows in London, he was forced to cancel due to poor attendance. It would n't be until Purple Rain (1984) that Prince would break big in Europe.
The song additionally reached No. 2 on the Hot Dance Club Play chart and No. 2 in New Zealand.
Prince included a sample of this song in the opening of his 1992 hit single "My Name Is Prince ''.
There are two versions of the music video of the hit single. The main version has Prince in an unbuttoned leopard shirt and jeans singing alone in a black background with only a mic, notably with straight / wavy hair and a departure from his afro from a year before. Various shots show him playing the instruments by himself.
The other version, which has not aired and was not featured on The Hits Collection compilation shows Prince and his band members performing the song in a painted room. The video was pulled due to skimpy clothing and a sexually suggestive theme (Prince was clad in blue stockings and a tan shirt, and frequently throughout the performance kisses his female keyboardist). The video is widely sought after by collectors.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
List of number - one R&B singles of 1979 (U.S.)
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where is the gray house located in the good witch series | The Good Witch - wikipedia
The Good Witch is a television film that aired on the Hallmark Channel on January 19, 2008. It stars Catherine Bell as Cassandra Nightingale and Chris Potter as Chief of Police Jake Russell. The film has spawned six sequels and a television series.
A mysterious, darkly beautiful woman, who claims to be named "Cassandra Nightingale '', moves into an old, abandoned house which is reputed to be haunted by its original owner, "The Grey Lady. '' The small community is divided in their opinion of her: some want her to stay, especially widowed police chief Jake Russell and his two children, while others want her to leave, especially Martha Tinsdale. Through the course of the story, seemingly magical things happen, and the community attributes these occurrences to her. Everyone begins to wonder if she is really a witch.
On January 15, 2008, Hallmark Channel and Limbo, the mobile entertainment community, teamed up to create and launch the cable network 's first - ever mobile interactive initiative. The campaign "enhanced viewers ' experience of the premiere of the network 's original movie... through ' Limbo Unique ' -- a game played via cell phone or online ''. The grand prize was $2,000 and a portrait of the "Grey Lady '' that was featured in the movie.
Although set in "Middleton, USA '', it was filmed in Hamilton and Niagara on the Lake, Ontario. In the sequel, The Good Witch 's Charm, the map on the wall in the police station shows Middleton north and west of Chicago, in the vicinity of DuPage County. The names of the suburbs and interstates that are west of Chicago can be clearly seen.
The movie had great success on Hallmark Channel on the night of its premiere, making it the second - highest - rated original movie to that date. It premiered with a 3.8 HH (household) rating and was in nearly 3.2 million homes. It also was # 1 in its time period, propelling the channel to the # 4 spot in weekly ranking.
The Good Witch (Region 1) DVD was released on January 5, 2010.
The Good Witch Collection (Region 1) DVD was released October 14, 2014.
On February 7, 2009, the Hallmark Channel aired a sequel, The Good Witch 's Garden. The third installment, The Good Witch 's Gift, aired on November 13, 2010, on Hallmark. The fourth installment, The Good Witch 's Family, aired on October 29, 2011. The fifth installment The Good Witch 's Charm premiered on October 27, 2012. The Good Witch 's Destiny sixth installment premiered on October 26, 2013. A seventh installment, The Good Witch 's Wonder, aired October 25, 2014.
In February 2014, the Hallmark Channel announced that Good Witch had been green - lighted for a ten - episode series, starring Catherine Bell, to premiere on February 28, 2015. Production for the first season began on October 29, 2014, in Toronto, with Sue Tenney as showrunner. Bailee Madison and James Denton also star.
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how many seasons are there for dr blake mysteries | List of the Doctor Blake Mysteries episodes - wikipedia
The following is a list of episodes for the Australian television drama mystery programme, The Doctor Blake Mysteries. As of 25 March 2016, 36 episodes of The Doctor Blake Mysteries have aired.
It 's 1959 and Doctor Lucien Blake has returned to rural Ballarat to take over his deceased father 's medical practice. He has also taken on the role of police surgeon. A woman is found floating dead in Lake Wendouree, and it 's discovered that things may not be exactly as they seem when the good Doctor Lucien Blake decides to dig a little deeper. (See Note below)
The day before ANZAC day Doctor Lucien Blake runs into a number of old army colleagues who are in town to find two army deserters, but there is no time to catch up and share old memories as Doctor Blake is called away to investigate the horrific death of a morgue attendant.
A delirious prisoner on death row tells Dr Lucien Blake that he is innocent of the police shooting for which he is soon to hang. Dr Blake pulls out all stops to uncover the truth.
When the Begonia Festival 's head judge is found burnt to death in his own glasshouse, all eyes turn to two feuding contestants.
The death of a migrant factory foreman looks like an industrial accident. Dr Blake digs deeper revealing a string of crimes and the ugly side of post war Australia. Meanwhile Jean receives a proposal.
A psychiatric inmate is found, murder weapon in hand, at the scene of a brutal murder. The inmate also confesses but is this case as neat as it appears?
Doctor Lucien Blake is drawn into the new world of television when contestants of a successful TV quiz show start dying.
The suicide of Ballarat Hospital 's first female doctor shocks the community. Dr Lucien Blake suspects foul play and sets out to find the murderer amongst the staff and board of the hospital.
Blake returns from Shanghai just as the mayor of Ballarat is murdered. Blake and Superintendent Lawson have to tread carefully among the mayor 's many enemies. When Blake 's friend, Joy, is also found dead in the same place it becomes personal. A new senior constable, Charlie Davis, believed by Lawson to report back on his and Blake 's activities, is sent by Melbourne.
Bobby Lee, lead singer of a rock and roll group, dies in an alley, of a single stab wound, outside Ballarat 's concert hall amongst his fans. Blake investigates his fans including a pub owner 's 16 year old daughter with a vivid imagination, another fanatical female fan, other band members and a preacher with a violent past who hates the devil 's music. Mattie spends the day in a cell after assaulting senior constable Davis.
The body of a man is found by a tree, having been there overnight. The autopsy reveals he had been poisoned by cyanide and his clothes have no labels. The last person to be seen with the man was a blonde woman. When his wife appears they believe they have his name but she, a blonde, becomes a suspect when further investigation reveals the man had multiple identities and lovers. A coded message, which Blake tries to decode, a Soviet agent, is and a retarded Peeping Tom may hold clues to the death. Alice Harvey, a new pathologist joins the Ballarat medical team.
Two seemingly unrelated incidents; the president of the local flying club falling to his death from the balcony of the Colonists Club but with massive internal injuries and a police constable injured in a hit and run. Tobacco smuggling seems to be the connection but the two local pilots have alibis and the only airworthy plane was on the ground. Senior constable Davis falls foul of Superintendent Lawson.
We see her hauntingly beautiful smile at the beginning of the show. Is the young woman an object of art or an artist in her own right? Several claim to be her lover, but how was she treated? Blake sees specters of his past at home and at the crime scene. He is called upon to open a door that had been long locked. As the show ends he sits, seemingly contented, in front of a fire that has not been lit for many years. Doors that have been opened can not be closed again, however, and Dr. Blake must face that his mother 's relationship to the world was more complicated than his younger self could have supposed. This show is critical in understanding his personal quest in the third season.
A 17 year old champion rower drowns after being thrown into the lake in celebration of a win. Blake is unhappy with the way the extremely fit boy drowned so quickly and with alcohol in his lungs. The boy 's obstructive, domineering father with heart trouble hampers the investigation and the boy 's recent phobia about the colour yellow may be the key to solving the mystery. Blake offers lodgings to Charlie Davis and in clearing the room finds a medical file on his own mother.
The death of a farmer trampled to death in his own cattle pens and a misidentification leads to problems for Blake when Superintendent Ashby is dismissed and replaced by Superintendent Munroe, who is determined to rein in Blake or dismiss him as police surgeon.
Communist agitators, friends of Mattie from university, descend on Ballarat to cause trouble when a government minister, Mattie 's father, is speaking. One of the agitators is found dead and Blake seeks evidence to corroborate forensic evidence on the body. Mattie suspects Charlie is spying on Blake for Superintendent Munroe. Blake is shocked to discover from one of his mother 's friends that she died of a diabetic coma.
When a famous actress is murdered at a charity event at the Colonist 's Club, it really does become a Night to Remember.
While investigating the murder of a local magistrate, Dr Blake realises the answers to this crime are inextricably linked with the death of his mother 40 years earlier. A new housekeeper comes as Jean leaves to be with her son. Will the doctor realize all that he has lost and might lose?
Guest cast: John Wood
It 's 1960 and Dr Lucien Blake returns home to find Ballarat hosting a very public stopover in a cross-country, endurance motor race - and a very suspicious death. Chief Superintendent Lawson is seriously injured and retires. Blake recognises his growing feelings for Jean and he takes his mothers engagement ring from his study. A new reporter taken on at the local paper, The Courier, is Lawson 's niece Rose Anderson.
Two businessmen / brothers announce plans for a theme park to glorify Ballarat 's goldrush past. The following morning one brother is found dead in the local baths. Doctor Blake soon realises the death is suspicious. Chief Superintendent Frank Carlyle replaces Lawson. Mattie O'Brien leaves Ballarat for a new post at St Bartholomew 's hospital, London. Blake borrows Jean 's engagement ring from her first marriage to have his mother 's engagement ring resized.
Episode one Still Waters was dedicated in memory of Kathryn Seabrook, a young actress who committed suicide.
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where can i see a wrinkle in time movie | A Wrinkle in Time (2018 film) - wikipedia
A Wrinkle in Time is a 2018 American science fantasy adventure film directed by Ava DuVernay and written by Jennifer Lee and Jeff Stockwell, based on the 1962 novel of the same name by Madeleine L'Engle. The film stars Oprah Winfrey, Reese Witherspoon, Mindy Kaling, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Michael Peña, Storm Reid, Zach Galifianakis and Chris Pine, and follows a young girl who, with the help of three astral travelers, sets off on a quest to find her father, who went missing after discovering a new planet.
Principal photography began on November 2, 2016, in Los Angeles, California. With a production budget of over $100 million, the film became the first live - action film with a nine - digit budget to be directed by a woman of color. A Wrinkle in Time premired at the El Capitan Theatre on February 26, 2018, and with a theatrical release on March 9, 2018, through the Disney Digital 3 - D, Real D 3D, and IMAX formats. The film received mixed reviews, with critics "taking issue with the film 's heavy use of CGI and numerous plot holes '' while many "celebrated its message of female empowerment and diversity ''. With a total production and marketing budget of around $250 million, the film grossed just $129 million worldwide, making it a box office bomb and losing Disney at least $86 million.
Thirteen - year - old Meg Murry struggles to adjust to school and home life ever since her father Alex, a well - renowned scientist, mysteriously disappeared while he was studying astrophysics. Both Meg and her mother Kate believe he solved the question of humanity 's existence and theorize he was teleported to another world.
During the night, Meg 's younger brother Charles Wallace welcomes a stranger in a large white dress named Mrs. Whatsit into the Murry family house. She mentions the tesseract, a type of space - travel Alex was working on, is real, and leaves soon after. The next day, one of Meg 's classmates, Calvin O'Keefe, joins them to go to the house of Mrs. Who, another strange woman who speaks only in quotations and seems to know Charles Wallace.
When Calvin joins Meg and Charles Wallace in their backyard, Mrs. Whatsit appears with Mrs. Who and another woman, Mrs. Which, who is the oldest and appears as a giant. The three reveal themselves as astral travelers, and lead Meg, Calvin, and Charles Wallace through a tesseract taking them to a distant planet named Uriel.
Mrs. Whatsit transforms into a beautiful green creature, and takes the children up into the atmosphere, where they see a dark shadow known as The IT. Mrs. Which tells Meg her father 's experiments resulted in his being captured by The IT, a malevolent entity plotting to take over the universe. Gaining the women 's trust, Meg and the others tesser to another planet where a seer known as the Happy Medium resides.
The Happy Medium shows them Meg 's father is trapped on a planet called Camazotz, The IT 's homeworld. Mrs. Which also explains The IT represents all of the greed, anger, pride, selfishness, and low self - esteem in the world. Showing them examples of these characteristics, Meg learns that while Calvin is popular at school, he is neglected and bullied by his father and her school enemy Veronica Kiley is extremely self - conscious. The three Mrs. propose they travel back to Earth to regroup, but Meg 's strong will to find her father overrides the tesseract, and she accidentally redirects them to Camazotz instead.
Upon arriving on Camazotz, Mrs. Which, Mrs. Whatsit, and Mrs. Who are unable to stay because Camazotz 's evil is stronger than their light. Before they depart, they bestow gifts upon Meg; these include Mrs. Who 's glasses, the knowledge of Meg 's faults, and the command to never separate.
The trio treks through Camazotz 's hazardous traps before reaching a crowded beach where they meet the IT 's bodyguard, Red. He offers the starving children food and tells them Alex is safe and happy. He reveals to them there is nothing to worry about here, but Calvin and Meg realize something is wrong when Charles Wallace proclaims all of the food tastes like sand. When Red starts repeating the times tables, Charles Wallace is hypnotized by the rhythm, allowing the IT to take full control of his mind.
When Meg and Calvin pursue Charles Wallace, they find themselves in a seemingly empty room. Using Mrs. Who 's glasses, Meg finds an invisible staircase leading to the room where her father is being kept prisoner. After bringing him out of captivity, the IT 's power allows Charles Wallace to forcefully drag them to finally meet his master. As Calvin and Meg fall under the IT 's power, Alex opens another tesser and prepares to leave with the children, abandoning Charles Wallace. Meg refuses and projects out of the tesser herself, leaving her alone. When she confronts Charles Wallace in corruption, she realizes the IT uses deception and hatred for power. Using her love for her brother and the knowledge she is imperfect, Meg frees Charles Wallace from the control of the IT and releases the control of Camazotz from the evil entity. The three Mrs. return and tell Meg her time is here to tesser for herself.
Returning home, Meg thanks the women for their help and for rescuing her father and they part ways, while Veronica becomes nice to her. The film ends with the Murry family celebrating a joyful reunion and Calvin going home to confront his father.
In October 2010, it was announced that Walt Disney Pictures had retained the film rights for the 1962 novel A Wrinkle in Time, by Madeleine L'Engle, which had previously been made as a 2003 television film. Following the financial success of Tim Burton 's Alice in Wonderland (2010), Disney announced that they had hired Jeff Stockwell to write the screenplay for Cary Granat and his new Bedrock Studios. Granat had previously worked with Disney on the Chronicles of Narnia and Bridge to Terabithia films. The project 's budget was slated to be $35 million, which the company compared to District 9 and Bridge to Terabithia, both of which were made for less than $30 million. On August 5, 2014, Jennifer Lee was announced as the screenwriter, taking over from Stockwell, who wrote the first draft. On February 8, 2016, it was reported that Ava DuVernay had been offered the job of directing the film, and she was confirmed to direct later that same month. She became the first woman of color to direct a live - action film with a production budget over $100 million.
On July 26, 2016, Variety reported that Oprah Winfrey had began final negotiations to join the film, to play Mrs. Which, the eldest of the three Mrs. Ws, celestial beings who help guide the children along their journey. On September 7, 2016, Reese Witherspoon and Mindy Kaling were reported as being in talks to join the film, with Witherspoon to play Mrs. Whatsit, who presents as a chatty, grandmotherly hobo, and Kaling set for the quotation - reciting Mrs. Who. On September 13, 2016, Storm Reid was cast in the lead role of Meg Murry, a young girl traumatized by the disappearance of her scientist father years before. In October 2016, Gugu Mbatha - Raw and Chris Pine were cast as the parents of Meg, Dr. Kate Murry and Dr. Alex Murry, respectively. On November 1, 2016, more cast were announced, including Zach Galifianakis as the Happy Medium, André Holland as Principal Jenkins, Levi Miller as Calvin, and Deric McCabe as Charles Wallace, along with Bellamy Young, Rowan Blanchard and Will McCormack. Michael Peña later also joined the cast to play the character Red. The producers on the film are James Whitaker and Catherine Hand.
Principal photography on the film began on November 2, 2016, in Los Angeles, California. After Los Angeles, production moved to New Zealand for two weeks. Tobias A. Schliessler was the film 's cinematographer, Naomi Shohan its production designer, Paco Delgado its costume designer, and Rich McBride its visual effects supervisor. During production, DuVernay asked McBride to be as flexible as possible on visual effects sequences to allow her to make changes and incorporate new ideas during shooting.
Filming for A Wrinkle in Time took place in multiple locations including Eureka, California, in Humboldt County, starting on November 29, 2016. Filming also took place at Eureka 's Sequoia Park, located next to Sequoia Park Zoo. None of the film 's major actors were present in Eureka. In mid-December, Pine was spotted during filming in Los Angeles.
During the last two weeks of February 2017, filming locations for A Wrinkle in Time were established to be in Central Otago, New Zealand. Actors and crew involved were in New Zealand for the two weeks to shoot scenes in the Southern Alps, including at Hunter Valley Station near Lake Hāwea, with cast and crew treated to a traditional Māori powhiri and karakia. Filming wrapped in New Zealand 's South Island after two weeks, and DuVernay declared the cast and crew 's love for New Zealand in an Instagram post.
On September 28, 2017, Ramin Djawadi was announced as the composer for the film, replacing Jonny Greenwood, who was initially chosen to compose, and scored the film. On February 20, 2018, it was announced that the soundtrack would feature appearances from Sade, Sia, Kehlani, Chloe x Halle, Freestyle Fellowship, DJ Khaled, and Demi Lovato.
The film was released in the United States on March 9, 2018. It was previously set for an April 6, 2018 release.
DuVernay announced a teaser trailer for the film would debut at the 2017 D23 expo; it was released on July 15, 2017.
A Wrinkle in Time is scheduled to be released on 4K UHD Blu - Ray, Blu - Ray & DVD on June 5, 2018.
As of May 27, 2018, A Wrinkle in Time grossed $97.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $31.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $129.4 million. With a combined $250 million spent on production and advertisement, the film needed to gross at least $400 million worldwide to turn a profit. Following Disney 's Q2 earnings report in May 2018, Yahoo! Finance deduced the film would lose the studio anywhere from $86 -- 186 million.
In the United States and Canada, A Wrinkle in Time was released alongside The Hurricane Heist, Gringo and The Strangers: Prey at Night, and was projected to gross $30 -- 38 million from 3,980 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $10.2 million on its first day, including $1.3 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $33.3 million, finishing second behind Disney 's own Black Panther ($41.1 million in its fourth weekend). In its second weekend the film made $16.6 million, dropping 50 % to 4th place.
Internationally the film opened in six countries alongside the United States and grossed $6.3 million in its opening weekend, Russia being the largest market with $4.1 million.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 39 %, based on 244 reviews, and an average rating of 5.2 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "A Wrinkle in Time is visually gorgeous, big - hearted, and occasionally quite moving; unfortunately, it 's also wildly ambitious to a fault, and often less than the sum of its classic parts. '' On Metacritic, which assigns normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 53 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it a 75 % overall positive score; audience members under the age of 18 gave it a respective average grade of "A -- '' and positive score of 89 %.
Alonso Duralde of TheWrap praised the film 's visuals and performances, writing, "Awash in bold colors, bright patterns and ebullient kids, director Ava DuVernay 's new take on A Wrinkle in Time dazzles its way across time and space even if it does n't quite stick the landing. '' David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a "C + '' and praised what he described as its ambition, saying: "It almost does n't matter that the movie is too emotionally prescriptive to have any real power, or too high on imagination to leave any room for wonder; DuVernay evinces such faith in who she is and what she 's doing that A Wrinkle in Time remains true to itself even when everything on screen reads false. ''
Alex Hudson of Exclaim! gave the film a 5 out of 10, saying that it felt "like a missed opportunity. Rather than a family classic, all we get is a perfectly fine kids movie. '' Vince Mancini of Uproxx gave the film a negative review, saying, "... if anything, the trouble with Wrinkle is that you never really get a sense of DuVernay 's personal touch. In fact, it feels a lot like Brad Bird 's big budget, equally smarmy 2015 Disney film, Tomorrowland. Both attempt to be so broad and universal that they feel disconnected from anything human. But universality does n't work that way, no matter how much you tell everyone to think like a kid. ''
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