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when did the first horror movie come out | Horror film - wikipedia
A horror film is a movie that seeks to elicit a physiological reaction, such as an elevated heartbeat, through the use of fear and shocking one 's audiences. Initially often inspired by literature from authors like Edgar Allan Poe, Bram Stoker, and Mary Shelley, horror has existed as a film genre for more than one century. The macabre and the supernatural are frequent themes. Horror may also overlap with the fantasy, supernatural fiction, and thriller genres.
Horror films often aim to evoke viewers ' nightmares, fears, revulsions and terror of the unknown. Plots within the horror genre often involve the intrusion of an evil force, event, or personage into the everyday world. Prevalent elements include ghosts, extraterrestrials, vampires, werewolves, demons, satanism, evil clowns, gore, torture, vicious animals, evil witches, monsters, zombies, cannibalism, psychopaths, natural or man - made disasters, and serial killers.
Some subgenres of horror film include action horror, comedy horror, body horror, disaster horror, holiday horror, horror drama, psychological horror, science fiction horror, slasher horror, supernatural horror, gothic horror, natural horror, zombie horror, first - person horror, and teen horror.
The first depictions of supernatural events appear in several of the silent shorts created by the film pioneer Georges Méliès in the late 1890s, the best known being Le Manoir du Diable, which is sometimes credited as being the first horror film. Another of his horror projects was La Caverne maudite (1898) (a.k.a. The Cave of the Demons, literally "the accursed cave ''). Japan made early forays into the horror genre with Bake Jizo (Jizo the Spook) and Shinin no Sosei (Resurrection of a Corpse), both made in 1898. The era featured a slew of literary adaptations, adapting the works of Poe and Dante, among others. In 1908, Selig Polyscope Company produced Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.
In 1910, Edison Studios produced the first filmed version of Frankenstein. The macabre nature of the source materials used made the films synonymous with the horror film genre.
Though the word "horror '' to describe the film genre would not be used until the 1930s (when Universal Pictures released their initial monster films), earlier American productions often relied on horror themes. Some notable examples include The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923), The Phantom of the Opera (1925), The Cat and the Canary (1927), The Unknown (1927), and The Man Who Laughs (1928). Many of these early films were considered dark melodramas because of their stock characters and emotion - heavy plots that focused on romance, violence, suspense, and sentimentality.
The trend of inserting an element of macabre into American pre-horror melodramas continued into the 1920s. Directors known for relying on macabre in their films during the 1920s were Maurice Tourneur, Rex Ingram, and Tod Browning. Ingram 's The Magician (1926) contains one of the first examples of a "mad doctor '' and is said to have had a large influence on James Whale 's version of Frankenstein. The Unholy Three (1925) is an example of Browning 's use of macabre and unique style of morbidity; he remade the film in 1930 as a talkie, though The Terror (1928) was the first horror film with sound.
Before and during the Weimar Republic era, German Expressionist filmmakers would significantly influence later productions. Paul Wegener 's The Student of Prague (1913) and The Golem trilogy (1915 -- 20), as well as Robert Wiene 's The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920), Arthur Robison 's Warning Shadows (1923), and Paul Leni 's Waxworks (1924), were influential films at the time. The first vampire - themed movie, Nosferatu (1922), was made during this period; it was an unauthorized adaptation of Bram Stoker 's Dracula.
Other European countries also, contributed to the genre during this period. Victor Sjöström 's The Phantom Carriage (Sweden, 1920) is a cautionary tale about a supernatural legend, Benjamin Christensen 's Häxan (Denmark / Sweden, 1922) is a documentary - style, horror film, about witchcraft and superstition, and in 1928, Frenchman, Jean Epstein produced an influential film, The Fall of the House of Usher, based on the Poe tale.
During the early period of talking pictures, Universal Pictures began a successful Gothic horror film series. Tod Browning 's Dracula (1931) was quickly followed by James Whale 's Frankenstein (1931) and The Old Dark House (1932), both featuring monstrous mute antagonists. Some of these films blended science fiction with Gothic horror, such as Whale 's The Invisible Man (1933) and featured a mad scientist, mirroring earlier German films. Frankenstein was the first in a series of remakes which lasted for years. The Mummy (1932) introduced Egyptology as a theme; Make - up artist Jack Pierce was responsible for the iconic image of the monster, and others in the series. Universal 's horror cycle continued into the 1940s with B movies including The Wolf Man (1941), as well as a number of films uniting several of the most common monsters.
Other studios followed Universal 's lead. The once controversial Freaks (1932), based on the short story "Spurs '', was made by MGM, though the studio disowned the completed film, and it remained banned, in the United Kingdom, for thirty years. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (Paramount, 1931) is remembered for its innovative use of photographic filters to create Jekyll 's transformation before the camera. With the progression of the genre, actors like Boris Karloff and Bela Lugosi were beginning to build entire careers in horror. Both appeared in three of Val Lewton 's atmospheric B movies for RKO in the mid-1940s, including The Body Snatcher (1945).
With advances in technology, the tone of horror films shifted from the Gothic towards contemporary concerns. Two subgenres began to emerge: the Doomsday film and the Demonic film. Low - budget productions featured humanity overcoming threats such as alien invasions and deadly mutations to people, plants and insects. Japan 's experience with Hiroshima and Nagasaki bore the well - known Godzilla (1954) and its sequels, featuring mutation from the effects of nuclear radiation.
Hollywood directors and producers found ample opportunity for audience exploitation through gimmicks. House of Wax (1953) used the advent of 3 - D film to draw audiences, while The Tingler used electric seat buzzers in 1959. Filmmakers continued to merge elements of science fiction and horror over the following decades. Considered a "pulp masterpiece '' of the era was The Incredible Shrinking Man (1957), based on Richard Matheson 's existentialist novel. The film conveyed the fears of living in the Atomic Age and the terror of social alienation.
During the later 1950s, the United Kingdom emerged as a major producer of horror films. The Hammer company focused on the genre for the first time, enjoying huge international success from films involving classic horror characters which were shown in color for the first time. Drawing on Universal 's precedent, many films produced were Frankenstein and Dracula remakes, followed by many sequels. Christopher Lee starred in a number of Hammer Horror films, including The Curse of Frankenstein (1957), which Professor Patricia MacCormac called the "first really gory horror film, showing blood and guts in colour ''. Other British companies contributed to a boom in horror film production in the United Kingdom during the 1960s and 1970s.
Released in May 1960, the British psychological thriller Peeping Tom (1960) by Michael Powell is a progenitor of the contemporary "slasher film ''. Alfred Hitchcock cemented the subgenre with Psycho released later that year. France continued the mad scientist theme, while Italian horror films became internationally notable. American International Pictures (AIP) made a series of Edgar Allan Poe -- themed films.
Films in the era used the supernatural premise to express the horror of the demonic. The Innocents (1961) based on the Henry James novel The Turn of the Screw. Meanwhile, ghosts were a dominant theme in Japanese horror, in such films as Kwaidan, Onibaba (both 1964) and Kuroneko (1968).
Rosemary 's Baby (1968) is an American psychological horror film written and directed by Roman Polanski, based on the bestselling 1967 novel of the same name by Ira Levin. Another influential American horror film of this period was George A. Romero 's Night of the Living Dead (1968). Produced and directed by Romero on a budget of $114,000, it grossed $30 million internationally. An Armageddon film about zombies, it began to combine psychological insights with gore. Distancing the era from earlier gothic trends, late 1960s films brought horror into everyday life. Low - budget splatter films from the likes of Herschell Gordon Lewis also gained prominence.
The financial successes of the low - budget gore films of the ensuing years, and the critical and popular success of Rosemary 's Baby, led to the release of more films with occult themes during the 1970s. The Exorcist (1973), the first of these movies, was a significant commercial success and was followed by scores of horror films in which a demon entity is represented as the supernatural evil, often by impregnating women or possessing children.
"Evil children '' and reincarnation became popular subjects. Robert Wise 's film Audrey Rose (1977) for example, deals with a man who claims that his daughter is the reincarnation of another dead person. Alice, Sweet Alice (1977), is another Catholic - themed horror slasher about a little girl 's murder and her sister being the prime suspect. Another popular occult horror movie was The Omen (1976), where a man realizes that his five - year - old adopted son is the Antichrist. Invincible to human intervention, Demons became villains in many horror films with a postmodern style and a dystopian worldview. Another example is The Sentinel (1977), in which a fashion model discovers that her new brownstone residence may actually be a portal to Hell.
During the 1970s, Italian filmmakers Mario Bava, Riccardo Freda, Antonio Margheriti and Dario Argento developed giallo horror films that became classics and influenced the genre in other countries. Representative films include: Twitch of the Death Nerve, The Bird with the Crystal Plumage, Deep Red and Suspiria.
Do n't Look Now (1973), a independent British - Italian film directed by Nicolas Roeg, was also notable. Its focus on the psychology of grief was unusually strong for a film featuring a supernatural horror plot. Another notable film is The Wicker Man (1973), a British mystery horror film dealing with the practice of ancient pagan rituals in the modern era. It was written by Anthony Shaffer and directed by Robin Hardy.
The ideas of the 1960s began to influence horror films, as the youth involved in the counterculture began exploring the medium. Wes Craven 's The Hills Have Eyes (1977) and The Last House on the Left (1972) along with Tobe Hooper 's The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974) (based on the Ed Gein case) recalled the Vietnam War; while George A. Romero satirized the consumer society in his zombie sequel, Dawn of the Dead (1978). Meanwhile, the subgenre of comedy horror re-emerged in the cinema with The Abominable Dr. Phibes (1971), Young Frankenstein (1974), The Rocky Horror Picture Show (1975), and An American Werewolf in London (1981) among others.
Also in the 1970s, the works of the horror author Stephen King began to be adapted for the screen, beginning with Brian De Palma 's adaptation of Carrie (1976), King 's first published novel, for which the two female leads (Sissy Spacek and Piper Laurie) gained Oscar nominations. Next, was his third published novel, The Shining (1980), directed by Stanley Kubrick, which was a sleeper at the box office. At first, many critics and viewers had negative feedback toward The Shining. However, the film is now known as one of Hollywood 's most classic horror films.
This psychological horror film has a variety of themes; "evil children '', alcoholism, telepathy and insanity. This type of film is an example of how Hollywood 's idea of horror started to evolve. Murder and violence were no longer the main themes of horror films. During the 1970s and 1980s, psychological and supernatural horror started to take over cinema. Another classic Hollywood horror film is Tobe Hooper 's Poltergeist (1982). Poltergeist is ranked the 20th scariest movie ever made by the Chicago Film Critics Association. Both The Shining and Poltergeist involve horror being based on real - estate values. The evil and horror throughout the films come from where the movies are taking place.
The Amityville Horror is a 1979 supernatural horror film directed by Stuart Rosenberg, based on Jay Anson 's 1977 book of the same name. It stars James Brolin and Margot Kidder as a young couple who purchase a home they come to find haunted by combative supernatural forces. The Changeling is a 1980 Canadian psychological horror film directed by Peter Medak.
A cycle of slasher films was made during the 1970s and 1980s. John Carpenter created Halloween (1978), Sean S. Cunningham made Friday the 13th (1980), Wes Craven directed A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984), and Clive Barker made Hellraiser (1987). This subgenre would be mined by dozens of increasingly violent movies throughout the subsequent decades, and Halloween became a successful independent film. Another notable 1970s slasher film is Bob Clark 's Black Christmas (1974). Sleepaway Camp (1983) is known for its twist ending, which is considered by some to be one of the most shocking endings among horror films. My Bloody Valentine (1981) is a slasher film dealing with Valentine 's Day fiction. The boom in slasher films provided enough material for numerous comedic spoofs of the genre including Saturday the 14th (1981), Student Bodies (1981), National Lampoon 's Class Reunion (1983), and Hysterical (1983).
Some films explored urban legends such as "The babysitter and the man upstairs ''. A notable example is When a Stranger Calls (1979), an American psychological horror film directed by Fred Walton starring Carol Kane and Charles Durning.
Steven Spielberg 's Jaws (1975) began a new wave of killer animal stories, such as Orca (1977) and Up from the Depths (1979). Jaws is often credited as being one of the first films to use traditionally B movie elements such as horror and mild gore in a big - budget Hollywood film. In 1979, Don Coscarelli 's Phantasm was the first of the Phantasm franchise.
Alien (1979), a British - American science - fiction horror film directed by Ridley Scott was very successful, receiving both critical acclaim and being a box office success. John Carpenter 's movie The Thing (1982) was also a mix of horror and sci - fi, but it was neither a box - office nor critical hit, but soon became a cult classic. However, nearly 20 years after its release, it was praised for using ahead - of - its - time special effects and paranoia.
The 1980s saw a wave of gory "B movie '' horror films -- although most of them were poorly reviewed by critics, many became cult classics and later saw success with critics. A significant example is Sam Raimi 's Evil Dead movies, which were low - budget gorefests but had a very original plotline which was later praised by critics.
Vampire horror was also popular in the 1980s, including cult vampire classics such as Fright Night (1985), The Lost Boys (1987), and Near Dark (also 1987). In 1984, Joe Dante 's seminal monster comedy Gremlins became a box office hit with critics and audiences, and inspired a trend of "little monster '' films such as Critters and Ghoulies.
David Cronenberg 's films such as Shivers (1975), Rabid (1977), The Brood (1979), The Dead Zone (1983), The Fly (1986) dealt with "body horror '' and "mad scientist '' themes.
Several science fiction action horror movies were released in the 1980s, notably Aliens (1986) and Predator (1987). Notable comedy horror films of the 1980s include Re-Animator (1985) and Night of the Creeps (1986).
Day of the Dead is a 1985 horror film written and directed by George A. Romero and the third film in Romero 's Night of the Living Dead series.
Henry: Portrait of a Serial Killer is a 1986 psychological horror crime film directed and co-written by John McNaughton about the random crime spree of a serial killer who seemingly operates with impunity. Pumpkinhead (1988) is a dark fantasy horror film, which is the directorial debut of special effects artist Stan Winston.
Child 's Play (1988), Night of the Demons (1988) and Pet Sematary (1989) are notable supernatural horror films of the late 1980s.
In the first half of the 1990s, the genre still contained many of the themes from the 1980s. The slasher films A Nightmare on Elm Street, Friday the 13th, Halloween and Child 's Play all saw sequels in the 1990s, most of which met with varied amounts of success at the box office, but all were panned by critics, with the exception of Wes Craven 's New Nightmare (1994) and the hugely successful Silence of the Lambs (1991). The latter, which stars Jodie Foster and Anthony Hopkins, is considered a major horror movie of all times. Misery (1990) also deals with a psychopath, and the film received critical acclaim for Kathy Bates 's performance as the psychopathic Annie Wilkes.
New Nightmare, with In the Mouth of Madness (1995), The Dark Half (1993), and Candyman (1992), were part of a mini-movement of self - reflexive or metafictional horror films. Each film touched upon the relationship between fictional horror and real - world horror. Candyman, for example, examined the link between an invented urban legend and the realistic horror of the racism that produced its villain. In the Mouth of Madness took a more literal approach, as its protagonist actually hopped from the real world into a novel created by the madman he was hired to track down. This reflective style became more overt and ironic with the arrival of Scream (1996).
In Interview with the Vampire (1994), the "Theatre de Vampires '' (and the film itself, to some degree) invoked the Grand Guignol style, perhaps to further remove the undead performers from humanity, morality and class. The horror movie soon continued its search for new and effective frights. In the 1985 novel The Vampire Lestat by the author Anne Rice (who penned Interview... 's screenplay and the 1976 novel of the same name) suggests that its antihero Lestat inspired and nurtured the Grand Guignol style and theatre.
Two main problems pushed horror backward during this period: firstly, the horror genre wore itself out with the proliferation of nonstop slasher and gore films in the eighties. Secondly, the adolescent audience which feasted on the blood and morbidity of the previous decade grew up, and the replacement audience for films of an imaginative nature were being captured instead by the explosion of science - fiction and fantasy films, courtesy of the special effects possibilities with advances made in computer - generated imagery. Examples of these CGI include movies like Species (1995), Anaconda (1997), Mimic (1997), Blade (1998), Deep Rising (1998), House on Haunted Hill (1999), Sleepy Hollow (1999), and The Haunting (1999).
To re-connect with its audience, horror became more self - mockingly ironic and outright parodic, especially in the latter half of the 1990s. Peter Jackson 's Braindead (1992) (known as Dead Alive in the United States) took the splatter film to ridiculous excesses for comic effect. Wes Craven 's Scream (written by Kevin Williamson) movies, starting in 1996, featured teenagers who were fully aware of, and often made reference to, the history of horror movies, and mixed ironic humour with the shocks (despite Scream 2 and Scream 3 utilising less use of the humour of the original, until Scream 4 in 2011, and rather more references to horror film conventions). Along with I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997) (also written by Williamson) and Urban Legend (1998), they re-ignited the dormant slasher film genre.
Event Horizon (1997) is a British - American science fiction horror film directed by Paul W.S. Anderson. The Sixth Sense (1999) is a supernatural horror film written and directed by M. Night Shyamalan, which tells the story of Cole Sear (Haley Joel Osment), a troubled, isolated boy who is able to see and talk to the dead, and an equally troubled child psychologist named Malcolm Crowe (Bruce Willis) who tries to help him.
House on Haunted Hill is a 1999 horror film directed by William Malone which follows a group of strangers who are invited to a party at an abandoned asylum, where they are offered $1 million each by an amusement park mogul if they are able to survive the night. It is a remake of the 1959 film of the same title. Other horror films of the late 1990s include Cube (1997), The Faculty (1998), Disturbing Behavior (1998), Stir of Echoes (1999), Stigmata (1999), Existenz (1999).
Monster horror was quite popular in the 1990s. Tremors (1990) is the first installment of the Tremors franchise. Lake Placid (1999) is another monster horror film, written by David E. Kelley and directed by Steve Miner.
Another successful horror film is Audition, a 1999 Japanese film based on the novel of the same name, directed by Takashi Miike. Around this period, Japanese horror started becoming popular in English speaking countries.
The film The Last Broadcast (1998) served as inspiration for the highly successful The Blair Witch Project (1999), which popularized the found footage horror subgenre. The theme of witchcraft was also addressed in The Witches (1990), starring Anjelica Huston and The Craft (1996), a supernatural horror film directed by Andrew Fleming. Wolf is a 1994 romantic horror film following the transformation of a man (Jack Nicholson) into a werewolf.
The decade started, with, among other films, Scary Movie (2000), a comedy horror directed by Keenen Ivory Wayans, which is a parody of the horror, slasher and mystery genres. The film received mixed reviews from critics. By contrast, Valentine (2001) was a conventional horror film. It had some success at the box office, but was derided by critics for being formulaic and relying on foregone horror film conventions. The Others (2001) was hugely successful, winning and being further nominated for many awards. It is a 2001 Spanish - American supernatural gothic horror film with elements of psychological horror. It was written, directed, and scored by Alejandro Amenábar. It stars Nicole Kidman and Fionnula Flanagan.
Franchise films such as Jason X (2001) and Freddy vs. Jason (2003) also made a stand in theaters. Final Destination (2000) marked a successful revival of teen - centered horror and spawned five installments. Jeepers Creepers series was also successful. Films such as Hollow Man (2000), Cabin Fever (2002), House of 1000 Corpses (2003) (the latter an exploitation horror film written, co-scored and directed by Rob Zombie in his directorial debut) and the previous mentions helped bring the genre back to Restricted ratings in theaters. Van Helsing (2004) and Underworld series had huge box office success, despite mostly negative reviews by critics. Ginger Snaps (2000) is a Canadian film dealing with the tragic transformation of a teenage girl who is bitten by a werewolf. Signs (2002) revived the science fiction alien theme. The Descent, a 2005 British adventure horror film written and directed by Neil Marshall was also successful. Another notable film is Drag Me to Hell, a 2009 American supernatural horror film co-written and directed by Sam Raimi. The Strangers (2008) deals with unprovoked stranger - on - stranger violence. The House of the Devil (2009) is inspired by the "satanic panic '' of the 1980s. Trick ' r Treat is a 2007 anthology horror film written and directed by Michael Dougherty and produced by Bryan Singer. Black Water (2007) is British - Australian natural horror film.
Several horror film adaptations from comic books and video games were produced. 30 Days of Night (2007) is based on the comic book miniseries of the same name. The story focuses on an Alaskan town beset by vampires as it enters into a thirty - day long polar night. Comic book adaptations like the Blade series, Constantine (2005), and Hellboy (2004) also became box office successes. The Resident Evil video game franchise was adapted into a film released in March 2002, and several sequels followed. Other video game adaptations like Doom (2005) and Silent Hill (2006) also had moderate box office success.
Some pronounced trends have marked horror films. Films from non-English language countries have become successful. The Devil 's Backbone (2001) is such an example. It is a 2001 Spanish - Mexican gothic horror film directed by Guillermo del Toro, and written by del Toro, David Muñoz, and Antonio Trashorras. A French horror film Brotherhood of the Wolf (2001) became the second - highest - grossing French language film in the United States in the last two decades. The Swedish film Let the Right One In (2008) was also successful. REC is a 2007 Spanish zombie horror film, co-written and directed by Jaume Balagueró and Paco Plaza. Martyrs (2008), a French - Canadian horror film, was controversial upon its release, receiving polarizing reviews. Another notable film is The Orphanage (2007), a Spanish horror film and the debut feature of Spanish filmmaker J.A. Bayona. A Tale of Two Sisters is a 2003 South Korean psychological drama horror film written and directed by Kim Jee - woon.
Another trend is the emergence of psychology to scare audiences, rather than gore. The Others (2001) proved to be a successful example of a psychological horror film. A minimalist approach which was equal parts Val Lewton 's theory of "less is more '', usually employing the low - budget techniques utilized on The Blair Witch Project (1999), has been evident, particularly in the emergence of Asian horror movies which have been remade into successful Americanized versions, such as The Ring (2002), The Grudge (2004), Dark Water (2005), and Pulse (2006). In March 2008, China banned the movies from its market. Credo (2008) and Triangle (2009) are two British psychological horror films. What Lies Beneath (2000) is a supernatural horror film directed by Robert Zemeckis, starring Harrison Ford and Michelle Pfeiffer as a couple who experience a strange haunting of their home. Orphan (2009) is a notable psychological horror film.
The films I Am Legend (2007), Quarantine (2008), Zombieland (2009), and 28 Days Later (2002) featured an update of the apocalyptic and aggressive zombie genre. The latter film spawned a sequel: 28 Weeks Later (2007). An updated remake of Dawn of the Dead (2004) soon appeared as well as the zombie comedy Shaun of the Dead (2004) and Spanish - Cuban comedy zombie film Juan of the Dead (2012). This resurgence led George A. Romero to return to his Living Dead series with Land of the Dead (2005), Diary of the Dead (2007) and Survival of the Dead (2009). Cannibals were present in horror films such as Dahmer (2002), Wrong Turn (2003), Tooth and Nail (2007) and Dying Breed (2008).
The Australian film Wolf Creek (2005) written, co-produced, and directed by Greg McLean revolves around three backpackers who find themselves taken captive and after a brief escape, hunted down by Mick Taylor in the Australian outback. The film was ambiguously marketed as being "based on true events ''; the plot bore elements reminiscent of the real - life murders of tourists by Ivan Milat in the 1990s, and Bradley Murdoch in 2001; and contained more extreme violence. An extension of this trend was the emergence of a type of horror with emphasis on depictions of torture, suffering and violent deaths, (variously referred to as "horror porn '', "torture porn '', "splatterporn '' and "gore - nography '') with films such as Ghost Ship (2002), The Collector (2009), Saw (2004), Hostel (2005), and their respective sequels, frequently singled out as examples of emergence of this subgenre. The Saw film series holds the Guinness World Record of the highest - grossing horror franchise in history. Finally, with the arrival of Paranormal Activity (2007), which was well received by critics and an excellent reception at the box office, minimalist horror approach started by The Blair Witch Project was reaffirmed. Cloverfield (2008) is another found footage horror film. The Mist (2007) is a science - fiction horror film based on the 1980 novella of the same name by Stephen King. Antichrist (2009) is an English - language Danish experimental horror film written and directed by Lars von Trier, and starring Willem Dafoe and Charlotte Gainsbourg. The Exorcism of Emily Rose is a 2005 legal drama horror film directed by Scott Derrickson, loosely based on the story of Anneliese Michel. The Children (2008) is British horror film focusing on the mayhem created by several children.
Remakes of earlier horror movies became routine in the 2000s. In addition to the remake of Dawn of the Dead (2004), as well as the remake of both Herschell Gordon Lewis ' cult classic 2001 Maniacs (2003) and the remake of Tobe Hooper 's classic The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (2003), there was also the 2007 Rob Zombie - written and - directed remake of John Carpenter 's Halloween. The film focused more on Michael 's backstory than the original did, devoting the first half of the film to Michael 's childhood. It was critically panned by most, but was a success in its theatrical run, spurring its own sequel. This film helped to start a "reimagining '' riot in horror filmmakers. Among the many remakes or "reimaginings '' of other popular horror films and franchises are films such as Thirteen Ghosts (2001), The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (2003), The Hills Have Eyes (2006), Friday the 13th (2009), Children of the Corn (2009), Halloween (2007), Prom Night (2008), The Omen (2006), Carrie (2002), The Wicker Man (2006), Day of the Dead (2008), Night of the Demons (2009), My Bloody Valentine (2009), Willard (2003), Black Christmas (2006), The Amityville Horror (2005), April Fool 's Day (2008), The Fog (2005), The Hitcher (2007), It 's Alive (2009), When a Stranger Calls (2006), The Last House on the Left (2009).
Remakes remain popular, with films such as A Nightmare on Elm Street (2010), The Crazies (2010), I Spit on Your Grave (2010), Do n't Be Afraid of the Dark (2010), Fright Night (2011), Maniac (2012), and Poltergeist (2015). The 1976 film Carrie saw its second remake in 2013, which is the third film adaptation of Stephen King 's 1974 novel of the same name. Child 's Play saw a sequel with Curse of Chucky (2013), while Halloween, Friday the 13th, and Hellraiser all had reboots in the works. The 2013 Evil Dead is the fourth installment in the Evil Dead franchise, and serves as a soft reboot of the original 1981 film and as a continuation to the original film trilogy.
Serialized, found footage style web videos featuring Slender Man became popular on YouTube in the beginning of the decade. Such series included TribeTwelve, EverymanHybrid, and Marble Hornets, the latter of which has been adapted into a feature film. The character as well as the multiple series is credited with reinvigorating interest in found footage as well as urban folklore. Horror has become prominent on television with The Walking Dead, American Horror Story, and The Strain. Also, many popular horror films have had successful television series made: Psycho spawned Bates Motel, The Silence of the Lambs spawned Hannibal, and both Scream and Friday the 13th had TV series in development.
You 're Next (2011) and The Cabin in the Woods (2012) led to a return to the slasher genre; the latter was intended also as a critical satire of torture porn. The Green Inferno (2015) pays homage to the controversial horror film Cannibal Holocaust (1980). Australian psychological horror The Babadook (2014) was met with critical acclaim. It Follows (2014) subverted traditional horror tropes of sexuality and slasher films and enjoyed commercial and critical success. The Conjuring deal with the paranormal. Sinister (2012) is a British - American supernatural horror film directed by Scott Derrickson and written by Derrickson and C. Robert Cargill. Another notable supernatural horror film is Insidious (2010). The Witch (2015) is a historical period supernatural horror film written and directed by Robert Eggers in his directorial debut, which follows a Puritan family encountering forces of evil in the woods beyond their New England farm. Get Out (2017) received universal acclaim from critics and audiences alike. Its plot follows a black man who uncovers a disturbing secret when he meets the family of his white girlfriend. Adapted from the Stephen King novel, It (2017) set a box office record for horror films by grossing $123.1 million on opening weekend in the United States and nearly $185 million globally. Gerald 's Game (2017) is a psychological horror film based on Stephen King 's novel of the same name. Other horror films include Frozen (2010), Black Swan (2010), Devil (2010), The Innkeepers (2011), Oculus (2013), Under the Skin (2013), Mama (2013), Green Room (2015), The Invitation (2015), Hush (2016), Lights Out (2016), Do n't Breathe (2016), It Comes at Night (2017).
A Quiet Place (2018) is a critically acclaimed post-apocalyptic science - fiction horror film with a plot that follows a family who must live life in silence while hiding from extraterrestrial creatures that arrived on earth on fragments from their exploded home planet, and which hunt exclusively by sound. Annihilation (2018) is another successful science - fiction horror film.
The success of non-English language films continued with the Swedish film Marianne (2011), while Let the Right One In (2008) was the subject of a Hollywood remake, Let Me In (2010). South Korean horror produced I Saw the Devil (2010) and Train to Busan (2016). Raw is a 2016 French - Belgian horror drama written and directed by Julia Ducournau, and starring Garance Marillier. Goodnight Mommy (2014) (German: Ich seh, Ich seh) is an Austrian horror film.
Horror films ' evolution throughout the years has given society a new approach to resourcefully utilize their benefits. The horror film style has changed over time, but, in 1996, Scream set off a "chain of copycats '', leading to a new variety of teenage, horror movies. This new approach to horror films began to gradually earn more and more revenue as seen in the progress of Scream movies; the first movie earned $6 million and the third movie earned $101 million. The importance that horror films have gained in the public and producers ' eyes is one obvious effect on our society.
Horror films ' income expansion is only the first sign of the influences of horror flicks. The role of women and how women see themselves in the movie industry has been altered by the horror genre. Early horror films such as My Bloody Valentine (1981), Halloween (1978), and Friday the 13th (1980) were produced mostly for male audiences in order to "feed the fantasies of young men ''. This idea is no longer prevalent in horror films, as women have become not only the main audience and fans of horror films but also the main protagonists of contemporary horror films. Movie makers have also begun to integrate topics more broadly associated with other genres into their films in order to grow audience appeal.
Many early horror films created high social and legal controversy. In the U.S., the Motion Picture Production Code was in force between 1930 and 1968, although it was strictly enforced only from 1934 to the late 1950s. The Code set guidelines of what was morally acceptable to show in movies, and, as such, it restrained movies containing controversial themes, severe violence, explicit sexuality or nudity. The gradual abandonment of the Code, and eventually its formal repeal in 1968 (when it was replaced by the MPAA film rating system) offered more freedom to the movie industry. Nevertheless, controversy continued to surround horror movies, and many continued to face censorship issues in many countries. An example of such film is the 1978 I Spit on Your Grave, an American rape - and - revenge exploitation horror film written, co-produced, directed, and edited by Meir Zarchi. The film was received negatively by critics, but it attracted a great deal of national and international attention due to its explicit scenes of rape, murder and prolonged nudity which led it to be banned in many countries, including Ireland, Norway, Iceland, and West Germany. Many of these countries have in later years removed the ban, but the film remains prohibited in Ireland.
While horror is only one genre of film, the influence it presents to the international community is large. Horror movies tend to be a vessel for showing eras of audiences issues across the globe visually and in the most effective manner. Jeanne Hall, a film theorist, agrees with the use of horror films in easing the process of understanding issues by making use of their optical elements. The use of horror films to help audiences understand international prior historical events occurs, for example, to show the horridness of the Vietnam War, the Holocaust and the worldwide AIDS epidemic. However, horror movies do not always present positive endings. In fact, in many occurrences the manipulation of horror presents cultural definitions that are not accurate, yet set an example to which a person relates to that specific cultural from then on in their life.
The visual interpretations of films can be lost in the translation of their elements from one culture to another like in the adaptation of the Japanese film Ju on into the American film The Grudge. The cultural components from Japan were slowly "siphoned away '' to make the film more relatable to a western audience. This deterioration that can occur in an international remake happens by over-presenting negative cultural assumptions that, as time passes, sets a common ideal about that particular culture in each individual. Holm 's discussion of The Grudge remakes presents this idea by stating, "It is, instead, to note that The Grudge films make use of an un-theorized notion of Japan... that seek to directly represent the country. ''
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nick straker band a little bit of jazz | A Little Bit of Jazz - wikipedia
A Little Bit of Jazz is a 1980 single by the group Nick Straker Band. The British band had their only American success with "A Little Bit of Jazz '' when it hit number one on the Dance Chart for one week. The single failed to chart on both the American and British top 40 charts, but it peaked at number thirty - five on the Soul Singles Chart.
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where does the last name molina come from | Molina (surname) - wikipedia
Molina is a Spanish surname. It originated from medieval Spain, in the Christian Kingdom of Castile, when Manrique Pérez de Lara, of the House of Lara, in April 1154 issued a fuero to the town of Molina, nowadays called Molina de Aragón. Thus, the Molina surname is not an occupational surname related with molino (' mill '). It belongs to another Spanish surname, Molinero (literally: ' miller '), to have been originated in the work and management of a mill. Nevertheless, Spanish municipalities like Molina de Segura (Murcia) or Molina de Aragón (Castilla - La Mancha) still nowadays include millstones or mill blades in their respective coats of arms (cf. coat of arms of Molina de Segura and Coats of arms of Molina de Aragón).
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who played the dwarf in lord of the rings | John Rhys - Davies - wikipedia
John Rhys - Davies (born 5 May 1944) is a Welsh actor and voice actor known for his portrayal of Gimli in The Lord of the Rings trilogy and the charismatic Arab excavator Sallah in the Indiana Jones films. He also played Agent Michael Malone in the 1993 remake of the 1950s television series The Untouchables, Pilot Vasco Rodrigues in the mini-series Shōgun, Professor Maximillian Arturo in Sliders, King Richard I in Robin of Sherwood, General Leonid Pushkin in the James Bond film The Living Daylights, and Macro in I, Claudius. Additionally, he provided the voices of Cassim in Disney 's Aladdin and the King of Thieves, Macbeth in Gargoyles, Man Ray in SpongeBob SquarePants, Hades in Justice League and Tobias in the computer game Freelancer.
John Rhys - Davies was born on 5 May 1944 in Salisbury, England, and was raised in Ammanford, Wales. His mother, Mary Margaretta Phyllis Jones, was a nurse, and his father, Rhys Davies, was a mechanical engineer and Colonial Officer. In the early 1950s his family lived for several years in Kongwa, Dar es Salaam, Moshi and Mwanza Tanzania, while his father was serving there as a colonial Police officer. He was educated at Truro School and at the University of East Anglia where he was one of the first 87 students admitted, and where he founded the Dramatic Society. After teaching at Watton County Secondary School in Norfolk he won a place at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art.
He appeared sporadically on UK television in the early 1970s including his role as the gangster Laughing Spam Fritter opposite Adam Faith in Budgie. Later he played Praetorian officer Naevius Sutorius Macro in I, Claudius. He then began to appear more frequently, and not just in the UK, with roles as a Portuguese navigator Rodrigues in the 1980 television miniseries Shogun, based on the novel by James Clavell, and in the Indiana Jones films. In 1989, Rhys - Davies also starred in another James Clavell adaption, Noble House, set in Hong Kong, in which he plays Ian Dunross ' corporate enemy, Quillian Gornt. He has since appeared in numerous television shows and miniseries, including Agent Michael Malone in the 1993 remake of the 1950s television series The Untouchables as well as a leading role in the television series Sliders as Professor Maximillian Arturo from 1995 to 1997. He also appeared in Reilly, Ace of Spies in 1983, made several appearances on Star Trek: Voyager as a holodeck version of Leonardo da Vinci, starred as an ally of James Bond in The Living Daylights and appeared in the movie One Night with the King. Davies has played the character Porthos in two separate projects; a two - part episode of The Secret Adventures of Jules Verne and the Hallmark Channel movie La Femme Musketeer. He appears in the full motion video cut scenes of computer games including Ripper (as Vigo Haman) (1996), Dune 2000 (as Noree Moneo) (1998), and the Wing Commander series (as James Taggart, doubling as the voice of Thrakhath nar Kiranka in the third game of the series). He has also appeared in a number of Sci Fi Channel original movies.
In 2004, he starred in The Privileged Planet, a documentary that makes the case for intelligent design. In 2013 he appeared in the family history programme Coming Home, in which he discovered information about his grandfather 's life in the Carmarthenshire coal mines.
In 2014, he joined the cast of the television show Metal Hurlant Chronicles to play Holgarth, an immortal alchemist.
In 2015 he had a role in the single player campaign of the PC game Star Citizen alongside Mark Hamill and Gary Oldman. The work consists of full body Motion capture, including facial expressions and his voice and was recorded primarily at The Imaginarium Studios in the UK.
He is also known for his popular portrayal of the dwarf Gimli in The Lord of the Rings trilogy. The cinematography of the films was aided in that Rhys - Davies is tall -- 6 ft 1 in (1.85 m), compared to the actors playing hobbits at around 5 ft 6 in (1.68 m). Therefore, although his character was supposed to be short, he was properly in proportion compared to the hobbit actors. Had he been of more similar height, shots of the entire fellowship would have required three camera passes rather than two.
Rhys - Davies is the only one of the nine Fellowship of the Ring actors who did not receive a tattoo of the word "nine '' written in the Tengwar script; his stunt double, Brett Beattie, got the tattoo instead as Rhys - Davies was disinclined to get one himself. The other members of the cast -- Sean Astin, Sean Bean, Billy Boyd, Ian McKellen, Dominic Monaghan, Orlando Bloom, Viggo Mortensen, and Elijah Wood -- got the same tattoo.
Rhys - Davies suffered severe allergic reactions to the prosthetics used during filming, and his eyes sometimes swelled shut. When an interviewer asked him whether he would consider returning to the role for the film version of The Hobbit, he said, "I 've already been asked and to be honest with you, I would n't. I have already completely ruled it out. There 's a sentimental part of me that would love to be involved again. Really I am not sure my face can take that sort of punishment any more. '' He added that this time around "They 've got a different set of problems... because you 've got 13 dwarves, a whole band of them... You 're trying to represent a whole race... You 're trying to do for dwarves what ' The Lord of the Rings ' did for hobbits. ''
In addition to voicing the Ent Treebeard in Lord of the Rings, Rhys - Davies has also lent his distinctive deep voice to many video games and animated television series, including the role of Hades in Justice League and numerous times in Gargoyles (1994 -- 1996), as the character Macbeth. He also lent his vocal talents to the games Freelancer (as Richard Winston Tobias) and Lords of Everquest (both in 2003) and the game Quest for Glory IV: Shadows of Darkness, which was released with his narration on a CD - ROM version in 1995. He also had a voice role on Baldur 's Gate: Dark Alliance as the character Jherek, and narrated a documentary called The Glory of Macedonia.
John Rhys - Davies ' voice can be heard on the 2009 documentary Reclaiming The Blade. In the narration, Rhys - Davies explores swords, historical European swordsmanship and fight choreography on film, a topic very familiar to him from his experiences in The Lord of the Rings trilogy, where his character Gimli wielded an axe in many scenes.
In 2004, he was the unknowing subject of an internet prank that spread false rumours in several mainstream media sources that he was scheduled to play the role of General Grievous in Star Wars Episode III.
Rhys - Davies is the narrator of The Truth & Life Dramatized audio New Testament Bible, a 22 - hour, celebrity - voiced, fully dramatised audiobook version of the New Testament which uses the Revised Standard Version - Catholic Edition translation. In 2011, he presented KJB: The Book That Changed The World, which features him reading diverse snippets from the King James Version.
John Rhys - Davies ' voice work also includes voice over work (or voice acting) with Breathe Bible.
In 2016, he provided spoken words for Voices of Fire, the sixth album by a cappella power metal band van Canto.
Rhys - Davies married Suzanne A.D. Wilkinson in December 1966. They had two boys, Tom and Ben. Although they separated in 1985, they remained married until her death, in 2010, from Alzheimer 's. He remained close to her and took care of her until she died.
In 2004 he began living with Lisa Manning, and they have a daughter, Maia.
Rhys - Davies holds politically conservative views. As a university student in the 1960s, he had been a radical leftist, but changed his views when he went to heckle a young local member of parliament, Margaret Thatcher. Rhys - Davies says that "she shot down the first two hecklers in such brilliant fashion that I decided I ought for once to shut up and listen ''.
In 2004, Rhys - Davies stated the following in a controversial interview with a Welsh news website about the Muslim population, stating:
There is a demographic catastrophe happening in Europe that nobody wants to talk about, that we dare n't bring up because we are so cagey about not offending people racially. And rightly we should be. But there is a cultural thing as well. By 2020, 50 per cent of the children in Holland under the age of 18 will be of Muslim descent.
His comments were endorsed by the British National Party. Rhys - Davies commented that the BNP was so insignificant in numbers that it "could do no harm '' yet stating it was "distressing to find yourself on a BNP leaflet ''. He was also endorsed in a National Vanguard editorial. In an interview with the conservative journal National Review, he clarified that he is opposed to Islamic extremism precisely because he feels that it violates the "Western values '' of equality, democracy, tolerance, and the abolition of slavery.
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who starred in take me out to the ballgame | Take Me Out to the Ball Game (film) - wikipedia
Take Me Out to the Ball Game is a 1949 Technicolor musical film produced in the Arthur Freed unit of MGM. It stars Frank Sinatra, Esther Williams, and Gene Kelly, features Betty Garrett, Edward Arnold and Jules Munshin, and was directed by Busby Berkeley. The title and nominal theme is taken from the unofficial anthem of American baseball, "Take Me Out to the Ball Game ''. The film was released in the United Kingdom as Everybody 's Cheering.
In 1908, a fictional baseball team, the Wolves, start the season on the road against the Washington Senators, and later the Boston Red Sox, Philadelphia Athletics, and Cleveland Indians, all American League teams. Two of its players, Eddie O'Brien (Gene Kelly) and Dennis Ryan (Frank Sinatra), are also part - time vaudevillians. The ball club 's status quo is turned on its head when the team winds up under new ownership, and the distress this causes the team is only increased when the new owner is revealed to be a woman, K.C. (Katherine Catherine) Higgins (Esther Williams). Eventually, Dennis falls for her, and then Eddie as well, while Dennis is the object of the affections of an ardent fan, Shirley Delwyn (Betty Garrett). All of them must contend with a number of gangsters led by Joe Lorgan (Edward Arnold) looking to win a big bet by impairing Eddie 's play and getting him kicked off the team.
The film was announced in May 1948. It was based on a story by Gene Kelly and Stanley Donen, with a script by Harry Turgend. The female lead of club - owner K.C. Higgins was originally meant to be played by Ginger Rogers. However, she dropped out a month before filming and was replaced by Esther Williams. Williams also claimed that there were others up for the role of club - owner K.C. Higgins before she was selected: Judy Garland was originally slated to star, but was replaced because of substance abuse problems. Similarly, Sinatra 's role of Dennis Ryan was said to have originally been intended for professional baseball manager (and former player) Leo Durocher.
Williams, a star in swimming - themed musicals, did not enjoy her experience filming with star, story - writer and choreographer Gene Kelly. In her autobiography, she describes her time on the film as "pure misery '', claiming that Kelly and Stanley Donen treated her with contempt and went out of their way to make jokes at her expense. Williams asserts that Kelly was uncomfortable with the height difference between them, Williams being 5'10 ", while Kelly was 5'7 ''. Williams did, however, form a strong bond with Frank Sinatra. Director Busby Berkeley originally planned a swimming number for Williams, but the idea was rejected by Gene Kelly. Instead, she has a brief swimming sequence where she casually sings the title song.
Take Me Out to the Ball Game was a box office success, earning $2,987,000 in the US and Canada and $978,000 overseas, resulting in a profit of $675,000.
It received modestly positive reviews, although some reviewers felt the cast was better than the material, and the film lacked a "consistent style and pace ''.
Harry Tugend and George Wells were nominated for the 1950 Writers Guild of America Award in the category of "Best Written American Musical ''. They lost to Betty Comden and Adolph Green, for On the Town, another MGM musical comedy, also produced by Arthur Freed, and also starring Gene Kelly, Frank Sinatra, Betty Garrett and Jules Munshin, which was released four months after Take Me Out to the Ball Game.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
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who currently has the highest batting average in mlb | List of major League baseball career batting average Leaders - wikipedia
In baseball, the batting average (BA) is defined by the number of hits divided by at bats. It is usually reported to three decimal places and pronounced as if it were multiplied by 1,000: a player with a batting average of. 300 is "batting three - hundred. '' A point (or percentage point) is understood to be. 001. If necessary to break ties, batting averages could be taken to more than three decimal places.
Outfielder Ty Cobb, whose career ended in 1928, has the highest batting average in Major League Baseball (MLB) history. He batted. 366 over 24 seasons, mostly with the Detroit Tigers. In addition, he won a record 11 batting titles for leading the American League in BA over the course of an entire season. He batted over. 360 in 11 consecutive seasons from 1909 to 1919. Rogers Hornsby has the second highest BA of all - time, at. 358. He won seven batting titles in the National League (NL) and has the highest NL average in a single season since 1900, when he batted. 424 in 1924. He batted over. 370 in six consecutive seasons.
Shoeless Joe Jackson is the only other player to finish his career with a. 350 batting average. He batted. 356 over 13 seasons before he was permanently suspended from organized baseball in 1921 for his role in the Black Sox Scandal. Lefty O'Doul first came to the major leagues as a pitcher, but after developing a sore arm, he converted to an outfielder and won two batting titles. The fifth player on the list, and the last with at least a. 345 BA, is Ed Delahanty. Delahanty 's career was cut short when he fell into the Niagara Falls and died during the 1903 season.
The last player to bat. 400 in a season, Ted Williams, ranks tied for seventh on the all - time career BA list. Babe Ruth hit for a career. 342 average and is tied for ninth on the list. Miguel Cabrera holds the highest career batting average among active players.
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do i need a visa to work in peru | Visa requirements for Peruvian citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for Peruvian citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Peru. As of 1 January 2017, Peruvian citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 118 countries and territories, ranking the Peruvian passport 41st in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley visa restrictions index.
The Schengen Area introduced visa free access for Peruvian citizens for 90 days on 15 March 2016.
South American countries do not even require a passport as a document to allow Peruvian citizens to visit their countries as tourist; a national or state - issued ID card is enough. Nevertheless, this piece of identification must be in good conservation state and less than five years from its issue date, according to agreements signed in Mercosur _́ s treaties.
Visa requirements for holders of normal passports traveling for tourist purposes:
Holders of an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) travelling on business do not require a visa to the following countries:
The card must be used in conjunction with a passport and has the following advantages:
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. Partially recognized.
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what happens if you clip a bird's wings | Wing clipping - wikipedia
Wing clipping is the process of trimming a bird 's primary flight feathers ("primaries '') so that it is no longer fully flighted.
Wing clipping is usually performed by avian veterinarians, pet store employees, breeders, or the birds ' owners themselves. It is generally carried out on pet birds, particularly parrots. If performed correctly, it is a painless procedure and is quite distinct from pinioning, which is carried out by amputation of the wing at the carpal joint.
Techniques for clipping the wings vary primarily in the number of feathers cut and the amount of each feather left behind. A mild clip on one wing only can impair a bird 's flight greatly, as it renders the bird unbalanced in the air. This can cause injury or death to the bird if it strikes a hard surface during a fall. In most cases, it is only the primary flight feathers that are cut, and an equal number of feathers are trimmed on each wing to avoid causing the bird to become unbalanced in flight. The most common clip involves trimming the primary flight feathers below the level of the primary coverts (usually removing about half to a third of the length of the flight feather). This clip is quick and simple to do, but leaves exposed cut ends that occasionally may cause a bird to chew on the cut feathers. Another method of clipping involves cutting the flight feather above the level of the coverts, so almost the entire feather is removed. This clip does not leave any exposed cut ends, but as more of each feather is removed, fewer feathers should be cut. However, these cut feather stumps are still present and may irritate the bird, causing significant discomfort.
Where parrots have clipped primary feathers, the moulting sequence of these birds renders them vulnerable to damage of their growing blood feathers. Most parrots have 10 primary feathers, numbered 1 (innermost) to 10 (outermost). The moult starts by the bird shedding and replacing a central primary feather, usually number 6 (Glendell 2007). The sequence continues in both directions along the primaries, so the last primary feathers to be replaced are the innermost and the outermost ones numbered 1 and 10 respectively. Clipped birds therefore have their first blood feathers growing down without the normal protection of full - length feathers lying next to them. These unprotected blood feathers are vulnerable to being broken and profuse bleeding can occur. Regardless of their size, most parrots replace their feathers by a daily growth rate of 3 to 4 mm (Glendell 2007) Thus, large species such as macaws may take over a year to complete a moult, but smaller species such as cockatiels will moult within a few weeks. So, larger birds, and those with a higher wing - loading, remain vulnerable to blood feather damage for a longer period, since they are moulting almost continually.
A ' light ' symmetrical wing - clip will allow a bird to fly down and land safely while indoors. However such a clip may not prevent the bird from flying when outdoors, since lift is generated in proportion to wind speed. Many escaped birds which are recovered are found to have been clipped. So, while a light clip allows downward flight indoors, it does not prevent a bird gaining lift if it should escape outdoors. Conversely, a more severe clip will certainly render a bird flightless, but it increases the risk of injury if the bird falls and hits a hard surface. In addition to the physical effects of wing - clipping, there can be adverse behavioural effects. Birds use flight as an instinctive reflex action and as their first means of escaping any threat: they take to the air to fly upwards and away from the source of the threat; their fear then dissipates. Where this behaviour is prevented by wing - clipping, this innate reflex action is denied the bird, and its fear will not subside. This may cause behavioural problems for the afflicted bird. When a bird needs to reduce its speed during flight, it employs a ' reverse thrust ' action by extending its wing at the wrist joint and using the drag of its primaries as air brakes. While the reduced function of the clipped bird 's primaries prevent propulsion and therefore lift, this also reduces braking abilities, so clipped birds may crash - land at higher speeds than full - winged birds. Clipped birds should not be taken outdoors unrestrained, as even clipped birds have been known to fly away when spooked outdoors.
It is generally considered very important for a young bird to be allowed to fledge (learn to fly) properly, prior to any wing clipping. Breeders and owners usually find that a fledged bird, even after being clipped, will remain more confident and active than an unfledged bird. Learning to fly also helps a bird learn how to land safely, an important skill even in clipped birds.
While clipping is endorsed by some avian veterinarians, other avian veterinarians oppose it.
By restricting flight, wing clipping may help prevent indoor birds from risking injury from ceiling fans or flying into large windows. But there is no evidence to show that clipped birds are safer than full - winged ones, only that clipped birds are subject to different kinds of accidents than full - winged birds. Social pet birds (such as parrots) may also be clipped both to restrict independence and in attempts to make them tamer and easier to manage in order to encourage them to socialize with their owners; some parrots that show aggression to certain people or other birds may be clipped to prevent attack. However, birds can be trained to accept flight requests or ' commands ' and this removes the need for wing - clipping (Glendell 2007).
Some people feel wing clipping is a cruel or unhealthy practice as it denies a bird its most natural way of getting around, obtaining exercise and avoiding fearful situations. Although clipped birds can and should be encouraged to do wing flapping exercises, this does not provide the same exercise as flight. Others feel that for birds that can climb well, wing clipping is a necessary safety practice for birds in many situations. The practice seems more prevalent in American bird care books than in similar British publications.
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when do the raider move to las vegas | Oakland Raiders relocation to Las Vegas - wikipedia
The Oakland Raiders relocation to Las Vegas was a successful effort by the owner of the Oakland Raiders (Mark Davis) to relocate the American football club from its current and longtime home of Oakland, California to Las Vegas, Nevada. The team is scheduled to begin play as the Las Vegas Raiders for the 2020 National Football League (NFL) season (although a move to Las Vegas could happen as soon as 2019 with Sam Boyd Stadium), playing home games at the Las Vegas Stadium. NFL team owners voted 31 -- 1 to approve the move, which was announced at the annual league meetings in Phoenix, Arizona on March 27, 2017. The Raiders became the third NFL franchise to relocate in the 2010s, following the Rams ' move from St. Louis, Missouri to Los Angeles, California on January 12, 2016, and the Chargers ' move from San Diego, California to Los Angeles on January 12, 2017. The Raiders ' move to Las Vegas comes after years of failed efforts to renovate or replace the Oakland -- Alameda County Coliseum, which has been rated by multiple sources as one of the worst stadiums in the NFL.
The Oakland Raiders were founded as a charter member of the American Football League (AFL) in 1960. The team joined the NFL as a result of the merger in 1970. From 1966 until 1981, it played home games at the Oakland -- Alameda County Coliseum, which it shared with Major League Baseball 's Oakland Athletics after that team moved to Oakland in 1968. In 1980 Al Davis, dissatisfied with the stadium situation in Oakland and seeing luxury boxes as the future of the NFL came to an agreement with the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum commission to move the Raiders to Los Angeles. The NFL had refused to let the team move, but a court over-ruled the league, clearing the way for the Raiders to move to Los Angeles and become the Los Angeles Raiders. In 1982, the Raiders (then owned by Al Davis) were approved to relocate from Oakland to Los Angeles. The Raiders played home games at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum from 1982 -- 1994. In 1995, after being unable to secure a new stadium in the Los Angeles area the Raiders moved back to Oakland.
Meanwhile, Las Vegas had been home to a number of other professional football franchises between 1994 and the Raiders ' arrival, none of which were particularly successful. The Las Vegas Posse, part of the Canadian Football League 's effort to enter the U.S. market, lasted one season in 1994 and suffered from poor on - field product and worse attendance figures. The XFL included the Las Vegas Outlaws in its lone 2001 season; its attendance and on - field performance were respectable, and the team embraced the city 's culture, but the Outlaws ' modest success was overshadowed by the failure of the XFL. The Las Vegas Locomotives of the United Football League were a major on - field success and were one of the UFL 's best teams; it nonetheless suffered from poor attendance to start that continued to decline throughout the league 's existence to the point that its last home game drew only 600 fans. The Arena Football League included three teams in Las Vegas over the course of its history: the Las Vegas Sting (1994 and 1995), Las Vegas Gladiators (2003 to 2007, now the Cleveland Gladiators), and another Las Vegas Outlaws (2015). The Las Vegas Sin of the Lingerie Football League (now the Legends Football League) played in the city from 2011 to 2014.
Recent efforts to either renovate or replace the Oakland -- Alameda County Coliseum with a new football stadium in Oakland or elsewhere date back to November 18, 2009. In 2011, Al Davis died and control of the team was assumed by his son Mark Davis who made finding a solution to the 3 decade long stadium problem a top priority. The Raiders were free to move after the 2013 NFL season, when its lease on the Oakland -- Alameda County Coliseum expired. While exploring possible solutions in the Bay Area and potential relocation candidates, the Raiders signed one - year extensions of its lease on the Coliseum.
There had been discussions for the Raiders to share Levi 's Stadium in Santa Clara, California with the San Francisco 49ers. However, the 49ers went ahead without the Raiders and broke ground on the $1.2 billion stadium on April 19, 2012 and afterwards sold $670 million worth of seats including 70 % of club and luxury suites, making it more unlikely that the Raiders would continue to explore the idea of sharing the stadium as they would then be secondary tenants with little to no commercial rights over the highly lucrative luxury suites.
Mark Davis further increased the unlikelihood of the Raiders and the 49ers to share Levi 's stadium when he told NFL Network reporter Ian Rapoport that he had no plans to share the stadium but that he did recognize the Raiders ' need for a new home and that he hoped the new home would be in Oakland. When Levi 's Stadium had its grand opening on July 17, 2014, NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell mentioned to the live crowd that it would make a great home for the Raiders and that it was up for the team to decide whether or not it wanted to play there or build a stadium on the site of the Oakland -- Alameda County Coliseum.
On March 7, 2012, then - mayor Jean Quan unveiled an ambitious project to the media that was designed to improve the sports facilities of all three major league sports teams in the city (the Raiders, Major League Baseball (MLB) 's Athletics and the National Basketball Association (NBA) 's Golden State Warriors), as well as attract new businesses to the city. The project, dubbed Coliseum City, had entailed the redevelopment of the existing Oakland -- Alameda County Coliseum complex. The redevelopment would have seen the construction of two new stadiums on the present location, a baseball - only stadium and a football - only stadium, while Oracle Arena, home of the Warriors, would have been either rebuilt or undergone extensive renovations. A sum of $3.5 million was committed to preliminary planning on the project. However, no officials from either of Oakland 's major league teams were present at the media conference.
According to the San Francisco Business Times, Oakland 's assistant city administrator Fred Blackwell said the Bay Investment Group LLC, an entity being formed by Colony Capital LLC, Rashid Al Malik (chairman and CEO of HayaH Holdings), and the city, had numerous details to continue working out for the prospective $2 billion Coliseum City project, which covered 800 acres surrounding the Oakland -- Alameda Coliseum Complex. The development team also included JRDV Urban International, HKS Architects, and Forest City Real Estate Services. In an ideal situation, construction could have started by the end of 2014. Meanwhile, the Warriors began to go forward with plans to build a new arena at Mission Bay, not far from AT&T Park, and move back across the Bay from Oakland to San Francisco as soon as 2019.
The abandoned Concord Naval Weapons Station, 26.6 miles from Oakland, was announced in 2013 as a possible location for a new stadium but developments failed to materialize.
In July 2014, San Antonio, Texas, emerged as a potential relocation candidate for the team, after Raiders owner Mark Davis visited an event hosted for former Raiders wide receiver Cliff Branch in the city. San Antonio, while it was in a smaller media market than the San Francisco Bay Area, had the advantage of having a relatively new and NFL - ready stadium in the Alamodome and less sporting competition. On July 29, 2014, it was reported by the San Antonio Express - News that Mark Davis met with officials from the city of San Antonio to discuss the possibility of relocating the Raiders to San Antonio after the 2014 -- 15 NFL season. Davis confirmed that he did speak with San Antonio city officials while visiting San Antonio to honor former Raiders wide receiver Cliff Branch 's induction into a local Hall of Fame, but did not comment on whether he was considering relocation to San Antonio. The Raiders would have played at the 65,000 - seat Alamodome until a new stadium could be built. San Antonio remained in contention as a site through at least November 2014, when Raiders staffers scouted the stadium and began negotiating with San Antonio officials.
It was reported in early 2015 that the Raiders sat down with Athletics owner Lewis Wolff in an effort to create a stadium solution where two separate stadiums (one for the Raiders and one for the Athletics) would have been built on the coliseum site. The Athletics balked at the deal. In an interview with J.T. the Brick on KGMZ on April 4, 2017, Davis revealed that he offered Wolff (the owner of the Athletics) 20 percent of the Raiders in an attempt to get a deal done. Davis further elaborated that the closest that the Raiders came to a deal in Oakland was in 2013 with Colony Capital, before the Athletics agreed to a 10 - year lease extension at the Coliseum with the city of Oakland.
On February 19, 2015, the Raiders and the then San Diego Chargers announced that they would build a privately financed $1.78 billion stadium in Carson, California if they were to move back to the Los Angeles market. Both teams stated that they would continue to attempt to get stadiums built in their respective cities. The Carson City Council would bypass the public vote and approved the plan 3 -- 0. The council voted without having clarified several issues, including who would finance the stadium, how the required three - way land swap would be performed, and how it would raise enough revenue if only one team moved in as tenant. On January 12, the NFL rejected the Raiders ' relocation request in favor of a competing plan by Stan Kroenke to move the then St. Louis Rams back to Los Angeles and construct a stadium and entertainment district in Inglewood, California. However, the NFL left open the possibility of the Raiders relocating to Los Angeles by 2019 and playing in the new stadium under construction to house the Los Angeles Rams. The San Diego Chargers however had the first option to join the Rams at the new stadium, the Raiders would have been authorized to negotiate an agreement if the Chargers did not exercise their option by January 2017. The Chargers exercised their choice and announced their relocation to Los Angeles in January 2017, shutting the Raiders out of the Southern California market.
Around this time other markets expressed interest in luring the Raiders. For example Duluth, Minnesota submitted a proposal to construct a new stadium for the team, a proposal that was not taken seriously because of the metro area 's small size, proximity to the Minnesota Vikings and unwillingness to commit money to the stadium proposal.
Less than a month after the Chargers announced their move to Los Angeles, Las Vegas had emerged as the most likely destination candidate for the Raiders.
On January 29, 2016, Davis met with Las Vegas Sands owner Sheldon Adelson about possibly relocating to a $2.3 billion, 65,000 capacity domed stadium in Las Vegas, Nevada. During Davis ' meeting with Adelson, he also visited the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV), which included a contingent consisting of the university 's president Len Jessup, former university president Donald Snyder, Steve Wynn, and former Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) owner Lorenzo Fertitta. The proposed stadium would replace Sam Boyd Stadium and would serve as the home of both the Raiders and the UNLV Rebels college football program. A relocation to Las Vegas would be a long - term proposal, as Sam Boyd Stadium is undersized for the NFL and there are no other professional - caliber stadiums in Nevada. Raiders officials were also in Las Vegas to tour locations in the valley for a potential new home; they were also on the 42 - acre site of the proposed stadium to ask questions about the site.
Interviewed by sports columnist Tim Kawakami of the San Jose Mercury News, Davis said that he had a "great '' visit in the city he described it as interesting. Davis also said that Las Vegas was a global city and that "it 's absolutely an NFL city, '' as well as saying that "the Raider brand would do well '' and "I think Las Vegas is coming along slowly. ''
On March 21, 2016, when asked about Las Vegas, Davis said, "I think the Raiders like the Las Vegas plan, '' and "it 's a very very very intriguing and exciting plan, '' referring to the stadium plan in Las Vegas. Davis also met with Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval about the stadium plan. On April 1, 2016, Davis toured Sam Boyd Stadium to evaluate whether UNLV could serve as a temporary home of the team and was with UNLV football coach Tony Sanchez, athletic director Tina Kunzer - Murphy, adviser Don Snyder and school president Len Jessup to further explore the possibility of the Raiders moving to Las Vegas.
On April 28, 2016, Davis said he wanted to move the Raiders to Las Vegas and pledged $500 million toward the construction of a proposed $2.4 billion domed stadium. "Together we can turn the Silver State into the silver and black state, '' Davis said.
At a media conference in UNLV 's Stan Fulton Building, Davis also said the club had "made a commitment to Las Vegas at this point in time and that 's where it stands. '' In an interview with ESPN after returning from a meeting for the 2016 NFL draft he expanded upon reasons why Southern Nevada held a certain appeal over the East Bay of the Oakland -- San Francisco Bay Area, how he tried to make it work in Oakland and why (as he told Sandoval) he hopes to turn Nevada into the "Silver and Black State ''; he also spoke of the meeting saying, "It was a positive, well - organized presentation that I believe was well - received '', and stating, "It was a very positive step in finding the Raiders a home. ''
On May 20, 2016, New England Patriots owner Robert Kraft said he would support Davis and the Raiders move to Las Vegas, stating, "I think it would be good for the NFL. ''
On May 23, 2016, the San Francisco Chronicle and other media outlets reported that a group led by former San Francisco 49ers safety (and Pro Football Hall of Fame member) Ronnie Lott and retired quarterback Rodney Peete were looking into building a new Oakland stadium for the Raiders. The group met with team executives and Oakland city officials to brief them on their proposal. They also met with mayor Libby Schaaf. The Alameda County Board of Supervisors voted to begin negotiations with Lott 's group and with the city of Oakland regarding the "price and terms of sale '' for the 120 - acre land of the Oakland Coliseum and Oracle Arena.
Davis publicly reiterated his commitment to his announced plans to relocate the Raiders franchise to Las Vegas, Nevada with the support of the state of Nevada and casino mogul Sheldon Adelson, and said he did not wish to negotiate further with Oakland while the Las Vegas deal was still actively in progress; any relocation to Las Vegas needed to be approved by a three - quarters majority of all NFL owners, and NFL commissioner Roger Goodell publicly stated his preference for keeping the Raiders franchise in Oakland if at all possible. However, it was reported that the NFL had issues with the Lott Group 's financier Fortress Investment Group due to past issues the group had.
On August 11, 2016, Raiders ' officials met with Northern Nevada officials about the possibility of Reno being the site of a new training camp / practice facility and toured several sites including the University of Nevada, Reno, Reno area high schools, and sports complexes. On August 25, 2016, the Raiders filed a trademark application for "Las Vegas Raiders '' on the same day renderings of a new stadium (located west of Interstate 15 at Las Vegas) were released to the public.
On September 15, 2016, the Southern Nevada Tourism Infrastructure Committee unanimously voted to recommend and approve $750 million for the Las Vegas stadium plan.
On October 11, 2016, the Nevada Senate voted 16 -- 5 to approve the funding bill for the Las Vegas stadium proposal. The Nevada Assembly voted 28 -- 13 three days later to approve the bill to fund the new Las Vegas stadium proposal; two days later, Sandoval signed the funding bill into law.
Davis told ESPN on October 15, 2016 that even if the Raiders were approved by the league to relocate to the Las Vegas metropolitan area, the club would play the next two seasons at the Oakland -- Alameda County Coliseum in 2017 and 2018, stating "We want to bring a Super Bowl championship back to the Bay Area. '' The team would then play at a temporary facility in 2019 after its lease at the Coliseum expires. Davis has also indicated a desire to play at least one preseason game in Las Vegas, at Sam Boyd Stadium, as early as the 2017 season. (The Raiders ' 2017 schedule has both preseason games in Oakland.)
On October 17, 2016, Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval signed into law Senate Bill 1 and Assembly Bill 1 which approved a hotel room rate tax increase to accommodate $750 million in public funding for the new stadium.
On November 12, 2016, a report from the NFL 's own in - house media team outlined how Las Vegas might not be a done deal. The report stated that the majority of owners favored the Raiders staying in Oakland due to market size and stability. The vast majority of the NFL 's revenue comes from TV contracts. So because of that, it made little sense for the other 31 NFL owners to vote in favor of one of their partners abandoning the 6th biggest media market for the 42nd.
On November 30, 2016, a framework deal to keep the Raiders in Oakland was announced. In addition to the public land, the city of Oakland would commit $200 million to improve the infrastructure of the surrounding area. The Raiders would contribute $500 million to the stadium, while Lott 's group would contribute $400 million; the NFL already committed $300 million when it rejected the Raiders ' bid to return to Los Angeles in 2015. Ronnie Lott had no financial or ownership stake in the Raiders; some sources indicated that Lott was also asking for an ownership stake (reportedly around 20 percent) in the Raiders franchise as part of the deal, a condition that was unacceptable to Raiders owner Mark Davis.
The Oakland proposal was officially announced in December 2016, and called for a $1.3 billion, football - only stadium built on the existing Coliseum site. It included mixed use development for possible office or retail space, hotel or residential living and parking, as well as 15 acres set aside for a new baseball - only facility for the Oakland Athletics if the A 's so desired. The site also could have been expanded to include the land Oracle Arena sits on, with the Warriors cleared to move to their new San Francisco arena by the 2019 season.
The Ronnie Lott proposal was voted on by the Oakland city and Alameda County elected officials on December 13, 2016 and approved by Oakland in a 7 -- 0 vote and by Alameda County in a 3 -- 1 vote.
The Raiders officially filed paperwork to relocate from Oakland, California, to Las Vegas, Nevada, on January 19, 2017. The Raiders needed 24 of the 32 NFL club owners to vote to officially approve the move to Las Vegas.
On January 30, 2017, it was announced that Adelson had dropped out of the stadium project, also withdrawing the Las Vegas Sands ' proposed $650 million contribution from the project. Instead, the Raiders would increase their contribution from $500 million to $1.15 billion. One day after Adelson 's announcement, Goldman Sachs (the company behind the financing to the proposed Las Vegas stadium) announced its intent to withdraw from the project.
On January 31, 2017, in the aftermath of Adelson and Goldman Sachs ' withdrawal from the Las Vegas deal, the San Diego Union - Tribune reported that Mayor Kevin Faulconer reached out to an NFL official to let them know they were eager to engage; a city official also spoke to a Raiders official on the phone. The Union - Tribune noted that any possible Raiders relocation to San Diego or bringing a team to the city would have been aided by a proposal for a soccer - specific stadium and mixed development. NFL commissioner Roger Goodell reiterated, during his State of the NFL address, that San Diego would need a new stadium in order to be a relocation possibility. Another roadblock for a Raiders relocation to the city would have been the owners of the current Los Angeles teams. Stan Kroenke and Dean Spanos would block any team from sharing Southern California, especially if that team is the Raiders (given the team 's continued popularity in the region). San Diego, as an option for the Raiders, was remote.
San Diego was previously home to the San Diego Chargers from 1961 until 2016 (when the team relocated to the Greater Los Angeles Area); a Raiders move there would have been ironic given that the team 's primary rival the Chargers were based in that city. On February 16, 2017, the San Diego Union - Tribune obtained a letter from Doug Manchester that stated he had "assembled a powerful group of associates '' who would develop a 70,000 - seat stadium on the land of Qualcomm Stadium; the letter also stated the project would provide "a viable alternative '' to the Raiders in case Las Vegas fell through; the group also stated that they were "open to working with the Chargers, Raiders, other NFL owners, or a new ownership group ''; it also stated an NFL franchise could participate as a partner or tenant: "Our group will provide the funds previously allocated to be provided by the City of San Diego and guarantee the stadium 's expeditious construction. Accordingly it will not require voter approval. '' It also said they would provide "new state of the art scoreboards and upgrade Qualcomm Stadium while the new stadium is being constructed ''. On March 1, 2017, Fortress Investment Group submitted a tweaked version of the Oakland stadium plan to the NFL.
On March 6, 2017, the Raiders revealed that Bank of America would be replacing Sheldon Adelson 's portion of the funding for the new stadium in Las Vegas. On March 27, 2017, the National Football League officially approved the Raiders move from Oakland to Las Vegas in a 31 -- 1 vote, ensuring them a new stadium in the process. However, even though the Raiders were approved to move to Las Vegas, the club will still play the 2017 and 2018 NFL seasons at the Oakland -- Alameda County Coliseum and still be known as the Oakland Raiders as long as they play in the San Francisco Bay Area. About one thousand season ticket holders asked for and received refunds after the move to Las Vegas was announced. Their tickets were sold to other fans within hours, and the Raiders ' 53,250 season tickets were all sold out by late May.
The league levied a $350 million relocation fee on the Raiders, which will be paid in ten annual installments beginning in 2019. This figure is slightly more than half of the $650 million fee that the Rams and Chargers each paid to relocate to Los Angeles.
On November 13, 2017, the Raiders officially broke ground on Las Vegas Stadium.
In season 3 of the HBO television series Ballers, which was produced in 2016 and aired in 2017, Spencer Strasmore (Dwayne Johnson) leads an effort to relocate the Raiders to Las Vegas.
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when was the letter to the colossians written | Epistle to the Colossians - wikipedia
The Epistle of Paul to the Colossians, usually referred to simply as Colossians, is the twelfth book of the New Testament. It was written, according to the text, by Paul the Apostle and Timothy to the Church in Colossae, a small Phrygian city near Laodicea and approximately 100 miles (160 km) from Ephesus in Asia Minor.
Scholars have increasingly questioned Paul 's authorship and attributed the letter to an early follower instead. The authenticity of the letter, however, has been defended with equal strength. If Paul was the author, he probably used an amanuensis, or secretary, in writing the letter (Col 4: 18), possibly Timothy.
During the first generation after Jesus, Paul 's epistles to various churches helped establish early Christian theology. According to Bruce Metzger, it was written in the 50s while Paul was in prison. Colossians is similar to Ephesians, also written at this time. Some critical scholars have ascribed the epistle to an early follower of Paul, writing as Paul. The epistle 's description of Christ as pre-eminent over creation marks it, for some scholars, as representing an advanced christology not present during Paul 's lifetime. Defenders of Pauline authorship cite the work 's similarities to Philemon, which is broadly accepted as authentic.
The letter may have been written by Paul at Rome during his first imprisonment. Other scholars have suggested that it was written from Caesarea or Ephesus. If the letter is not considered to be an authentic part of the Pauline corpus, then it might be dated during the late 1st century, possibly as late as AD 80.
The letter 's authors claim to be Paul and Timothy, but authorship began to be authoritatively questioned during the 19th century. Pauline authorship was held to by many of the early church 's prominent theologians, such as Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen of Alexandria and Eusebius.
However, as with several epistles attributed to Paul, critical scholarship disputes this claim. One ground is that the epistle 's language does n't seem to match Paul 's, with 48 words appearing in Colossians that are found nowhere else in his writings and 33 of which occur nowhere else in the New Testament. A second ground is that the epistle features a strong use of liturgical - hymnic style which appears nowhere else in Paul 's work to the same extent. A third is that the epistle 's themes related to Christ, eschatology and the church seem to have no parallel in Paul 's undisputed works.
Advocates of Pauline authorship defend the differences that there are between elements in this letter and those commonly considered the genuine work of Paul (e.g. 1 Thessalonians). It is argued that these differences can come by human variability, such as by growth in theological knowledge over time, different occasion for writing, as well as use of different secretaries (or amanuensis) in composition. As it is usually pointed out by the same authors who note the differences in language and style, the number of words foreign to the New Testament and Paul is no greater in Colossians than in the undisputed Pauline letters (Galatians, of similar length, has 35 hapax legomena). In regard to the style, as Norman Perrin, who argues for pseudonymity, notes, "The letter does employ a great deal of traditional material and it can be argued that this accounts for the non-Pauline language and style. If this is the case, the non-Pauline language and style are not indications of pseudonymity. '' Not only that, but it has been noted that Colossians has indisputably Pauline stylistic characteristics, found nowhere else in the New Testament. Advocates of Pauline authorship also argue that the differences between Colossians and the rest of the New Testament are not as great as they are purported to be.
Colossae is in the region of the seven churches of Revelation. In Colossians there is mention of local brethren in Colossae, Laodicea, and Hierapolis. Colossae was approximately 12 miles (19 km) from Laodicea and 14 miles (23 km) from Hierapolis. Members of the congregation at Colossae had incorporated pagan elements into their practice, including worship of elemental spirits. The Epistle to the Colossians declares Christ 's supremacy over the entire created universe and exhorts Christians to lead godly lives. The letter consists of two parts: first a doctrinal section, then a second regarding conduct. In both sections, false teachers who have been spreading error in the congregation are opposed.
I. Introduction (1: 1 -- 14)
II. The Supremacy of Christ (1: 15 -- 23)
III. Paul 's Labor for the Church (1: 24 -- 2: 7)
IV. Freedom from Human Regulations through Life with Christ (2: 8 -- 23)
V. Rules for Holy Living (3: 1 -- 4: 6)
VI. Final Greetings (4: 7 -- 18)
In its doctrinal sections, Colossians emphatically explains that Christ is begotten before all creation (not created) and is supreme over all that has been created. All things were created through him and for him, and the universe is sustained by him. God had chosen for his complete being to dwell in Christ. The "cosmic powers '' revered by the false teachers had been "discarded '' and "led captive '' at Christ 's death. Christ is the master of all angelic forces and the head of the church. Christ is the only mediator between God and humanity, the unique agent of cosmic reconciliation. Interestingly, it is the Father in Colossians who is said to have delivered us from the domain of darkness and transferred us to the kingdom of His beloved Son, not the typical way of articulating salvation today. The Son is the agent of reconciliation and salvation not merely of the church, but in some sense redeems the rest of creation as well ("all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven '').
The doctrinal part comprises the first two chapters. Its main theme is developed in Colossians chapter 2, with a warning against being drawn away from Him in whom dwelt all the fullness of the deity, and who was the head of all spiritual powers. Christ was the head of the body of which they were members; and if they were truly united to him, what more did they need?
Colossians praises the spiritual growth of the recipients because of their love for all the set - apart ones in Christ. It calls them to grow in wisdom and knowledge that their love might be principled love and not sentimentality. "Christ in you is your hope of glory! ''.
"Christ in you, the hope of Glory ''
One of the great themes of the doctrinal section of Colossians is promise of union with Christ through the indwelling life of God the Holy Spirit. For example, Colossians 1: 27, "To them God has chosen to make known among the Gentiles the glorious riches of this mystery, which is Christ in you, the hope of glory. '' The Apostle Paul wrote to remind them of this promise and guard them against moving their on going trust from Christ to other philosophies and traditions which did not depend on Christ.
As does 1 Corinthians 13, Colossians 1, in early verses, deals with faith, hope and love. While in the case of 1 Corinthians, the love "does not '' statements, such as boasting, recall the criticisms of the Corinthians earlier in the book. Colossians is different. Paul looks at the faith, hope and love of the Colossian believers as evidence and validation of their faith experience. In introductory verses, 1: 6 -- 7, Paul states that the fruit seen in them started the day they understood the grace of God in truth. Conduct is a fruit of faith.
Colossians denounces ascetic practices or avoiding certain foods because Christ 's death put an end to such distinctions. Believers are one in Christ, not divided between circumcised and uncircumcised, slave and free, and so on. He then calls on his audience to fulfill all domestic and social obligations. A striking image of religion by such rules used by Paul is his use of the word "shadows ''. Some practices in the past may be shadows of what is to come, but Christ is the one who cast the shadow.
Colossians does not state with precision what heresies were being faced by the church. There are approximately 44 different theories what the heresies encountered by the church at Colossae were, including a view there was no particular heresy at all but issues typical of those faced by believers. Some argue that it is not merely fasting or feasting or particular area of emotions, conduct or intellect that are denounced but doing them with an independent spirit, not connected to Christ, the head of the body or lack of appreciation of the gospel of grace.
The practical part of the Epistle, enforces various duties naturally flowing from the doctrines expounded. They are exhorted to mind things that are above Colossians 3: 1 -- 4, to mortify every evil principle of their nature, and to put on the new man. Many special duties of the Christian life are also insisted upon as the fitting evidence of the Christian character. The letter ends with customary prayer, instruction, and greetings.
Colossians is often categorized as one of the "prison epistles '' that include Ephesians, Colossians, Philippians, and Philemon. Colossians has some close parallels with the letter to Philemon -- names of some of the same people (e.g., Timothy, Aristarchus, Archippus, Mark, Epaphras, Luke, Onesimus, and Demas) appear in both epistles, and both were written by Paul.
Tychicus is named as the bearer of the letter, just as he is in Ephesians and Philemon, and he is to tell the recipients of the state of the apostle. After friendly greetings, he bids them exchange this letter with the one he had sent to the neighbouring Laodicean Church. (The Epistle to the Laodiceans was a possible lost letter of Paul which some scholars identify with the canonical Epistle to the Ephesians, others dispute this view.) He then closes the letter with the usual salutation.
Colossians calls, in several places, for faithfulness to be recognized:
It is striking that the apostle writes in Col 1: 28 (ESV): "Him we proclaim, warning everyone and teaching everyone with all wisdom, that we may present everyone mature in Christ. For this I (Paul) toil, struggling with all his energy that he powerfully works within me. '' Then in Col 3: 16, Paul 's goal is that the Colossians themselves to in some manner continue in this ministry and admonish and test each other, "one another '' as Paul did for them. Col 3: 16: "Let the word of Christ dwell in you (Colossian believers) richly, teaching and admonishing one another in all wisdom, singing psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, with thankfulness in your hearts to God. '' In some sense, Paul would have the teaching and admonishing ministry continue by members of the church in Colossae.
Colossians has some interesting interpersonal dynamics. Epaphras, who first shared the good news to Colossae, near the opening of the book is presented as a beloved fellow servant -- "one of us '' from Paul 's ministry point of view. In contrast, towards the closing of the book he is called "one of you ''. Onesimus is also referred to as "one of you '' and an important helper of Paul who was the run away slave in the book of Philemon who became a believer. His past is not brought up. Mark and Barnabus parted company with Paul over Mark leaving the mission after violent opposition in the book of Acts, but here is reconciled to Paul and spoken of as a comfort. Epharoditus, Paul refers to as a fellow prisoner, we recognize as the person in the book of Acts who was literally dragged through the streets into court on charges. Paul acknowledges that most never saw his face in Colossae or Laodicea, yet was concerned throughout the book they were aware of the events going on with himself, and appointed Tychicus to inform them so that they should understand how great Paul 's suffering for them has been.
Online translations of the Epistle to the Colossians:
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when was the last time the giants beat the patriots | Super Bowl XLII - wikipedia
Super Bowl XLII was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion New York Giants and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion New England Patriots to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2007 season. The Giants defeated the Patriots by the score of 17 -- 14. The game was played on February 3, 2008, at University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona.
The game is regarded as one of the biggest upsets in the history of professional sports, as well as one of the finest Super Bowl games. The Patriots entered the game as 12 - point favorites after becoming the first team to complete a perfect regular season since the 1972 Miami Dolphins, and the only one since the league expanded to a 16 - game regular season schedule in 1978. The Giants, who finished the regular season with a 10 -- 6 record, were seeking to become the first NFC wild card team to win a Super Bowl, and were also looking for their third Super Bowl victory and first since they won Super Bowl XXV seventeen years earlier. This Super Bowl was also a rematch of the final game of the regular season, in which New England won, 38 -- 35.
The game is best remembered for the Giants ' fourth - quarter game - winning drive. Down 14 -- 10, New York got the ball on their own 17 - yard line with 2: 39 left and marched 83 yards down the field. In the drive 's most memorable play, David Tyree made the "Helmet Catch '', a leaping one - handed catch pinning the football with his right hand to the crown of his helmet for a 32 - yard gain. Wide receiver Plaxico Burress then scored the winning touchdown on a 13 - yard reception with 35 seconds remaining. The game was tight throughout. Only 10 total points were scored in the first three quarters. The Giants consumed a Super Bowl record 9 minutes and 59 seconds on their opening drive, but could only manage a field goal. The Patriots then responded with running back Laurence Maroney 's 1 - yard touchdown run on the first play of the second quarter. After a scoreless third quarter, the fourth quarter saw a Super Bowl record three lead changes, including New England wide receiver Randy Moss making a 6 - yard touchdown reception with 2: 42 left to play before New York 's game - winning drive. Giants quarterback Eli Manning, who completed 19 of 34 passes for 255 yards and two touchdowns, with one interception, was named Super Bowl MVP. Giants defensive end Michael Strahan, who retired following the victory, had two tackles and one sack. This game was the first since Super Bowl IX (a 16 - 6 Steelers win over the Vikings) that neither team scored at least 20 points.
The telecast of the game on Fox broke the then - record for the most watched Super Bowl in history with an average of 97.5 million viewers in the United States.
As always, the league considered several potential host cities before choosing the Phoenix area. In this case, the process drew special interest because the league considered holding Super Bowl XLII in New York City or Washington, D.C. as a symbol of the recovery from the September 11 attacks. New York City 's bid did not go far. Aside from the obvious climatic concerns, it was also difficult to find a suitable stadium. Proposed renovations to the 1970s - vintage Giants Stadium were still being disputed amongst the various parties. Giants Stadium also lacked a roof, as did both of New York City 's baseball stadiums, and the NFL had never played an outdoor Super Bowl in a cold weather climate. The city of New York and the New York Jets failed to secure a deal to build a new West Side Stadium (which, according to the initial plans, would have been built with a roof). During the years since the Super Bowl XLII bid fell through, Giants Stadium has been demolished. Its replacement, MetLife Stadium, was awarded Super Bowl XLVIII.
Washington, D.C. 's bid proved to be more viable as the D.C. area had a relatively new (albeit roofless) stadium in FedExField. DC 's winter weather, although still potentially problematic, is milder than New York 's climate.
In the end, the process boiled down to three finalists: Washington, D.C., Phoenix and Tampa. NFL owners finally chose University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona as the site for Super Bowl XLII during their October 30, 2003 meeting in Chicago. In subsequent years, Raymond James Stadium in Tampa was chosen as the site for Super Bowl XLIII and the West Side Stadium was briefly designated as the venue for Super Bowl XLIV. However, this game was later moved to Sun Life Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida, when it became clear that the new stadium in New York City would not be built in time for the February 2010 game.
The kickoff for the game took place at 4: 32 p.m. MST (23: 32 UTC). This was the first Super Bowl played on a retractable natural - grass field surface; the University of Phoenix Stadium 's removable surface is unique among American sports venues.
Super Bowl XLII was also the second Super Bowl played in a retractable - roof stadium (the first was played at Reliant Stadium in Houston for Super Bowl XXXVIII). During the regular season, the home team decides 90 minutes before kickoff whether the roof will be open or closed, and an open roof must remain open unless weather conditions get worse. However, as a neutral site, the NFL controls the option to open or close without any restrictions. The first time this was employed was in Super Bowl XXXVIII at Reliant Stadium; the roof was open for pregame and halftime shows and closed during the game. Because there was rain in the forecast for Super Bowl XLII, the roof was closed for the entire day 's activities.
During a February 6, 2007 ceremony with Arizona Governor Janet Napolitano, the NFL and the Arizona Super Bowl Host Committee unveiled the slogan "Who Wants It More? '' along with its mascot "Spike the Super Ball '' (an anthropomorphized football with sunglasses and sneakers) and a large "Super Bowl XLII Countdown Clock '' at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport. The Super Bowl XLII logo was also unveiled. It features the shape of the state of Arizona in red and two horizontal white stripes in the middle to represent the vertical lines on University of Phoenix Stadium. The turquoise Roman numerals represent the Native American culture of Arizona. The red star represents the AFC and the blue star represents the NFC. This was also the last Super Bowl with the league 's previous logo painted at midfield; the following season, the league redesigned its primary logo.
The New York Giants began the season with low expectations after star running back Tiki Barber retired. The Giants had lost in the NFC Wild Card round in each of the previous two seasons and had not won a playoff game in seven years. Quarterback Eli Manning, the younger brother of Super Bowl XLI MVP quarterback Peyton Manning, had struggled to find consistency. In his three seasons as a starter, he had completed less than 54 % of his passes with a career passer rating of 73.4. While generally regarded as a solid quarterback, Manning had been unable to achieve the same level of success as fellow 2004 draftees Philip Rivers (for whom he was traded) and Ben Roethlisberger, the latter of whom had already won a Super Bowl (Super Bowl XL). By the 2007 season, many sports writers were starting to question if Eli would ever live up to the expectations that accompanied being selected with the first overall pick in a draft.
The criticism of Manning intensified as the Giants lost the first two games of the regular season. The Giants recovered, though, notching six consecutive wins and finishing the year with a 10 -- 6 record. The Giants were able to secure a wild card bid in the playoffs, despite the loss of running back Derrick Ward, defensive end Mathias Kiwanuka, and four - time Pro Bowl tight end Jeremy Shockey to injury. In the final game of the regular season, the Giants played at home against the undefeated New England Patriots. Although the Giants had already earned a playoff spot and had nothing to gain by winning the game, coach Tom Coughlin decided to play his starters throughout the game. New York, clearly playing to win against the league 's best team, narrowly lost 38 -- 35. But the effort seemed to rejuvenate the Giants and prepare them for a difficult playoff run. Manning led his team to three road playoff wins in Tampa, Dallas and Green Bay respectively, without throwing a single interception. The Giants ' three playoff wins gave them an NFL record 10 consecutive wins on the road. They finished the season with a franchise - low 77 penalties, after setting a franchise record two years before with 146.
Manning finished the 2007 season with 3,336 yards, 23 touchdowns, and 20 interceptions. His primary target, Plaxico Burress, caught 70 passes for 1,050 yards and 12 touchdowns. Amani Toomer, the Giants all - time leading receiver and one of only two players remaining from their last Super Bowl appearance in Super Bowl XXXV, was also a reliable target with 59 receptions for 760 yards, while Shockey contributed 57 receptions for 619 yards and 3 touchdowns before suffering a season - ending injury in week 15. The Giants ' ground game was led by running back Brandon Jacobs, who at 6'4 '' (193 cm) and 264 pounds (118 kg), was one of the largest starting halfbacks in the NFL. He finished the season with 1,009 yards and an average of five yards per carry, while also catching 23 passes despite starting only nine games.
The Giants had a defensive line that was led by defensive ends Osi Umenyiora (the lone Pro Bowl representative on the team, the fewest a Super Bowl team has ever had), Michael Strahan, and Justin Tuck. Umenyiora led the defense with 13 sacks and five forced fumbles. Strahan, another veteran from the Giants ' last Super Bowl appearance in 2000, had nine sacks, giving him a career total of 141.5 and breaking the franchise record held by Lawrence Taylor. Tuck recorded ten sacks and 48 solo tackles. In the secondary, cornerback Sam Madison and safety Gibril Wilson led the team with four interceptions each. Cornerback R.W. McQuarters had no interceptions during the season, but played effectively in the playoffs, with interceptions in each of the Giants first three postseason games. Punter Jeff Feagles played in his first Super Bowl after 20 years in the NFL. This was also the last game for Giants athletic trainer John Johnson who had been with the team for 60 years. Strahan and Toomer were the only Giants remaining from the franchise 's last Super Bowl appearance in Super Bowl XXXV.
The Giants became only the fourth team to win the Super Bowl without playing a single home game in the preceding playoffs. They joined the Green Bay Packers (who won Super Bowl I against the Kansas City Chiefs), the Kansas City Chiefs (who won Super Bowl IV against the Minnesota Vikings) and the Pittsburgh Steelers (who won Super Bowl XL against the Seattle Seahawks) in accomplishing this feat. However, Green Bay had to win two games, Kansas City three, and Pittsburgh and the Giants, four, in order to accomplish this. Since, the Green Bay Packers accomplished it in 2010 by winning three road playoff games en route to their Super Bowl XLV victory over the Pittsburgh Steelers. However, the Packers accomplished this feat as a sixth seed, while the Giants accomplished this as a fifth seed. In addition, Green Bay beat the top three - seeded teams on the road, while New York defeated the fourth, first, and second seeds on the road.
The Giants were the only NFC team to make multiple Super Bowl appearances in the 2000s decade. Starting with the Rams ' appearance in 2001, nine different NFC teams represented the conference in the last nine seasons of the decade (Rams, Buccaneers, Panthers, Eagles, Seahawks, Bears, Giants, Cardinals, Saints, Packers and Giants).
When the New England Patriots arrived at Super Bowl XLII, they were already billed as the greatest team in NFL history. The Patriots were not only competing for a fourth Super Bowl title since the 2001 season; they were aiming to become the first team in NFL history to achieve a 19 -- 0 record. Their perfect 16 -- 0 record in the regular season was the first since the league moved to a 16 game regular season in 1978. It was also only the fourth undefeated and untied regular season in NFL history. New England set NFL records with 589 points scored (an average of 36.8 points per game) (since broken by the 2013 Broncos), 75 total touchdowns, and a net differential of + 315 points (they gave up 274 points, fourth best in the league). Some experts have suggested that the Patriots ' 16 -- 0 record is the culmination of a larger trend towards better records for top NFL teams since the league realignment in 2002.
The team was led by quarterback Tom Brady who won his first NFL MVP & NFL Offensive MVP award, throwing for a career - high 4,806 yards and a then NFL record 50 touchdowns (22 more than his previous best season; since broken by Peyton Manning in 2013), and just eight interceptions. His passer rating of 117.2 was the second - highest season rating in NFL history. One often - cited reason for Brady 's improved numbers was the acquisition of receivers Randy Moss and Wes Welker. The Patriots acquired Moss, a nine - year veteran, from the Oakland Raiders for a fourth - round pick in the 2007 NFL Draft after Moss had, statistically, the worst year of his career (with 42 receptions for 553 yards and three touchdowns). With the Patriots, though, Moss caught 98 receptions for 1,493 yards and an NFL record 23 touchdowns, and was selected a first - team All Pro. The Patriots also gave the Miami Dolphins second - and seventh - round picks for Welker; Welker tied for the league lead with 112 receptions for 1,175 yards and 8 touchdowns and was named a second - team All Pro. Welker and Moss both earned votes for Offensive Player of the Year. Other major contributors to the Patriots ' passing game included Donté Stallworth, who added 697 yards and three touchdowns, and tight end Benjamin Watson, whose 36 receptions totaled 389 yards and six touchdowns.
Running back Laurence Maroney was the Patriots ' top rusher with 835 yards and six touchdowns, while Sammy Morris added 385 yards and three touchdowns (Morris ended up on injured reserve midway through the season, and thus could not play in the Super Bowl). Longtime Patriot Kevin Faulk had 265 yards and was also a reliable receiver out of the backfield, catching 47 passes for 383 yards and a touchdown. The Patriots offensive line featured three players selected to the Pro Bowl, guard Logan Mankins, tackle Matt Light, and center Dan Koppen.
The Patriots defensive line was led by nose tackle Vince Wilfork, who was selected to his first Pro Bowl; he was also fined four times during the season for unnecessary roughness. The Patriots had a set of veteran linebackers who had a combined 16 Pro Bowl selections. Outside linebacker Mike Vrabel had, statistically, the best season of his career. He led the team in sacks with a career - high 12.5, while also forcing five fumbles and earning his first Pro Bowl selection. Adalius Thomas, an off - season signing from the Ravens, recorded six sacks. Junior Seau, who had been selected to the Pro Bowl 12 times during his career but had never won a Super Bowl, returned for his 18th season and got 74 tackles with 3.5 sacks. Tedy Bruschi recorded 92 tackles and two sacks. The Patriots secondary featured another player selected to the Pro Bowl, cornerback Asante Samuel, who led the team with six interceptions.
The Giants became the first NFC team (third overall) to advance to the Super Bowl by winning three playoff games on the road. After beating the fourth - seeded Tampa Bay Buccaneers 24 -- 14, the Giants upset the top - seeded Dallas Cowboys 21 -- 17, when McQuarters intercepted a pass from Cowboys quarterback Tony Romo in the end zone as time expired. New York advanced to the Super Bowl with a 23 -- 20 overtime win over the second - seeded Green Bay Packers in the NFC Championship Game, which was the third coldest game in NFL history (− 1 ° F at kickoff, − 24 ° F wind chill) with an interception by Corey Webster that set up Lawrence Tynes 's game - winning 47 - yard field goal. The field goal was the longest by a visiting kicker in Lambeau Field postseason history. This turned out to be the final game Brett Favre played for the Packers.
Meanwhile, the Patriots continued to set NFL records on their road to the Super Bowl. First, Brady set the NFL record for completion percentage in a single game (92.9 %) with 26 of 28 completions for 268 yards and three touchdowns in their 31 -- 20 win over the Jacksonville Jaguars in the divisional round, while safety Rodney Harrison tied an NFL record by recording an interception in his fourth consecutive postseason game. One week later, the Patriots defeated the San Diego Chargers 21 -- 12 in the AFC Championship Game. Although Brady threw three interceptions in the game, the Patriots defense forced two turnovers and limited San Diego to four field goals, while Maroney rushed for 122 yards and a touchdown for the second game in a row.
New England was heavily favored to win the game and become the first NFL team to go through a 16 - game regular season and postseason undefeated. Had the Patriots won, they would also have joined the 1972 Miami Dolphins as the only teams ever to win the NFL league championship with an undefeated and untied record. However, others predicted that the Giants could accomplish a win. New York 's record of 10 consecutive road wins included five teams favored to beat them. The Giants achieved playoff victories against the Cowboys (who had defeated New York twice in the regular season) and Packers (who had beaten the Giants in week 2).
The Patriots and Giants had played against each other in the last week of the regular season. Technically, the game had little significance, since both teams had already clinched their respective spots in the playoffs. But due to the Patriots ' quest for an undefeated season, this game was one of the most heavily watched games in league history. NFL Network was originally scheduled to air the game as part of their Saturday Night Football coverage, with WCVB and WWOR carrying the game locally in Boston and New York. Shortly before the game was scheduled to air, CBS and NBC bought broadcast rights to the game and NFL Network 's broadcast was carried by both networks, marking the first time in NFL history that an NFL game was carried on three broadcast networks at the same time. The game was also the first NFL game to be simulcast on a national level since Super Bowl I. As they were favored to do, the Patriots won the game to finish the regular season undefeated. Still, the game was close and competitive, with both teams playing their starters for all 60 minutes. New England won, 38 -- 35, by overcoming a 12 - point deficit in the third quarter, the largest deficit the Patriots had faced all season. "There is nothing but positives '', Giants coach Tom Coughlin said after the game. "I told the players in playing this game everything would be positives, there would be no negatives and that is how I feel. I do n't know any better way to be prepared for the playoffs than to go against a team that was 15 -- 0. ''
This would be the third time in the Giants ' four Super Bowl appearances in which the team played its eventual AFC opponent during that year 's regular season. Both of the prior occasions saw the Giants beat said opponents in the Super Bowl (defeating Denver in Super Bowl XXI and Buffalo in Super Bowl XXV).
For the third consecutive year, the arrival dates for the teams were staggered, with the Patriots arriving on Sunday, January 27 (corresponding to the traditional day that teams arrive for the game with the two - week break) and the Giants waiting to arrive until Monday, January 28. A report filed by ESPN 's Rachel Nichols suggested that the Giants stayed to practice more of their game plan in their home facility before arriving at the Super Bowl. By electing to stay back at home the Giants chose to follow a tactic that the previous two Super Bowl champions, the Indianapolis Colts (before Super Bowl XLI) and the Pittsburgh Steelers (before Super Bowl XL), had employed.
The Patriots practiced at Sun Devil Stadium on the campus of Arizona State University, while the Giants practiced at the Arizona Cardinals ' practice facility, both of which are located in Tempe.
The game was telecast in the United States on the Fox network in 720p high definition resolution. Joe Buck and Troy Aikman called the game, while Pam Oliver (Giants) and Chris Myers (Patriots) were the sideline reporters.
This Super Bowl featured nine hours of game - related coverage prior to kickoff on game day. Fox News started the coverage on the Fox network at 9: 00 a.m. ET.
Official pre-game coverage began at 2: 00 p.m. ET, and was handled by the Fox NFL Sunday pregame show team led by Curt Menefee, joined by Terry Bradshaw, Howie Long, and Jimmy Johnson. Jillian Reynolds served as Weather and Entertainment Reporter for the pre-game show. Additionally, Frank Caliendo appeared in various comedic skits and Ryan Seacrest provided coverage of celebrity arrivals to the game site. This was the first Fox Super Bowl not to be hosted by James Brown, who had returned to CBS after the 2005 season.
The official game broadcast began at 6: 00 p.m. ET, with kickoff at 6: 32 PM EST.
NFL Network provided extensive post-game coverage.
The Giants became the fifth team to win Super Bowls on three different networks (CBS - XXI, ABC -- XXV and Fox).
Super Bowl XLII was the Fox network 's fifth televised Super Bowl. Four of those five games had featured the Patriots. New England participated in Fox - televised Super Bowls XXXI, XXXVI, XXXIX and XLII. The only Fox Super Bowl up to that time that did not include the Patriots was Super Bowl XXXIII. New England 's Super Bowl XXXVIII victory four years earlier was carried on CBS.
The telecast was the most watched Super Bowl in history with an average of 97.5 million viewers in the United States. These numbers were later surpassed by Super Bowl XLIII, Super Bowl XLIV and Super Bowl XLV, which now holds the record with an average of 111 million viewers, and 148.3 million total viewers watching some part of the game. The Super Bowl XLII broadcast achieved the highest Nielsen ratings (43.3) for the game since Super Bowl XXXIV. It was also the second (now fifth) most watched TV program of all time in the United States.
The game was later featured as one of the NFL 's Greatest Games under the title Not Quite Perfect.
In the teams ' local markets, the game was also broadcast by Fox stations in the New York City and Boston markets, WNYW - TV 5 in New York City and WFXT - TV 25 in Boston. Following the game, Fox aired a special episode of House entitled "Frozen ''; however, the episode 's premiere was delayed in the New York metropolitan area by an hour due to a local newscast.
The scheduled date for Super Bowl XLII was two days before Super Tuesday (Tuesday, February 5), the date in which 24 states held their presidential primaries, state conventions or caucuses. As such, some presidential hopefuls had considered purchasing Super Bowl ads. An adviser to Republican presidential candidate John McCain said that the football audience is "a very ripe and timely target. '' However, Fox Television nixed the prospect of any political ads, citing equal time regulations and the fact that the ad space had already sold out before any candidates had asked for it. Instead, candidates purchased advertising time before or after the game or in two dozen local markets. For this game Fox pulled in $250 million in revenue from the ads.
One of sixty - three thirty - second spots among thirty - seven different advertisers cost an estimated $2.7 million (excluding production costs), up from $2.6 million in 2007. However, advertisers are usually offered discounted rates below the official one. Cars.com, which had yet to buy a Super Bowl Ad, made an early announcement that it would purchase two spots.
Five automobile companies advertised during Super Bowl XLII: Audi, General Motors, Hyundai, Nissan, and Toyota. Audi took the opportunity to pay homage to the decapitated horse 's head scene from The Godfather using the front of a Rolls - Royce, while Hyundai, initially hesitant to air their spots, eventually gave the green light to their first Super Bowl commercials since 1989.
Throughout the NFL and United Way 's history, the two organizations have aired commercials highlighting how they work together bettering communities around the US. This year the United Way launched a youth fitness campaign through mobile donations with a 10 - second spot running during the first half of the Super Bowl. The campaign asked viewers to donate $5 by texting "FIT '' to ' UNITED ' (864833). The commercial featured the voice of Tom Brady, and was the first national text message donating campaign to launch from mGive and Mobile Accord.
Following up on its Super Bowl XLI ad, which was one of several fan - created ads that year, the Doritos brand used its spot to air a brief performance by Kina Grannis, winner of an online contest that included a recording contract with Interscope Records. Other ads that aired were: Under Armour 's new "Prototype '' cross-training shoe; Vitamin Water 's new G2 low - calorie sports drink featuring Derek Jeter, Peyton Manning, and Bill Parcells; Victoria 's Secret; and Salesgenie.com. All but the G2 ad were done in - house.
They joined Super Bowl regulars such as Pepsi - Cola, which featured Justin Timberlake in his continuing rebound from the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy four years earlier, being dragged through all sorts of situations to promote a rewards program started by Pepsi, a Diet Pepsi Max commercial inspired by the Saturday Night Live "Roxbury '' skits (including the iconic sketch theme "What Is Love? '' by Haddaway and a cameo by Chris Kattan telling them to "stop it '') and a SoBe Life Water spot featuring Naomi Campbell and 30 CGI lizards performing the Michael Jackson Thriller dance. Other returnees included GoDaddy.com (with World Wrestling Entertainment diva and spokesperson Candice Michelle along with IndyCar driver Danica Patrick); Coca - Cola spoofing balloons in the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade (including a fictional Stewie Griffin balloon; the commercial, titled "It 's Mine '' won a Cannes Advertising Award and was also nominated for an Emmy Award as Best Animated Commercial plus a snippet of the ad appeared in an actual Macy 's commercial celebrating their 150th Anniversary that premiered during the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards in September), as well as its Glacéau Vitaminwater brand featuring Shaquille O'Neal as a jockey; CareerBuilder.com; Planters with an Ugly Betty inspired female using their cashews as a sexually arousing perfume; and seven major Hollywood movie studios promoting blockbuster releases.
The winners of the 20th annual USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter were:
Users of YouTube in their survey chose:
ADBOWL results reflected the following ranking:
The NFL itself ran an ad following the third quarter 's completion, featuring the winner of a fan vote in an online contest. The idea was to emphasize the personalities of NFL players. The winning ad featured Houston Texans teammates and former San Diego State Aztecs Ephraim Salaam and Chester Pitts.
The commercials aired during Super Bowl XLII were made available online after the game on MySpace, as advertised by Fox during the game.
Eels attempted to run a one - second edit of their seven - second ad to promote the compilation Useless Trinkets, but were denied by the National Football League. Lead singer E reported:
In the end we were told that the NFL would have to find 29 other advertisers to buy 1 second spots to fill a standard 30 second advertising slot and that they do not sell advertising time by the second. They also noted that a rapid fire 30 second segment of thirty 1 second commercials could cause people with certain medical conditions to have seizures and that it was against network regulations.
PETA had an ad ready claiming that "Vegetarians have better sex. '' It was rejected and never shown on TV because it was too risque.
Reebok made a series of commercials with the only NFL team with a perfect season, the 1972 Miami Dolphins. One features the ' 72 Dolphins players at a cookout and party at their house in "Perfectville '' waiting to see what will happen in the game. A final commercial featured a NY Giants courier delivering a package with a note "A gift from the N.Y. Giants. Enjoy it for one more year. Regards, Eli ''. An alternate commercial was made with a Patriots moving van showing up as "Perfectville '' neighbors, but was not aired.
Outside North America, Super Bowl XLII was distributed by the NFL and NFL International. Overall, the game was available to an estimated potential audience of one billion viewers within 223 countries and territories. However, viewing figures outside North America rose only marginally on previous years with an estimated 10 million people tuning in from outside the USA, Canada and Mexico for an overall global audience in the region of 114 million. Dick Stockton and Sterling Sharpe were the announcers for the International broadcast.
The BBC acquired the rights in the United Kingdom. The game aired live on BBC Two, carrying the NFL International feed, ending ITV Sport 's coverage, which began in 2005. The game was also subsequently available on the BBC 's on demand service, iPlayer. Sky Sports broadcast the game in both standard and high definition using Fox 's feed and announcers.
Independent Phoenix television station KTVK broadcast a live video stream from a Webcam located outside of the University of Phoenix Stadium. The camera provided millions of Internet users from around the world a chance to peer in on pre - and post-game activities, watching thousands of spectators file into and out of the stadium on Sunday, February 3. The Stadium Cam broadcast from Friday, February 1 to Monday, February 4, 2008 on the station 's website.
NFL. com 's "NFL.com/live '' carried its own coverage of Super Bowl events leading up to and after the game, mostly simulcasting NFL Network.
On radio, Westwood One had the national broadcast rights to the game in the United States and Canada; Marv Albert and Boomer Esiason served as the announcing team for that network. The game was carried on BBC Radio 5 Live in the United Kingdom with Arlo White commentating.
Sirius Satellite Radio carried twelve feeds in eight languages in the United States. The following language feeds were offered:
FieldPass, the subscription Internet radio service provided by the league at NFL.com, carried most of these feeds, with select international feeds for free.
Locally, Gil Santos and Gino Cappelletti called the game for the Patriots on WBCN radio, and Bob Papa, Dick Lynch, and Carl Banks called the Giants ' radio broadcast on WFAN - AM. By NFL rules, only WBCN, WFAN, Sirius and FieldPass carried the teams ' local broadcasts, and affiliate stations instead carried the Westwood One feed. WBCN, WFAN, and Westwood One are all owned by CBS Radio.
The official DVD of the Super Bowl was released on February 26, 2008. The DVD covered the entire 2007 New York Giants season, as well as special features including the NFL Network post game commentary, the halftime show in its entirety, the Media Day highlights, the NFC Divisional Game and NFC Championship Game highlights, profiles on Mathias Kiwanuka and Tom Coughlin, and features on Eli Manning and Michael Strahan. The New York Giants: Road to Super Bowl XLII was released on June 3, 2008. It was a 5 disc set that featured the full broadcasts of the last game of the regular season and all four playoff games. On August 26, 2009 New York Giants 10 Greatest Games was released, in which Super Bowl XLII was included as well.
Willie Nelson performed for a NFL - sponsored pre-game tailgate party, singing a duet with Sara Evans of his song "Mammas Do n't Let Your Babies Grow Up to Be Cowboys '' as part of Fox 's pre-game show.
This year 's Super Bowl entertainment had many connections to Fox 's series American Idol. On August 16, both the NFL and Fox confirmed that Idol host Seacrest would serve as emcee for the pre-game show, with Alicia Keys as the primary performer; as she sang a medley of her songs, including... "Go Ahead '', "Fallin ' '', "If I Ai n't Got You '', "Teenage Love Affair '', and "No One '' as the final performance. Idol Season Six winner Jordin Sparks, herself a native of Glendale and daughter of former New York Giants cornerback Phillippi Sparks, performed the National Anthem, while Phoenix College professor and theatrical interpreter A Dreamer interpreted it into American Sign Language. The anthem was followed by a flyover from the U.S. Navy precision flying team, the Blue Angels. In addition, judge Paula Abdul premiered her first music video in over a decade, Dance Like There 's No Tomorrow, which she made with fellow judge Randy Jackson as part of Fox 's pregame coverage to kickoff her official comeback.
The coin toss ceremony posthumously honored Pro Football Hall of Fame head coach Bill Walsh, who died on July 30, 2007. His former players Ronnie Lott, Jerry Rice and Steve Young joined Walsh 's children, Craig and Elizabeth, at the ceremony.
As is always the case, several big names were mentioned as possible performers for the halftime show before a final choice (Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers) was announced. The halftime entertainer selection process in late 2007 was not unusual: however, since the site selection process four years earlier was of special interest, it is necessary to also mention some of the acts who might have performed, but did not do so.
According to the entertainment publication Variety, a wish list of potential halftime performers was developed by the NFL. Among those on the wish list were Bruce Springsteen (who performed during halftime at Super Bowl XLIII the following year), Norah Jones and the Eagles. In addition, interest in the slot was expressed by Bon Jovi, who had planned to open the U.S. leg of their Lost Highway Tour with a performance during the halftime show.
According to Rolling Stone, the engagement was actually offered to the Eagles by the NFL, but the offer was turned down.
Then, on December 2, 2007, it was officially announced that the halftime entertainment would be provided by Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers. The songs "American Girl '', "I Wo n't Back Down '', "Free Fallin ' '', and "Runnin ' Down a Dream '' were performed by the band to kick off their 2008 world tour. Bridgestone served as the halftime show sponsor. The halftime show itself, produced by Don Mischer and White Cherry Entertainment in association with NFL Network, was nominated for an Emmy Award in 2009.
Former Redskins quarterback Doug Williams, MVP in Super Bowl XXII, commemorating the twentieth anniversary of becoming the first African American quarterback to lead a team to victory in the Super Bowl, took part in the Vince Lombardi Trophy presentation ceremony after the game.
Eli Manning was awarded the Pete Rozelle Trophy for being named MVP, and also received the keys to a 2009 Cadillac Escalade hybrid SUV. Though not the only brothers to play in a Super Bowl, Eli Manning and Peyton Manning (Super Bowl XLI) are the first brothers to be named Super Bowl MVPs (doing so in successive years).
After the game, New York City erupted in celebration, with the sounds of cheers and honking horns echoing through city streets. Crowds of elated New Yorkers, surprised by their team 's unexpected victory, packed Second Avenue in Manhattan, stalling traffic around Manhattan. Times Square was swarmed with celebrating Giants fans well past midnight; similar celebrations arose throughout Brooklyn, Queens, The Bronx, Staten Island, Long Island, Westchester County, Fairfield County, and North Jersey, where the Giants play their home games.
New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg, witnessing the first New York sports team championship victory as mayor, praised the hometown team 's upset victory, saying; "New York has come back many times in the past, and Big Blue proved tonight that you should never, ever, count us out. '' Many New Yorkers polled the Giants ' win to be among the most satisfying championship victories in New York sports history. There were also a series of firsts with the championship, not just for the Giants, but also for the city of New York and the New York metropolitan area. Those firsts were:
On the following Tuesday, February 5, New York City hosted for the Giants a ticker tape parade up Broadway in Lower Manhattan. It was the first along the famed "Canyon of Heroes '' since the New York Yankees won the 2000 World Series, and the Giants ' first parade in New York. (Because of acrimonious relations at that time between New York City and the state of New Jersey, the team chose not to participate in a Manhattan parade for its Super Bowl XXI championship in 1987, but instead held a "Victory Rally '' at Giants Stadium in The Meadowlands. After their Super Bowl XXV championship in 1991, then - owner Wellington Mara chose not to hold any celebrations due to the Gulf War.) After six years in office, Bloomberg became the 14th consecutive mayor of New York City to preside over a ticker - tape parade. (In contrast, his predecessor, Rudy Giuliani presided over his first ticker - tape parade just five months after becoming mayor, after the Rangers won the Stanley Cup) Also attending were New York Governor Eliot Spitzer and Senator Chuck Schumer. Spitzer also announced the availability of a New York Giants Super Bowl XLII Champions custom license plate and issued a proclamation declaring the day "New York Giants Super Bowl Champions Day '' throughout the state of New York.
Following the parade, the Giants held two victory rallies: one at New York 's City Hall and another one two hours later at Giants Stadium in the New Jersey Meadowlands.
After scoring a combined 73 points in their regular season meeting, the teams scored a mere 10 points by the end of the third quarter, with the Patriots leading 7 -- 3. The Patriots ' record - setting offense gave up five sacks and one lost fumble, while the Giants ' offense managed only five first downs in the second and third quarters. Yet in the fourth quarter, quarterback Eli Manning threw two touchdown passes, including the winning drive that culminated with a 13 - yard touchdown pass to Plaxico Burress with 35 seconds remaining.
After calling tails to win the coin toss, the Giants started the game with the longest drive in Super Bowl history, a 16 - play, 63 - yard march that consumed 9 minutes, 59 seconds and featured four third - down conversions, the most ever on a Super Bowl opening drive. But New England halted the drive at their own 14 - yard line, forcing the Giants to settle for a 32 - yard field goal from Lawrence Tynes that gave New York a 3 -- 0 lead.
New England then responded with its own scoring drive, as Laurence Maroney returned the kickoff 43 yards to the Patriots ' 44 - yard line, after which he rushed twice for 15 yards. Quarterback Tom Brady then completed three passes for 23 yards, but after two incomplete passes, New England was faced with 3rd - and - 10 on the Giants ' 17 - yard line. However, on that play, New York linebacker Antonio Pierce committed pass interference by striking the helmet of tight end Benjamin Watson in the end zone, giving New England 1st - and - goal at the 1. This set up a Maroney 1 - yard touchdown run two plays later, the first play of the second quarter, for a 7 -- 3 lead. The two teams each only had one drive in the entire opening quarter, a Super Bowl record. It was the first Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXXIII in which both teams scored on their initial possession of the game.
On the Giants first drive of the second quarter, on 3rd - and - 7, wide receiver Amani Toomer caught in a deep pass from Manning along the left sideline while dragging his feet in - bounds for a 38 - yard gain, moving the ball to the Patriots ' 19 - yard line. But three plays later, Manning threw a pass that bounced out of the arms of rookie receiver Steve Smith and into the hands of cornerback Ellis Hobbs for an interception.
The Patriots ' ensuing drive resulted in a three - and - out as on 3rd - and - 1 James Butler and Michael Strahan tackled Maroney for a two - yard loss and New England was forced to punt.
Then on the Giants ' next drive, rookie running back Ahmad Bradshaw fumbled a hand - off from Manning and it looked as though Patriots ' linebacker Pierre Woods had recovered the ball at the Giants ' 30. But after the officials picked through the pile, it was determined that Bradshaw had made the recovery. The Giants maintained possession and wound up punting. New England 's next drive ended with consecutive Giants ' sacks, the first by linebacker Kawika Mitchell, the second by end Justin Tuck.
On the Giants ' following drive, New York moved the ball to the New England 25, but linebacker Adalius Thomas sacked Manning and forced a fumble. Smith recovered the ball; however, Bradshaw was penalized for illegally batting the ball forward before the recovery. The penalty pushed the Giants out of field goal range, and following an incompletion, they were forced to punt.
After the punt, two 18 - yard receptions by Moss and Donté Stallworth moved the ball to the Giants ' 44. But with 22 seconds left before halftime, Brady fumbled while being sacked by Tuck and defensive end Osi Umenyiora recovered the ball. The game then went to halftime with the Patriots leading 7 -- 3.
On the first drive of the second half, New England had a 4th - and - 2 and chose to punt. However, after the play had been run, Patriots ' head coach Bill Belichick challenged that New York had too many players on the field and replay confirmed that was the case as Giants linebacker Chase Blackburn was unable to get to the sidelines as the ball was being snapped. Therefore, referee Mike Carey reversed the play, and the Giants were penalized 5 yards for having too many players on the field, giving the Patriots a first down. The Patriots then drove to the Giants ' 25, but Strahan sacked Brady for a 6 - yard loss on third down. Then on 4th - and - 13, with the ball on the Giants ' 31, Belichick decided against a long field goal attempt by Stephen Gostkowski (which would have been a 49 - yard attempt, near Gostkowski 's season long of 50 yards) and tried to pick up a first down instead. Brady 's pass to Jabar Gaffney was incomplete as it went out of the back of the end zone and the Giants took over on downs.
On the Giants ' first drive of the fourth quarter, Manning completed a 45 - yard pass to rookie tight end Kevin Boss. Following three runs by Bradshaw and a 17 - yard reception by Smith on third down, Manning finished the 7 - play, 80 - yard drive with a 5 - yard touchdown pass to usually unheralded Wide Receiver David Tyree, giving New York a 10 -- 7 lead with 11: 05 left in the game.
After consecutive three - and - outs by the Patriots and Giants, New England got the ball at its own 20 with 7: 54 to play. Brady then completed a 5 - yard pass to Wes Welker and a 10 - yard pass to Moss, followed by a 9 - yard run by Maroney to give the Patriots a first down at their own 44. Brady followed with a 13 - yard pass to Welker, a four - yard completion to Kevin Faulk, and then a 10 - yard pass to Welker for a first down at the Giants ' 29. After that, Brady found Moss for an 11 - yard completion and Faulk for a 12 - yard completion and New England now had 1st - and - goal from the Giants ' 6. Following two incomplete passes, New York cornerback Corey Webster slipped while backing into coverage, leaving Moss wide open in the end zone where Brady found him for a touchdown to give New England a 14 -- 10 lead with 2: 42 left in the game.
On the ensuing kickoff, Raymond Ventrone leveled Domenik Hixon after a 14 - yard return, giving New York the ball on their own 17 with 2: 39 left and all three timeouts remaining. Following two receptions by Toomer for 20 yards, Brandon Jacobs kept the drive going with a crucial run off guard on 4th - and - 1. Two plays later on 2nd - and - 5, Manning 's pass was high and behind intended receiver David Tyree, but fell harmlessly out of bounds as New England CB Asante Samuel could not corral the pass for the potential game - winning interception. Play - by - play announcer Joe Buck was quick to note Manning 's visible frustration at the apparent miscommunication with Tyree on the play, which stopped the clock with 1: 15 remaining. On the next play, 3rd - and - 5 from the New York 44 - yard line, Manning found himself in trouble as the Patriots ' pass rush got to him quickly after the snap. He eluded Adalius Thomas, who missed Manning despite having the clearest shot at him, and then broke free from the grasp of Jarvis Green and Richard Seymour, both of whom had the QB by the jersey but failed to hold him in the grasp. In what is considered to be among the greatest Super Bowl plays of all time, Manning then re-oriented himself and launched the ball deep down the middle of the field, where both Tyree and Patriots Safety Rodney Harrison were in position to make a play the on the ball. Tyree outjumped multiple - time Pro Bowler Harrison to secure the ball, and maintained possession by pinning the ball against his helmet as he fell to the ground, clearly maintaining control for a gain of 32 yards and keeping the drive alive. Three plays later, on 3rd - and - 11, Manning found a wide - open Smith for a 12 - yard gain to the New England 13, who stepped out of bounds to stop the clock. On the next play, Patriots ' cornerback Ellis Hobbs was beaten badly to the outside by 6'4 '' Giants ' WR Plaxico Burress on a "slant - and - go '' route, allowing Manning more than enough room to find his big - bodied target for the Touchdown. The score capped a 12 - play, 83 - yard drive to take the lead and prompted a roar from the fans in Glendale, then a mere 35 seconds from potentially witnessing the first 19 - 0 perfect season. Tynes 's PAT gave the Giants a 17 -- 14 lead.
New England began its final possession on its own 26 with 29 seconds remaining and three timeouts. Following an errant pass attempt by Brady, Giants ' rookie DT Jay Alford brought immediate pressure up the middle and record the sack for a loss of 10. The following play, a deep pass to Moss, was brilliantly defended by CB Corey Webster, and Brady 's 4th - and - 20 Hail Mary in Moss 's direction was batted down by safety Gibril Wilson, sealing the upset victory for New York. After the incompletion, it appeared that the officials would run out the clock, as it briefly read zero, before one second was re-added. Coaches, players, reporters, and fans crowded the field as if the game had ended. Belichick hugged Giants ' head coach Tom Coughlin at midfield, then left for the locker room. This early departure was later criticized by some sportswriters. The delay lasted 2 minutes 27 seconds before Manning kneeled out the final second and the Giants were officially crowned champions.
at University of Phoenix Stadium, Glendale, Arizona
Manning completed 19 of his 34 passes for 255 yards, including a mark of 9 - of - 14 for 152 yards and two touchdowns in the fourth quarter, with one interception, to be named the game 's Most Valuable Player. Manning also became the first quarterback to throw two go - ahead touchdowns in the fourth quarter of a Super Bowl. Toomer was the Giants ' leading receiver, with 6 catches for 84 yards, and Bradshaw and Jacobs rushed for 45 and 42 yards, respectively. Burress had only 2 receptions for 27 yards, but one of those was the game - winning touchdown with 35 seconds left. The Patriots ' offense recorded 274 total yards to the Giants ' 338. While he never scored, Welker tied a Super Bowl record with 11 receptions for 109 yards. Moss had five catches for 62 yards and a touchdown, and Maroney rushed for 36 yards and a TD. Brady completed 29 of his 48 passes for 266 yards and a touchdown. Brady 's 29 completions gave him a career total of 100 in his four Super Bowls, surpassing the previous record for Super Bowl completions that was held by Joe Montana at 83. Justin Tuck and Adalius Thomas were the top defensive performers for the Giants and Patriots, respectively, as each recorded five solo tackles, two sacks, and one forced fumble.
With this game, the Giants set a record with 11 consecutive victories away from home in a single season. The Giants ' matchup in Week 8 vs. the Miami Dolphins in London was an official Giants road game because it was originally scheduled to be played at Dolphin Stadium. The Giants were also officially classified as the "road '' team for Super Bowl XLII based on the annual Super Bowl rotation where the NFC champions serve as the away team in even - numbered years. Also note that the Week 5 game vs. the New York Jets was considered a "home '' game for the Giants.
Patriots receiver Wes Welker tied the record for most catches in a Super Bowl, with 11. Welker was the fourth player to record 11 receptions in a Super Bowl, following Dan Ross of the Cincinnati Bengals in Super Bowl XVI, Jerry Rice of the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowl XXIII, and Deion Branch of the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXIX.
With his fourth quarter touchdown pass to Moss, Brady became just the fourth quarterback with a touchdown pass in four different Super Bowls, joining Roger Staubach, Joe Montana and Terry Bradshaw. He also became the sixth quarterback to start at least four Super Bowls, joining Montana, Bradshaw, Staubach, Jim Kelly and John Elway.
The Giants opening drive consumed 9 minutes and 59 seconds, making it the longest drive in Super Bowl history. The drive was 27 seconds longer than the previous record, which the Giants had set in winning Super Bowl XXV against the Buffalo Bills.
Due to the length of the Giants ' opening drive (which itself contained a record 4 third - down conversions), the first quarter featured only two possessions, a record for an opening quarter.
The three lead changes in the fourth quarter were also a Super Bowl record.
Although not a record, the 17 points scored by the Giants was the least number of points for a Super Bowl victor since Super Bowl IX.
Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XLII, Super Bowl XLII Play Finder NYG, Super Bowl XLII Play Finder NE
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted
Hall of Fame ‡
Mike Carey was chosen to be the head referee for this game, marking the first time that an African American has been chosen to be the head official in a Super Bowl. Carey also officiated the last game between the Giants and Patriots. The full officiating crew was:
Because the teams were from New York City and Boston, which are approximately four and a half hours apart by car, the Super Bowl echoed the fierce rivalry between the New York Yankees and the Boston Red Sox in Major League Baseball, games of which are often televised by Fox. Both teams ' fans wore Yankees and Red Sox hats and showed off Fenway Park and Mickey Mantle T - shirts. Patriots fans said that they had no natural hatred for the Giants. Many old - time New Englanders, in fact, grew up rooting for the Giants before Boston got its AFL franchise in 1960, and are more accustomed to rooting against the Jets. Giants fans, however, discussed their great hatred for the Dallas Cowboys and the Philadelphia Eagles. Many Giants fans also wore hats and shirts of the New York Mets and the New York Rangers as part of discussing their hatred for the Eagles.
Before the game, Patriots fans said they wanted to continue the trademark "Yankees Suck! '' chant, which began after they won Super Bowl XXXVI in 2002 (which followed the Yankees ' loss in the 2001 World Series), while Giants fans wanted revenge for 2004, when the Red Sox came back from a 3 -- 0 deficit to beat the Yankees in the ALCS en route to winning the World Series.
The post-game celebrations even played out the rivalry, but to a lesser extent. Giants fans called it revenge for the Red Sox coming back from 3 -- 0 down to beat the Yankees in the 2004 American League Championship Series, en route to ending the Curse of the Bambino. In response to Patriots fans chanting "Yankees suck! '' when celebrating their victory in Super Bowl XXXVI, Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe wrote "Can you imagine a Giants or Jets celebration in New York City in which a New York player would take the time to chant, ' Red Sox suck? ' '' He referred to retaliation for the "Yankees suck! '' chants.
After the game Giants fans chanted "18 and 1! '', reminiscent of the infamous "1918! '' chant the Yankees made at the Red Sox each time they visited Yankee Stadium until the Red Sox won the 2004 World Series, towards Patriots fans as they left the stadium, referring to the Patriots ' final record. The same chant was also heard by Giants players and fans during the parade and rallies.
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does drew bledsoe have any super bowl rings | Drew Bledsoe - wikipedia
Drew McQueen Bledsoe (born February 14, 1972) is a former American football quarterback who played 14 seasons in the National Football League (NFL). Bledsoe is best known as the starting quarterback for the New England Patriots from 1993 to 2001, before losing his job after sustaining an injury. He also played for the Buffalo Bills and Dallas Cowboys.
The first overall pick in 1993 NFL Draft, Bledsoe helped improve the fortunes of the Patriots, who had fallen on hard times. Under his tenure as starting quarterback, the Patriots ended a seven - season postseason drought, qualified for the playoffs four times, and made one Super Bowl appearance. In his second season with the team, he was named to the 1995 Pro Bowl and was the youngest quarterback to appear in the NFL 's all - star game at the time.
Following a period of declining success and two consecutive seasons where the Patriots missed the playoffs, Bledsoe suffered a near - fatal injury early in the 2001 season and was replaced as starter by Tom Brady. He was unable to regain his starting position after he was medically cleared to play due to Brady 's success with the team, which culminated with the franchise 's first Super Bowl win, although Bledsoe relieved Brady in the AFC Championship game and led the Patriots to victory to secure their berth in the Super Bowl. Bledsoe then retired after short stints with the Bills and the Cowboys. For his accomplishments in New England, he was inducted into the Patriots Hall of Fame in 2010. He also gave the Patriots a trophy at the end of the AFC Championship game in 2018.
Bledsoe attended Walla Walla High School and was a letterman in football, basketball and track. In football, he was named a first team All - State selection by the Tacoma News Tribune. In track, he competed in the throwing events, recording top - throws of 45.34 meters in the discus throw and 54.70 meters in the javelin throw.
Bledsoe had a record - setting career in his three years at Washington State. After gaining the starting job in the end of the 1990 season as a true freshman (joined later by Jeff Tuel as the only two in school history), he quickly became the face of the Cougars offense. In 1992 Bledsoe led his team to a 9 -- 3 record (ranking # 10 in the coaches poll and # 12 in the AP) and a 31 -- 28 win against the Utah Utes in the Copper Bowl. Bledsoe completed 30 - 46 passes for 476 yards and 2 TDs in the game. He also established WSU records in single - game passing yards (476), single - season pass completions (241), and single - season passing yards (3,946). He was named the Pac - 10 Offensive Player of the Year.
Following an impressive junior year Bledsoe decided to forgo his senior season and enter the 1993 NFL Draft. In the 34 starts of his collegiate career he amassed 9,373 yards, 532 completions and 66 touchdowns.
Bledsoe was drafted first overall in the 1993 NFL Draft by the New England Patriots. He started right away for the Patriots in his rookie season, as they improved from two to five wins.
On November 13, 1994, the Patriots had won just three of their first nine games and were losing, 20 -- 3, to the Minnesota Vikings at halftime. Bledsoe led a comeback victory in which the Patriots won, 26 -- 20, in overtime, as he set single game records in pass completions (45) and attempts (70). Due to his performance, Bledsoe was selected to his first Pro Bowl as an alternate.
Following a difficult 1995 season, Bledsoe turned it around in 1996 ranking among the top passers in the league with the help of wide receiver Terry Glenn, thus pushing the Patriots to reach the playoffs again and winning the AFC championship against the Jacksonville Jaguars, 20 -- 6. This led to an appearance in Super Bowl XXXI, where they lost to the Green Bay Packers by the score of 35 -- 21. Bledsoe completed 25 of 48 passes for 253 yards, with two touchdowns and four interceptions in the loss. He was also named a starter for the Pro Bowl that season, the second of his career.
During the 1997 season, Bledsoe helped the Patriots win five of their final seven games to once again qualify for the playoffs, the fourth time in eight years as a Patriots starter he would lead the team to a postseason appearance. The Patriots lost in the second round to the Pittsburgh Steelers, however Bledsoe built a career - high 87.7 passer rating, passed for 3,706 yards, tossed 28 touchdowns, and earned his third Pro Bowl invitation.
The following year, he became the first NFL quarterback to complete game - winning touchdown passes in the final 30 seconds of two consecutive games. In doing so, he propelled New England into the postseason for the third straight year. He completed these come - from - behind efforts while playing with a broken index finger on his throwing hand, an injury that would later sideline him for the postseason.
Bledsoe started the 1999 season very strong, with 13 touchdowns and only four interceptions as the Patriots held a 6 -- 2 mid-season record. However, Bledsoe subsequently threw only six touchdowns versus 17 interceptions, and the team finished with an 8 -- 8 record. The team 's slide continued into the 2000 season as the Patriots ended with a record of 5 -- 11. While Bledsoe threw a then career low 13 interceptions that year, he was sacked 45 times.
In March 2001, Bledsoe was signed to a then - record ten - year, $103 million contract. Bledsoe did not finish his career with the Patriots, nor see the opening of the new Gillette Stadium. During the second game of the 2001 season, Bledsoe was hit by New York Jets linebacker Mo Lewis and suffered a sheared blood vessel in his chest - which almost resulted in his death. Replacing Bledsoe, backup Tom Brady took the starting position and led New England to the playoffs. Though he never regained his starting role, Bledsoe proved integral to his team 's playoff run when he replaced a hobbled Brady in the AFC Championship Game against Pittsburgh. Bledsoe, starting from the Steelers 40 - yard line, capped a scoring drive with an 11 - yard touchdown pass to David Patten to seal a 24 -- 17 victory. In winning the conference championship game, Bledsoe completed 10 of 21 passes for 102 yards and a touchdown, with no interceptions. It was the second time in six years (1996 and 2001) that Bledsoe was an integral part in leading the Patriots to a Super Bowl appearance, and during the on - field trophy presentation Bledsoe tossed his father a game ball. Tom Brady started as quarterback as the Patriots won Super Bowl XXXVI, with kicker Adam Vinatieri hitting a game - winning 48 - yard field goal as time expired.
Appreciative of his lengthy tenure with the team, Patriots fans cheered Bledsoe in each of his three returns to New England as a visiting player.
A change of scenery -- by way of a trade -- to Bledsoe 's former division rival Buffalo seemed to give him a bit of rejuvenation in 2002. He had one of his best seasons ever, passing for 4,359 yards and 24 touchdowns and making his fourth trip to the Pro Bowl. In Week 2 against the Minnesota Vikings, Bledsoe set a team record with 463 yards passing in an overtime win. He continued his strong play in 2003 as the Bills began the year 2 -- 0. However, a flurry of injuries stymied the Bills offense; they failed to score a touchdown in three consecutive games en route to a 6 -- 10 season. In 2004, they fell one game short of making the playoffs; a late season winning streak went for naught when Bledsoe and the Bills performed poorly against the Pittsburgh Steelers backups in the season finale.
Bledsoe was released by the Bills after the 2004 season to make way for backup quarterback J.P. Losman. When Bledsoe was later signed by the Dallas Cowboys, he expressed bitterness with the Bills for the move, stating "I ca n't wait to go home and dress my kids in little stars and get rid of the other team 's (Buffalo 's) stuff. ''
Bledsoe went on to sign with the Dallas Cowboys, where he was reunited with former coach Bill Parcells. Bledsoe was intended to be a long - term solution as quarterback for the Cowboys. Said Bledsoe on the day he signed with Dallas, "Bill (Parcells) wants me here, and being the starter. I anticipate that being the case and not for one year. '' He signed for $23 million for three years.
During his tenure with the Cowboys, he threw for over 3,000 yards in a season for the ninth time in his career, tying Warren Moon for fourth in NFL history. That season, Bledsoe led five 4th quarter / OT game - winning drives to keep the Cowboys ' playoff hopes alive until the final day of the season. Though the team ultimately failed to reach the playoffs, Bledsoe had led them to a 9 - 7 record, an improvement over the 6 - 10 mark that Vinny Testaverde had finished with in 2004.
However, in 2006, his final season with the Cowboys, Bledsoe 's play became erratic, so much so that six games into the season he was replaced by then - backup and soon to be Pro-Bowler Tony Romo. Shortly after the end of the 2006 season, Bledsoe was released by the Cowboys. Unwilling to be relegated to a backup position, Bledsoe announced his retirement from the NFL on April 11, 2007.
When Bledsoe retired in April 2007, he left fifth in NFL history in pass attempts (6,717) and completions (3,839), seventh in passing yards (44,611), and 13th in touchdown passes (251).
On May 16, 2011, Bledsoe was voted by Patriots fans into the Patriots Hall of Fame. He was formally inducted in a public ceremony outside The Hall at Patriot Place on September 17, 2011. Bledsoe beat former head coach Bill Parcells and defensive lineman Houston Antwine in a fan vote.
In July 2012, Bledsoe was named the 30th greatest quarterback of the NFL 's post-merger era by Football Nation.
In January 2018, Bledsoe was named honorary captain of the New England Patriots as they hosted the Jacksonville Jaguars in the AFC Championship Game. Bledsoe 's Patriots had beaten the Jaguars 20 - 6 in the 1997 AFC Championship Game to advance to their second Super Bowl. Patriots owner Robert Kraft said in a statement "Drew Bledsoe played such an integral role in our efforts to rebuild the Patriots. He gave fans hope for the future by providing many memorable moments during his record - breaking career. For a franchise that had only hosted one playoff game in its first 35 years, winning the AFC Championship Game at home in Foxboro and taking the Patriots to the playoffs for three consecutive years were unimaginable goals prior to his arrival. '' The Patriots defeated the Jaguars 24 - 20 to advance to their tenth Super Bowl appearance and Bledsoe presented the Lamar Hunt Trophy to Kraft.
Bledsoe 's parents were school teachers in Ellensburg, Washington. His father was a coach who ran a football camp in Washington state, and Drew was able to interact with the professional players and coaches who helped his father run the camp.
The Bledsoe family moved five times before Drew was in the sixth grade. They finally settled in Walla Walla, Washington, where Bledsoe 's father coached football at the high school. The only time Drew played a whole season of football without ever starting at quarterback was in seventh grade at Pioneer Junior High. In high school, with his father as his coach, he won numerous awards, including selection to the Western 100 and Washington State Player of the Year. He was heavily recruited by colleges such as the University of Miami and the University of Washington, but he decided to attend Washington State, which was a mere two - hour drive from home.
Drew and his wife Maura live in Bend, Oregon and have four children: sons Stuart, John, Henry, and daughter Healy. He coached his sons, Stuart and John, at Summit High School. His son John was a walk - on player on the Washington State football team in 2017.
While playing for the New England Patriots, Drew Bledsoe lived in Bridgewater, Massachusetts on Tabway Lane, and in Medfield, Massachusetts, in a house that was later purchased by retired Major League Baseball player Curt Schilling.
After his retirement in 2007, Bledsoe founded the Doubleback Winery along with close friend Chris Figgins. The company 's grapes, mostly Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay, are harvested from McQueen Vineyards and Flying B Vineyards, located in and around Walla Walla, Washington. The wine has had success recently, placing 53rd overall in Wine Spectator 's Top 100 wines. His first vintage which was 2007 vintage quickly sold out of its initial 600 cases. In 2012, Marvin R. Shanken invited Ernie Els, Greg Norman, Tom Seaver and Bledsoe to introduce his wines, despite Shanken 's disdain for the New England Patriots. He also recorded a message to both Tony Romo and Dak Prescott in 2017 in his home, which also showed his red wine collection.
In his spare time, Bledsoe works with many philanthropic organizations.
Drew is the offensive coordinator / quarterbacks coach at Summit High School in Bend, Oregon, having held the position since 2012.
While Bledsoe has thrown for a high number of yards and attempts, a frequent criticism is that they are based on volume (attempts, completions, yards) rather than efficiency (passer rating, TD - to - INT ratio, yards per attempt) proving only that he has thrown a great number of times, not that he has thrown well. According to sports writer Don Banks, Bledsoe 's large career totals "reveal more about his longevity than about his excellence ''.
Bledsoe ranks fifth all - time in completions (3,839), seventh in passing yards (44,611), and 13th in touchdown passes (251). Bledsoe 's career (57.2) completion percentage is lower than all recent Hall of Fame quarterbacks with the exception of John Elway. Bledsoe 's NFL career passer rating of (77.1) surpasses nine Hall of Fame Quarterbacks. Bledsoe 's 37 regular season 300 - yard passing games ranks 9th in league history. He also ranks 6th (with 6) in most career regular season 400 - yard passing games by an NFL quarterback. He was selected to the Pro Bowl four times (in 1994, 1996, 1997, 2002). Bledsoe was eligible for the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2011.
Names in bold are still active
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how many major league baseball players have 3000 hits and 600 home runs | 3,000 hit club - wikipedia
In Major League Baseball (MLB), the 3,000 hit club is the group of batters who have collected 3,000 or more regular - season hits in their careers. Cap Anson was the first to join the club on July 18, 1897, although his precise career hit total is unclear. Two players -- Nap Lajoie and Honus Wagner -- reached 3,000 hits during the 1914 season. Ty Cobb became the club 's fourth member in 1921 and became the first player in MLB history to reach 4,000 hits in 1927; he ultimately finished his career with 4,191. Pete Rose became the second member of the 4,000 hit club on April 13, 1984 while playing for the Montreal Expos. Cobb, also the major leagues ' all - time career batting average leader, remained the MLB hit leader until September 11, 1985, when Rose collected his 4,192 nd hit. Rose, the current record holder, finished his career with 4,256 hits. Roberto Clemente 's career ended with precisely 3,000 hits, reaching the mark in the last at bat of his career on September 30, 1972.
In total, 32 players have reached the 3,000 hit mark in MLB history. Of these, 17 were right - handed batters, 13 were left - handed, and two were switch hitters, meaning they could bat from either side of the plate. Ten of these players have played for only one major league team. Six players -- Hank Aaron, Willie Mays, Eddie Murray, Rafael Palmeiro, Albert Pujols and Alex Rodriguez -- are also members of the 500 home run club. At. 367, Cobb holds the highest career batting average among club members, while Cal Ripken Jr. holds the lowest at. 276. Rodriguez, Derek Jeter, and Wade Boggs are the only players to hit a home run for their 3,000 th hit and Paul Molitor and Ichiro Suzuki are the only players to hit a triple for their 3,000 th; all others hit a single or double. Craig Biggio was thrown out at second base attempting to stretch his 3,000 th hit, a single, into a double. Biggio and Jeter are the only players to join the club in a game where they had five hits; Jeter reached base safely in all of his at bats. The most recent player to join the club is Pujols, who collected his 3,000 th hit on May 4, 2018, while playing for the Los Angeles Angels.
Baseball writer Josh Pahigian writes that membership in the club has been "long considered the greatest measure of superior bat handling. '' Reaching 3,000 hits is often described as a guarantee of eventual entry into the Baseball Hall of Fame. All eligible club members, with the exception of Palmeiro, have been elected to the Hall, and since 1962 all club members who have been inducted were elected on the first ballot, except for Biggio. Rose is ineligible for the Hall of Fame because he was permanently banned from baseball in 1989. After four years on the ballot, Palmeiro failed to be named on 5 % of ballots in 2014, and accordingly his name was removed from the Baseball Writers ' Association of America ballot for future elections, although it is possible that the Veterans Committee could in the future enshrine him. Twenty - one different teams have had a player reach 3,000 hits.
Italics denotes active player
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when does season 12 of finding bigfoot start | Finding Bigfoot - wikipedia
Finding Bigfoot is a documentary television series on Animal Planet. It premiered on May 29, 2011, and began its eighth season on January 3, 2016. The program follows four researchers and explorers investigating potential evidence of Bigfoot, a cryptid hominid allegedly living in the wildernesses of the United States and Canada. While the Finding Bigfoot team have not yet captured photographic evidence of the creature 's existence, the show continues production because it has high ratings and is a top earner for Animal Planet.
The team consists of Bigfoot Field Researchers Organization (BFRO) founder and President Matt Moneymaker, researchers James "Bobo '' Fay and Cliff Barackman, and skeptical scientist Ranae Holland. The series never questions the existence of bigfoot, but rather documents the team 's search efforts and study of potential evidence in an attempt to prove the existence of the elusive creature.
Over the course of the series, the team has introduced many new bigfoot related terms into the American vernacular. For example, the term "bigfoot '' is rarely used in favor of "squatch '' (short for sasquatch). Their nighttime investigations are referred to as "squatchin ' ''. The areas they investigate are often described as "Squatchy '', with Washington having been described as "the squatchiest state. ''
An episode begins with the Finding Bigfoot team driving to a location on the trail of photographic, video, audio, or eye - witness evidence of a Bigfoot. The team will go to the location where the evidence was gathered from, and speak to the person who gathered the evidence. If it is a photograph or a video, the team will perform a recreation and a size comparison of the event, using the same camera that the witness used. The team then performs their first night investigation at that same location.
Starting with the second season, one member of the team will almost always remain at the location for a solo night investigation for several more nights. The other three (or four in the first season) members will then head to a ' town hall meeting ' to which members of the public are invited to come and share their Bigfoot encounter stories. In some heavily Bigfoot reported areas, such as Washington, these events are sometimes invite only.
After the witnesses tell their encounter stories, they are asked to mark their sighting locations on a map, which the team then uses to look for a pattern of sightings. The team will then visit three of the best reported encounters, that are usually close by one another. After visiting all three witnesses, the team will collect the member who was doing the solo night investigation, and select an area to do their final night investigation.
For the final night investigation, the team usually devises a unique plan to try and attract a Bigfoot, usually involving noise or light, by using boats on a lake, or silent electric ATVs. They also do wood knocks, which mimics the bigfoot 's supposed communication. Night - vision technology and forward looking infrared (FLIR) cameras are used to document these investigations. They will then evaluate what they learned and announce their evaluations during the ending credits. Occasionally, they will show their trail cam pictures or DNA results following the credits / summary.
In the third season, the team expanded their search from North America to investigate the sasquatch phenomenon known as "yowies '' in Australia. Later in the season, they traveled to Indonesia searching for the "orang pendek '', and to Vietnam to search for the "wildman ''. In season four, the team traveled to China in search of the "yeren '', and Nepal in search of the "yeti ''.
Season 5 of Finding Bigfoot debuted on June 8, 2014, as opposed to November when the last two seasons started.
Animal Planet has received criticism for Finding Bigfoot and Mermaids: The Body Found for their "outlandishness '', however, Fay is quick to defend Finding Bigfoot, and to draw a line between the two programs. "You ca n't equate bigfoot with mermaids. ''
Several episodes of the first season received heavy criticism from the four ' Finding Bigfoot ' members themselves, for the editing style that Animal Planet used, to make it appear that a horse and a person were unidentified by the team, and what they were remained unknown. The second event, involving the horse, led the team to threaten to quit the show if such techniques were used again.
Regardless, Finding Bigfoot is one of Animal Planet 's top rated programs. It has spawned two spin - offs, Finding Bigfoot: Further Evidence and Finding Bigfoot: Rejected Evidence. Finding Bigfoot: Further Evidence is similar to VH - 1 's Pop - Up Video. Episodes of Finding Bigfoot are re-aired with "info nuggets '' from the team members. Finding Bigfoot: Rejected Evidence is an online - only series, in which executive producer Keith Hoffman airs video deemed not worthy of inclusion on the show.
Bigfoot enthusiasts have often ridiculed the show, referring to it as "Not Finding Bigfoot '', due to the team 's consistent lack of success, and the fact that any footage of a Bigfoot would be reported long before an episode airs.
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who voices ryan in barbie life in the dreamhouse | Barbie: Life in the Dreamhouse - wikipedia
Barbie: Life in the Dreamhouse is an online web series of computer - animated shorts produced by Arc Productions, Mattel and Resnick Interactive Group. The series debuted in May 11, 2012 and is available on Barbie.com, Netflix and YouTube. Two TV specials aired on Nickelodeon on September 1, 2013. The series ended on November 27, 2015. A reboot series titled Barbie: Dreamhouse Adventures was set to be released on March 30, 2018.
The series is set in a fictional version of Malibu, California, United States where all of its inhabitants are dolls. The dolls behave like people, though a number of the show 's gags rely on their doll - like nature. The series centers on the life of Barbie, her friends, siblings, her boyfriend, Ken and a number of pets. The series is stylized as a mock reality show featuring confessionals of the characters in between scenes. The show heavily relies on slapstick humor, and makes a lot of satirical and self - parody references to the Barbie doll line.
Barbie: Dreamhouse Party is a party video game published by Little Orbit and developed by Torus Games based on the show.
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a pair of homologous chromosomes each consisting of two sister chromatids is called | Homologous chromosome - wikipedia
A couple of homologous chromosomes, or homologs, are a set of one maternal and one paternal chromosome that pair up with each other inside a cell during meiosis. Homologs have the same genes in the same loci where they provide points along each chromosome which enable a pair of chromosomes to align correctly with each other before separating during meiosis. This is the basis for Mendelian inheritance which characterizes inheritance patterns of genetic material from an organism to its offspring parent developmental cell at the given time and area.
Chromosomes are linear arrangements of condensed deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and histone proteins, which form a complex called chromatin. Homologous chromosomes are made up of chromosome pairs of approximately the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern, for genes with the same corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism 's mother; the other is inherited from the organism 's father. After mitosis occurs within the daughter cells, they have the correct number of genes which are a mix of the two parents ' genes. In diploid (2n) organisms, the genome is composed of one set of each homologous chromosome pair, as compared to tetraploid organisms which may have two sets of each homologous chromosome pair. The alleles on the homologous chromosomes may be different, resulting in different phenotypes of the same genes. This mixing of maternal and paternal traits is enhanced by crossing over during meiosis, wherein lengths of chromosomal arms and the DNA they contain within a homologous chromosome pair are exchanged with one another.
Early in the 1900s William Bateson and Reginald Punnett were studying genetic inheritance and they noted that some combinations of alleles appeared more frequently than others. That data and information was further explored by Thomas Morgan. Using test cross experiments, he revealed that, for a single parent, the alleles of genes near to one another along the length of the chromosome move together. Using this logic he concluded that the two genes he was studying were located on homologous chromosomes. Later on during the 1930s Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock were studying meiosis in corn cells and examining gene loci on corn chromosomes. Creighton and McClintock discovered that the new allele combinations present in the offspring and the event of crossing over were directly related. This proved intrachromosomal genetic recombination.
Homologous chromosomes are chromosomes which contain the same genes in the same order along their chromosomal arms. There are two main properties of homologous chromosomes: the length of chromosomal arms and the placement of the centromere
The actual length of the arm, in accordance with the gene locations, is critically important for proper alignment. Centromere placement can be characterized by four main arrangements, consisting of being either metacentric, submetacentric, telocentric, or acrocentric. Both of these properties are the main factors for creating structural homology between chromosomes. Therefore, when two chromosomes of the exact structure exist, they are able to pair together to form homologous chromosomes.
Since homologous chromosomes are not identical and do not originate from the same organism, they are different from sister chromatids. Sister chromatids result after DNA replication has occurred, and thus are identical, side - by - side duplicates of each other.
Humans have a total of 46 chromosomes, but there are only 22 pairs of homologous autosomal chromosomes. The additional 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes, X and Y. If this pair is made up of an X and Y chromosome, then the pair of chromosomes is not homologous because their size and gene content differ greatly. The 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes contain the same genes but code for different traits in their allelic forms since one was inherited from the mother and one from the father. So humans have two homologous chromosome sets in each cell, meaning humans are diploid organisms.
Homologous chromosomes are important in the processes of meiosis and mitosis. They allow for the recombination and random segregation of genetic material from the mother and father into new cells.
Meiosis is a round of two cell divisions that results in four haploid daughter cells that each contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. It reduces the chromosome number in a germ cell by half by first separating the homologous chromosomes in meiosis I and then the sister chromatids in meiosis II. The process of meiosis I is generally longer than meiosis II because it takes more time for the chromatin to replicate and for the homologous chromosomes to be properly oriented and segregated by the processes of pairing and synapsis in meiosis I. During meiosis, genetic recombination (by random segregation) and crossing over produces daughter cells that each contain different combinations of maternally and paternally coded genes. This recombination of genes allows for the introduction of new allele pairings and genetic variation. Genetic variation among organisms helps make a population more stable by providing a wider range of genetic traits for natural selection to act on.
In prophase I of meiosis I, each chromosome is aligned with its homologous partner and pairs completely. In prophase I, the DNA has already undergone replication so each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids connected by a common centromere. During the zygotene stage of prophase I, the homologous chromosomes pair up with each other. This pairing occurs by a synapsis process where the synaptonemal complex - a protein scaffold - is assembled and joins the homologous chromosomes along their lengths. Cohesin crosslinking occurs between the homologous chromosomes and helps them resist being pulled apart until anaphase. Genetic crossing over occurs during the pachytene stage of prophase I. In this process, genes are exchanged by the breaking and union of homologous portions of the chromosomes ' lengths. Structures called chiasmata are the site of the exchange. Chiasmata physically link the homologous chromosomes once crossing over occurs and throughout the process of chromosomal segregation during meiosis. At the diplotene stage of prophase I the synaptonemal complex disassembles before which will allow the homologous chromosomes to separate, while the sister chromatids stay associated by their centromeres.
In metaphase I of meiosis I, the pairs of homologous chromosomes, also known as bivalents or tetrads, line up in a random order along the metaphase plate. The random orientation is another way for cells to introduce genetic variation. Meiotic spindles emanating from opposite spindle poles attach to each of the homologs (each pair of sister chromatids) at the kinetochore.
In anaphase I of meiosis I the homologous chromosomes are pulled apart from each other. The homologs are cleaved by the enzyme separase to release the cohesin that held the homologous chromosome arms together. This allows the chiasmata to release and the homologs to move to opposite poles of the cell. The homologous chromosomes are now randomly segregated into two daughter cells that will undergo meiosis II to produce four haploid daughter germ cells.
After the tetrads of homologous chromosomes are separated in meiosis I, the sister chromatids from each pair are separated. The two haploid (because the chromosome no. has reduced to half. Earlier two sets of chromosomes were present, but now each set exists in two different daughter cells that have arisen from the single diploid parent cell by meiosis I) daughter cells resulting from meiosis I undergo another cell division in meiosis II but without another round of chromosomal replication. The sister chromatids in the two daughter cells are pulled apart during anaphase II by nuclear spindle fibers, resulting in four haploid daughter cells.
Homologous chromosomes do not function the same in mitosis as they do in meiosis. Prior to every single mitotic division a cell undergoes, the chromosomes in the parent cell replicate themselves. The homologous chromosomes within the cell will not pair up and undergo genetic recombination with each other. Instead, the replicants, or sister chromatids, will line up along the metaphase plate and then separate in the same way as meiosis II - by being pulled apart at their centromeres by nuclear mitotic spindles. If any crossing over does occur between sister chromatids during mitosis, it does not produce any recombinants.
Homologous pairing in most contexts will refer to germline cells, however also takes place in somatic cells. For example, in humans, somatic cells have very tightly regulated homologous pairing (separated into chromosomal territories, and pairing at specific loci under control of developmental signalling). Other species however (notably Drosophila) exhibit homologous pairing much more frequently. Various functions of homologous pairing in somatic cells have been elucidated through high - throughput screens in the early 21st century.
There are severe repercussions when chromosomes do not segregate properly. Faulty segregation can lead to fertility problems, embryo death, birth defects, and cancer. Though the mechanisms for pairing and adhering homologous chromosomes vary among organisms, proper functioning of those mechanisms is imperative in order for the final genetic material to be sorted correctly.
Proper homologous chromosome separation in meiosis I is crucial for sister chromatid separation in meiosis II. A failure to separate properly is known as nondisjunction. There are two main types of nondisjunction that occur: trisomy and monosomy. Trisomy is caused by the presence of one additional chromosomes in the zygote as compared to the normal number, and monosomy is characterized by the presence of one fewer chromosome in the zygote as compared to the normal number. If this uneven division occurs in meiosis I, then none of the daughter cells will have proper chromosomal distribution and severe effects can ensue, including Down 's syndrome. Unequal division can also occur during the second meiotic division. Nondisjunction which occurs at this stage can result in normal daughter cells and deformed cells.
If unequal genetic crossover occurs within the gametes involved in meiosis, then the resulting zygote may suffer unviability. This is caused by events such as trisomy and monosomy because the cells are not able to develop normally with these characteristics. In other terms, one cell gains the proper amount of genetic material while the other cell lacks that material. Consequently, these deformed cells may cause a spontaneous abortion because the zygote does not develop correctly.
While the main function of homologous chromosomes is their use in nuclear division, they are also used in repairing double - strand breaks of DNA. These double - stranded breaks typically occur in DNA that serve as template strands for DNA replication, and they are the result of mutation, replication errors or malfunctioning DNA. Homologous chromosomes can repair this damage by aligning themselves with chromosomes of the same genetic sequence. Once the base pairs have been matched and oriented correctly between the two strands, the homologous chromosomes perform a process that is very similar to recombination, or crossing over as seen in meiosis. Part of the intact DNA sequence overlaps with that of the damaged chromosome 's sequence. Replication proteins and complexes are then recruited to the site of damage, allowing for repair and proper replication to occur. Through this functioning, double - strand breaks can be repaired and DNA can function normally.
Current and future research on the subject of homologous chromosome is heavily focused on the roles of various proteins during recombination or during DNA repair. In a recently published article by Pezza et al. the protein known as HOP2 is responsible for both homologous chromosome synapsis as well as double - strand break repair via homologous recombination. The deletion of HOP2 in mice has large repercussions in meiosis. Other current studies focus on specific proteins involved in homologous recombination as well.
There is ongoing research concerning the ability of homologous chromosomes to repair double - strand DNA breaks. Researchers are investigating the possibility of exploiting this capability for regenerative medicine. This medicine could be very prevalent in relation to cancer, as DNA damage is thought to be contributor to carcinogenesis. Manipulating the repair function of homologous chromosomes might allow for bettering a cell 's damage response system. While research has not yet confirmed the effectiveness of such treatment, it may become a useful therapy for cancer.
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history of freedom of religion in the united states | Freedom of religion in the United States - wikipedia
In the United States, freedom of religion is a constitutionally protected right provided in the religion clauses of the First Amendment. Freedom of religion is also closely associated with separation of church and state, a concept advocated by Colonial founders such as Roger Williams, William Penn and later founding fathers such as James Madison and Thomas Jefferson.
The United States Constitution addresses the issue of religion in two places: in the First Amendment, and the Article VI prohibition on religious tests as a condition for holding public office. The First Amendment prohibits the Congress from making a law "respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ''. This provision was later expanded to state and local governments, through the Incorporation of the Fourteenth Amendment.
The October 10, 1645, charter of Flushing, Queens, New York, allowed "liberty of conscience, according to the custom and practice of Holland without molestation or disturbance from any magistrate or ecclesiastical minister. '' However, New Amsterdam Director - General Peter Stuyvesant issued an edict prohibiting the harboring of Quakers. On December 27, 1657, the inhabitants of Flushing approved a protest known as The Flushing Remonstrance. This contained religious arguments even mentioning freedom for "Jews, Turks, and Egyptians, '' but ended with a forceful declaration that any infringement of the town charter would not be tolerated.
Freedom of religion was first applied as a principle in the founding of the colony of Maryland, also founded by the Catholic Lord Baltimore, in 1634. Fifteen years later (1649), an enactment of religious liberty, the Maryland Toleration Act, drafted by Lord Baltimore, provided: "No person or persons... shall from henceforth be any waies troubled, molested or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion nor in the free exercise thereof. '' The Maryland Toleration Act was repealed with the assistance of Protestant assemblymen and a new law barring Catholics from openly practicing their religion was passed. In 1657, Lord Baltimore regained control after making a deal with the colony 's Protestants, and in 1658 the Act was again passed by the colonial assembly. This time, it would last more than thirty years, until 1692, when after Maryland 's Protestant Revolution of 1689, freedom of religion was again rescinded. In addition in 1704, an Act was passed "to prevent the growth of Popery in this Province '', preventing Catholics from holding political office. Full religious toleration would not be restored in Maryland until the American Revolution, when Maryland 's Charles Carroll of Carrollton signed the American Declaration of Independence.
Rhode Island (1636), Connecticut (1636), New Jersey, and Pennsylvania (1682), founded by Baptist Roger Williams, Congregationalist Thomas Hooker, and Quaker William Penn, respectively, established the religious freedom in their colonies in direct opposition to the theocratic government which Separatist Congregationalists (Pilgrim Fathers) and Puritans had enforced in Plymouth Colony (1620) and Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628). Having fled religious persecution themselves in England, the leaders of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay Colony restricted franchise to members of their church only, rigorously enforced their own interpretation of theological law and banished freethinkers such as Roger Williams, who was actually chased out of Salem., as well as banning Quakers and Anabaptists. These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities. Catholics and Jews also had full citizenship and free exercise of their faiths. Williams, Hooker, Penn, and their friends were firmly convinced that democracy and freedom of conscience were the will of God. Williams gave the most profound theological reason: As faith is the free gift of the Holy Spirit, it can not be forced upon a person. Therefore, strict separation of church and state has to be kept. Pennsylvania was the only colony that retained unlimited religious freedom until the foundation of the United States. The inseparable connection of democracy, freedom of religion, and the other forms of freedom became the political and legal basis of the new nation. In particular, Baptists and Presbyterians demanded vigorously and successfully the disestablishment of the Anglican and Congregational state churches that had existed in most colonies since the seventeenth century.
In the United States, the religious civil liberties are guaranteed by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution:
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
The "Establishment Clause, '' stating that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, '' is generally read to prohibit the Federal government from establishing a national church ("religion '') or excessively involving itself in religion, particularly to the benefit of one religion over another. Following the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and through the doctrine of incorporation, this restriction is held to be applicable to state governments as well.
The "Free Exercise Clause '' states that Congress can not "prohibit the free exercise '' of religious practices. The Supreme Court of the United States has consistently held, however, that the right to free exercise of religion is not absolute. For example, in the 19th century, some of the members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints traditionally practiced polygamy, yet in Reynolds v. United States (1879), the Supreme Court upheld the criminal conviction of one of these members under a federal law banning polygamy. The Court reasoned that to do otherwise would set precedent for a full range of religious beliefs including those as extreme as human sacrifice. The Court stated that "Laws are made for the government of actions, and while they can not interfere with mere religious belief and opinions, they may with practices. '' For example, if one were part of a religion that believed in vampirism, the First Amendment would protect one 's belief in vampirism, but not the practice.
The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees the religious civil rights. Whereas the First Amendment secures the free exercise of religion, section one of the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination, including on the basis of religion, by securing "the equal protection of the laws '' for every person:
The affirmation or denial of specific religious beliefs had, in the past, been made into qualifications for public office; however, the United States Constitution states that the inauguration of a President may include an "affirmation '' of the faithful execution of his duties rather than an "oath '' to that effect -- this provision was included in order to respect the religious prerogatives of the Quakers, a Protestant Christian denomination that declines the swearing of oaths. The U.S. Constitution also provides that "No religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification of any Office or public Trust under the United States. '' Several states have language included in their constitutions that requires state office - holders to have particular religious beliefs. These include Arkansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas. Some of these beliefs (or oaths) were historically required of jurors and witnesses in court. Even though they are still on the books, these provisions have been rendered unenforceable by U.S. Supreme Court decisions.
With reference to the use of animals, the U.S. Supreme Court decision in the cases of the Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah in 1993 upheld the right of Santeria adherents to practice ritual animal sacrifice with Justice Anthony Kennedy stating in the decision, "religious beliefs need not be acceptable, logical, consistent or comprehensible to others in order to merit First Amendment protection ''. (quoted by Justice Kennedy from the opinion by Justice Burger in Thomas v. Review Board of the Indiana Employment Security Division 450 U.S. 707 (1981)) Likewise in Texas in 2009, issues that related to animal sacrifice and animal rights were taken to the 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in the case of Jose Merced, President Templo Yoruba Omo Orisha Texas, Inc., v. City of Euless. The court ruled that the free exercise of religion was meritorious and prevailing and that Merced was entitled under the Texas Religious Freedom and Restoration Act (TRFRA) to an injunction preventing the city of Euless, Texas from enforcing its ordinances that burdened his religious practices relating to the use of animals.
Religious liberty has not prohibited states or the federal government from prohibiting or regulating certain behaviors; i.e. prostitution, gambling, alcohol and certain drugs, although some libertarians interpret religious freedom to extend to these behaviors. The United States Supreme Court has ruled that a right to privacy or a due process right does prevent the government from prohibiting adult access to birth control, pornography, and from outlawing sodomy between consenting adults and early trimester abortions.
Thomas Jefferson wrote that the First Amendment erected a "wall of separation between church and state '' likely borrowing the language from Roger Williams, founder of the First Baptist Church in America and the Colony of Rhode Island, who used the phrase in his 1644 book, The Bloody Tenent of Persecution. James Madison, often regarded as the "Father of the Bill of Rights '', also often wrote of the "perfect separation '', "line of separation '', "strongly guarded as is the separation between religion and government in the Constitution of the United States '', and "total separation of the church from the state ''. Controversy rages in the United States between those who wish to restrict government involvement with religious institutions and remove religious references from government institutions and property, and those who wish to loosen such prohibitions. Advocates for stronger separation of church and state emphasize the plurality of faiths and non-faiths in the country, and what they see as broad guarantees of the federal Constitution. Their opponents emphasize what they see as the largely Christian heritage and history of the nation (often citing the references to "Nature 's God '' and the "Creator '' of men in the Declaration of Independence). Some more socially conservative Christian sects, such as the Christian Reconstructionist movement, oppose the concept of a "wall of separation '' and prefer a closer relationship between church and state.
Problems also arise in U.S. public schools concerning the teaching and display of religious issues. In various counties, school choice and school vouchers have been put forward as solutions to accommodate variety in beliefs and freedom of religion, by allowing individual school boards to choose between a secular, religious or multi-faith vocation, and allowing parents free choice among these schools. Critics of American voucher programs claim that they take funds away from public schools, and that the amount of funds given by vouchers is not enough to help many middle and working class parents.
U.S. judges often ordered alcoholic defendants to attend Alcoholics Anonymous or face imprisonment. However, in 1999, a federal appeals court ruled this unconstitutional because the A.A. program relies on submission to a "Higher Power ''.
Thomas Jefferson also played a large role in the formation of freedom of religion. He created the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, which has since been incorporated into the Virginia State Constitution.
The United States of America was established on foundational principles by the Declaration of Independence:
We hold these truths to be self - evident: That all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed;
(based on Thomas Jefferson 's draft.)
In 1944, a joint committee of the Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America and the Foreign Missions Conference formulated a "Statement on Religious Liberty ''
Following increasing government involvement in religious matters, Congress passed the 1993 Religious Freedom Restoration Act. A number of states then passed corresponding acts (e.g., Missouri passed the Religious Freedom Restoration Act).
Signed on November 4, 1796, the Treaty of Tripoli was a document that included the following statement:
As the Government of the United States of America is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion; as it has in itself no character of enmity against the laws, religion, or tranquility, of Mussulmen (Muslims); and as the said States never entered into any war or act of hostility against any Mahometan (Mohammedan) nation, it is declared by the parties that no pretext arising from religious opinions shall ever produce an interruption of the harmony existing between the two countries.
This treaty was submitted to the Senate and was ratified unanimously on June 7, 1797, and then signed by President John Adams on June 10, 1797. In accordance with Article VI of the Constitution, on that date this treaty became incorporated as part of "the supreme Law of the Land ''.
Since the 1940s, the Jehovah 's Witnesses have often invoked the First Amendment 's freedom of religion clauses to protect their ability to engage in the proselytizing (or preaching) that is central to their faith. This series of litigation has helped to define civil liberties case law in the United States and Canada.
In the United States of America and several other countries, the legal struggles of the Jehovah 's Witnesses have yielded some of the most important judicial decisions regarding freedom of religion, press and speech. In the United States, many Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah 's Witnesses are now landmark decisions of First Amendment law. Of the 72 cases involving the Jehovah 's Witnesses that have been brought before the U.S. Supreme Court, the Court has ruled in favor of them 47 times. Even the cases that the Jehovah 's Witnesses lost helped the U.S. to more clearly define the limits of First Amendment rights. Former Supreme Court Justice Harlan Stone jokingly suggested "The Jehovah 's Witnesses ought to have an endowment in view of the aid which they give in solving the legal problems of civil liberties. '' "Like it or not, '' observed American author and editor Irving Dilliard, "Jehovah 's Witnesses have done more to help preserve our freedoms than any other religious group. ''
Professor C.S. Braden wrote: "They have performed a signal service to democracy by their fight to preserve their civil rights, for in their struggle they have done much to secure those rights for every minority group in America. ''
"The cases that the Witnesses were involved in formed the bedrock of 1st Amendment protections for all citizens, '' said Paul Polidoro, a lawyer who argued the Watchtower Society 's case before the Supreme Court in February 2002. "These cases were a good vehicle for the courts to address the protections that were to be accorded free speech, the free press and free exercise of religion. In addition, the cases marked the emergence of individual rights as an issue within the U.S. court system.
Before the Jehovah 's Witnesses brought several dozen cases before the U.S. Supreme Court during the 1930s and 1940s, the Court had handled few cases contesting laws that restricted freedom of speech and freedom of religion. Until then, the First Amendment had only been applied to Congress and the federal government.
However, the cases brought before the Court by the Jehovah 's Witnesses allowed the Court to consider a range of issues: mandatory flag salute, sedition, free speech, literature distribution and military draft law. These cases proved to be pivotal moments in the formation of constitutional law. Jehovah 's Witnesses ' court victories have strengthened rights including the protection of religious conduct from federal and state interference, the right to abstain from patriotic rituals and military service and the right to engage in public discourse.
During the World War II era, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of Jehovah 's Witnesses in several landmark cases that helped pave the way for the modern civil rights movement. In all, Jehovah 's Witnesses brought 23 separate First Amendment actions before the U.S. Supreme Court between 1938 and 1946.
The Supreme Court has consistently held fast to the rule of strict separation of church and state when matters of prayer are involved. In Engel v. Vitale (1962) the Court ruled that government - imposed nondenominational prayer in public school was unconstitutional. In Lee v. Weisman (1992), the Court ruled prayer established by a school principal at a middle school graduation was also unconstitutional, and in Santa Fe Independent School Dist. v. Doe (2000) it ruled that school officials may not directly impose student - led prayer during high school football games nor establish an official student election process for the purpose of indirectly establishing such prayer. The distinction between force of government and individual liberty is the cornerstone of such cases. Each case restricts acts by government designed to establish prayer while explicitly or implicitly affirming students ' individual freedom to pray.
The Court has therefore tried to determine a way to deal with church / state questions. In Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971), the Court created a three - part test for laws dealing with religious establishment. This determined that a law was constitutional if it:
Some examples of where inhibiting religion has been struck down:
Under the doctrine of Incorporation, the first amendment has been made applicable to the states. Therefore, the states must guarantee the freedom of religion in the same way the federal government must.
Many states have freedom of religion established in their constitution, though the exact legal consequences of this right vary for historical and cultural reasons. Most states interpret "freedom of religion '' as including the freedom of long - established religious communities to remain intact and not be destroyed. By extension, democracies interpret "freedom of religion '' as the right of each individual to freely choose to convert from one religion to another, mix religions, or abandon religion altogether.
The no religious test clause of the U.S. constitution states that "no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. '' Although it has become tradition for US presidents to end their Presidential Oath with "so help me God '', this is not required by the Constitution. The same applies to the Vice President, the House of Representatives, the Senate, the members of the Cabinet, and all other civil and military officers and federal employees, who can either make an affirmation or take an oath ending with "so help me God. ''
Some state constitutions in the US require belief in God or a Supreme Being as a prerequisite for holding public office or being a witness in court. This applies to Arkansas, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, where the requirement was challenged and overturned in Voswinkel v. Hunt (1979), South Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas, debatably. A unanimous 1961 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Torcaso v. Watkins held that the First and Fourteenth Amendments to the federal Constitution override these state requirements, so they are not enforced.
Problems sometimes arise in the workplace concerning religious observance when a private employer discharges an employee for failure to report to work on what the employee considers a holy day or a day of rest. In the United States, the view that has generally prevailed is that firing for any cause in general renders a former employee ineligible for unemployment compensation, but that this is no longer the case if the ' cause ' is religious in nature, especially an employee 's unwillingness to work during Jewish Shabbat, Christian Sabbath, or Muslim jumu'ah.
After reports in August 2010 that soldiers who refused to attend a Christian band 's concert at a Virginia military base were essentially punished by being banished to their barracks and told to clean them up, an Army spokesman said that an investigation was underway and "If something like that were to have happened, it would be contrary to Army policy. ''
John Higham described anti-Catholicism as "the most luxuriant, tenacious tradition of paranoiac agitation in American history ''. Anti-Catholicism which was prominent in the United Kingdom was exported to the United States. Two types of anti-Catholic rhetoric existed in colonial society. The first, derived from the heritage of the Protestant Reformation and the religious wars of the 16th century, consisted of the "Anti-Christ '' and the "Whore of Babylon '' variety and dominated Anti-Catholic thought until the late 17th century. The second was a more secular variety which focused on the supposed intrigue of the Catholics intent on extending medieval despotism worldwide.
Historian Arthur Schlesinger Sr. has called Anti-Catholicism "the deepest - held bias in the history of the American people. ''
Because many of the British colonists, such as the Puritans and Congregationalists, were fleeing religious persecution by the Church of England, much of early American religious culture exhibited the more extreme anti-Catholic bias of these Protestant denominations. Monsignor John Tracy Ellis wrote that a "universal anti-Catholic bias was brought to Jamestown in 1607 and vigorously cultivated in all the thirteen colonies from Massachusetts to Georgia. '' Colonial charters and laws contained specific proscriptions against Roman Catholics. Monsignor Ellis noted that a common hatred of the Roman Catholic Church could unite Anglican clerics and Puritan ministers despite their differences and conflicts.
Some of America 's Founding Fathers held anti-clerical beliefs. For example, in 1788, John Jay urged the New York Legislature to require office - holders to renounce foreign authorities "in all matters ecclesiastical as well as civil. '' Thomas Jefferson wrote: "History, I believe, furnishes no example of a priest - ridden people maintaining a free civil government, '' and, "In every country and in every age, the priest has been hostile to liberty. He is always in alliance with the despot, abetting his abuses in return for protection to his own. ''
Some states devised loyalty oaths designed to exclude Catholics from state and local office. The public support for American independence and the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution by prominent American Catholics like Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the only Catholic signer of the Declaration of Independence, and his second cousins, Bishop John Carroll and Daniel Carroll, allowed Roman Catholics to be included in the constitutional protections of civil and religious liberty.
Anti-Catholic animus in the United States reached a peak in the 19th century when the Protestant population became alarmed by the influx of Catholic immigrants. Some American Protestants, having an increased interest in prophecies regarding the end of time, claimed that the Catholic Church was the Whore of Babylon in the Book of Revelation. The resulting "nativist '' movement, which achieved prominence in the 1840s, was whipped into a frenzy of anti-Catholicism that led to mob violence, the burning of Catholic property, and the killing of Catholics. This violence was fed by claims that Catholics were destroying the culture of the United States. The nativist movement found expression in a national political movement called the Know - Nothing Party of the 1850s, which (unsuccessfully) ran former president Millard Fillmore as its presidential candidate in 1856.
The founder of the Know - Nothing movement, Lewis C. Levin, based his political career entirely on anti-Catholicism, and served three terms in the U.S. House of Representatives (1845 -- 1851), after which he campaigned for Fillmore and other "nativist '' candidates.
After 1875 many states passed constitutional provisions, called "Blaine Amendments, forbidding tax money be used to fund parochial schools. In 2002, the United States Supreme Court partially vitiated these amendments, when they ruled that vouchers were constitutional if tax dollars followed a child to a school, even if it were religious.
Anti-Catholicism was widespread in the 1920s; anti-Catholics, including the Ku Klux Klan, believed that Catholicism was incompatible with democracy and that parochial schools encouraged separatism and kept Catholics from becoming loyal Americans. The Catholics responded to such prejudices by repeatedly asserting their rights as American citizens and by arguing that they, not the nativists (anti-Catholics), were true patriots since they believed in the right to freedom of religion.
The 1928 presidential campaign of Al Smith was a rallying point for the Klan and the tide of anti-Catholicism in the U.S. The Catholic Church of the Little Flower was first built in 1925 in Royal Oak, Michigan, a largely Protestant area. Two weeks after it opened, the Ku Klux Klan burned a cross in front of the church. The church burned down in a fire in 1936. In response, the church built a fireproof crucifixion tower, as a "cross they could not burn ''.
In 1922, the voters of Oregon passed an initiative amending Oregon Law Section 5259, the Compulsory Education Act. The law unofficially became known as the Oregon School Law. The citizens ' initiative was primarily aimed at eliminating parochial schools, including Catholic schools. The law caused outraged Catholics to organize locally and nationally for the right to send their children to Catholic schools. In Pierce v. Society of Sisters (1925), the United States Supreme Court declared the Oregon 's Compulsory Education Act unconstitutional in a ruling that has been called "the Magna Carta of the parochial school system. ''
In 1928, Al Smith became the first Roman Catholic to gain a major party 's nomination for president, and his religion became an issue during the campaign. Many Protestants feared that Smith would take orders from church leaders in Rome in making decisions affecting the country.
A key factor that hurt John F. Kennedy in his 1960 campaign for the presidency of the United States was the widespread prejudice against his Roman Catholic religion; some Protestants, including Norman Vincent Peale, believed that, if he were elected president, Kennedy would have to take orders from the pope in Rome. To address fears that his Roman Catholicism would impact his decision - making, John F. Kennedy famously told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on September 12, 1960, "I am not the Catholic candidate for President. I am the Democratic Party 's candidate for President who also happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters -- and the Church does not speak for me. '' He promised to respect the separation of church and state and not to allow Catholic officials to dictate public policy to him. Kennedy also raised the question of whether one - quarter of Americans were relegated to second - class citizenship just because they were Catholic.
Kennedy went on to win the national popular vote over Richard Nixon by just one tenth of one percentage point (0.1 %) -- the closest popular - vote margin of the 20th century. In the electoral college, Kennedy 's victory was larger, as he took 303 electoral votes to Nixon 's 219 (269 were needed to win). The New York Times, summarizing the discussion late in November, spoke of a "narrow consensus '' among the experts that Kennedy had won more than he lost as a result of his Catholicism, as Catholics flocked to Kennedy to demonstrate their group solidarity in demanding political equality.
In 2011, The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops argued that the Obama Administration put an undue burden upon Catholics and forced them to violate their right to freedom of religion as part of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.
Historically, the Latter Day Saint movement, which is often called Mormonism, has been the victim of religious violence beginning with reports by founder Joseph Smith immediately after his First Vision 1820 and continuing as the movement grew and migrated from its inception in western New York to Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois. The violence culminated when Smith was assassinated by a mob of 200 men in Carthage Jail in 1844. Joseph Smith had surrendered himself previously to the authorities, who failed to protect him. As a result of the violence they were faced with in the East, the Mormon pioneers, led by Brigham Young, migrated westwards and eventually founded Salt Lake City, and many other communities along the Mormon Corridor.
Smith and his followers experienced relatively low levels of persecution in New York and Ohio, although one incident involved church members being tarred and feathered. They would eventually move on to Missouri, where some of the worst atrocities against Mormons would take place. Smith declared the area around Independence, Missouri to be the site of Zion, inspiring a massive influx of Mormon converts. Locals, alarmed by rumors of the strange, new religion (including rumors of polygamy), attempted to drive the Mormons out. This resulted in the 1838 Mormon War, the Haun 's Mill massacre, and the issue of the Missouri Executive Order 44 by Governor Lilburn Boggs, which ordered "... Mormons must be treated as enemies, and must be exterminated or driven from the state... ''. The majority of Mormons would flee to Illinois, where they were received warmly by the village of Commerce, Illinois. The Mormons quickly expanded the town and renamed it Nauvoo, which was one of the largest cities in Illinois at the time. The economic, political, and religious dominance of the Mormons (Smith was mayor of the city and commander of the local militia, the Nauvoo Legion) inspired mobs to attack the city, and Smith was arrested for ordering the destruction of an anti-Mormon newspaper, the Nauvoo Expositor, although he acted with the consent of the city council. He was imprisoned, along with his brother Hyrum Smith, at Carthage Jail, where they were attacked by a mob and murdered.
After a succession crisis, most of the Mormons united under Brigham Young, who organized an evacuation from Nauvoo and from the United States itself after the federal government refused to protect the Mormons. Young and an eventual 50,000 -- 70,000 would cross the Great Plains to settle in the Salt Lake Valley and the surrounding area. After the events of the Mexican -- American War, the area became a United States territory. Young immediately petitioned for the addition of the State of Deseret, but the federal government declined. Instead, Congress carved out the much smaller Utah Territory. Over the next 46 years, several actions of the federal government were directed at Mormons, specifically to curtail the practice of polygamy and to reduce their political and economic power. These included the Utah War, Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, Poland Act, Edmunds Act, and Edmunds -- Tucker Act. In 1890, LDS Church president Wilford Woodruff issued the Manifesto, ending polygamy.
With the concept of plural marriage, from 1830 to 1890 the Mormon faith allowed its members to practice polygamy; after 1843 this was limited to polygyny (one man could have several wives). The notion of polygamy was not only generally disdained by most of Joseph Smith 's contemporaries, it is also contrary to the traditional Christian understanding of marriage. After 1844 the United States government passed legislation aimed specifically at the Mormon practice of polygamy until The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) officially renounced it. In the case of Reynolds v. United States, the U.S. supreme court concluded that "religious duty '' was not a suitable defense to an indictment for polygamy; therefore, a law against polygamy is not legally considered to discriminate against a religion that endorses polygamy. When their appeals to the courts and lawmakers were exhausted and once church leaders were satisfied that God had accepted what they saw as their sacrifice for the principle, the prophet leader of the church announced that he had received inspiration that God had accepted their obedience and rescinded the commandment for plural marriage. In 1890, an official declaration was issued by the church prohibiting further plural marriages. Utah was admitted to the Union on January 4, 1896.
The situation of Native Americans in the United States has been problematic since the initial European colonization of the Americas. Aside from the general issues in the relations between Europeans and Native Americans, there has been a historic suppression of Native American religions as well as some current charges of religious discrimination against Native Americans by the U.S. government, that need to be considered.
With the practice of the Americanization of Native Americans, Native American children were sent to Christian boarding schools where they were forced to worship as Christians and traditional customs were banned. Until the Freedom of Religion Act 1978, "spiritual leaders (of Native Americans) ran the risk of jail sentences of up to 30 years for simply practicing their rituals. '' The traditional indigenous Sun Dance was illegal from the 1880s (Canada) or 1904 (USA) to the 1980s.
Continuing charges of religious discrimination have largely centered on the eagle feather law, the use of ceremonial peyote, and the repatriation of Native American human remains and cultural and religious objects:
A 2006 study at the University of Minnesota showed atheists to be the most distrusted minority among Americans. In the study, sociologists Penny Edgell, Joseph Gerties and Douglas Hartmann conducted a survey of American public opinion on attitudes towards different groups. 40 % of respondents characterized atheists as a group that "does not at all agree with my vision of American society '', putting atheists well ahead of every other group, with the next highest being Muslims (26 %) and homosexuals (23 %). When participants were asked whether they agreed with the statement, "I would disapprove if my child wanted to marry a member of this group, '' atheists again led minorities, with 48 % disapproval, followed by Muslims (34 %) and African - Americans (27 %). Joe Foley, co-chairman for Campus Atheists and Secular Humanists, commented on the results, "I know atheists are n't studied that much as a sociological group, but I guess atheists are one of the last groups remaining that it 's still socially acceptable to hate. '' A University of British Columbia study conducted in the United States found that believers distrust atheists as much as they distrust rapists. The study also showed that atheists have lower employment prospects.
Several private organizations, the most notable being the Boy Scouts of America, do not allow atheist members. However, this policy has come under fire by organizations who assert that the Boy Scouts of America do benefit from taxpayer money and thus can not be called a truly private organization, and thus must admit atheists, and others currently barred from membership. An organization called Scouting for All, founded by Eagle Scout Steven Cozza, is at the forefront of the movement.
In the 1994 case Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet, Supreme Court Justice David Souter wrote in the opinion for the Court that: "government should not prefer one religion to another, or religion to irreligion ''. Everson v. Board of Education established that "neither a state nor the Federal Government can pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions, or prefer one religion over another ''. This applies the Establishment Clause to the states as well as the federal government. However, several state constitutions make the protection of persons from religious discrimination conditional on their acknowledgment of the existence of a deity, making freedom of religion in those states inapplicable to atheists. These state constitutional clauses have not been tested. Civil rights cases are typically brought in federal courts, so such state provisions are mainly of symbolic importance.
In Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, after atheist Michael Newdow challenged the phrase "under God '' in the United States Pledge of Allegiance, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found the phrase unconstitutional. Although the decision was stayed pending the outcome of an appeal, there was the prospect that the pledge would cease to be legally usable without modification in schools in the western United States, over which the Ninth Circuit has jurisdiction. This resulted in political furor, and both houses of Congress passed resolutions condemning the decision, unanimously. On June 26, a Republican - dominated group of 100 -- 150 congressmen stood outside the capital and recited the pledge, showing how much they disagreed with the decision. The Supreme Court subsequently reversed the decision, ruling that Newdow did not have standing to bring his case, thus disposing of the case without ruling on the constitutionality of the pledge.
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who played harmonica on nobody's fault but mine | Nobody 's Fault but Mine - wikipedia
"Nobody 's Fault but Mine '' is a song recorded by English rock band Led Zeppelin, which was included on their 1976 album Presence. Adapted from Blind Willie Johnson 's "It 's Nobody 's Fault but Mine '', it has been described as "a blistering portrayal of a man looking for deliverance from his misdeeds and perceived sins ''.
Although the song 's roots are in the blues, it has been called "one of the most relentless pieces of pure rock this group ever mined '' and was one of only two songs from Presence to be included in the group 's live repertoire. Several other musicians have recorded it as well as an acoustic arrangement by Jimmy Page and Robert Plant for their No Quarter album.
"Nobody 's Fault but Mine '' is a gospel song that has been recorded by many musicians over the years. The first known recording of this song was by American gospel blues musician Blind Willie Johnson in 1927, titled "It 's Nobody 's Fault but Mine ''. In an interview, Jimmy Page explained:
Robert (Plant) came in one day and suggested that we cover it, but the arrangement I came up with was nothing to do with the (Blind Willie Johnson) original. Robert may have wanted to go for the original blues lyrics, but everything else was a totally different kettle of fish.
Led Zeppelin biographer George Case adds "Page was likely more mindful of John Renbourn 's 1966 acoustic take (than Blind Willie) Johnson 's ''. Renbourn 's version is found on his 1967 album Another Monday.
"Nobody 's Fault but Mine '' was developed and recorded by Led Zeppelin during the difficult period they faced after Plant 's 1975 automobile accident in Rhodes. The incident left him with serious injuries to his ankle and leg and there was fear that he might not recover completely. With their misfortunes and the increasing drug use around the band, biographer Stephen Davis wrote:
Robert was definitely spooked... he believed that negativity associated with Led Zeppelin 's music might be harrowing him... from all accounts, (he) was also locked into his own remorse and grieving that his family had become victims of something that he might no longer be able to control.
Lyrically, "Nobody 's Fault but Mine '' has been called "Led Zeppelin 's ' Hell Hound on My Trail ' ''. Robert Johnson 's 1937 Delta blues song tells of a man trying to stay ahead of the evil which is pursuing him, but it does not address the cause or lasting solution for his predicament. In Blind Willie Johnson 's "It 's Nobody 's Fault but Mine '', the problem is clearly stated: he will be doomed, unless he uses his abilities to learn (and presumably live according to) biblical teachings. Led Zeppelin retain Blind Willie 's admission that he ultimately is to blame, but add Robert Johnson 's sense of despair. However, they shift the focus from religion to one "relevant to the Zeppelin lifestyle of the day ''. Their lyrics include "that monkey on my back '', a commonly used reference to addiction, and "the devil he told me to roll, how to roll the line tonight ''; to overcome, Plant concludes "gon na change my ways tonight ''. "For Robert (Plant) and perhaps the others, it was a sort of exorcism ''.
"Nobody 's Fault but Mine '' follows a "call - and - response method of dramatic construction ''. Page 's slide guitar intro has been described as like "a supersonic 1970s interpretation of Johnson 's beautiful slide guitar technique ''. Page triple - tracked his guitar intro; playing one guitar an octave higher than the others and using a phaser. Plant adds a blues - style harmonica solo mid-song. Drummer John Bonham and bassist John Paul Jones maintain the rhythm of the song, adding some syncopated accents during repetitions of the introductory phrase. Record producer Rick Rubin remarked on the song 's structure, "A traditional blues, twisted through a trippy, psychedelic filter. They (Led Zeppelin) played with such precision, doing these odd arrangements that sound like loose jams but are really choreographed. ''
Beginning with the Led Zeppelin North American Tour 1977, "Nobody 's Fault but Mine '' became a regular component of Led Zeppelin concerts, with performances at nearly every show up to the group 's final tour of Europe in 1980. A live version was filmed and recorded at Knebworth in 1979 and is included on the 2003 Led Zeppelin DVD. Biographer Keith Shadwick wrote:
It 's clear from the later film of the Knebworth concert in 1979 that these lines (the song lyrics) cut deep with Plant; at that concert when he sings this song there is a remarkable rush of feeling evident across his face as he spits out the lines, a long way beyond any onstage posing for the crowd. This one was from the heart.
Their performance of the song with Jason Bonham at the Ahmet Ertegun Tribute Concert at the O2 Arena, London on 10 December 2007 was released in 2012 on the concert film Celebration Day. At the 2007 O2 performance, Plant joked that they first heard the song in a Mississippi church in 1932.
In a contemporary review for Presence, Stephen Davis of Rolling Stone described "Nobody 's Fault but Mine '' as a "strong '' song, showcasing an example of "fine rock '' on Presence.
In a retrospective review of Presence (Deluxe Edition), Andrew Doscas of PopMatters gave "Nobody 's Fault but Mine '' a positive review, describing the track as "a behemoth made from bone - crunching basslines, a maniacal harmonica solo, and its memorable "call - and - response '' structure. '' Reviewing the track in detail, Doscas stated "Nobody 's Fault but Mine '' "serves as a paradigm for the state of the band 's reputation, as well as the album Presence. It 's a heavy, blues - rock track that like an avalanche grinds down everything in its path. '' In another retrospective review for the reissue of Presence, Mark Richardson of Pitchfork gave "Nobody 's Fault but Mine '' a positive review, praising John Paul Jones ' bass syncs with John Bonham 's kick drum patterns. Richardson further described the song as a "stop / start masterpiece ''.
In 1994, Jimmy Page and Robert Plant recorded an acoustic arrangement of "Nobody 's Fault but Mine ''. It was included on their No Quarter album, which featured their interpretations of Led Zeppelin songs using different instrumentation and backing musicians; "(some of) the songs are given rather drastic reinterpretations -- "Nobody 's Fault but Mine '' brings the brooding undercurrent of the original to the surface ". Their new arrangement also included the "got a Bible in my home '' line from Blind Willie Johnson 's 1927 original.
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ludacris - what's your fantasy ft. shawnna | What 's Your Fantasy - wikipedia
"What 's Your Fantasy '' is the debut single by American rapper Ludacris. The song is a single from his debut album Back for the First Time (released by Def Jam South on October 17, 1998). It debuted at # 89 on September 30, 1998, entered the Top 100 on November 4, and peaked at # 21 on December 16. The original version features Disturbing tha Peace member Shawnna, who is featured in the tenth. The single was also included on Ludacris 's first independent album Incognegro, and on the soundtrack for the 1998 comedy film How High. "What 's Your Fantasy '', as the name implies, is focused around the narration of explicit sexual fantasies. In addition to discussion of sexual intercourse and fellatio, Ludacris hints at cunnilingus and role - playing in the song. The song was ranked number 58 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop.
The official remix of this song features Trina, Shawnna and Foxy Brown, each of whom has their own verse, in addition a new verse by Ludacris on the single version, which last only 4: 50 (the radio edit clean single version) & 5: 44 (the explicit single version), on the album version, his verse was removed and he only raps the chorus and says "remix '' on the beginning and each girl say the female part of the chorus, which last only 4: 36. In the remix, the three female artists go even further with more explicit references to cunnilingus and analingus.
A track off Chris Brown 's mini mixtape "X Files '' is titled "Fantasy 2 '' which features Ludacris. He raps the famous "lick lick lick you from your head to your toes '' line from "What 's Your Fantasy '' prior to his verse. The mixtape was released on November 19, 2013.
On April 2, 2015, in promotion of his ninth album Ludaversal, Ludacris performed a special acoustic rendition of the song with The Roots on The Tonight Show with Jimmy Fallon
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mamma mia run time here we go again | Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again - Wikipedia
Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again is a 2018 jukebox musical romantic comedy film written and directed by Ol Parker, from a story by Parker, Catherine Johnson, and Richard Curtis. It is a follow - up to the 2008 film Mamma Mia!, which in turn is based on the musical of the same name using the music of ABBA. The film features an ensemble cast, including Lily James, Amanda Seyfried, Christine Baranski, Julie Walters, Pierce Brosnan, Andy García, Dominic Cooper, Colin Firth, Stellan Skarsgård, Jessica Keenan Wynn, Alexa Davies, Jeremy Irvine, Josh Dylan, Hugh Skinner, Cher, and Meryl Streep. Both a prequel and a sequel, the plot is set after the events of the first film, and also features flashbacks to 1979, telling the story of Donna Sheridan 's arrival on the island of Kalokairi and her first meetings with her daughter Sophie 's three possible fathers.
Due to the financial success of the first film, Universal Pictures had long been interested in a sequel. The film was officially announced in May 2017, with Parker hired to write and direct. In June 2017, many of the original cast confirmed their involvement, with James being cast in the role of Young Donna that July. Filming took place from August to December 2017 in Croatia, and at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, England. A British and American joint venture, the film was co-produced by Playtone, Littlestar Productions and Legendary Entertainment.
Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again premiered at the Hammersmith Apollo in London on July 16, 2018 and was released in the United Kingdom and the United States on July 20, 2018, ten years to the week of its predecessor 's release, in both standard and IMAX formats. The film has grossed over $350 million worldwide and received generally positive reviews, with critics praising the performances and musical numbers.
Sophie Sheridan is preparing for the grand reopening of her mother Donna 's hotel, following Donna 's death a year earlier. She is upset because two of her fathers, Harry and Bill, are unable to make it to the reopening and she is having trouble in her relationship with Sky, who is in New York, over her memorializing her mother 's life.
In 1979, a young Donna has just graduated from university with Rosie and Tanya, and is getting ready to travel the world. While in Paris, she meets and parties with Harry. They spend the night together, but Donna leaves soon after. She later misses her boat to Kalokairi but is offered a ride by Bill, and along the way, they are able to help a stranded fisherman, Alexio, make it in time to stop the love of his life from marrying another. Unbeknownst to Donna, Harry has followed her to Greece; but he arrived too late, and sadly watches the boat sailing off in the distance.
In the present, Tanya and Rosie arrive to support Sophie with the reopening and it 's revealed that Rosie and Bill have split up. Sophie then visits Sam, who is still grieving over the death of Donna. Back in the past, Donna arrives on the island and while exploring the farmhouse, a sudden storm causes her to discover a spooked horse in the basement. She goes in search of help only to find a young Sam riding his motorcycle and he helps her to save the horse. Back in the present, a storm has caused serious disruption to Sophie 's plans for the grand reopening and prevented media coverage of the event.
Back in the past, Donna and Sam are enjoying a whirlwind romance, that ends when Donna discovers a picture of Sam 's fiancée in his drawer. A devastated Donna demands that Sam leave the island. In the present, Sam tells Sophie about her value to her mother. Meanwhile, Harry leaves his business deal in Tokyo to support Sophie, and separately Bill gets the same idea. Bill and Harry meet at the docks but are told there are no boats. However, Bill meets the fisherman Alexio and thereby secures boat passage for himself, Harry as well as the newly arrived Sky.
In the past, a depressed Donna is heartbroken over Sam but is able to channel her anger into singing with Tanya and Rosie. She meets Bill again and they go out on his boat; while they are gone, Sam returns, having recently ended his engagement for Donna, but is saddened to hear that she is with another man and leaves the island again. Donna discovers she is pregnant but has no idea which one of her three recent lovers is the father. Sofia, the mother of the owner of the bar where Donna and the Dynamos performed, overhears Donna 's wish to stay on the island and offers to let Donna live at her farmhouse and Donna happily accepts. It is there that she eventually gives birth to Sophie.
Back in the present, the guests have arrived at the party and Sophie is reunited with her other two fathers and Sky. Sophie reveals to Sky she is pregnant and has never felt closer to her mother, having now understood what her mother went through. Bill and Rosie reunite over their grief for Donna. Sophie 's estranged grandmother and Donna 's mother, Ruby, arrives despite Sophie deciding not to invite her. She reveals that Sky tracked her down in New York and she wants to build a real relationship with Sophie. Sophie then performs a song with Tanya and Rosie in honor of her mother, with her grandmother tearfully telling her afterward how proud she is of her. It is then revealed that the manager of the hotel, Fernando, is Ruby 's ex-lover from 1959 in Mexico, and the two are joyously reunited.
Nine months later, Sophie has given birth to a baby boy and everyone has gathered for his christening where Tanya flirts with Fernando 's brother. The ceremony takes place with Donna 's spirit watching over her daughter with pride. At the end, all the characters, including Donna and the younger cast, sing "Super Trouper '' at a huge party at Hotel Bella Donna.
Cameo appearances
A soundtrack album was released on July 13, 2018 by Capitol and Polydor Records in the United States and internationally, respectively. The album was produced by Benny Andersson, who also served as the album 's executive producer alongside Björn Ulvaeus and Judy Craymer. Each song is featured within the film, with the exception of "I Wonder (Departure) '' and "The Day Before You Came ''.
Due to Mamma Mia! 's financial success, Hollywood studio chief David Linde, co-chairman of Universal Pictures, told the Daily Mail that it would take a while, but there could be a sequel. He stated that he would be delighted if Judy Craymer, Catherine Johnson, Phyllida Lloyd, Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus agreed to the project, noting that there are still many ABBA songs to make use of.
Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again was announced on May 19, 2017, with a release date of July 20, 2018. It was written and directed by Ol Parker. On September 27, 2017, Benny Andersson confirmed 3 ABBA songs that would be featured in the film: "When I Kissed the Teacher, '' "I Wonder (Departure), '' and "Angeleyes. '' "I Wonder (Departure) '' was cut from the film, but is included on the soundtrack album.
On June 1, 2017, it was announced that Seyfried would return as Sophie. Later that month, Dominic Cooper confirmed that he would return for the sequel, along with Streep, Firth and Brosnan as Sky, Donna, Harry, and Sam, respectively. In July 2017, Baranski was also confirmed to return as Tanya. On July 12, 2017, Lily James was cast to play the role of young Donna. On August 3, 2017, Jeremy Irvine and Alexa Davies were also cast in the film, with Irvine playing Brosnan 's character Sam in a past era, and Hugh Skinner to play Young Harry, Davies as a young Rosie, played by Julie Walters. On August 16, 2017, it was announced that Jessica Keenan Wynn had been cast as a young Tanya, who is played by Baranski. Julie Walters and Stellan Skarsgård also reprised their roles as Rosie and Bill, respectively. On October 16, 2017, it was announced that singer and actress Cher had joined the cast, in her first on - screen film role since 2010, and her first film with Streep since Silkwood. The part was written specifically for Cher, and she got to choose Andy Garcia as her romantic partner.
Principal photography on the film began on August 12, 2017 in Croatia, including the island of Vis. In October 2017, the cast gathered at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, England, to film song and dance numbers with Cher. Filming wrapped on December 2, 2017.
Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again was released on July 20, 2018 by Universal Pictures, in the UK, US and other selected countries in both standard and IMAX formats. The film premiered on July 16, 2018 at the Hammersmith Apollo in London.
The first trailer for the film was released on December 21, 2017, in front of Pitch Perfect 3, another Universal Pictures film. Cher performed "Fernando '' at the Las Vegas CinemaCon on April 25, 2018, after footage of the film was shown. Universal sponsored YouTube stars the Merrell Twins to perform a cover version of the song "Mamma Mia '' to promote the film.
As of August 28, 2018, Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again has grossed $116 million in the United States and Canada, and $234.6 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $350.6 million, against a production budget of $75 million.
In June 2018, three weeks prior to its release, official industry tracking had the film debuting to $27 -- 33 million, which increased to as much as $36 million by the week of its release. It made $14.3 million on its first day, including $3.4 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $35 million, finishing second, behind fellow newcomer The Equalizer 2 ($36 million), and besting the opening of the first film ($27.8 million) by over 24 %. It fell 57 % to $15.1 million in its second weekend, finishing second behind newcomer Mission: Impossible -- Fallout. In its third weekend the film grossed $9 million, dropping to fourth place, and $5.8 million in its fourth weekend, finishing seventh.
In the United Kingdom, the film grossed $12.7 million in its opening weekend, topping the box office and achieving the fourth biggest opening for a film in 2018. In its second weekend of international release, the film made $26.6 million (for a running total of $98.6 million). Its largest new markets were France ($1.7 million), Poland ($1.3 million), Switzerland ($223,000) and Croatia ($151,000), while its best holdovers were Australia ($9.5 million), the UK ($8.6 million) and Germany ($8.2 million).
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 80 % based on 207 reviews, and a weighted average of 6.3 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again doubles down on just about everything fans loved about the original -- and my my, how can fans resist it? '' On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 60 out of 100 based on 46 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale, the same score as its predecessor, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 83 % overall positive score.
Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian termed the sequel as "weirdly irresistible '' and gave it three out of five stars. He described his reaction to the first film as "a combination of hives and bubonic plague, '' but concedes that this time, the relentlessness and greater self - aware comedy made him smile. He concludes: "More enjoyable than I thought. But please. Enough now. '' Mark Kermode of The Observer gave the film five stars and commented, "This slick sequel delivers sharp one - liners, joyously contrived plot twists and an emotional punch that left our critic reeling. '' Joy Watson from Exclaim! thoroughly enjoyed the movie, saying, "With multitalented writer and director Ol Parker at the helm, and perhaps more importantly, Richard Curtis (king of the British rom - com) behind the scenes to balance out the cheesiness, Here We Go Again builds giddy energy and tension throughout until Cher arrives in a helicopter to blow the whole thing sky high with an ode to "Fernando. '' Pure bliss. ''
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded the film two and a half stars out of five, noting the absence of Streep for the majority of the film hindered his enjoyment, and saying, "her absence is deeply felt since the three - time Oscar winner sang and danced her heart out as Donna Sheridan ''. Lindsay Bahr of Associated Press awarded the film three out of four stars, calling it "wholly ridiculous '', but complimenting its self - awareness. She also praised James ' performance and singing talent. Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the sequel a mixed review, awarding it two stars out of four, criticizing the reprises of "Dancing Queen '' and "Super Trouper '' as uninspired, and feeling that some of the musical numbers dragged the pacing. He considered the younger counterparts to the main characters "energetic '' and "likeable. '' Stephanie Zacharek of Time gave the film a mixed review, writing "Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again is atrocious. And wonderful. It 's all the reasons you should never go to the movies. And all the reasons you should race to get a ticket. ''
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a member of any of a group of south american peoples | List of indigenous peoples - wikipedia
This is a partial list of the world 's indigenous / aboriginal / native people. Indigenous peoples are any ethnic group of peoples who are considered to fall under one of the internationally recognized definitions of Indigenous peoples, such as United Nations, the International Labour Organization and the World Bank, i.e. "those ethnic groups that were indigenous to a territory prior to being incorporated into a national state, and who are politically and culturally separate from the majority ethnic identity of the state that they are a part of ''.
This list is grouped by region, and sub-region. Note that a particular group may warrant listing under more than one region, either because the group is distributed in more than one region (example: Inuit in North America and eastern Russia), or there may be some overlap of the regions themselves (that is, the boundaries of each region are not always clear, and some locations may commonly be associated with more than one region).
Indigenous communities, peoples and nations are those which, having a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing on those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal system.
This historical continuity may consist of the continuation, for an extended period reaching into the present of one or more of the following factors:
Oceania includes most islands of the Pacific Ocean, New Guinea and the continent of Australia.
List of peoples by geographical and ethnolinguistic grouping:
Australia includes the continental landmass, and associated islands.
Indigenous Australians by native cultural regions
Melanesia generally includes New Guinea and other (far -) western Pacific islands from the Arafura Sea out to Fiji. The region is mostly inhabited by the Melanesian peoples.
Micronesia generally includes the various small island chains of the western and central Pacific. The region is mostly inhabited by the Micronesian peoples.
Polynesia includes New Zealand and the islands of the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The region is mostly inhabited by the Polynesian peoples.
Polynesian outliers
The Americas is the supercontinent comprising North and South America, and associated islands.
List of peoples by geographical and ethnolinguistic grouping:
North America includes all of the continent and islands east of the Bering Strait and north of the Isthmus of Panama; it includes Greenland, Canada, United States, Mexico, Central American and Caribbean countries. However a distinction can be made between a broader North America and a narrower Northern America and Middle America due to ethnic and cultural characteristics.
The Caribbean, or West Indies, generally includes the island chains of the Caribbean.
South America generally includes all of the continent and islands south of the Isthmus of Panama.
Circumpolar peoples is an umbrella term for the various indigenous peoples of the Arctic. List of peoples by ethnolinguistic grouping:
Africa
Antarctica
Asia
Australia
Europe
North America
South America
Afro - Eurasia
America
Eurasia
Oceania
Africa
Asia
Europe
North America
Oceania
South America
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xbox hard drive to play original xbox games | List of Xbox games compatible with Xbox 360 - wikipedia
The Xbox 360 gaming console has received updates from Microsoft since its launch in 2005 that enable it to play select games from its predecessor, Xbox. The Xbox 360 launched with backward compatibility with the number of supported Xbox games varying depending on region. Microsoft continued to updated the list of Xbox games that were compatible with Xbox 360 until November 2007 when the list was finalized. Microsoft later launched the Xbox Originals program on December 7, 2007 where select backward compatible Xbox games could be purchased digitally on Xbox 360 consoles with the program ending less than two years later in June 2009. The following is a list of all backward compatible games on Xbox 360 available on physical and digital media.
At its launch in November 2005, the Xbox 360 did not have hardware - based backward compatibility with Xbox games due to the different types of hardware and architecture used in the Xbox and Xbox 360. Instead backward compatibility was achieved using software emulation. When the Xbox 360 launched in North America 212 Xbox games were supported while in Europe 156 games were supported. The Japanese market had the least amount of titles supported at launch with only 12 games. Microsoft 's final update to the list of backward compatible titles was in November 2007 bringing the final total to 461 Xbox games.
In order to use the backwards compatibility feature on Xbox 360 a hard drive is required. Updates to the list were provided from Microsoft as part of regular software updates via the Internet, ordering a disc by mail from the official website or downloading the update from the official website then burning it to a CD or DVD. Subscribers to Official Xbox Magazine would also have updates to the backwards compatibility list on the demo discs included with the magazine.
Supported original Xbox games will run each with an emulation profile that has been recompiled for each game with the emulation profiles stored on the console 's hard drive. Original Xbox games must use the original game disc and ca n't be installed to the hard drive unlike Xbox 360 games. Game saves and downloadable content ca n't be transferred from an original Xbox to an Xbox 360. Xbox Live functionality for original Xbox games were available until April 15, 2010 until support for original Xbox games were discontinued. System link functionality between original Xbox and Xbox 360 remains available.
The following titles listed below are only playable on an Xbox 360 console to owners that have the original Xbox game disc.
There are currently 406 on this list out of 1047 released for the Xbox.
The following titles listed below are available to play on Xbox 360 to owners who have the original Xbox game disc or who purchased the title digitally from the Xbox Live Marketplace. From 2007 - 2009 these titles were branded as Xbox Originals and had their own dedicated section inside the store. Beginning in June 2009 the branding was phased out and the games were moved to the "Games on Demand '' section of the store while Microsoft stating that they have "finished it 's portfolio '' of Xbox Originals.
During Microsoft 's E3 2017 press conference on June 11, 2017, backward compatibility for original Xbox games on Xbox One family of consoles was announced. Part of the backward compatibility program for Xbox One will see original Xbox games be made available digitally in addition to owners of the original Xbox game disc. Prior to the first batch of original Xbox backward compatible titles for Xbox One were revealed six titles that were never released digitally as part of Xbox Originals program for Xbox 360 appeared in its "Games on Demand '' store. Microsoft also confirmed that digital licenses would also carry over to Xbox One.
Game saves for original Xbox games that are backward compatible on both Xbox 360 and Xbox One ca n't be transferred between the three generations. While Xbox Live functionality wo n't be available Albert Penello, head of marketing for Xbox, explained users could "system link an original Xbox, an Xbox 360, an Xbox One and an Xbox One X for a four - player system - link LAN play with all original disks across three generations of consoles. ''
There are currently 54 on this list out of 1047 released for the Xbox.
The following Xbox titles listed below were initially announced as being backwards compatible with Xbox 360 that were later removed from the official list from Microsoft.
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who was the head of the unified kingdom of israel about three thousand years ago | Timeline of Jerusalem - wikipedia
This is a timeline of major events in the History of Jerusalem; a city that had been fought over sixteen times in its history. During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times.
The Crusader defeat at the Battle of Hattin leads to the end of the First Crusader Kingdom (1099 -- 1187). During the Second Crusader Kingdom (1192 -- 1291), the Crusaders can only gain a foothold in Jerusalem on a limited scale, twice through treaties (access rights in 1192 after the Treaty of Jaffa; partial control 1229 -- 39 after the Treaty of Jaffa and Tell Ajul), and again for a last time between 1241 -- 44.
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how many times has michael jordan scored 60 points | List of National Basketball Association single - game scoring leaders - wikipedia
This is a complete listing of National Basketball Association players who have scored 60 or more points in a game.
This feat has been accomplished 68 times in NBA history. Twenty - five different players have scored 60 or more points in a game. Only four players have scored 60 or more points on more than one occasion: Wilt Chamberlain (32 times), Kobe Bryant (6 times), Michael Jordan (5 times), and Elgin Baylor (4 times). Chamberlain holds the single - game scoring record, having scored 100 points in a game in 1962.
Jordan (63) and Baylor (61) are the only players to score at least 60 points in a game during the playoffs, each accomplishing this once.
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what leader led a revolution in iran in 1979 to overthrow the existing regime | Iranian revolution - wikipedia
Imperial State of Iran
Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
Ruhollah Khomeini
The Iranian Revolution (Persian: انقلاب ایران , translit. Enqelāb - e Iran; also known as the Islamic Revolution or the 1979 Revolution) was a series of events involving the overthrow of the 2,500 years of continuous Persian monarchy under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, who was supported by the United States, and eventual replacement with an Islamic republic under the Grand Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution, supported by various leftist and Islamist organizations and student movements.
Demonstrations against the Shah commenced in October 1977, developing into a campaign of civil resistance that included both secular and religious elements and which intensified in January 1978. Between August and December 1978, strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country. The Shah left Iran for exile on 16 January 1979, as the last Persian monarch, leaving his duties to a regency council and Shapour Bakhtiar who was an opposition - based prime minister. Ayatollah Khomeini was invited back to Iran by the government, and returned to Tehran to a greeting by several million Iranians. The royal reign collapsed shortly after on 11 February when guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting, bringing Khomeini to official power. Iran voted by national referendum to become an Islamic republic on 1 April 1979 and to formulate and approve a new theocratic - republican constitution whereby Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country in December 1979.
The revolution was unusual for the surprise it created throughout the world: it lacked many of the customary causes of revolution (defeat at war, a financial crisis, peasant rebellion, or disgruntled military), occurred in a nation that was experiencing relative prosperity, produced profound change at great speed, was massively popular, resulted in the exile of many Iranians, and replaced a pro-Western authoritarian monarchy with an anti-Western authoritarian theocracy based on the concept of Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists (or velayat - e faqih). It was a relatively non-violent revolution, and it helped to redefine the meaning and practice of modern revolutions (although there was violence in its aftermath).
Reasons advanced for the occurrence of the revolution and its populist, nationalist and, later, Shi'a Islamic character include a conservative backlash against the Westernizing and secularizing efforts of the Western - backed Shah, a rise in expectations created by the 1973 oil revenue windfall and an overly ambitious economic program, anger over a short, sharp economic contraction in 1977 -- 78, and other shortcomings of the previous regime.
The Shah 's regime became increasingly oppressive, brutal, corrupt, and extravagant. It also suffered from basic functional failures that brought economic bottlenecks, shortages, and inflation. The Shah was perceived by many as beholden to -- if not a puppet of -- a non-Muslim Western power (the United States) whose culture was affecting that of Iran. At the same time, support for the Shah may have waned among Western politicians and media -- especially under the administration of U.S. President Jimmy Carter -- as a result of the Shah 's support for OPEC petroleum price increases earlier in the decade. When President Carter enacted a human - rights policy which said countries guilty of human - rights violations would be deprived of American arms or aid, this helped give some Iranians the courage to post open letters and petitions in the hope that the repression by the government might subside.
The revolution that replaced the monarchy of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi with Islamism and Khomeini rather than with another leader and ideology, is credited in part to the spread of the Shia version of the Islamic revival that opposed Westernization and saw Ayatollah Khomeini as following in the footsteps of the Shi'a Imam Husayn ibn Ali and the Shah in the role of Husayn 's foe, the hated tyrant Yazid I. Other factors include the underestimation of Khomeini 's Islamist movement by both the Shah 's reign -- who considered them a minor threat compared to the Marxists and Islamic socialists -- and by the secularist, opponents of the government -- who thought the Khomeinists could be sidelined.
The Shi'a clergy (Ulema) had a significant influence on Iranian society. The clergy first showed itself to be a powerful political force in opposition to the monarchy with the 1891 Tobacco protest. On 20 March 1890, Nasir al - Din Shah granted a concession to Major G.F. Talbot for a full monopoly over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for fifty years. At the time the Persian tobacco industry employed over 200,000 people and therefore the concession represented a major blow to Persian farmers and bazaaris whose livelihoods were largely dependent on the lucrative tobacco business. The boycotts and protests against it were widespread and extensive because of Mirza Hasan Shirazi 's fatwa (judicial decree). Finally Nasir al - Din Shah found himself powerless to stop the popular movement and cancelled the concession. The Tobacco Protest was the first significant Iranian resistance against the Shah and foreign interests, and revealed the power of the people and the Ulema influence among them.
The growing discontent continued until the Constitutional Revolution (1905 -- 1911). The revolution led to the establishment of a Parliament and approval of the first constitution. Although the constitutional revolution was successful in weakening the autocracy of the Qajar regime, it failed to provide a powerful alternative government. Consequently, within the decades following the establishment of the new parliament, a number of critical events took place. Many of these events can be viewed as a continuation of the struggle between the constitutionalists and the Shahs of Persia, many of whom were backed by foreign powers against the parliament.
Insecurity and chaos created after the Constitutional Revolution led to the rise of General Reza Khan, the commander of the elite Persian Cossack Brigade who seized power in a coup d'état in February 1921. He established a constitutional monarchy, deposing the last of the Qajar shah in 1925 and introduced many social, economic, and political reforms during his reign. A number of these reforms led to public discontent which provides circumstances for an Iranian revolution. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi 's father, Reza Shah, replaced Islamic laws with Western ones, which forbade traditional Islamic clothing, separation of the sexes and veiling of women 's faces with the niqab. Police forcibly removed and tore chadors off women who resisted his ban on the public hijab. In 1935, dozens were killed and hundreds injured in the Goharshad Mosque rebellion. On the other hand, in the early rise of Reza Shah, Abdul - Karim Ha'eri Yazdi founded the Qom Seminary and created important changes in seminaries. However, he would avoid entering into political issues, as did other religious leaders who followed him. Hence, no widespread anti-government attempts were organized by clergy during the Reza Shah Rule. However, the future Ayatollah Khomeini was a student of Sheikh Abdul Karim Ha'eri.
From 1901 on, the Anglo - Persian Oil Company (renamed the Anglo - Iranian oil company in 1931) - a British oil company -- enjoyed the monopoly on sale and production of Iranian oil. It was the most profitable British business in the world. Most Iranians lived in poverty while the wealth generated from Iranian oil played a decisive role in maintaining Britain at the top of the world. In 1951 Iranian Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh pledged to throw the company out of Iran, reclaim the petroleum reserves and free Iran from foreign powers.
Mosaddegh nationalized the Anglo - Iranian oil company and became a national hero. The British, however, were outraged and accused him of stealing. The British demanded punishment by the World Court and the United Nations, sent warships to the Persian Gulf and finally imposed a crushing embargo.
Mosaddegh was unmoved by Britain 's campaign against him. One European newspaper, the Frankfurter Neue Presse, reported that Mosaddegh "would rather be fried in Persian oil than make the slightest concession for the British ''. The British considered an armed invasion, but U.S. President Harry S. Truman refused his support. U.K. Prime Minister Winston Churchill decided for a coup. Mosaddegh, however, learned of their plans and ordered the British embassy shuttered in October 1952. All British diplomats and agents had to leave the country.
The British asked Truman for help; Truman, however, sympathized with nationalist movements like Mosaddegh 's and had nothing but contempt for old - style imperialists like those who ran Anglo - Iranian. However, Dwight D. Eisenhower 's election as U.S. President in November 1952 changed the U.S. 's stance toward the conflict. On 20 January 1953, U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and his brother, director of the C.I.A. Allen Dulles, told their British counterparts that they were ready to move against Mosaddegh. In their eyes, any country not decisively allied with the United States was a potential enemy. Iran had immense oil wealth, a long border with the Soviet Union and a nationalist Prime Minister. A fall into communism and a "second China '' terrified the Dulles brothers. Operation Ajax was born, deposing the only democratic government Iran ever had.
In 1941 Reza Shah was deposed and his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, was installed by an invasion of allied British and Soviet troops. In 1953, foreign powers (American and British) again came to the Shah 's aid -- after the young Shah fled the country to Italy, the British MI6 aided an American CIA operative in organizing a military coup d'état to oust the nationalist and democratically elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh.
Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, who was the son of Reza Shah, maintained a close relationship with the U.S. government, both regimes sharing an opposition to the expansion of the Soviet Union, Iran 's powerful northern neighbor. Like his father 's government, the Shah 's was known for its autocracy, its focus on modernization and Westernization and for its disregard for religious and democratic measures in Iran 's constitution. Leftist and Islamist groups attacked his government (often from outside Iran as they were suppressed within) for violating the Iranian constitution, political corruption, and the political oppression by the SAVAK secret police.
The White Revolution was a far - reaching series of reforms in Iran launched in 1963 by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and lasted until 1978. Mohammad Reza Shah 's reform programme was built especially to weaken those classes that supported the traditional system. It consisted of several elements including: the land reform; sales of some state - owned factories to finance the land reform; the enfranchisement of women; nationalization of forests and pastures; formation of a literacy corps; and institution of profit sharing schemes for workers in industry.
The Shah advertised the White Revolution as a step towards westernization and was a way for him to legitimize the Pahlavi dynasty. Part of the reason for launching the White Revolution was that the Shah hoped to get rid of the landlords ' influence and create a new base of support among the peasants and working class.
Thus the White Revolution in Iran represented a new attempt to introduce reform from above and preserve traditional power patterns. Through land reform, the essence of the White Revolution, the Shah hoped to ally himself with the peasantry in the countryside, and hoped to sever their ties with the aristocracy in the city. What the Shah did not expect was that the White Revolution led to new social tensions that helped create many of the problems the Shah had been trying to avoid. The Shah 's reforms more than quadrupled the combined size of the two classes that had posed the most challenges to his monarchy in the past -- the intelligentsia and the urban working class. Their resentment towards the Shah also grew since they were now stripped of organizations that had represented them in the past, such as political parties, professional associations, trade unions, and independent newspapers. The land reform, instead of allying the peasants with the government, produced large numbers of independent farmers and landless laborers who became loose political cannons, with no feeling of loyalty to the Shah. Many of the masses felt resentment towards the increasingly corrupt government; their loyalty to the clergy, who were seen as more concerned with the fate of the populace, remained consistent or increased. As Ervand Abrahamian pointed out, The White Revolution had been designed to preempt a Red Revolution. Instead, it paved the way for an Islamic Revolution. The White Revolution 's economic "trickle - down '' strategy also did not work as intended. In theory, oil money funneled to the elite was supposed to be used to create jobs and factories, eventually distributing the money, but instead the wealth tended to get stuck at the top and concentrated in the hands of the very few.
The post-revolutionary leader -- Shia cleric Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini -- first came to political prominence in 1963 when he led opposition to the Shah and his White Revolution. Khomeini was arrested in 1963 after declaring the Shah a "wretched miserable man '' who had "embarked on the (path toward) destruction of Islam in Iran. '' Three days of major riots throughout Iran followed, with 15,000 dead from police fire as reported by opposition sources. However, anti-revolutionary sources conjectured that just 32 were killed. Khomeini was released after eight months of house arrest and continued his agitation, condemning Iran 's close cooperation with Israel and its capitulations, or extension of diplomatic immunity to American government personnel in Iran. In November 1964 Khomeini was re-arrested and sent into exile where he remained for 15 years, until the revolution.
In this interim period of "disaffected calm '' the budding Iranian revival began to undermine the idea of Westernization as progress that was the basis of the Shah 's secular reign, and to form the ideology of the 1979 revolution. Jalal Al - e-Ahmad 's idea of Gharbzadegi -- that Western culture was a plague or an intoxication to be eliminated; Ali Shariati 's vision of Islam as the one true liberator of the Third World from oppressive colonialism, neo-colonialism, and capitalism; and Morteza Motahhari 's popularized retellings of the Shia faith, all spread and gained listeners, readers and supporters.
Most importantly, Khomeini preached that revolt, and especially martyrdom, against injustice and tyranny was part of Shia Islam, and that Muslims should reject the influence of both liberal capitalism and communism, ideas that inspired the revolutionary slogan "Neither East, nor West -- Islamic Republic! ''
Away from public view, Khomeini developed the ideology of velayat - e faqih (guardianship of the jurist) as government, that Muslims -- in fact everyone -- required "guardianship, '' in the form of rule or supervision by the leading Islamic jurist or jurists. Such rule was ultimately "more necessary even than prayer and fasting '' in Islam, as it would protect Islam from deviation from traditional sharia law and in so doing eliminate poverty, injustice, and the "plundering '' of Muslim land by foreign non-believers.
This idea of rule by Islamic jurists was spread through his book Islamic Government, mosque sermons, smuggled cassette speeches by Khomeini, among Khomeini 's opposition network of students (talabeh), ex-students (able clerics such as Morteza Motahhari, Mohammad Beheshti, Mohammad - Javad Bahonar, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and Mohammad Mofatteh), and traditional businessmen (bazaari) inside Iran.
Other opposition groups included constitutionalist liberals -- the democratic, reformist Islamic Freedom Movement of Iran, headed by Mehdi Bazargan, and the more secular National Front. They were based in the urban middle class, and wanted the Shah to adhere to the Iranian Constitution of 1906 rather than to replace him with a theocracy, but lacked the cohesion and organization of Khomeini 's forces.
Marxist groups -- primarily the communist Tudeh Party of Iran and the Fedaian guerrillas -- had been weakened considerably by government repression. Despite this the guerrillas did help play an important part in the final February 1979 overthrow delivering "the regime its coup de grace. '' The most powerful guerrilla group -- the People 's Mujahedin -- was leftist Islamist and opposed the influence of the clergy as reactionary.
Some important clergy did not follow Khomeini 's lead. Popular ayatollah Mahmoud Taleghani supported the left, while perhaps the most senior and influential ayatollah in Iran -- Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari -- first remained aloof from politics and then came out in support of a democratic revolution.
Khomeini worked to unite this opposition behind him (except for the unwanted ` atheistic Marxists `), focusing on the socio - economic problems of the Shah 's government (corruption and unequal income and development), while avoiding specifics among the public that might divide the factions, -- particularly his plan for clerical rule which he believed most Iranians had become prejudiced against as a result of propaganda campaign by Western imperialists.
In the post-Shah era, some revolutionaries who clashed with his theocracy and were suppressed by his movement complained of deception, but in the meantime anti-Shah unity was maintained.
Several events in the 1970s set the stage for the 1979 revolution.
The 1971 2,500 th anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire at Persepolis, organized by the government, was attacked for its extravagance. "As the foreigners reveled on drink forbidden by Islam, Iranians were not only excluded from the festivities, some were starving. '' Five years later the Shah angered pious Iranian Muslims by changing the first year of the Iranian solar calendar from the Islamic hijri to the ascension to the throne by Cyrus the Great. "Iran jumped overnight from the Muslim year 1355 to the royalist year 2535. ''
The oil boom of the 1970s produced "alarming '' increase in inflation, waste and an "accelerating gap '' between the rich and poor, the city and the country, along with the presence of tens of thousands of unpopular skilled foreign workers. Many Iranians were also angered by the fact that the shah 's family was the foremost beneficiary of the income generated by oil, and the line between state earnings and family earnings blurred. By 1976, the shah had accumulated upward of $1 billion from oil revenue; his family -- including 63 princes and princesses had accumulated between $5 and $20 billion; and the family foundation controlled approximately $3 billion By mid-1977 economic austerity measures to fight inflation disproportionately affected the thousands of poor and unskilled male migrants to the cities working construction. Culturally and religiously conservative, many went on to form the core of the revolution 's demonstrators and "martyrs ''.
All Iranians were required to join and pay dues to a new political party, the Ḥezb - e Rastakhiz party -- all other parties being banned. That party 's attempt to fight inflation with populist "anti-profiteering '' campaigns -- fining and jailing merchants for high prices -- angered and politicized merchants while fueling black markets.
In 1977 the Shah responded to the "polite reminder '' of the importance of political rights by the new American president, Jimmy Carter, by granting amnesty to some prisoners and allowing the Red Cross to visit prisons. Through 1977 liberal opposition formed organizations and issued open letters denouncing the government. Against this background a first crucial manifestation of public expression of social discontent and political protest against the regime took place in October 1977 when the German - Iranian Cultural Association in Teheran hosted a series of literature reading sessions, organized by the newly revived Iranian Writers Association and the German Goethe - Institut. In these '' Ten Nights '' (Dah Shab) 57 of Iran 's most prominent poets and writers read their works to thousands of listeners. They demanded the end of censorship and claimed the freedom of expression.
That year also saw the death of the popular and influential modernist Islamist theorist Ali Shariati. This both angered his followers, who considered him a martyr at the hands of SAVAK, and removed a potential revolutionary rival to Khomeini. Finally, in October Khomeini 's son Mostafa died of an alleged heart attack, his death also blamed on SAVAK. A subsequent memorial service for Mostafa in Tehran put Khomeini back in the spotlight.
By 1977, the Shah 's policy of political liberalization was underway. Secular opponents of the Shah began to meet in secret to denounce the government.
Led by the leftist intellectual Saeed Soltanpour, the Iranian Writers Association met at the Goethe Institute in Tehran to read anti-government poetry. Ali Shariati 's death in the United Kingdom shortly after led to another public demonstration, with the opposition accusing the Shah of murdering him (although it was later ruled he died naturally of a heart attack).
The chain of events began with the death of Mostafa Khomeini, chief aide and eldest son of Ruhollah Khomeini. He mysteriously died at midnight of 23 October 1977. SAVAK and Iraqi government declared heart attack as the cause of demise, though many believed his death was attributed to SAVAK. Khomeini remained silent after the incident, but in Iran with the spread of the news there was a wave of protest in several cities and mourning ceremonies in major cities were held. The mourning of Mostafa was given a political cast by Khomeini 's political credentials, their enduring opposition to the monarchy and their exile. Thus dimension of the ceremonies went beyond the religious credentials of the family.
On 7 January 1978, an article ("Iran and Red and Black Colonization '') appeared in the national daily Ettela'at newspaper. Written under a pseudonym by a government agent, it denounced Khomeini as a "British agent '' and a "mad Indian poet '' conspiring to sell out Iran to neo-colonialists and communists.
Upon the publishing of the article, religious seminary students in the city of Qom, angered over the insult to Khomeini, clashed with police. According to the government, two were killed in the clash; according to the opposition, seventy were killed and over five hundred were injured. However, the casualty figures are different in different sources.
According to the Shi'ite customs, memorial services (referred to as chehelom) are held forty days after a person 's death. Encouraged by Khomeini (who declared that the blood of martyrs must water the "tree of Islam ''), radicals pressured the mosques and moderate clergy to commemorate the deaths of the students, and used the occasion to generate protests. The informal network of mosques and bazaars, which for years had been used to carry out religious events, increasingly became consolidated as a coordinated protest organization.
On 18 February, forty days after Qom clashes, demonstrations broke out in various different cities. The largest was in Tabriz, which descended into a full - scale riot. "Western '' and government symbols such as cinemas, bars, state - owned banks, and police stations were set ablaze. Units of Imperial Iranian Army were deployed to the city to restore order, and the death toll, according to government was 6, while Khomeini claimed hundreds were "martyred ''.
Forty days later (29 March), demonstrations were organized in at least 55 cities, including Tehran. In an increasingly predictable pattern, deadly riots broke out in major cities, and again forty days later on 10 May. It led to an incident in which army commandos opened fire on Ayatollah Shariatmadari 's house, killing one of his students. Shariatmadari immediately made a public announcement declaring his support for a "constitutional government '', and a return to the policies of the 1906 Constitution.
The Shah was taken completely by surprise by the protests; to make matters worse he often became indecisive during times of crisis. Virtually every major decision he would make backfired on his government, and inflamed the revolutionaries.
The Shah decided to continue on his plan of liberalization, and decided to negotiate rather than to use force against the still nascent protest movement. He promised that fully democratic elections for the Majlis would be held in 1979. Censorship was relaxed, and a resolution was drafted to help reduce corruption within the royal family and the government. Protesters were tried in civilian courts rather than by military court - martials, and were quickly released.
Iran 's security forces had not received any riot control training nor equipment since 1963. Police forces were unable to control demonstrations and the army frequently was deployed in that role. Soldiers were instructed not to use deadly force, yet there were instances of inexperienced soldiers reacting excessively, inflaming the violence without cowing the opposition, and receiving official condemnation from the Shah. (The Carter Administration also refused to sell non-lethal tear gas and rubber bullets to Iran).
As early as the Tabriz riots in February, the Shah fired all the SAVAK officials in the city in a concession to the opposition, and soon began to dismiss civil servants and government officials whom he felt the public blamed. In the first national concession, he replaced the hardline SAVAK chief General Nematollah Nassiri with the more moderate General Nasser Moghaddam. The government also negotiated to moderate religious leaders such as Shariatmadari (apologizing to the latter for the raid on his house).
By summer, the protests had stagnated. They remained at a steady state for four months -- about ten thousand participants in each major city (with the exception of Isfahan where protests were larger and Tehran where they were smaller), protesting every 40 days. This amounted to a small minority of the more than 15 million adults in Iran.
Against the wishes of Khomeini, Shariatmadari called for 17 June mourning protests to be carried out as a one - day stay. Although tensions remained in the air, the Shah 's policy appeared to have worked, leading Amuzegar to declare that "the crisis is over. '' A CIA analysis concluded that Iran "is not in a revolutionary or even a pre-revolutionary situation. '' Indeed, these and later events in Iran are frequently cited as one of the most consequential strategic surprises that the United States has experienced since the CIA was established in 1947.
As a sign of easing of government restrictions, three prominent opposition leaders from the secular National Front: Karim Sanjabi, Shahpour Bakhtiar, and Dariush Forouhar were allowed to write an open letter to the Shah demanding that he reign according to the constitution of Iran.
On 19 August, in the southwestern city of Abadan, four arsonists barred the door of the Cinema Rex movie theatre and set it on fire. In what was the largest terrorist attack in history prior to the 11 September 2001 attacks, 422 people inside the theatre were burned to death. Khomeini immediately blamed the Shah and SAVAK for setting the fire. Due to the pervasive revolutionary atmosphere, the public also blamed the Shah for starting the fire, despite the government 's insistence that they were uninvolved. Tens of thousands of people took to the streets shouting "Burn the Shah! '' and "The Shah is the guilty one! ''.
After the revolution, many claimed that it was Islamist militants who had started the fire. After the Islamic Republic government executed a police officer for the act, a man claiming to be the lone surviving arsonist, claimed he was responsible to starting the fire. After forcing the resignation of the presiding judges in an attempt to hamper the investigation, the new government finally executed Hossein Talakhzadeh for "setting the fire on the Shah 's orders '' (despite his insistence he did it on his own accord as an ultimate sacrifice for the revolutionary cause).
By August, the protests had "kick (ed)... into high gear, '' and the number of demonstrators mushroomed to hundreds of thousands. In an attempt to dampen inflation the Amuzegar administration cut spending and reduced business, but the cutbacks led to a sharp rise in layoffs -- particularly among young, unskilled, male workers living in the working class districts. By summer 1978, the working class joined the street protests in massive numbers. In addition, it was the Islamic holy month of Ramadan, bringing a sense of increased religiosity among many people.
A series of escalating protests broke out in major cities, and deadly riots broke out in Isfahan where protesters fought for the release of Ayatollah Jalaluddin Taheri. Martial law was declared in the city on 11 August as symbols of Western culture and government buildings were burned, and a bus full of American workers was bombed. Due to his failure to stop the protests, Prime Minister Amuzegar offered his resignation.
The Shah increasingly felt that he was losing control of the situation and hoped to regain it through complete appeasement. He decided to appoint Jafar Sharif - Emami to the post of prime minister, himself a veteran prime minister. Emami was chosen due to his family ties to the clergy, but had a reputation of corruption during his previous premiership.
Under the Shah 's guidance, Sharif - Emami effectively began a policy of "appeasing the opposition 's demands before they even made them ''. The government abolished the Rastakhiz Party, legalized all political parties and released political prisoners, increased freedom of expression, curtailed SAVAK 's authority and dismissed 34 of its commanders, closed down casinos and nightclubs, and abolished the imperial calendar. The government also began to prosecute corrupt government and royal family members. Sharif - Emami entered into negotiations with Ayatollah Shariatmadari and National Front leader Karim Sanjabi in order to help organize future elections. Censorship was effectively terminated, and the newspapers began reporting heavily on demonstrations, often highly critically and negatively of the Shah. The Majlis (Parliament) also began issuing resolutions against the government.
4 September was Eid - e-Fitr, the holiday celebrating the end of the month of Ramadan. A permit for an open air prayer was granted, in which 200,000 -- 500,000 people attended. Instead, the clergy directed the crowd on a large march through the center of Tehran (the Shah reportedly watched the march from his helicopter, unnerved and confused). A few days later even larger protests took place, and for the first time protesters called for Khomeini 's return and the establishment of an Islamic republic.
At midnight on 8 September, the Shah declared martial law in Tehran and 11 other major cities throughout the country. All street demonstrations were banned, and a night - time curfew was established. Tehran 's martial law commander was General Gholam - Ali Oveissi, who was known for his severity against opponents. However, the Shah made clear that once martial law was lifted he intended to continue with the liberalization, he retained Sharif - Emami 's civilian government, hoping that protesters would avoid taking the streets.
However, 5,000 protesters took to the streets, either in defiance or because they had missed hearing the declaration, and faced off with soldiers at Jaleh Square. After the firing warning shots failed to disperse the crowd, troops fired directly into the mob, killing 64, while General Oveissi claimed that 30 soldiers were killed by armed snipers in surrounding buildings. Additional clashes throughout the day (which would be called Black Friday by the opposition) brought the opposition death toll to 89.
The deaths shocked the country, and damaged any attempt at reconciliation between the Shah and the opposition. Khomeini immediately declared that "4,000 innocent protesters were massacred by Zionists '', and gave him a pretext to reject any further compromise with the government.
The Shah himself was horrified by the events of Black Friday, and harshly criticized the events, though this did little to sway public perception of him as being responsible for the shooting. While martial law officially remained in effect, the government decided not to break up any more demonstrations or strikes (in effect "martial law without there exactly being martial law '', according to Sharif - Emami), instead continuing to negotiate with protest leaders. Consequently, protest gatherings often took place without any serious intervention by soldiers.
On 9 September 700 workers at Tehran 's main oil refinery went on strike, and on 11 September the same occurred at refineries in 5 other cities. On 13 September, central government workers in Tehran simultaneously went on strike.
By late October, a nationwide general strike was declared, with workers in virtually all major industries walking off their jobs, most damagingly in the oil industry and the print media. Special "strike committees '' were set up throughout major industries to organize and coordinate the activities.
The Shah did not attempt to crack down on strikers, but instead gave them generous wage increases, and allowed strikers who lived in government housing to remain in their homes. By the beginning of November, many important officials in the Shah 's government were demanding from the Shah forceful measures to bring the strikers back to work.
Hoping to break Khomeini 's contacts with the opposition, the Shah pressured the Iraqi government to expel him from Najaf. Khomeini left Iraq, instead moving to a house bought by Iranian exiles in Neauphle - le - Château, a village near Paris, France. The Shah hoped that Khomeini would be cut off from the mosques of Najaf and be cut off from the protest movement. Instead, the plan backfired badly. With superior French telephone and postal connections (compared to Iraqi ones), his supporters flooded Iran with tapes and recordings of his sermons.
Worse for the Shah, the Western media, especially the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), immediately put Khomeini into the spotlight. Khomeini rapidly became a household name in the west, portraying himself as an "Eastern mystic '' who did not seek power, but instead sought to "free '' his people from "oppression ''. The normally critical western media rapidly became a docile tool in Khomeini 's hands.
In addition, the media coverage eroded the influence of other, more moderate clergy such as Ayatollah Shariatmadari and Ayatollah Taleghani. The BBC itself later issued a statement admitting to having a "critical '' disposition to the Shah, saying that its broadcasts helped to "change the collective perception of the population. ''
In November, secular National Front leader Karim Sanjabi flew to Paris to meet Khomeini. There the two signed an agreement for a draft constitution that would be "Islamic and democratic ''. It signaled the now official alliance between the clergy and the secular opposition. In order to help create a democratic facade, Khomeini placed Westernized figures (such as Sadegh Qotbzadeh and Ebrahim Yazdi) as the public spokesmen of the opposition, and never spoke to the media of his intentions to create a theocracy.
Street demonstrations continued at full force with little response from the military; by late October, government officials effectively even ceded the University of Tehran to student protesters. Worse, the opposition was increasingly becoming armed with weapons, firing at soldiers and attacking banks and government buildings in an attempt to destabilize the country.
On 5 November, demonstrations at University of Tehran became deadly after a fight broke out with armed soldiers. Within hours, Tehran broke out into a full - scale riot. Block after block of Western symbols such as movie theaters and department stores, as well as government and police buildings, were seized, looted, and burned. The British embassy in Tehran was partially burned and vandalized as well, and the American embassy nearly suffered the same fate (the event became known to foreign observers as "The Day Tehran Burned '').
Many of the rioters were young teenage boys, often organized by the mosques in southern Tehran, and encouraged by their mullahs to attack and destroy western and secular symbols. The army and police, confused about their orders and under pressure from the Shah not to risk initiating violence, effectively gave up and did not intervene.
As the situation on the streets spiraled out of control, many well known and reputable figures within the country began to approach the Shah, begging him to stop the chaos.
On 6 November, the Shah dismissed Sharif - Emami from the post of prime minister, and chose to appoint a military government in its place. General Gholam - Reza Azhari was chosen to be prime minister. Azhari was chosen by the Shah because of his mild - mannered approach to the situation. The cabinet he would choose was a military cabinet in name only, and consisted primarily of civilian leaders.
The same day, the Shah made a speech on Iranian television. He referred to himself as Padeshah (king), instead of the more grandiose Shahanshah (king of kings), which he insisted on being called previously. In his speech he stated "I have heard the voice of your revolution ''... "this revolution can not but be supported by me, the king of Iran ''. He apologized for mistakes that were committed during his reign, and promised to ensure that corruption would no longer exist. He stated he would begin to work with the opposition to bring democracy, and would form a coalition government. In effect, the Shah intended to restrain the military government (which he described as a temporary caretaker government) from carrying out a full crackdown.
The speech backfired when the revolutionaries sensed weakness from the Shah and "smelled blood ''. Khomeini announced that there would be no reconciliation with the Shah and called on all Iranians to overthrow him.
Military authorities declared martial law in Khuzestan province (Iran 's main oil producing province), and deployed troops to its oil facilities. Navy personnel were also used as strikebreakers in the oil industry. Street marches declined and oil production began increasing once again, nearly reaching pre-revolutionary levels. In a symbolic blow to the opposition, Karim Sanjabi, who had visited Khomeini in Paris, was arrested upon his return to Iran.
However, the government still continued the policy of appeasement and negotiation. The Shah ordered the arrest of 100 officials from his own government for charges of corruption, including former prime minister Amir Abbas - Hoveyda and former SAVAK head Nematollah Nassiri.
Khomeini condemned the military government and called for continued protests. He and the protest organizers planned a series of escalating protests during the holy Islamic month of Muharram, to culminate with massive protests on the days of Tasu'a and Ashura (commemorating the martyrdom of Imam Hussein ibn Ali, the third Shia Muslim imam).
While the military authorities banned street demonstrations and extended the curfew, the Shah faced deep misgivings about the potential violence.
On the second of December 1978, the Muharram protests began. Named for the Islamic month they began in, the Muharram protests were impressively huge and pivotal. Over two million protesters (many of whom were teenagers organized by the mullahs from the mosques of southern Tehran) took to the streets, crowding Shahyad Square. Protesters frequently went out at night, defying the set curfew (often taking to rooftops and shouting "Allahu - Akbar '' (God is Great)). According to one witness, many of the clashes on the street had an air of playfulness rather than seriousness, with security forces using "kid gloves '' against the opposition (nevertheless, the government reported at least 12 opposition deaths).
The protesters demanded that Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi step down from power, and that Grand Ayatullah Ruhollah Khomeini be returned from exile. The protests grew incredibly fast, reaching between six million and nine million in strength in the first week. About 10 % of the entire population had taken to the streets in the Muharram protests. Both beginning and ending in the month of Muharram, the protests succeeded and Shah stepped down from power later in the month.
After the success of what would become known as a revolution, Grand Ayatullah Ruhollah Khomeini returned to Iran as its religious and political leader for life. Khomeini had been an opposition leader to Shah for many years, rising to prominence after the death of his mentor, renowned scholar Yazdi Ha'iri, in the 1930s. Even in his years in exile, Khomeini remained relevant in Iran. Supporting the protests from beyond Iran 's borders, he proclaimed that "freedom and liberation from the bonds of imperialism '' was imminent.
As the days of Tasu'a and Ashura (10 and 11 December) approached, in order to prevent a deadly showdown the Shah began to draw back. In negotiations with Ayatollah Shariatmadari, the Shah ordered the release of 120 political prisoners and Karim Sanjabi, and on 8 December revoked the ban on street demonstrations. Permits were issued for the marchers, and troops were removed from the procession 's path. In turn, Shariatmadari pledged that to make sure that there would be no violence during the demonstrations.
On 10 and 11 December, the days of Tasu'a and Ashura, between six and nine million anti-shah demonstrators marched throughout Iran. According to one historian, "even discounting for exaggeration, these figures may represent the largest protest event in history. '' The marches were led by Ayatollah Taleghani and National Front leader Karim Sanjabi, thus symbolizing the "unity '' of the secular and religious opposition. The mullahs and bazaar merchants effectively policed the gathering, and protesters who attempted to initiate violence were restrained.
More than 10 % of the country marched in anti-shah demonstrations on December 10 and 11, 1978, possibly a higher percentage than any previous revolution. It is rare for a revolution to involve as much as 1 percent of a country 's population; the French, Russian, and Romanian revolutions may have passed the 1 percent mark.
Much of Iranian society was in euphoria about the coming revolution. Secular and leftist politicians piled onto the movement hoping to gain power in the aftermath, ignoring the fact that Khomeini was the very antithesis to all of the positions they supported. While it was increasingly clear to more secular Iranians that Khomeini was not a liberal, he was widely perceived as a figurehead, and that power would eventually be handed to the secular groups.
The military leadership was increasingly paralyzed by indecision, and rank - and - file soldiers were demoralized, having been forced to confront demonstrators while prohibited from using their own weapons (and being condemned by the Shah if they did). Increasingly, Khomeini called on the soldiers of the armed forces to defect to the opposition. Revolutionaries gave flowers and civilian clothes to deserters, while threatening retribution to those who stayed. On 11 December, a dozen officers were shot dead by their own troops at Tehran 's Lavizan barracks. Fearing further mutinies, many soldiers were returned to their barracks. Mashhad (the second largest city in Iran) was abandoned to the protesters, and in many provincial towns demonstrators were effectively in control.
The Carter Administration increasingly became locked in a debate about continued support for the monarchy. As early as November, ambassador William Sullivan sent a telegram to Carter (the "Thinking the Unthinkable '' telegram). The telegram effectively declared his belief that the Shah would not survive the protests, and that the US should consider withdrawing its support for his government and persuading the monarch to abdicate. The United States would then help assemble a coalition of pro-Western military officers, middle class professionals, and moderate clergy, with Khomeini installed as a Gandhi - like spiritual leader.
The telegram touched off a vigorous debate in the American cabinet, with some (such as National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski) rejecting it outright. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance rejected a military crackdown; he and his supporters believed in the "moderate and progressive '' intentions of Khomeini and his circle.
Increasing contact was established with the pro-Khomeini camp. Based on the revolutionaries responses, some American officials (especially Ambassador Sullivan) felt that Khomeini was genuinely intent on creating a democracy. According to historian Abbas Milani, this resulted in the United States effectively helping to facilitate Khomeini 's rise to power.
The Shah began to search for a new prime minister, one who was a civilian and a member of the opposition. On 28 December, he secured an agreement with another major National Front figure, Shahpour Bakhtiar. Bakhtiar would be appointed prime minister (a return to civilian rule), while the Shah and his family would leave the country for a "vacation ''. His royal duties would be carried out by a Regency Council, and three months after his departure a referendum would be submitted to the people deciding on whether Iran would remain a monarchy or become a republic. A former opponent of the Shah, Bakhtiar became motivated to join the government because he was increasingly aware of Khomeini 's intentions to implement hard - line religious rule rather than a democracy. Karim Sanjabi immediately expelled Bakhtiar from the National Front, and Bakhtiar was denounced by Khomeini (who declared that acceptance of his government was the equivalent of "obedience to false gods '').
The Shah, hoping to see Bakhtiar established, kept delaying his departure. Consequently, to the Iranian public, Bakhtiar was seen as the Shah 's last prime minister, undermining his support.
American General Robert Huyser, the Deputy Commander of NATO, entered Iran. While the option of a pro-Shah military coup still was a possibility, Huyser met with military leaders (but not the Shah), and established meetings between them and Khomeini allies, for the purpose of agreeing on Bakhtiar 's transitional government. Ambassador Sullivan disagreed, and attempted to pressure Huyser to ignore the military and work directly with Khomeini 's opposition. Nevertheless, Huyser won out and continued to work with both the military and opposition. He left Iran on 3 February. The Shah was privately embittered by Huyser 's mission, and felt that the United States no longer wanted him in power.
On the morning of 16 January 1979, Bakhtiar was officially appointed prime minister. The same day, a tearful Shah and his family left Iran for exile in Egypt, never to return.
When news of the Shah 's departure was announced, there were spontaneous scenes of joy throughout the country. Millions poured onto the streets, virtually every remaining sign of the monarchy was torn down by the crowds.
Bakhtiar dissolved SAVAK and freed all remaining political prisoners. He ordered the army to allow mass demonstrations, promised free elections and invited the revolutionaries into a government of "national unity ''. Bakhtiar invited Khomeini back to Iran, with the intention of creating a Vatican - like state in the holy city of Qom, declaring that "We will soon have the honor of welcoming home the Ayatollah Khomeini ''. On 1 February 1979 Khomeini returned to Tehran in a chartered Air France Boeing 747. The welcoming crowd of several million Iranians was so large he was forced to take a helicopter after the car he was being transported in from the airport was overwhelmed by an enthusiastic welcoming crowd. Khomeini was now not only the undisputed leader of the revolution, he had become what some called a "semi-divine '' figure, greeted as he descended from his airplane with cries of ' Khomeini, O Imam, we salute you, peace be upon you. ' Crowds were now known to chant "Islam, Islam, Khomeini, We Will Follow You, '' and even "Khomeini for King. '' When asked by a reporter how he felt returning to his home country after a long exile, Khomeini replied "Nothing ''.
On the day of his arrival Khomeini made clear his rejection of Bakhtiar 's government in a speech promising, "I shall kick their teeth in. I appoint the government, I appoint the government in support of this nation ''. On 5 February at his headquarters in the Refah School in southern Tehran, he declared a provisional revolutionary government, and appointed opposition leader Mehdi Bazargan (from the religious - nationalist Freedom Movement, affiliated with the National Front), as his own prime minister, and commanded Iranians to obey Bazargan as a religious duty.
(T) hrough the guardianship (Velayat) that I have from the holy lawgiver (the Prophet), I hereby pronounce Bazargan as the Ruler, and since I have appointed him, he must be obeyed. The nation must obey him. This is not an ordinary government. It is a government based on the sharia. Opposing this government means opposing the sharia of Islam... Revolt against God 's government is a revolt against God. Revolt against God is blasphemy.
Angered, Bakhtiar made a speech of his own. Reaffirming himself as the legitimate leader, he declared that:
Iran has one government. More than this is intolerable, either for me or for you or for any other Iranian. As a Muslim, I had not heard that jihad refers to one Muslim against other Muslims... I will not give permission to Ayatollah Khomeini to form an interim government. In life there comes a time when one must stand firm and say no... I have never seen a book about an Islamic republic; neither has anyone else for that matter... Some of the people surrounding the Ayatollah are like violent vultures... The clergy should go to Qom and build a wall around themselves and create their own Vatican.
Tensions between the two rival governments increased rapidly. To demonstrate his support, Khomeini called for demonstrators to occupy the streets throughout the country. He also sent a letter to American officials warning them to withdraw support for Bakhtiar. Bakhtiar became increasingly isolated, with members of the government (including the entire Regency Council) defecting to Khomeini. The military was crumbling, with its leadership completely paralyzed, unsure of whether to support Bakhtiar or act on their own, and rank - and - file soldiers either demoralized or deserting.
On 9 February, a rebellion of pro-Khomeini air force technicians broke out at the Doshan Tappeh Air Base. A unit of the pro-Shah Immortal Guards attempted to apprehend the rebels, and an armed battle broke out. Soon large crowds took to the streets, building barricades and supporting the rebels, while Islamic - Marxist guerillas with their weapons joined in support.
The armed rebels attacked a weapons factory, capturing nearly 50,000 machine guns and distributing them to civilians who joined in the fighting. The rebels began storming police stations and military bases throughout Tehran. The city 's martial law commander General Mehdi Rahimi decided not to use his 30,000 loyal Immortal Guards to crush the rebellion for fear of producing civilian casualties.
The final collapse of the provisional non-Islamist government came at 2 pm 11 February when the Supreme Military Council declared itself "neutral in the current political disputes... in order to prevent further disorder and bloodshed. '' All military personnel were ordered back to their bases, effectively yielding control of the entire country to Khomeini. Revolutionaries took over government buildings, TV and radio stations, and palaces of the Pahlavi dynasty, marking the end of the monarchy in Iran. Bakhtiar escaped the palace under a hail of bullets, fleeing Iran in disguise. He was later assassinated by an agent of the Islamic Republic in 1991 in Paris.
This period, from 1 to 11 February, is celebrated every year in Iran as the "Decade of Fajr. '' 11 February is "Islamic Revolution 's Victory Day '', a national holiday with state sponsored demonstrations in every city.
The Iranian Revolution was a gendered revolution; much of the new regime 's rhetoric was centered on the position of women in Iranian society. Beyond rhetoric, thousands of women were also heavily mobilized in the revolution itself, and different groups of women actively participated alongside their male counterparts. Not only participating through voting, women contributed to the revolution through marches, demonstrations and chanting slogans. The revolution was non-violent in nature which facilitated women 's involvement within it. For example, women were involved in caring for the wounded, female doctors responding to calls for help and opening their homes for those who needed assistance. While women themselves were often killed, tortured, arrested or injured and some were involved in guerilla activities, most contributed in non-violent ways. Many women were instrumental not only in being involved in the revolution themselves but in mobilizing men and other non-political women. Many women protested while carrying children and their presence was one of the main reasons for disarming soldiers (who were there on behalf of the regime) who were ordered to shoot if necessary.
Ayatollah Khomeini asserted that "You ladies here have proved that you are at the forefront of this movement. You have a great share in our Islamic movement. The future of our country depends on your support. '' He invoked the image of the hejab as a symbol of the revolution, saying that, "a nation whose respected women demonstrate in modest garb (hejab) to express their disgust with the shah 's regime - such a nation will be victorious. '' He also said that, "women from all levels of society took part in the recent demonstrations, which we are calling the "referendum of the streets ''... women fought side by side with men in the struggle for their independence and their liberty. '' Khomeini pleaded women to participate in anti-Shah demonstrations in various cities. Furthermore, women later responded to Khomeini 's urge to vote in favor of the Islamic Republic and new constitution cities. Women were so pivotal to the revolution that in response to a suggestion from a top aid to ban women from coming to group audience, Khomeini said "I threw the shah out with these women, there 's no problem in their coming. ''
After the revolution, Khomeini credited the much of the success of the movement to women, even commending the women for mobilizing men, "you ladies have proved that you are in the vanguard of the movement, you have proved that you lead the men, men get their inspiration from you, the men of Iran have learnt lessons from the honourable ladies of Iran... You are in the vanguard of the movement. ''
It has been argued that Khomeini and his fellow leaders danced around the issue of women 's rights and rather focused their rhetoric on mobilizing women through encouraging them to participate in protests and fueling their anti-shah sentiments.
The contributions of women to the revolutions and the intentions behind these contributions are complex and layered. The motivations of women for being part of the revolutions were complex and varied among a plethora of religious, political and economic reasons and women participating were from various classes and backgrounds. Many Western educated upper - middle class women from secular, urban and professional families were involved as well as many women from working - class and rural backgrounds. There were groups as varied as the Fida'iyan - i Khalq and the Mujahedin were functioning as guerrilla units during the revolutions in opposition to the Shah 's regime. There were also other groups of women with various agendas that sometimes converged and sometimes diverged from the Islamic Republic 's political positions. For example, organized feminism which was around since the Pahlavi dynasty, joined the revolutionary movement after the Shah dropped the cabinet position on Women 's Affairs to appease the Islamists. Members of the Women 's Organization of Iran marched in support for the revolution and it was important that women very much linked to the government also turned against the Shah 's regime. Yet, there were later some tension between feminists ' dress and the revolution 's stance on women 's clothing and they began to feel uncomfortable at opposition events.
Some argue that this politicization and mobilization of women made it difficult for the new regime to push them out of the public and political spheres. The revolution resulted in an unprecedented opening for Iranian women into politics (mostly through demonstrations and voting), and some authors argue that this had a lasting impact on Iranian women 's political participation and role in the public sphere. Some women were also part of the inner circle of the leaders of the new regime such as Marzieh Hadidchi. Other than the politicization of women, there were particular circumstances during the revolution which pushed women into being involved with politics. For example, "the combination of martial law with its curfew hours and the closing down of shops and workplaces, together with the cold of the fall and winter months resulted in the centers of political discussion often being within the home. '' Women engaged with news and media as well as political discussions alongside their male counterparts as "the revolution was the only topic of interest to anyone, regardless of age or sex. '' During 1978 and 1979 there many gatherings in women 's homes where they exchanged interpersonal news and anecdotes. These personal accounts were valuable in a time where the official coverage of news was not trusted by many people.
Women who were activists, religious women and women dissatisfied with the regime were able to unite under the anti-Shah umbrella. However it 's important to note that "women were not united in their opinions of the revolution and its outcome as much as they were not united in their reasons for joining the revolution ''. Despite this mobilization and high rate participation of women, they were still kept out of leadership positions which were exclusive to men; women are thought to be part of the rank and file rather than the elite strata of the revolution.
While there has been some academic literature exploring individual narratives of women on the revolution, most of the academic work produced focuses on the effect of the revolution on women rather than the role of Iranian women during the revolution. Scholar Guity Nashat highlights this neglected aspect of the revolution, "Although women 's participation in the events leading to the February 11 revolution was instrumental in its success, most studies have not addressed the reasons for their involvement or their contribution. '' Janet Baur argues the necessity of examine the daily lives of women, their living conditions and their relationship to other groups in order to understand their participation in the socio - political events of the revolution. She further explains that the cultural, ideological, social and material factors shaping the social life and class differences in the period just prior to the revolution need to be studied in order to understand how the Iranian women 's social consciousness developed and how it led them to take part in public protests. Caroline M. Brooks argues that women were left to express their concerns through the protest rather than in the Majlis. Thus, this created a "dangerous bargaining position for activist women '' since rather than arguing and their position through intellect they were only able to "argue by numbers in the streets and be repelled by force ''.
There are some contesting understandings in academic literature regarding the reasons behind the mobilization of women. While some argue that the micro level actions of women can be understood through religious and political ideologies, others argue that it is in fact the effect of manipulations of information, symbols and context which should be studied.
Some sources (such as Emadeddin Baghi, a researcher at the Martyrs Foundation) claim 2,781 protesters and revolutionaries were killed in 1978 -- 79 during the Revolution. Khomeini reported of a much larger number; he said that "60,000 men, women and children were martyred by the Shah 's regime. '' According to at least one western source (historian Ervand Abrahamian), the number executed by revolutionary courts as the revolution was consolidated (8000 opponents between June 1981 and June 1985) exceeded those killed by the royalist government trying to stop the revolution. While Iranians believed the opposition 's casualty figures, post-revolution western and thus anti-revolution estimates mostly supported the defeated government 's casualty figures.
Iranian revolutionary songs are ballads epic that composed during the Islamic Revolution in Iran in support of the revolution and opposition the Pahlavi dynasty. Before the victory of revolution, these chants were made by various political supporters and many of them recorded on cassette tapes in underground and home studios. Many of the songs on the anniversary of the revolution were broadcast by Iranian state television. In schools, these songs were sung as part of the celebrations Fajr decades by students. "Iran Iran '' or "Allah Allah '' chants are famous revolutionary songs.
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From early 1979 to either 1982 or 1983 Iran was in a "revolutionary crisis mode ''. After the system of despotic monarchy had been overthrown, the economy and the apparatus of government had collapsed, military and security forces were in disarray. Yet, by 1982 Khomeini and his supporters had crushed the rival factions, defeated local rebellions and consolidated power. Events that made up both the crisis and its resolution were the Iran hostage crisis, the invasion of Iran by Saddam Hussein 's Iraq, and the presidency of Abolhassan Banisadr.
Some observers believe "what began as an authentic and anti-dictatorial popular revolution based on a broad coalition of all anti-Shah forces was soon transformed into an Islamic fundamentalist power - grab, '' that except for his core supporters, the members of the coalition thought Khomeini intended to be more a spiritual guide than a ruler -- Khomeini being in his mid-70s, having never held public office, having been out of Iran for more than a decade, and having told questioners "the religious dignitaries do not want to rule. '' However, nobody could deny the unanimous central role of the Imam, and the other factions were too small to have any real impact.
Another view is Khomeini had "overwhelming ideological, political and organizational hegemony, '' and non-theocratic groups never seriously challenged Khomeini 's movement in popular support. Supporters of the new rule themselves have claimed that Iranians who opposed Khomeini were "fifth columnists '' led by foreign countries attempting to overthrow the Iranian government.
Khomeini and his loyalists in the revolutionary organizations implemented Khomeini 's velayat - e faqih design for an Islamic republic led by himself as Supreme Leader by exploiting temporary allies such as Mehdi Bazargan 's Provisional Government of Iran, whom they later eliminated from Iran 's political stage one by one.
The most important bodies of the revolution were the Revolutionary Council, the Revolutionary Guards, Revolutionary Tribunals, Islamic Republican Party, and Revolutionary Committees (komitehs).
While the moderate Bazargan and his government (temporarily) reassured the middle class, it became apparent they did not have power over the "Khomeinist '' revolutionary bodies, particularly the Revolutionary Council (the "real power '' in the revolutionary state), and later the Islamic Republican Party. Inevitably, the overlapping authority of the Revolutionary Council (which had the power to pass laws) and Bazargan 's government was a source of conflict, despite the fact that both had been approved by and / or put in place by Khomeini.
This conflict lasted only a few months however. The provisional government fell shortly after American Embassy officials were taken hostage on 4 November 1979. Bazargan 's resignation was received by Khomeini without complaint, saying "Mr. Bazargan... was a little tired and preferred to stay on the sidelines for a while. '' Khomeini later described his appointment of Bazargan as a "mistake. ''
The Revolutionary Guard, or Pasdaran - e Enqelab, was established by Khomeini on 5 May 1979, as a counterweight both to the armed groups of the left, and to the Shah 's military. The guard eventually grew into "a full - scale '' military force, becoming "the strongest institution of the revolution. ''
Serving under the Pasdaran were / are the Baseej - e Mostaz'afin, ("Oppressed Mobilization '') volunteers in everything from earthquake emergency management to attacking opposition demonstrators and newspaper offices. The Islamic Republican Party then fought to establish a theocratic government by velayat - e faqih.
Thousands of komiteh or Revolutionary Committees served as "the eyes and ears '' of the new rule and are credited by critics with "many arbitrary arrests, executions and confiscations of property ''.
Also enforcing the will of the government were the Hezbollahi (the Party of God), "strong - arm thugs '' who attacked demonstrators and offices of newspapers critical of Khomeini.
Two major political groups that formed after the fall of the shah that clashed with and were eventually suppressed by pro-Khomeini groups, were the moderate religious Muslim People 's Republican Party (MPRP) which was associated with Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari, and the secular leftist National Democratic Front (NDF).
Following the events of the revolution, Marxist guerrillas and federalist parties revolted in some regions comprising Khuzistan, Kurdistan and Gonbad - e Qabus, which resulted in fighting between them and revolutionary forces. These revolts began in April 1979 and lasted between several months to over a year, depending on the region.
On 30 and 31 March (Farvardin 10, 11) a referendum was held over whether to replace the monarchy with an "Islamic republic ''. Khomeini called for a massive turnout and only the National Democratic Front, Fadayan, and several Kurdish parties opposed the vote. The results show that 98.2 % had voted in favor of the Islamic Republic.
In June 1979 the Freedom Movement released its draft constitution for the Islamic Republic that it had been working on since Khomeini was in exile. It included a Guardian Council to veto un-Islamic legislation, but had no guardian jurist ruler. Leftists found the draft too conservative and in need of major changes but Khomeini declared it ` correct `. To approve the new constitution and prevent leftist alterations, a relatively small seventy - three - member Assembly of Experts for Constitution was elected that summer. Critics complained that "vote - rigging, violence against undesirable candidates and the dissemination of false information '' was used to "produce an assembly overwhelmingly dominated by clergy, all took active roles during the revolution and loyal to Khomeini. ''
Khomeini (and the assembly) now rejected the constitution -- its correctness notwithstanding -- and Khomeini declared that the new government should be based "100 % on Islam. ''
In addition to the president, the new constitution included a more powerful post of guardian jurist ruler intended for Khomeini, with control of the military and security services, and power to appoint several top government and judicial officials. It increased the power and number of clerics on the Council of Guardians and gave it control over elections as well as laws passed by the legislature.
The new constitution was also approved overwhelmingly by referendum, but with more opposition and smaller turnout.
Holding 52 American diplomats hostage for 444 days played a role in helping to pass the constitution, suppressing moderates, and otherwise radicalising the revolution. In late October 1979, the exiled and dying Shah was admitted into the United States for cancer treatment. In Iran there was an immediate outcry and both Khomeini and leftist groups demanding the Shah 's return to Iran for trial and execution. On 4 November 1979 youthful Islamists, calling themselves Muslim Student Followers of the Imam 's Line, invaded the embassy compound and seized its staff. Revolutionaries were angry because of how the Shah had fled abroad while the Embassy - based American CIA and British intelligence organized a coup d'état to overthrow his nationalist opponent who was a legitimately elected official.
The holding of hostages was very popular and continued for months even after the death of the Shah. As Khomeini explained to his future President Banisadr,
This action has many benefits... This has united our people. Our opponents do not dare act against us. We can put the constitution to the people 's vote without difficulty...
With great publicity the students released documents from the American embassy or "nest of spies, '' showing moderate Iranian leaders had met with U.S. officials (similar evidence of high - ranking Islamists having done so did not see the light of day). Among the casualties of the hostage crisis was Prime Minister Bazargan and his government who resigned in November unable to enforce the government 's order to release the hostages.
The prestige of Khomeini and the hostage taking was further enhanced with the failure of a hostage rescue attempt, widely credited to divine intervention.
It ended with the signing of the Algiers Accords in Algeria on 19 January 1981. The hostages were formally released into United States custody the following day, just minutes after the new American president Ronald Reagan was sworn in. The hostages had been held at the U.S. embassy in Tehran for 444 days.
In early March Khomeini announced, "do not use this term, ' democratic. ' That is the Western style, '' giving pro-democracy liberals (and later leftists) a taste of disappointments to come.
In succession the National Democratic Front was banned in August 1979, the provisional government was disempowered in November, the Muslim People 's Republican Party banned in January 1980, the People 's Mujahedin of Iran guerrillas came under attack in February 1980, a purge of universities was begun in March 1980, and leftist Islamist Abolhassan Banisadr was impeached in June 1981.
After the revolution, human rights groups estimated the number of casualties suffered by protesters and prisoners of the new system to be several thousand. The first to be executed were members of the old system -- senior generals, followed by over 200 senior civilian officials, as punishment and to eliminate the danger of a coup d'État. Brief trials lacking defense attorneys, juries, transparency or opportunity for the accused to defend themselves, were held by revolutionary judges such as Sadegh Khalkhali, the Sharia judge. By January 1980 "at least 582 persons had been executed. '' Among those executed was Amir Abbas Hoveida, former Prime Minister of Iran.
Between January 1980 and June 1981, when Bani - Sadr was impeached, at least 900 executions took place, for everything from drug and sexual offenses to "corruption on earth '', from plotting counter-revolution and spying for Israel to membership in opposition groups. In the 12 months following that Amnesty International documented 2,946 executions, with several thousand more killed in the next two years according to the anti-government guerillas People 's Mujahedin of Iran.
In mid August, shortly after the election of the constitution - writing assembly, several dozen newspapers and magazines opposing Khomeini 's idea of theocratic rule by jurists were shut down. When protests were organized by the National Democratic Front (NDF), Khomeini angrily denounced them saying, "we thought we were dealing with human beings. It is evident we are not. ''
... After each revolution several thousand of these corrupt elements are executed in public and burnt and the story is over. They are not allowed to publish newspapers.
Hundreds were injured by "rocks, clubs, chains and iron bars '' when Hezbollahi attacked the protesters, and shortly after, a warrant was issued for the arrest of the NDF 's leader.
In December the moderate Islamic party Muslim People 's Republican Party (MPRP), and its spiritual leader Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari had become a rallying point for Iranians who wanted democracy not theocracy. Riots broke out in Shariatmadari 's Azeri home region with members of the MPRP and Shariatmadari 's followers seizing the Tabriz television station, and using it to "broadcast demands and grievances. '' The regime reacted quickly, sending Revolutionary Guards to retake the TV station, mediators to defuse complaints and activists to stage a massive pro-Khomeini counter-demonstration. The party was suppressed and in 1982 Shariatmadari was "demoted '' from the rank of Grand Ayatollah and many of his clerical followers purged.
In January 1980 Abolhassan Banisadr was elected president of Iran. Though an adviser to Khomeini, he was a leftist who clashed with another ally of Khomeini, the theocratic Islamic Republic Party (IRP) -- the controlling power in the new parliament.
At the same time, erstwhile revolutionary allies of Khomeini -- the Islamist modernist guerrilla group People 's Mujahedin of Iran (or MEK) -- were being suppressed by Khomeini 's revolutionary organizations. Khomeini attacked the MEK as monafeqin (hypocrites) and kafer (unbelievers). Hezbollahi people attacked meeting places, bookstores, newsstands of Mujahideen and other leftists driving them underground. Universities were closed to purge them of opponents of theocratic rule as a part of the "Cultural Revolution '', and 20,000 teachers and nearly 8,000 military officers deemed too westernized were dismissed.
By mid-1981 matters came to a head. An attempt by Khomeini to forge a reconciliation between Banisadr and IRP leaders had failed and now it was Banisadr who was the rallying point "for all doubters and dissidents '' of the theocracy, including the MEK.
When leaders of the National Front called for a demonstration in June 1981 in favor of Banisadr, Khomeini threatened its leaders with the death penalty for apostasy "if they did not repent. '' Leaders of the Freedom Movement of Iran were compelled to make and publicly broadcast apologies for supporting the Front 's appeal. Those attending the rally were menaced by Hezbollahi and Revolutionary Guards and intimidated into silence.
The MEK retaliated with a campaign of terror against the IRP. On 28 June 1981, a bombing of the office of the IRP killed around 70 high - ranking officials, cabinet members and members of parliament, including Mohammad Beheshti, the secretary - general of the party and head of the Islamic Republic 's judicial system. The government responded with thousands of arrests and hundreds of executions. Despite these and other assassinations the hoped - for mass uprising and armed struggle against the Khomeiniists was crushed.
The MEK bombings were not the only violent opposition to the Khomeinist rule. In May 1979, the Furqan Group (Guruh - i Furqan) assassinated an important lieutenant of Khomeini, Morteza Motahhari.
Views differ on the impact of the revolution. For some it was "the most significant, hopeful and profound event in the entirety of contemporary Islamic history, '' while other Iranians believe that the revolution was a time when "for a few years we all lost our minds '', and which "promised us heaven, but... created a hell on earth. ''
Internationally, the initial impact of the revolution was immense. In the non-Muslim world it changed the image of Islam, generating much interest in Islam -- both sympathetic and hostile -- and even speculation that the revolution might change "the world balance of power more than any political event since Hitler 's conquest of Europe. ''
The Islamic Republic positioned itself as a revolutionary beacon under the slogan "neither East nor West, only Islamic Republic ('' Na Sharq, Na Gharb, Faqat Jumhuri - e Islami, ") (i.e. neither Soviet nor American / West European models), and called for the overthrow of capitalism, American influence, and social injustice in the Middle East and the rest of the world. Revolutionary leaders in Iran gave and sought support from non-Muslim causes -- e.g. the Sandinistas in Nicaragua, IRA in Ireland and anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa -- even to the point of favoring leftist revolutionaries over Islamist, but ideologically different and strategically harmful causes, such as the neighboring Afghan Mujahideen.
In its region, Iranian Islamic revolutionaries called specifically for the overthrow of monarchies and their replacement with Islamic republics, much to the alarm of its smaller Sunni - run Arab neighbors Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the other Persian Gulf States -- most of whom were monarchies and all of whom had sizable Shi'a populations. It was with one of these countries that the Iran -- Iraq War, which killed hundreds of thousands and dominated life in the Islamic Republic for the next eight years, was fought. In September 1980 the Arab Nationalist and Sunni Muslim - dominated regime of Saddam Hussein of neighboring Iraq invaded Iran in an attempt to take advantage of revolutionary chaos and destroy the revolution in its infancy. Iran was "galvanized '' and Iranians rallied behind their new government helping to stop and then reversing the Iraqi advance. Although Iraq invaded Iran, most of the war was fought after Iran had regained most of its land back and after the Iraqi government had offered a truce. Khomeini rejected it, announcing the only condition for peace was that "the regime in Baghdad must fall and must be replaced by an Islamic republic, '' but ultimately the war ended with no Islamic revolution in Iraq.
Like the hostage crisis, the war served in part as an opportunity for the government to strengthen revolutionary ardour and revolutionary groups; the Revolutionary Guard and committees at the expense of its remaining allies - turned - opponents, such as the MEK. While enormously costly and destructive, the war "rejuvenate (d) the drive for national unity and Islamic revolution '' and "inhibited fractious debate and dispute '' in Iran.
Iran experienced difficult relations with some Western countries, especially the United States. Iran was under constant US unilateral sanctions, which were tightened under the presidency of Bill Clinton.
Once having political relations with Iran dating back to the late Ilkhanate period (13th century), Britain suspended all diplomatic relations with Iran. Britain did not have an embassy until it was reopened in 1988.
In the Mideast and Muslim world, particularly in its early years, it triggered enormous enthusiasm and redoubled opposition to western intervention and influence. Islamist insurgents rose in Saudi Arabia (1979), Egypt (1981), Syria (1982), and Lebanon (1983).
Although ultimately only the Lebanese Islamists succeeded, other activities have had more long - term impact. The Ayatollah Khomeini 's 1989 fatwa calling for the killing of Indian - born British citizen Salman Rushdie had international impact. The Islamic revolutionary government itself is credited with helping establish Hezbollah in Lebanon and the Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq.
On the other side of the ledger, at least one observer argues that despite great effort and expense the only countries outside Iran the revolution had a "measure of lasting influence '' on are Lebanon and Iraq. Others claim the devastating Iran -- Iraq War "mortally wounded... the ideal of spreading the Islamic revolution, '' or that the Islamic Republic 's pursuit of an ideological rather than a "nationalist, pragmatic '' foreign policy has weakened Iran 's "place as a great regional power ''.
Internally, Iran has had some success in recent years in the broadening of education and health care for the poor, and particularly governmental promotion of Islam, and the elimination of secularism and American influence in government. Criticisms have been raised with regards to political freedom, governmental honesty and efficiency, economic equality and self - sufficiency, or even popular religious devotion. Opinion polls and observers report widespread dissatisfaction, including a "rift '' between the revolutionary generation and younger Iranians who find it "impossible to understand what their parents were so passionate about. ''
Literacy has continued to increase under the Islamic Republic which uses Islamic principles. By 2002, illiteracy rates dropped by more than half. Maternal and infant mortality rates have also been cut significantly. Population growth was first encouraged, but discouraged after 1988. Overall, Iran 's Human development Index rating has climbed significantly from 0.569 in 1980 to 0.732 in 2002, on par with neighbour Turkey. Iran has since fallen 8 spots below Turkey in the latest HDI however.
Iran has elected governmental bodies at the national, provincial, and local levels. Although these bodies are subordinate to theocracy -- which has veto power over who can run for parliament (or Islamic Consultative Assembly) and whether its bills can become law -- they have more power than equivalent organs in the Shah 's government.
Iran 's Sunni minority (about 8 %) has seen some unrest. Five of the 290 parliamentary seats are allocated to their communities.
The members of the Bahá'í Faith have been declared heretical and subversive. While persecution occurred before the Revolution since then more than 200 Bahá'ís have been executed or presumed killed, and many more have been imprisoned, deprived of jobs, pensions, businesses, and educational opportunities. Bahá'í holy places have been confiscated, vandalized, or destroyed. More recently, Bahá'ís in Iran have been deprived of education and work. Several thousand young Bahá'ís between the ages of 17 and 24 have been expelled from universities.
Whether the Islamic Republic has brought more or less severe political repression is disputed. Grumbling once done about the tyranny and corruption of the Shah and his court is now directed against "the Mullahs. '' Fear of SAVAK has been replaced by fear of Revolutionary Guards, and other religious revolutionary enforcers. Violations of human rights by the theocratic government is said to be worse than during the monarchy, and in any case extremely grave. Reports of torture, imprisonment of dissidents, and the murder of prominent critics have been made by human rights groups. Censorship is handled by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance, without whose official permission, "no books or magazines are published, no audiotapes are distributed, no movies are shown and no cultural organization is established. All forms of popular music are banned. Men and women are not allowed to dance or swim with each other. ''
Throughout the beginning of the 20th century and prior to the revolution, many women leaders emerged and demanded basic social rights for women. During the reign of Reza Shah, the government mandated the removal of the veil and promoted the education of young girls. However, the push - back of the Shii clerics made progress difficult, and the government had to contain its promotion of basic women 's rights to the norms of the patriarchal social hierarchy in order to accommodate the clergy. After the abdication of Reza Shah in 1941, the discipline of the government decreased, and women were able to further exercise their rights, including the ability to wear the veil if they wanted. More organization of women 's groups occurred in the 1960s and 70s, and they used the government 's modernization to define and advocate for women 's issues. During these decades, women became active in formerly male domains such as the parliament, the cabinet, armed forces, legal professions, and fields of science and technology. Additionally, women achieved the right to vote in 1963. Many of these achievements and rights that Iranian women had gained in the decades leading up to the revolution were reversed by the Islamic Revolution.
The revolutionary government rewrote laws in an attempt to force women to leave the workforce by promoting the early retirement of female government employees, the closing of childcare centers, enforcing full Islamic cover in offices and public places, as well as preventing women from studying in 140 fields in higher education. Women fought back against these changes, and as activist and writer Mahnaz Afkhami writes, "The regime succeeded in putting women back in the veil in public places, but not in resocializing them into fundamentalist norms. '' After the revolution, women often had to work hard to support their families as the post-revolutionary economy suffered. Women also asserted themselves in the arts, literature, education, and politics.
Women -- especially those from traditional backgrounds -- participated on a large scale in demonstrations leading up to the revolution. They were encouraged by Ayatollah Khomeini to join him in overthrowing the Pahlavi dynasty. However, most of these women expected the revolution to lead to an increase in their rights and opportunities rather than the restrictions that actually occurred. The policy enacted by the revolutionary government and its attempts to limit the rights of women were challenged by the mobilization and politicization of women that occurred during and after the revolution. Women 's resistance included remaining in the work force in large numbers and challenging Islamic dress by showing hair under their head scarves. The Iranian government has had to reconsider and change aspects of its policies towards women because of their resistance to laws that restrict their rights.
Since the revolution, university enrollment and the number of women in the civil service and higher education has risen and several women have been elected to the Iranian parliament.
Iran 's post-revolutionary economy has a significant state - owned or parastatal sector, including businesses owned by the Revolutionary Guards and Bonyad foundations.
Since the revolution Iran 's GDP (PPP) has grown from $ 114 billion in 1980 to $858 billion in 2010. GDP per capita (PPP) has grown from $ 4295 in 1980 to $11,396 in 2010.
Since the revolution Iran 's GDP (Nominal) has grown from $90.392 billion in 1979 to $385.874 in 2015. GDP per capita (nominal) has grown from $2290 in 1979 to $5470 in 2016. Real GNI per capita in 2011 constant international dollars decreased after the revolution and during the Iran - Iraq war from $7762 in 1979 to $3699 at the end of the war in 1989. After three decades of reconstruction and growth since then, it has not yet reached its 1979 level and has only recovered to $6751 in 2016. Data on GNI per capita in PPP terms is only available since 1990 globally. In PPP terms, GNI per capita has increased from Int. $11,425 in 1990 to Int. $18,544 in 2016. But most of this increase can be attributed to the rise in oil prices in the 2000s.
The value of Iran 's currency declined precipitously after the revolution. Whereas on 15 March 1978, 71.46 rials equaled one U.S. dollar, in January 2018, 44,650 rials amounted to one dollar.
The economy has become more diversified since the revolution, with 80 % of Iranian GDP dependent on oil and gas as of 2010, comparing to above 90 % at the end of the Pahlavi period. The Islamic Republic lags some countries in transparency and ease of doing business according to international surveys. Transparency International ranked Iran 136th out of 175 countries in transparency (i.e. lack of corruption) for its 2014 index; and the IRI was ranked 130th out of the 189 countries surveyed in the World Bank 2015 Doing Business Report.
It is said that there are attempts to incorporate modern political and social concepts into Islamic canon since 1950. The attempt was a reaction to the secular political discourse namely Marxism, liberalism and nationalism. However we could observe the great influence of western culture in Iran after the coup d'état in 1953. Following the death of Ayatollah Boroujerdi, some of the scholars like Murtaza Mutahhari, Muhammad Beheshti and Muhmud Talighani found new opportunity to change conditions. Before them, Boroujerdi was considered as a conservative Marja. They tried to reform conditions after the death of the ayatollah. They presented their arguments by rendering lectures in 1960 and 1963 in Tehran. The result of the lectures was the book "An inquiry into principles of Mar'jaiyat ''. Some of the major issues highlighted were the government in Islam, the need for the clergy 's independent financial organization, Islam as a way of life, advising and guiding youth and necessity of being community. Allameh Tabatabei refers to velayat as a political philosophy for Shia and velayat faqih for Shia community. There are also other attempts to formulate a new attitude of Islam such as the publication of three volumes of Maktab Tashayyo. Also somebodies believe that it is indispensable to revive the religious gathered in Hoseyniyeh - e-Ershad.
An injured revolutionary during protests against Pahlavi regime.
Protests in summer 1978.
Revolutionary victims.
Current Iranian leader, Ali Khamenei in a Revolutionary protest in Mashhad.
Shah visiting Bakhtiar cabinet before his exit from Iran.
People celebrating Shah 's exit from the country.
Removal of Shah 's statue by the people in University of Tehran.
Khomeini at Mehrabad Airport.
People accompanying Khomeini from Mehrabad to Behesht Zahra.
Khomeini in Behesht Zahra.
Khomeini before a speech at Alavi school.
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lighthouse family whatever gets you through the day | Whatever Gets You Through the Day - wikipedia
Whatever Gets You Through the Day is the third (and so - far final) album released by UK duo Lighthouse Family in 2001 on Wildcard / Polydor. The album produced one Top 10 hit "(I Wish I Knew How It Would Feel to Be) Free / One '', one Top 30 hit "Run '' and one Top 60 single "Happy ''. It reached Platinum status.
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when did the astros move to the al | Houston Astros - wikipedia
The Houston Astros are an American professional baseball team based in Houston, Texas. The Astros compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) West division, having moved to the division in 2013 after spending their first 51 seasons in the National League (NL). The Astros have played their home games at Minute Maid Park since 2000.
The Astros were established as the Houston Colt. 45s and entered the National League as an expansion team in 1962 along with the New York Mets. The current name -- reflecting Houston 's role as the control center of the U.S. space program -- was adopted three years later, when they moved into the Astrodome, the first domed sports stadium.
The Astros played in the NL from 1962 to 2012, first in the West Division from 1969 to 1993, followed by the Central Division from 1994 to 2012. While a member of the NL, the Astros played in one World Series, in 2005, against the Chicago White Sox, in which they were swept in four games. In 2017, they became the first franchise in MLB history to have won a pennant in both the NL and the AL, when they defeated the New York Yankees in the ALCS. They subsequently won the 2017 World Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers, winning four games to three, earning the team, and the state of Texas, its first World Series title.
From 1888 until 1961, Houston 's professional baseball club was the minor league Houston Buffaloes. Although expansion from the National League eventually brought an MLB team to Texas in 1962, Houston officials had been making efforts to do so for years prior. There were four men chiefly responsible for bringing Major League Baseball to Houston: George Kirksey and Craig Cullinan, who had led a futile attempt to purchase the St. Louis Cardinals in 1952; R.E. "Bob '' Smith, a prominent oilman and real estate magnate in Houston who was brought in for his financial resources; and Judge Roy Hofheinz, a former Mayor of Houston and Harris County Judge who was recruited for his salesmanship and political style. They formed the Houston Sports Association as their vehicle for attaining a big league franchise for the city of Houston.
Given MLB 's refusal to consider expansion, Kirksey, Cullinan, Smith, and Hofheinz joined forces with would - be owners from other cities and announced the formation of a new league to compete with the established National and American Leagues. They called the new league the Continental League. Wanting to protect potential new markets, both existing leagues chose to expand from eight teams to ten. However, plans eventually fell through for the Houston franchise after the Houston Buffaloes owner, Marty Marion, could not come to an agreement with the HSA to sell the team. To make matters worse, the Continental League as a whole folded in August 1960.
However, on October 17, 1960, the National League granted an expansion franchise to the Houston Sports Association in which their team could begin play in the 1962 season. According to the Major League Baseball Constitution, the Houston Sports Association was required to obtain territorial rights from the Houston Buffaloes in order to play in the Houston area, and again negotiations began to purchase the team. Eventually, the Houston Sports Association succeeded in purchasing the Houston Buffaloes, at this point majority - owned by William Hopkins, on January 17, 1961. The Buffs played one last minor league season as the top farm team of the Chicago Cubs in 1961 before being succeeded by the city 's NL club.
The new Houston team was named the Colt. 45s after a "Name The Team '' contest was won by William Irving Neder. The Colt. 45 was well known as "the gun that won the west. '' The colors selected were navy and orange. The first team was formed mostly through an expansion draft after the 1961 season. The Colt. 45s and their expansion cousins, the New York Mets, took turns choosing players left unprotected by the other National League franchises.
Many of those associated with the Houston Buffaloes organization were allowed by the ownership to continue in the major league. Manager Harry Craft, who had joined Houston in 1961, remained in the same position for the team until the end of the 1964 season. General manager Spec Richardson also continued with the organization as business manager, but was later promoted again to the same position with the Astros from 1967 until 1975. Although most players for the major league franchise were obtained through the 1961 Major League Baseball expansion draft, Buffs players J.C. Hartman, Pidge Browne, Jim Campbell, Ron Davis, Dave Giusti, and Dave Roberts were chosen to continue as major league ball players.
Similarly, the radio broadcasting team remained with the new Houston major league franchise. Loel Passe worked alongside Gene Elston as a color commentator until he retired from broadcasting in 1976. Elston continued with the Astros until 1986.
The Colt. 45s began their existence playing at Colt Stadium, a temporary venue built just north of the construction site of the indoor stadium.
The Colt. 45s started their inaugural season on April 10, 1962, against the Chicago Cubs with Harry Craft as the Colt. 45s ' manager. Bob Aspromonte scored the first run for the Colt. 45s on an Al Spangler triple in the first inning. They started the season with a three - game sweep of the Cubs but eventually finished eighth among the National League 's ten teams. The team 's best pitcher, Richard "Turk '' Farrell, lost 20 games despite an ERA of 3.02. A starter for the Colt. 45s, Farrell was primarily a relief pitcher prior to playing for Houston. He was selected to both All - Star Games in 1962.
The 1963 season saw more young talent mixed with seasoned veterans. Jimmy Wynn, Rusty Staub, and Joe Morgan all made their major league debuts in the 1963 season. However, Houston 's position in the standings did not improve, as the Colt. 45s finished in ninth place with a 66 -- 96 record. The team was still building, trying to find that perfect mix to compete. The 1964 campaign began on a sad note, as relief pitcher Jim Umbricht died of cancer at the age of 33 on April 8, just before Opening Day. Umbricht was the only Colt. 45s pitcher to post a winning record in Houston 's first two seasons. He was so well liked by players and fans that the team retired his jersey number, 32, in 1965.
Just on the horizon, the structure of the new domed stadium was more prevalent and it would soon change the way that baseball was watched in Houston and around the league. On December 1, 1964, the team announced the name change from Colt. 45s to "Astros. ''
With Judge Roy Hofheinz now the sole owner of the franchise and the new venue complete, the renamed "Astros '' moved into their new domed stadium, the Astrodome, in 1965. The name honored Houston 's position as the center of the nation 's space program; NASA 's new Manned Spacecraft Center had recently opened southeast of the city. The Astrodome, coined the "Eighth Wonder of the World '', did little to improve the home team 's results on the field. While several "indoor '' firsts were accomplished, the team still finished ninth in the standings. The attendance was high not because of the team accomplishments, but because people came from miles around to see the Astrodome.
Just as the excitement was settling down over the Astrodome, the 1966 season found something new to put the domed stadium in the spotlight once again -- the field. Grass would not grow in the new park, since the roof panels had been painted to reduce the glare that was causing players on both the Astros and the visiting teams to miss routine pop flies. A new artificial turf was created called "AstroTurf '' and Houston would be involved in yet another change in the way the game was played.
With new manager Grady Hatton, the Astros started the 1966 season strong. By May they were in second place in the National League and looked like a team that could contend. Joe Morgan was named as a starter on the All - Star Team. The success did not last as they lost Jimmy Wynn for the season after he crashed into an outfield fence in Philadelphia and Morgan had broken his knee cap. The 1967 season saw first baseman Eddie Mathews join the Astros. The slugger hit his 500th home run while in Houston. He would be traded late in the season and Doug Rader would be promoted to the big leagues. Rookie Don Wilson pitched a no - hitter on June 18. Wynn also provided some enthusiasm in 1967. The 5 ft 9 in Wynn was becoming known not only for how often he hit home runs, but also for how far he hit them. Wynn set club records with 37 home runs, and 107 RBIs. It was also in 1967 that Wynn hit his famous home run onto Interstate 75 in Cincinnati. As the season came to a close, the Astros found themselves again in ninth place and with a winning percentage below. 500. The team looked good on paper, but could not make it work on the field.
April 15, 1968 saw a pitching duel for the ages. The Astros ' Don Wilson and the Mets ' Tom Seaver faced each other in a battle that lasted six hours. Seaver went ten innings, allowing no walks and just two hits. Wilson went nine innings, allowing five hits and three walks. After the starters exited, eleven relievers (seven for the Mets and four for the Astros) tried to end the game. The game finally ended in the 24th inning when Aspromonte hit a shot toward Mets shortstop Al Weis. Weis had been perfect all night at short, but he was not quick enough to make the play. The ball zipped into left field, allowing Norm Miller to score.
With baseball expansion and trades, the Astros had dramatically changed in 1969. Aspromonte was sent to the Braves and Staub was traded to the expansion Montreal Expos, in exchange for outfielder Jesús Alou and first baseman Donn Clendenon. However, Clendenon refused to report to Houston, electing to retire and take job with a pen manufacturing company. The Astros asked Commissioner Bowie Kuhn to void the trade, but he refused. Instead, he awarded Jack Billingham and a left - handed relief pitcher to the Astros to complete the trade. Cuellar was traded to the Baltimore Orioles for Curt Blefary. Other new players included catcher Johnny Edwards, infielder Denis Menke and pitcher Denny Lemaster. Wilson continued to pitch brilliantly and on May 1 threw the second no - hitter of his career. In that game, he struck out 18 batters, tying what was then the all - time single - game mark. He was just 24 years of age and was second to only Sandy Koufax for career no - hit wins. Wilson 's no - hitter lit the Astros ' fire after a miserable month of April, and six days later the team tied a major league record by turning seven double plays in a game. By May 's end, the Astros had put together a ten - game winning streak. The Houston infield tandem of Menke and Joe Morgan continued to improve, providing power at the plate and great defense. Morgan had 15 homers and stole 49 bases while Menke led the Astros with 90 RBIs. The Menke / Morgan punch was beginning to come alive, and the team was responding to Walker 's management style. The Astros dominated the season series against their expansion twins, the New York Mets. In one game at New York, Denis Menke and Jimmy Wynn hit grand slams in the same inning, against a Mets team that would go on to win the World Series that same year. The Astros finished the 1969 season with a record of 81 wins, 81 losses, marking their first season of. 500 ball.
In 1970, the Astros were expected to be a serious threat in the National League West. In June, 19 - year - old César Cedeño was called up and immediately showed signs of being a superstar. The Dominican outfielder batted. 310 after being called up. Not to be outdone, Menke batted. 304 and Jesús Alou batted. 306. The Astros ' batting average was up by 19 points compared to the season before. The team looked good, but the Astros ' ERA was up. Larry Dierker and Wilson had winning records, but the pitching staff as a whole had an off season. Houston finished in fourth place in 1970.
The fashion trends of the 1970s had started taking root in baseball. Long hair and loud colors were starting to appear on team uniforms, including the Astros '. In 1971 the Astros made some changes to their uniform: they kept the same style they had in previous seasons, but inverted the colors. What was navy was now orange and what was orange was now a lighter shade of blue. The players ' last names were added to the back of the jerseys. In 1972, the uniform fabric was also changed to what was at the time revolutionizing the industry -- polyester. Belts were replaced by elastic waistbands, and jerseys zipped up instead of having buttons. The uniforms became popular with fans, but would last only until 1975, when the Astros would shock baseball and the fashion world.
The uniforms were about the only thing that did change in 1971. The acquisition of Roger Metzger from the Chicago Cubs in the off - season moved Menke to first base and Bob Watson to the outfield. The Astros got off to a slow start and the pitching and hitting averages were down. Larry Dierker was selected to the All - Star game in 1971, but due to an arm injury he could not make it. César Cedeño led the club with 81 RBIs and the league with 40 doubles, but batted just. 264 and had 102 strikeouts in his second season with the Astros. Pitcher J.R. Richard made his debut in September of the 1971 season against the Giants.
In November 1971 the Astros and Cincinnati Reds made one of the biggest blockbuster trades in the history of the sport, and helped create The Big Red Machine of the 1970s, with the Reds getting the better end of the deal. Houston sent second baseman Joe Morgan, infielder Denis Menke, pitcher Jack Billingham, outfielder César Gerónimo and prospect Ed Armbrister to Cincinnati for first baseman Lee May, second baseman Tommy Helms and infielder Jimmy Stewart. The trade left Astros fans and the baseball world scratching their heads as to why General Manager Spec Richardson would give up so much for so little. The Reds, on the other hand, would shore up many problems. They had an off year in 1971, but were the National League Pennant winner in 1972.
The Astros ' acquisition of Lee May added more power to the lineup in 1972. May, Wynn, Rader and Cedeño all had 20 or more home runs and Watson hit 16. Cedeño also led the Astros with a. 320 batting average, 55 stolen bases and made spectacular plays on the field. Cedeño made his first All - Star game in 1972 and became the first Astros player in team history to hit for the cycle in August versus the Reds. The Astros finished the strike - shortened season at 84 -- 69, their first winning season.
Astros fans had hoped for more of the same in 1973, but it was not to be. The Astros run production was down, even though the same five sluggers the year before were still punching the ball out of the park. Lee May led the Astros with 28 home runs and Cesar Cedeño batted. 320 with 25 home runs. Bob Watson hit the. 312 mark and drove in 94 runs. Doug Rader and Jimmy Wynn both had 20 or more home runs. However, injuries to their pitching staff limited the Astros to an 82 -- 80 fourth - place finish. The Astros again finished in fourth place the next year under new manager Preston Gómez.
With the $38 million deficit of the Astrodome, control of the Astrodomain was passed from Judge Roy Hofheinz to GE Credit and Ford Motor Credit. This included the Astros. The creditors were just interested in preserving asset value of the team, so any money spent had to be found or saved somewhere else. Tal Smith returned to the Astros from the New York Yankees to find a team that needed a lot of work and did not have a lot of money. However, there would be some bright spots that would prove to be good investments in the near future.
The year started on a sad note. Pitcher Don Wilson was found dead in the passenger seat of his car on January 5, 1975; the cause of death was asphyxiation by carbon monoxide. Wilson was 29 years old. Wilson 's number 40 was retired on April 13, 1975.
The 1975 season saw the introduction of the Astros ' new uniforms. Many teams were going away from the traditional uniform and the Astros were no exception. The uniforms had multishade stripes of orange, red and yellow in front and in back behind a large dark blue star over the midsection. The same stripes ran down the pant legs. Players numbers not only appeared on the back of the jersey, but also on the pant leg. The bright stripes were meant to appear as a fiery trail like a rocket sweeping across the heavens. The uniforms were panned by critics, but the public liked them and versions started appearing at the high school and little league level. The uniform was so different from what other teams wore that the Astros wore it both at home and on the road until 1980.
Besides the bright new uniforms there were some other changes. Lee May was traded to Baltimore for much talked about rookie second baseman Rob Andrews and utility player Enos Cabell. In Baltimore, Cabell was stuck behind third baseman Brooks Robinson, but he took advantage of his opportunity in Houston and became their everyday third baseman. Cabell would go on to become a big part of the team 's success in later years. With May gone, Bob Watson was able to move to first base and was a bright spot in the line up, batting. 324 with 85 RBI.
The two biggest moves the Astros made in the offseason were the acquisitions of Joe Niekro and José Cruz. The Astros bought Niekro from the Braves for almost nothing. Niekro had bounced around the big leagues with minimal success. His older brother Phil Niekro had started teaching Joe how to throw his knuckleball and Joe was just starting to use it when he came to the Astros. Niekro won six games, saved four games and had an ERA of 3.07. José Cruz was also a steal, in retrospect, from the Cardinals. Cruz became a fixture in the Astros ' outfield for several years and would eventually have his number 25 retired.
Despite high expectations, 1975 was among the Astros ' worst in franchise history. Their record of 64 -- 97 was far worse than even the expansion Colt. 45 's and would remain the worst record in franchise history until 2011. It was the worst record in baseball and manager Preston Gómez was fired late in the season and replaced by Bill Virdon. The Astros played. 500 ball under Virdon in the last 34 games of the season. With Virdon as the manager the Astros improved greatly in 1976 finishing in third place with an 80 -- 82 record. A healthy César Cedeño was a key reason for the Astros ' success in 1976. Bob Watson continued to show consistency and led the club with a. 313 average and 102 RBI. José Cruz became Houston 's everyday left fielder and hit. 303 with 28 stolen bases. 1976 saw the end of Larry Dierker 's playing career as an Astro, but before it was all over he would throw a no - hitter and win the 1,000 th game in the Astrodome. The Astros finished in third place again in 1977 with a record of 81 -- 81.
One of the big problems the Astros had in the late 1970s was that they were unable to compete in the free agent market. Ford Motor Credit Company was still in control of the team and was looking to sell the Astros, but they were not going to spend money on better players. Most of the talent was either farm grown or bought on the cheap.
The 1979 season would prove to be a big turnaround in Astros history. During the offseason, the Astros made an effort to fix some of their problem areas. They traded Floyd Bannister to Seattle for shortstop Craig Reynolds and acquired catcher Alan Ashby from Toronto for pitcher Mark Lemongello. Reynolds and Ashby were both solid in their positions and gave Houston some much needed consistency. The season started with a boost from pitcher Ken Forsch, who threw a no - hitter the Braves the second game of the season. In May 1979, New Jersey shipping tycoon Dr. John McMullen had agreed to buy the Astros. Now with an investor in charge, the Astros would be more likely to compete in the free agent market.
The Astros were playing great baseball throughout the season. José Cruz and Enos Cabell both stole 30 bases. Joe Niekro had a great year with 21 wins and 3.00 ERA. J.R. Richard won 18 games and set a new personal strikeout record at 313. Joe Sambito came into his own with 22 saves as the Astros closer. Things were going as they should for a team that could win the west. The Astros and Reds battled the final month of the season. The Reds pulled ahead of the Astros by a game and a half. Later that month they split a pair and the Reds kept the lead. That would be how it would end. The Astros finished with their best record to that point at 89 -- 73 and 11⁄2 games behind the NL winner Reds.
With Dr. McMullen as sole owner of the Astros, the team would now benefit in ways a corporation could not give them. The rumors of the Astros moving out of Houston started to crumble and the Astros were now able to compete in the free - agent market. McMullen showed the city of Houston that he too wanted a winning team, signing nearby Alvin, Texas native Nolan Ryan to the first million - dollar - a-year deal. Ryan had four career no - hitters already and had struck out 383 in one season.
Joe Morgan returned in 1980. Now back in Houston with two MVP awards and two World Series rings, Morgan wanted to help make the Astros a pennant winner.
The 1980 pitching staff was one of the best Houston ever had, with the fastball of Ryan, the knuckleball of Joe Niekro and the terrifying 6 ft 8 in frame of J.R. Richard. Teams felt lucky to face Ken Forsch, who was a double - digit winner in the previous two seasons. Richard became the first Astros pitcher to start an All - Star game. After a medical examination three days later, Richard was told to rest his arm and he collapsed during a July 30 workout. He had suffered a stroke after a blood clot in the arm apparently moved to his neck and cut off blood flow to the brain. Surgery was done to save his life, but the Astros had lost their ace pitcher after a 10 -- 4 start with a stingy 1.89 ERA. Richard attempted a comeback, but would never again pitch a big league game.
After the loss of Richard and some offensive struggles, the Astros slipped to third place in the division behind the Dodgers and the Reds. They bounced back to first with a ten - game winning streak, but the Dodgers had regained a two - game lead when they arrived in Houston on September 9. The Astros won the first two games of that series and the two teams were tied for the division lead. The Astros held a three - game lead over the Dodgers with three games left in the season against the Dodgers. The Dodgers swept the series games, forcing a one - game playoff the next day. The Astros would however win the one - game playoff 7 -- 1, and advance to their first post-season.
The team would face the Philadelphia Phillies in the 1980 National League Championship Series. The Phillies sent out Steve Carlton in game one of the NLCS after a six - hour flight the night before. The Phillies would win the opener after the Astros got out to a 1 -- 0 third - inning lead. Ken Forsch pitched particularly strong fourth and fifth innings, but Greg Luzinski hit a sixth - inning two - run bomb to the 300 level seats of Veterans Stadium. The Phillies added an insurance run on the way to a 3 -- 1 win. Houston bounced back to win games two and three. Game four went into extra innings, with the Phillies taking the lead and the win in the tenth inning. Pete Rose started a rally with a one - out single, then Luzinski doubled off the left field wall and Rose bowled over catcher Bruce Bochy to score the go - ahead run. The Phillies got an insurance run on the way to tying the series.
Rookie Phillies pitcher Marty Bystrom was sent out by Philadelphia manager Dallas Green to face veteran Nolan Ryan in Game Five. The rookie gave up a run in the first inning, then held the Astros at bay until the sixth inning. An Astros lead was lost when Bob Boone hit a two - out single in the second, but the Astros tied the game in the sixth with an Alan Ashby single scoring Denny Walling. Houston took a 5 -- 2 lead in the seventh, however the Phillies came back with five runs in the inning. The Astros came back against Tug McGraw with four singles and two two - out runs. Now in extra innings, Garry Maddox doubled in Del Unser with one out to give the Phillies an 8 -- 7 lead. The Astros failed to score in the bottom of the tenth.
A 1981 player strike ran between June 12 and August 10. Ultimately, the strike would help the Astros get into the playoffs. Nolan Ryan and Bob Knepper picked up steam in the second half of the season. Ryan threw his fifth no - hitter on September 26 and finished the season with a 1.69 ERA. Knepper finished with an ERA of 2.18. In the wake of the strike, Major League Baseball took the winners of each "half '' season and set up a best - of - five divisional playoff. The Reds won more games than any other team in the National League, but they won neither half of the strike - divided season. The Astros finished 61 -- 49 overall, which would have been third in the division behind the Reds and the Dodgers. Advancing to the playoffs as winners of the second half, Houston beat Los Angeles in their first two playoff games at home, but the Dodgers took the next three in Los Angeles to advance to the NLCS.
By 1982, only four players and three starting pitchers remained from the 1980 squad. The Astros were out of pennant contention by August and began rebuilding for the near future. Bill Virdon was fired as manager and replaced by original Colt. 45 Bob Lillis. Don Sutton asked to be traded and was sent to the Milwaukee Brewers for cash and the team gained three new prospects, including Kevin Bass. Minor league player Bill Doran was called up in September. Bass also got a look in the outfield. The Astros finished fourth in the west, but new talent was starting to appear.
Before the 1983 season, the Astros traded Danny Heep to the Mets for pitcher Mike Scott, a 28 - year - old who had struggled with New York. Art Howe sat out the 1983 season with an injury, forcing Phil Garner to third and Ray Knight to first. Doran took over at second, becoming the everyday second baseman for the next seven seasons. The Astros finished third in the National League West. The 1984 season started off badly when shortstop Dickie Thon was hit in the head by a pitch and was lost for the season. In September, the Astros called up rookie Glenn Davis after he posted impressive numbers in AAA. The Astros finished in second place. In 1985, Mike Scott learned a new pitch, the split - finger fastball. Scott, who was coming off of a 5 -- 11 season, had found his new pitch and would become one of Houston 's most celebrated hurlers. In June, Davis made the starting lineup at first base, adding power to the team. In September, Joe Niekro was traded to the Yankees for two minor league pitchers and lefty Jim Deshaies. The Astros finished in fourth place in 1985.
After finishing fourth in 1985, the Astros fired general manager Al Rosen and manager Bob Lillis. The former was supplanted by Dick Wagner, the man whose Reds defeated the Astros to win the 1979 NL West title. The latter was replaced by Hal Lanier who, like his manager mentor in St. Louis, Whitey Herzog, had a hard - nosed approach to managing and espoused a playing style that focused on pitching, defense, and speed rather than home runs to win games. This style of baseball, known as Whiteyball, took advantage of stadiums with deep fences and artificial turf, both of which were characteristics of the Astrodome. Lanier 's style of baseball took Houston by storm. Before Lanier took over, fans were accustomed to Houston 's occasional slow starts, but with Lanier leading the way, Houston got off to a hot start, winning 13 of their first 19 contests.
Prior to the start of the season the Astros acquired outfielder Billy Hatcher from the Cubs for Jerry Mumphrey. Lainer also made a change in the pitching staff, going with a three - man rotation to start the season. This allowed Lanier to keep his three starters (Nolan Ryan, Bob Knepper, and Mike Scott) sharp and to slowly work in rookie hurler Jim Deshaies. Bill Doran and Glenn Davis held down the right side of the field but Lainer rotated the left side. Denny Walling and Craig Reynolds faced the right - handed pitchers while Phil Garner and Dickie Thon batted against left - handers. Lainer knew the Astros had talent and he put it to work.
The Astrodome was host to the 1986 All - Star Game in which Astros Mike Scott, Kevin Bass, Glenn Davis, and Dave Smith represented the host field. The Astros kept pace with the NL West after the All - Star break. They went on a streak of five straight come - from - behind wins. Houston swept a key 3 - game series over the San Francisco Giants in late September to clinch the division title. Mike Scott took the mound in the final game of the series and pitched a no - hitter -- the only time in MLB history that any division was clinched via a no - hitter. Scott would finish the season with an 18 -- 10 record and a Cy Young Award.
The 1986 National League Championship Series against the New York Mets was noted for great drama and is considered one of the best postseason series ever. In Game 3, the Astros were ahead at Shea Stadium, 5 -- 4, in the bottom of the 9th when closer Dave Smith gave up a two - run home run to Lenny Dykstra, giving the Mets a dramatic 6 -- 5 win.
However, the signature game of the series was Game 6. Needing a win to get to Mike Scott (who had been dominant in the series) in Game 7, the Astros jumped off to a 3 -- 0 lead in the first inning but neither team would score again until the 9th inning. In the 9th, starting pitcher Bob Knepper would give up two runs, and once again the Astros would look to Dave Smith to close it out. However, Smith would walk Gary Carter and Darryl Strawberry, giving up a sacrifice fly to Ray Knight, tying the game. Despite having the go - ahead runs on base, Smith was able to escape the inning without any further damage.
There was no scoring until the 14th inning when the Mets would take the lead on a Wally Backman single and an error by left fielder Billy Hatcher. The Astros would get the run back in the bottom of the 14th when Hatcher (in a classic goat - to - hero - conversion - moment) hit one of the most dramatic home runs in NLCS history, off the left field foul pole. In the 16th inning, Darryl Strawberry doubled to lead off the inning and Ray Knight drove him home in the next at - bat. The Mets would score a total of three runs in the inning to take what appeared an insurmountable 7 -- 4 lead. With their season on the line, the Astros would nonetheless rally for two runs to come to within 7 -- 6. Kevin Bass came up with the tying and winning runs on base; however Jesse Orosco would strike him out, ending the game. At the time the 16 - inning game held the record for the longest in MLB postseason history. The Mets won the series, 4 -- 2.
After the 1986 season, the team had difficulty finding success again. Several changes occurred. The "rainbow '' uniforms were phased out, the team electing to keep a five - stripe "rainbow '' design on the sleeves. From 1987 to 1993, the Astros wore the same uniform for both home and away games; the only team in Major League Baseball to do so during that period. Its favorites Nolan Ryan and José Cruz moved on and the team entered a rebuilding phase. Craig Biggio debuted in June 1988, joining new prospects Ken Caminiti and Gerald Young. Biggio would become the everyday catcher by 1990. A trade acquiring Jeff Bagwell in exchange for Larry Andersen would become one of the biggest deals in Astros history. Glenn Davis was traded to Baltimore for Curt Schilling, Pete Harnisch and Steve Finley in 1990.
The early 1990s were marked by the Astros ' growing discontent with their home, the Astrodome. After the Astrodome was renovated for the primary benefit of the NFL 's Houston Oilers (who shared the Astrodome with the Astros since the 1960s), the Astros began to grow increasingly disenchanted with the facility. Faced with declining attendance at the Astrodome and the inability of management to obtain a new stadium, in the 1991 off - season Astros management announced its intention to sell the team and move the franchise to the Washington, D.C. area. However, the move was not approved by other National League owners, thus compelling the Astros to remain in Houston. Shortly thereafter, McMullen (who also owned the NHL 's New Jersey Devils) sold the team to Texas businessman Drayton McLane in 1993, who committed to keeping the team in Houston.
Shortly after McLane 's arrival, which coincided with the maturation of Bagwell and Biggio, the Astros began to show signs of consistent success. After finishing second in their division in 1994 (in a strike year), 1995, and 1996, the Astros won consecutive division titles in 1997, 1998, and 1999. In the 1998 season, the Astros set a team record with 102 victories. However, each of these titles was followed by a first - round playoff elimination, in 1998 by the San Diego Padres and in 1997 and 1999 against the Atlanta Braves. The manager of these title teams was Larry Dierker, who had previously been a broadcaster and pitcher for the Astros. During this period, Bagwell, Biggio, Derek Bell, and Sean Berry earned the collective nickname "The Killer Bs ''. In later seasons, the name came to include other Astros, especially Lance Berkman.
Coinciding with the change in ownership, the team switched uniforms and team colors after the 1993 season in order to go for a new, more serious image. The team 's trademark rainbow uniforms were retired, and the team 's colors changed to midnight blue and metallic gold. The "Astros '' font on the team logo was changed to a more aggressive one, and the team 's traditional star logo was changed to a stylized, "flying '' star with an open left end. It marked the first time since the team 's inception that orange was not part of the team 's colors. Despite general agreement that the rainbow uniforms identified with the team had become tired (and looked too much like a minor league team according to the new owners), the new uniforms and caps were never especially popular with many Astros fans.
Off the field, in 1994, the Astros hired one of the first African American general managers, former franchise player Bob Watson. Watson would leave the Astros after the 1995 season to become general manager of the New York Yankees and helped to lead the Yankees to a World Championship in 1996. He would be replaced by Gerry Hunsicker, who until 2004 would continue to oversee the building of the Astros into one of the better and most consistent organizations in the Major Leagues.
However, in 1996, the Astros again nearly left Houston. By the mid-1990s, McLane (like McMullen before him) wanted his team out of the Astrodome and was asking the city to build the Astros a new stadium. When things did not progress quickly toward that end, he put the team up for sale. He had nearly finalized a deal to sell the team to businessman William Collins, who planned to move them to Northern Virginia. However, Collins was having difficulty finding a site for a stadium himself, so Major League owners stepped in and forced McLane to give Houston another chance to grant his stadium wish. Houston voters, having already lost the Houston Oilers in a similar situation, responded positively via a stadium referendum and the Astros stayed put.
The 2000 season saw a move to a new stadium. Originally to be named The Ballpark at Union Station due to being located on the site of Union Station (Houston), it was renamed Enron Field by the season opening after the naming rights were sold to energy corporation Enron. The stadium was to feature a retractable roof, a particularly useful feature with unpredictable Houston weather. The ballpark also featured more intimate surroundings than the Astrodome. In 2002, naming rights were purchased by Houston - based Minute Maid, after Enron went bankrupt. The park was built on the grounds of the old Union Station. A locomotive moves across the outfield and whistles after home runs, paying homage to a Houston history which had eleven railroad company lines running through the city by 1860. The ballpark previously contained quirks such as "Tal 's Hill '', which was a hill in deep center field on which a flagpole stood, all in fair territory. Tal 's Hill was replaced in the 2016 -- 2017 offseason. The wall was moved in to 409 feet, which the team hoped would generate more home runs. A similar feature was located in Crosley Field. Over the years, many highlight reel catches have been made by center fielders running up the hill to make catches. With the change in location also came a change in attire. Gone were the blue and gold uniforms of the 1990s in favor a more "retro '' look with pinstripes, a traditional baseball font, and the colors of brick red, sand and black. These colors were chosen because ownership originally wanted to rename the team the Houston Diesels. The "shooting star '' logo was modified but still retained its definitive look.
After two fairly successful seasons without a playoff appearance, the Astros were early favorites to win the 2004 NL pennant. They added star pitcher Andy Pettitte to a roster that already included standouts like Lance Berkman and Jeff Kent as well as veterans Bagwell and Biggio. Roger Clemens, who had retired after the 2003 season with the New York Yankees, agreed to join former teammate Pettitte on the Astros for 2004. The one - year deal included unique conditions, such as the option for Clemens to stay home in Houston on select road trips when he was n't scheduled to pitch. Despite the early predictions for success, the Astros had a mediocre 44 -- 44 record at the All - Star break. A lack of run production and a poor record in close games were major issues. After being booed at the 2004 All - Star Game held in Houston, manager Jimy Williams was fired and replaced by Phil Garner, a star on the division - winning 1986 Astros. The Astros enjoyed a 46 -- 26 record in the second half of the season under Garner and earned the NL wild card spot. The Astros defeated the Braves 3 -- 2 in the Division Series, but would lose the National League Championship Series to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games. Clemens earned a record seventh Cy Young Award in 2004. Additionally, the mid-season addition of Carlos Beltrán in a trade with the Kansas City Royals helped the Astros tremendously in their playoff run. Despite midseason trade rumors, Beltrán would prove instrumental to the team 's hopes, hitting eight home runs in the postseason. Though he had asserted a desire to remain with the Astros, Beltrán signed a long - term contract with the New York Mets on January 9, 2005.
In 2005, the Astros started poorly and found themselves with a 15 -- 30 record in late May. The Houston Chronicle had written them off with a tombstone emblazoned with "RIP 2005 Astros ''. However, from that low point until the end of July, Houston went 42 -- 17 and found themselves in the lead for an NL wild card spot. July saw the best single - month record in the club 's history at 22 - 7. Offensive production had increased greatly after a slow start in the first two months. The Astros had also developed an excellent pitching staff, anchored by Roy Oswalt (20 -- 12, 2.94), Andy Pettitte (17 -- 9, 2.39), and Roger Clemens (13 -- 8 with a league - low ERA of only 1.87). The contributions of the other starters -- Brandon Backe (10 -- 8, 4.76) and rookie starters Ezequiel Astacio (3 -- 6, 5.67) and Wandy Rodríguez (10 -- 10, 5.53) -- were less remarkable, but enough to push the Astros into position for a playoff run. The Astros won a wild card berth on the final day of the regular season, becoming the first team since the world champion 1914 Boston Braves to qualify for the postseason after being 15 games under. 500.
The Astros won the National League Division Series against the Atlanta Braves, 3 -- 1, with a game four that set postseason records for most innings (18), most players used by a single team (23), and longest game time (5 hours and 50 minutes). Trailing by a score of 6 -- 1, Lance Berkman hit an eighth - inning grand slam to narrow the score to 6 -- 5. In the bottom of the ninth, catcher Brad Ausmus hit a game - tying home run that allowed the game to continue in extra innings. In the bottom of the tenth inning, Luke Scott hit a blast to left field that had home run distance, but was inches foul. This game remained scoreless for the next eight innings. In the top of the fifteenth inning, Roger Clemens made only his second career relief appearance, pitching three shutout innings, notably striking out Julio Franco, at the time the oldest player in the MLB at 47 years old; Clemens was himself 43. In the bottom of the eighteenth inning, Clemens came to bat again, indicating that he would be pitching in the nineteenth inning, if it came to that. Clemens struck out, but the next batter, Chris Burke, hit a home run to left field for the Astros win, 7 -- 6. Oddly enough, a fan in the "Crawford Boxes '' in left field had previously caught Berkman 's grand slam and this same fan caught Burke 's home run. The National League Championship Series featured a rematch of the 2004 NLCS. The Astros lost the first game in St. Louis, but would win the next three games, with Roy Oswalt getting the win. Though the Astros were poised to close out the series in Game Five in Houston, Brad Lidge gave up a monstrous two - out three - run home run to Albert Pujols, forcing the series to a sixth game in St. Louis, where the Astros clinched a World Series appearance. Roy Oswalt was named NLCS MVP, having gone 2 -- 0 with a 1.29 ERA in the series. Current honorary NL President William Y. Giles presented the league champion Astros with the Warren C. Giles Trophy. Warren Giles, William 's father and President of the National League from 1951 to 1969, had awarded an MLB franchise to the city of Houston in 1960.
The Astros faced the Chicago White Sox in the World Series. Chicago had been considered the slight favorite but would win all four games, the first two at U.S. Cellular Field in Chicago and the final two in Houston. Game 3 marked the first World Series game held in the state of Texas, and was the longest game in World Series history, lasting 5 hours and 41 minutes.
This World Series was marked by a controversy involving the Minute Maid Park roof. MLB & Commissioner Bud Selig insisted that the Astros must play with the roof open, which mitigated the intensity and enthusiasm of the cheering Astros fans.
In the 2006 offseason, the team signed Preston Wilson and moved Berkman to first base, ending the long tenure of Jeff Bagwell. The Astros renewed the contract with Clemens and traded two minor league prospects to the Tampa Bay Devil Rays for left - handed hitter Aubrey Huff. By August, Preston Wilson complained about his playing time after the return of Luke Scott from AAA Round Rock. The Astros released Wilson and he was signed by St. Louis. A dramatic season end included wins in 10 of their last 12 games, but the Astros missed a playoff appearance when they lost the final game of the season to the Atlanta Braves.
On October 31, the Astros declined a contract option on Jeff Bagwell for 2007, ending his 15 - year Astros career and leading to his retirement. Roger Clemens and Andy Pettitte filed for free agency. On December 12, the Astros traded Willy Taveras, Taylor Buchholz, and Jason Hirsh to the Colorado Rockies for Rockies pitchers Jason Jennings and Miguel Asencio. A trade with the White Sox, involving the same three Astros in exchange for Jon Garland, had been nixed a few days earlier when Buchholz reportedly failed a physical. In the end, Taveras continued to develop and Hirsh had a strong 2007 rookie campaign, while Jennings was often injured and generally ineffective.
On April 28, 2007, the Astros purchased the contract of top minor league prospect Hunter Pence. He debuted that night, getting a hit and scoring a run. By May 2007, the Astros had suffered one of their worst recent losing streaks (10 games). On June 28, second baseman Craig Biggio became the 27th MLB player to accrue 3,000 career hits. Biggio needed three hits to reach 3,000 and on that night he had five hits. That night, Carlos Lee hit a towering walk - off grand slam in the eleventh inning. Lee later quipped to the newsmedia that "he had hit a walk - off grand slam and he got second billing '', considering Biggio 's achievement. On July 24, Biggio announced that he would retire at the end of the season. He hit a grand slam in that night 's game which broke a 3 -- 3 tie and led to an Astros win. In Biggio 's last at bat, he grounded out to Chipper Jones of the Atlanta Braves.
On September 20, Ed Wade was named General Manager. In his first move, he traded Jason Lane to the Padres on September 24. On September 30, Craig Biggio retired after twenty years with the team. In November, the Astros traded RHP Brad Lidge and SS Eric Bruntlett to the Philadelphia Phillies for OF Michael Bourn, RHP Geoff Geary, and minor leaguer Mike Costanzo. Utility player Mark Loretta accepted Houston 's salary arbitration and Kazuo Matsui finalized a $16.5 million, three - year contract with the team. In December the Astros traded OF Luke Scott, RHP Matt Albers, RHP Dennis Sarfate, LHP Troy Patton, and minor - league 3B Mike Costanzo, to the Baltimore Orioles for SS Miguel Tejada. On December 14, they sent infielder Chris Burke, RHP Juan Gutiérrez, and RHP Chad Qualls to the Arizona Diamondbacks for RHP José Valverde. On December 27, the Astros came to terms on a deal with All - Star, Gold Glove winner Darin Erstad.
In January and February 2008, the Astros signed Brandon Backe, Ty Wigginton, Dave Borkowski and Shawn Chacón to one - year deals. The starting rotation would feature Roy Oswalt and Brandon Backe as numbers one and two. Wandy Rodríguez, Chacón and Chris Sampson rounded out the bottom three slots in the rotation. Woody Williams had retired after a 0 -- 4 spring training and Jason Jennings was now with Texas. On the other side of the roster, the Astros would start without Kazuo Matsui, who was on a minor league rehab assignment after a spring training injury.
The Astros regressed in 2008 and 2009, finishing with records of 86 -- 75 and 74 -- 88, respectively. Manager Cecil Cooper was fired after the 2009 season.
The 2010 season was the first season as Astros manager for Brad Mills, who was previously the bench coach of the Boston Red Sox. The Astros struggled throughout a season that was marked by trade - deadline deals that sent longtime Astros to other teams. On July 29, the Astros ' ace starting pitcher, Roy Oswalt, was dealt to the Philadelphia Phillies for J.A. Happ and two minor league players. On July 31, outfielder Lance Berkman was traded to the New York Yankees for minor leaguers Jimmy Paredes and Mark Melancon. The Astros finished with a record of 76 -- 86.
On July 30, 2011, the Astros traded OF Hunter Pence, the team 's 2010 leader in home runs, to the Philadelphia Phillies. On July 31, they traded OF Michael Bourn to the Atlanta Braves. On September 17, the Astros clinched their first 100 - loss season in franchise history, On September 28, the Astros ended the season with an 8 -- 0 home loss to the St. Louis Cardinals. Cardinals pitcher Chris Carpenter pitched a complete game, two - hit shutout in the game, enabling the Cardinals to win the National League Wild Card, where they went on to beat the Texas Rangers in the World Series, with Lance Berkman being a key player in their championship victory. The Astros finished with a record of 56 -- 106, the worst single - season record in franchise history (a record which would be broken the following season).
In November 2010, Drayton McLane announced that the Astros were being put up for sale. McLane stated that because the Astros were one of the few franchises in Major League Baseball with only one family as the owners, he was planning his estate. McLane was 75 years old as of November 2011. In March 2011, local Houston businessman Jim Crane emerged as the front - runner to purchase the franchise. In the 1980s, Crane founded an air freight business which later merged with CEVA Logistics, and later founded Crane Capital Group. McLane and Crane had a previous handshake agreement for the franchise in 2008, but Crane abruptly changed his mind and broke off discussions. Crane also attempted to buy the Chicago Cubs in 2008 and the Texas Rangers during their 2010 bankruptcy auction. Crane came under scrutiny because of previous allegations of discriminatory hiring practices regarding women and minorities, among other issues. This delayed MLB 's approval process. During the summer of 2011, a frustrated Crane hinted that the delays might threaten the deal. In October 2011, Crane met personally with MLB Commissioner Bud Selig, in a meeting that was described as "constructive ''.
On November 15, 2011, it was announced that Crane had agreed to move the franchise to the American League for the 2013 season. The move was part of an overall divisional realignment of MLB, with the National and American leagues each having 15 teams in three geographically balanced divisions. Crane was given a $70 million concession by MLB for agreeing to the switch; the move was a condition for the sale to the new ownership group. Two days later, the Astros were officially sold to Crane after the other owners unanimously voted in favor of the sale. It was also announced that 2012 would be the last season for the Astros in the NL. After over fifty years of the Astros being a part of the National League, this move was unpopular with many Astros fans.
In 2012, the Astros were eliminated from the playoffs before September 5. On September 27, the Astros named Bo Porter to be the manager for the 2013 season.
On October 3, the Astros ended over 50 years of NL play with a 5 -- 4 loss to the Chicago Cubs and began to look ahead to join the American League. Winning only 20 road games during the entire season, the Astros finished with a 55 -- 107 record, the worst record in all of Major League Baseball for the 2012 season, and surpassing the 2011 season for the worst record in Astros history.
On November 2, 2012, the Astros unveiled their new look in preparation for their move to the American League for the 2013 season. The uniform is navy and orange, going back to the original 1960s team colors, as well as debuting a new version of the classic navy hat with a white "H '' over an orange star.
On November 6, 2012, the Astros hired former Cleveland Indians director of baseball operations David Stearns as the team 's new assistant general manager. The Astros would also go on to hire former St. Louis Cardinals front office executive Jeff Luhnow as their general manager.
The Houston Astros played their first game as an American League team on March 31, 2013, where they were victorious over their in - state division competitor, the Texas Rangers, with a score of 8 -- 2.
On September 29, the Astros completed their first year in the American League, losing 5 -- 1 in a 14 - inning game to the New York Yankees. The Astros finished the season with a 51 -- 111 record (a franchise worst) with a season ending 15 - game losing streak, again surpassing their worst record from the previous season. The team finished 45 games behind the division winner Oakland Athletics, further adding to their futility. This marked three consecutive years that the Astros had lost more than 100 games in a single season. They also became the first team to have the first overall pick in the draft three years in a row. They improved on their season in 2014, going 70 -- 92, finishing 28 games back over the division winner Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, and placing fourth in the AL West over the Texas Rangers.
After a slow start, the Astros took over first place in the AL West on April 19 and stayed there until shortly before the All - Star Break in mid-July. The Astros retook first place on July 29, but fell from first on September 15.
In September 2015, four men died who had been closely associated with the team: Yogi Berra, Gene Elston, Milo Hamilton, and John McMullen. McMullen and Hamilton passed on the same Thursday, September 17, 2015, Elston on September 5th, and Berra on September 22. McMullen, after being a co-owner of the New York Yankees, purchased the Astros in 1979. He also brought Nolan Ryan to the Astros. In 1980, the Astros played the Philadelphia Phillies for the NL pennant with Gene Elston on the radio. In 1985, McMullen brought Yogi Berra in to be a bench coach for the new Astros manager Hal Lanier for the 1986 season, with Milo Hamilton on the radio.
Dallas Keuchel led the AL with 20 victories, going 15 -- 0 at home, an MLB record. Key additions to the team included Scott Kazmir and SS Carlos Correa who hit 22 home runs, being called up in June 2015. 2B José Altuve picked up where he left off as the star of the Astros ' offense. On July 30, the Astros picked up Mike Fiers and Carlos Gómez from the Milwaukee Brewers. Fiers threw the 11th no - hitter in Astros history on August 21 against the Los Angeles Dodgers. Houston got the final AL playoff spot and faced the Yankees in the Wild Card Game on October 6 at New York. They defeated the Yankees 3 -- 0, but lost to the Kansas City Royals in the American League Division Series.
The Astros split the first two games of the ALDS best - of - five series in Kansas City. The Astros won the first game at Minute Maid to take a 2 -- 1 lead in the ALDS. In game 4, after 7 innings, the Astros had a 6 -- 2 lead. In the top half of the eighth inning, which took about 45 minutes to end, the Royals had taken a 7 -- 6 lead with a series of consecutive base hits. The Astros suffered a 9 -- 6 loss and the ALDS was tied at 2 -- 2. Then the series went back to Kansas City, where the Royals clinched the series in the fifth game, 7 -- 2.
The Astros entered the 2016 season as the favorites to win the AL West after a promising 2015 season. After a bad start to their season, with Houston going just 7 -- 17 in April, the Astros bounced back and went on to have a winning record in their next four months, including an 18 -- 8 record in June. But after going 12 -- 15 in September, the Astros were eliminated from playoff contention. They finished in third place in the American League West Division with a final record of 84 -- 78.
On August 10, 2016 Gómez was designated for assignment by the Astros after a dreadful campaign with the team. He was released on August 18, 2016. Gomez finished his Astros career batting a career low average of. 210 and only hitting 5 HR through 85 games with the club. Gómez later signed with division rival Texas.
The season was marked by the Astros 4 -- 15 record against their in - state division rival (and eventual division winner) Texas Rangers. The Astros finished the 2016 season eleven games behind the Rangers.
In 2014, Sports Illustrated predicted the Astros would win the 2017 World Series through their strategic rebuilding process. As of June 9, the Astros were 41 -- 16, which gave them a 13.5 - game lead over the rest of their division, and they had comfortable possession of the best record in the entire league. This was the best start in the Astros ' 55 - year history. As the games of June 23 concluded, the Astros had an 11.5 - game lead over the rest of the division. The Astros entered the All - Star Break with an American League - best 60 -- 29 record and a 16 - game lead in the division, although the overall best record in MLB had just barely slipped to the Dodgers shortly before the All - Star Break by just one game.
With Hurricane Harvey causing massive flooding throughout Houston and southeast Texas, the Astros ' three - game series against the Texas Rangers for August 29 -- 31, was relocated to Tropicana Field (home of the Tampa Bay Rays), in St. Petersburg, Florida. The Astros greatly improved against the Rangers in 2017, going 12 -- 7 against them and winning the season series.
At the August 31 waiver - trade deadline GM Jeff Luhnow acquired veteran starting pitcher and Cy Young Award winner Justin Verlander to bolster the starting rotation. Verlander won each of his 5 regular season starts with the Astros, yielding only 4 runs over this stretch. He carried his success into the playoffs, posting a record of 4 -- 1 in his 6 starts, and throwing a complete game in Game 2 of the ALCS. Verlander was named the 2017 ALCS MVP.
The Astros clinched their first division title as a member of the American League West division, and first division title overall since 2001. They also became the first team in Major League history to win three different divisions: National League West in 1980 and 1986, National League Central from 1997 to 1999 and 2001, and American League West in 2017. On September 29, the Astros won their 100th game of the season, the second time the Astros finished a season with over 100 wins, the first being in 1998. They finished 101 -- 61, with a 21 - game lead in the division, and faced the Red Sox in the first round of the AL playoffs. The Astros defeated the Red Sox three games to one, and advanced to the American League Championship Series against the New York Yankees. The Astros won the ALCS four games to three, and advanced to the World Series to play against the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Astros defeated the Dodgers in the deciding seventh game of the World Series, winning the first championship in franchise history.
The city of Houston celebrated the team 's accomplishment with a parade on the afternoon of November 3, 2017. Houston 's Independent School District gave the students and teachers the day off to watch the parade.
On November 16, 2017 José Altuve was named the American League Most Valuable Player, capping off a historic season in which he accumulated 200 hits for the fourth consecutive season, led the majors with a. 346 BA, and was the unquestioned clubhouse leader of the World Series champions.
Source:
Two awards are presented each year, one to a Houston Astro and one to a St. Louis Cardinal, each of whom exemplifies Kile 's virtues of being "a good teammate, a great friend, a fine father and a humble man. '' The winner is selected by each local chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America.
The number 42 is retired by Major League Baseball in honor of Jackie Robinson.
Source:
Nellie Fox
Jeff Bagwell Craig Biggio
Leo Durocher Randy Johnson
Eddie Mathews Joe Morgan
Robin Roberts Iván Rodríguez
Nolan Ryan Don Sutton
Gene Elston
Milo Hamilton
Harry Kalas
Pitchers Starting rotation
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Closer
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Outfielders
Pitchers
Catchers
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7 - or 10 - day disabled list Suspended list Personal leave Roster and coaches updated August 11, 2018 Transactions Depth chart
The Astros have held their spring training at FITTEAM Ballpark of the Palm Beaches in West Palm Beach, Florida since 2017. They share the stadium with the Washington Nationals.
From 1985 to 2016, the Astros held spring training at Osceola County Stadium in Kissimmee, Florida.
* In December 2016, the Astros agreed to a 30 - year deal to field a Class - A Advanced team in Fayetteville, North Carolina, beginning in 2019. The team will play the 2017 and 2018 seasons in Buies Creek while a new stadium is built in Fayetteville.
Since 2013, the Astros ' flagship radio station is KBME, Sportstalk 790 AM (a Fox Sports Radio affiliate). Previously, the team had a partnership with KTRH (740 AM) which went from 1999 to 2012 (both stations are owned by iHeartMedia). This change suddenly made it difficult for listeners outside of Houston itself to hear the Astros, as KTRH runs 50 kilowatts of power day and night, and KBME runs only five kilowatts. As a result, KTRH is audible across much of Central, East, and South Texas, whereas KBME can only be heard in Houston, especially after dark. Milo Hamilton, a veteran voice who was on the call for Hank Aaron 's 715th career home run in 1974, retired at the end of the 2012 season, after broadcasting play - by - play for the Astros since 1985. Dave Raymond and Brett Dolan shared play - by play duty for road games, while Raymond additionally worked as Hamilton 's color analyst (while Hamilton called home games only for the past few seasons before his retirement); they were not retained and instead brought in Robert Ford and Steve Sparks to begin broadcasting for the 2013 season.
Spanish language radio play - by - play is handled by Francisco Romero, and his play - by - play partner is Alex Treviño, a former backup catcher for the club.
During the 2012 season Astros games on television were announced by Bill Brown and Jim Deshaies. In the seven seasons before then, Astros games were broadcast on television by Fox Sports Houston, with select games shown on broadcast TV by KTXH. As part of a ten - year, $1 billion deal with Comcast that includes a majority stake jointly held by the Astros and the Houston Rockets, Houston Astros games moved to the new Comcast SportsNet Houston at the beginning of the 2013 season. On September 27, 2013 CSN Houston filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy and surprising the Astros who own the largest stake. After being brought out of bankruptcy by DirecTV Sports Networks and AT&T, the channel 's name was changed to Root Sports Southwest then later AT&T SportsNet Southwest.
The current television team consists of Todd Kalas and Geoff Blum.
Orbit is the name given to MLB 's Houston Astros mascot, a lime - green outer - space creature wearing an Astros jersey with antennae extending into baseballs. Orbit was the team 's official mascot from the 1990 through the 1999 seasons, where Junction Jack was introduced as the team 's mascot with the move from the Astrodome to then Enron Field in 2000. Orbit returned after 13 - year hiatus on November 2, 2012 at the unveiling of the Astros new look for their 2013 debut in the American League. The name Orbit pays homage to Houston 's association with NASA and nickname Space City.
The Astros had been represented by a trio of rabbit mascots named Junction Jack, Jesse and Julie from 2000 through 2012.
In April 1977, the Houston Astros introduced their very first mascot, Chester Charge. Created by Ed Henderson, Chester Charge was a Texas cavalry soldier on a horse. Chester appeared on the field at the beginning of each home game, during the seventh inning stretch and then ran around the bases at the conclusion of each win. At the blast of a bugle, the scoreboard would light up and the audience would yell, "Charge! ''
General
In - line citations
See also: List of companies in Houston
See: List of colleges and universities in Houston
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who plays nicky in night at the museum | Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb - wikipedia
Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb is a 2014 American comedy adventure film directed by Shawn Levy and written by David Guion and Michael Handelman. It is the third and final installment in the Night at the Museum trilogy. The film stars Ben Stiller, Robin Williams, Owen Wilson, Dan Stevens and Ben Kingsley. In Secret of the Tomb, security guard Larry Daley must travel to London to return the tablet of Ahkmenrah, an Egyptian artifact which causes the exhibits to come to life, before the magic disappears.
Principal photography of Secret of the Tomb took place from January to May 2014 in London, England and British Columbia, Canada. The film premiered on December 11, 2014, at New York City 's Ziegfeld Theater and was released in the United States on December 19, 2014. Secret of the Tomb grossed over $363 million at the box office. This film was dedicated to the memory of Robin Williams, who died four months before the film 's release, and fellow Night at the Museum actor Mickey Rooney, who died before principal photography was finished.
In 1938 Egypt, a team of archaeologists discover the tomb of pharaoh Ahkmenrah, including a young Cecil Fredericks, finding the magical Tablet of Ahkmenrah. The locals warn the group that removing the tablet will end its magic. In present - day New York City, Larry Daley remains the night guard of the American Museum of Natural History. He, Theodore Roosevelt, Sacagawea, Attila the Hun, Jedediah, Octavius, Rexy the Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton and Dexter the capuchin monkey help re-open the Hayden Planetarium. A new wax Neanderthal resembling Larry named Laaa is introduced, identifying Larry as his father. Ahkmenrah shows Larry that the tablet is corroding, which later causes the exhibits to act erratically, causing mayhem at the planetarium 's reopening. Afterwards, Larry catches his son Nick, who plans on taking a gap year to sort out his life, throwing a house party.
Larry reunites with Cecil, now in retirement, who realizes the end of the tablet 's magic will cause the exhibits to become lifeless. Cecil explains that Ahkmenrah 's parents, Merenkahre and Shepseheret, may be able to restore the tablet 's power but that they are located in the British Museum. Larry convinces the museum 's curator, Dr. McPhee, to let him ship Ahkmenrah to London to restore the tablet, convinced that McPhee knows its secrets. Larry and Nick travel to the British Museum, bypassing the night guard Tilly. To Larry 's surprise, Roosevelt, Sacagawea, Attila, Jed, Octavius, Dexter, Rexy and Laaa have come as well, and Laaa is left to stand guard while the others search the museum, the tablet bringing its own exhibits to life.
They are joined by a wax Sir Lancelot, who helps them fight off aggressive museum exhibits like a Xiangliu statue and a Triceratops skeleton. Jedediah and Octavius fall through a ventilation shaft but are rescued from an erupting Pompeii model by Dexter. The group find Ahkmenrah 's parents, learning the tablet 's power can be regenerated by moonlight, since it is empowered through the magic of Khonsu. Lancelot mistakes the tablet for the Holy Grail and steals it, leaving to find Camelot. Larry and Laaa are locked in the employee break room by Tilly, but they escape, and Laaa remains behind to distract Tilly, during which they become attracted to each other.
Lancelot crashes a performance of the musical Camelot, starring Hugh Jackman and Alice Eve as King Arthur and Queen Guinevere, but Larry and the others chase him to the theatre roof, where the New York exhibits begin to die. Lancelot then sees that the quest was about them and gives the tablet back. The moonlight restores the tablet 's power, saving the exhibits. They decide that Ahkmenrah and the tablet should stay with his parents, even if it means the New York exhibits will no longer come to life. Back in New York, Larry spends some final moments with his friends before sunrise.
Three years later, Larry, having taken the blame for the planetarium incident, thus giving McPhee his job back, now works as a teacher, and a traveling British Museum exhibit comes to New York. Tilly becomes the new night guard, and gives the tablet to Dr. McPhee, showing him its power and allowing the exhibits to awaken again. Outside, Larry watches them party inside.
On January 21, 2010, co-writer Thomas Lennon said to Access Hollywood, "I think it 's a really outstanding idea to do Night at the Museum 3, in fact. I wonder if someone 's not even already working on a script for that. I can not confirm that for a fact, but I can not deny it for a fact either... It might be in the works. '' In an October 2011 interview with The Hollywood Reporter, Stiller confirmed the sequel, however, he said that it was only in the "ideas stage ''. In February 2013 it was announced that the film, directed by Shawn Levy, would be released on December 25, 2014. On September 10, 2013, it was announced that shooting would start in February 2014.
On November 8, 2013, actor Dan Stevens was cast as Lancelot. On November 15, 2013, it was announced that Skyler Gisondo would be replacing Jake Cherry in the role of Nicky Daley. On December 18, 2013, it was announced that Stiller, Robin Williams, and Ricky Gervais would be returning for the sequel. On January 9, 2014, it was announced that Rebel Wilson would play a security guard in the British Museum. On January 14, 2014, the film 's release date was moved up from December 25, 2014, to December 19, 2014. On January 23, 2014, it was announced Ben Kingsley would play an Egyptian Pharaoh at the British Museum. Principal photography and production began on January 27, 2014. On May 6, 2014, it was announced that the film would be titled Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb. In May 2014, principal photography ended. Shooting took place outside the British Museum in London, England, as well as on a sound stage at the Vancouver Film Studios in Vancouver, British Columbia for scenes taking place inside the museum.
Alan Silvestri returned to score the final installment of the trilogy.
Varèse Sarabande released a soundtrack album of the score on January 6, 2015.
All tracks written by Alan Silvestri.
The film premiered at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City on December 11, 2014. It was then released on December 19, 2014 in the United States.
Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb grossed $113.7 million in North America, and $249.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $363.2 million against a budget of $127 million.
In North America, early analysts were predicting a potential $25 -- $28 million opening. In North America, the film was released on December 19, 2014 across 3,785 theaters. It opened Friday, December 19, 2014 and earned $5.6 million on its opening day, placing at number three at the box office. The film underperformed expectations during its opening weekend, earning $17.1 million, which was relatively lower than the openings of the original film ($30.4 million) and its sequel ($54.1 million). The film debuted at number two at the box office behind The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies. According to 20th Century Fox, the movie 's audience was 51 % male, with 54 % of the audience under the age of 25. In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave the film an average grade of "B + '', on an A+ to F scale.
The film began its international rollout the same weekend as the North American premiere and earned $10.4 million from 27 markets in its opening weekend, debuting at # 3 behind at the box office behind The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies and Penguins of Madagascar. The film expanded to an additional 40 markets in its second week and grossed $31.2 million. It topped the box office outside North America in its fourth weekend with a total gross of $46.2 million, primarily because of China, where it opened at # 1 with $26 million. The other highest opening figures were from Mexico ($5.85 million), Brazil ($3.1 million), Malaysia ($3.07 million), the UK ($3 million), Australia ($2.8 million), Germany ($2.1 million) and Singapore ($2 million).
For the weekend of January 16, 2015, the film grossed $17.8 million, which includes a $3.9 million debut in South Korea.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film received a 48 % approval rating, based on 104 reviews, with an average score of 5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "While not without its moments, Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb is a less - than - inspired sendoff for the trilogy. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 47 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Scott Foundas of Variety gave the film a positive review, praising the visual effects and calling the production values "topnotch '', and admiring Guillermo Navarro 's work. He added, "A most enjoyable capper to director Shawn Levy and producer Chris Columbus ' cheerfully silly and sneakily smart family - entertainment juggernaut... offers little in the way of secrets of surprises, but should add much holiday cheer to Fox 's box - office coffers. '' Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave the film three stars out of five and said, "The third part in what absolutely no one is calling the Night at the Museum ' trilogy ' turns out to be a good - natured and entertainingly surreal panto fantasy. '' Glenn Kenny awarded the film 21⁄2 stars out of 4 praising the Indiana Jones themed - set while criticizing the performances of the cast and said, "As talent - packed as any Night at the Museum picture may be -- in this third installment... -- one does n't come to a movie of this sort expecting anybody 's best work. Or at least one certainly should n't, because it wo n't materialize. '' Stephanie Zacharek of The Village Voice gave the film a positive review, saying "The third installment, Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb may be the best, and even the generally wound - too - tight Ben Stiller -- once again playing a bemused Museum of Natural History guard -- is easy to tolerate. '' Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "Where the previous films felt frenetic and forced, this outing feels breezier, more enjoyable and less contrived. '' Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News gave the film three out of five stars, saying "There 's a serenity to museum visits, especially if it 's a place you know and love. Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb, amazingly, recaptures that feeling in big - studio franchise form. ''
Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic gave the film two out of five stars, saying "Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb is a rather lackluster affair, a cash grab that tries to aim a little higher but confuses sappy shortcuts with real emotion. '' Joe McGovern of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B, saying "It 's kind of fun, unembarrassingly, and not least of all because the people who made it look like they had a good time doing so. '' Tom Long of The Detroit News gave the film a B, saying "There are some key elements that make this Night at the Museum sequel work better than its predecessor. '' Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star - Ledger gave the film two out of four stars, saying "The exhibits in this Night at the Museum may still come to life nightly. But their latest movie stays stubbornly inert. '' Tom Russo of The Boston Globe gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "Seeing Ben Stiller, the late Robin Williams, and their magically roused gang together again, this time in London, is initially all about indulgent, nostalgic smiles rather than new wows. But then comes the movie 's exceptionally clever and fresh final act, which delivers genuine surprise along with many laughs. '' Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph gave the film three out of five stars, saying "The third Night at the Museum film starts strongly, with its heart in the past... It 's an exciting opening, and perhaps too exciting for the film 's own good. It 's hard not to be disappointed when the plot moves back to the present and settles into the time - honoured formula of digitised creatures running riot and famous people in fancy dress doing shtick. '' Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a negative review, saying "Despite relocating across the pond to the esteemed British Museum, the creaky Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb fails to capitalize on the comic potential provided by that change of venue. ''
Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club gave the film a C+, saying "Secret of the Tomb plays it as a source of corny jokes, pop - culture references, and father - son bonding moments. In other words, it 's exactly the kind of film that should n't be expected to engage with its assorted bizarre subtexts -- but what a movie it could be if it did. '' Sara Stewart of the New York Post gave the film two out of four stars, saying "For piquing kids ' interest in history and nature, you could do worse than this goofy Ben Stiller franchise. But its third installment is more meh than manic, too reliant on wide shots of the ragtag Museum of Natural History cohorts striding down corridors. You get the feeling returning director Shawn Levy is ready to hang it up. '' Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film one and a half stars out of five, saying "The dialogue is schmaltzy and often painfully unfunny. The special effects are often so 1980s - bad, one wonders if it was a deliberate choice, to make the creepy visuals of sculptures dancing and paintings moving less frightening to young viewers. Time and again, terrific actors sink in the equivalent of cinematic quicksand, helpless against the sucking sound of this movie. '' Drew Hunt of Slant Magazine gave the film one out of four stars, saying "None of the entries in the Night at the Museum series could ever pass for high art, but a wealth of comedic talent gave the first two installments a madcap energy that somewhat forgave their childish premises. Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb, the third and supposedly final edition in the franchise, is nothing more than an uncomfortably transparent contractual obligation. ''
Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb was released on Blu - ray and DVD on March 10, 2015. The film debuted in second place on the home media charts behind The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1.
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why does the windward side of a mountain receives more rain | Rain shadow - wikipedia
A rain shadow is a dry area on the leeward side of a mountainous area (away from the wind). The mountains block the passage of rain - producing weather systems and cast a "shadow '' of dryness behind them. Wind and moist air is drawn by the prevailing winds towards the top of the mountains, where it condenses and precipitates before it crosses the top. The air, without much moisture left, advances across the mountains creating a drier side called the "rain shadow ''.
The condition exists because warm moist air rises by orographic lifting to the top of a mountain range. As atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude, the air has expanded and adiabatically cooled to the point that the air reaches its adiabatic dew point (which is not the same as its constant pressure dew point commonly reported in weather forecasts). At the adiabatic dew point, moisture condenses onto the mountain and it precipitates on the top and windward sides of the mountain. The air descends on the leeward side, but due to the precipitation it has lost much of its moisture. Typically, descending air also gets warmer because of adiabatic compression (see Foehn winds) down the leeward side of the mountain, which increases the amount of moisture that it can absorb and creates an arid region.
There are regular patterns of prevailing winds found in bands round the Earth 's equatorial region. The zone designated the trade winds is the zone between about 30 ° N and 30 ° S, blowing predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. The westerlies are the prevailing winds in the middle latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees latitude, blowing predominantly from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere. The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes can come in the Roaring Forties between 30 and 50 degrees latitude.
Examples of notable rain shadowing include:
On the largest scale, the entirety of the North American Interior Plains are shielded from the prevailing Westerlies carrying moist Pacific weather by the North American Cordillera. More pronounced effects are observed, however, in particular valley regions within the Cordillera, in the direct lee of specific mountain ranges. Most rainshadows in the western United States are due to the Sierra Nevada and Cascades.
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disney's beauty and the beast the broadway musical | Beauty and the Beast (musical) - wikipedia
Beauty and the Beast is a musical with music by Alan Menken, lyrics by Howard Ashman and Tim Rice, and book by Linda Woolverton. Adapted from Walt Disney Pictures ' Academy Award - winning 1991 animated musical film of the same name -- which in turn had been based on the classic French fairy tale by Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont -- Beauty and the Beast tells the story of a cold - blooded prince who has been magically transformed into an unsightly creature as punishment for his selfish ways. To revert into his true human form, the Beast must first earn the love of a bright, beautiful young woman whom he has imprisoned in his enchanted castle before it is too late.
Critics, who hailed it as one of the year 's finest musicals, immediately noted the film 's Broadway musical potential when it was first released in 1991, encouraging Disney CEO Michael Eisner to venture into Broadway. All eight songs from the animated film were reused in the musical, including a resurrected musical number which had been cut from the motion picture. Original songwriter Menken composed six new songs for the production alongside lyricist Rice, replacing Ashman who had died during production of the film. Woolverton, who had written the film 's screenplay, adapted her own work into the musical 's libretto, and specifically expanded upon the characterization of the Beast. Woolverton also expanded the storylines of the castle staff from servants who had already been transformed into household objects into humans who were gradually turning into inanimate objects. Costumes were designed by Ann Hould - Ward, who based her creations on both the animators ' original designs as well as the Rococo art movement after researching how clothing and household objects looked during the 18th century.
After completing tryouts in Houston, Beauty and the Beast premiered on Broadway on April 18, 1994, starring Susan Egan and Terrence Mann as the eponymous Belle and Beast, respectively. The musical opened to mixed reviews from theatre critics, but was a massive commercial success and well received by audiences. Beauty ran on Broadway for 5,461 performances for thirteen years (1994 - 2007), becoming Broadway 's tenth longest - running production in history. The musical has grossed more than $1.4 billion worldwide and played in thirteen countries and 115 cities. It has also become a popular choice for high school productions.
Still recovering from Walt Disney 's demise, Disney 's animated films continued to experience a noticeable decline in quality while struggling to attain critical and commercial success during the 1970s and 1980s. The Walt Disney Company CEO Michael Eisner was hired to ensure the performance of the studio 's next animated projects, despite having virtually no animation experience. Eisner himself had been a theatre major in college. Eisner 's first hire as Disney 's CEO was theatrical producer Peter Schneider, who subsequently became responsible for hiring more artists who shared similar theatrical backgrounds to contribute to the studio 's next animated releases, among them lyricist Howard Ashman and his long - time collaborator, composer Alan Menken. Ashman and Menken had previously amassed great live musical success with their Off - Broadway production Little Shop of Horrors, but the performance of Ashman 's first Broadway venture Smile had been disappointing. Eager to redeem himself, Ashman agreed to work on Disney 's animated film The Little Mermaid (1989), which he and Menken would famously decide to approach as though they were scoring a Broadway musical. Upon release, The Little Mermaid was a massive critical and commercial success, garnering two Academy Awards, both of them for Ashman and Menken 's original music. Disney established a successful renaissance period, during which Ashman and Menken became responsible for teaching the art of transforming traditional animated films into animated musicals.
Inspired by Mermaid 's success, production on an animated musical adaptation of the "Beauty and the Beast '' fairy tale began shortly afterward, during which Ashman finally confessed to Menken that he was dying of AIDS, a secret he had been keeping from the studio in fear of being discriminated against or fired. Before the film had even been completed, executive vice president Ron Logan suggested to Eisner that he consider adapting Beauty and the Beast for Broadway, an idea Eisner quickly deflected. While the film, written by screenwriter Linda Woolverton, was premiering at the New York Film Festival, an ailing Ashman was being cared for at St. Vincent 's Hospital; the lyricist succumbed to his disease four days later on March 14, 1991, dying eight months before the film 's November release. Beauty and the Beast became the last project on which Menken worked with Ashman. The film was released to immediate critical acclaim and commercial success, outperforming The Little Mermaid by becoming the highest - grossing animated film in history, as well as the first animated film to be nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture. Once again, Academy Awards were won for Ashman and Menken 's music. Several critics noticed the film 's live musical potential, among them prolific New York Times theatre critic Frank Rich. Lamenting the Broadway selection at the time, Rich famously praised the songwriting duo for having written "(t) he best Broadway musical score of 1991 '', while hailing the film as a "better (musical)... than anything he had seen on Broadway '' in 1991. Rich 's review would ultimately provide Eisner and Katzenberg with the confidence needed to seriously consider the film as a potential Broadway project. Disney was also inspired by the successes of Broadway musicals such as Cats, Les Misérables and The Phantom of the Opera, strongly believing their production could be just as profitable.
Virtually unknown at the time, Robert Jess Roth was appointed the production 's director based on his various successes directing live shows at the Disney theme parks. Eisner and Katzenberg had opted against hiring a more established director in order to retain creative control over the project, believing that an A-list director would likely feel more inclined to challenge their vision. Roth himself had previously pursued Eisner about investing in a Broadway show -- originally suggesting a stage adaptation of Mary Poppins (1964) -- only to have his idea declined, citing cost of investment and time concerns. However, Eisner invited Roth to ask him about pursuing Broadway again in the future once he had finished directing three additional Disney theme park shows. Ultimately impressed with Roth 's adaptation of The Nutcracker, Eisner finally suggested an adaptation of Beauty and the Beast, inspired by the success of a condensed stage version of the film at Disneyland, although briefly discouraged by the idea of having humans instantly transformed into inanimate objects live. Since the film had not yet been released on home video, Roth spent an entire day re-watching Beauty and the Beast in theaters while brainstorming how to present its fantastical elements onstage, and eventually worked with choreographer Matt West and set designer Stan Meyer on their own proposal, with contributions from Menken and Woolverton. In a hotel in Aspen, Roth convinced Eisner and Katzenberg to green - light a Broadway adaptation of Beauty and the Beast using a combination of 140 storyboards, costume sketches, fabric swatches and demonstrating one illusion. Eisner retained final approval over all creative elements of the production, "from the lowest chorus swing performer to the director, stars and design team. '' Menken was initially skeptical of Roth 's qualifications, as he had never directed a Broadway show before. Meanwhile, the producers were concerned that audiences might not be interested in seeing the same story that they had enjoyed on film on Broadway. Among the skeptics was theatrical producer Steven Suskin, author of Opening Night and Broadway, who argued that the production was more likely to be successful in reverse: "(The movie is) basically written as a theater piece. I 'm sure it would 've worked in the theater first, and it then would 've worked in the movies, '' believing audiences would have difficulties accepting a new version of such an immensely popular work.
Beauty and the Beast became Disney 's first Broadway venture, although a stage adaptation of Disney 's animated film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) had premiered in New York in 1979, produced by Radio City Music Hall Productions, Inc. Theatre Under the Stars ' executive director Frank Young campaigned heavily to have the show open in Houston, even getting Governor Ann Richards involved in order to secure the stage rights.
Roth summarized Beauty and the Beast as a story about "seeing past the exterior of a person and into his or her heart ''. Woolverton learned that Disney had commissioned her to adapt the animated film she had written into a Broadway musical while she was vacationing with her family in Maui, and her initial response to the idea was "Yikes. '' In the process of adapting her own animated screenplay into a full - length, two - act libretto for the stage, Woolverton contributed several distinct changes to the material, specifically instilling more emotional "depth '' into each main character. The writer expanded the story by both "fleshing out '' each character and allowing room for new musical numbers. Namely, Woolverton made the Beast a more threatening yet sympathetic figure; the writer expanded upon his characterization by developing the Beast into "a fuller character '', aided by the addition of his own song, "If I Ca n't Love Her ''. Meanwhile, the book - loving Belle was adapted into a more headstrong and determined heroine. Belle and the Beast 's relationship benefits from a new scene Woolverton wrote specifically for the stage, during which the couple read in the castle 's library; Belle introduces the Beast to the tale of King Arthur and reads the book to him, to which the Beast responds by showing genuine vulnerability for the first time.
In 1993, Woolverton explained to the Los Angeles Times that "the mythology in the story would be changed to explain, for example, a 6 - foot - tall candelabra. '' Perhaps Woolverton 's most significant modification involves the enchanted objects, and the decision to have the enchantress ' spell gradually transform the castle 's staff of loyal servants into household objects throughout the entire duration of the musical, as opposed to having already done so immediately at the beginning. Essentially, becoming completely inanimate if the spell is not broken in time would equate to each character dying, which ultimately augments the story 's drama. Consequently, this plot decision enhanced the story into a tale about people being forced to make difficult decisions, as opposed to solely a story of a man struggling to retain his humanity, in turn providing the audience with an opportunity to care about the supporting characters dramatically.
Generally, Woolverton 's book remained quite faithful to the original text; the plot is essentially the same, but particular detail has been added in order to "flesh out '' the story. The feather duster and wardrobe characters -- only minor characters in the animated film -- were broadened into fully realized supporting characters and named for the first time; Woolverton named them Babette and Madame de la Grande Bouche, respectively. Taking her job seriously, Woolverton worked relentlessly on revising the script, and often took the cast 's suggestions into consideration (though not always yielding to their opinions). Despite the musical having been based on a pre-existing story by Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont, Woolverton retains a sole writing credit for her work.
Broadway producers are usually eager to cast big - named performers in their musicals, but Katzenberg, famous at the time for avoiding working with actors of such caliber, decided against this practice for Beauty and the Beast. Eisner concluded that most of the film 's original voice actors would be too busy to reprise their roles onstage. In her Broadway debut, then - 22 - year - old actress Susan Egan was cast as the musical 's original Belle. Egan, who had not yet seen the film, had been auditioning for several other Broadway projects at the time -- namely My Fair Lady, Carousel and Grease -- in which she was much more interested. Despite longing to originate a Broadway role, the actress was initially reluctant to audition for Beauty and the Beast because she thought that "it was a terrible idea for Disney to put a cartoon on Broadway. '' Additionally, Egan felt she was not attractive enough to play a character touted "the most beautiful girl in the village '', but her agent managed to convince her otherwise. Without any film to reference, Egan determined that Belle is supposed to be a "quirky '' character and approached her funnier than how she is depicted in the film, in turn garnering laughs from the producers -- who were amused by her unique interpretation -- and eventually earning several callbacks. Meanwhile, her competition of 500 actresses, many of whom were simply offering imitations of voice actress Paige O'Hara 's original performance, continued to be eliminated.
Egan 's final week of auditions, during which she sang for Menken for the first time, was particularly challenging. On her last day of auditioning, Egan auditioned opposite several different actors trying out for the roles of the Beast and Gaston. As the day concluded, Roth directed Egan to approach the role as "a straight ingénue '', and she was ultimately cast upon proving capable of playing Belle both straight and comically. Only afterward did Egan celebrate by finally renting and watching the entire film for the first time. Although Egan did not feel particularly pressured about the role, she was grateful to be surrounded by a supporting cast of veteran Broadway performers.
Actor Terrence Mann was cast as the Beast. Mann had previously performed as Javert in Les Misérables, for which he was nominated for a Tony Award. For his final audition for Disney management, Mann performed for a large audience comprising Disney executives and secretaries in a theatre located on 42nd Street, which he felt was in stark contrast to the usual method of auditioning for six to eight people in a dark theatre. Actor Gary Beach was cast as Lumiere. Beach had seen Beauty and the Beast premiere at the El Capitan Theatre, prior to which he had watched a stage rendition of the film, and thoroughly enjoyed both. Beach was particularly drawn to Jerry Orbach 's rendition of "Be Our Guest '' in his role as Lumiere, thinking, "Now why ca n't I get a part like that ''. Two years later, Beach received a call from casting director Jay Binder inviting him to play Lumiere during their workshop of Beauty and the Beast, but kept turning down the offer due to having prior commitments to an upcoming show starring comedian Carol Burnett. It was only at Burnett 's insistence that Beach finally accepted. Amidst a cast of relatively obscure actors, Tom Bosley, famous for his roles on the television series Happy Days and Murder, She Wrote, became the show 's most recognizable performer when he was cast as Belle 's father Maurice.
All eight of the film 's original songs were retained for the Broadway adaptation. The song "Human Again '' had originally been written for the film, but it was ultimately abandoned due to time and story constraints; the musical number was finally resurrected for and included in the production. Composer Alan Menken, who had both scored and written the film 's songs alongside lyricist Howard Ashman, returned to the project to write six new songs for the musical. Lyricist Tim Rice joined Menken to co-write the new numbers, replacing Ashman who had died in 1991, before the film was released. Both Menken and Rice initially approached the project with some resistance; Menken 's emotional attachment to the music he had written with Ashman made him fear Disney 's vision of a Broadway musical would transform Beauty and the Beast into an attraction too similar to what one would find at Walt Disney World. Meanwhile, Rice, who had previously worked as composer Andrew Lloyd Webber 's lyricist on the Broadway musicals Jesus Christ Superstar and Evita, was hesitant to replace Ashman in fear of worsening Beauty and the Beast. Notably, Rice had similarly replaced Ashman to write the remaining songs for Disney 's Aladdin (1992) after the lyricist died. Ultimately, the collaboration resulted in approximately half of the Broadway score having co-writing credits by Menken and Ashman, while the remaining half are Menken and Rice compositions. The Menken - Rice songs are sometimes billed as "additional songs composed by (Alan) Menken and lyrics by Tim Rice. '' On working on the musical without Ashman, Menken explained that "The main challenge... was blending the lyrics of Tim Rice with those of Howard. In the end, the finished score has a quality all its own; a hybrid between '' Ashman and Rice 's styles. Elaborating on the main difference between writing songs for the stage as opposed to film, Menken stated that the lack of close - ups and montages in a live musical production creates a requirement for more singing material in order "to provide the same kind of illumination that intimate facial expression provides. ''
Most of the new material focused on character development, such as Gaston 's "Me '', Belle 's "Home '' and the Beast 's "If I Ca n't Love Her ''. Some new songs, Maurice 's fatherly ballad "No Matter What '' and Gaston, Lefou, and Monseuir 's D'Arque villainous number "Maison des Lunes '', for example, were written to serve as "time - servers ''. In 1998, a seventh song entitled "A Change in Me '' was written four years into production 's run specifically for R&B singer Toni Braxton when she joined the cast to play Belle, and appears during the show 's second act. The idea for the song originated while Braxton was still in negotiations with Disney to appear in the show for a total of three months, but various circumstances led to the singer constantly delaying signing the contract. It was not until Braxton had dinner with Menken, Rice and West that she finally agreed to sign the contract under the condition that a brand new song be written specifically for her, which an intoxicated Rice had drunkenly offered and promised. When confronted by Roth about his promise upon learning of it from Braxton a few days later, within 24 hours Rice successfully discovered a location within the musical in which to include a new song, specifically "Where Belle tells Maurice about how the time that she spent with the Beast in his castle has changed her. '' That song ultimately became the ballad "A Change in Me '', which lyrically addresses the ways in which Belle 's initial motivations have ultimately changed during her imprisonment, explaining to Maurice that she has matured and no longer longs for what she originally cited in "Belle (Reprise) ''. Braxton premiered the song in the form of a live performance on The Rosie O'Donnell Show. Both the song and Braxton 's performance were well received, and "A Change in Me '' has been included in the musical ever since. Eisner especially enjoyed the song, demanding that it be included in international productions as well, to which he personally traveled in order to teach it to the cast.
Music supervision was handled by Michael Kosarin, with sound design by John Petrafesa Jr. Unlike in the film, Belle actually performs and dances alongside the enchanted objects during "Be Our Guest '', which resembles "a high - energy Vegas number '' similar to the musical Ziegfeld Follies. The original Broadway cast recording of Beauty and the Beast was released by Walt Disney Records in 1994. Similar cast albums followed suit, including Australian and Japanese recordings in 1994 and 1996, respectively. "A Change in Me '' has yet to be included on any official English - language cast recordings.
Stanley Meyer designed the production 's set. Following Disney 's instructions "to make the animated film come to life '', Meyer 's set was very much a literal interpretation of the film. Meyer found it "tricky '' to translate two - dimensional environments into a three - dimensional world. The West Wing 's appearance mirrors that of its resident the Beast, being hideous on the outside but beautiful when the audience is finally taken inside of it. In stark contrast to popular musicals The Phantom of the Opera and Into the Woods, Beauty and the Beast 's set resembles a hybrid of Gothic Victorian and Louis Quinze. Disney hired costume designer Ann Hould - Ward to design the musical 's costumes because the studio enjoyed a "certain aesthetic '' she had used in her previous work, and thus allowed her much creative freedom. Roth was particularly impressed with the designer 's contributions to the musicals Sunday in the Park With George and Into the Woods. Hould - Ward accepted Disney 's offer because she was interested in seeing exactly how a corporate company producing a Broadway musical for the first time would "change the Broadway world. '' Conceptualization began in summer 1992. For research purposes, Disney encouraged Hould - Ward to reference the animated film; she also researched clothing worn throughout the late 18th century, during which the original fairy tale was written, and spent one year discovering how household items looked during the mid-1700s. Additionally, Hould - Ward visited with Beauty and the Beast 's original animators, spending one week learning how they created their characters to ensure that they would be recognizable to those who had seen the film. However, the designer also decided that her own creations would not exactly replicate the film 's. Basing the costumes on the Rococo art movement, Hould - Ward presented her initial ideas to Eisner and then - Disney president Frank Wells. Once approved, Hould - Ward and her team spent the following year creating prototypes of each major costume. With an unusually long work schedule of two years, Hould - Ward recalled that "this kind of timeline... was n't the norm in a Broadway musical '' at the time.
The process of designing Beauty and the Beast 's costumes was more collaborative between designer and actor than most other Broadway productions Hould - Ward had previously worked on, and she frequently sought input from the cast to make sure they were able to move. Designing Belle 's costumes was an "easy '' task for Hould - Ward; the character is initially dressed in standard Disney heroine attire until replaced by more elaborate costumes once Belle meets the Beast. Hould - Ward based the character 's famous yellow ballgown on several historic portraits. The gown became the first costume built for the production in order to accommodate Disney 's mandate to market the dress in photoshoots and commercials starring Egan and Mann, six months prior to rehearsals. Weighing 45 pounds, the dress is a combination of various patterns and materials, including a hoop skirt, silk, brocade, beading, flowers and bows. Too large to fit inside Egan 's dressing room after the ballroom sequence, undressing required assistance from three backstage crew members who used wires to hoist the dress up into the rafters, where it would be stored until the next performance. A lot of time was spent designing the Beast 's costume, the creation of which was especially challenging due to requirements to "allow enough of the performer to show through. '' Hould - Ward 's initial designs for the Beast were constantly rejected by Katzenberg, who reiterated that she "put the movie onstage '' until the producer realized that the excessive prosthetics were limiting Mann 's vocal performance. A wire frame was also used to maintain the costume 's shape, which evokes heavy metal fashion until ultimately substituted for a black Oscar de la Renta - inspired velvet suit when the Beast finally transforms back into a prince. Hould - Ward designed the leads ' costumes from the perspective of her daughter Leah, explaining, "when Leah comes to see it, she remembers from the movie that the Beast was in that blue jacket. Leah expects that blue jacket, and if you do n't give it to her, she and a lot of other ten - year - olds are going to be sad ''. At the same time, the designer wanted her creations to be equally as interesting on an intellectual level for parents to enjoy also.
The challenge of designing Belle and the Beast 's costumes paled in comparison to the difficulty of creating the enchanted objects, a combination of intricate wiring, prosthetics and pyrotechnics. Scale was the most prominent "obstacle '' for Hould - Ward 's to overcome: "The problem was the presentation of an actor as a life - sized teapot when the characters in the film were so little in comparison ''. Because the castle 's enchanted staff is slowly transforming into objects, shown at various stages of transformation without ever completely becoming the objects themselves, Hould - Ward was required to create several different costumes for each character in order to depict the transformation as the show progresses. Meanwhile, the costume of Lumiere alone was built by a team of forty people, including a creator of the prosthetic candle, hair and Vacuform specialist; the pyrotechnician, man responsible for equipping the costume 's pyro unit with butane and man operating the butane tank were each separate people. While transforming animation into real life, Hould - Ward also worked on incorporating the human body each costume, explaining, "I wanted the reality of the real person rather than the fantasy of the object... The essence of my job is to allow my real actors to take you to this fantastical place. '' A system of wired frames was used to help the actors support their characters ' heavy garments. Such elaborate costumes had never been designed for a Broadway production before. Cogsworth 's costume features a fully functioning clock on his face. Meanwhile, Madame de la Grande Bouche was the production 's most expensive costume.
The musical originally relied on heavy prosthetics and elaborate costumes in an attempt to make the musical resemble the film as closely as possible. In an attempt to replicate the film 's famous movie poster, Egan was dressed in flats while Mann was positioned on stilts to establish a more dramatic height difference. According to Egan, the studio "did n't trust the audience 's ability to suspend disbelief, something theater - goers are routinely asked to do. '' However, the company finally began to relent as the production neared Houston tryouts after a final run - through during which the actors did not wear costumes; thus, the prosthetics were gradually lessened and replaced by make up for the Beast and enchanted objects during 1993 previews. The elaborate costumes resulted in their fair share of technical difficulties, malfunctions and performance restrictions, many of which manifested during the seven - week tryouts in Houston. The costumes left little room for the performers to change between scenes, and air conditioners were fastened to them to regulate their temperatures. In general, the weight of the enchanted objects ' costumes limited their dancing. Chiropractors and therapists remained on standby to assist Fowler, whose Mrs. Potts costume required her to always keep one arm in the air. Beach compared holding up the two propane tanks used to represent Lumiere 's candles to carrying two hams around a grocery store two and a half hours. To build his stamina, Beach would carry the tanks during rehearsal. Beach 's hand caught fire during one performance, which he did not notice until Mann subtly pointed it out using "furtive head nods ''. While dancing, the inertia of Egan 's heavy ballgown caused its skirt to constantly pull her in the opposite direction of whichever way she turned. Mann likened performing in the Beast 's costume to wearing several heavy winter coats, comparing the wig to "four Angora cats and gaffer taping them to your head and then running around the block 10 or 12 times. '' Disney was outraged when, after their first performance at the Palace Theatre, The New York Times published caricaturist Al Hirschfeld 's line drawing interpretation of Belle and the Beast 's pose, in which Belle 's yellow gown was colored pink, and the Beast 's tuxedo appeared greenish as opposed to royal blue. When Disney confronted Hirschfeld, the artist defended his work, explaining, "The costumes may have been blue and yellow, but they made me feel green and pink. '' Hould - Ward adjusted the costumes to accommodate the locations as the production traveled to various theaters.
Lighting designer Natasha Katz was hired to work on Beauty and the Beast. When Disney first approached Katz to offer her the job, several of Katz 's cohorts -- specifically other lighting designers -- attempted to discourage her from accepting in fear of changing the appearance of musical theatre forever. In hindsight, Katz defended Disney 's work, explaining, "Beauty and the Beast did n't bring theatre back to New York, but it did change the dynamic, no question about it, of the business. '' Known for assisting David Copperfield with his illusions, Roth hired Jim Steinmeyer to work on Beauty and the Beast. Steinmeyer had previously contributed to the musical Merlin. The Beast 's transformation sequence during the second act was much - discussed. It took about 11 weeks to set the design.
On a cold winter 's night, an old beggar woman comes to a young spoiled prince 's castle, offering him a single rose in return for shelter. But the prince turns her away solely for her appearance. The old woman warns him not to be fooled by appearances, as true beauty lies within, only to be rejected again. She then transforms into a beautiful enchantress and turns the prince into a hideous Beast and his servants into various household objects. She gives him the rose to use as an hour - glass. The only way he can break the spell is to learn to love another and earn her love in return by the time the last petal falls ("Prologue '').
Ten years later, a beautiful young girl named Belle makes her way into town one morning in order to get a book from the local bookseller. On the way she expresses her wish to live in a world like her books, full of adventure, while the townspeople note her unparalleled beauty but find her love of books odd ("Belle ''). Belle has also attracted the attention of Gaston (the local hunter and town hero), who admires her only for her beauty.
Belle, however, is not oblivious to her peers ' views of her. She voices her concerns about it to her eccentric father and inventor, Maurice who assures her that she is anything but strange ("No Matter What ''). The two then put the finishing touches on his invention and Maurice heads off to an invention fair donning a scarf knitted for him by Belle ("No Matter What (Reprise) ''), but becomes lost in the woods and attacked by a pack of wolves. After surviving a wolf attack, he enters the Beast 's castle where the servants, including Lumière, a maître d ' turned into a candelabra, Cogsworth, the head of household turned into a clock, Babette, a maid turned into a feather duster that still seems to retain her flirtatious tendencies, Mrs. Potts, the head of the kitchen turned into a teapot, and Chip, her son turned into a teacup. They welcome him, but the horrid Beast arrives and locks Maurice away in the dungeon for trespassing.
Back in town, Gaston proposes to Belle, which she politely rejects ("Me ''). Appalled by Gaston 's forwardness, Belle once again voices her need for a life outside this provincial life ("Belle (Reprise) ''). Gaston 's sidekick, LeFou, returns from the woods wearing the scarf Belle knitted for Maurice. Belle realizes her father is in danger and heads into the woods to look for him. She ends up at the castle where she finds her father locked away in a dungeon. She makes a deal with the Beast, Maurice goes free but she remains instead. They agree and Maurice is sent back to town without being allowed to say goodbye. Belle is given a guest room and ordered by the Beast to join him for dinner. She mourns her situation ("Home ''), but Mrs. Potts and Madame de la Grande Bouche, an operatic wardrobe, attempt to cheer her up ("Home (Reprise) '').
Back in town, at the local tavern, Gaston sulks at his loss of a bride. LeFou and the patrons attempt to cheer him up ("Gaston ''), when Maurice rushes in claiming a Beast has Belle locked away, they laugh at him but Gaston formulates a plan ("Gaston (Reprise) ''). Back at the castle, the Beast grows impatient as Belle has yet to join him for dinner. Cogsworth informs him she refuses to come, after a shouting match between Belle and the Beast (which ends in a victory for Belle) he tells her if she can not eat with him then she will not eat at all. In his quarters, he sulks and notes his fate should the spell not break ("How Long Must This Go On? ''). Eventually, Belle does become hungry and ventures into the kitchen where the servants offer her dinner despite their master 's orders. They treat her to an amazing cabaret show ("Be Our Guest '').
After dinner, Belle gets a tour of the castle courtesy of Cogsworth and Lumière, her curiosity leads her to enter the West Wing, a place the Beast told her was forbidden. Mesmerized by a mysterious rose floating in a bell jar, she reaches out to touch it but before she can, the Beast stops her and orders her to get out accidentally shoving her in the process. Fearing for her life, Belle flees from the castle. Realizing his deadly mistake, the Beast knows he will be a monster forever if he can not learn to love her ("If I Ca n't Love Her '').
In the woods, Belle is attacked by wolves and is only rescued when the Beast comes to her aid, but he is injured during the fight and collapses ("Entr'acte / Wolf Chase ''). Instead of taking the chance to run home Belle helps him back to the castle. She cleans his injuries and after a brief argument about whose fault this is, the Beast thanks her for her kindness and thus their friendship is born. Wanting to give her a thank - you gift, the Beast gives Belle his huge library, which excites her. She notes a change in the Beast 's personality as the servants note a change in Belle and the Beast 's relationship ("Something There ''). They express their hope of being human once more ("Human Again '') while Belle asks the Beast to accompany her to dinner that night.
Back in the village, Gaston meets with the asylum owner Monsieur D'Arque. They plan to lock Maurice away to blackmail Belle into marrying Gaston ("Maison des Lunes ''). In the castle, the Beast and Belle attend a lovely dinner and personal ball, where they dance together in the ballroom ("Beauty and the Beast ''). The Beast, who plans to tell Belle he loves her, asks Belle if she is happy here, to which she responds positively but notes that she misses her father. He offers her his Magic Mirror to view him. She sees that Maurice is sick and lost in the woods and fears for his life. But even though the Beast knows there 's only a few hours left till the last petal falls from the rose, he allows Belle to leave in order to save her father; she departs after a tearful goodbye ("If I Ca n't Love Her (Reprise) '').
Belle finds her father and brings him back to their house in the village. After she is able to nurse him back to health, she explains the transformation she seems to have gone through while she was with the Beast ("A Change in Me ''). A mob arrives, led by Gaston to take Maurice to the asylum. Belle proves her father 's sanity by showing the townspeople the Beast is real using the Magic Mirror, but does n't realize the error in her gesture. The townspeople immediately fear the Beast, but Belle insists he 's gentle and kind. Gaston catches her tone and recognizes the Beast as his rival for Belle 's affections and organizes the mob to kill the Beast ("Mob Song ''). In order to warn the Beast, Belle and Maurice decide to beat the mob to the castle. However, Gaston and the mob had already reached the castle before Belle and Maurice did.
At the castle, the servants are able to keep the lynch mob at bay, but Gaston breaks through and finds the Beast in his tower. He engages in a fight with him, mercilessly beating and taunting him ("Battle ''). The Beast has lost the will to live at Belle 's departure. As Gaston moves in for the killing blow, Belle arrives. The Beast immediately turns on Gaston and is prepared to kill him, but spares his life after seeing the fear in his eyes. The Beast and Belle are reunited, but this reunion is cut short as Gaston fatally stabs the Beast. This act of violence causes Gaston to lose his footing and he falls to his death.
On the balcony, Belle assures the Beast he 'll live but they both know she is helpless to save him. She begs him not to leave her because she has found home in his company ("End Duet ''), but despite this, he dies; Belle sobs on his body and says she loves him just before the last rose petal falls. A transformation takes place ("Transformation '') and the Beast is alive and human once more. Though Belle does n't recognize him for the first time, she looks into his eyes and sees the Beast within and they kiss. The two of them sing of how their lives have changed because of love and they dance once more as the company, now changed back to their human form, gathers in the ballroom ("Beauty and the Beast (Reprise) '').
Beauty and the Beast premiered in a joint production of Theatre Under The Stars and Disney Theatrical at the Music Hall, Houston, Texas, from November 28, 1993, through December 26, 1993.
The musical opened on Broadway at the Palace Theatre on April 18, 1994, and ran there until September 5, 1999. The show then transferred to the Lunt - Fontanne Theatre on November 11, 1999, with an official opening date of November 16, 1999. The musical closed on July 29, 2007, after 46 previews and 5,461 performances, and is Broadway 's tenth - longest running production in history (as of January 2017). The production holds the record of being the longest running production at both the Palace Theatre, where it opened, and the Lunt - Fontanne Theatre, where it closed its Broadway run. The production cost an estimated $12 million, arguably higher, becoming the most costly Broadway musical at the time. However, some analysists estimate the cost to be closer to $20 million.
Directed by Robert Jess Roth with choreography by Matt West and assisted by Dan Mojica, the original Broadway cast included Susan Egan as Belle, Terrence Mann as the Beast, Burke Moses as Gaston, Gary Beach as Lumière and Beth Fowler as Mrs. Potts. Orchestrations were by Danny Troob (after his own orchestrations and arrangements of the film), scenic designer was Stan Meyer, costume designer Ann Hould - Ward, lighting designer Natasha Katz, sound was by T. Richard Fitzgerald, hair designer David H. Lawrence, and prosthetics were by John Dods. Illusions were by Jim Steinmeyer and John Gaughan, and pyrotechnic design was by Tyler Wymer.
The Broadway production closed to make way for Disney 's next musical venture, The Little Mermaid. With Disney set to open its Broadway version of The Little Mermaid on November 3, 2007, at the time, it was believed that having two Disney princess films on Broadway at the same time would divide audiences and cause competition between the two shows. At this point, Disney also had three other shows running at the same time: The Lion King, Tarzan, and Mary Poppins. It was reported that Disney Theatrical planned to revive the show on Broadway for the 2008 holiday season, but Disney did not pursue this.
The West End production opened at London 's Dominion Theatre on April 29, 1997, starring Julie - Alanah Brighten as Belle and Alasdair Harvey as the Beast. It also featured Burke Moses as Gaston, Derek Griffiths as Lumiere, Mary Millar as Mrs. Potts, Norman Rossington as Maurice, Barry James as Cogsworth, Di Botcher as Madame de la Grande Bouche, Richard Gauntlett as LeFou, and Rebecca Thornhill as Babette.
Over the course of the production, notable replacements included Michelle Gayle and Annalene Beechey as Belle, John Barrowman and Earl Carpenter as the Beast, Alex Bourne as Gaston, and Billy Boyle and Terry Doyle as Maurice. The production ended on December 11, 1999.
The production won the 1998 American Express Award for Best New Musical Olivier Award, against other nominees Enter the Guardsman, The Fix and Lady in the Dark.
The show had four US national tours. The first opened on November 15, 1995, and closed in 1999. It featured Kim Huber as Belle, Fred Inkley as the Beast, Patrick Page as Lumiere and Paige Davis as Babette. Patrick Page and Paige Davis met and fell in love during the tour. A second national tour opened in 1999 with Susan Owen as Belle and Grant Norman as The Beast. This production closed in 2003. The third national tour opened in 2001 and closed in 2003. This production starred Jennifer Shraeder as Belle and Roger Befeler as the Beast with Marc G. Dalio as Gaston. Notable replacements on the tours have included Sarah Litzsinger, Erin Dilly and Danyelle Bossardet as Belle. The three touring companies visited 137 venues in 90 North American cities. About 5.5 million people in the United States and Canada saw these tours. The fourth national tour of Beauty and the Beast began February 2010, opening in Providence, Rhode Island, starring Liz Shivener as Belle and Justin Glaser as the Beast. Under the direction of the original Broadway creative team, the show featured all new sets and costumes. The tour was the longest in the show 's history, running until July 2016.
The UK National tour (prior to the closure of the West End Production in 1999) began on November 2, 2001, at the Empire Theatre in Liverpool with stops in Bristol, Birmingham, Dublin, Southampton, Manchester and ended on April 12, 2003, at the Playhouse Theatre in Edinburgh. The tour starred Annalene Beechey (reprising her role from the London production) as Belle, Alistair Robins as the Beast, Ben Harlow as Gaston, Julia Goss as Mrs. Potts, Stephen Matthews as Lumiere Barry James (reprising his role from the London production) as Cogsworth, Billy Boyle (reprising his role from the London production) as Maurice, Karen Davies as Madame de la Grande Bouche, Kate Graham (reprising her role from the London production) as Babette, Anthony Clegg as LeFou, and Oliver Taylor (reprising his role from the London production) and Sion Eifion sharing the role of Chip. Notable replacements included Dianne Pilkington as Belle, Alex Bourne as the Beast, Earl Carpenter as Gaston, Marilyn Cutts as Mrs. Potts, Richard Tate as Maurice, and Drew Varley as LeFou. Madison Sqaure Garden Starrs Alan Bosley as Gaston
A Los Angeles production opened at the Shubert Theatre on April 12, 1995, and closed on September 29, 1996. Most of the original Broadway cast, including Susan Egan, Terrence Mann, Gary Beach, Beth Fowler, Burke Moses and Tom Bosley reprised their roles. Notable replacements included James Stacy Barbour as the Beast. The sets in this production were widely considered to be the largest out of all the musical 's productions in the world. After the show closed in Los Angeles, all of the sets were transferred for the production in Mexico City in 1997.
The Toronto production opened at the Princess of Wales Theatre on August 8, 1995, and closed in 1998. The production starred Kerry Butler as Belle and Chuck Wagner as the Beast, and Terry Doyle as Maurice. Notable replacements included Melissa Thomson as Belle and Steve Blanchard as the Beast. The lesser known Halifax production at the Neptune Theatre was the longest running production in the theatre 's history.
Beauty and the Beast has been performed in more than 30 countries, including Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Lebanon, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Philippines, Qatar, Romania, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, and United States. Over 35 million people have seen the show worldwide and it has grossed more than $1.7 billion.
On July 15, 1995, the musical began its original Australian run in Melbourne at The Princess Theatre, before moving on to Sydney. The original Australian cast included Michael Cormick as The Beast, Rachael Beck as Belle, Hugh Jackman as Gaston, and Ernie Bourne as Maurice.
In 1995, the musical opened in Japan and is performed by the Shiki Theatre Company. The musical continues to tour Japan.
In December 1997, the musical opened in Stuttgart at the Palladium Theatre, Stuttgart and played there until December 22, 2000. Leah Delos Santos played Belle and Uwe Kröger played the Beast and Marc G. Dalio played Gaston.
In 1999, the musical opened in China.
On March 4, 2005, Beauty and the Beast had its Scandinavian premiere at The Göteborg Opera with Fred Johanson as the Beast and Annica Edstam as Belle.
On June 16, 2005, the musical began its Philippine run at the Meralco Theater. Produced by Atlantis Productions, it featured KC Concepcion alternating with Karel Marquez as Belle, Jett Pangan as the Beast, and Calvin Millado as Gaston.
In South America, Argentina was the first country to produce it, with Marisol Otero as Belle, Juan Rodó as Beast, Diego Jaraz as Gaston, Gustavo Monje as LeFou, Pablo Lizaso as Lumière, Mónica Nuñez as Mrs. Potts, Omar Pini as Cogsworth, Alejandra Radano as Babette and Rodolfo Valss as Maurice. It ran from November 26, 1998, at the Teatro Ópera in Buenos Aires until August 15, 1999, before opening again in 2010. Brazil was the second country to host the musical. Disney had plans to bring it to the country in 1999, after the success in Argentina, but nobody really knew if it would work. Three years later, in 2002, Beauty and the Beast finally opened in Brazil at Teatro Abril, one of the biggest theaters in the country. It was a huge hit, for more than one and a half years, it was presented with Kiara Sasso playing Belle and Saulo Vasconcelos playing the Beast. In 2009, a new Belle and a new Beast were cast, Lissah Martins and Ricardo Vieira, as the musical came back to Brazil, Kiara Sasso was playing Maria in The Sound of Music. Beauty and the Beast remained for six months at Teatro Abril. Even though the play was brought back as a way to try to recoup some of the money lost in Brazil 's version of Miss Saigon, this second incarnation of Beauty and the Beast failed to create any critical buzz, or to be a box office success.
In Spain there have been three productions of the show. The first one, based on the original Broadway production, had its Madrid debut on December 2, 1999, at Teatro Lope de Vega. The original cast included Xenia Reguant (later replaced by Julia Möller) as Belle, Carlos Marín (later replaced by Joe Luciano) as Beast, Lisardo Guarinos (later replaced by Manuel Bandera) as Gaston, Víctor Ullate Roche as LeFou, Germán Torres as Lumière, Kirby Navarro as Mrs. Potts, David Venancio Muro as Cogsworth, Dulcinea Juárez as Babette, Laura Inclán as Madame de la Grande Bouche and Miguel de Grandy as Maurice. After a successful run of 27 months and about 900 performances, the production finally closed on March 3, 2002, becoming the longest - running musical ever in Madrid at that time. In 2007, a second version produced by Stage Entertainment premiered on October 3, at Teatro Coliseum, Madrid, for a limited run of six months, but the closing was postponed due to a successful season. The original cast included Julia Möller reprising her role as Belle (later replaced by María Adamuz), David Ordinas as Beast, Pablo Puyol as Gaston, Raúl Peña as LeFou, Armando Pita as Lumière, Angels Jiménez as Mrs. Potts (later replaced by Rita Barber), Esteban Oliver as Cogsworth, Silvia Luchetti as Babette, María José Oquendo as Madame de la Grande Bouche and Lorenzo Valverde as Maurice. The production closed on January 11, 2009, and was transferred to Barcelona, where it ran from February 26, 2009, to January 10, 2010, at BTM, with some changes in the cast, including Mercè Martínez as Mrs. Potts, Marta Capel as Babette, Patricia Paisal as Madame de la Grande Bouche and Albert Muntanyola as Maurice. In 2012, the Stage Entertainment version was relaunched as a touring production, beginning performances on September 6, at Teatro Calderón, Valladolid. The original cast of this third Spanish production included Talía del Val as Belle, Ignasi Vidal as Beast, Daniel Diges as Gaston, Raúl Peña as LeFou, Diego Rodríguez as Lumière, Mone as Mrs. Potts, Frank Capdet as Cogsworth, Marta Capel as Babette, Eva Diago as Madame de la Grande Bouche and Enrique R. del Portal as Maurice.
In 2005, Disney and Stage Entertainment produced a new version of the show using brand new sets and costumes. After touring the Netherlands and playing in Antwerp, Belgium, Disney and Stage Entertainment brought the show to Berlin, Germany, in 2006 after a (approx.) one - year run at the Metronom Theater in Oberhausen. This production opened in 2007 in Madrid, Spain, and in 2009 in Milan, Italy, with Arianna as Belle and Michel Altieri as the Beast. The Broadway production played a second time in Mexico City beginning in September 2007 and in Hiroshima, Japan, beginning in February 2008. The Broadway production opened in South Africa in September 2008 and ran until March 2009. In 2004, Disney began to license the show to other companies for touring, and the show has been performed by professional and amateur companies in many countries.
On October 24, 2013, Beauty and the Beast opened at Théâtre Mogador in Paris, France.
Beginning October 2014, Disney Theatrical Productions, NETworks and Broadway Entertainment Group launched an international tour in celebration of Beauty and the Beast 's 20th anniversary on stage. The tour opened at the Zorlu Center in Istanbul, Turkey, and closed in January 2016 at Dubai World Trade Centre, having visited Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Greece, Italy, Philippines, Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia, China, Taiwan, Egypt, Lebanon, Romania, and Qatar.
In December 2015, Beauty and the Beast came back to the Netherlands for a run at Circustheater in The Hague.
In 2016, Disney and Marmelade produced an updated version for the Flemish Region of Belgium. The original cast included Josje Huisman as Belle, Jan Schepens as Beast, Dieter Troubleyn as Gaston, Peter Van de Velde as Lumière, Frank Hoelen as Maurice, Ivan Pecnik as Cogsworth (called Tickens), Eline De Munck as Babette, Peter Thyssen as LeFou, Barbara Dex as Mrs. Potts and Saskia Schäfer as Madame de la Grande Bouche (called La Commodia). The show premiered on December 10, 2016, at Flanders Expo in Ghent.
The show 's rights became available (in association with Josef Weinberger Ltd.) to amateur performing groups and regional musical societies. The show has been performed in numerous countries, by theatre companies of both an amateur and professional level. In 2010 Tipperary Musical Society staged the Irish amateur premiere of Disney 's Beauty and the Beast, for which it was nominated for 4 AIMS Awards (Association of Irish Musical Societies) including Best Overall Show in Ireland and winning one, Best Actor in a Supporting Role (John Murphy for the part of Gaston). Belle was played by Bridget Nolan and Beast was played by Derek Ryan.
* New song or instrumental cue
† Expanded vocal or instrumental content, using either cut lyrics by Ashman or dance arrangements by Glen Kelly, or both.
‡ "Human Again '' was written by Menken and Ashman for the movie, but was cut, due to the complications it made on the film 's timeline. It was repurposed for the Broadway play, and on account of the musical 's great success, an entirely new animated sequence based on the Broadway version was set to this song and inserted into 2002 's Special Edition DVD release.
§ "A Change in Me '' was written into the show in 1998 for the debut of Toni Braxton and was retained thereafter.
# not in the Junior Broadway show
Music Theatre International offers two orchestrations for Beauty and the Beast.
The principal, larger orchestration is based on the original Broadway orchestration. It is scored for three synthesizers, a drum kit, a percussion section, double bass, three woodwind players, three French horns in F, two trumpets in B - flat, trombone, divided violins, cellos, and harp. The first woodwind player doubles on flute and piccolo, the second on English horn and oboe, and the third on clarinet, bass clarinet, and flute. The trombonist doubles on bass trombone and tuba.
The original Broadway orchestration featured two additional woodwind players. The first played flute and piccolo, the second oboe and English horn, the third piccolo, flute and clarinet in B - flat, the fourth piccolo, flute, clarinet in B - flat and bass clarinet in B - flat, and the fifth on bassoon and contrabassoon. The excised reed parts were used for the synthesizer parts upon their removal for the licensed orchestration.
The optional reduced orchestration is scored for two synthesizers, a percussion section, double bass, three woodwind players, a trumpet, a French horn, and solo violin and cello.
Notable Broadway cast replacements (approximate dates given where available)
The Original Broadway Cast Recording was released on April 26, 1994. The CD included Susan Egan as Belle, Terrence Mann as Beast, Burke Moses as Gaston, Gary Beach as Lumière and Beth Fowler as Mrs. Potts.
The Original Australian Cast Recording was released in 1995. The principal cast included Rachael Beck as Belle, Michael Cormick as Beast, Hugh Jackman as Gaston, Ernie Bourne as Maurice, Toni Lamond as Madame de la Grande Bouche, Grant Smith as Lumière, Robyn Arthur as Mrs. Potts and Bert Newton as Cogsworth.
The Original Vienna Cast Recording was released in 1996. The principal cast included Ethan Freeman as Beast, Caroline Vasicek as Belle, Kevin Tarte as Gaston, Viktor Gernot as Lumière, Ann Mandrella as Babette, and Rosita Mewis as Mrs. Potts.
The Original London Cast Recording was released in 1997. The principal cast included Julie - Alanah Brighten as Belle, Alasdair Harvey as Beast, Burke Moses as Gaston, Derek Griffiths as Lumière and Mary Millar as Mrs. Potts.
The Original Stuttgart Cast Recording was released in 1998. The principal cast included Uwe Kroger as Beast and Leah Delos Santos as Belle and Ann Mandrella as Babette.
The Original Madrid Cast Recording was released in 1999. The principal cast included Xenia Reguant as Belle, Carlos Marín as Beast, Lisardo Guarinos as Gaston, Víctor Ullate Roche as LeFou, Germán Torres as Lumière, David Venancio Muro as Cogsworth and Kirby Navarro as Mrs. Potts. A second cast recording for the new production was released in May 2008, starring Julia Möller as Belle, David Ordinas as Beast, Pablo Puyol as Gaston, Raúl Peña as LeFou, Armando Pita as Lumière, Esteban Oliver as Cogsworth and Angels Jiménez as Mrs. Potts.
A "junior '' version of the musical for middle and high school students was published by MTI. This version only included a selected number of the songs, including "Belle '', "Belle (Reprise) '', "Home '', "Home (Tag) '', "Gaston '', "Gaston (Reprise) '', "Be Our Guest '', "Something There '', "Human Again '', "Beauty and the Beast '', "The Mob Song '', "Home (Reprise) '', and "Beauty and the Beast (Reprise) ''. Also in "Belle (Reprise) '', The Silly Girls take Belle 's part in the beginning of the song instead of Belle having to sing the whole song. Also in "Something There '', Madame de la Grande Bouche and Babette sing as well.
Reception towards the tryouts in Houston were so enthusiastic that the production was extended for two weeks. Jerome Weeks of Variety responded to the show with a positive review, praising the performances of Egan, Mann and Moses, as well as the Beast 's new song "If I Ca n't Love Her ''. At the same time, Weeks felt that the production "gets close to slipping into a big - budget kiddie show or magic act with its overdone showbiz glitz and sparkly stage - illusion effects '' at times, but in the end predicted that "' Beauty and the Beast ' could well be the big new musical hit this Broadway season has been waiting for. '' However, in 1994, Beauty and the Beast finally premiered on Broadway to reviews that ranged from mixed to negative, leaving critics mostly unimpressed. Reactions from the New York theatre community and Broadway producers were particularly harsh, ridiculing Disney for deciding to produce the musical themselves as opposed to enlisting traditional theatre companies. Egan recalled that "the same five families (had) produced Broadway shows for a hundred years and Disney shook that up. ''
Nearly universally panned by theatre critics, they concurred that Beauty and the Beast was a "great spectacle, but not great theater ''. Likening the musical to the Empire State Building, David Richards of The New York Times called the show "hardly a triumph of art, but it 'll probably be a whale of a tourist attraction. '' While awarding specific praise towards its musical numbers, choreography, costumes and cast -- particularly Mann 's ability to "convey the delicacy of awakening love '' despite the physical demands of his costume, at the same time Richards criticized the production 's set and special effects for lacking subtlety, ultimately accusing them of leaving little "to the imagination ''. Richards concluded, "The result is a sightseer 's delight, which is n't the same thing as a theatergoer 's dream. '' Also writing for The New York Times, Vincent Canby disparaged the musical entirely as "relentlessly bland, busy, upbeat and robotlike '', criticizing the production for resembling "a dinner theater. '' Canby felt that the new Menken - Rice songs were "inferior '' to the originals, likened the special effects to Fourth of July sparklers, criticized the sound engineering for ranging from too loud to barely audible, and panning Woolverton 's book for failing to supplement her screenplay. Minor praise was awarded to the performances of Lamberts, Beach and Fowler, as well as Mann 's climactic beast - to - prince transformation. In addition to predicting that Beauty and the Beast would be derided by traditional Broadway theatre - goers and critics alike, Variety writer Jeremy Gerard was largely negative in his own review. While admitting that the production "boasts several real pluses '', Gerard criticized the show for appearing "bloated, padded, gimmick - ridden, tacky and... utterly devoid of imagination. '' The critic voiced his strong disapproval of the costumes while dismissing the set as "something designed to be seen by people in moving seats, maybe at Disneyland '', panning West 's choreography and ultimately deriding Roth 's directing and blocking of actors who "look generally like they 're following dotted lines on the stage. '' Critics agreed that Roth 's direction and West 's were equally uninspired. In a mixed review with a headline reading "Beauty and the Beast is n't magical in the least, even if it does bristle with magic tricks '', New York 's John Simon wrote that the production resembles "a belated infomercial '' for the film by which he was bored, yet impressed by its special effects and illusions. Simon also felt that the actors struggled to resemble their animated counterparts despite Hould - Ward 's, criticizing Egan 's acting, Woolverton 's dialogue and the new Menken - Rice numbers while praising Moses ', Beach 's and Fowler 's performances.
Audiences did not share critics ' negative opinions, and the musical famously resonated with the public and families. Children were especially delighted by the idea of their favorite movie performed on stage by live actors. Subsequent productions have gradually attracted kinder remarks; the national tours in particular have been well received. Reviewing a performance of the musical at the Shubert Theatre in Los Angeles in 1995, Tom Jacobs of Variety wrote, "Born in Hollywood as an animated film, Disney 's version of ' Beauty and the Beast ' has returned home as an opulent stage musical, a year after its Broadway bow. Both good and bad choices have been made in adapting the 1991 film, but with its outstanding performances, fantastic production values and memorable score, this show should warm the hearts of all but the most curmudgeonly theatergoers. '' However, Jacobs felt that the production suffered from the lack of danger felt watching the film. After having been left unimpressed upon viewing the original Broadway production, Variety 's Matt Wolf was pleasantly surprised by the musical 's West End debut one year later.
"Be Our Guest '' was used as the commercial for the 1994 Tony Awards. Michael Goldstein of New York correctly predicted that Mann would earn a Tony Award nomination for his performance. Despite having been nominated for a total of nine individual awards, Beauty and the Beast was ultimately shunned at the ceremony, winning only one award -- Best Costume Design -- for Hould - Ward. Nominated for the Tony Award for Best Musical, the production famously lost to Stephen Sondheim 's Passion, which is considered to be his own version of the "Beauty and the Beast '' fairy tale. In 1995, some of Hould - Ward 's costumes, namely Lumiere, were put on display in Nordstrom stores. Meanwhile, Belle and the Beast 's ballroom costumes were exhibited at Westside Pavilion, and Mrs. Potts and LeFou appeared at South Coast Plaza.
Largely due to audience reception, Beauty and the Beast remains one of Broadway 's biggest successes of the current era. Beauty and the Beast established itself as a musical that could survive on Broadway despite its unenthusiastic reviews. Several detractors had thought that musicals like Beauty and the Beast would be a one - time event, but the results ultimately turned out to be quite the opposite. According to theatrical producer Stuart Oken, Disney 's success with Beauty and the Beast is responsible for today 's biggest Broadway hits and making the medium "better than it has ever been ''. The groundbreaking performance of Beauty and the Beast inspired other major Hollywood studios to produce Broadway renditions of some of their own films. Disney soon began to commission Broadway adaptations of several of the studio 's most popular musical films, namely The Lion King (1997), Mary Poppins (2004), Tarzan (2006), The Little Mermaid (2008), Newsies (2012) and Aladdin (2014), in addition to producing the musical Aida. After completing her run in Beauty and the Beast, Egan would famously go on to voice Meg in Disney 's animated musical Hercules (1997), establishing herself as a popular voice and film actress. Following the success of "Human Again '', the song was later incorporated into reissues of the animated film in the form of an animated musical sequence.
Beauty and the Beast is considered to be Broadway 's first legitimate family show, responsible for birthing an entirely new generation of young theatregoers. The family demographic of the musical established inspired international productions of Aladdin and Matilda. According to The Complete Book of 1990s Broadway Musicals author Dan Dietz, "the show 's resounding success opened the floodgates for a spate of... productions based on Disney and other family - oriented films '', transforming Broadway into "a theme park with a parade of musicals aimed at kids and teenagers. '' Dietz believes that the plethora of Broadway musicals that came after Beauty and the Beast have unfortunately resembled "feel - good family show (s) whose goal was to emulate its film source. '' Additionally, the success of the musical inspired a legion of Broadway productions geared towards young women, including Hairspray (2002), Wicked (2003), Legally Blonde (2007), Matilda (2013) and Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Cinderella (2013). While these musicals flourished on Broadway, it seems as though more serious, adult - oriented fare struggled to perform as well. New York theatre critic Howard Kissel famously despised "the Kiddy Komponent of New York theatergoing '' spearheaded by the successful 13 - year Broadway run of Beauty and the Beast. The success of Beauty and the Beast inspired Eisner invest in his own theatre to house future stage adaptations of the studio 's animated classics.
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what is supply of goods and services act | Supply of Goods and services Act 1982 - Wikipedia
The Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982 (c 29) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that requires traders to provide services to a proper standard of workmanship. Furthermore, if a definite completion date or a price has not been fixed then the work must be completed within a reasonable time and for a reasonable charge. The Act was superseded by the Consumer Rights Act 2015 for contracts entered into from 1 October 2015.
Also, any material used or goods supplied in providing the service must be of satisfactory quality. The law treats failure to meet these obligations as breach of contract and consumers would be entitled to seek redress, if necessary through the civil courts. This act also complies with the Sale of Goods Act (1979) (also superseded by the Consumer Rights Act 2015).
The definition of reasonableness given in the Act is opaque. The Act states that a reasonable time (section 14 (2)) and a reasonable charge (section 15 (2)) are "questions of fact '', but it does not explain how the "fact of reasonableness '' is to be determined. However, the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 and its concomitant case law provided a number of guidelines.
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how many supreme court justices serve on the supreme court | Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States - wikipedia
The demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States encompass the gender, ethnicity, and religious, geographic, and economic backgrounds of the 113 people who have been appointed and confirmed as justices to the Supreme Court. Some of these characteristics have been raised as an issue since the Court was established in 1789. For its first 180 years, justices were almost always white male Protestants.
Prior to the 20th century, a few Roman Catholics were appointed, but concerns about diversity of the Court were mainly in terms of geographic diversity, to represent all geographic regions of the country, as opposed to ethnic, religious, or gender diversity. The 20th century saw the first appointment of justices who were Jewish (Louis Brandeis, 1916), African - American (Thurgood Marshall, 1967), female (Sandra Day O'Connor, 1981), and Italian - American (Antonin Scalia, 1986). The 21st century saw the first appointment of a Hispanic justice (Sonia Sotomayor, 2009), if justice Benjamin Cardozo, who was a Sephardi Jew of Portuguese descent and appointed in 1932, is excluded.
In spite of the interest in the Court 's demographics and the symbolism accompanying the inevitably political appointment process, and the views of some commentators that no demographic considerations should arise in the selection process, the gender, race, educational background or religious views of the justices has played little role in their jurisprudence. For example, the opinions of the two African - American justices have reflected radically different judicial philosophies; William Brennan and Antonin Scalia shared Catholic faith and a Harvard Law School education, but shared little in the way of jurisprudential philosophies. The court 's first two female justices voted together no more often than with their male colleagues, and historian Thomas R. Marshall writes that no particular "female perspective '' can be discerned from their opinions.
For most of the existence of the Court, geographic diversity was a key concern of presidents in choosing justices to appoint. This was prompted in part by the early practice of Supreme Court justices also "riding circuit '' -- individually hearing cases in different regions of the country. In 1789, the United States was divided into judicial circuits, and from that time until 1891, Supreme Court justices also acted as judges within those individual circuits. George Washington was careful to make appointments "with no two justices serving at the same time hailing from the same state ''. Abraham Lincoln broke with this tradition during the Civil War, and "by the late 1880s presidents disregarded it with increasing frequency ''.
Although the importance of regionalism declined, it still arose from time to time. For example, in appointing Benjamin Cardozo in 1929, President Hoover was as concerned about the controversy over having three New York justices on the Court as he was about having two Jewish justices. David M. O'Brien notes that "(f) rom the appointment of John Rutledge from South Carolina in 1789 until the retirement of Hugo Black (from Alabama) in 1971, with the exception of the Reconstruction decade of 1866 -- 1876, there was always a southerner on the bench. Until 1867, the sixth seat was reserved as the ' southern seat '. Until Cardozo 's appointment in 1932, the third seat was reserved for New Englanders. '' The westward expansion of the U.S. led to concerns that the western states should be represented on the Court as well, which purportedly prompted William Howard Taft to make his 1910 appointment of Willis Van Devanter of Wyoming.
Geographic balance was sought in the 1970s, when Nixon attempted to employ a "Southern strategy '', hoping to secure support from Southern states by nominating judges from the region. Nixon unsuccessfully nominated Southerners Clement Haynsworth of South Carolina and G. Harrold Carswell of Georgia, before finally succeeding with the nomination of Harry Blackmun of Minnesota. The issue of regional diversity was again raised with the 2010 retirement of John Paul Stevens, who had been appointed from the midwestern Seventh Circuit, leaving the Court with all but one Justice having been appointed from states on the East Coast.
As of 2017, the Court has a majority from the Northeastern United States, with six justices coming from states to the north and east of Washington, D.C. including four justices born or raised in New York City. The remaining three justices come from Georgia, California and Colorado; the most recent justice from the Midwest being John Paul Stevens of Illinois who retired in 2010. Contemporary Justices may be associated with multiple states. Many nominees are appointed while serving in states or districts other than their hometown or home state. Chief Justice John Roberts, for example, was born in New York, but moved to Indiana at the age of five, where he grew up. After law school, Roberts worked in Washington, D.C. while living in Maryland. Thus, three states may claim his domicile.
Despite the efforts to achieve geographic balance, only seven justices have ever hailed from states admitted after or during the Civil War. Nineteen states have never produced a Supreme Court Justice; in chronological order of admission to the Union these are:
In contrast, some states have been over-represented, partly because there were fewer states from which early justices could be appointed. New York has produced fifteen justices, Ohio ten, Massachusetts nine, Virginia eight, six each from Pennsylvania and Tennessee, and five from Kentucky, Maryland, and New Jersey. A handful of justices were born outside the United States, mostly from among the earliest justices on the Court. These included James Wilson, born in Fife, Scotland; James Iredell, born in Lewes, England; and William Paterson, born in County Antrim, Ireland. Justice David Josiah Brewer was born farthest from the U.S., in Smyrna, in the Ottoman Empire, (now İzmir, Turkey). George Sutherland was born in Buckinghamshire, England. The last foreign - born Justice, and the only one of these for whom English was a second language, was Felix Frankfurter, born in Vienna, Austria. The Constitution imposes no citizenship requirement on federal judges.
All Supreme Court justices were white and of European heritage until the appointment of Thurgood Marshall, the first African American Justice, in 1967. Since then, only two other non-white Justices have been appointed, Marshall 's African - American successor, Clarence Thomas in 1991, and Latina Justice Sonia Sotomayor in 2009.
There have been six foreign - born justices in the Court 's history: James Wilson (1789 - 1798), born in Caskardy, Scotland; James Iredell (1790 - 1799), born in Lewes, England; William Paterson (1793 - 1806), born in County Antrim, Ireland; David Brewer (1889 - 1910), born to American missionary parents in Smyrna, Ottoman Empire (now İzmir, Turkey); George Sutherland (1922 - 1939), born in Buckinghamshire, England; and Felix Frankfurter (1939 - 1962), born in Vienna, Austria.
The vast majority of white justices have been of Northern European, Northwestern European, or Germanic Protestant descent. Up until the 1980s, only six justices of "central, eastern, or southern European derivation '' had been appointed, and even among these six justices, five of them "were of Germanic background, which includes Austrian, German - Bohemian, and Swiss origins (John Catron, Samuel F. Miller, Louis Brandeis, Felix Frankfurter, and Warren Burger) '' while only one justice was of non-Germanic, Southern European descent (Benjamin N. Cardozo, of Iberian descent). Cardozo, appointed to the Court in 1932, was the first justice known to have non-Germanic or non-Anglo - Saxon ancestry and the first justice of Southern European descent.. Both of Justice Cardozo 's parents descended from Sephardic Jews from the Iberian Peninsula who fled to Holland during the Spanish Inquisition then to London, before arriving in New York prior to the American Revolution. Justice Antonin Scalia, who served from 1986 - 2016, and Justice Samuel Alito, who has served since 2006, are the first justices of Italian descent to be appointed to the Supreme Court. Justice Scalia 's father and both maternal grandparents as well as both of Justice Alito 's parents were born in Italy. Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg was born to a father who immigrated from Russia at age 13 and a mother who was born four months after her parents immigrated from Poland.
No African - American candidate was given serious consideration for appointment to the Supreme Court until the election of John F. Kennedy, who weighed the possibility of appointing William H. Hastie of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit. Hastie had been the first African - American elevated to a Court of Appeals when Harry S. Truman had so appointed him in 1949, and by the time of the Kennedy Administration, it was widely anticipated that Hastie might be appointed to the Supreme Court. That Kennedy gave serious consideration to making this appointment "represented the first time in American history that an African American was an actual contender for the high court ''.
The first African American appointed to the Court was Thurgood Marshall, appointed by Lyndon B. Johnson in 1967. The second was Clarence Thomas, appointed by George H.W. Bush to succeed Marshall in 1991.
Johnson appointed Marshall to the Supreme Court following the retirement of Justice Tom C. Clark, saying that this was "the right thing to do, the right time to do it, the right man and the right place. '' Marshall was confirmed as an Associate Justice by a Senate vote of 69 -- 11 on August 31, 1967. Johnson confidently predicted to one biographer, Doris Kearns Goodwin, that a lot of black baby boys would be named "Thurgood '' in honor of this choice (in fact, Kearns 's research of birth records in New York and Boston indicates that Johnson 's prophecy did not come true).
Bush initially wanted to nominate Thomas to replace William Brennan, who stepped down in 1990, but he then decided that Thomas had not yet had enough experience as a judge after only months on the federal bench. Bush therefore nominated New Hampshire Supreme Court judge David Souter (who is not African American) instead. The selection of Thomas to instead replace Marshall preserved the existing racial composition of the court.
The words "Latino '' and "Hispanic '' are sometimes given distinct meanings, with "Latino '' referring to persons of Latin American descent, and "Hispanic '' referring to persons having an ancestry, language or culture traceable to Spain or to the Iberian Peninsula as a whole, as well as to persons of Latin American descent, whereas the term "Lusitanic '' usually refers to persons having an ancestry, language or culture traceable to Portugal specifically.
Sonia Sotomayor -- nominated by President Barack Obama on May 26, 2009, and sworn in on August 8 -- is the first Supreme Court Justice of Latin American descent. Born in New York City of Puerto Rican parents, she has been known to refer to herself as a "Nuyorican ''. Sotomayor is also generally regarded as the first Hispanic justice, although some sources claim that this distinction belongs to former Justice Benjamin N. Cardozo.
It has been claimed that "only since the George H.W. Bush administration have Hispanic candidates received serious consideration from presidents in the selection process '', and that Emilio M. Garza (considered for the vacancy eventually given to Clarence Thomas) was the first Hispanic judge for whom such an appointment was contemplated. Subsequently, Bill Clinton was reported by several sources to have considered José A. Cabranes for a Supreme Court nomination on both occasions when a Court vacancy opened during the Clinton presidency. The possibility of a Hispanic Justice returned during the George W. Bush Presidency, with various reports suggesting that Emilio Garza, Alberto Gonzales, and Consuelo M. Callahan were under consideration for the vacancy left by the retirement of Sandra Day O'Connor. O'Connor's seat eventually went to Samuel Alito, however. Speculation about a Hispanic nomination arose again after the election of Barack Obama. In 2009, Obama appointed Sonia Sotomayor, a woman of Puerto Rican descent, to be the first unequivocally Hispanic Justice. Both the National Association of Latino Elected and Appointed Officials and the Hispanic National Bar Association count Sotomayor as the first Hispanic justice.
Some historians contend that Cardozo -- a Sephardic Jew believed to be of distant Portuguese descent -- should also be counted as the first Hispanic Justice. Schmidhauser wrote in 1979 that "(a) mong the large ethnic groupings of European origin which have never been represented upon the Supreme Court are the Italians, Southern Slavs, and Hispanic Americans. '' The National Hispanic Center for Advanced Studies and Policy Analysis wrote in 1982 that the Supreme Court "has never had an Hispanic Justice '', and the Hispanic American Almanac similarly reported in 1996 that "no Hispanic has yet sat on the U.S. Supreme Court ''. However, Segal and Spaeth state: "Though it is often claimed that no Hispanics have served on the Court, it is not clear why Benjamin Cardozo, a Sephardic Jew of Spanish heritage, should not count. '' They identify a number of other sources that present conflicting views as to Cardozo 's ethnicity, with one simply labeling him "Iberian. '' In 2007, the Dictionary of Latino Civil Rights History also listed Cardozo as "the first Hispanic named to the Supreme Court of the United States. ''
The nomination of Sonia Sotomayor, widely described in media accounts as the first Hispanic nominee, drew more attention to the question of Cardozo 's ethnicity. Cardozo biographer Andrew Kaufman questioned the usage of the term "hispanic '' during Cardozo 's lifetime, commenting: "Well, I think he regarded himself as Sephardic Jew whose ancestors came from the Iberian Peninsula. '' However, "no one has ever firmly established that the family 's roots were, in fact, in Portugal ''. It has also been asserted that Cardozo himself "confessed in 1937 that his family preserved neither the Spanish language nor Iberian cultural traditions ''. By contrast, Cardozo made his own translations of authoritative legal works written in French and German.
Many ethnic groups have never been represented on the Court. There has never been a Justice with any Asian, Native American, or Pacific Islander heritage, and no person having such a heritage was publicly considered for an appointment until the 21st century. Legal scholar Viet D. Dinh, of Vietnamese descent, was named as a potential George W. Bush nominee. During the presidency of Barack Obama, potential nominees have included Harold Hongju Koh, of Korean descent, and former Idaho attorney general Larry Echo Hawk, a member of the Pawnee tribe.
Public opinion about ethnic diversity on the court "varies widely depending on the poll question 's wording ''. For example, in two polls taken in 1991, one resulted in half of respondents agreeing that it was "important that there always be at least one black person '' on the Court while the other had only 20 % agreeing with that sentiment, and with 77 % agreeing that "race should never be a factor in choosing Supreme Court justices ''.
Of the 113 justices, 109 (96.5 %) have been men. All Supreme Court justices were males until 1981, when Ronald Reagan fulfilled his 1980 campaign promise to place a woman on the Court, which he did with the appointment of Sandra Day O'Connor. O'Connor was later joined on the Court by Ruth Bader Ginsburg, appointed by Bill Clinton in 1993. After O'Connor retired in 2006, Ginsburg would be joined by Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan, who were successfully appointed to the Court in 2009 and 2010, respectively, by Barack Obama. The only other woman to be nominated to the Court was Harriet Miers, whose nomination to succeed O'Connor by George W. Bush was withdrawn under fire.
Substantial public sentiment in support of appointment of a woman to the Supreme Court has been expressed since at least as early as 1930, when an editorial in the Christian Science Monitor encouraged Herbert Hoover to consider Ohio justice Florence E. Allen or assistant attorney general Mabel Walker Willebrandt. Franklin Delano Roosevelt later appointed Allen to the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit -- making her "one of the highest ranking female jurists in the world at that time ''. However, neither Roosevelt nor his successors over the following two decades gave strong consideration to female candidates for the Court. Harry Truman considered such an appointment, but was dissuaded by concerns raised by justices then serving that a woman on the Court "would inhibit their conference deliberations '', which were marked by informality.
President Richard Nixon named Mildred Lillie, then serving on the Second District Court of Appeal of California, as a potential nominee to fill one of two vacancies on the Court in 1971. However, Lillie was quickly deemed unqualified by the American Bar Association, and no formal proceedings were ever set with respect to her potential nomination. Lewis Powell and William Rehnquist were then successfully nominated to fill those vacancies.
In 1991, a poll found that 53 % of Americans felt it "important that there always be at least one woman '' on the Court. However, when O'Connor stepped down from the court, leaving Justice Ginsburg as the lone remaining woman, only one in seven persons polled found it "essential that a woman be nominated to replace '' O'Connor.
All but a handful of Supreme Court justices have been married. Frank Murphy, Benjamin Cardozo, and James McReynolds were all lifelong bachelors. In addition, retired justice David Souter and current justice Elena Kagan have never been married. William O. Douglas was the first Justice to divorce while on the Court, and also had the most marriages of any Justice, with four. Justice John Paul Stevens divorced his first wife in 1979, marrying his second wife later that year. Sonia Sotomayor was the first female justice to be appointed as an unmarried woman, having divorced in 1983, long before her nomination in 2009.
Several justices have become widowers while on the bench. The 1792 death of Elizabeth Rutledge, wife of Justice John Rutledge, contributed to the mental health problems that led to the rejection of his recess appointment. Roger B. Taney survived his wife, Anne, by twenty years. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. resolutely continued working on the Court for several years after the death of his wife. William Rehnquist was a widower for the last fourteen years of his service on the Court, his wife Natalie having died on October 17, 1991 after suffering from ovarian cancer. With the death of Martin D. Ginsburg in June 2010, Ruth Bader Ginsburg became the first woman to be widowed while serving on the Court.
With regards to sexual orientation, no Supreme Court justice has identified himself or herself as anything other than heterosexual, and no incontrovertible evidence of a justice having any other sexual orientation has ever been uncovered. However, the personal lives of several justices and nominees have attracted speculation.
G. Harrold Carswell was unsuccessfully nominated by Richard Nixon in 1970, and was convicted in 1976 of battery for making an "unnatural and lascivious '' advance to a male police officer working undercover in a Florida men 's room. Some therefore claim him as the only gay or bisexual person nominated to the Court thus far. If so, it is unlikely that Nixon was aware of it; White House Counsel John Dean later wrote of Carswell that "(w) hile Richard Nixon was always looking for historical firsts, nominating a homosexual to the high court would not have been on his list ''.
Speculation has been recorded about the sexual orientation of a few justices who were lifelong bachelors, but no unambiguous evidence exists that they were gay. Perhaps the greatest body of circumstantial evidence surrounds Frank Murphy, who was dogged by "(r) umors of homosexuality (...) all his adult life ''.
For more than 40 years, Edward G. Kemp was Frank Murphy 's devoted, trusted companion. Like Murphy, Kemp was a lifelong bachelor. From college until Murphy 's death, the pair found creative ways to work and live together. (...) When Murphy appeared to have the better future in politics, Kemp stepped into a supportive, secondary role.
As well as Murphy 's close relationship with Kemp, Murphy 's biographer, historian Sidney Fine, found in Murphy 's personal papers a letter that "if the words mean what they say, refers to a homosexual encounter some years earlier between Murphy and the writer. '' However, the letter 's veracity can not be confirmed and a review of all the evidence led Fine to conclude that he "could not stick his neck out and say (Murphy) was gay ''.
Speculation has also surrounded Benjamin Cardozo, whose celibacy suggests repressed homosexuality or asexuality. The fact that he was unmarried and was personally tutored by the writer Horatio Alger (alleged to have had sexual relations with boys) led some of Cardozo 's biographers to insinuate that Cardozo was homosexual, but no real evidence exists to corroborate this possibility. Constitutional law scholar Jeffrey Rosen noted in a New York Times Book Review of Richard Polenberg 's book on Cardozo:
Polenberg describes Cardozo 's lifelong devotion to his older sister Nell, with whom he lived in New York until her death in 1929. When asked why he had never married, Cardozo replied, quietly and sadly, "I never could give Nellie the second place in my life. '' Polenberg suggests that friends may have stressed Cardozo 's devotion to his sister to discourage rumors "that he was sexually dysfunctional, or had an unusually low sexual drive or was homosexual. '' But he produces no evidence to support any of these possibilities, except to note that friends, in describing Cardozo, used words like "beautiful '', "exquisite '', "sensitive '' or "delicate. ''
Andrew Kaufman, author of Cardozo, a biography published in 2000, notes that "Although one can not be absolutely certain, it seems highly likely that Cardozo lived a celibate life ''. Judge Learned Hand is quoted in the book as saying about Cardozo: "He (had) no trace of homosexuality anyway ''.
More recently, when David Souter was nominated to the Court, "conservative groups expressed concern to the White House... that the president 's bachelor nominee might conceivably be a homosexual ''. Similar questions were raised regarding the sexual orientation of unmarried nominee Elena Kagan. However, no evidence was ever produced regarding Souter 's sexual orientation, and Kagan 's apparent heterosexuality was attested by colleagues familiar with her dating history.
When the Supreme Court was established in 1789, the first members came from among the ranks of the Founding Fathers and were almost uniformly Protestant. Of the 113 justices who have been appointed to the court, 91 have been from various Protestant denominations, 12 have been Catholics (one other justice, Sherman Minton, converted to Catholicism after leaving the Court). Another, Neil Gorsuch, was raised in the Catholic Church but later attended an Episcopal church, though without specifying the denomination to which he felt he belonged. Eight have been Jewish and one, David Davis, had no known religious affiliation. Three of the 17 chief justices have been Catholics, and one Jewish justice, Abe Fortas, was unsuccessfully nominated to be chief justice.
The table below shows the religious affiliation of each of the justices sitting as of August 2018:
Most Supreme Court justices have been Protestant Christians. These have included 33 Episcopalians, 18 Presbyterians, nine Unitarians, five Methodists, three Baptists, and lone representatives of various other denominations. William Rehnquist was the Court 's only Lutheran. Noah Swayne was a Quaker. Some 15 Protestant justices did not adhere to a particular denomination. Baptist denominations and other evangelical churches have been underrepresented on the Court, relative to the population of the United States. Conversely, mainline Protestant churches historically were overrepresented.
Following the retirement of John Paul Stevens in June 2010, the Court had an entirely non-Protestant composition for the first time in its history. Although Neil Gorsuch, appointed in 2017, attends an Episcopalian church, he was raised Catholic and it is unclear if he considers himself a Catholic or a Protestant.
The first Catholic justice, Roger B. Taney, was appointed chief justice in 1836 by Andrew Jackson. The second, Edward Douglass White, was appointed as an associate justice in 1894, but also went on to become chief justice. Joseph McKenna was appointed in 1898, placing two Catholics on the Court until White 's death in 1921. This period marked the beginning of an inconsistently observed "tradition '' of having a "Catholic seat '' on the court.
Other Catholic justices included Pierce Butler (appointed 1923) and Frank Murphy (appointed 1940). Sherman Minton, appointed in 1949, was a Protestant during his time on the Court. To some, however, his wife 's Catholic faith implied a "Catholic seat ''. Minton joined his wife 's church in 1961, five years after he retired from the Court. Minton was succeeded by a Catholic, however, when President Eisenhower appointed William J. Brennan to that seat. Eisenhower sought a Catholic to appoint to the Court -- in part because there had been no Catholic justice since Murphy 's death in 1949, and in part because Eisenhower was directly lobbied by Cardinal Francis Spellman of the Archdiocese of New York to make such an appointment. Brennan was then the lone Catholic justice until the appointment of Antonin Scalia in 1986, and Anthony Kennedy in 1988.
Like Sherman Minton, Clarence Thomas was not a Catholic at the time he was appointed to the Court. Thomas was raised Catholic and briefly attended Conception Seminary College, a Roman Catholic seminary, but had joined the Protestant denomination of his wife after their marriage. At some point in the late 1990s, Thomas returned to Catholicism. In 2005, John Roberts became the third Catholic Chief Justice and the fourth Catholic on the Court. Shortly thereafter, Samuel Alito became the fifth on the Court, and the eleventh in the history of the Court. Alito 's appointment gave the Court a Catholic majority for the first time in its history. Besides Thomas, at least one other Justice, James F. Byrnes, was raised as a Roman Catholic, but converted to a different branch of Christianity prior to serving on the Court.
In contrast to historical patterns, the Court has gone from having a "Catholic seat '' to being what some have characterized as a "Catholic court. '' The reasons for that are subject to debate, and are a matter of intense public scrutiny. That the majority of the Court is now Catholic, and that the appointment of Catholics has become accepted, represents a historical ' sea change. ' It has fostered accusations that the court has become "a Catholic boys club '' (particularly as the Catholics chosen tend to be politically conservative) and calls for non-Catholics to be nominated.
In May 2009, President Barack Obama nominated a Catholic woman, Sonia Sotomayor, to replace retiring Justice David Souter. Her confirmation raised the number of Catholics on the Court to six, compared to three non-Catholics (all Jewish). With Antonin Scalia 's death in February 2016, the number of Catholic Justices went back to five. Neil Gorsuch, appointed in 2017, was raised Catholic but attends an Episcopalian church; it is unclear if he considers himself a Catholic or a Protestant. With Anthony Kennedy 's retirement in July 2018, the number of Catholic Justices went down to four.
All of the Catholic justices have been members of the Roman (or Latin) rite within the Catholic Church.
In 1853, President Millard Fillmore offered to appoint Louisiana Senator Judah P. Benjamin to be the first Jewish justice, and the New York Times reported (on February 15, 1853) that "if the President nominates Benjamin, the Democrats are determined to confirm him ''. However, Benjamin declined the offer, and ultimately became Secretary of State for the Confederacy during the Civil War. The first Jewish nominee, Louis Brandeis, was appointed in 1916, after a tumultuous hearing process. The 1932 appointment of Benjamin Cardozo raised mild controversy for placing two Jewish justices on the Court at the same time, although the appointment was widely lauded based on Cardozo 's qualifications, and the Senate was unanimous in confirming Cardozo.
Cardozo was succeeded by another Jewish Justice, Felix Frankfurter, but Brandeis was succeeded by Protestant William O. Douglas. Negative reaction to the appointment of the early Jewish justices did not exclusively come from outside the Court. Justice James Clark McReynolds, a blatant anti-semite, refused to speak to Brandeis for three years following the latter 's appointment and when Brandeis retired in 1939, did not sign the customary dedicatory letter sent to Court members on their retirement. During Benjamin Cardozo 's swearing in ceremony McReynolds pointedly read a newspaper muttering "another one '' and did not attend that of Felix Frankfurter, exclaiming "My God, another Jew on the Court! ''
Frankfurter was followed by Arthur Goldberg and Abe Fortas, each of whom filled what became known as the "Jewish Seat ''. After Fortas resigned in 1969, he was replaced by Protestant Harry Blackmun. No Jewish justices were nominated thereafter until Ronald Reagan nominated Douglas H. Ginsburg in 1987, to fill the vacancy created by the retirement of Lewis F. Powell; however, this nomination was withdrawn, and the Court remained without any Jewish justices until 1993, when Ruth Bader Ginsburg (unrelated to Douglas Ginsburg) was appointed to replace Byron White. Ginsburg was followed in relatively quick succession by the appointment of Stephen Breyer, also Jewish, in 1994 to replace Harry Blackmun. In 2010, the confirmation of President Barack Obama 's nomination of Elena Kagan to the Court ensured that three Jewish justices would serve simultaneously. Prior to this confirmation, conservative political commentator Pat Buchanan stated that, "If Kagan is confirmed, Jews, who represent less than 2 percent of the U.S. population, will have 33 percent of the Supreme Court seats ''. At the time of his remarks, 6.4 percent of justices had been Jewish in the history of the court.
At the time of Breyer 's appointment in 1994, there were two Roman Catholic justices, Antonin Scalia and Anthony Kennedy, and two Jewish justices, Stephen Breyer and Ruth Bader Ginsburg. Clarence Thomas, who had been raised as a Roman Catholic but had attended an Episcopal church after his marriage, returned to Catholicism later in the 1990s. At this point, the four remaining Protestant justices -- Rehnquist, Stevens, O'Connor, and Souter -- remained a plurality on the Court, but for the first time in the history of the Court, Protestants were no longer an absolute majority.
The first Catholic plurality on the Court occurred in 2005, when Chief Justice Rehnquist was succeeded in office by Chief Justice John Roberts, who became the fourth sitting Catholic justice. On January 31, 2006, Samuel Alito became the fifth sitting Catholic justice, and on August 6, 2009, Sonia Sotomayor became the sixth. By contrast, there has been only one Catholic U.S. President, John F. Kennedy (unrelated to Justice Kennedy), and one Catholic U.S. Vice President, Joe Biden, and there has never been a Jewish U.S. President or Vice President.
At the beginning of 2010, Justice John Paul Stevens was the sole remaining Protestant on the Court. In April 2010, Justice Stevens announced his retirement, effective as of the Court 's 2010 summer recess. Upon Justice Stevens ' retirement, which formally began on June 28, 2010, the Court lacked a Protestant member, marking the first time in its history that it was exclusively composed of Jewish and Catholic justices. Although in January 2017, after seven years with no Protestant justices serving or nominated, President Donald Trump nominated Neil Gorsuch to the Court, as noted above it is unclear whether Gorsuch considers himself a Catholic or an Episcopalian.
This development led to some comment. Law school professor Jeffrey Rosen wrote that "it 's a fascinating truth that we 've allowed religion to drop out of consideration on the Supreme Court, and right now, we have a Supreme Court that religiously at least, by no means looks like America ''.
A number of sizable religious groups, each less than 2 % of the U.S. population, have had no members appointed as justices. These include Orthodox Christians, Mormons, Pentecostals, Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, and Sikhs. George Sutherland has been described as a "lapsed Mormon '' because he was raised in the LDS Church, his parents having immigrated to the United States during Sutherland 's infancy to join that church. Sutherland 's parents soon left the LDS Church and moved to Montana. Sutherland himself also disaffiliated with the faith, but remained in Utah and graduated from Brigham Young Academy in 1881, the only non-Mormon in his class. In 1975, Attorney General Edward H. Levi had listed Dallin H. Oaks, a Mormon who had clerked for Earl Warren and was then president of Brigham Young University, as a potential nominee for Gerald Ford. Ford "crossed Oaks 's name off the list early on, noting in the margin that a member of the LDS Church might bring a ' confirmation fight ' ''.
No professing atheist has ever been appointed to the Court, although some justices have declined to engage in religious activity, or affiliate with a denomination. As an adult, Benjamin Cardozo no longer practiced his faith and identified himself as an agnostic, though he remained proud of his Jewish heritage.
Unlike the offices of President, U.S. Representative, and U.S. Senator, there is no minimum age for Supreme Court justices set forth in the United States Constitution. However, justices tend to be appointed after having made significant achievements in law or politics, which excludes many young potential candidates from consideration. At the same time, justices appointed at too advanced an age will likely have short tenures on the Court.
The youngest justice ever appointed was Joseph Story, 32 at the time of his appointment in 1812; the oldest was Charles Evans Hughes, who was 67 at the time of his appointment as Chief Justice in 1930. (Hughes had previously been appointed to the Court as an associate justice in 1910, at the age of 48, but had resigned in 1916 to run for president). Story went on to serve for 33 years, while Hughes served 11 years after his second appointment. The oldest justice at the time of his initial appointment was Horace Lurton, 65 at the time of his appointment in 1909. Lurton died after only four years on the Court. The oldest sitting justice to be elevated to Chief Justice was Hughes ' successor, Harlan Fiske Stone, who was 68 at the time of his elevation in 1941. Stone died in 1946, only five years after his elevation. The oldest nominee to the court was South Carolina senator William Smith, nominated in 1837, then aged around 75 (it is known that he was born in 1762, but not the exact date). The Senate confirmed Smith 's nomination by a vote of 23 -- 18, but Smith declined to serve.
Of the justices currently sitting, the youngest at time of appointment was Clarence Thomas, who was 43 years old at the time of his confirmation in 1991. As of the beginning of the 2017 -- 18 term, Neil Gorsuch is the youngest justice sitting, at 50 years of age. The oldest person to have served on the Court was Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., who stepped down two months shy of his 91st birthday. John Paul Stevens, second only to Holmes, left the court in June 2010, two months after turning 90.
The average age of the Court as a whole fluctuates over time with the departure of older justices and the appointment of younger people to fill their seats. The average age of the Court is 72 years, 8 months. Just prior to the death of Chief Justice Rehnquist in September 2005, the average age was 71. After Sonia Sotomayor was appointed in August 2009, the average age at which current justices were appointed was about 53 years old.
The longest period of time in which one group of justices has served together occurred from August 3, 1994, when Stephen Breyer was appointed to replace the retired Harry Blackmun, to September 3, 2005, the death of Rehnquist, totaling 11 years and 31 days. From 1789 until 1970, justices served an average of 14.9 years. Those who have stepped down since 1970 have served an average of 25.6 years. The retirement age had jumped from an average of 68 pre-1970 to 79 for justices retiring post-1970. Between 1789 and 1970 there was a vacancy on the Court once every 1.91 years. In the next 34 years since the two appointments in 1971, there was a vacancy on average only once every 3.75 years. The typical one - term president has had one appointment opportunity instead of two.
Commentators have noted that advances in medical knowledge "have enormously increased the life expectancy of a mature person of an age likely to be considered for appointment to the Supreme Court ''. Combined with the reduction in responsibilities carried out by modern justices as compared to the early justices, this results in much longer potential terms of service. This has led to proposals such as imposing a mandatory retirement age for Supreme Court justices and predetermined term limits.
Although the Constitution imposes no educational background requirements for federal judges, the work of the Court involves complex questions of law -- ranging from constitutional law to administrative law to admiralty law -- and consequently, a legal education has become a de facto prerequisite to appointment on the Supreme Court. Every person who has been nominated to the Court has been an attorney.
Before the advent of modern law schools in the United States, justices, like most attorneys of the time, completed their legal studies by "reading law '' (studying under and acting as an apprentice to more experienced attorneys) rather than attending a formal program. The first justice to be appointed who had attended an actual law school was Levi Woodbury, appointed to the Court in 1846. Woodbury had attended Tapping Reeve Law School in Litchfield, Connecticut, the most prestigious law school in the United States in that day, prior to his admission to the bar in 1812. However, Woodbury did not earn a law degree. Woodbury 's successor on the Court, Benjamin Robbins Curtis, who received his law degree from Harvard Law School in 1832, and was appointed to the Court in 1851, was the first Justice to bear such a credential.
Associate Justice James F. Byrnes, whose short tenure lasted from June 1941 to October 1942, was the last justice without a law degree to be appointed; Stanley Forman Reed, who served on the Court from 1938 to 1957, was the last sitting justice from such a background. In total, of the 113 justices appointed to the Court, 48 have had law degrees, an additional 18 attended some law school but did not receive a degree, and 47 received their legal education without any law school attendance. Two justices, Sherman Minton and Lewis F. Powell, Jr., earned a Master of Laws degree.
The table below shows the college and law school from which each of the justices sitting as of April 2017 graduated:
Not only have all justices been attorneys, nearly two thirds had previously been judges. As of 2017, eight of the nine sitting justices previously served as judges of the United States Courts of Appeals, while Justice Elena Kagan served as Solicitor General, the attorney responsible for representing the federal government in cases before the Court. Few justices have a background as criminal defense lawyers, and Thurgood Marshall is reportedly the last justice to have had a client in a death penalty case.
Historically, justices have come from some tradition of public service; only George Shiras, Jr. had no such experience. Relatively few justices have been appointed from among members of Congress. Six were members of the United States Senate at the time of their appointment, while one was a sitting member of the House of Representatives. Six more had previously served in the Senate. Three have been sitting governors. Only one, William Howard Taft, had been President of the United States. The last justice to have held elected office was Sandra Day O'Connor, who was elected twice to the Arizona State Senate after being appointed there by the governor.
The financial position of the typical Supreme Court Justice has been described as "upper - middle to high social status: reared in nonrural but not necessarily urban environment, member of a civic - minded, politically active, economically comfortable family ''. Charles A. Beard, in his An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States, profiled those among the justices who were also drafters of the Constitution.
James Wilson, Beard notes, "developed a lucrative practice at Carlisle '' before becoming "one of the directors of the Bank of North America on its incorporation in 1781 ''. A member of the Georgia Land Company, Wilson "held shares to the amount of at least one million acres ''. John Blair was "one of the most respectable men in Virginia, both on account of his Family as well as fortune ''. Another source notes that Blair "was a member of a prominent Virginia family. His father served on the Virginia Council and was for a time acting Royal governor. His granduncle, James Blair, was founder and first president of the College of William and Mary. '' John Rutledge was elected Governor of South Carolina at a time when the Constitution of that state set, as a qualification for the office, ownership of "a settled plantation or freehold... of the value of at least ten thousand pounds currency, clear of debt ''. Oliver Ellsworth "rose rapidly to wealth and power in the bar of his native state '' with "earnings... unrivalled in his own day and unexampled in the history of the colony '', developing "a fortune which for the times and the country was quite uncommonly large ''. Bushrod Washington was the nephew of George Washington, who was at the time of the younger Washington 's appointment the immediate past President of the United States and one of the wealthiest men in the country.
"About three - fifths of those named to the Supreme Court personally knew the President who nominated them ''. There have been exceptions to the typical portrait of justices growing up middle class or wealthy. For example, the family of Sherman Minton went through a period of impoverishment during his childhood, resulting from the disability of his father due to a heat stroke.
In 2008, seven of the nine sitting justices were millionaires, and the remaining two were close to that level of wealth. Historian Howard Zinn, in his 1980 book A People 's History of the United States, argues that the justices can not be neutral in matters between rich and poor, as they are almost always from the upper class. Chief Justice Roberts is the son of an executive with Bethlehem Steel; Justice Stevens was born into a wealthy Chicago family; and Justices Kennedy and Breyer both had fathers who were successful attorneys. Justices Alito and Scalia both had educated (and education - minded) parents: Scalia 's father was a highly educated college professor and Alito 's father was a high school teacher before becoming "a long - time employee of the New Jersey state legislature ''. Only Justices Thomas and Sotomayor have been regarded as coming from a lower - class background. One authority states that "Thomas grew up in poverty. The Pin Point community he lived in lacked a sewage system and paved roads. Its inhabitants dwelled in destitution and earned but a few cents each day performing manual labor ''. The depth of Thomas ' poverty has been disputed by suggestions of "ample evidence to suggest that Thomas enjoyed, by and large, a middle - class upbringing ''.
Beginning in 1979, the Ethics in Government Act of 1978 required federal officials, including the justices, to file annual disclosures of their income and assets. These disclosures provide a snapshot into the wealth of the justices, reported within broad ranges, from year to year since 1979. In the first such set of disclosures, only two justices were revealed to be millionaires: Potter Stewart and Lewis F. Powell, with Chief Justice Warren Burger coming in third with about $600,000 in holdings. The least wealthy Justice was Thurgood Marshall.
The 1982 report disclosed that newly appointed Justice Sandra Day O'Connor was a millionaire, and the second - wealthiest Justice on the Court (after Powell). The remaining justices listed assets in the range of tens of thousands to a few hundred - thousand, with the exception of Thurgood Marshall, who "reported no assets or investment income of more than $100 ''. The 1985 report had the justices in relatively the same positions, while the 1992 report had O'Connor as the wealthiest member of the Court, with Stevens being the only other millionaire, most other justices reporting assets averaging around a half million dollars, and the two newest justices, Clarence Thomas and David Souter, reporting assets of at least $65,000. (In 2011, however, it was revealed that Thomas had misstated his income going back to at least 1989.)
The 2007 report was the first to reflect the holdings of John Roberts and Samuel Alito. Disclosures for that year indicated that Clarence Thomas and Anthony Kennedy were the only justices who were clearly not millionaires, although Thomas was reported to have signed a book deal worth over one million dollars. Other justices reported holdings within the following ranges:
The financial disclosures indicate that many of the justices have substantial stock holdings. This, in turn, has affected the business of the Court, as these holdings have led justices to recuse themselves from cases, occasionally with substantial impact. For example, in 2008, the recusal of John Roberts in one case, and Samuel Alito in another, resulted in each ending in a 4 -- 4 split, which does not create a binding precedent. The Court was unable to decide another case in 2008 because four of the nine justices had conflicts, three arising from stock ownership in affected companies.
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where does kevin probably saves the world film | Kevin (Probably) Saves the World - wikipedia
Kevin (Probably) Saves the World (stylized as Kevin ^ Saves the World) is an American high - concept angelic - themed fantasy comedy - drama television series that was created and executive produced by Michele Fazekas & Tara Butters for ABC Studios. The series was greenlit on May 11, 2017, and aired on ABC as a Tuesday night entry during the 2017 -- 18 television season. The series premiered on October 3, 2017. The show is set in Taylor, Texas.
On May 11, 2018, ABC canceled the show after one season.
Kevin, a down - on - his - luck man who survived a suicide attempt, moves in with his twin sister Amy, an engineer and professor at the local college, and Amy 's teenage daughter Reese. Shortly after, he encounters a celestial being named Yvette; Yvette claims that God has tasked Kevin with saving the world, and sent Yvette to guide and protect him.
At first, Kevin was the only one who could see and hear Yvette, so his conversations appear to be hallucinations to those around him. Kevin must perform good deeds to build up his spiritual powers, forcing him to become a better person. The series also explores a mystery, as there are supposed to be 36 righteous souls in each generation, but for unknown reasons, Kevin is the only one known to be left.
As of the season one finale, Kevin has located three other righteous souls, and in a surprise revelation, allowed Yvette to appear in front of Amy, as she is now called upon to help Kevin in their quest.
The series was originally called The Gospel of Kevin, but the name was changed since the show was not "overtly religious ''.
The series was picked up for a 16 - episode full season on November 10, 2017.
On May 11, 2018, ABC canceled the show after one season.
Cristela Alonzo, who played a lead role as the heaven - sent entity in the original pilot, was replaced by Kimberly Hebert Gregory after the series was picked up.
The series was filmed in Austin, Texas. The pilot filmed March 23, 2017 in San Antonio, Texas at the San Antonio International Airport
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 68 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.73 / 10 based on 22 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "Breezily entertaining, Kevin (Probably) Saves the World relies on its likable lead to carry its still - sketchy premise, hinting at deeper potential that 's yet to develop. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 59 out of 100 based on 18 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
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8. the best definition of evidence based practice (ebp) is which of the following | Evidence - based practice - wikipedia
Evidence - based practice (EBP) is an interdisciplinary approach to clinical practice that has been gaining ground following its formal introduction in 1992. It started in medicine as evidence - based medicine (EBM) and spread to allied health professions, educational fields, and others. EBP is traditionally defined in terms of a "three legged stool '' integrating three basic principles: (1) the best available research evidence bearing on whether and why a treatment works, (2) clinical expertise (clinical judgment and experience) to rapidly identify each patient 's unique health state and diagnosis, their individual risks and benefits of potential interventions, and (3) client preferences and values.
Evidence - based behavioral practice (EBBP) "entails making decisions about how to promote health or provide care by integrating the best available evidence with practitioner expertise and other resources, and with the characteristics, state, needs, values and preferences of those who will be affected. This is done in a manner that is compatible with the environmental and organizational context. Evidence is research findings derived from the systematic collection of data through observation and experiment and the formulation of questions and testing of hypotheses ''.
In recent years, EBP has been stressed by professional organizations such as the American Psychological Association, the American Occupational Therapy Association, the American Nurses Association, and the American Physical Therapy Association, which have also strongly recommended their members to carry out investigations to provide evidence supporting or rejecting the use of specific interventions. Equivalent recommendations apply to the Canadian equivalent of these associations. Pressure toward EBP has also come from public and private health insurance providers, which have sometimes refused coverage of practices lacking in systematic evidence of usefulness.
Areas of professional practice, such as medicine, psychology, psychiatry, rehabilitation and so forth, have had periods in their pasts where practice was based on loose bodies of knowledge. Some of the knowledge was lore that drew upon the experiences of generations of practitioners, and much of it had no valid scientific evidence on which to justify various practices.
In the past, this has often left the door open to quackery perpetrated by individuals who had no training at all in the domain, but who wished to convey the impression that they did, for profit or other motives. As the scientific method became increasingly recognized as the means to provide sound validation for such methods, the need for a way to exclude quack practitioners became clear, not only as a way of preserving the integrity of the field (particularly medicine), but also of protecting the public from the dangers of their "cures. '' Furthermore, even where overt quackery was not present, it was recognized that there was a value in identifying what actually does work so it could be improved and promoted.
The notion of evidence based practice has also had an influence in the field of education. Here, some commentators have suggested that the putative lack of any conspicuous progress is attributable to practice resting in the unconnected and noncumulative experience of thousands of individual teachers, each re-inventing the wheel and failing to learn from hard scientific evidence about ' what works '. Opponents of this view argue that hard scientific evidence is a misnomer in education; knowing that a drug works (in medicine) is entirely different from knowing that a teaching method works, for the latter will depend on a host of factors, not least those to do with the style, personality and beliefs of the teacher and the needs of the particular children (Hammersley 2013). Some opponents of EBP in education suggest that teachers need to develop their own personal practice, dependent on personal knowledge garnered through their own experience. Others argue that this must be combined with research evidence, but without the latter being treated as a privileged source.
Evidence - based practice is an approach that tries to specify the way in which professionals or other decision - makers should make decisions by identifying such evidence that there may be for a practice and rating it according to how scientifically sound it may be. Its goal is to eliminate unsound or excessively risky practices in favor of those that have better outcomes.
EBP uses various methods (e.g., carefully summarizing research, putting out accessible research summaries, educating professionals in how to understand and apply research findings) to encourage, and in some instances to force, professionals and other decision - makers to pay more attention to evidence that can inform their decision - making. Where EBP is applied, it encourages professionals to use the best evidence possible, i.e., the most appropriate information available.
The core activities at the root of evidence - based practice can be identified as:
Much of the credit for today 's EBP techniques belongs to Archie Cochrane, an epidemiologist, author of the book, Effectiveness and Efficiency: Random Reflections on Health Services. Cochrane suggested that because resources would always be limited, they should be used to provide forms of health care which had been shown in properly designed evaluations to be effective. Cochrane maintained that the most reliable evidence was that which came from randomised controlled trials (RCTs).
One of the main reasons that EBPs have been so successfully incorporated into treatment services is the vast amount of studies linking clients ' improved health outcomes and the general attitude that treatments should be based in scientific evidence (Institute of Medicine, 2001; Sackett & Haynes, 1995). It is now assumed that professionals must be well - informed and up - to - date with the newest knowledge in order to best serve their clients and remain professionally relevant (Gibbs, 2003; Pace, 2008; Patterson et al., 2012).
Evidence - based practice (EBP) involves complex and conscientious decision - making which is based not only on the available evidence but also on patient characteristics, situations, and preferences. It recognizes that care is individualized and ever changing and involves uncertainties and probabilities.
EBP develops individualized guidelines of best practices to inform the improvement of whatever professional task is at hand. Evidence - based practice is a philosophical approach that is in opposition to rules of thumb, folklore, and tradition. Examples of a reliance on "the way it was always done '' can be found in almost every profession, even when those practices are contradicted by new and better information.
However, in spite of the enthusiasm for EBP over the last decade or two, some authors have redefined EBP in ways that contradict, or at least add other factors to, the original emphasis on empirical research foundations. For example, EBP may be defined as treatment choices based not only on outcome research but also on practice wisdom (the experience of the clinician) and on family values (the preferences and assumptions of a client and his or her family or subculture).
Research oriented scientists, as opposed to authors, test whether particular practices work better for different subcultures or personality types, rather than just accept received wisdom. For example, the MATCH Study run at many sites around the US by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) tested whether particular types of clients with alcohol dependence would benefit differentially from three different treatment approaches to which they were randomly assigned. The idea was not to test the approaches but the matching of clients to treatments, and though this missed the question of client choice, it did demonstrate a lack of difference between the different approaches regardless of most client characteristics, with the exception that clients with high anger scores did better with the non-confrontational Motivational Enhancement approach which has been demonstrated superior in a meta - analysis of alcohol treatment outcome research and only required four as opposed to twelve session within Project MATCH.
The theories of evidence based practice are becoming more commonplace in nursing care. Nurses who are "baccalaureate prepared are expected to seek out and collaborate with other types of nurses to demonstrate the positives of a practice that is based on evidence. '' Looking at a few types of articles to examine how this type of practice has influenced the standard of care is important but rarely internally valid. None of the articles specify what their biases are. Evidence based practice has gotten its reputation by examining the reasons why any and all procedures, treatments, and medicines are given. This is important for refining practice so the goal of assuring patient safety is met.
Evidence - based design and development decisions are made after reviewing information from repeated rigorous data gathering instead of relying on rules, single observations, or custom. Evidence - based medicine and evidence - based nursing practice are the two largest fields employing this approach. In psychiatry and community mental health, evidence - based practice guides have been created by such organizations as the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration and the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, in conjunction with the National Alliance on Mental Illness. Evidence - based practice has now spread into a diverse range of areas outside of health where the same principles are known by names such as results - focused policy, managing for outcomes, evidence - informed practice etc.
This model of care has been studied for 30 years in universities and is gradually making its way into the public sector. It effectively moves away from the old "medical model '' (You have a disease, take this pill.) to an "evidence presented model '' using the patient as the starting point in diagnosis. EBPs are being employed in the fields of health care, juvenile justice, mental health and social services among others. The theories of evidence based practice are becoming more commonplace in the nursing care. Nurses who are "baccalaureate prepared are expected to seek out and collaborate with other types of nurses to demonstrate the positives of a practice that is based on evidence. ''
Key elements in using the best evidence to guide the practice of any professional include the development of questions using research - based evidence, the level and types of evidence to be used, and the assessment of effectiveness after completing the task or effort. One obvious problem with EBP in any field is the use of poor quality, contradictory, or incomplete evidence. Evidence - based practice continues to be a developing body of work for professions as diverse as education, psychology, economics, nursing, social work and architecture.
Evidence - based practice of psychology requires practitioners to follow psychological approaches and techniques that are based on a particular kind of research evidence (Sackett, Straus, Richardson, Rosenberg, & Haynes, 2000).
Criteria for empirically supported therapies have been defined by Chambless and Hollon (1998). Accordingly, a therapy is considered "efficacious and specific '' if there is evidence from at least two settings that it is superior to a pill or psychological placebo or another bona fide treatment. If there is evidence from two or more settings that the therapy is superior to no treatment it is considered "efficacious ''. If there is support from one or more studies from just a single setting, the therapy is considered possibly efficacious pending replication. Following these guidelines, cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) stands out as having the most empirical support for a wide range of symptoms in adults, adolescents, and children. The term "evidence - based practice '' is not always used in such a rigorous fashion, and many psychologists claim to follow "evidence - based approaches '' even when the methods they use do not meet established criteria for "efficacy '' (Berke, Rozell, Hogan, Norcross, and Karpiak, 2011). In reality, not all mental health practitioners receive training in evidence - based approaches, and members of the public are often unaware that evidence - based practices exist. However, there is no guarantee that mental health practitioners trained in "evidence - based approaches '' are more effective or safer than those trained in other modalities. Consequently, patients do not always receive the most effective, safe, and cost effective treatments available. To improve dissemination of evidence - based practices, the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT) and the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP, Division 53 of the American Psychological Association) maintain updated information on their websites on evidence - based practices in psychology for practitioners and the general public. It should be noted that "evidence - based '' is a technical term, and there are many treatments with decades of evidence supporting their efficacy that are not considered "evidence - based. ''
Some discussions of EBP in clinical psychology settings distinguish the latter from "empirically supported treatments '' (ESTs). ESTs have been defined as "clearly specified psychological treatments shown to be efficacious in controlled research with a delineated population. '' Those who distinguish EBP from ESTs highlight the greater emphasis in EBP on integrating the "three legs '' of research evidence, clinician expertise, and client values. From the latter perspective, ESTs are understood to place primary or exclusive emphasis on the first "leg, '' namely, research evidence.
Because conclusions about research results are made in a probabilistic manner, it is impossible to work with two simple categories of outcome research reports. Research evidence does not fall simply into "evidence - based '' and "non-evidence - based '' classes, but can be anywhere on a continuum from one to the other, depending on factors such as the way the study was designed and carried out. The existence of this continuum makes it necessary to think in terms of "levels of evidence '', or categories of stronger or weaker evidence that a treatment is effective. To classify a research report as strong or weak evidence for a treatment, it is necessary to evaluate the quality of the research as well as the reported outcome.
Evaluation of research quality can be a difficult task requiring meticulous reading of research reports and background information. It may not be appropriate simply to accept the conclusion reported by the researchers; for example, in one investigation of outcome studies, 70 % were found to have stated conclusions unjustified by their research design.
Although early consideration of EBP issues by psychologists provided a stringent but simple definition of EBP, requiring two independent randomized controlled trials supporting the effectiveness of a treatment, it became clear that additional factors needed to be considered. These included both the need for lower but still useful levels of evidence, and the need to require even the "gold standard '' randomized trials to meet further criteria.
A number of protocols for the evaluation of research reports have been suggested and will be summarized here. Some of these divide research evidence dichotomously into EBP and non-EBP categories, while others employ multiple levels of evidence. As the reader will see, although the criteria used by the various protocols overlap to some extent, they do not do so completely.
The Kaufman Best Practices Project approach did not use an EBP category per se, but instead provided a protocol for selecting the most acceptable treatment from a group of interventions intended to treat the same problems. To be designated as "best practice '', a treatment would need to have a sound theoretical base, general acceptance in clinical practice, and considerable anecdotal or clinical literature. This protocol also requires absence of evidence of harm, at least one randomized controlled study, descriptive publications, a reasonable amount of necessary training, and the possibility of being used in common settings. Missing from this protocol are the possibility of nonrandomized designs (in which clients or practitioners decide whether an individual will receive a certain treatment), the need to specify the type of comparison group used, the existence of confounding variables, the reliability or validity of outcome measures, the type of statistical analysis required, or a number of other factors required by some evaluation protocols.
A protocol suggested by Saunders et al. assigns research reports to six categories, on the basis of research design, theoretical background, evidence of possible harm, and general acceptance. To be classified under this protocol, there must be descriptive publications, including a manual or similar description of the intervention. This protocol does not consider the nature of any comparison group, the effect of confounding variables, the nature of the statistical analysis, or a number of other criteria. Interventions are assessed as belonging to Category 1, well - supported, efficacious treatments, if there are two or more randomized controlled outcome studies comparing the target treatment to an appropriate alternative treatment and showing a significant advantage to the target treatment. Interventions are assigned to Category 2, supported and probably efficacious treatment, based on positive outcomes of nonrandomized designs with some form of control, which may involve a non-treatment group. Category 3, supported and acceptable treatment, includes interventions supported by one controlled or uncontrolled study, or by a series of single - subject studies, or by work with a different population than the one of interest. Category 4, promising and acceptable treatment, includes interventions that have no support except general acceptance and clinical anecdotal literature; however, any evidence of possible harm excludes treatments from this category. Category 5, innovative and novel treatment, includes interventions that are not thought to be harmful, but are not widely used or discussed in the literature. Category 6, concerning treatment, is the classification for treatments that have the possibility of doing harm, as well as having unknown or inappropriate theoretical foundations.
A protocol for evaluation of research quality was suggested by a report from the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, prepared by Khan et al. and intended as a general method for assessing both medical and psychosocial interventions. While strongly encouraging the use of randomized designs, this protocol noted that such designs were useful only if they met demanding criteria, such as true randomization and concealment of the assigned treatment group from the client and from others, including the individuals assessing the outcome. The Khan et al. protocol emphasized the need to make comparisons on the basis of "intention to treat '' in order to avoid problems related to greater attrition in one group. The Khan et al. protocol also presented demanding criteria for nonrandomized studies, including matching of groups on potential confounding variables and adequate descriptions of groups and treatments at every stage, and concealment of treatment choice from persons assessing the outcomes. This protocol did not provide a classification of levels of evidence, but included or excluded treatments from classification as evidence - based depending on whether the research met the stated standards.
An assessment protocol has been developed by the U.S. National Registry of Evidence - Based Practices and Programs (NREPP). Evaluation under this protocol occurs only if an intervention has already had one or more positive outcomes, with a probability of less than. 05, reported, if these have been published in a peer - reviewed journal or an evaluation report, and if documentation such as training materials has been made available. The NREPP evaluation, which assigns quality ratings from 0 to 4 to certain criteria, examines reliability and validity of outcome measures used in the research, evidence for intervention fidelity (predictable use of the treatment in the same way every time), levels of missing data and attrition, potential confounding variables, and the appropriateness of statistical handling, including sample size.
A protocol suggested by Mercer and Pignotti uses a taxonomy intended to classify on both research quality and other criteria. In this protocol, evidence - based interventions are those supported by work with randomized designs employing comparisons to established treatments, independent replications of results, blind evaluation of outcomes, and the existence of a manual. Evidence - supported interventions are those supported by nonrandomized designs, including within - subjects designs, and meeting the criteria for the previous category. Evidence - informed treatments involve case studies or interventions tested on populations other than the targeted group, without independent replications; a manual exists, and there is no evidence of harm or potential for harm. Belief - based interventions have no published research reports or reports based on composite cases; they may be based on religious or ideological principles or may claim a basis in accepted theory without an acceptable rationale; there may or may not be a manual, and there is no evidence of harm or potential for harm. Finally, the category of potentially harmful treatments includes interventions such that harmful mental or physical effects have been documented, or a manual or other source shows the potential for harm.
Protocols for evaluation of research quality are still in development. So far, the available protocols pay relatively little attention to whether outcome research is relevant to efficacy (the outcome of a treatment performed under ideal conditions) or to effectiveness (the outcome of the treatment performed under ordinary, expectable conditions).
A process has been specified that provides a standardised route for those seeking to produce evidence of the effectiveness of interventions. Originally developed to establish processes for the production of evidence in the housing sector, the standard is general in nature and is applicable across a variety of practice areas and potential outcomes of interest.
When there are many small or weak studies of an intervention, a statistical meta - analysis can be used to co-ordinate the studies ' results and to draw a stronger conclusion about the outcome of the treatment. This can be an important contribution to the establishment of a foundation of evidence about an intervention.
In other situations, facts about a group of study outcomes may be gathered and discussed in the form of a systematic research synthesis (SRS). A SRS can be more or less useful, depending on the evaluation protocol chosen, and errors in choice or use of a protocol have led to fallacious reports. The meaningfulness of a SRS report on an intervention is limited by the quality of the research under consideration, but SRS reports can be helpful to readers seeking to understand EBP - related choices.
Miller et al. provide an excellent example and explication of the use of meta - analysis examining treatment outcome research, incorporating the principles of rigorous empirical research from the strong end of the continuum of levels of evidence. This textbook also explicates how the research included was selected (e.g. controlled study looking at two different approaches, appearing in a peer reviewed journal, sufficient power to find significant differences if they occurred) and how each study was checked for validity (how was the outcome measured?) and reliability (did the research do what they said they did?), etc. to create a Cumulative Evidence Score weighted by the quality of the study (and not by the outcome) such that better studies with "stronger designs '' and better methodological quality ratings carry more weight than weaker studies. The results lead to a rank ordering of the 48 treatment modalities included and provide a basis for selecting supportable treatment approaches beyond anecdotes, traditions and lore.
There are increasing demands for the whole range of social policy and other decisions and programs run by government and the NGO sector to be based on sound evidence as to their effectiveness. This has seen an increased emphasis on the use of a wide range of Evaluation approaches directed at obtaining evidence about social programs of all types. A research collaboration called the Campbell Collaboration has been set up in the social policy area to provide evidence for evidence - based social policy decision - making. This collaboration follows the approach pioneered by the Cochrane Collaboration in the health sciences. Using an evidence - based approach to social policy has a number of advantages because it has the potential to decrease the tendency to run programs which are socially acceptable (e.g. drug education in schools) but which often prove to be ineffective when evaluated. More recently the Alliance for Useful Evidence has been established to champion the use of evidence in social policy and practice. It is a UK - wide network that promotes the use of high quality evidence to inform decisions on strategy, policy and practice. The agency published a useful practice guide with Nesta 's Innovation Skills Team on the effective use of research evidence in 2016.
The concept of Evidence - based policy and practice within international development is similarly being emphasized. For instance, in a literature review focused on development, an integrated, participatory, structured and enpowering approach to using evidence and data in decision - making to inform development decisions was tied to improved results.
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when did french revolution take place explain its impact on europe | Influence of the French Revolution - wikipedia
The French Revolution had a major impact on Europe and the New World. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history. In the short - term, France lost thousands of her countrymen in the form of émigrés, or emigrants who wished to escape political tensions and save their lives. A number of individuals settled in the neighboring countries (chiefly Great Britain, Germany, Austria, and Prussia), however quite a few also went to the United States. The displacement of these Frenchmen led to a spread of French culture, policies regulating immigration, and a safe haven for Royalists and other counterrevolutionaries to outlast the violence of the French Revolution. The long - term impact on France was profound, shaping politics, society, religion and ideas, and polarizing politics for more than a century. The closer other countries were, the greater and deeper was the French impact, bringing liberalism and the end of many feudal or traditional laws and practices. However, there was also a conservative counter-reaction that defeated Napoleon, reinstalled the Bourbon kings, and in some ways reversed the new reforms.
Most of the new nations created by the French were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Frederick Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution:
Likewise in Switzerland the long - term impact of the French Revolution has been assessed by Martin:
The greatest impact came in France itself. In addition to effects similar to those in Italy and Switzerland, France saw the introduction of the principle of legal equality, and the downgrading of the once powerful and rich Catholic Church to just a bureau controlled by the government. Power became centralized in Paris, with its strong bureaucracy and an army supplied by conscripting all young men. French politics were permanently polarized -- new names were given, ' left ' and ' right ' for the supporters and opponents of the principles of the Revolution.
The changes in France were enormous; some were widely accepted and others were bitterly contested into the late 20th century. Before the Revolution, the people had little power or voice. The kings had so thoroughly centralized the system that most nobles spent their time at Versailles, and played only a small direct role in their home districts. Thompson says that the kings had:
After the first year of revolution, this power had been stripped away. The king was a figurehead, the nobility had lost all their titles and most of their land, the Church lost its monasteries and farmlands, bishops, judges and magistrates were elected by the people, the army was almost helpless, with military power in the hands of the new revolutionary National Guard. The central elements of 1789 were the slogan "Liberté, égalité, fraternité '' and "The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen '', which Lefebvre calls "the incarnation of the Revolution as a whole. ''
The long - term impact on France was profound, shaping politics, society, religion and ideas, and polarizing politics for more than a century. Historian François Aulard writes:
Europe was wracked by two decades of war revolving around France 's efforts to spread its revolutionary ideals, and the opposition of reactionary royalty, led by Britain and Austria. War broke out in 1792 as Austria and Prussia invaded France, but were defeated at the Battle of Valmy (1792).
To escape political tensions and save their lives, a number of individuals, mostly men, emigrated from France. Many settled in neighboring countries (chiefly Great Britain, Germany, Austria, and Prussia), and quite a few went to the United States. The presence of these thousands of Frenchmen of varying socioeconomic backgrounds who had just fled a hotbed of revolutionary activity posed a problem for the nations that extended refuge to the migrants. The fear was that they brought with them a plot to disrupt the political order, which did lead to increased regulation and documentation of the influx of immigrants in neighboring countries. Still, most nations such as Britain remained magnanimous and welcomed the French.
In foreign affairs, the French Army at first was quite successful. It conquered Belgium and turned it into another province of France. It conquered the Netherlands, and made it a puppet state. It took control of the German areas on the left bank of the Rhine River and set up a puppet regime. It conquered Switzerland and most of Italy, setting up a series of puppet states. The result was glory for France, and an infusion of much needed money from the conquered lands, which also provided direct support to the French Army. However the enemies of France, led by Britain and funded by the inexhaustible British Treasury, formed a Second Coalition in 1799 (with Britain joined by Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria). It scored a series of victories that rolled back French successes, and The French Army trapped in Egypt. Napoleon himself slipped through the British blockade in October 1799, returning to Paris.
Napoleon conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution in 1797 -- 99. He consolidated old units and split up Austria 's holdings. He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. Napoleon 's Cisalpine Republic was centered on Milan. Genoa the city became a republic while its hinterland became the Ligurian Republic. The Roman Republic was formed out of the papal holdings while the pope himself was sent to France. The Neapolitan Republic was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months before the enemy forces of the Coalition recaptured it.
In 1805 he formed the Kingdom of Italy, with himself as king and his stepson as viceroy. In addition, France turned the Netherlands into the Batavian Republic, and Switzerland into the Helvetic Republic. All these new countries where satellites of France, and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon 's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernized, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France. The new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution:
Otto Dann and John Dinwiddy report, "It has long been almost a truism of European history that the French Revolution gave a great stimulus to the growth of modern nationalism. '' Nationalism was emphasized by historian Carlton J.H. Hayes as a major result of the French Revolution across Europe. The impact on French nationalism was profound. Napoleon became such a heroic symbol of the nation that the glory was easily picked up by his nephew, who was overwhelmingly elected president (and later became Emperor Napoleon III). The influence was great in the hundreds of small German states and elsewhere, where it was either inspired by the French example or in reaction against it.
At the beginning of the Revolution, Britain supported the constitutional monarchy, up until they de-instated the king Louis XVI. Britain saw minority support for the French Revolution, but the majority, especially the elite, were strongly opposed. Britain led and funded the series of coalitions that fought France from 1793 to 1815, and then restored the Bourbons. Edmund Burke was the chief spokesman for the opposition.
In Ireland, the effect was to transform what had been an attempt by Protestant settlers to gain some autonomy into a mass movement led by the Society of United Irishmen involving Catholics and Protestants. It stimulated the demand for further reform throughout Ireland, especially in Ulster. The upshot was a revolt in 1798, led by Wolfe Tone, that was crushed by Britain. This revolt is seen as the foundation for modern Irish republicanism, which eventually led to the partition of Ireland and independence for 26 of its 32 counties.
German reaction to the Revolution swung from favorable at first to antagonistic. At first it brought liberal and democratic ideas, the end of guilds, of serfdom and of the Jewish ghetto. It brought economic freedoms and agrarian and legal reform. German intellectuals celebrated the outbreak, hoping to see the triumph of Reason and The Enlightenment. There were enemies as well, as the royal courts in Vienna and Berlin denounced the overthrow of the king and the threatened spread of notions of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
By 1793, the execution of the French king and the onset of the Terror disillusioned the "Bildungsbürgertum '' (educated middle classes). Reformers said the solution was to have faith in the ability of Germans to reform their laws and institutions in peaceful fashion.
After Prussia was humiliated by Napoleon opinion swung against France and stimulated and shaped German nationalism.
France took direct control of the Rhineland 1794 -- 1814 and radically and permanently liberalized the government, society and economy.
The French swept away centuries worth of outmoded restrictions and introduced unprecedented levels of efficiency. The chaos and barriers in a land divided and subdivided among many different petty principalities gave way to a rational, simplified, centralized system controlled by Paris and run by Napoleon 's relatives. The most important impact came from the abolition of all feudal privileges and historic taxes, the introduction of legal reforms of the Napoleonic Code, and the reorganization of the judicial and local administrative systems. The economic integration of the Rhineland with France increased prosperity, especially in industrial production, while business accelerated with the new efficiency and lowered trade barriers. The Jews were liberated from the ghetto. One sour point was the hostility of the French officials toward the Roman Catholic Church, the choice of most of the residents. Much of South Germany felt a similar but more muted influence of the French Revolution, while in Prussia and areas to the east there was far less impact. The reforms were permanent. Decades later workers and peasants in the Rhineland often appealed to Jacobinism to oppose unpopular government programs, while the intelligentsia demanded the maintenance of the Napoleonic Code (which was stayed in effect for a century).
The French invaded Switzerland and turned it into an ally known as the "Helvetic Republic '' (1798 -- 1803). The interference with localism and traditional liberties was deeply resented, although some modernizing reforms took place. Resistance was strongest in the more traditional Catholic bastions, with armed uprisings breaking out in spring 1798 in the central part of Switzerland. Alois Von Reding, a powerful Swiss general, led an army of 10,000 men from the Cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden against the French. This resulted in the Swiss regaining control of Lucerne, however due to the sheer greatness in size of the French army, Von Reding 's movement was eventually suppressed. The French Army suppressed the uprisings but support for revolutionary ideals steadily declined, as the Swiss resented their loss of local democracy, the new taxes, the centralization, and the hostility to religion.
The instability of France resulted in the creation of two different revolutionary groups with different ideologies of revolt: The aristocrats, seeking the restoration of the Old Swiss Confederacy and a section of the population wanting a coup. Furthermore, Switzerland became a battleground between the armies of France, Austria and Russia. Ultimately, this instability, frequent coups within the government and the eventual Bourla - papey forced Napoleon to sign the Act of Medallion which led to the fall of the Helvetic Republic and the restoration of the Confederacy.
The long - term impact of the French Revolution has been assessed by Martin:
French invaded the territory of modern - day Belgium and controlled it between 1794 -- 1814. The French imposed reforms and incorporated the territory into France. New rulers were sent in by Paris. Belgian men were drafted into the French wars and heavily taxed. Nearly everyone was Catholic, but the Church was repressed. Resistance was strong in every sector, as Belgian nationalism emerged to oppose French rule. The French legal system, however, was adopted, with its equal legal rights, and abolition of class distinctions. Belgium now had a government bureaucracy selected by merit.
Antwerp regained access to the sea and grew quickly as a major port and business center. France promoted commerce and capitalism, paving the way for the ascent of the bourgeoisie and the rapid growth of manufacturing and mining. In economics, therefore, the nobility declined while the middle class Belgian entrepreneurs flourished because of their inclusion in a large market, paving the way for Belgium 's leadership role after 1815 in the Industrial Revolution on the Continent.
France turned the Netherlands into a puppet state that had to pay large indemnities.
The Kingdom of Denmark adopted liberalizing reforms in line with those of the French Revolution, with no direct contact. Danes were aware of French ideas and agreed with them, as it moved from Danish absolutism to a liberal constitutional system between 1750 -- 1850. The change of government in 1784 was caused by a power vacuum created when King Christian VII took ill, and power shifted to the crown prince (who later became King Frederik VI) and reform - oriented landowners. In contrast to Old Regime France, agricultural reform was intensified in Denmark, serfdom was abolished and civil rights were extended to the peasants, the finances of the Danish state were healthy, and there were no external or internal crises. That is, reform was gradual and the regime itself carried out agrarian reforms that had the effect of weakening absolutism by creating a class of independent peasant freeholders. Much of the initiative came from well - organized liberals who directed political change in the first half of the 19th century.
In Sweden, King Gustav III (reigned 1771 -- 92) was an enlightened despot, who weakened the nobility and promoted numerous major social reforms. He felt the Swedish monarchy could survive and flourish by achieving a coalition with the newly emerged middle classes against the nobility. He was close to King Louis XVI so he was disgusted with French radicalism. Nevertheless, he decided to promote additional antifeudal reforms to strengthen his hand among the middle classes. When the king was assassinated in 1792 his brother Charles became regent, but real power was with Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm, who bitterly opposed the French Revolution and all its supporters. Under King Gustav IV Adolf, Sweden joined various coalitions against Napoleon, but was badly defeated and lost much of its territory, especially Finland and Pomerania. The king was overthrown by the army, which in 1810 decided to bring in one of Napoleon 's marshals, Bernadotte, as the heir apparent and army commander. He had a Jacobin background and was well - grounded in revolutionary principles, but put Sweden in the coalition that opposed Napoleon. Bernadotte served as a quite conservative king Charles XIV John of Sweden (1818 -- 44).
The French Revolution won widespread American support in its early phase, but when the king was executed it polarized American opinion and played a major role in shaping American politics. President George Washington declared neutrality in the European wars, but the polarization shaped the First Party System. In 1793, the first "Democratic societies '' were formed. They supported the French Revolution in the wake of the execution of the king. The word "democrat '' was proposed by French Ambassador Citizen Genet for the societies, which he was secretly subsidizing. The emerging Federalists led by Alexander Hamilton began to ridicule the supporters of Thomas Jefferson as "democrats ''. Genet now began mobilizing American voters using French money, for which he was expelled by President Washington.
After President Washington denounced the societies as unrepublican, they faded away. In 1793, as war broke out in Europe, the Jeffersonian Republican Party favored France and pointed to the 1778 treaty that was still in effect. Washington and his unanimous cabinet (including Jefferson) decided the treaty did not bind the U.S. to enter the war; instead Washington proclaimed neutrality. Under President Adams, a Federalist, an undeclared naval war took place with France in 1798 -- 99, called the "Quasi War ''. Jefferson became president in 1801, but was hostile to Napoleon as a dictator and emperor. Nevertheless, he did seize the opportunity to purchase Louisiana in 1803.
The broad similarities but different experiences between the French and American revolutions lead to a certain kinship between France and the United States, with both countries seeing themselves as pioneers of liberty and promoting republican ideals. This bond manifesting itself in such exchanges as the gift of the Statue of Liberty by France.
The call for modification of society was influenced by the revolution in France, and once the hope for change found a place in the hearts of the Haitian people, there was no stopping the radical reformation that was occurring. The Enlightenment ideals and the initiation of the French Revolution were enough to inspire the Haitian Revolution, which evolved into the most successful and comprehensive slave rebellion. Just as the French were successful in transforming their society, so were the Haitians. On April 4, 1792, The French National Assembly granted freedom to slaves in Haiti and the revolution culminated in 1804; Haiti was an independent nation solely of freed peoples. The activities of the revolutions sparked change across the world. France 's transformation was most influential in Europe, and Haiti 's influence spanned across every location that continued to practice slavery. John E. Baur honors Haiti as home of the most influential Revolution in history.
As early as 1810, the term "liberal '' was coined in Spanish politics to indicate supporters of the French Revolution. This usage passed to Latin America and animated the independence movement against Spain. In the nineteenth century "Liberalism '' was the dominant element in Latin American political thought. French liberal ideas were especially influential in Mexico, particularly as seen through the writings of Alexis de Tocqueville, Benjamin Constant and Édouard René de Laboulaye. The Latin American political culture oscillated between two opposite poles: the traditional, as based on highly specific personal and family ties to kin groups, communities, and religious identity; and the modern, based on impersonal ideals of individualism, equality, legal rights, and secularism or anti-clericalism. The French Revolutionary model was the basis for the modern viewpoint, as explicated in Mexico in the writings of José María Luis Mora (1794 -- 1850).
In Mexico, modern liberalism was best expressed in the Liberal Party, the Constitution of 1857, the policies of Benito Juárez, and finally by Francisco I. Madero 's democratic movement leading to the Revolution of 1911.
The impact of the French Revolution on the Middle East came in terms of the political and military impact of Napoleon 's invasion; and in the eventual influence of revolutionary and liberal ideas and revolutionary movements or rebellions. In terms of Napoleon 's invasion in 1798, the response by Ottoman officials was highly negative. They warned that traditional religion would be overthrown. Long - standing Ottoman friendship with France ended. Sultan Selim III immediately realized how far behind his empire was, and started to modernize both his army and his governmental system. In Egypt itself, the ruling elite of Mamluks was permanently displaced, speeding the reforms. In intellectual terms, the immediate impact of the French Revolutionary ideas was nearly invisible, but there was a long - range influence on liberal ideas and the ideal of legal equality, as well as the notion of opposition to a tyrannical government. In this regard, the French Revolution brought such influential themes as constitutionalism, parliamentarianism, individual liberty, legal equality, and the sense of ethnic nationalism. These came to fruition about 1876.
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when was the last time jaguars went to super bowl | Jacksonville Jaguars - wikipedia
National Football League (1995 -- present)
Black, Teal, Gold
Division championships (3)
The Jacksonville Jaguars are an American professional football franchise based in Jacksonville, Florida. The Jaguars compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the American Football Conference (AFC) South division. The team plays its home games at TIAA Bank Field.
The Jaguars and the Carolina Panthers joined the NFL as expansion teams for the 1995 season. Since their inception, the Jaguars have won division championships in 1998 and 1999 (as members of the now - defunct AFC Central) and 2017 (as members of the AFC South) and have qualified for the playoffs seven times, most recently in 2017 after a ten - season playoff drought.
From their inception until 2011, the Jacksonville Jaguars ' majority owner was Wayne Weaver. The team was then purchased by Pakistani - born businessman Shahid Khan for an estimated $ 770 million. In 2015, Forbes estimated the team value at $1.48 billion.
In 1989, the prospective ownership group Touchdown Jacksonville! was organized. The group initially included future Florida Governor Jeb Bush and Jacksonville developer Tom Petway, and came to be led by shoe magnate Wayne Weaver, founder of Nine West. In 1991, the NFL announced plans to add two expansion teams in 1994 (later delayed until 1995), its first expansion since the 1976 addition of the Seattle Seahawks and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Touchdown Jacksonville! announced its bid for a team, and Jacksonville was ultimately chosen as one of five finalists, along with Charlotte, St. Louis, Baltimore, and Memphis.
Jacksonville was considered the least likely expansion candidate for several reasons. The Jacksonville metropolitan area and television market were smaller than those of nearly every team in the league. Although Jacksonville was the 15th largest city in the nation at the time (It has since grown to become the 11th - largest), it has always been a medium - sized market because the surrounding suburbs and rural areas are far smaller than the city itself. There were 635,000 people in Jacksonville proper according to the 1990 census, but only 900,000 people in the metropolitan area. Additionally, the Gator Bowl was outdated, and the ownership group struggled to negotiate a lease with the city. The troubled negotiations over the Gator Bowl lease led the ownership group to withdraw from the NFL expansion bidding in July 1993.
Charlotte was awarded the first franchise -- the Carolina Panthers -- in October 1993. Surprisingly, the naming of the second expansion city was delayed a month. Most pundits speculated that the delay was made to allow St. Louis to shore up its bid. At the time, St. Louis was considered the favorite for the second franchise, with Baltimore 's three bids also considered strong. However, in a surprising move, the NFL owners voted 26 -- 2 in favor of awarding the 30th franchise to Jacksonville.
After the Gator Bowl game on December 31, 1993, the old stadium was essentially demolished and replaced with a reinforced concrete superstructure. All that remained of the old stadium was the west upper concourse and a portion of the ramping system. To accommodate construction, the 1994 and 1995 games of "The World 's Largest Outdoor Cocktail Party '' were split between the home fields of Florida and Georgia, and the 1994 Gator Bowl was played at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium in Gainesville.
In January 1994 Wayne Weaver chose Tom Coughlin as the first - ever head coach of the Jaguars. Coughlin had worked in the NFL as a position coach, but he had been neither a head coach nor a coordinator in the NFL.
The Jaguars ' hiring of Coughlin contrasted with the hiring moves made by their fellow expansion team. The same month that Weaver hired Coughlin as his head coach, Carolina Panthers owner Jerry Richardson went a more conventional route and hired former Buffalo Bills general manager Bill Polian as the Panthers ' first GM (the Panthers ' head coach, Dom Capers, would not be hired until a full year after Coughlin). As it emerged that Weaver had no intention of hiring a general manager, it became apparent that Coughlin would have most of the authority regarding hiring decisions. Coughlin spent his year as "head coach without a team '' preparing for the personnel moves that would come from the expansion draft, free agency, and the rookie draft in the spring of 1995.
Along with the Carolina Panthers, the Jacksonville Jaguars entered the NFL as the first expansion teams in almost 20 years. Both teams participated in the 1995 NFL expansion draft, with the Jaguars taking Steve Beuerlein with the first pick. Beuerlein quickly lost his starting job to former Green Bay Packers backup Mark Brunell. The Jaguars finished their inaugural season with a record of 4 -- 12. Both the Jaguars and the Panthers (7 -- 9) broke the previous record for most wins by an expansion team (3) set by the Cincinnati Bengals in 1968. The inaugural season featured many of the players who would lead Jacksonville into the playoffs in the team 's next four seasons, including quarterback Mark Brunell (acquired in a draft day trade from Green Bay), offensive lineman Tony Boselli (drafted with the 2nd pick overall in the 1995 NFL Draft) running back James Stewart (also drafted in 1995), and wide receiver Jimmy Smith (signed as a free agent).
The team played its first regular season game at home in front of a crowd of 72,363 on September 3, 1995, a 10 -- 3 loss against the Houston Oilers. The team picked up its first win in Week 4 as the Jaguars defeated the Oilers 17 -- 16 on October 1 in Houston. The next week against the Pittsburgh Steelers, the Jaguars earned their first home win by defeating the eventual AFC Champions 20 -- 16. The team 's other two wins came in a season sweep of the Cleveland Browns including a Week 17 24 -- 21 victory sealed by a Mike Hollis 34 - yard field goal in the Browns ' final game before the team relocated to Baltimore and was renamed the Ravens.
Jacksonville 's 1996 season was a marked success as they won six of their last seven games of the season and finished with a record of 9 -- 7. Quarterback Mark Brunell threw for over 4,000 yards and wide receivers Keenan McCardell and Jimmy Smith each accumulated over 1,000 receiving yards. In the team 's final game of the regular season against the Atlanta Falcons, needing a win to earn a playoff berth, the Jaguars caught a bit of luck when Morten Andersen, one of the most accomplished kickers in NFL history, missed a 30 - yard field goal with less than a minute remaining that would have given the Falcons the lead. The Jaguars clinched the fifth seed in the AFC playoffs.
The Jaguars visited the Buffalo Bills in their first playoff game in franchise history. Despite being a heavy underdog, the Jaguars won 30 -- 27, and knocked Buffalo quarterback Jim Kelly out of what would turn out to be the last game of his career. Their next game was on the road against the Denver Broncos, who had earned the AFC 's top seed with a 13 -- 3 record and were widely regarded as the best team in the AFC, if not the NFL. While the Broncos scored two touchdowns early in the game, after the first quarter, the Jaguars largely dominated. In what is often regarded as one of the three biggest upsets in NFL playoff history, the Jaguars defeated the Broncos by the same score as the previous week against the Bills, 30 -- 27. Upon their return home, the Jags were greeted by an estimated 40,000 fans at the stadium. Many of these fans had watched the game on the stadium JumboTron displays and had stayed into the early hours of the morning when the team arrived. In the AFC Championship Game, the Jaguars miracle season came to an end, as they lost 20 -- 6 to the New England Patriots, in Foxboro. Their fellow second - year NFC expansion team, the Carolina Panthers, also got to their conference championship game, where they lost 30 -- 13 to the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers.
In 1997, the franchise 's third season, the Jaguars and the Steelers both finished the season with an 11 -- 5 record, tops in the AFC Central Division. Pittsburgh won the division in a tiebreaker as a result of having higher net in division games than Jacksonville. As a result, the Jaguars settled for 2nd place in the division, a Wild Card berth and, for the second straight year, the 5th seed in the AFC playoffs. The Jags postseason would end quickly as they fell in their first game, a 42 -- 17 defeat against the eventual Super Bowl champion Denver Broncos at Mile High Stadium. The Broncos, led by Terrell Davis, ran at will against the Jaguars, rushing for 5 touchdowns and over 300 yards.
In 1998, the Jaguars again finished 11 -- 5 and won their first AFC Central Division title. The team became the first NFL expansion team to make the playoffs three times in its first four seasons of play. In the Wild Card Round, the Jaguars hosted their first home playoff game, a 25 -- 10 win over the New England Patriots. The team 's season ended the next week in the Divisional Round as the New York Jets defeated the Jaguars 34 -- 24.
In 1999, the Jaguars compiled a league best 14 -- 2 regular season record, the best record in franchise history. The team 's two losses were to the Tennessee Titans. The Jaguars won the AFC Central Division for the second straight year and clinched the # 1 seed in the AFC. The Jaguars hosted the Miami Dolphins in the AFC Divisional playoffs, a 62 -- 7 victory in what would be Dan Marino and Jimmy Johnson 's last NFL game. Jacksonville 's 62 points and 55 - point margin are the second most ever in NFL playoff history, and Fred Taylor 's 90 - yard run in the first quarter is the longest ever in an NFL playoff game.
The Jaguars ' bid for a Super Bowl title came to an end the next week in the AFC championship game. The Jags fell at home to the Titans 33 -- 14 in a game that the Jaguars led 14 -- 10 at halftime, before allowing 23 unanswered points in the 2nd half. The Jaguars finished the 1999 season 15 -- 3, with all three of their losses coming against the Titans. The loss marked the end of an era that saw the Jaguars make the playoffs in four of the team 's first 5 years and would be the team 's last playoff appearance until the 2005 season.
The Jaguars struggled during this period, due in part to salary cap problems. In the 2000 season, veteran quarterback Mark Brunell and young running back Fred Taylor led the squad through a painful 7 -- 9 season. The Jaguars finished with records of 6 -- 10 in both the 2001 and 2002 seasons.
After the 2002 season, head coach Tom Coughlin was fired after eight seasons, leading the Jaguars to a total record of 68 -- 60 and four trips to the playoffs. The 2002 season also marked the last full season for Jaguars quarterback Mark Brunell, who was benched in the third game of 2003 in favor of Byron Leftwich. Brunell piled up over 25,000 yards as a Jaguar and earned three trips to the Pro Bowl. In 2002 the NFL split up the two conferences into four divisions, sending the Jacksonville Jaguars to the AFC South. This put them in the same division as the Indianapolis Colts, Tennessee Titans, and the expansion Houston Texans.
In 2003, the Jaguars hired Jack Del Rio as head coach. Del Rio was a linebacker during the late 80s and early 90s before retiring. He was formerly the Carolina Panthers ' defensive coordinator, bringing the team 's defensive ranking from 30th to second. Prior to that, Del Rio was the Baltimore Ravens linebackers coach, participating in that capacity on the Ravens ' record setting championship 2000 defense. The Jaguars selected quarterback Byron Leftwich with the seventh pick of the NFL draft. The Jaguars had high hopes for their new quarterback. The team had many failures and heartbreaking moments, ending the 2003 season at 5 -- 11 and missing the playoffs for the fourth consecutive season. Despite resolving their salary cap problems, the team 's rebuilding was clearly taking longer than expected.
The 2004 season, the 10th season of the Jaguars franchise, resulted in a 9 -- 7 record, their first winning season since 1999, with road victories against the Green Bay Packers at Lambeau Field and the Indianapolis Colts at the RCA Dome. The Jaguars ' defense was a strong suit, as it included two Pro Bowl players, defensive tackles Marcus Stroud and John Henderson. Josh Scobee was selected in the 5th round of the 2004 NFL Draft and became a dominant placekicker for the Jaguars setting multiple franchise records. Byron Leftwich enjoyed a solid year in 2004, helped by strong performances from holdovers Fred Taylor and Jimmy Smith. Unfortunately, Taylor sustained a season - ending injury at Green Bay. The very next week the Jaguars fell to the Houston Texans, which would ultimately eliminate them from playoff contention.
The 2005 Jaguars hoped to challenge the Colts for the division title. However, due to their scintillating 13 -- 0 start, including two victories against the Jaguars, the Colts easily clinched the AFC South title. With a 12 -- 4 record, the Jaguars earned a wild card and their first playoff appearance since 1999. While the Jaguars managed to win key games in 2005, nine of their final ten games were against opponents with losing records. Though these games were wins, key players Byron Leftwich, Mike Peterson, Akin Ayodele, Paul Spicer, and Rashean Mathis were hurt during this stretch. The Jaguars ended the season losing 28 -- 3 to the two - time defending champion New England Patriots on January 7, 2006 in the AFC wild card playoff round.
Jacksonville looked like a team on the rise coming off of their 12 -- 4 season, and was considered a playoff contender entering the season. But injuries plagued the team. Reggie Hayward, Greg Jones, Donovin Darius, Byron Leftwich, and Mike Peterson all suffered season - ending injuries. Marcus Stroud, Matt Jones, Paul Spicer, and Fred Taylor also faced injuries during the season. The team started off 2 -- 0, defeating the Dallas Cowboys (earning the NFL 's highest winning percentage on opening days at. 750 with a record of 9 -- 3), and shutting out the defending champs Pittsburgh Steelers. But the team lost its next two games, and suffered embarrassing losses to the Houston Texans over the course of the season (Jacksonville has struggled against the Texans since Houston entered the league in 2002). They missed the playoffs with an 8 -- 8 record, but there were some positives, in particular an impressive rookie season by their second - round draft pick, running back Maurice Jones - Drew.
In the 2007 NFL Draft, the Jaguars used their first - round pick (21st overall) to select Florida safety Reggie Nelson. On June 15, 2007, the Jaguars released veteran strong safety Donovin Darius, who had seen diminished playing time in previous years due to mounting injuries. On August 31, 2007, the Jaguars announced that long time back - up quarterback David Garrard would start for the team, ahead of former first round draft pick Byron Leftwich, who was released in the team 's final roster cuts. Garrard led the Jaguars to an 11 -- 5 record and a wild card spot in the playoffs. The Jaguars defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 31 -- 29 to win their first playoff game in almost eight years and their first road playoff win since 1997. It was also the first time in the 50 + year history of the Steelers that they had been beaten twice at home by the same team in the same season. However, in the divisional round, the Jaguars fell to the then - undefeated New England Patriots; the teams were tied at halftime, but the Patriots pulled ahead and won 31 -- 20. Tom Brady completed 26 of 28 passes in this game, being pressured by the Jaguars ' defense only once, on the first play. This game, more than any other, gave the Jaguars ' front office a strong desire to upgrade the pass rush during the offseason.
The team 's offense in 2007 was largely a run - first offense, with Maurice Jones - Drew and Fred Taylor each putting up a lot of yards. David Garrard, however showed to be an efficient passer in 2007, throwing only 3 interceptions.
The 2008 season began with high expectations for the Jaguars. The team acquired free agent wide receiver Jerry Porter and rookie defensive ends Quentin Groves of Auburn and Derrick Harvey of Florida to address the team 's most glaring needs. (Porter was released the following year and Groves was traded to Oakland in 2010.) Journalists including ESPN. com 's Kevin Seifert predicted the Jaguars were poised to make a Super Bowl run.
However, the Jaguars failed to live up to those expectations, struggling to a 5 -- 11 finish, the franchise 's worst record since 2003. The team 's struggles were in part, the result of a rash of injuries to the team 's offensive line. The Jaguars lost starting guards Vince Manuwai and Maurice Williams for the season within the first quarter of the opening game. Tackle Richard Collier 's career ended in early September when he was brutally attacked and shot 14 times. Center Brad Meester missed the first two months of the season and guard Chris Naeole, signed to the roster mid-season in response to these injuries, was injured in pregame warmups before playing a single snap. The 2008 season marked the end of running back Fred Taylor 's 11 - year career as a Jaguar. Taylor, who is considered to be one of the greatest Jaguars in the history of the franchise, rushed for over 10,000 yards during his tenure with Jacksonville and earned one trip to the Pro Bowl. In 2009, he signed with the New England Patriots. Taylor 's departure opened up the door for Maurice Jones - Drew to become the team 's feature running back. In 2011, Taylor signed a one - day contract so he could retire as a Jaguar.
The Jaguars hoped to begin a new era in 2009 under their first - ever general manager, Gene Smith. Smith made his mark early on in the 2009 NFL Draft by acquiring talent such as Eugene Monroe, Terrance Knighton, Derek Cox, Eben Britton and Mike Thomas, who all made significant contributions in their rookie years. The Jaguars finished off this season 7 -- 9 and did not manage to make the playoffs. In the offseason, the Jaguars parted ways with veteran players John Henderson and Reggie Hayward as part of the team 's "youth movement ''.
However, 2009 also saw the team 's attendance numbers plummet, leading to television blackouts and speculation that the team could eventually be moved or sold. 2009 marked a low point, with the team 's attendance averaging around 50,000, causing seven of the eight home games to be blacked out, and leading NFL commissioner Roger Goodell to address the issue with owner Wayne Weaver. Jacksonville is one of the league 's smallest markets, though its stadium is relatively large; since 2005 the team has covered nearly 10,000 of the stadium 's 73,000 total seats with tarp in order to lower the stadium 's official capacity to a more typical size and reduce blackouts. 73,000 total seats still ranks as one of the largest in the NFL. From 2008 the team further suffered from the late - 2000s recession, which hit Florida particularly hard, and structural changes within the NFL that disadvantage teams in smaller markets.
In 2010, to address this issue, the team and the City of Jacksonville undertook several measures aimed at ensuring the franchise 's continued viability in Jacksonville. Supporters began the "Team Teal '' drive to drum up ticket sales. The city negotiated a five - year, $16.6 million naming rights deal with Jacksonville - based EverBank to rename the stadium EverBank Field. As a result, the Jaguars ' attendance increased dramatically in 2010. While attendance figures were stagnant for most of the NFL, Jacksonville saw an increase of 36.5 %, by far the highest in the league, and had none of their home games blacked out.
The 2010 season proved a big year for the Jaguars on the field as well. Running back Maurice Jones - Drew emerged as second in the league in rushing yards and David Garrard threw for 23 touchdowns, a franchise record. Marcedes Lewis went to his first pro bowl and the Jags had one of the best young defensive tackle duo with Terrance Knighton and rookie Tyson Alualu. Josh Scobee set a team record with a 59 - yard field goal to beat the Indianapolis Colts. Heading into December, Jacksonville was at the top of the AFC South and in playoff contention. In Week 15, they lost to Indianapolis, 34 -- 24, which placed the Colts back atop the AFC South. The Jaguars lost their last two games, placing themselves out of playoff contention. They finished the season 8 -- 8.
In the 2011 NFL draft, the Jaguars traded a first and a second round pick in order to move up to the 10th pick and select Missouri quarterback Blaine Gabbert.
On September 6, 2011, quarterback David Garrard was cut from the team just days before the start of the season; Luke McCown was named starter. The move was similar to the one that named Garrard himself the starter over Byron Leftwich in 2007. McCown started two games until he threw four interceptions in a lopsided loss to the New York Jets and Blaine Gabbert was named the starter the following week. The Jaguars offense would continue to struggle under the rookie quarterback, losing the next 4 games in a row, until an upset victory over the Baltimore Ravens at home on Monday Night Football.
On November 29, 2011, owner Wayne Weaver announced the firing of head coach Jack Del Rio, whose record had been 3 -- 8 through the first 12 weeks of the season and 68 -- 71 over his 9 - year tenure. Del Rio was succeeded by defensive coordinator Mel Tucker on an interim basis. Weaver also announced that General Manager Gene Smith had been given a three - year extension of his contract.
Immediately following the announcement of Del Rio being fired, Weaver also announced that the team would be sold to Illinois businessman Shahid Khan. Khan 's assumption of ownership was approved a couple of weeks later by the NFL team owners, and Khan took over full ownership on January 4, 2012. He immediately began the team 's search for head coaching candidates.
On February 13, 2012, the Jaguars hired MetLife Stadium president and CEO Mark Lamping as team president. Lamping also spent 13 years as the president of the St. Louis Cardinals. Lamping is the second team president in franchise history and the first since 1997, when David Seldin left that position.
On January 10, 2012, former Atlanta Falcons offensive coordinator Mike Mularkey was named head coach of the Jaguars. On January 13, it was announced that interim head coach Mel Tucker would remain on the staff as defensive coordinator / assistant head coach and that former Falcons quarterbacks coach Bob Bratkowski would become offensive coordinator. On January 20, 2012, the team hired John Bonamego as special teams coordinator.
The Jaguars began the 2012 season with a new coaching staff and a new owner. One of the main priorities of the new leadership was to improve the team 's struggling receiving corps and see improvement from quarterback Blaine Gabbert after a disappointing rookie season. To do this, the team selected wide receiver Justin Blackmon in the first round of the 2012 NFL Draft and acquired Laurent Robinson in free agency. Despite the changes, the team struggled mightily on both sides of the ball. The team finished with a 2 -- 14 record, the worst in franchise history. Both general manager Gene Smith and head coach Mike Mularkey were fired shortly after the end of the season.
On August 21, 2012, the Jaguars announced they had finalized a deal to play one regular season home game each year between 2013 and 2016 at London 's historic Wembley Stadium as part of the NFL International Series. The first of these games was against the San Francisco 49ers on October 27, 2013. This deal was later extended through 2020.
On January 8, 2013, former Atlanta Falcons Director of Player Personnel David Caldwell was hired as the second full - time General Manager in Jaguars history. He formerly served as a scout for the Indianapolis Colts for 10 years from 1998 -- 2007. His first task with the team was to lead the interview process for a new head coach. Nine days later former Seattle Seahawks defensive coordinator Gus Bradley was named head coach of the Jaguars. The Jaguars struggled early on in 2013 and went into the bye week with an 0 -- 8 record. On November 1 Justin Blackmon was suspended indefinitely after violating the NFL 's Policy and Program for Substances of Abuse. Despite the loss of Blackmon the Jaguars got their first win with Gus Bradley on November 10 with a 29 -- 27 victory over the Tennessee Titans. This was followed by a respectable showing against the Arizona Cardinals, despite a 27 -- 14 loss, and the Jaguars ' second and third victory of the season against the Houston Texans and the Cleveland Browns. The Jaguars would win again the very next week against the Houston Texans 27 -- 20 on Thursday night, improving to 4 -- 9. They finished the season 4 -- 12.
After finishing the 2013 season with a 4 -- 12 record, a two - win improvement over the previous season, the Jaguars traded their 2011 NFL draft first round draft pick Blaine Gabbert to the San Francisco 49ers for the 6th round pick of the 2014 NFL draft. Maurice Jones - Drew, after 7 years with the Jaguars, also left the team and signed a three - year contract with the Oakland Raiders.
In the first round of the 2014 NFL draft the Jaguars selected quarterback Blake Bortles from University of Central Florida and then wide receiver Marqise Lee from University of Southern California in the second round. The new draft picks helped put more confidence in the struggling team. Justin Blackmon was suspended yet again for violating the NFL 's Policy and Program for Substances of Abuse in July. Later in July, EverBank Field unveiled their two new endzone scoreboards, which are considered to be the world 's largest. The Jaguars managed to end their season with a 3 -- 13 record.
Dante Fowler Jr. was selected by the Jaguars as the third overall pick in the 2015 NFL draft. However, Fowler tore his ACL at rookie minicamp on May 8 and did not return for the 2015 season. Josh Scobee was traded to the Pittsburgh Steelers for a 2016 NFL Draft sixth round pick. Jason Myers took over as the main placekicker for the Jaguars. The Jaguars finished the 2015 season with a record of 5 -- 11, the team 's fifth straight losing season and their eighth straight non-winning season.
With plenty of cap space to work with, Jacksonville splurged in free agency, adding defensive tackle Malik Jackson from the Denver Broncos and cornerback Prince Amukamara from the New York Giants. With the fifth selection, the Jaguars selected cornerback Jalen Ramsey from Florida State University in the first round and then the second round linebacker Myles Jack of UCLA in the 2016 NFL Draft. Jack was considered to be a top - 10 talent, but fell to the second round due to a knee injury. On October 2, 2016, the Jacksonville Jaguars defeated the Indianapolis Colts 30 -- 27 in the NFL International Series game. On December 18, 2016, Gus Bradley was fired after the Jaguars ' ninth loss in a row during the 2016 season. Bradley 's W-L record as head coach of the Jaguars was 14 -- 48 in three seasons.
On January 9, 2017 the Jaguars announced the interim head coach Doug Marrone was to be the new head coach, the contract of General Manager David Caldwell was to be extended and Tom Coughlin was returning to Jacksonville to become Executive Vice President of Football Operations. Both Doug Marrone and David Caldwell report to the Executive Vice President Tom Coughlin.
In the first round of the 2017 NFL Draft the Jaguars selected running back Leonard Fournette of LSU. At the annual NFL International Series in London on September 24, 2017 Jaguars players locked arms and kneeled during the national anthem in response to President Donald Trump 's remarks on NFL players who kneel. Shahid Khan also participated with the Jaguars in locking arms during the anthem and the Baltimore Ravens kneeled on the opposite side of the field. The Jaguars went on to defeat the Ravens in a 44 - 7 win. Four weeks later on October 17, President of the Jaguars Mark Lamping sent a letter of apology to the director of military affairs and veterans in Jacksonville that says the Jaguars were '' remiss in not fully comprehending the effect of the national anthem demonstration on foreign soil has had on the men and women who have or continue to serve our country. ''
After their week 15 win over the Houston Texans, the Jaguars clinched their first playoff trip since 2007; they finished the season 10 - 6, a seven - game turnaround from the previous year. The Jaguars defeated the Buffalo Bills 10 - 3 in Jacksonville, marking the first playoff win in ten years. In the Divisional Round, on January 14, 2018, the Jaguars defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 45 - 42 in Pittsburgh to advance to their 3rd AFC Championship Game, and their first since 1999. However, they narrowly fell to the New England Patriots 24 - 20. For the season, the defense earned the nickname "Sacksonville '' because of its dominance.
In the first round of the 2018 NFL Draft the Jaguars selected defensive tackle Taven Bryan of University of Florida.
The day after the NFL awarded the expansion team to Jacksonville, a triumphant Wayne Weaver held up the Jaguars ' proposed silver helmet and teal jersey at the NFL owners ' meeting in Chicago. The team 's colors were to be teal, gold, and silver with black accents. However, this jersey and helmet design, with a gold leaping jaguar, created controversy. Ford Motor Company, then - parent of the automaker Jaguar, believed that the Jaguars ' logo bore too much resemblance to the automaker 's logo. Though no lawsuit was brought to trial, lawyers from the team and the automaker negotiated an ultimately amicable agreement whereby Jaguar would be named the official car of the Jaguars, and the Jaguars would redesign their uniforms.
The new logo was a snarling jaguar head with a teal tongue, which Weaver said was his wife 's touch. He also claimed that the teal tongue came from "feeding Panthers to our Jaguars '' -- an obvious jab at their expansion brethren. During the Jaguars ' first ever preseason game teal - colored candies were handed out to all the fans who attended, turning their tongues a teal color just like on the logo. Additionally, raspberry lollipops were handed out by the "Candy Man '' in section 142 to also turn the home fans ' tongues teal.
In 2009, Weaver announced that he wanted to ' clean up ' the team 's image. This meant the elimination of the full - body crawling Jaguar logo, the clawing Jaguar, and the two previous wordmarks which bent the text around these logos.
In February 2013, Jaguars owner Shahid Khan, who had acquired the team in late 2011, introduced a new brand identity for the team that included a new logo, wordmark, and secondary logo. The new Jaguar head logo was intended to be "fiercer '' and more realistic. The secondary logo incorporated the new Jaguar head logo along with the first official usage of the team 's popular nickname "Jags ''. The two images were incased in a shield - style shape, designed to be a tribute to Jacksonville 's military community.
Beginning in 2013, the Jaguars began to feature gold more prominently than in the past. In fact, from 2009 -- 12 gold had only been used in the team logo and as a minor accent color.
Jaguars wordmark logo (1995 -- 1998)
Jaguars wordmark logo (1999 -- 2008)
Jaguars wordmark logo (2009 -- 2012)
For most of their history, the Jaguars have done what many other NFL teams located in subtropical climates traditionally practice: wear their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season -- forcing opponents to wear their dark ones under the sweltering autumns in Jacksonville. The only exceptions were in 2004 and 2008 -- 10, when the Jaguars chose to wear teal for all home games. In the preseason, the Jaguars typically wear teal at home since these games are played at night when there is very little advantage with the heat.
Following the logo change, the redesigned uniforms featured an all - black helmet, white pants with teal, black, and gold stripes, and numbers with gold inner trim and black outer trim. The home jersey was teal with white numbers and the away jersey was white with teal numbers. Both jerseys had a black collar and no sleeve stripes.
A prowling jaguar on each sleeve replaced the leaping jaguar going across both shoulders in the original design. The Jaguars in 1995 were the first NFL team to have 2 - tone borders on their numbers and lettering, and the first NFL team to show a complex logo (the crawling Jaguar) on the sleeve.
Minor modifications were introduced to the Jaguars uniform during this time, most notably the font of the jersey numbers, replacing the original block numbers with a unique font. Two stripes were also added to the end of the sleeves below the prowling jaguar.
During this period, the Jaguars made minor changes to their uniform, each time adding more black to the look.
The team introduced a black alternate jersey in 2002. During that same year, the team also introduced alternate black pants, worn with either the white or the teal jersey. After the black pants were introduced, the white pants would only be seen for the first few games of the year, presumably due to the heat. The black pants originally included two teal stripes down each side. The fan reaction to the extra black in the alternate jersey and alternate pants was positive, so in 2004 the Jaguars went through a formal uniform change, which teams are only allowed to do once every five years. These changes were mostly to the away look. Before 2004, the white away jerseys had teal numbers with black and gold trim, but after, the white jerseys had black numbers with teal and gold trim. The black pants were also changed. The teal stripes were replaced with the Jaguar logo on each hip. Teal almost disappeared from the away uniform.
The stripes on the white pants were altered in 2008 so that the center, thickest stripe was black, and its accents were teal. In the 2008 year, the gold in the uniforms noticeably shifted from a bright yellow metallic appearance to more beige.
The Jaguars unveiled new uniforms for the 2009 season. Team owner Wayne Weaver reportedly wanted to "clean up '' the look, feeling that the team had too many uniform styles. The new uniforms were introduced in a press conference on April 22.
At this press conference, Weaver elaborated that different people had taken different liberties with the Jaguars ' image over the years, singling out the ' All Black ' look which the team wore for every prime - time home game from 2003 to 2007 as a point of regret. He also said that the team would wear their teal jerseys at home even on hot days, saying that the practice of choosing to wear white on hot days had also diluted the team 's image. The new uniform reflected a simpler look overall. The collar and sleeve ends are the same color as the rest of the jersey. The crawling jaguar was removed. The numbers on the jerseys were changed to a simpler, block font with a thicker, single color border. After all of these subtractions, two features were added. The first was a "JAGUARS '' wordmark underneath the NFL insignia on the chest. The second was two thin ' stripes ' of off - color fabric which were added to each midseam of the jersey, curling up to the neckline on the front and below the number on the back. The stripe on the home jersey is a white line next to a black line, matching the color of the numbers, and the stripe on the away jersey is a black line next to a teal line, again matching the numbers. The pants have similar stripes, both for the home and away uniform. The away uniforms were still black pants and numbers on a white jersey, but they now used teal as the only accent color as opposed to using gold in previous years. The Jaguars ' identity, in terms of colors, beginning in 2009 is exclusively teal and black, with gold only being used in the logo. The final change made to the Jaguars ' uniforms in 2009 was to the helmet. The new helmet and facemask were black just like the old ones, but when light hit the new ones a certain way, both the helmet and face mask sparkled with a shiny teal appearance. These were the first helmets in professional football which changed color with different angles of light. The logo and number decals also incorporated this effect.
Prior to the 2012 season, new Jaguars owner Shahid Khan announced that the team would once again use a black jersey, something they had not done since 2008. In September of that year, the team announced that it would use the black jersey and black pants as their primary home uniform. The teal jersey was resurrected as an alternate.
On April 23, 2013, the Jaguars unveiled new uniforms designed by Nike. The primary home jersey is black with white numerals outlined in teal and gold. The road jersey is white with teal numerals outlined in black and gold, marking the first time since 2003 that the team has used teal numbers on their road jersey. The alternate jersey is teal with black numerals outlined in white and gold. The team had never before used black numbers on their teal jersey. All three jerseys feature a contrasting stripe that bends around the neck, and semi-glossy patches on the shoulders meant to resemble claw marks. The team added their new shield logo onto a patch just above the player 's heart, meant to pay tribute to Jacksonville 's military heritage.
The helmet, first of its kind in the NFL, features a glossy gold finish in the back that fades to matte black in the front, via a color gradient.
The new uniform set includes black and white pants with the Jaguars logo on the hip and a tri-color pattern down the player 's leg.
In November 2015, as one of eight teams participating in Nike 's "Color Rush '' initiative for four games of Thursday Night Football during the 2015 season, Jacksonville introduced an all - gold second alternative uniform. The set features a gold jersey with black sleeves and black trim, as well as all gold pants. The white front and back numbers are lined in the teal accent color and bordered by black. The TV numbers on the shoulders are white with black bordering. The set also features gold undershirts and socks.
On April 19, 2018, the Jaguars again revealed re-designed uniforms. The new design returns to an all - black gloss helmet and removes many of the complicated details from the previous set. For the first time, there will be no borders at all on any of the jersey numbers. There are no stripes or team logo on the pants; only an NFL logo and a Nike logo, which is the first and only of its kind in the NFL. Like the 2009 uniform set, the only gold in the uniform set belongs to the Jaguar logo itself, and the block number font is not distinct from that used by other teams. The sleeve trim and collar trim are both a different color than the rest of the jersey, that and the solitary Jaguar logo are the only distinct markings on the jersey. For the first time, the sock has a teal stripe between the black and white. The black jersey is the primary, as it has been since 2012, and the teal is the alternate.
Since his introduction in 1996, Jaxson de Ville has served as the Jaguars ' mascot. Jaxson entertains the crowd before and during games with his antics. The mascot has established a reputation for making dramatic entrances including bungee jumping off the stadium lights, sliding down a rope from the scoreboard and parachuting into the stadium.
Jaxson 's antics got him into trouble in 1998 and stemmed the changing of the NFL 's mascot rules, and also caused him to calm down. However, Jaxson was still seen, by some, as a mascot that gets in the way during the game. After the October 22, 2007 game against Indianapolis, Colts President Bill Polian complained to the NFL, and Jaxson was reprimanded again.
Jaxson 's first appearance was on August 18, 1996 and was played by Curtis Dvorak from his inception until his retirement in June 2015.
The Jacksonville Roar is the professional cheerleading squad of the Jaguars. The group was established in 1995, the team 's inaugural year, and regularly performs choreographed routines during the team 's home contests.
In addition to performing at games and pep rallies, members function as goodwill ambassadors of the team, participating in corporate, community, and charitable events in the Jacksonville metropolitan area where they sign autographs and pose for pictures. They also join NFL tours to entertain American servicemen and women around the world.
TIAA Bank Field (formerly known as Jacksonville Municipal Stadium, Alltel Stadium, and EverBank Field) is located on the north bank of the St. Johns River, and has been the home of the Jaguars since the team 's first season in 1995. The stadium has a capacity of 69,132, with additional seating added during Florida -- Georgia Game and the Gator Bowl.
The stadium served as the site of Super Bowl XXXIX in addition to four Jaguar playoff games including the 1999 AFC Championship Game. It also hosted the ACC Championship Game from 2005 -- 07 and the River City Showdown in 2007 and 2008.
From 1995 -- 97 and again from 2006 -- 09, the stadium was named Jacksonville Municipal Stadium. From 1997 -- 2006, the stadium was referred to as Alltel Stadium. The naming rights were purchased by EverBank prior to the 2010 season. Prior to the 2018 season the Jaguars announced the stadium would be renamed TIAA Bank Field.
The stadium got a substantial upgrade in 2014 with the addition of new scoreboards, pools, cabana seating and premium seating that includes 180 field - level seats. The scoreboards are 60 feet high and 362 feet long. The new scoreboards at EverBank Field are now the world 's largest video boards. Two 25 feet by 12 feet pools were installed in the north and south end zones along with the cabana seating. The stadium upgrades were $63 million that owner Shahid Khan helped finance $20 million of the total cost.
The Jacksonville Jaguars have three primary rivals: their divisional rivals (Tennessee Titans, Indianapolis Colts, and Houston Texans). They have geographic rivalries with the Miami Dolphins and Tampa Bay Buccaneers. The Jaguars also have a rivalry with their 1995 expansion brethren, the Carolina Panthers. The Jaguars also have rivalries with other teams that arose from the AFC Central days, most notably with the Pittsburgh Steelers.
This is a partial list of the Jaguars ' last five completed seasons. For the full season - by - season franchise results, see List of Jacksonville Jaguars seasons.
Note: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play.
As of December 31, 2017
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Roster updated May 1, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 82 Active, 1 Inactive, 7 Unsigned
Although not officially retired, the number 71 worn by offensive tackle Tony Boselli, the Jaguars ' first - ever draft pick, has not been worn since his retirement in 2002. According to team officials, while the number is not in circulation, the number (along with Fred Taylor 's number 28) is officially available for use if the circumstances warrant it.
A contest was held in July 2006 to name the club 's ring of honor and "Pride of the Jaguars '' was chosen with 36 % of the vote. It was unveiled during the 2006 season during a game against the New York Jets on October 8. Former offensive tackle Tony Boselli was the first player inducted.
On January 1, 2012, team owner Wayne Weaver and his wife Delores were added to the Pride of the Jaguars in their final game before the sale of the team to Shahid Khan. On June 7, 2012 the Jaguars announced Fred Taylor would be the next inductee into the Pride of the Jaguars. He was officially inducted on September 30, 2012. Longtime Jaguars quarterback Mark Brunell was also inducted into the "Pride of the Jaguars '' on December 15, 2013.
→ Coaching Staff → Management and Scouting → Staff Directory → More NFL staffs
The Jacksonville Jaguars Foundation was established in 1994, when the franchise deal was first announced. Since then, the Foundation has given over $20 million to area efforts in community improvement. The Foundation focuses on many initiatives, such as Honor Rows, anti-tobacco programs, NFL Play 60, and support for veterans. The Foundation grants over $1 million annually to organizations that assist "economically and socially disadvantaged youth and families ''.
The Jaguars ' first head coach, Tom Coughlin, established the Tom Coughlin Jay Fund Foundation in 1996 to help young cancer victims and their families with emotional and financial assistance. The charity remained in Jacksonville after Coughlin left to coach the New York Giants.
Media affiliates
From their inaugural 1995 season until 2013, the Jaguars ' flagship radio station was WOKV, which simulcasts on both AM 690 and on 104.5 FM.
Starting with the 2014 season, the team will be moving the broadcast to WJXL (1010 AM and 92.5 FM) and simulcast on 99.9 Gator Country
Frank Frangie is the play - by - play announcer with former Jaguars players Tony Boselli and Jeff Lageman providing color analysis.
WJXT televises all preseason games and also televises regular season games that are televised nationally on ESPN or NFL Network.
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who sings light of the world shine on me love is the answer | Love is the Answer (Utopia song) - Wikipedia
"Love Is the Answer '' is a song written by Todd Rundgren for his band Utopia. It is the closing track on their 1977 album Oops! Wrong Planet.
Although Utopia 's version did not reach the music charts, a cover version by England Dan & John Ford Coley reached number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in May 1979 and spent two weeks atop the Billboard adult contemporary chart. John Ford Coley was quoted as saying: "Of all the songs we released as singles, that was my favorite. The song first of all had a classical base, and the middle had a gospel section which I loved. ''
The song has been covered several times by Christian artists. Sheila Walsh recorded it in 1988 for her album, Say So, and performed it on her very first The 700 Club appearance as co-hostess. Bill Cantos & Justo Almario covered it in 1995 for his album, Who Are You. Cindy Morgan covered it in 2000 for her greatest hits album, Best So Far. Bob Carlisle and Bryan Duncan recorded a gospel blues version in 2001. Filipino singer Gary Valenciano also covered the song on his 2001 album, Revive. In 2004, Glen Campbell recorded the song and was released as the title track of the album Love Is the Answer: 24 Songs of Faith, Hope and Love. Christian Contemporary band Circle of Friends covered it on their 2012 album Chosen & Beloved, pairing it with the old hymn Tell Me The Story of Jesus.
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cast of the movie a soldier's story | A Soldier 's Story - Wikipedia
A Soldier 's Story is a 1984 American drama film directed by Norman Jewison, adapted by Charles Fuller 's from his Pulitzer Prize - winning Off Broadway production A Soldier 's Play. A black officer is sent to investigate the murder of a black sergeant in Louisiana near the end of World War II. It is a story about racism in a segregated regiment of the U.S Army commanded by white officers and training in the Jim Crow South, in a time and place where a black officer is unprecedented and bitterly resented by nearly everyone.
The film was first shown at the Toronto International Film Festival. It won the New York Drama Critics Award, the Outer Critics Circle Award, the Theater Club Award, and three Village Voice Obie Awards. It won the Golden Prize at the 14th Moscow International Film Festival. It was also nominated for three Academy Awards: for Best Picture, Supporting Actor (Adolph Caesar), and Screenplay Adaptation (Fuller).
The time is 1944 during World War II. Vernon Waters (Adolph Caesar), a master sergeant in a company of black soldiers, is very drunk and staggering along a road along Fort Neal, a segregated Army base in Louisiana. Waters ' last words amidst his raucous laughter were "They still hate you! They still hate you! '' before he is shot to death with a. 45 caliber pistol.
When Waters ' body is found the next day, Captain Richard Davenport (Howard E. Rollins, Jr.), a black officer from the Judge Advocate General is sent to investigate, against the wishes of commanding officer Colonel Nivins (Trey Wilson). While the general consensus is that he was killed by local members of the Ku Klux Klan, others are doubtful, having heard that Waters ' stripes and insignia were still on his uniform and aware that the Klan 's typical M.O. is to remove them before lynching their victims.
From the outset, Davenport is faced with obstacles. Colonel Nivins will only give him three days to conduct his investigation. Even Captain Taylor (Dennis Lipscomb), the one white officer in favor of a full investigation, is uncooperative and patronizing, fearing that a black officer will have little success in catching those responsible. While some black soldiers are happy and proud to see one of their own race wearing captain 's bars, others are distrustful and evasive.
Davenport learns that Waters ' company was officially part of the 221st Chemical Smoke Generator Battalion and while eager to serve their country overseas, when not training they are assigned menial jobs in deference to their white counterparts. However, most are former baseball players from the Negro Leagues and grouped as a unit in order to play ball, with Waters assigned to manage the players. Their success as a team playing against white soldiers gives them a good deal of popularity, with talk of the team playing against the New York Yankees in an exhibition game.
James Wilkie (Art Evans), a fellow sergeant whom Waters recently demoted to private for being drunk on duty, initially portrays Waters as a strict "spit - and - polish '' disciplinarian but also a just, good - natured NCO who got on well with the men, especially the jovial and well - liked C.J. Memphis (Larry Riley). But as Davenport probes deeper, he uncovers Waters ' true tyrannical nature and his disgust with his fellow black soldiers, particularly those from the rural South.
An interview with Private Peterson (Denzel Washington) revealed how he stood up to Waters when he berated the men after another winning game. In retaliation, the sergeant challenged Peterson to a fight and beat him badly. Davenport then learns through interviews with other soldiers how Waters charged C.J. with the murder of a white MP, after a search conducted by Wilkie turned up a recently discharged pistol under C.J. 's bunk. Confronting him with the evidence, Waters provoked C.J. into striking him, whereupon the weapons charge was dismissed and C.J. was then charged with striking a superior officer.
When C.J. 's best friend Bernard Cobb (David Alan Grier) visits him in jail, C.J. is suffering from intense claustrophobia and tells Cobb of a visit from Sgt. Waters, who admitted freely to C.J. that it was a set - up and that Waters had done it at least five times before to others like him, saying "the Black race ca n't afford you no more... the day of the Geechee is gone, boy. And you 're going with it. '' When Davenport asked Corporal Cobb what happened to C.J., he is told that the man hanged himself in his cell while awaiting trial. In protest, the platoon threw the last game of the season, while Waters was left profoundly shaken by the suicide. The team was disbanded by Taylor and the players assigned to a smoke generating company.
Davenport then finds out that two white officers coming from a military exercise, Captain Wilcox (Scott Paulin) and Lieutenant Byrd (Wings Hauser), had an altercation with the drunk sergeant a short time before his death. When questioned, both officers admit to physical assault when confronted by Waters on a drunken tirade, but deny killing him, revealing that they had not been issued. 45 ammunition for the exercise as it was in short supply and it was reserved for MPs and soldiers on special duty. Though Taylor is convinced that Wilcox and Byrd are lying and is eager to arrest them, Davenport releases them.
While a search has begun for Privates Peterson and Smalls who have both gone AWOL, Davenport questions Wilkie once more, and the demoted private is forced to admit that he planted the gun under C.J. 's bunk on Waters ' orders. Though he hid it from everyone, Waters divulged in private to Wilkie his intense hatred of C.J. and others like him whom Waters felt were an unwelcome weight on the Black race. Davenport then asks why Waters did n't go after Peterson since they had the fight, and Wilkie tells him that Waters liked Peterson because he fought back and was planning to promote him. Davenport has Wilkie placed under arrest just as an impromptu celebration has begun outside after learning that the platoon is to be shipped out to join the fight overseas.
Realizing that Peterson and Smalls were on guard duty the night of Waters ' murder, and thus had been issued. 45 ammunition for their pistols, Davenport interrogates Smalls after he has been found by the MPs and Smalls confesses that it was Peterson who killed Sergeant Waters, as revenge for C.J. When Peterson is captured and brought into the interrogation room, he confesses to the murder, saying "I did n't kill much. Some things need getting rid of. ''
The film ends with Taylor congratulating Davenport on getting his man and admitting that he will have to get used to Negroes being in charge. Davenport assures Taylor that he 'll get used to it. "You can bet your ass on that, '' he adds, as the platoon marches in preparation for their deployment to the European Theater.
Jewison and many of the cast members worked for scale or less under a tight budget with Columbia Pictures. "No one really wanted to make this movie... a black story, it was based on World War II, and those themes were not popular at the box office '', according to Jewison. Warner Bros. turned it down, as did Universal 's president, Ned Tanen, and UA and MGM followed suit. Columbia 's Frank Price read the screenplay and was deeply interested, but the studio was hesitant about its commercial value, so Jewison offered to do the film for a $5 million budget and no salary. When the Directors Guild of America insisted he must have a fee, he agreed to take the lowest possible amount. The film ended up grossing $22.1 million.
Howard E. Rollins, Jr. had just received an Oscar nomination for his role in Ragtime and was cast as the lead. Most of the cast came from Broadway careers, but only Adolph Caesar, Denzel Washington, and William Allen Young appeared in both the movie and the original off - Broadway play with the Negro Ensemble Company in the New York City version.
A Soldier 's Story was shot entirely in Arkansas. The "Tynin '' exterior scenes were shot in three days in Clarendon. The baseball sequence was filmed in Little Rock at the historic Lamar Porter Field.
Bill Clinton (then Governor of Arkansas) dropped by during the shooting. He became very enthused about the project and later helped by providing the Arkansas Army National Guard in full regalia for a grand scene, since Jewison could not afford to pay an army of extras. Production was completed with their help at Fort Chaffee United States Army Ready Reserve base at Fort Smith (where Elvis Presley entered the military and received his first military haircut).
Herbie Hancock delivered an interpretative impromptu score. Patti Labelle and Larry Riley, who plays guitar, wrote and performed their own songs. The blues played a large role in the film 's music.
Unfortunately there was no known consideration given to the production of an official soundtrack due to the aforementioned budgetary restraints -- this, despite the film 's relative box office success.
The film holds an 89 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes from a sample of 18 critics.
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first nigerian to win an olympic gold medal | Chioma Ajunwa - wikipedia
Chioma Ajunwa - Opara, MON (born 25 December 1970) -- also known as Chioma Ajunwa -- is a Nigerian former athlete who specialised in the long jump. After various setbacks in her career she achieved fame when she became the first athlete in her country to win an Olympic gold medal at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, and to date remains Nigeria 's only individual Olympic gold medalist. Chioma Ajunwa is the first black African woman to win an Olympic gold medal in a field event. Ajunwa is also an officer with the Nigerian Police Force.
Born into what she describes as "a very poor home '', Ahiazu - Mbaise - native Ajunwa was the last of nine children, with six brothers and two sisters. Her father died while she was still young, leaving his wife to solely support a large family. At eighteen Ajunwa, who had been a keen athletics participant during her school years, gained admission into university but was unable to register due to her mother 's inability to pay the fees. She later decided to become a motor mechanic, but abandoned the idea following her mother 's disapproval.
As a professional sportswoman Ajunwa originally played football for the Nigerian women 's team and was a member of The Falcons during the Women 's World Cup in 1991, but as she was constantly benched her skill was seldom used. Of her short - lived football career Ajunwa has stated "I 've not regretted the decision (to leave football) because I 've made my mark in athletics. I could have continued with football but there was a particular coach... He knew then that I was the best player in the team but he decided to keep me on the bench throughout our matches so I left the team 's camp. ''
Ajunwa performed as a track and field athlete and specialised in the 100m, 200m and long jump. She competed at the 1990 Commonwealth Games, winning a bronze medal in the 4 x 100 metres relay, and competed at the African Championships in 1989 and the All Africa Games in 1991 where she won gold medals in the long jump. Ajunwa was banned from the sport for four years after failing a drug test in 1992, despite maintaining her innocence.
Following the completion of her suspension, Ajunwa went on to become the first West - African woman, as well as the first Nigerian, to win an Olympic gold medal in a track and field event when she emerged victorious in the women 's long jump event at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, with a jump length of 7.12 meters (on her first attempt) during the final. Her feat, however, was overshadowed by Nigeria 's Olympic football team -- renamed the Dream Team for the tournament -- who matched her achievement when they beat Argentina to win a gold medal. In 2003, she stated in an interview with The Vanguard "I toiled so much for this country, but then I was dumped... That I could be the only individual gold medal winner for Nigeria in over half - a-century of participation in the Olympics and I could still be treated like a scourge, I could n't believe it. ''
Following her Olympic gold medal at Atlanta ' 96, Ajunwa was given a national award -- Member of the Order of Niger (MON) -- by the then Head of State of Nigeria Sani Abacha, but complained that she was overlooked compared to the Nigerian football team claiming "I was given the MON award, right, but without ' E-Y. ' When I heard of what was given to my brothers in the Super Eagles for winning the Nations Cup, I was amazed because you can see the difference... I 'm not envious of anybody but this is the time to express my feelings that I deserve more. ''
Imo State awarded her a chieftaincy title.
On 1 October 2010, Nigeria celebrated its 50th Independence anniversary. As part of that celebration, on Thursday 30 September 2010, President Goodluck Jonathan conferred special Golden Jubilee Independence Awards on 50 distinguished Nigerians and friends of Nigeria including Ajunwa for their contributions to the development of the country.
On Friday 30 April 2010 Ajunwa delivered a paper on "War against the use of illicit Drugs in Sports '' at an Interactive Session organised by Athletics Federation of Nigeria (AFN) for Athletes as part of the 3rd Leg of AFN Golden League at Yaba College of Technology Sports Complex, Yaba. An abridged version of this paper titled "Fighting the Root Causes of Doping in Athletics '' is available online.
In the second half of 2010, Ajunwa stepped up her anti-doping activities by starting an integrated campaign aptly tagged ' Compete Fair & Clean '. This personally - financed initiative involves communicating anti-doping messages directly to athletes and coaches at athletic events. Awareness and Red - flag workshops and seminars are being organised with the Athletics Federation of Nigeria (AFN). Ganners are placed at athletic events and informative publications as well as T - shirts with anti-doping messages are given to athletes and coaches.
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when did sims 4 come out for xbox one | The Sims 4 - wikipedia
The Sims 4 is the fourth major title in life simulation video game series The Sims, developed by Maxis and The Sims Studio and published by Electronic Arts. The Sims 4 was originally announced on May 6, 2013, and was released in North America on September 2, 2014 for Microsoft Windows. A Mac compatible version of the game was made available for digital download on February 17, 2015. The Sims 4 is the first PC game to top all - format charts in two years. The game has received mixed reviews since its release, with the majority of criticism directed towards its lack of content. Since its launch, it became the best selling PC game of 2014 and 2015. As of October 2016, The Sims 4 has sold over 5 million copies worldwide. Versions of the game for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One consoles were released on November 17, 2017.
The game has the same concept as its predecessor, The Sims 3; players control their Sims in various activities and can form relationships. The game, like most of the series, does not have a defined final goal; gameplay is nonlinear. The Create - a-Sim and Build Mode tools have been redesigned to allow more versatility when creating game content. Emotional state plays a larger role in game play than in previous games in the series, with effects on social interaction, user interface, and personality. To date EA has released four expansion packs, with the most recent (Cats & Dogs) being released in November 2017. There have also been several "game packs '' released, including Parenthood which allows the players to shape the characters ' children and teenagers as they go through life, as well as free updates that include major changes such as the addition of a toddler life stage.
The Sims 4 is a life simulation game, similar to its predecessors. Players create a Sim character and control their life to explore different personalities which change the way the game plays out. Sims can multitask such as talk while doing a task. Sims ' moodlets also change the gameplay. For example, a Sim can do a task while being either angry or totally excited.
Similar to previous Sims games, player - created challenges abound. One of the most prevalent is the Legacy Challenge, in which players create a single Sim and try to make its family line last for ten generations.
One major change to the Sims 4 Create A Sim functionality is that sliders have been replaced by direct mouse click, drag and pull. Through mouse click, drag and pull players may directly manipulate the facial features of a Sim. Players can also directly manipulate any body part including the abdomen, chest, legs, arms and feet. In previous Sims games only the fitness and fatness can be manipulated on a Sims body. However, fitness and fatness levels may still be adjusted in The Sims 4 with sliders as in previous games. The base games comes with over 40 hairstyles for both men and women. There are up to 18 hair colour options per hairstyle. Selections of premade designs of Sims are available to choose from, ranging from different body shapes to ethnicities.
Seven life stages are available including baby, toddler, child, teenager, young adult, adult and elder. The baby life stage is accessible only through the birth of a Sim and not available in Create A Sim. Toddlers were initially absent from the original game release, but were added in the January 2017 patch.
Traits have returned with each Sim having three traits and an aspiration containing its own hidden trait.
Compared to previous Sims games where everyday, formal, sleepwear, athletic, party and swimwear wardrobes were restricted to having their own clothing options, all clothing options are now available across all forms of wardrobe and players are allowed up to 5 outfits per category. There is also a filter panel where clothing options can be sorted by color, material, outfit category, fashion choice, style, content and packs.
In a Summer 2016 update, gender options were expanded in the game, allowing any gender expression. Now all the haircuts and outfits can be worn by any Sim of any gender, and pregnancy can become a possibility regardless of the gender.
In The Sims 4, build and buy modes have been combined and is now treated as a single feature.
A detailed build - and - buy system is present along with neighborhoods and landscaping. Some locked buy mode items may be unlocked through the progression of career levels. Entire buildings and rooms can now be moved across the lot. There is now a search option to search for build and buy mode options. When building a house for your sim you can buy already made rooms which can help but costs a lot of money depending on the style of the room. Wall heights can also now be adjusted. There is also a pool tool feature with a custom version and triangular, square and octagonal pool tools. There are build mode cheats such as "motherlode '', which enables the player to automatically gain § 50,000 (simoleons) to buy things with.
The Sims 4 includes social features, such as importing Sims and houses other people have made from The Gallery into the player 's game. This impacts the world around the player 's Sims. Players may publish their creations into the Gallery for other players to download into their game instantly.
On January 9, 2015, EA released a version of The Gallery for iOS and Android devices.
The Sims 4 base game originally shipped with two worlds: Willow Creek and Oasis Springs. Both worlds contain five neighborhoods and a total of 21 lots. With the release of Outdoor Retreat, the world Granite Falls was available for visiting on outdoor vacations. Newcrest became available with a free update, having three neighborhoods with five empty lots in each, for a total of 15 lots. Magnolia Promenade came with the Get to Work Expansion Pack, and Windenburg was introduced in the Get Together Expansion Pack. The City Living Expansion Pack, released in November 2016, introduced the new bustling city of San Myshuno. The Vampires Game Pack added the neighborhood Forgotten Hollow. In November 2017, the seaside town of Brindleton Bay was added in the Cats and Dogs Expansion Pack.
The Sims 4 was developed by The Sims Studio, a division of the Electronic Arts subsidiary Maxis, and was distributed by Electronic Arts. This is similar yet different to the development of The Sims 3, which was developed by The Sims Studio standalone from the (at the time) diminished Maxis.
The Sims 4 is a single - player game, and does not require a constant Internet connection to play. Players will however need an Origin account and Internet access during the initial installation process for game activation. Ilan Eshkeri serves as the composer for the game 's orchestral soundtrack, which was recorded at Abbey Road Studios and performed by the London Metropolitan Orchestra.
On April 25, 2013, several screenshots from mock - up flash videos of the user interface were leaked online. On May 3, 2013, Electronic Arts sent out an e-mail to several fansites stating that there would be a big announcement on May 6, 2013, which many speculated would be The Sims 4.
On August 20, 2013, The Sims 4 was revealed via gameplay demo and release trailer at Gamescom. Previews of the building and character creation systems debuted earlier in 2014. Additional game footage and the release date were revealed at the Electronic Entertainment Expo on June 9, 2014.
Gameplay was unveiled during Gamescom 2013, held at the Koelnmesse in Cologne, Germany. Unveiled features focused on the improved Create - a-Sim with an all - new click - and - drag feature omitting the use of sliders and the addition of emotion - based gameplay. Select players called Yibsims who mostly manage fan sites and YouTube videos were invited to Sims Camp to see the game before the public and press, consequently the game received minimal coverage outside fansites. Maxis stated the game would run better on lower - end PCs than The Sims 3, which was plagued with performance issues on low - end and high - end PCs.
It was suspected that The Sims 4 was scheduled to be released in early 2014, but it was later revealed it would in fact be released September 2, 2014.
On May 14, 2014, producer Ryan Vaughan unveiled another Create - a-Sim trailer on the official The Sims YouTube channel. This included a preview of what the premade Sims Bella Goth and Mortimer Goth would look like in The Sims 4. The development team unveiled another trailer on May 28, 2014 that showcased the new Build Mode features. Players will now be able to choose between three different wall heights and adjust the location of a window on a wall, as well as be able to move an entire room from one position to another.
EA unveiled another gameplay trailer including more gameplay footage and announced the release date of the game, September 2, 2014, during a press conference at the Electronic Entertainment Expo on June 9, 2014. The Sims 4 was released on September 2 for North America and September 4 for EU, Australia and Brazil.
On June 28, 2014, a video was released showing the "originality '' of each sim and their emotions.
In January 2015, Maxis announced Outdoor Retreat, the first paid DLC for The Sims 4. The DLC focuses on outdoor activities in the national park.
Until mid-2017, there were no plans for a console release. However, versions of the game for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One were officially confirmed for release on November 17, 2017.
Upon first announcement, EA stated that The Sims 4 was in development for both for Mac and Windows, both to be released in 2014. However, closer to release date, the company stated that they were "focused (on) Windows '' and had "no updates on the Mac at this time ''. In October 2014 further information was disclosed suggesting the future release of a Mac version. Vaughn told International Business Times that the team was "working on a Mac version right now. '' On January 13, 2015, EA confirmed the release of the Mac version as being February 2015. On February 2, they announced via the official The Sims Twitter feed that the Mac version of The Sims 4 would be released on February 17.
On June 25, 2014, EA and Maxis announced the omission of several gameplay features in The Sims 4 that had been included in previous games. These omitted features include swimming pools, swimming wear, and the "toddler '' life stage; this announcement also noted the lack of an open - world found in The Sims 3, stating neighborhood gameplay would be separated by loading screens. Earlier in the development process, a fan - site interview with a producer had revealed Create - a-Style (CAS), a customization feature introduced in the previous Sims game, would not be added to The Sims 4 in lieu of other features. The developers then announced through a series of tweets that the game would ship with a ' stripped - down ' version of story - progression (a gameplay mechanic controlling neighborhood autonomy), and that basements, grocery stores, and school and work locations would not be featured in the game. While careers and schools would still be featured, they would be represented differently from The Sims 3, more akin to the way they were featured in The Sims 2.
These announcements sparked unrest among many fans who speculated that the exclusion of arguably core features were intended by the developers or parent company to be left out for later paid content, or in order to make rushed deadlines. A petition was launched by some fans to have the features restored for the initial release, even if the release date were to be pushed back.
Maxis contended that it was not possible to include every feature in the new game that had been added over time in the six years The Sims 3 was in development, and that these could always be added at a later date, although they did not confirm exactly how this would be done, or whether it would be free or at a cost. Some have speculated that many new features would be released through paid expansion packs, but others speculated that some of the more "basic, core '' content (i.e. pools, toddlers) may be released as free patch updates, similar to how some new features were patched free into The Sims 3, such as basement features.
Questioned as to why some features, such as a cupcake machine, were implemented over what many viewed as key gameplay, Maxis and The Sims producer Graham Nardone attributed the sacrifice to time constraints, the workload and distribution of developers (and the comparative lack of available developers to some areas of production to other areas), as well as risk factors:
You ca n't weigh features by how much you want them in the game, you have to consider how many development resources it takes to create them. The tram? A couple of days from one of our FX guys and it 's finished... very low risk, very low complexity (using entirely existing tech), and adds a nice visual punch to the neighborhood. I ca n't recall ever scoping against FX... they always have time to be adding more stuff.
Our FX folks submitted their own long list of things they wanted to work on because there was n't enough for them to do. Now, you ca n't take the FX team and ask them to add pools to the game. They do n't have the work skills to do it; neither do I. Pools, toddlers... they 're extremely complex features that require months of man hours of work across multiple disciplines and introduce significant risk.
If we were to have added one of those to the game, there would have been two choices for us... cut many small features, or cut one other significantly large feature.
Maxis and The Sims producer Rachel Rubin Franklin later elaborated in an official blog post, acknowledging the concerns of fans, and explained the issue on the developer 's focus on The Sims 4 's new core game engine technologies, and that the sacrifices the team had to make were a "hard pill to swallow '':
It begins with new technology and systems that we built for this new base game for The Sims... the vision for The Sims 4 is a new experience... to do that, our technology base needed a major upgrade.
... when we sat down and looked at everything we wanted to do for this game, all the new tech we wanted to build into it, the fact was that there would be trade - offs, and these would disappoint some of our fans. Hard pill to swallow, believe me, but delivering on the vision set out for The Sims 4 required focus.
Franklin stated new features such as Sim emotions, advanced Sim animation, interaction and behaviours, as well as the new Create - a-Sim and build mode tools as a large part of the reason that detracted focus from features such as swimming pools and the toddler life stage.
However, on October 1, 2014, Maxis confirmed that one of its missing features, swimming pools, along with other new updates and features, would be added into the game for free in November, and this happened in the form of a game patch. Other features like basements have later been added in subsequent patches, and the missing "toddler '' life stage was eventually added for free in a patch released on January 12, 2017.
SteelSeries and Electronic Arts announced a series of themed peripherals to promote The Sims 4, including a pair of headphones, a computer mouse that lights up in accordance with Sims ' in - game emotional states, and a mousepad featuring a render of various Sim groups.
A demo was released to the public displaying the new Create a Sim partition of the game in which is supplied, free of charge to anyone. TV spots were also produced narrated by actor Charlie Day.
On May 9, 2014, it was reported that The Sims 4 has been rated "18 + (Prohibited for children) '' by Russia. This decision was based on the game 's portrayal of same - sex relationships contravening the Russian LGBT propaganda law that prohibits portrayal "of non-traditional sexual relationships '' to children (see also LGBT rights in Russia). Previous entries in The Sims series have routinely been rated as suitable for lower ages; for instance, The Sims 3 was considered suitable for ages 6 and up in Germany, The Sims 4 is suitable for ages 6 and up in Germany as well.
Compilations of expansion packs, game packs and stuff packs without the core game have also been released.
EA did not provide review copies of the game until September 1, meaning that critics were unable to review the game before release. In the absence of initial reviews it was indicated that players were generally dissatisfied with the game, especially the ones who were familiar with the previous games in the franchise.
At the aggregator site Metacritic, The Sims 4 received a score of 70 based on 74 reviews, indicating "mixed or average '' reception.
Hardcore Gamer gave The Sims 4 a 2.5 score out of 5 and commented "it 's a half - hearted experience wrapped in a neat and pretty package that beams a potential to both fulfill and crush your inner - Sims ' dreams. '' They criticized the game for the lack of content and having many bugs.
Jim Sterling of The Escapist, in a mixed review of the game, found there to be an "overall lack of engagement. '' Although noting some positive changes he was critical of the game in comparison to previous entries in the series, declaring that "The Sims 4 is basically The Sims 3, but shrunken and sterile, '' and recommending that game be played instead. He also complained of being "harassed '' by tutorial messages. His final score for the game was 2.5 out of 5 stars.
ABCNews.com 's reviewer Derrik J. Lang praised the game for being "remarkably more intuitive at the start, '' stating that the Sims are now smarter than before, have emotions that affect their moods, and are able to multi-task. Despite the praise, Lang awarded the game with two stars stating that he encountered annoying glitches and that he misses content from previous games, like dishwashers.
Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot gave this game a 6 out of 10. Despite praising the visuals, audio, and the new multi-tasking and moods system, he states that he misses the two main features of The Sims 3: "Create - a-Style '' and the open world. His conclusion is: "The Sims 4 's biggest problem is that The Sims 3 exists ''.
Other reviews were more favorable. CraveOnline.co.uk mentioned in an article that "the awful user reviews indicate a strong backlash. '' However, the website added that "Sims fans who have n't paid much attention to the ongoing controversy surrounding the game may look at those Amazon review scores and, without knowing that many are immediately dismissing the game due to its cut content, decide that they wo n't purchase it. ''
Kallie Plagge of IGN gave The Sims 4 a 7.5 out of 10. She was disappointed by the lack of content from previous games, and the lack of "cool '' objects that could adequately replace them; and the too frequent, albeit short, loading screens. The score she gave is relatively high, though, because "The Sims 4 does succeed in being a deep and complex game when it comes to Sim interactions, with lots of entertaining emotional potential (...) Plus, excellent building tools make architecture more fun than ever ''. Her conclusion is that "it 's a good start to what may eventually be expanded into a great Sims game, but it 's not there yet ''.
The Independent 's Jack Fleming praised the game for "The Gallery '' feature that allows users to showcase their creations easily, the new multitasking system, the visual design, the personalities and emotions, the unusual careers (that, for example, allow the sim to travel into space), and the new build mode. On the other hand, he voiced his frustration with the loading screens, the new camera controls (while noting they can be reverted to The Sims 3 style), and noted the lack of content from previous installments (such as swimming pools and toddlers) made many fans upset. In conclusion he writes: "The Sims 4 is an easy game to get into (though the constant tutorial - ising at the start can actually get a bit frustrating) and the reasons that people love this series are still present. The game 's creators have tried to make the appeal as diverse as possible and have in most ways succeeded. However, I could n't help but wish I could actually go to space and drive that spaceship around... ''
Nick Tan of Game Revolution states that the game is a case study for loss aversion. He explains that the reason for Sims fans expressing so much anger and dissatisfaction with it is because people "strongly prefer avoiding losses than acquiring gains ''. That, combined with the hatred for Electronic Arts that greatly intensified after the release of the latest SimCity game, resulted in such a backlash. Tan gave The Sims 4 a 3.5 / 5, calling it "woefully incomplete, despite being unexpectedly solid and entertaining in its current state ''.
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who has scored the most goals in the fifa world cup | FIFA World Cup top goalscorers - wikipedia
Over 2,300 goals have been scored at the 20 editions of the FIFA World Cup final tournaments, excluding penalties converted during shoot - outs. Since the first goal scored by French player Lucien Laurent at the 1930 FIFA World Cup, over 1,200 footballers have scored goals at the World Cup, only 90 of which scored at least five goals.
The top goalscorer of the inaugural competition was Argentina 's Guillermo Stábile with eight goals. Since then, only 22 players have scored more goals at all the games played at the World Cup than Stábile did throughout the 1930 tournament. The first was Hungary 's Sándor Kocsis with eleven goals scored in 1954. At the next tournament, France 's Just Fontaine improved on this record with 13 goals in only six games. Gerd Müller scored 10 goals for West Germany in 1970 and broke the overall record when he scored his 14th goal at the World Cup during West Germany 's win at the 1974 final. His record stood for more than three decades until Brazil 's Ronaldo scored 15 goals between 1998 and 2006. Germany 's Miroslav Klose went on to score a record 16 goals across four consecutive tournaments between 2002 and 2014. Only two other players have also scored more than 10 goals at the World Cup: Pelé with 12 between 1958 and 1970 and Jürgen Klinsmann with 11 between 1990 and 1998.
Of all the players who have played at the World Cup, only six have scored, on average, at least two goals per game played: Kocsis, Fontaine, Stábile, Oleg Salenko, Josef Hügi, and Ernst Wilimowski -- the latter scored four goals in his single World Cup game in 1938. The top 90 goalscorers have represented 30 different nations, with 13 players scoring for Brazil, and another 14 for Germany or West Germany. In total, 60 footballers came from UEFA (Europe), 26 from CONMEBOL (South America), and only four from elsewhere: Cameroon, Ghana, Australia, and the United States.
Fontaine holds the record for the most goals scored at a single tournament, with 13 goals in 1958. The players that came closest to this record were Kocsis in 1954, Müller in 1970 and Portugal 's Eusébio in 1966, with 11, 10 and 9 goals, respectively. The lowest scoring tournament 's top goalscorer was in 1962, when six players scored only four goals each. Across the 20 editions of the World Cup, 29 different footballers have been credited with the most tournament goals, and no one has achieved this feat twice. Nine of them scored at least seven goals in a tournament, while Jairzinho became in 1970 the only footballer to score at least seven goals without being the top goalscorer of that tournament. These 29 top goalscorers played for 19 different nations, the most (five) for Brazil. Another five came from other South American countries, and the remaining 19 came from Europe. Excluding the 2010 tournament, all the top goalscorers won the Golden Boot.
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where should an object be placed in front of a concave mirror to form a virtual and magnified image | Virtual image - wikipedia
In optics, a virtual image is an image formed when the outgoing rays from a point on an object always diverge. The image appears to be located at the point of apparent divergence. Because the rays never really converge, a virtual image can not be projected onto a screen. In diagrams of optical systems, virtual rays are conventionally represented by dotted lines. Virtual images are located by tracing the real rays that emerge from an optical device (lens, mirror, or some combination) backward to a perceived point of origin.
In contrast, a real image is one that is formed when the outgoing rays form a point converging at a real location. Real images can be projected onto a diffuse reflecting screen, but a screen is not necessary for the image to form.
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who won the grey cup this year 2017 | 105th Grey Cup - wikipedia
The 105th Grey Cup was played on November 26, 2017 between the Calgary Stampeders and the Toronto Argonauts at TD Place Stadium in Ottawa, Ontario. The teams last met (in the finals) at the 100th Grey Cup, won by the Argonauts. The Argos won the game 27 -- 24 and captured their 17th Grey Cup championship.
It was reported in September 2015 that Ottawa would host the Grey Cup game, and that it would be determined at a board of governor 's meeting later that fall. It was stated by the Ottawa Redblacks ownership group, Ottawa Sports and Entertainment Group, that one of the clauses in their expansion agreement was that the club would host a Grey Cup game within their first four years of existence. Since the Redblacks entered the league in 2014, 2017 would be the fourth such year. Ottawa had previously been awarded the 102nd Grey Cup but backed out due to construction delays; that game would be held in Vancouver instead.
During an Ottawa Redblacks game on July 31, 2016, it was announced in a video featuring Prime Minister Justin Trudeau that the city of Ottawa had been selected to host the 105th Grey Cup, in part to celebrate the 150th anniversary of Canada. This will be the seventh time that the Grey Cup game will be played in Ottawa, with each of those games being played at Lansdowne Park. The most recent game hosted by Ottawa was when the Ottawa Renegades hosted the 92nd Grey Cup in 2004, when the Toronto Argonauts defeated the BC Lions.
Redblacks president Jeff Hunt stated that approximately 10,000 temporary seats would be added to TD Place Stadium, bringing seating capacity to about 35,000. In early May, more than six months before the game, the Redblacks announced that fewer than 6,000 of the original 35,000 tickets were yet to be sold. Due to ticket demand, the Redblacks added additional temporary bleachers in September to bring capacity to approximately 36,000 and the game officially sold out on October 26.
The Stampeders finished the regular season with a record of 13 -- 4 -- 1, once again placing as the top team in the West Division. They became the first team in the league to clinch a playoff spot in Week 14 of the regular season with a 15 - 9 victory over the Saskatchewan Roughriders. The Stampeders entered the playoffs on a losing streak, losing three in a row for the first time since 2007.
As the first place team in the West, the Stampeders received a bye in the first round of the playoffs and hosted the Western Final on November 19 against the third place Edmonton Eskimos. The Stampeders won the game 32 - 28 in a closely contested game that featured a controversial play by the Eskimos, who late in the fourth quarter opted to kick a field goal in the hopes that they could recover the ball, instead of tying the game with a touchdown. Calgary maintained possession until the end of the game to clinch victory.
The Argonauts placed first in the East Division with a 9 -- 9 record and returned to the playoffs after having missed them the previous season. The Argos entered the season with a new head coach in Marc Trestman, the former head coach of the Montreal Alouettes and the NFL 's Chicago Bears. The team 's resurgence was led by quarterback Ricky Ray, who completed the 2017 regular season having thrown for 5,546 yards and 28 touchdowns. Despite the team 's success on the field, the team averaged only 13,914 fans per home game at BMO Field, which was down from the previous year.
As the first place team in the East, the Argos hosted the Saskatchewan Roughriders in the Eastern Final after the Riders, as a crossover team, defeated the Ottawa Redblacks in the Semi-Final. The Argos won the close game 25 - 21 after scoring a touchdown with 23 seconds left in the game. It was the first time the Argos had won the Eastern Final since 2012, the last time they won the Grey Cup.
Calgary and Toronto met twice during the 2017 regular season, with Calgary winning both times. Their first meeting took place during Week 7 in Toronto and saw the Stampeders win 41 -- 24. Three weeks later, the teams met again in Calgary, with the Stampeders winning 23 -- 7. The 2017 Grey Cup was the fourth championship match - up between the two teams, with Calgary winning in 1971 and Toronto victorious in 1991 and 2012. The Argos ' 2017 Grey Cup victory was their first defeat of the Calgary Stampeders since a 33 - 27 win in September 2013.
During the week leading up to the game, the mayors of Toronto and Calgary, John Tory (who was the CFL commissioner from 1996 - 2000) and Naheed Nenshi, placed a friendly bet on the outcome, with the losing city 's mayor having to donate to charity, wear the winning team 's jersey at the next city council meeting, and send the other a selection of local craft beer.
Toronto won the coin toss and opted to defer to the second half. Calgary chose to receive the ball. The game was played in inclement conditions, with snow falling prior to kickoff and persisting throughout. Neither team could sustain drives throughout much of the first quarter until eleven minutes in, when Stamps quarterback Bo Levi Mitchell connected with Kamar Jorden for the contest 's first touchdown. Calgary missed the subsequent two - point convert attempt, but found themselves up 6 -- 0.
Scrimmaging from their own 10 - yard line, the Argos opened the second quarter with a bang. DeVier Posey caught a pass from Toronto quarterback Ricky Ray at the Argo 44 and scampered to the end zone to tie the game 6 -- 6. At 100 yards, this now stands as the longest touchdown pass in Grey Cup history, breaking the previous mark of 99 yards set by Montreal 's Anthony Calvillo and Pat Woodcock in 2002. Calgary would respond five minutes later with a touchdown by running back Jerome Messam and a successful two - point convert to go up 14 - 6. While the Argos were shut out offensively in the second quarter, they scored two points thanks to a safety conceded by Calgary punter Rob Maver who, after mishandling a high snap, kicked the ball out of the back of the end zone. Rene Paredes booted a field goal with five seconds left in the quarter to put the Stampeders up 17 -- 8 at the half.
Toronto opened the scoring in the second half four minutes into the third quarter with a two - yard touchdown run by running back James Wilder Jr... A successful two - point conversion made the score 17 -- 16. Jerome Messam would find the end zone again for the Stampeders roughly five minutes later, putting Calgary up 24 -- 16 after a successful convert by Parades. The Stamps would protect this lead into the fourth quarter and appeared well on their way to victory when, with the ball on the Argo 8 - yard - line, Toronto DB Cassius Vaughn pounced on a Kamar Jorden fumble and returned the ball 109 yards for a touchdown -- another Grey Cup record. A two - point convert reception by Declan Cross tied the game at 24 -- 24 with under five minutes to play. With 53 seconds left, Argo kicker Lirim Hajrullahu kicked the team 's lone field goal, giving Toronto its first lead at 27 -- 24. On their final possession Calgary drove the ball deep into Argonaut territory, but instead of attempting a game - tying field goal decided to go for the jugular. On 2nd - and - 5 from the Argonaut 25, Mitchell 's would - be touchdown pass fell into the hands of Argo defender Matt Black, sealing the victory for the Double Blue.
On August 10, 2017, the CFL announced that Shania Twain would perform during the Freedom Mobile Halftime Show. The performance marked Twain 's second Grey Cup halftime show; she performed as halftime entertainment during the 90th Grey Cup in 2002.
Vancouver - based rapper SonReal performed immediately prior to the game as part of the SiriusXM Kickoff Show. Toronto band Choir! Choir! Choir! sang the national anthem.
Immediately following the game, Argonauts receiver DeVier Posey was named the game 's Most Valuable Player, having put up 175 yards and one touchdown on seven receptions. Running back Jerome Messam of the Stampeders received the Dick Suderman Trophy as the game 's Most Valuable Canadian after scoring two touchdowns.
With the victory, Argonauts quarterback Ricky Ray became the first quarterback in CFL history to win the Grey Cup four times as a starting quarterback.
The game was watched by an average of 4.3 million viewers, with viewership peaking at nearly six million during the Argos ' comeback in the fourth quarter. Nearly a third of the population of Canada watched part of the game. The game saw a ten percent increase in viewership over the previous year and a fifty - eight percent increase in viewership in the Toronto / Hamilton market. Overall, the 105th Grey Cup was the most watched Grey Cup since 2013.
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what is a kilowatt hour in real time | Kilowatt hour - wikipedia
The kilowatt hour (symbol kWh, kW ⋅ h or kW h) is a unit of energy equal to 3.6 megajoules. If the energy is being transmitted or used at a constant rate (power) over a period of time, the total energy in kilowatt hours is equal to the power in kilowatts multiplied by the time in hours. The kilowatt hour is commonly used as a billing unit for energy delivered to consumers by electric utilities.
The kilowatt hour (symbolized kW ⋅ h as per SI) is a composite unit of energy equivalent to one kilowatt (1 kW) of power sustained for one hour. One watt is equal to 1 J / s. One kilowatt hour is 3.6 megajoules, which is the amount of energy converted if work is done at an average rate of one thousand watts for one hour.
The base unit of energy within the International System of Units (SI) is the joule. The hour is a unit of time "outside the SI '', making the kilowatt hour a non-SI unit of energy. The kilowatt hour is not listed among the non-SI units accepted by the BIPM for use with the SI, although the hour, from which the kilowatt hour is derived, is.
An electric heater rated at 1000 watts (1 kilowatt), operating for one hour uses one kilowatt hour (equivalent to 3.6 megajoules) of energy. A television rated at 100 watts operating for 10 hours continuously uses one kilowatt hour. A 40 - watt electric appliance operating continuously for 25 hours uses one kilowatt hour. In terms of human power, a healthy adult male manual laborer will perform work equal to about half a kilowatt hour over an eight hour day.
Electrical energy is often sold in kilowatt hours. The cost of running an electric device is calculated by multiplying the device 's power in kilowatts, by the running time in hours, by the price per kilowatt hour. The unit price of electricity may depend upon the rate of consumption and the time of day. Industrial users may also have extra charges according to their peak usage and the power factor.
Whereas individual homes only pay for the kilowatt hours consumed, commercial buildings and institutions also pay for peak power consumption, the greatest power recorded in a fairly short time, such as 15 minutes. This compensates the power company for maintaining the infrastructure needed to provide peak power. These charges are billed as demand charges.
Major energy production or consumption is often expressed as terawatt hours (TW ⋅ h) for a given period that is often a calendar year or financial year. A 365 - day year equals to 8,760 hours, therefore over a period of one year, a power of one gigawatt equates to 8.76 terawatt hours of energy. Conversely, one terawatt hour is equal to a sustained power of approximately 114 megawatts for a period of one year.
The symbol "kWh '' is commonly used in commercial, educational, scientific and media publications, and is the usual practice in electrical power engineering.
Other abbreviations and symbols may be encountered:
To convert a quantity measured in a unit in the left column to the units in the top row, multiply by the factor in the cell where the row and column intersect.
All the SI prefixes are commonly applied to the watt hour: a kilowatt hour is 1,000 W ⋅ h (symbols kW ⋅ h, kWh or kW h; a megawatt hour is 1 million W ⋅ h, (symbols MW ⋅ h, MWh or MW h); a milliwatt hour is 1 / 1000 W ⋅ h (symbols mW ⋅ h, mWh or mW h) and so on. The kilowatt hour is commonly used by electrical distribution providers for purposes of billing, since the monthly energy consumption of a typical residential customer ranges from a few hundred to a few thousand kilowatt hours. Megawatt hours (MWh), gigawatt hours (GWh), and terawatt hours (TWh) are often used for metering larger amounts of electrical energy to industrial customers and in power generation. The terawatt hour and petawatt hour (PWh) units are large enough to conveniently express the annual electricity generation for whole countries and the world energy consumption.
The terms power and energy are frequently confused. Power is the rate of delivery of energy. Power is work performed per unit of time. Energy is the work performed (over a period of time).
Power is measured using the unit watts, or joules per second. Energy is measured using the unit watt hours, or joules.
A common household battery contains energy. When the battery delivers its energy, it does so at a certain power level, that is, the rate of delivery of the energy. The higher the power level, the quicker the battery 's stored energy is delivered. If the power is higher, the battery 's stored energy will be depleted in a shorter time period.
For a given period of time, a higher level of power causes more energy to be used. For a given power level, a longer run period causes more energy to be used. For a given amount of energy, a higher level of power causes that energy to be used in less time.
Power units measure the rate of energy per unit time. Many compound units for rates explicitly mention units of time, for example, miles per hour, kilometers per hour, dollars per hour. Kilowatt hours are a product of power and time, not a rate of change of power with time. Watts per hour (W / h) is a unit of a change of power per hour. It might be used to characterize the ramp - up behavior of power plants. For example, a power plant that reaches a power output of 1 MW from 0 MW in 15 minutes has a ramp - up rate of 4 MW / h. Hydroelectric power plants have a very high ramp - up rate, which makes them particularly useful in peak load and emergency situations.
The proper use of terms such as watts per hour is uncommon, whereas misuse may be widespread.
Several other units are commonly used to indicate power or energy capacity or use in specific application areas.
Average annual power production or consumption can be expressed in kilowatt hours per year; for example, when comparing the energy efficiency of household appliances whose power consumption varies with time or the season of the year, or the energy produced by a distributed power source. One kilowatt hour per year equals about 114.08 milliwatts applied constantly during one year.
The energy content of a battery is usually expressed indirectly by its capacity in ampere - hours; to convert ampere - hour (A ⋅ h) to watt hours (W ⋅ h), the ampere - hour value must be multiplied by the voltage of the power source. This value is approximate, since the battery voltage is not constant during its discharge, and because higher discharge rates reduce the total amount of energy that the battery can provide. In the case of devices that output a different voltage than the battery, it is the battery voltage (typically 3.7 V for Li - ion) that must be used to calculate rather than the device output (for example, usually 5.0 V for USB portable chargers). This results in a 500 mA USB device running for about 3.7 hours on a 2500 mAh battery, not five hours.
The Board of Trade unit (BOTU) is an obsolete UK synonym for kilowatt hour. The term derives from the name of the Board of Trade which regulated the electricity industry until 1942 when the Ministry of Power took over.
The British thermal unit or BTU (not to be confused with BOTU), is a unit of thermal energy with several definitions, all about 1055 Joule or 0.293 watt hour. The quad, short for quadrillion BTU, or 10 BTU, is sometimes used in national - scale energy discussions in the United States. One quad is approximately 293 TWh or 1.055 exajoule (EJ).
A TNT equivalent is a measure of energy released in the detonation of trinitrotoluene. A tonne of TNT equivalent is approximately 4.184 gigajoules or 1,163 kilowatt hours.
A tonne of oil equivalent is the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil. It is approximately 41.84 gigajoules or 11,630 kilowatt hours.
In India, the kilowatt hour is often simply called a Unit of energy. A million units, designated MU, is a gigawatt hour and a BU (billion units) is a terawatt hour.
Burnup of nuclear fuel is normally quoted in megawatt days per tonne (MW ⋅ d / MTU), where tonne refers to a metric ton of uranium metal or its equivalent, and megawatt refers to the entire thermal output, not the fraction which is converted to electricity.
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who play the beast in the beauty and the beast | Beauty and the Beast (2017 film) - wikipedia
Beauty and the Beast is a 2017 American musical romantic fantasy film directed by Bill Condon from a screenplay written by Stephen Chbosky and Evan Spiliotopoulos, and co-produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Mandeville Films. The film is based on Disney 's 1991 animated film of the same name, itself an adaptation of Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont 's eighteenth - century fairy tale. The film features an ensemble cast that includes Emma Watson and Dan Stevens as the titular characters with Luke Evans, Kevin Kline, Josh Gad, Ewan McGregor, Stanley Tucci, Audra McDonald, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Ian McKellen, and Emma Thompson in supporting roles.
Principal photography began at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, England on May 18, 2015, and ended on August 21. Beauty and the Beast premiered on February 23, 2017, at Spencer House in London, and was released in the United States on March 17, 2017, in standard, Disney Digital 3 - D, RealD 3D, IMAX and IMAX 3D formats, along with Dolby Cinema. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, with many praising Watson and Stevens ' performances as well as the ensemble cast, faithfulness to the original animated film alongside elements from the Broadway play, visual style, production merits, and musical score, though it received criticism for some of the character designs and its excessive similarity to the original. The film grossed over $1.2 billion worldwide, becoming the highest - grossing live - action musical film, and making it the highest - grossing film of 2017 and the 10th - highest - grossing film of all time.
In Rococo - era France, an enchantress disguised as a beggar arrives at a ball and offers the host, a coldhearted prince, a rose for shelter. When he refuses, she transforms him into a beast and his servants into household objects, and erases the castle from the memories of their loved ones. She casts a spell on the rose and warns the prince that the curse will never lift unless he learns to love another, and earn their love in return, before the last petal falls.
Years later, in the village of Villeneuve, Belle dreams of adventure and brushes off advances from Gaston, an arrogant former soldier. Lost in the forest, Belle 's father Maurice seeks refuge in the Beast 's castle, but the Beast imprisons him for stealing a rose. Belle ventures out in search for him and finds him locked in the castle dungeon. The Beast agrees to let her take Maurice 's place.
Belle befriends the castle 's servants, who treat her to a spectacular dinner. When she wanders into the forbidden west wing and finds the rose, the Beast, enraged, scares her into the woods. She is cornered by wolves, but the Beast rescues her and is injured in the process. A friendship develops as Belle nurses his wounds. The Beast shows Belle a gift from the enchantress, a book that transports readers wherever they want. Belle uses it to visit her childhood home in Paris, where she discovers a plague doctor mask. Belle realises that she and her father were forced to leave her mother 's deathbed as her mother succumbed to the plague.
In Villeneuve, Gaston sees rescuing Belle as an opportunity to win her hand in marriage and agrees to help Maurice. When Maurice learns of his ulterior motive and rejects him, Gaston abandons him to the wolves. Maurice is rescued by the beggar Agathe, but when he tells the townsfolk of Gaston 's crime, Gaston convinces them to send Maurice to an insane asylum.
After sharing a romantic dance with the Beast, Belle discovers her father 's predicament using a magic mirror. The Beast releases her to save Maurice, giving her the mirror to remember him with. At Villeneuve, Belle proves Maurice 's sanity by revealing the Beast in the mirror to the townsfolk. Realizing that Belle loves the Beast, Gaston has her thrown into the asylum carriage with her father and rallies the villagers to follow him to the castle to slay the Beast. Maurice and Belle escape and Belle rushes back to the castle.
During the battle, Gaston abandons his companion LeFou, who then sides with the servants to fend off the villagers. Gaston attacks the Beast in his tower, who is too depressed to fight back, but regains his will upon seeing Belle return. He overpowers Gaston but spares his life before reuniting with Belle. However, Gaston fatally shoots the Beast from a bridge, but it collapses when the castle crumbles and he falls to his death. The Beast dies as the last petal falls and the servants become inanimate. When Belle tearfully professes her love to him, Agathe reveals herself as the enchantress and undoes the curse, repairing the crumbling castle and restoring the Beast 's and servants ' human forms and the villagers ' memories. The Prince and Belle host a ball for the kingdom, where they dance happily.
^ In the initial theatrical release, Mitchell was miscredited as Rudi Gooman in the cast, but listed under his real name in the soundtrack credits.
^ In the initial theatrical release, Turner is miscredited as Henry Garrett in the cast.
Stephen Merchant also appeared in the film as Monsieur Toilette, a servant who was turned into a toilet. This character was cut from the film, but is featured in the deleted scenes.
Previously, Disney had begun work on a film adaptation of the 1994 Broadway musical. However, in a 2011 interview, composer Alan Menken stated the planned film version of the Beauty and the Beast stage musical "was canned ''.
By April 2014, Walt Disney Pictures had already begun developing a new live - action version and remake of Beauty and the Beast after making other live - action fantasy films such as Alice in Wonderland, Maleficent, Cinderella and The Jungle Book. In June 2014, Bill Condon was signed to direct the film from a script by Evan Spiliotopoulos. Later in September of that same year, Stephen Chbosky (who had previously directed Watson in The Perks of Being a Wallflower) was hired to re-write the script.
Before Condon was hired to direct the film, Disney approached him with a proposal to remake the film in a more radical way as Universal Studios had remade Snow White and the Huntsman (2012). Condon later explained that "after Frozen opened, the studio saw that there was this big international audience for an old - school - musical approach. But initially, they said, ' We 're interested in a musical to a degree, but only half full of songs. ' My interest was taking that film and doing it in this new medium -- live - action -- as a full - on musical movie. So I backed out for a minute, and they came back and said, ' No, no, no, we get it, let 's pursue it that way. ' '' Walt Disney Pictures president of production Sean Bailey credited Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn with the decision to make the film as a musical: "We worked on this for five or six years, and for 18 months to two years, Beauty was a serious dramatic project, and the scripts were written to reflect that. It was n't a musical at that time. But we just could n't get it to click and it was Alan Horn who championed the idea of owning the Disney of it all. We realized there was a competitive advantage in the songs. What is wrong with making adults feel like kids again? ''
In January 2015, Emma Watson announced that she would be starring as Belle, the female lead. Watson was the first choice of Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn, as he had previously overseen Warner Bros. which released the eight Harry Potter films that co-starred Watson as Hermione Granger. Two months later, Luke Evans and Dan Stevens were revealed to be in talks to play Gaston and the Beast respectively, and Watson confirmed their casting the following day through tweets. The rest of the principal cast, including Josh Gad, Emma Thompson, Kevin Kline, Audra McDonald, Ian McKellen, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Ewan McGregor and Stanley Tucci were announced between March and April to play LeFou, Mrs. Potts, Maurice, Madame de Garderobe, Cogsworth, Plumette, Lumière and Cadenza, respectively.
Susan Egan, who originated the role of Belle on Broadway, commented on the casting of Watson as "perfect ''. Paige O'Hara, who voiced Belle in the original animated film and its sequels, offered to help Watson with her singing lessons.
According to The Hollywood Reporter, Emma Watson was reportedly paid $3 million upfront, together with an agreement that her final take - home pay could rise as high as $15 million if the film generated gross box office income similar to Maleficent 's $759 million worldwide gross.
Principal photography on the film began at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, England, on May 18, 2015. Filming with the principal actors concluded on August 21. Six days later, co-producer Jack Morrissey confirmed that the film had officially wrapped production.
The Beast was portrayed with a "more traditional motion capture puppeteering for the body and the physical orientation '', where actor Dan Stevens was "in a forty - pound gray suit on stilts for much of the film ''. The facial capture for the Beast was done separately in order to "communicate the subtleties of the human face '' and "(capture the) thought that occurs to him '' which gets "through (to) the eyes, which are the last human element in the Beast. '' The castle servants who are transformed into household objects were created with CGI animation.
Before the release of the film, Bill Condon refilmed one certain sequence in the "Days of the Sun '' number, due to confusion among test audiences caused by actress Harriet Jones, who looked similar to Hattie Morahan, who portrayed Agathe. In the original version of the scene, it was Jones 's character, the Prince 's mother, who sings the first verse of the song, with Rudi Goodman playing the young Prince and Henry Garrett playing his father; but in the reshot version of the scene, the singing part is given to the Prince (now played by Adam Mitchell). The King was also recast to Tom Turner, although Harriet Jones was still the Queen, albeit with dark hair. Both Goodman and Garrett 's names were mistakenly featured in the original theatrical release 's credits, but was later corrected in home releases.
When released in 1991, Beauty and the Beast marked a turning point for Walt Disney Pictures by appealing to millions of fans with its Oscar - winning musical score by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken. In Bill Condon 's opinion, that original score was the key reason he agreed to direct a live - action version of the movie. "That score had more to reveal '', he says, "You look at the songs and there 's not a clunker in the group. In fact, Frank Rich described it as the best Broadway musical of 1991. The animated version was already darker and more modern than the previous Disney fairytales. Take that vision, put it into a new medium, make it a radical reinvention, something not just for the stage because it 's not just being literal, now other elements come into play. It 's not just having real actors do it ''.
Condon initially prepared on only drawing inspiration from the original film, but he also planned to include most of the songs composed by Alan Menken, Howard Ashman and Tim Rice from the Broadway musical, with the intention of making the film as a "straight - forward, live - action, large - budget movie musical ''. Menken returned to score the film 's music, which features songs from the original film by him and Howard Ashman, plus new material written by Menken and Tim Rice. Menken said the film will not include songs that were written for the Broadway musical and instead, created four new songs. However, an instrumental version of the song "Home '', which was written for the musical, is used during the scene where Belle first enters her room in the castle.
On January 19, 2017, it was confirmed by both Disney and Céline Dion -- singer of the original 1991 Beauty and the Beast duet song, with singer Peabo Bryson -- that Dion would be performing one of the new original songs "How Does a Moment Last Forever '' to play over the end titles. She originally had doubts about whether or not to record the song due to the recent death of her husband and manager René Angélil, who had previously helped her secure the 1991 pop duet. While ultimately accepting the opportunity, she said: "(The) first Beauty and the Beast decision was made with my husband. Now I 'm making decisions on my own. It 's a little bit harder. I could n't say yes right away, because I felt like I was kind of cheating in a way ''. She eventually felt compelled to record the song because of the impact Beauty and the Beast has had on her career. According to Dion, "I was at the beginning of my career, it put me on the map, it put me where I am today ''. Also, Josh Groban was announced to be performing the new original song "Evermore '' on January 26, 2017.
The 2017 film features a remake of the 1991 original song Beauty and the Beast recorded as a duet by Ariana Grande and John Legend. Grande and Legend 's updated version of the Beauty and the Beast title song is faithful to the original, Grammy - winning duet, performed by Céline Dion and Peabo Bryson for the 1991 Disney film.
Emma Thompson also performed a rendition of "Beauty and the Beast '', which was performed by Angela Lansbury in the original 1991 animated film release.
Disney debuted the music video for Ariana Grande and John Legend 's interpretation of the title song "Beauty and the Beast '' on Freeform television network on March 5, 2017, and it has since attained over 100 million video views on the Vevo video - hosting service.
On March 16, 2015, Disney announced the film would be released in 3D on March 17, 2017. The first official presentation of the film took place at Disney 's three - day D23 Expo in August 2015.
The world premiere of Beauty and the Beast took place on February 23, 2017, at Spencer House in London, England; and the film later premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California, on March 2, 2017. The stream was broadcast onto YouTube.
A sing along version of the film released in over 1,200 US theaters nationwide on April 7, 2017. The United Kingdom received the same version on April 21, 2017.
Disney spent around $140 million for marketing the film worldwide. Following an announcement on May 22, 2016, Disney premiered the first official teaser trailer on Good Morning America the next day. In its first 24 hours, the teaser trailer reached 91.8 million views, which topped the number of views seen in that amount of time in history, including for the teasers for other films distributed by Disney such as Avengers: Age of Ultron, Star Wars: The Force Awakens and Captain America: Civil War. This record has since been broken by Thor: Ragnarok and It. The first official teaser poster was released on July 7, 2016. On November 2, 2016, Entertainment Weekly debuted the first official image on the cover of their magazine for the week along with nine new photos as well. One week later, Emma Watson and Disney debuted a new poster for the film. On November 14, 2016, the first theatrical trailer was released again on Good Morning America. The trailer reached 127.6 million views in its first 24 hours, setting a new record as the trailer with the most views in one day, beating out Fifty Shades Darker. This record has since been broken again by The Fate of the Furious. A TV spot with Watson singing was shown during the 74th Golden Globe Awards. Disney released the final trailer on January 30, 2017.
Beauty and the Beast was released on Blu - ray, DVD and Digital HD on June 6, 2017. The film debuted at No. 1 on the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart, with all other titles in the top 20, collectively, selling only 40 % as many units as Beauty and the Beast. The movie regained the top spot on the national home video sales charts during its third week of release. The movie became available on Netflix on September 19, 2017.
Beauty and the Beast grossed $504 million in the United States and Canada and $758.6 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $1.262 billion. With a production budget of $160 million, it is the second-most expensive musical ever made; only Hello, Dolly! (1969) with a budget of $25 million ($165 million in 2016 dollars) cost more. In just ten days, it became the highest - grossing live - action musical of all time, beating the nine - year - old record held by Mamma Mia!. It is currently the second - biggest musical ever overall, behind Disney 's Frozen (2013). Worldwide, the film proved to be a global phenomenon, earning a total of $357 million over its four - day opening weekend from 56 markets. Critics said the film was playing like superhero movies amongst women. It was the second biggest March global opening, behind only Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, the thirteenth - biggest worldwide opening ever and the seventh - biggest for Disney. This includes $21 million from IMAX plays on 1,026 screens, a new record for an IMAX PG title. It surpassed the entire lifetime total of the original film in just six days.
Beauty and the Beast is the 300th digitally remastered release in IMAX company 's history, which began with the re-release of Apollo 13 in 2002. Its robust global debut helped push the company past $6 billion for the first time, and led to analysts believing that the film had a shot of passing $1 billion worldwide from theatrical earnings. On April 12, it passed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the first film of 2017, the fourteenth Disney film, and the twenty - ninth film overall to pass the mark. It became the first film since Rogue One (also a Disney property) in December 2016 to make over a billion dollars, and did so on its twenty - ninth day of release. It is currently the highest - grossing film of 2017, the highest - grossing March release, the highest - grossing remake of all - time, and the fifth - biggest Disney film. Even after inflation adjusted, it is still ahead of the $425 million gross ($760 million in 2017 dollars) of the original film.
In the United States and Canada, Beauty and the Beast topped Fandango 's pre-sales and became the fastest - selling family film in the company 's history, topping the studio 's own animated film Finding Dory released the previous year. Early tracking had the film grossing around $100 million in its opening weekend, with some publications predicting it could reach $130 million. By the time the film 's release was 10 days away, analysts raised projections to as high as $150 million. It earned $16.3 million from Thursday previews night, marking the biggest of 2017 (breaking Logan 's record), the biggest ever for a Disney live - action film (breaking Maleficent 's record), the second biggest ever for both a G or PG - rated film (behind the sixth Harry Potter film Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince which also starred Watson), and the third biggest ever in the month of March (behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and The Hunger Games). An estimated 41 % of the gross came from IMAX, 3D and premium large format screenings which began at 6 pm, while the rest -- 59 % -- came from regular 2D shows which began at 7 p.m. The numbers were considered more impressive given that the film played during a school week.
On its opening day, the film made $63.8 million from 4,210 theaters across 9,200 screens, marking the third biggest in the month of March, trailing behind Batman v Superman ($81.5 million) and The Hunger Games ($67 million). It was also the biggest opening day ever for a film that was n't PG - 13, displacing the $58 million opening Wednesday of Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince. Its opening day alone (which includes Thursday 's previews) almost matched the entire opening weekend of previous Disney live - action films, Maleficent ($69.4 million) and Cinderella ($67.9 million). Unlike all previous four Disney live - action films witnessing a hike on their second day, Saturday, Beauty and the Beast actually fell 2 %, but nevertheless, the dip was paltry, and the grosses are so much bigger compared to the other titles. Earning a total of $174.8 million on its opening weekend, it defied all expectations and went on to set numerous notable records. This includes the biggest opening of the year as well as the biggest for the month of March and pre-summer / spring opening, beating Batman v Superman, the biggest start ever for a PG title (also for a family film), surpassing Finding Dory, the biggest debut of all time for a female - fueled film, ahead of The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, the biggest for a Disney live - action adaptation, ahead of Alice in Wonderland and the biggest musical debut ever, supplanting Pitch Perfect 2. Furthermore, it is also Watson 's highest - opening, beating Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 same with Emma Thompson, director Bill Condon 's biggest debut ever ahead of The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2 and the biggest outside of summer, save for Star Wars: The Force Awakens, not accounting for inflation.
It became the forty - third film to debut with over $100 million and the fifteenth film to open above $150 million. Its three - day opening alone surpassed the entire original North American run of the first film ($146 million; before the 3D re-release), instantly becoming the second - biggest film of the year, behind Logan ($184 million), and also the second - highest - grossing musical, behind Grease 's $188 million cumulative gross in 1978. Seventy percent of the total ticket sales came from 2D showings signifying that people who do n't go to theaters frequently came out in bulk to watch the film. About 26 % of the remaining tickets were for 3D. IMAX accounted for 7 % ($12.5 million) of the total weekend 's gross, setting a new record for a PG title, ahead of Alice in Wonderland ($12.1 million) while PLF repped 11 % of the box office. Seventy percent of the film 's opening day demographic was female, dropping to 60 % through the weekend. According polling service PostTrak, about 84 percent of American parents who saw the film on its opening day said they would "definitely '' recommend it for families. The film 's opening was credited to positive word of mouth from audiences, good reviews from critics, effective marketing which sold the title not just as a family film but also as a romantic drama, the cast 's star power (especially Emma Watson), lack of competition, being the first family film since The Lego Batman Movie a month earlier, nostalgia, and the success and ubiquity of the first film and Disney 's brand.
On Monday, its fourth day of release, the film fell precipitously by 72 % earning $13.5 million. The steep fall was due to a limited marketplace where only 11 % K - 12 and 15 % colleges were off per ComScore. Nevertheless, it is the second - biggest March Monday, behind Batman v Superman ($15 million). This was followed by the biggest March and pre-summer Tuesday with $17.8 million, a 32 % increase from its previous day. The same day, the film passed $200 million in ticket sales. It earned $228.6 million in the first week of release, the sixth - biggest seven - day gross of all time. In its second weekend, the film continued to maintain the top positioning and fell gradually by 48 % earning another $90.4 million to register the fourth - biggest second weekend of all time, and the third - biggest for Disney. In terms of percentage drop, its 48 % decline is the third - smallest drop for any film opening above $125 million (behind Finding Dory and The Force Awakens). The hold was notable considering how the film was able to fend off three new wide releases: Power Rangers, Life, and CHiPs. As a result, it passed the $300 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 the pass said mark. The film grossed $45.4 million in its third weekend, finally being overtaken for the top spot by newcomer The Boss Baby ($50.2 million). On April 4, 2017, its nineteenth day of release, it passed the $400 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 to do so. By its fourth weekend, the film began was playing in 3,969 cinemas, a fall of 241 theaters from its previous weekend. Of those, approximately 1,200 cinemas were sing - along versions. It earned $26.3 million (- 48 %) and retained second place. By comparison, previous Disney films Moana (− 8 %) and Frozen (− 2 %) both witnessed mild percentage declines the weekend their sing - alone versions were released. Its seventh weekend of release was in contemporaneous with another Emma Watson - starring new film The Circle. That weekend, The Circle was number four, while Beauty and the Beast was at number six. By May 28, the film had earned over $500 million in ticket sales becoming the first (and currently only) film of 2017, the third female - fueled film (after The Force Awakens and Rogue One: A Star Wars Story followed by Wonder Woman) and the eighth overall film in cinematic history to pass the mark.
It has already become the biggest March release, dethroning The Hunger Games (2012), the biggest musical film (both animated and live - action), as well as the biggest film of 2017.
Internationally, the film began playing on Thursday, March 16, 2017. Through Sunday, March 19, it had a total international opening of $182.3 million from 55 markets, 44 of which were major territories, far exceeding initial estimations of $100 million and opened at No. 1 in virtually all markets except Vietnam, Turkey, and India. Its launch is the second - biggest for the month of March, behind Batman v Superman ($256.5 million). In IMAX, it recorded the biggest debut for a PG title (although it carried varying certificate amongst different markets) with $8.5 million from 649 screens, the second - biggest for a PG title behind The Jungle Book. In its second weekend, it fell just by 35 % earning another $120.6 million and maintaining its first position hold. It added major markets like France and Australia. It topped the international box office for three consecutive weekends before finally being dethroned by Ghost in the Shell and The Boss Baby in its fourth weekend. Despite the fall, the film helped Disney push past the $1 billion thresold internationally for the first time in 2017.
It scored the biggest opening day of the year in Hong Kong and the Philippines, the biggest March Thursday in Italy ($1 million, also the biggest Disney Thursday debut), the biggest March opening day in Austria, and the second - biggest in Germany ($1.1 million), Disney 's biggest March in Denmark, the biggest Disney live - action debut in China ($12.6 million), the UK ($6.2 million), Mexico ($2.4 million) and Brazil ($1.8 million) and the third - biggest in South Korea with $1.2 million, behind only Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End and Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides. In terms of opening weekend, the largest debut came from China ($44.8 million), followed by the UK ($24.3 million), Korea ($11.8 million), Mexico ($11.8 million), Australia ($11.1 million), Brazil ($11 million), Germany ($10.7 million), France ($8.4 million), Italy ($7.6 million), Philippines ($6.3 million), Russia ($6 million) and Spain ($5.8 million).
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the film recorded the biggest opening ever for a PG - rated film, the biggest Disney live - action opening of all time, the biggest March opening weekend, the biggest opening for a musical (ahead of 2012 's Les Misérables), the number one opening of 2017 to date and the fifth - biggest - ever overall with £ 19.7 million ($24.5 million) from 639 theatres and almost twice that of The Jungle Book (£ 9.9 million). This included the second - biggest Saturday ever (£ 7.9 million), only behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens. It witnessed a decline in its second weekend, earning £ 12.33 million ($15.4 million). Though the film was falling at a faster rate than The Jungle Book, it had already surpassed the said film and its second weekend is the third - biggest ever (behind the two James Bond films Skyfall (2012) and Spectre). In India, despite facing heavy competitions from four new Hindi releases, two Tamils films and a Malayalam and a Punjabi release, the film managed to take an occupancy of 15 % on its opening day, an impressive feat despite tremendous competitions. It earned around ₹ 1.5 crore (US $230,000) nett on its opening day from an estimated 600 screens which is more than the three Hindi releases -- Machine, Trapped, and Aa Gaya Hero -- combined. Disney reported a total of ₹ 9.26 crore (US $1.4 million) gross for its opening weekend there. It was ahead of all new releases and second overall behind Bollywood film Badrinath Ki Dulhania. In Russia, despite receiving a restrictive 16 rating, the film managed to deliver a very successful opening with $6 million.
In China, expectations were high for the film. The release date was announced on January 24, giving Disney and local distributor China Film Group Corporation ample time -- around two months -- to market the film nationwide. The release date was strategically chosen to coincide with White Day. Preliminary reports suggested that it could open to $40 -- 60 million in its opening weekend. Largely driven by young women, its opening day pre-sales outpaced that of The Jungle Book. The original film was, however, never widely popular in the country. Although China has occasionally blocked gay - themed content from streaming video services, in this case, Chinese censors decided to leave the gay scene intact. According to local box office tracker Ent Group, the film grossed an estimated $12.1 million on its opening day (Friday), representing 70 % of the total receipts. Including previews, it made a total of $14.5 million from 100,000 screenings, which is 43 % of all screenings in the country. It climbed to $18.5 million on Saturday (102,700 showings) for a three - day total of $42.6 million, securing 60 % of the total marketplace. Disney on the other hand reported a different figure of $44.8 million. Either ways, it recorded the second - biggest opening for a Disney live - action film, with $3.4 million coming from 386 IMAX screens. Japan -- a huge Disney market -- served as the film 's final market and opened there on April 21. It debuted with a better - than - expected $12.5 million on its opening weekend helping the film push past the $1.1 billion threshold. An estimated $1.1 million came from IMAX screenings, the fourth - biggest ever in the country. The two - day gross was $9.7 million, outstripping Frozen 's previous record of $9.5 million. Due to positive reviews, good word - of - mouth and benefitting from the Golden Week, the film saw a 9 % increase on its second weekend. The hold was strong enough to fend off newcomer The Fate of the Furious from securing the top spot. The total there is now over $98 million after seven weekends and is the biggest film release of the year and, overall, the eleventh - biggest of all time. It topped the box office there for eight consecutive weekends.
The only markets where the film did not top the weekend charts were Vietnam (behind Kong: Skull Island), Turkey (with two local movies and Logan ahead) and India (where Badrinath Ki Dulhania retained No. 1). It topped the box office for four straight weekends in Germany, Korea, Austria, Finland, Poland, Portugal, Brazil, Venezuela, Bolivia, Switzerland and the UK (exclusive of previews). In the Philippines, it emerged as the most successful commercial film of all time -- both local and foreign -- with over $13.5 million. In just five weeks, the film became one of the top 10 highest - grossing film of all time in the United Kingdom and Ireland, ahead of all but one Harry Potter film (Deathly Hallows -- Part 2) and all three The Lord of the Rings movies (which also starred Ian McKellen). It is currently the eighth - biggest grosser with £ 70.1 million ($90 million), overtaking Mamma Mia! to become the biggest musical production ever there. The biggest international earning markets following the UK are Japan ($108 million), China ($85.8 million), Brazil ($41.5 million), Korea ($37.5 million), and Australia ($35 million). In Europe alone, the cumulative total is $267 million to become the second - highest - grossing film in the past year (behind Rogue One: A Star Wars Story).
Beauty and the Beast received generally positive reviews, with praise for the faithfulness to the original film with a few elements of the Broadway musical version, cast performances, visuals, Jacqueline Durran 's costume designs, Alan Menken 's musical score and songs, though the designs of the Beast and the servants ' household object forms received mixed reviews. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71 % based on 294 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "With an enchanting cast, beautifully crafted songs, and a painterly eye for detail, Beauty and the Beast offers a faithful yet fresh retelling that honors its beloved source material. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 65 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "It 's a Michelin - triple - starred master class in patisserie skills that transforms the cinematic equivalent of a sugar rush into a kind of crystal - meth - like narcotic high that lasts about two hours. '' Felperin also praised the performances of Watson and Kline as well the special effects, costume designs and the sets while commended the inclusion of Gad 's character of LeFou as the first LGBT character in Disney. Owen Gleiberman of Variety, in his positive review of the film, wrote: "It 's a lovingly crafted movie, and in many ways a good one, but before that it 's an enraptured piece of old - is - new nostalgia. '' Gleiberman compared Steven 's character of the Beast to a royal version of the titular character in The Elephant Man and the 1946 version of the Beast in Jean Cocteau 's original adaptation. A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised the performances of both Watson and Stevens, and wrote: "It looks good, moves gracefully and leaves a clean and invigorating aftertaste. I almost did n't recognize the flavor: I think the name for it is joy. '' Likewise, The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday complimented Watson 's performance, describing it as "alert and solemn '' while noting her singing ability as "serviceable enough to get the job done ''. Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times awarded the film three and a half stars, lauded the performances of Watson and Thompson which he drew a comparison to Paige O'Hara 's and Angela Lansbury 's performances in the 1991 animated version while appreciating the performances of the other cast and also pointing out on its usage of the combination of motion capture and CGI technology as a big advantage which he stated: "Almost overwhelmingly lavish, beautifully staged and performed with exquisite timing and grace by the outstanding cast ''. Mike Ryan of Uproxx praised the cast, production design and the new songs while noting the film does n't try anything different, saying: "There 's certainly nothing that new about this version of Beauty and the Beast (well, except it is n't a cartoon anymore), but it 's a good recreation of a classic animated film that should leave most die - hards satisfied. '' In her A - review, Nancy Churnin of The Dallas Morning News praised the film 's emotional and thematic depth, remarking: "There 's an emotional authenticity in director Bill Condon 's live - action Beauty and the Beast film that helps you rediscover Disney 's beloved 1991 animated film and 1994 stage show in fresh, stirring ways. ''
Brian Truitt of USA Today commended the performances of Evans, Gad, McGregor and Thompson alongside Condon 's affinity with musicals, the production design, visual effects featured in some of the song numbers including new songs made by the composers Alan Menken and Tim Rice, particularly Evermore which he described the new song with a potential for an Academy Award for Best Original Song. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone rated the film three out of four stars which he deemed it as an "exhilarating gift '' while he remarked that "Beauty and the Beast does justice to Disney 's animated classic, even if some of the magic is M.I.A (Missing in Action). '' Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine gave a positive review with a description as "Wild, Vivid and Crazy - Beautiful '' as she wrote "Nearly everything about Beauty and the Beast is larger than life, to the point that watching it can be a little overwhelming. '' and added that "it 's loaded with feeling, almost like a brash interpretive dance expressing the passion and elation little girls (and some boys, too) must have felt upon seeing the earlier version. '' The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick LaSalle struck an affirmative tone, calling it one of the joys of 2017, stating that "Beauty and the Beast creates an air of enchantment from its first moments, one that lingers and builds and takes on qualities of warmth and generosity as it goes along '' while referring the film as "beautiful '' and also praised the film for its emotional and psychological tone as well Steven 's motion capture performance. Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph gave the film four stars out of five and wrote that "It dazzles on this chocolate box of a picture that feels almost greedy yet to make this film work, down to a sugar - rush finale to grasp the nettle and make an out - an - out, bells - and - whistles musical '' while he praised the performances of Watson, McKellen, Thompson, McGregor, Evans and Gad. Mark Hughes of Forbes also similarly praised the film which he wrote that "it could revive the story in a faithful but entirely new and unique way elevating the material beyond expectations, establishing itself as a cinematic equal to the original '' and also complimented the importance of undertaking a renowned yet problematic masterpiece as well addressing changes in the elements of the story while acknowledging the film 's effectiveness in resonating to the audiences.
Several critics regarded the film as inferior to its 1991 animated predecessor. David Sims of The Atlantic wrote that the 2017 film "feels particularly egregious, in part, because it 's so slavishly devoted to the original; every time it falls short of its predecessor (which is quite often), it 's hard not to notice ''. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune said that the 2017 film "takes our knowledge and our interest in the material for granted. It zips from one number to another, throwing a ton of frenetically edited eye candy at the screen, charmlessly. '' Phillips wrote that the film featured some "less conspicuously talented '' performers who are "stuck doing karaoke, or motion - capture work of middling quality '', though he praised Kline 's performance as the "best, sweetest thing in the movie; he brings a sense of calm, droll authority ''. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian praised Watson 's performance and wrote that the film was "lit in that fascinatingly artificial honey - glow light, and it runs smoothly on rails -- the kind of rails that bring in and out the stage sets for the lucrative Broadway touring version. '' In the same newspaper, Wendy Ide criticized the film as "ornate to the point of desperation '' in its attempt to emulate the animated film.
Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B -, writing that while the film looks "exceptionally great '', he sensed that the new songs were "not transporting ''. He felt the film needed more life and depth, but praised Watson 's and Steven 's performances as the "film 's stronger elements ''. Dana Schwartz of The New York Observer felt that some of the characters, such as Gaston and the Beast, had been watered down from the 1991 film, and that the additional backstory elements failed to "advance the plot or theme in any meaningful way '' while adding considerable bloat. Schwartz considered the singing of the cast to be adequate but felt that their voices should have been dubbed over, especially for the complex songs.
Controversy erupted after director Bill Condon said there was a "gay moment '' in the film, when LeFou briefly waltzes with Stanley, one of Gaston 's friends. Afterwards in an interview with Vulture.com, Condon stated, "Can I just say, I 'm sort of sick of this. Because you 've seen the movie -- it 's such a tiny thing, and it 's been overblown. '' Condon also added that Beauty and the Beast features much more diversity than just the highly talked - about LeFou: "That was so important. We have interracial couples -- this is a celebration of everybody 's individuality, and that 's what 's exciting about it. '' GLAAD president and CEO Sarah Kate Ellis praised the move stating, "It is a small moment in the film, but it is a huge leap forward for the film industry. ''
In Russia, Vitaly Milonov agitated the culture minister for banning the film, but instead it was given a 16 + rating (children under the age of 16 can only be admitted to see it in theaters with accompanying adults). Additionally, a theater in Henagar, Alabama did not screen the film because of the subplot. In Malaysia, the Film Censorship Board insisted the "gay moment '' scene be cut, prompting an indefinite postponement of its release by Disney, followed by their decision to withdraw it completely if it could not be released uncensored. The studio moved the release date to March 30, to allow more time for Malaysia 's censor board to make a decision on whether or not to release the film without changes. The distributors and producers then submitted an appeal to the Film Appeal Committee of Malaysia, which allowed the film to be released without any cuts and a P13 rating on the grounds that the "gay element '' was minor and did not affect the positive elements featured in the film. In Kuwait, the movie was withdrawn from cinemas by National Cinema Company which owns most of the cinemas in the country. A board member of the company stated that the Ministry of Information 's censorship department had requested it to stop its screening and edit it for things deemed offensive by it.
There were also a number of boycotts against the film. A call to boycott on LifePetitions received over 129,000 signatures, while the American Family Association featured a petition to boycott with the film, asking the public to help crowdfund a CGI version of Pilgrim 's Progress instead.
Disney has sought to portray Belle as an empowered young woman, but a debate questioning whether it is possible to fall in love with someone who is holding you prisoner, and whether this is a problematic theme, has resulted. As was the case with the original animated film, one argument is that Belle suffers from Stockholm syndrome (a condition that causes hostages to develop a psychological alliance with their captors as a survival strategy during captivity). Emma Watson studied whether Belle is trapped in an abusive relationship with the Beast before signing on and concluded that she does not think the criticism fits this version of the folk tale. Watson described Stockholm Syndrome as "where a prisoner will take on the characteristics of and fall in love with the captor. Belle actively argues and disagrees with (Beast) constantly. She has none of the characteristics of someone with Stockholm Syndrome because she keeps her independence, she keeps that freedom of thought '', also adding that Belle defiantly "gives as good as she gets '' before forming a friendship and romance with the Beast.
Psychiatrist Frank Ochberg, who coined the term "Stockholm syndrome '', said he does not think Belle exhibits the trauma symptoms of prisoners suffering from the syndrome because she does not go through a period of feeling that she is going to die. Some therapists, while acknowledging that the pairing 's relationship does not meet the clinical definition of Stockholm syndrome, argue that the relationship depicted is dysfunctional and abusive and does not model healthy romantic relationships for young viewers. Constance Grady of Vox writes that Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont 's Beauty and the Beast was a fairy tale originally written to prepare young girls in 18th - century France for arranged marriages, and that the power disparity is amplified in the Disney version. Anna Menta of Elite Daily argued that the Beast does not apologize to Belle for imprisoning, hurting, or manipulating her, and his treatment of Belle is not painted as wrong.
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where is season 7 of property brothers filmed | Property Brothers - Wikipedia
Property Brothers is a Canadian reality television series that is produced by Cineflix, and the original show in the Property Brothers franchise. It airs on W Network in Canada and HGTV in the United States. The series features identical twin brothers Jonathan and Drew Scott (born April 28, 1978) who help home buyers to purchase and renovate "fixer - uppers. ''
Drew is a real estate expert who scouts neglected houses and negotiates the purchases. His brother, Jonathan, is a licensed contractor who renovates houses. Together, the Property Brothers help families find, buy, and transform fixer - uppers into dream homes on a strict time - line and budget.
In 1996, Jonathan and Drew Scott first began working in the real estate and design fields to financially support themselves as actors. However, after ten years went by with little to no acting jobs, Drew decided to return to acting full - time. He was offered a gig as a host of a real estate competition show that ultimately did n't materialize. But, when it was discovered that he had a twin brother who was also in the real estate business, Cineflix pitched the idea of a reality show with each of them in different roles. They filmed a pilot for the show in 2009. About six months went by with no offers, when (off the strength of the pilot) the W Network in Canada ordered a full season; meanwhile HGTV passed. Aware of the show 's success in Canada, HGTV condensed the existing episodes to 30 minutes and aired them on a trial basis. After the show scored number - one ratings for its timeslot, the network picked the show up for distribution in the US.
Historically, each episode started with Drew showing potential homebuyers a house with everything on their wish list, but that was over their budget. However, beginning with season 10, he began to explain at the start that the home exceeds their budget. Afterwards, the brothers show them fixer - uppers usually with potential to become their dream home. After the buyers narrow it down to two houses, the brothers use computer - generated imagery to reveal their re-imagined vision of the home after renovations. The graphics are made by an outside company using the software, and costs about $10,000.
The show has a condensed timeline of the renovations. Typical of home improvement shows with an accelerated renovation format, the brothers have three experienced crews work on the house to finish in the 4 -- 7 week timeline. Additionally, the brothers have a dedicated team, their permits are ready prior to construction, and their projects take priority with suppliers. They work with real project budgets set out by the buyers, and include a contingency in the case of unexpected expenses. The buyers own the property and pay for the remodeling, but the show is able to provide about $20,000 to $25,000 worth of cash and furnishings. The brothers do not charge for their services. The total budget presented is for the three or four rooms featured on the show; the rest of the renovations are done off - camera on a separate budget and timeline.
The first season was recorded in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. For the third season, the show was recorded in Austin, Texas, for half of the year and Toronto for the rest. Part of the reason for the move was the fact that American audiences could n't relate to the higher market prices in Canada. The brothers returned to their hometown of Vancouver, British Columbia to film in 2013. In 2014, the show recorded several episodes in Atlanta, Georgia and Toronto. Between 2015 and 2016 they filmed in Westchester County, New York. In 2017, they will be filming in Nashville, Tennessee.
While the show is primarily "real, '' portions are scripted for story value or production constraints.
At the show 's start, Jonathan Scott (a licensed contractor), and Drew Scott (a real estate agent), had managed real estate holdings for nearly 15 years. In 2004, they founded Scott Real Estate, Inc., a company that oversees the sales and construction of residential and commercial projects, with offices in Vancouver, Calgary, and Las Vegas.
Drew and Jonathan started buying and renovating property when they were teenagers. They bought their first house when they were 18 years old. After renovations, they sold it a year later for a $50,000 profit, while attending university. However, before going into real estate as a profession, the brothers tried acting. Both Jonathan and Drew appeared on the Canadian television show Breaker High. Drew had a role on Smallville and Jonathan was on the X-Files. The two also did improvisational comedy and Jonathan became an illusionist. They decided to go back to school for construction and design. Their business soon grew and they were approached to do the television show.
Both brothers are licensed real estate agents. Drew was licensed in early 2004 and continues to be a licensed agent with Keller Williams Elite in British Columbia. Jonathan became a licensed agent in Las Vegas when they founded their firm that same year. But for the show, Drew is shown as the real estate agent and Jonathan as the contractor.
They founded Dividian Production Group in 2002 with their older brother JD. They live in Las Vegas. Both brothers stand at 6 ' 5 '' tall.
The show is dubbed in Spanish by the same voice actor.
The show has consistently been the highest rated on HGTV during its run. It is broadcast in 150 countries and territories. The fifth season attracted more than 10 million viewers between 24 -- 54 age demographic, and consistently ranked as a top five cable program among upscale women in the 25 -- 54 age group. In 2016, the show averaged 1.3 million viewers weekly.
Consumer Reports put it on its list of best home improvement shows, saying, "We all wish Drew and Jonathan were our big brothers -- and that they 'd help us find our dream home. ''
Property Brothers has been nominated for multiple awards, including a Cablefax Award and Outstanding Structured Reality Program at the 2015 Emmy Awards.
The program has had an impact on popular culture, and has been the subject of multiple jokes on Brooklyn 99, as well as Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt.
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what measures are taken to prevent the influence through the revolving door practice | Revolving door (politics) - wikipedia
In politics, the "revolving door '' is a movement of personnel between roles as legislators and regulators in the industries affected by the legislation and regulation.
In some cases, the roles are performed in sequence but in certain circumstances may be performed at the same time. Political analysts claim that an unhealthy relationship can develop between the private sector and government, based on the granting of reciprocated privileges to the detriment of the nation and can lead to regulatory capture.
Governments hire industry professionals for their private sector experience, their influence within corporations that the government is attempting to regulate or do business with, and in order to gain political support (donations and endorsements) from private firms.
Industry, in turn, hires people out of government positions to gain personal access to government officials, seek favorable legislation / regulation and government contracts in exchange for high - paying employment offers, and get inside information on what is going on in government.
The lobbying industry is especially affected by the revolving door concept, as the main asset for a lobbyist is contacts with and influence on government officials. This industrial climate is attractive for ex-government officials. It can also mean substantial monetary rewards for the lobbying firms and government projects and contracts in the hundreds of millions for those they represent.
Regulation relating to this phenomenon and the related issues of lobbying and the funding of political parties varies considerably around the world. Here are details for a few sample jurisdictions: -
In Australia, this is of significant public debate as many state leaders have become private consultants for corporations. There is no legislation against doing so.
According to a report by Transparency International - EU Office, which analysed the career paths of 485 former Members of the European Parliament and 27 former European Commissioners, the revolving door phenomenon is present at the EU level as well. The report Access All Areas finds that 30 % of the 161 MEPs who left politics for other employment were employed by organisations which were registered on the EU Transparency Register at the start of 2017. At the same time, the report found that 15 out of 27 Commissioners who finished their service in 2014 entered employment with organisations on the EU lobby register after the end of their 18 - month cooling - off period. The report also notes that the regulatory framework surrounding the revolving door phenomenon in the European Union could be improved by a stronger ethics framework, notably an independent ethics body which would decide which professional activities are subject to a conflict of interest.
A law in the penal code of France governing public officials who move between the public and private sectors requires a three - year wait between working in the government and taking a job in the private sector.
The appointment of Leung Chin - man as executive director of New World China Land in 2008 led to much controversy. Leung was previously a senior civil servant and administrative officer in charge of lands. His appointment as an executive director of a subsidiary of a land developer led to allegations of collusion of interests and delayed interests. He resigned after two weeks, and the territory 's Legislative Council had, for years, an inquiry into the matter.
Amakudari (天下り, amakudari, "descent from heaven '') is the institutionalized practice where Japanese senior bureaucrats retire to high - profile positions in the private and public sectors. The practice was increasingly viewed as corrupt and a drag on unfastening the ties between private sector and state which prevent economic and political reforms.
In April 2007, a law to phase out amakudari prohibits ministries from attempting to place bureaucrats in industry with implementation in 2009. However, the law also removed a two - year ban that prevented retiring officials from taking jobs with companies with which they had official dealings during the five years before retirement.
The term 's literal meaning, "descent from heaven, '' refers to the descent of the Shinto gods from heaven to earth; the modern usage employs it as a metaphor, where "heaven '' refers to the upper echelons of the civil service, the civil servants are the deities, and the earth is the private - sector corporations In amakudari, senior civil servants retire to join organizations linked with or under the jurisdiction of their ministries or agencies when they reach mandatory retirement age, usually between 50 and 60 in the public service. The former officials may collude with their former colleagues to help their new employers secure government contracts, avoid regulatory inspections and generally secure preferential treatment from the bureaucracy.
Amakudari may also be a reward for preferential treatment provided by officials to their new employers during their term in the civil service. Some government organisations are said to be expressly maintained for the purpose of hiring retiring bureaucrats and paying them high salaries at taxpayers ' expense.
In the strictest meaning of amakudari, bureaucrats retire into private companies. In other forms bureaucrats move into government corporations (yokosuberi or ' sideslip '), are granted successive public and private sector appointments (wataridori or ' migratory bird ') or may become politicians, including becoming members of parliament (seikai tenshin).
Political scientists have identified amakudari as a central feature of Japan 's political and economic structure. The practice is thought to bind private and public sector in a tight embrace and prevent political and economic change.
Amakudari is widespread in many branches of the Japanese government but is currently subject to government efforts to regulate the practice. Pressure to reduce amakudari retirement to corporations may be leading to an increase in bureaucrats retiring to other public sector organisations instead.
Amakudari was a minor issue before World War II since government officials could be outplaced to a large number of industrial organization that were nationalized. However, reforms during the Occupation of Japan eliminated most of these nationalized organizations resulting in a need to outplace individuals to the private sector. Such outplacement is inevitable in a personnel system where traditional Confucian values prevent one who entered the organization at the same time as another to become his subordinate
A 1990 study suggested that amakudari retirements to large companies by bureaucrats from prominent ministries, such as the Ministry of Finance, had peaked in 1985 but that the practice was on the increase by bureaucrats from other types of government organisations such as the National Tax Agency. As a result, the percentage of former bureaucrats on the boards of private - sector listed companies had remained stable at 2 %.
A series of scandals in the mid-1990s focused the media spotlight on amakudari. In the 1994 general contracting (zenekon) scandal, corruption was uncovered among bureaucrats associated with building contractors, leading to the jailing of high - ranking politician Shin Kanemaru for tax evasion. In the mortgage scandal of 1996, Japanese housing lenders went on a lending spree and racked up bad debts worth 6 trillion yen ($65.7 billion) sparking a financial crisis. The industry was supposed to be regulated by the Ministry of Finance, but the presence of its former officials in top jobs at the lenders is thought to have deflected oversight.
It was n't until the next decade that Japanese prime ministers responded with policies to limit amakudari, although it is unclear whether these policies are having any effect. In July 2002, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi ordered that strict amakudari be ended, because of its association with corruption between business and politics. Koizumi 's successor, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe enacted new rules as part of a policy pledge to completely eradicate amakudari in 2007, but his reforms were criticised as toothless (see below) and a campaign ploy for Upper House elections in July 2007.
While policy has focused on limiting amakudari to private companies, the number of bureaucrats retiring to jobs at other government organisations (yokosuberi or "sideslip '') has surged reaching 27,882 appointments in 2006 up 5,789 on the previous year. These organisations, numbering 4,576, received 98 percent of the expenses for state projects without being subject to the bidding processes faced by private companies.
Over 50 years ending in 2010, 68 high - level government bureaucrats have taken jobs with electricity suppliers after retirement from their government positions. In 2011, 13 retired government bureaucrats were employed in senior positions in Japanese electric utilities.
Amakudari is subject to rules which were revised in April 2007 in response to corruption scandals. Under the new rules, ministries are instructed to slowly stop helping bureaucrats land new jobs over three years starting in 2009. Instead, a job center to be set up by the end of 2008 would take on the role, and government agencies and ministries will be prohibited from brokering new jobs for retirees.
However, the law removed a two - year ban that prevented retiring officials from taking jobs with companies with which they had official dealings during the five years before retirement, which may increase amakudari. It also left considerable loopholes, including not placing restrictions on watari in which retired bureaucrats move from one organization to another. Bureaucrats could retire to a job at another government agency, and then switch jobs to a private company later. Critics say that the government could better prevent Amakudari by raising the retirement age for bureaucrats above 50.
In October 2006, 339 public entities were violating the guidelines concerning amakudari, a figure 38 times higher than the number for the previous year. This declined to 166 by July 2007.
As well as scandals, the effects of amakudari have been documented by a sizable body of research.
Some studies find that amakudari promotes more risky business activities. A 2001 study found that banks with amakudari employees were found to behave less prudently the more retired civil servants they employed (measured by the capital - asset ratio, an indicator of the prudential behaviour of banks).
Many studies find that companies with amakudari employees are subjected to less oversight by public agencies. Around 70 percent of public contracts awarded to organisations that employed hired retired bureaucrats through amakudari were given without a bidding process in 2005. The contracts were worth a total 233 billion yen. By contrast 18 percent of private companies that did n't have ex-bureaucrats on the payroll got contracts without bidding.
There is no major legislation against revolving door practices in New Zealand, but some ad hoc provisions exist in relation to certain industries. For example, a scandal in which MP Taito Phillip Field was jailed for corruption in relation to improper use of his government position to benefit from helping people with immigration applications was influential in the creation of a restraint of trade clause in the Immigration Advisers Licensing Act 2007. The Act prohibits Ministers of Immigration, Associate Ministers of Immigration and immigration officials from becoming a licensed immigration adviser for one year after leaving government employment.
The movement of senior civil servants and government ministers into business roles is overseen by the Advisory Committee on Business Appointments (ACOBA), but it is not a statutory body and has only advisory powers. The Channel Four Dispatches programme ' Cabs for Hire ', broadcast in early 2010, which showed several sitting members of Parliament and former ministers offering their influence and contacts in an effort to get lobbying jobs, has generated renewed concern about this issue. A Transparency International UK report on the subject, published in May 2011, called for ACOBA to be replaced by a statutory body with greater powers to regulate the post-public employment of former ministers and crown servants. It also argued that the committee should be more representative of society.
"Under current law, government officials who make contracting decisions must either wait a year before joining a military contractor or, if they want to switch immediately, must start in an affiliate or division unrelated to their government work. One big loophole is that these restrictions do not apply to many high - level policy makers..., who can join corporations or their boards without waiting. ''
Examples of individuals who have moved between roles in this way in sensitive areas include Dick Cheney (military contracting), Linda Fisher (pesticide and biotech), Philip Perry (homeland security), Pat Toomey, Dan Coats, and former FCC commissioner Meredith Attwell Baker (media lobbying). High - profile Democratic Representative Dick Gephardt left office to become a lobbyist and his lobbying agency, Gephardt Government Affairs Group, earned close to $7 million in revenues in 2010 from clients including Goldman Sachs, Boeing, Visa Inc., Ameren Corporation, and Waste Management Inc...
In 2015, after a six - year position as US Attorney General, Eric Holder returned to his partnership position at Covington & Burling, a Wall Street law firm representing major banks and financial institutions.
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the wall street crash and the great depression in america | Wall Street crash of 1929 - wikipedia
The Wall Street Crash of 1929, also known as the Stock Market Crash of 1929 or the Great Crash, is the stock market crash that occurred in late October, 1929. It started on October 24 ("Black Thursday '') and continued until October 29, 1929 ("Black Tuesday ''), when share prices on the New York Stock Exchange collapsed.
It was the most devastating stock market crash in the history of the United States, when taking into consideration the full extent and duration of its after effects. The crash, which followed the London Stock Exchange 's crash of September, signalled the beginning of the 12 - year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries.
The Roaring Twenties, the decade that followed World War I that led to the crash, was a time of wealth and excess. Building on post-war optimism, rural Americans migrated to the cities in vast numbers throughout the decade with the hopes of finding a more prosperous life in the ever - growing expansion of America 's industrial sector. While the American cities prospered, the overproduction of agricultural produce created widespread financial despair among American farmers throughout the decade. This would later be blamed as one of the key factors that led to the 1929 stock market crash.
Despite the dangers of speculation, many believed that the stock market would continue to rise forever. On March 25, 1929, after the Federal Reserve warned of excessive speculation, a mini crash occurred as investors started to sell stocks at a rapid pace, exposing the market 's shaky foundation. Two days later, banker Charles E. Mitchell announced that his company, the National City Bank, would provide $25 million in credit to stop the market 's slide. Mitchell 's move brought a temporary halt to the financial crisis, and call money declined from 20 to 8 percent. However, the American economy showed ominous signs of trouble: steel production declined, construction was sluggish, automobile sales went down, and consumers were building up high debts because of easy credit. Despite all these economic trouble signs and the market breaks in March and May 1929, stocks resumed their advance in June and the gains continued almost unabated until early September 1929 (the Dow Jones average gained more than 20 % between June and September). The market had been on a nine - year run that saw the Dow Jones Industrial Average increase in value tenfold, peaking at 381.17 on September 3, 1929. Shortly before the crash, economist Irving Fisher famously proclaimed, "Stock prices have reached what looks like a permanently high plateau. '' The optimism and financial gains of the great bull market were shaken after a well publicized early September prediction from financial expert Roger Babson that "a crash was coming ''. The initial September decline was thus called the "Babson Break '' in the press. This was the start of the Great Crash, although until the severe phase of the crash in October, many investors regarded the September "Babson Break '' as a "healthy correction '' and buying opportunity.
On September 20, the London Stock Exchange crashed when top British investor Clarence Hatry and many of his associates were jailed for fraud and forgery. The London crash greatly weakened the optimism of American investment in markets overseas. In the days leading up to the crash, the market was severely unstable. Periods of selling and high volumes were interspersed with brief periods of rising prices and recovery.
Selling intensified in mid-October. On October 24 ("Black Thursday ''), the market lost 11 percent of its value at the opening bell on very heavy trading. The huge volume meant that the report of prices on the ticker tape in brokerage offices around the nation was hours late, so investors had no idea what most stocks were actually trading for at that moment, increasing panic. Several leading Wall Street bankers met to find a solution to the panic and chaos on the trading floor. The meeting included Thomas W. Lamont, acting head of Morgan Bank; Albert Wiggin, head of the Chase National Bank; and Charles E. Mitchell, president of the National City Bank of New York. They chose Richard Whitney, vice president of the Exchange, to act on their behalf.
With the bankers ' financial resources behind him, Whitney placed a bid to purchase a large block of shares in U.S. Steel at a price well above the current market. As traders watched, Whitney then placed similar bids on other "blue chip '' stocks. This tactic was similar to one that had ended the Panic of 1907. It succeeded in halting the slide. The Dow Jones Industrial Average recovered, closing with it down only 6.38 points for the day. The rally continued on Friday, October 25, and the half day session on Saturday the 26th but, unlike 1907, the respite was only temporary.
Over the weekend, the events were covered by the newspapers across the United States. On October 28, "Black Monday '', more investors facing margin calls decided to get out of the market, and the slide continued with a record loss in the Dow for the day of 38.33 points, or 13 %.
The next day, "Black Tuesday '', October 29, 1929, about 16 million shares traded as the panic selling reached its peak. Some stocks actually had no buyers at any price that day ("air pockets ''). The Dow lost an additional 30 points, or 12 percent. The volume of stocks traded on October 29, 1929, was a record that was not broken for nearly 40 years.
On October 29, William C. Durant joined with members of the Rockefeller family and other financial giants to buy large quantities of stocks to demonstrate to the public their confidence in the market, but their efforts failed to stop the large decline in prices. Due to the massive volume of stocks traded that day, the ticker did not stop running until about 7: 45 p.m. The market had lost over $30 billion in the space of two days, including $14 billion on October 29 alone.
After a one - day recovery on October 30, where the Dow regained an additional 28.40 points, or 12 percent, to close at 258.47, the market continued to fall, arriving at an interim bottom on November 13, 1929, with the Dow closing at 198.60. The market then recovered for several months, starting on November 14, with the Dow gaining 18.59 points to close at 217.28, and reaching a secondary closing peak (i.e., bear market rally) of 294.07 on April 17, 1930. The following year, the Dow embarked on another, much longer, steady slide from April 1931 to July 8, 1932, when it closed at 41.22 -- its lowest level of the 20th century, concluding an 89 percent loss rate for all of the market 's stocks.
For the rest of the 1930s, beginning on March 15, 1933, the Dow began to slowly regain the ground it had lost during the 1929 crash and the three years following it. The largest percentage increases of the Dow Jones occurred during the early and mid-1930s. In late 1937, there was a sharp dip in the stock market, but prices held well above the 1932 lows. The market would not return to the peak closing of September 3, 1929, until November 23, 1954.
The crash followed a speculative boom that had taken hold in the late 1920s. During the latter half of the 1920s, steel production, building construction, retail turnover, automobiles registered, and even railway receipts advanced from record to record. The combined net profits of 536 manufacturing and trading companies showed an increase, in the first six months of 1929, of 36.6 % over 1928, itself a record half - year. Iron and steel led the way with doubled gains. Such figures set up a crescendo of stock - exchange speculation that led hundreds of thousands of Americans to invest heavily in the stock market. A significant number of them were borrowing money to buy more stocks. By August 1929, brokers were routinely lending small investors more than two - thirds of the face value of the stocks they were buying. Over $8.5 billion was out on loan, more than the entire amount of currency circulating in the U.S. at the time.
The rising share prices encouraged more people to invest, hoping the share prices would rise further. Speculation thus fueled further rises and created an economic bubble. Because of margin buying, investors stood to lose large sums of money if the market turned down -- or even failed to advance quickly enough. The average P / E (price to earnings) ratio of S&P Composite stocks was 32.6 in September 1929, clearly above historical norms. Per the economist John Kenneth Galbraith, this exuberance also resulted in a large number of people placing their savings and money in leverage investment products like Goldman Sachs ' "Blue ridge trust '' and "Shenandoah trust ''. These too crashed in 1929, resulting in losses to banks of $475 billion 2010 dollars ($533.06 billion in 2017).
Good harvests had built up a mass of 250 million bushels of wheat to be "carried over '' when 1929 opened. By May there was also a winter - wheat crop of 560 million bushels ready for harvest in the Mississippi Valley. This oversupply caused a drop in wheat prices so heavy that the net incomes of the farming population from wheat were threatened with extinction. Stock markets are always sensitive to the future state of commodity markets, and the slump in Wall Street predicted for May by Sir George Paish arrived on time. In June 1929, the position was saved by a severe drought in the Dakotas and the Canadian West, plus unfavorable seed times in Argentina and eastern Australia. The oversupply would now be wanted to fill the big gaps in the 1929 world wheat production. From 97 ¢ per bushel in May, the price of wheat rose to $1.49 in July. When it was seen that at this figure American farmers would get rather more for their smaller crop than for that of 1928, stocks went up again.
In August, the wheat price fell when France and Italy were bragging of a magnificent harvest, and the situation in Australia improved. This sent a shiver through Wall Street and stock prices quickly dropped, but word of cheap stocks brought a fresh rush of "stags '', amateur speculators and investors. Congress voted for a 100 million dollar relief package for the farmers, hoping to stabilize wheat prices. By October though, the price had fallen to $1.31 per bushel.
Other important economic barometers were also slowing or even falling by mid-1929, including car sales, house sales, and steel production. The falling commodity and industrial production may have dented even American self - confidence, and the stock market peaked on September 3 at 381.17 just after Labor Day, then started to falter after Roger Babson issued his prescient "market crash '' forecast. By the end of September, the market was down 10 % from the peak (the "Babson Break ''). Selling intensified in early and mid October, with sharp down days punctuated by a few up days. Panic selling on huge volume started the week of October 21 and intensified and culminated on October 24, the 28th, and especially the 29th ("Black Tuesday '').
The president of the Chase National Bank said at the time:
We are reaping the natural fruit of the orgy of speculation in which millions of people have indulged. It was inevitable, because of the tremendous increase in the number of stockholders in recent years, that the number of sellers would be greater than ever when the boom ended and selling took the place of buying. ''
In 1932, the Pecora Commission was established by the U.S. Senate to study the causes of the crash. The following year, the U.S. Congress passed the Glass -- Steagall Act mandating a separation between commercial banks, which take deposits and extend loans, and investment banks, which underwrite, issue, and distribute stocks, bonds, and other securities.
After the experience of the 1929 crash, stock markets around the world instituted measures to suspend trading in the event of rapid declines, claiming that the measures would prevent such panic sales. However, the one - day crash of Black Monday, October 19, 1987, when the Dow Jones Industrial Average fell 22.6 %, was worse in percentage terms than any single day of the 1929 crash (although the combined 25 % decline of October 28 -- 29, 1929 was larger than October 19, 1987, and remains the worst two - day decline ever).
The American mobilization for World War II at the end of 1941 moved approximately ten million people out of the civilian labor force and into the war. World War II had a dramatic effect on many parts of the economy, and may have hastened the end of the Great Depression in the United States. Government - financed capital spending accounted for only 5 percent of the annual U.S. investment in industrial capital in 1940; by 1943, the government accounted for 67 percent of U.S. capital investment.
Together, the 1929 stock market crash and the Great Depression formed the largest financial crisis of the 20th century. The panic of October 1929 has come to serve as a symbol of the economic contraction that gripped the world during the next decade. The falls in share prices on October 24 and 29, 1929 were practically instantaneous in all financial markets, except Japan.
The Wall Street Crash had a major impact on the U.S. and world economy, and it has been the source of intense academic debate -- historical, economic, and political -- from its aftermath until the present day. Some people believed that abuses by utility holding companies contributed to the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the Depression that followed. Many people blamed the crash on commercial banks that were too eager to put deposits at risk on the stock market.
In 1930, 1,352 banks held more than $853 million in deposits; in 1931, one year later, 2,294 banks went down with nearly $1.7 billion in deposits. Many businesses failed (28,285 failures and a daily rate of 133 in 1931).
The 1929 crash brought the Roaring Twenties to a halt. As tentatively expressed by economic historian Charles P. Kindleberger, in 1929, there was no lender of last resort effectively present, which, if it had existed and been properly exercised, would have been key in shortening the business slowdown that normally follows financial crises. The crash marked the beginning of widespread and long - lasting consequences for the United States. Historians still debate the question: did the 1929 Crash spark The Great Depression, or did it merely coincide with the bursting of a loose credit - inspired economic bubble? Only 16 % of American households were invested in the stock market within the United States during the period leading up to the depression, suggesting that the crash carried somewhat less of a weight in causing the depression.
However, the psychological effects of the crash reverberated across the nation as businesses became aware of the difficulties in securing capital market investments for new projects and expansions. Business uncertainty naturally affects job security for employees, and as the American worker (the consumer) faced uncertainty with regards to income, naturally the propensity to consume declined. The decline in stock prices caused bankruptcies and severe macroeconomic difficulties, including contraction of credit, business closures, firing of workers, bank failures, decline of the money supply, and other economically depressing events.
The resultant rise of mass unemployment is seen as a result of the crash, although the crash is by no means the sole event that contributed to the depression. The Wall Street Crash is usually seen as having the greatest impact on the events that followed and therefore is widely regarded as signaling the downward economic slide that initiated the Great Depression. True or not, the consequences were dire for almost everybody. Most academic experts agree on one aspect of the crash: It wiped out billions of dollars of wealth in one day, and this immediately depressed consumer buying.
The failure set off a worldwide run on US gold deposits (i.e. the dollar), and forced the Federal Reserve to raise interest rates into the slump. Some 4,000 banks and other lenders ultimately failed. Also, the uptick rule, which allowed short selling only when the last tick in a stock 's price was positive, was implemented after the 1929 market crash to prevent short sellers from driving the price of a stock down in a bear raid.
The stock market crash of October 1929 led directly to the Great Depression in Europe. When stocks plummeted on the New York Stock Exchange, the world noticed immediately. Although financial leaders in the United Kingdom, as in the United States, vastly underestimated the extent of the crisis that would ensue, it soon became clear that the world 's economies were more interconnected than ever. The effects of the disruption to the global system of financing, trade, and production and the subsequent meltdown of the American economy were soon felt throughout Europe.
During 1930 and 1931 in particular, unemployed workers went on strike, demonstrated in public, and otherwise took direct action to call public attention to their plight. Protests often focused on the so - called Means Test, which the government had instituted in 1931 as a way to limit the amount of unemployment payments made to individuals and families. For working people, the Means Test seemed an intrusive and insensitive way to deal with the chronic and relentless deprivation caused by the economic crisis. The strikes were met forcefully, with police breaking up protests, arresting demonstrators, and charging them with crimes related to the violation of public order.
There is ongoing debate among economists and historians as to what role the crash played in subsequent economic, social, and political events. The Economist argued in a 1998 article that the Depression did not start with the stock market crash, nor was it clear at the time of the crash that a depression was starting. They asked, "Can a very serious Stock Exchange collapse produce a serious setback to industry when industrial production is for the most part in a healthy and balanced condition? '' They argued that there must be some setback, but there was not yet sufficient evidence to prove that it would be long or would necessarily produce a general industrial depression.
But The Economist also cautioned that some bank failures were also to be expected and some banks may not have had any reserves left for financing commercial and industrial enterprises. They concluded that the position of the banks was the key to the situation, but what was going to happen could not have been foreseen.
Some academics view the Wall Street Crash of 1929 as part of a historical process that was a part of the new theories of boom and bust. According to economists such as Joseph Schumpeter, Nikolai Kondratiev and Charles E. Mitchell, the crash was merely a historical event in the continuing process known as economic cycles. The impact of the crash was merely to increase the speed at which the cycle proceeded to its next level.
Milton Friedman 's A Monetary History of the United States, co-written with Anna Schwartz, advances the argument that what made the "great contraction '' so severe was not the downturn in the business cycle, protectionism, or the 1929 stock market crash in themselves, but the collapse of the banking system during three waves of panics over the 1930 -- 33 period.
Media related to Wall Street Crash of 1929 at Wikimedia Commons
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what is the name of the hurricane hitting hawaii | List of Hawaii hurricanes - wikipedia
A Hawaiian hurricane is a tropical cyclone that forms in the Pacific Ocean and affects the Hawaiian Islands. Hawaii lies in the central Pacific, where about four or five tropical cyclones appear each year, although as many as fifteen have occurred, such as in the 2015 season; rarely do these storms actually affect Hawaii. Tropical cyclone records were not kept before the 1950s. Earlier windstorms that struck Hawaii were not labeled as hurricanes.
This list contains every tropical cyclone that had a somewhat notable effect on the State of Hawai ʻi.
In total, 63 tropical cyclones have affected Hawai ʻi since official record - keeping began in 1949.
At least 29 people have died in Hawai ʻi as a result of tropical cyclones since 1949.
The islands of Hawaii, with Kauai as the notable exception, appear to be remarkably immune from direct hurricane hits. The USGS states that "more commonly, near - misses that generate large swell and moderately high winds causing varying degrees of damage are the hallmark of hurricanes passing close to the islands. '' This has also drawn media attention. One notion is that Hawaii 's volcanic peaks slow down or divert storms. A partial source of this idea may be the long list of hurricanes in the above paragraphs that dissipated into tropical storms or depressions upon approaching the islands. Satellite images of Hurricane Flossie 's breakup when approaching Hawaii Island fueled this idea. Another example may be Hurricane Felicia which dropped from Category 4 down to a tropical depression with residual winds predicted at only 35 miles per hour (56 km / h).
Tropical Storm Flossie (not to be confused with Hurricane Flossie in 2007) provides still another example. On July 28, 2013, the storm appeared headed for a direct hit to the Big Island, home to Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa. Both mountains rise to elevations in excess of 13,000 feet above sea level, and as Flossie approached the island, its track shifted abruptly overnight and assumed a more northerly alignment, heading instead to the island of Maui on July 29.
Wind data in particular supports the USGS assertion that hurricane damage has been low on all islands except for Kauai. Data collected by the Western Regional Climate Center show no hurricane - strength winds on any Hawaii Islands with the exception of Kauai. Despite this data, FEMA classified all of Hawaii as being in a "Wind - Borne Debris Region ''.
Before Hurricane Iniki in 1992, a standard homeowner 's insurance policy with extended coverage provided hurricane coverage. Since Iniki, many insurance policies exclude hurricane and a separate hurricane policy is required to obtain hurricane coverage.
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what kind of joint is the radioulnar joint | Distal radioulnar articulation - wikipedia
The distal radioulnar articulation (inferior radioulnar joint) is a joint between the two bones in the forearm; the radius and ulna. It is one of two joints between the radius and ulna, the other being the proximal radioulnar articulation. The distal radioulnar articulation is the one of the two closest to the wrist and hand.
The distal radioulnar articulation pivot - joint formed between the head of ulna and the ulnar notch on the lower extremity of radius.
The articular surfaces are connected together by the following ligaments:
The function of the radioulnar joint is to lift and maneuver weight load from the distal radioulnar joint to be distributed across the forearm 's radius and ulna as a load - bearing joint. Supination of the radioulnar joint can move from 0 degrees neutral to approximately 80 - 90 degrees where Pronation of the Radioulnar Joint can move from 0 degrees neutral to approximately 70 - 90 degrees. Supination (palms facing up) vs. pronation (palms facing down). Muscles that contribute to function are all supinator (Biceps Brachii, Brachioradialis, and Supinator) and pronator muscles (Brachioradialis, Pronator Quadratus, and Pronator Teres).
Injuries to the distal radioulnar articulation often result from falls onto an outstretched hand. Injury can occur with concurrent fracture of the distal radius, the ulna, or can be isolated. A classification system has been proposed by Estaminet and colleagues.
Estaminet classified injuries of the distal radioulnar articulation into four categories with two subclasses: purely ligamentous (subclass A) and those with associated boney injury (subclass B).
Distal ends of radius and ulna along with the bones of the wrist and hand
Transverse section across distal ends of radius and ulna.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 325 of the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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story of eli and samuel in the bible | Eli (biblical figure) - wikipedia
Eli (Hebrew: עלי , Modern ʻEli, Tiberian ʻĒlî, meaning "Ascent '' or "above ''; Ancient Greek: Ἠλί Ēli; Latin: Heli) was, according to the Books of Samuel, a High Priest of Shiloh.
Hannah is the wife of Elkanah. Elkanah also has another wife (Peninnah) who bore him children. Peninnah, at every chance, teases and criticises Hannah about her barrenness to the point of Hannah 's deep despair. Her husband sees her distress and tries to uncover her deep despair with these questions. "Hannah, why do you weep? Why do you not eat? Why is your heart sad? Am I not more to you than ten sons? '' The story indicates that Hannah gave no answer to the questions and rose and presented herself before God weeping bitterly in the temple.
When she is found in the temple by the priest she is praying silently, but her lips are moving. A priest called Eli witnesses this odd posture and concludes she is drunk. In her despair she prays to God for a child and if her prayer is granted she will give the son back to God. After Hannah 's explanation of her sobriety, Eli blesses her with peace and a guarantee that God of Israel will grant her request. She goes home, eats and drinks with her husband, and is filled with hope. Subsequently, Hannah becomes pregnant; her child is named Samuel. The time comes to offer the yearly sacrifice at the temple but Hannah stays home. She promises to go to the temple when Samuel is weaned and plans to leave him with Eli to be trained as a Nazirite.
The book of Samuel records Hannah 's prayer to God. She rejoices and exalts the Holy One there is no father like God, therefore, the nation should rejoice also in this Holy One. This story of Hannah intertwines itself with the culture of the nation of Israel. Eli is the high priest (kohen gadol) of Shiloh, the second - to - last Israelite judge (succeeded only by Samuel - see 1 Samuel 7: 15) before the rule of the kings, therefore, the Shiloh tradition will become an old and lost tradition that when the prophet Jeremiah comes on the scene in the history of God 's people, he will seek to renew and to bring back the way of the Shiloh tradition to the people of Israel because the kings have become wicked defiling the temple and tradition of God.
The sons of Eli, Hophni and Phinehas, meanwhile, are behaving wickedly, for example by taking for themselves all the prime cuts of meat from sacrifices, and by committing adultery with the women who serve at the sanctuary entrance. Eli is aware of their behavior but he rebukes them too lightly and ultimately does not stop them. The sons continue in their sinful behavior, and so, according to the text, a man of God prophesies to Eli that Eli and his family will be punished for this, with all male descendants dying before reaching old age and being placed in positions subservient to prophets from other lineages. The curse alludes to a previous (not appearing elsewhere in the Bible) promise from God of Eli 's lineage continuing eternally (c.f. similar promises to King David and Jehonadab). While this continuation is not revoked, a curse is placed on all of Eli 's male descendants forever. As a sign of the accuracy of this future, Eli is told by the man of God that his sons will die on the same day.
Eli goes on to train Samuel. When Samuel hears God speaking to him, he at first thinks it is Eli; Eli, who does n't hear God calling Samuel, eventually realizes the truth, and instructs Samuel on how to respond. Samuel is told that God 's threat (which is n't elaborated further) will be carried out on Eli and his family, and that there is nothing that can be done to prevent it. Eli asks Samuel what he had been told, insisting that he be told the whole truth, and so Samuel does; Eli reacts by saying that God will do as he judges best.
Some years later, when Samuel has become an adult, the Philistines attack Eben - Ezer, eventually capturing the Ark of the Covenant from the Israelites and killing Eli 's sons who accompany the Ark to battle as priests. The Israelites had brought the Ark with them to battle under the premise that there was no possible way God would allow it to enter enemy hands, an assumption that proved to be incorrect. Eli, who is nearly blind, is unaware of the event until he asks about all the commotion. Eli, sitting in a chair, is told what has happened by a soldier who has fled the battle. In reaction to the news that the Ark of God has been captured, Eli falls backwards out of the chair and dies from a broken neck, on the 10th day of Iyar. He was a Judge of Israel for a total of 40 years, and dies at the age of 98. His daughter - in - law, the wife of Phinehas, is pregnant and near the time of delivery. When she hears the news that the Ark of God has been captured and that her father - in - law and husband are dead, she goes into labour and gives birth, but is overcome by labour pains. As she is dying, the women attending her say, Do n't despair; you have given birth to a son. But she does not respond or pay any attention. She names the boy Ichabod, saying The Glory has departed from Israel - because of the capture of the Ark of God and the deaths of her father - in - law and her husband.
The Philistine incursions spanned a period of 40 years; and Samson, who fought the Philistine incursions, judged Israel for 20 years. Some scholars, like Kessler, and Nowack have argued that there is likely to have been some overlap between the time of Samson and that of Eli. However, the Book of Judges always mentions the years of oppression in contrast to the period of a judge 's dispensation; since the early parts of Eli 's rule do not appear to occur during a time of oppression, this appears to rule out any overlap with the Philistine oppression that Samson, a previous judge, had lived under.
Though his own genealogy is not given by the text, a number of scholars have determined a genealogy for Eli, based on that given to his sons in other passages. Abiathar is described by the Book of Chronicles as being a direct (paternal) descendant of Ithamar; the Books of Samuel state that Abiathar was a son of Ahimelek and that Ahimelek was a son of Ahitub, who is the brother of Ichabod. Consequently, since the narrative states that Ichabod was the son of Phinehas, and that Phinehas was the son of Eli, a number of scholars have drawn the conclusion that Eli must be a descendant of Ithamar.
Rabbah died at age 40 and his nephew Abaye died at age 60.
The Talmud lists him as a prophet.
The Samaritans assert that Mount Gerizim was the original Holy Place of Israel from the time that Joshua conquered Israel and the ten tribes settled the land. According to the Bible, the story of Mount Gerizim takes us back to the story of the time when Moses ordered Joshua to take the Twelve Tribes of Israel to the mountains by Shechem and place half of the tribes, six in number, on the top of Mount Gerizim (Mount of the Blessing), and the other half in Mount Ebal (Mount of the Curse). The two mountains were used to symbolize the significance of the commandments and serve as a warning to whoever disobeyed them.
Samaritan historiography would place the basic schism from the remaining part of Israel after the twelve tribes conquered the land of Canaan, led by Yahshua. After Yahshua 's death, Eli the priest left the tabernacle which Moses erected in the desert and established on Mount Gerizim, and built another one under his own rule in the hills of Shilo (1 Samuel 1: 1 - 3; 2: 12 - 17). Thus, he established both an illegitimate priesthood and an illegitimate place of worship.
Abu l - Fath, who in the fourteenth century C.E. wrote the major work of Samaritan history, comments on Samaritan origins as follows:
He offered a sacrifice on the altar, but without salt, as if he were inattentive. When the Great High Priest Ozzi learned of this, and found the sacrifice was not accepted, he thoroughly disowned him; and it is (even) said that he rebuked him.
Thereupon he and the group that sympathized with him, rose in revolt and at once he and his followers and his beasts set off for Shiloh. Thus Israel split in factions. He sent to their leaders saying to them, Anyone who would like to see wonderful things, let him come to me. Then he assembled a large group around him in Shiloh, and built a Temple for himself there; he constructed a place like the Temple (on Mount Gerizim). He built an altar, omitting no detail - it all corresponded to the original, piece by piece.
At this time the Children of Israel split into three factions. A loyal faction on Mount Gerizim; a heretical faction that followed false Gods; and the faction that followed Eli son of Yafni on Shiloh.
Further, the Samaritan Chronicle Adler, or New Chronicle, believed to have been composed in the 18th century C.E. using earlier chronicles as sources states:
According to the Samaritans this marked the end of the Age of Divine Favor called רידון (Ridhwan) or רהוּתה (Rahuta), which began with Moses. Thus began the פנוּתה (Fanuta) Era of Divine Disfavor when God looks away from the people. According to the Samaritans the age of divine favor will only return with the coming of the Taheb (Messiah or Restorer).
Likewise according to Samaritan sources the high Priests line of the sons of Phineas died out in 1624 C.E. with the death of the 112th High Priest Shlomyah ben Pinhas when the priesthood was transferred to the sons of Ithamar; see article Samaritan for list of High Priests from 1613 to 2013 - the 132nd High priest of the Samaritans was Aharon ben Ab - Chisda ben Yaacob who was succeeded by Aabed - El ben Asher ben Matzliach (ironically Eli was of the House of Ithamar).
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who wrote the songs for hustle and flow | Hustle & Flow (soundtrack) - wikipedia
Hustle & Flow: Music From and Inspired by the Motion Picture is the soundtrack album for the motion picture, Hustle & Flow. It features music by P $ C featuring T.I. & Lil Scrappy, Mike Jones featuring Nicole Wray, Trillville, Juvenile featuring Skip & Wacko, Nasty Nardo, 8Ball & MJG, Lil ' Boosie & Webbie and other artists. Also featured on the album are tracks performed by the film 's star, Terrence Howard, in his lead role as the street hustler - turned - rapper, Djay. The skits on the soundtrack are sound clips from the film. It was released on July 12, 2005 on Grand Hustle and Atlantic Records.
The first single off the collection was the Lil Jon - produced "I 'm a King (Remix) '' by P $ C featuring T.I. and Lil Scrappy. A music video was released for the song which featured all three rappers in the city of Atlanta and clips from Hustle & Flow. The second single was the remix of Webbie 's "Bad Bitch, '' featuring Trina. The soundtrack has sold over 300,000 copies. The chorus to Nasty Nardo 's track entitled "Lets Get a Room '' samples Project Pat 's song entitled "Make Dat Azz Clap (Back Clap) ''. The song number 4 in the track list "It 's Hard out Here for a Pimp '' produced by Three 6 Mafia won the Oscar for Best Original Song at the 78th Academy Awards ceremony and was performed on stage by the members of Three 6 Mafia.
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that petrol emotion end of the millennium psychosis blues | End Of the Millennium Psychosis Blues - Wikipedia
End Of The Millennium Psychosis Blues is the third studio album by Irish indie rock band That Petrol Emotion. It was released in 1988, and was the last album with guitarist John O'Neill. Two singles were released from the album: "Cellophane '' and "Groove Check ''.
End Of The Millennium Psychosis Blues reached No. 53 in the UK Albums Chart.
Additional musicians
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when did england win the women's world cup | England Women 's national Football team - Wikipedia
The England women 's national football team has been governed by the Football Association (FA) since 1993, having been previously administered by the Women 's Football Association (WFA). England played its first international match in November 1972 against Scotland. Although most national football teams represent a sovereign state, as a member of the United Kingdom 's Home Nations, England is permitted by FIFA statutes to maintain its own national side that competes in all major tournaments, with the exception of the Women 's Olympic Football Tournament.
England have qualified for the FIFA Women 's World Cup four times, reaching the quarter final stage on the first three occasions in 1995, 2007, and 2011, and finishing third in 2015. They reached the final of the UEFA Women 's Championship in 1984 and 2009.
The success of the men 's national football team at the 1966 FIFA World Cup led to an upsurge of interest in football from women within England. The Women 's Football Association (WFA) was established a few years later in 1969 as an attempt to organise the women 's game. That same year, Harry Batt formed an independent English team that competed in the Fédération Internationale Européenne de Football Féminine (FIEFF) European Cup. Batt 's team also participated in two FIEFF World Cups held in Italy (1970) and Mexico (1971).
Following an UEFA recommendation in 1972 for national associations to incorporate the women 's game, the Football Association (FA) rescinded its fifty - year ban on women playing on Football League grounds. Shortly after, Eric Worthington was tasked by the WFA to assemble an official women 's national team. England competed in its first international match against Scotland in Greenock on 18 November 1972, almost 100 years after the first men 's international. The team overturned a two - goal deficit to defeat their northern opponents by 3 goals to 2, with Sylvia Gore scoring England 's first international goal. Tom Tranter replaced Worthington as long term manager of the women 's national football team and remained in that position for the next six years.
Martin Reagan was appointed to replace Tranter in 1979. England reached the final of the inaugural European Competition for Women 's Football, after beating Denmark 3 -- 1 on aggregate in the semi-finals. Despite resolute defending, including a spectacular goal line clearance from captain Carol Thomas, the England team lost the first away leg 1 -- 0 against Sweden, after a header from Pia Sundhage, but won the second home leg by the same margin, with a goal from Linda Curl. England lost the subsequent penalty shootout 4 -- 3. Theresa Wiseman saved Helen Johansson 's penalty but both Curl and Lorraine Hanson had their spot kicks saved by Elisabeth Leidinge.
At the 1987 European Competition for Women 's Football, England again reached the semi-finals but lost 3 -- 2 after extra time against holders Sweden, in a repeat of the previous final. The team settled for fourth, after losing the third place play off against Italy 2 -- 1. Reagan was sacked after England 's 6 -- 1 quarter - final loss against Germany at UEFA Women 's Euro 1991, which left them unable to qualify for the inaugural FIFA Women 's World Cup. John Bilton was appointed as head coach in 1991 after Barrie Williams 's brief tenure.
In 1993, the FA took over the running of women 's football in England from the WFA, replacing Bilton with Ted Copeland as national team manager. England managed to qualify for UEFA Women 's Euro 1995, having previously missed out on the last three editions, but were beaten 6 -- 2 on aggregate over two legs against Germany. Reaching the European semi-finals granted England a place at the World Cup for the first time. The team advanced from the group stages of the 1995 FIFA Women 's World Cup in Sweden, but lost out again to Germany 3 -- 0 in the quarter - finals.
Hope Powell became the team 's first full - time head coach in June 1998, succeeding her former coach Copeland. The European Championship expanded in 1997 to eight teams and moved from a biennial event to a quadrennial one. England qualified via the play offs for the 2001 competition held in Germany, despite recording their biggest loss (away against Norway 8 -- 0) during qualification, but did not advance past the group stages. England automatically qualified as hosts in 2005, but again did not make it to the semi-finals.
Qualification for the World Cup changed for the 1999 edition. European qualifiers were introduced, so that teams no longer needed to rely on advancing to the latter stages of the European Championship. England qualified unbeaten for the 2007 World Cup in China, winning Group 5 in the European qualifiers and recording their biggest win (away against Hungary, 13 -- 0) in the process, ending a 12 - year hiatus from the competition. After coming second in their group, they advanced into the quarter - finals to face the United States but lost 3 -- 0.
In May 2009, central contracts were implemented to help players focus on full - time training without having to fit it around full - time employment. Three months later, at the European Championships in Finland, England marked their return to the recently expanded twelve team competition by reaching the final for the first time in 25 years. They advanced from Group C to the quarter - finals by virtue of being the top third placed team, beating both the hosts and the Netherlands in the knockout stages on the way to the final. There they lost 6 -- 2 to reigning champions Germany.
England reached their third World Cup in 2011, having won Group 5 and their play off 5 -- 2 over two legs against Switzerland. In Germany, they topped Group B -- ahead of eventual winners Japan. England were paired with France in the quarter - finals, with the match ending in a 1 -- 1 draw. England had taken the lead with Jill Scott 's chip, only to have Élise Bussaglia equalise with two minutes remaining. After extra time ended in stalemate, they lost the ensuing penalty shootout 4 -- 3. Karen Bardsley had saved Camille Abily 's initial penalty but misses by Claire Rafferty and Faye White sent England out of the competition.
Powell left the role in August 2013 after a poor showing at the UEFA Women 's Euro 2013, with England bowing out early at the group stages.
Mark Sampson succeeded Powell as England manager. England qualified for their third successive World Cup in August 2014 with a game to spare, winning all ten matches and topping Group 6. England played their first international match at the new Wembley Stadium, home to the men 's national team, in a friendly against the reigning European champions Germany on 23 November 2014. England had not played Germany since their heavy defeat in the European Championship final five years earlier. They lost the match 3 -- 0, marking the 20th attempt at which England had failed to record an official win over Germany.
At the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup in Canada, England lost their opening group game to France but won their remaining group games against Mexico and Colombia, easing through to the last 16 to play 1995 champions Norway. A 2 -- 1 win set up a meeting with hosts Canada in the quarter - finals. Despite facing not only a strong Canadian team but a capacity partisan crowd at BC Place in Vancouver, England progressed to the semifinals of the Women 's World Cup for the first time in their history with another 2 -- 1 win. Playing reigning World Cup holders Japan in the semi-finals, England conceded a penalty kick, which Aya Miyama converted past Karen Bardsley. Japan then conceded a penalty as Yuki Ogimi clipped Steph Houghton and Fara Williams slotted it past Ayumi Kaihori to level the game. However, in the last minute of the game, Laura Bassett scored an own goal to send Japan through to the final. England eventually finished in third place by beating Germany 1 -- 0 after extra time.
England qualified for the UEFA Women 's Euro 2017 in the Netherlands and won all three of their group games at the tournament. England beat France 1 -- 0 in the quarter - finals before meeting hosts and eventual champions, the Netherlands. In the semi-finals, England conceded three goals without reply and were knocked out of the tournament.
In September 2017, Sampson was sacked from his role as manager by the FA after evidence of "inappropriate and unacceptable '' behaviour was uncovered during his tenure at Bristol Academy. He was replaced by Phil Neville.
After being appointed manager, Neville 's first games in charge were at the 2018 SheBelieves Cup. In their first game, England defeated France 4 -- 1, then had a 2 -- 2 draw against Germany. They went into the final game against the United States with the opportunity to win the tournament, but they fell 1 -- 0 to the US. Second place was the highest England has ever finished at the SheBelieves Cup.
England continued with 2019 FIFA Women 's World Cup qualification in 2018. On 6 April they played to a 0 -- 0 draw against Wales. After the qualifying games in June, England and Wales were guaranteed the first two spots in qualifying Group 1.
England have qualified for the FIFA Women 's World Cup four times (1995, 2007, 2011, 2015) and failed to qualify for three competitions (1991, 1999, 2003). The England team reached the quarter final stage on three occasions, losing out to Germany in 1995, the United States in 2007 and France on penalties in 2011. In 2015, however, England earned the bronze medal for the first time, under Mark Sampson, by beating Germany in the third place play - off.
England first entered the UEFA Women 's Championship in 1984, reaching the final that year and in 2009. The team have reached the semi-finals on three other occasions (1989, 1995, 2017), but failed to make it out of the group stages in three other editions (2001, 2005, 2013). England did not qualify in 1989, 1991, 1993 and 1997.
England do not participate in the Women 's Olympic Football Tournament, as the country does not have its own National Olympic Committee (NOC). Members of its team have played for the Great Britain women 's Olympic football team at the 2012 Summer Olympics. Since England falls under the jurisdiction of the British Olympic Association, remit for an Olympic football team requires support from all four Home Nation associations. The Scottish Football Association (SFA), the Football Association of Wales (FAW) and the Irish Football Association (IFA) have all previously objected to the premise over fears that the team would erode the independence of their individual football associations.
The following 24 players were named to the squad for matches against Wales and Bosnia and Herzegovina on 31 August and 4 September 2018.
Head coach: Phil Neville
The following players have also been called up to the England squad within the last twelve months.
This list may be incomplete.
Notes:
Carol Thomas was the first player to reach 50 caps in 1985, before retiring from representative football later that year, having amassed 56 caps. Fara Williams holds the record for England appearances, having played 165 times since 2001. She overtook previous record holder Rachel Yankey in August 2014, in a friendly against Sweden. Yankey had passed Gillian Coultard 's 119 record England women caps in September 2012, in a European qualifying match against Croatia, and Peter Shilton 's 125 record England international caps in June 2013, in a friendly against Japan. Alex Scott is currently the second highest capped female England player with 140 caps, followed by Karen Carney with 132 and Casey Stoney with 130. Rachel Yankey has the fifth highest number of England caps.
Kelly Smith has scored the highest number of goals for England, with 46 over a twenty - year international career. She surpassed Karen Walker 's 40 goal record in September 2010, in a World Cup qualifying play off against Switzerland.
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what is the name of this symbol in mathematics | List of mathematical symbols - wikipedia
This is a list of symbols found in all branches of mathematics to express a formula or to represent a constant.
A mathematical concept is independent of the symbol chosen to represent it. For many of the symbols below, the symbol is usually synonymous with the corresponding concept (ultimately an arbitrary choice made as a result of the cumulative history of mathematics), but in some situations, a different convention may be used. For example, depending on context, the triple bar "≡ '' may represent congruence or a definition. However, in mathematical logic, numerical equality is sometimes represented by "≡ '' instead of "= '', with the latter representing equality of well - formed formulas. In short, convention dictates the meaning.
Each symbol is shown both in HTML, whose display depends on the browser 's access to an appropriate font installed on the particular device, and typeset as an image using TeX.
This list is organized by symbol type and is intended to facilitate finding an unfamiliar symbol by its visual appearance. For a related list organized by mathematical topic, see List of mathematical symbols by subject. That list also includes LaTeX and HTML markup, and Unicode code points for each symbol (note that this article does n't have the latter two, but they could certainly be added).
There is a Wikibooks guide for using maths in LaTeX, and a comprehensive LaTeX symbol list. It is also possible to check to see if a Unicode code point is available as a LaTeX command, or vice versa. Also note that where there is no LaTeX command natively available for a particular symbol (although there may be options that require adding packages), the symbol could be added via other options, such as setting the document up to support Unicode, and entering the character in a variety of ways (e.g. copying and pasting, keyboard shortcuts, the \ unicode (< insertcodepoint >) command) as well as other options and extensive additional information.
The contour integral can also frequently be found with a subscript capital letter C, ∮, denoting that a closed loop integral is, in fact, around a contour C, or sometimes dually appropriately, a circle C. In representations of Gauss 's Law, a subscript capital S, ∮, is used to denote that the integration is over a closed surface.
then
(. 5 7) = − 5.5 ⋅ − 4.5 ⋅ − 3.5 ⋅ − 2.5 ⋅ − 1.5 ⋅ −. 5 ⋅. 5 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 7 = 33 2048 (\ displaystyle (\ begin (pmatrix). 5 \ \ 7 \ end (pmatrix)) = (\ frac (- 5.5 \ cdot - 4.5 \ cdot - 3.5 \ cdot - 2.5 \ cdot - 1.5 \ cdot -. 5 \ cdot. 5) (1 \ cdot 2 \ cdot 3 \ cdot 4 \ cdot 5 \ cdot 6 \ cdot 7)) = (\ frac (33) (2048)) \, \!)
(when u is positive integer) means reverse or rising binomial coefficient.
Then (2) = (..., − 8, − 3, 2, 7,...).
(Note that the notation (a, b) is ambiguous: it could be an ordered pair or an open interval. Set theorists and computer scientists often use angle brackets ⟨ ⟩ instead of parentheses.)
(a, b, c) is an ordered triple (or 3 - tuple).
() is the empty tuple (or 0 - tuple).
(Note that the notation (a, b) is ambiguous: it could be an ordered pair or an open interval. The notation) a, b (can be used instead.)
(0, + ∞) equals the set of positive real numbers.
we can define the structure functions S (τ (\ displaystyle \ tau)):
Note that the notation ⟨ u, v ⟩ may be ambiguous: it could mean the inner product or the linear span. The span of S may also be written as Sp (S).
(The notation (a, b) is often used as well.)
⟨ a, b, c ⟩ (\ displaystyle \ langle a, b, c \ rangle) is an ordered triple (or 3 - tuple).
⟨ ⟩ (\ displaystyle \ langle \ rangle) is the empty tuple (or 0 - tuple).
\ smashtimes requires \ usepackage (unicode - math) and \ setmathfont (XITS Math) or another Open Type Math Font.
⇒ ⇐ (\ displaystyle \ Rightarrow \ Leftarrow) \ Rightarrow \ Leftarrow ⊥ (\ displaystyle \ bot) \ bot
↮ (\ displaystyle \ nleftrightarrow) \ nleftrightarrow
\ textreferencemark Contradiction!
Includes upside - down letters.
Also called diacritics.
denoted by P (S).
P ((0, 1, 2)) = (∅, (0), (1), (2), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 2), (0, 1, 2)).
Z or Z means (1, 2, 3,...). Z means (0, 1, 2, 3,...). Z is used by some authors to mean (0, 1, 2, 3,...) and others to mean (... - 2, - 1, 1, 2, 3,...).
In mathematics written in Persian or Arabic, some symbols may be reversed to make right - to - left writing and reading easier.
Some Unicode charts of mathematical operators and symbols:
Some Unicode cross-references:
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when does the second half of gotham start | Gotham (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of the American television series Gotham, based on characters from DC Comics related to the Batman franchise, revolves around the characters of James Gordon and Bruce Wayne. The season is produced by Primrose Hill Productions, DC Entertainment, and Warner Bros. Television, with Bruno Heller, Danny Cannon, and John Stephens serving as executive producers. The season was inspired and adapted elements from the comic book storylines of Batman: Year One, Batman: The Long Halloween, and Batman: No Man 's Land. The subtitle for the season is A Dark Knight.
The season was ordered in May 2017, and production began the following month. Ben McKenzie stars as Gordon, alongside Donal Logue, David Mazouz, Morena Baccarin, Sean Pertwee, Robin Lord Taylor, Erin Richards, Camren Bicondova, Cory Michael Smith, Jessica Lucas, Chris Chalk, Drew Powell, Crystal Reed and Alexander Siddig. The fourth season premiered on September 21, 2017, on Fox, while the second half premiered on March 1, 2018.
The twenty - first episode is set to be titled "One Bad Day '' while the twenty - second episode, which will serve as the season finale, is set to be titled "No Man 's Land ''.
The show was officially renewed by Fox for a fourth season on May 10, 2017. Just like the second and third seasons, the fourth season also carried a new subtitle for the first half of the season: A Dark Knight.
The producers revealed that the season would be based on the comic book stories Batman: The Long Halloween and Batman: Year One. According to executive producer John Stephens, the season would not consist of "direct adaptations '', but "loose interpretations '' of the comic book series. Ben McKenzie explained that the structure for the season would be "the beginning is more Long Halloween, our version of that, and the end is more Year One. '' According to Stephens, the show will handle a horror - oriented direction on the season: "At the very beginning of the season, Penguin has solidified his control upon Gotham like never before. Where he 's kind of unionized crime. And Scarecrow comes in to basically reintroduce fear into Gotham and to remind people that the dark is still scary out there. And we 're really going to fashion, especially Episode 2, almost a horror movie episode where we really get to see Scarecrow. I think he 's like purely terrifying. Imagine, rather than the other versions of Scarecrow out there -- because there are a lot of different versions -- what if you just really tell Scarecrow as a horror movie? Because he could be scary as hell. '' Executive producer Danny Cannon stated, "When the studio asks you to tone back because it 's too scary, you know you 've done something right! ''
Regarding Bruce 's beginning of vigilantism, McKenzie explained that "We are definitely leaning into Bruce, having learned some of the skills to be a vigilante, now actually attempting it. Now, we have a long, long way to go before he can realistically be Batman, so there will be many stumbles and falls -- and regressions back to being a kid at times -- but Gordon will eventually become aware of what he 's doing and that will bring them against each other. '' David Mazouz also added, "Bruce really is taking on this vigilante persona and all the things that go along with that. Whether it be creating another persona, a public persona, that 's also definitely going to be a major part of Bruce 's journey this year. His relationship as this other person. Batman is coming. Absolutely. '' Mazouz also stated that he was worried the writers could pull back some aspects from Batman, deeming it "too fast '' but he was glad it did n't stop. He said that Bruce would take the "Batman persona '' this season. Cannon also explained that Bruce will be seen "as the emerging threat he is. '' Alexander Siddig stated that his character will seek to make Bruce his heir and will "do anything he can to get his hands on him, to manipulate him into what (Ra 's) wants him to be. '' He also claimed that the season is "a season so far of extremes. ''
Talking about his character, McKenzie stated, "Comparatively, perhaps he 's in a better place than some of these other truly evil, evil people. '' But as the season will be with him dealing with Cobblepot, Gordon "does n't have a lot of good options. He has to either fight him directly or find allies to fight Penguin -- surrogates to fight Penguin -- which leads him down a dark path. So, that 's kind of the way we start for him in season 4. '' According to Stephens, "We 're going to see Jim make, in some ways, big steps toward I guess what you would call the commissionership. But also we 're going to see Jim, in his quest to save the city, cross different ethical lines than he ever did before. It 's going to bring him to an ethical nadir that we have n't seen him at, and it 's going to be told through the context of a relationship that he has with Sofia Falcone, the daughter of Don Falcone, who 's played by Crystal Reed this year. And that 's going to be a really compelling and interesting relationship. '' Sean Pertwee also stated that the season will also explore Alfred 's mysterious past "indirectly ''.
McKenzie made his writing debut on the episode "The Demon 's Head '', after previously directing the third season episode "These Delicate and Dark Obsessions ''. McKenzie went to Los Angeles to work on the writers ' room to break the story and then go back to New York City and finish many drafts. He explained, "I 've been fiddling around with writing for a long time, but I 'd never written an episode of television, so it was quite a learning process. '' He also added that, "From being on a set, the directing came fairly naturally. It was challenging, but there were a lot of things that I understood about directing just from observing, just from watching director 's work. Writing often takes place behind - the - scenes. Physical production is not privy to how scripts come out... I was n't so familiar with that process of breaking a story, of starting with a story document, then an outline, and then a draft; it was informative ''.
For the second half of the season, Cameron Monaghan stated that "We 're borrowing very heavily from some of the most iconic Batman storylines. I think that they 're deep enough, and they show where its really splitting that duality and start totally embracing the main arcs. I think that we did a little bit in season three to bring it into The Killing Joke. '' He also added that the plan for the final episodes is to adapt Batman: No Man 's Land, stating, "We 're really getting into it this year. I think the way that the story escalates is something that shifts and is not anything the show has done before. I think it 's going to be a really unique experience. Especially by the past few episodes, it 's going to be really... it 's pretty insane. ''
With the exception of Benedict Samuel and Michael Chiklis, all main actors from the previous season returned for the show, with Maggie Geha being downgraded to guest star. Crystal Reed joined the series in July 2017 in the series regular role of Sofia Falcone. Alexander Siddig was promoted to the main cast. In September 2017, Michael Cerveris joined the show as Lazlo Valentin / Professor Pyg, in a multi-episode role. Cerveris stated, "Professor Pyg is a brilliant and chameleon - like person who has a highly developed sense of what 's right and wrong -- it just might not be a sense of right and wrong that corresponds with everybody else 's. '' He also added that, "When they (the writers) had somebody who played Sweeney Todd, they knew the direction they wanted to go... (Broadway fans who do n't watch Gotham) might give it a look simply because of that, and find that they have a new favorite show. '' Regarding the Dollotrons, Cerveris stated, "You know how much he 's liked the Pyg in the comics, but I would say that his focus in Gotham is more on things to do with Gotham and with the city and with Jim Gordon. He 's certainly is the manipulative character, and certainly, you know, is trying to get people to do stuff whether they know why they 're doing it or not. But, that 's sort of exclusive. His whole reason for existing is not the Dollotrons. '' He described the character as having "a Hannibal Lecter - ish quality. '' He also jokingly added that he could n't eat bacon "because I just ca n't bring myself to eat my little friends. '' Donal Logue stated, "We have Michael Cerveris coming in and playing Professor Pyg and he 's such an incredibly gifted actor and, as happens a lot, the gentlest and most gifted of artistic souls can play the darkest, creepiest human beings known to literature or film. ''
Besides, the character of Tommy Elliot is set to return to the show, having appeared in the episode "The Mask ''. However, co-executive producer Bryan Wynbrandt added, "Obviously when Tommy Elliot is discussed, there 's always is that Hush storyline. That is something that we 've discussed. Right now, we 're kind of still feeling that out. It could be something on the horizon, but I ca n't say for sure. '' Also, Peyton List was cast as a new iteration of Ivy Pepper. According to Bryan Wynbrandt, "The change was all based on the idea that she 's continuing to evolve to become more of the Ivy from the comic books and what we really enjoyed. In this third evolution you 're going to see a really self possessed, really scary and driven version of the Ivy character, who is intent on kind of making the world in the image she sees it should be, which is the green world. The world where the plants rule and people are an after thought. ''
As a concept McKenzie wished to explore, the fourth season is set to bring back the actor Charlie Tahan as Jonathan Crane / Scarecrow, who portrayed the character on the first - season episodes: "The Fearsome Dr. Crane '' and "The Scarecrow ''. A trailer was screened on the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con that showed Crane donning a new costume under the Scarecrow persona. McKenzie explained: "So we met his father Dr Crane in Season 1. So we 've taken our time; we 're gon na come back now to his son. You know, in circumstances probably not best described now, his son takes on his father 's mantle and becomes the fully - realized Scarecrow. It 's great. We 're able to use this sort of fear toxin that Scarecrow is able to summon. We 're completely unafraid -- or perhaps afraid but we still persist -- in expanding the universe and our capabilities. '' Tahan commented on his character, "He 's sort of trying to build an army with this toxin. Scarecrow might start brainwashing people. I 'm not exactly sure what his endgame is -- I do n't even know if he knows. He has this revelation that he does n't have to fear fear. '' However, due to Tahan 's commitment to the series Ozark, the role ended up recast with David W. Thompson, who is expected to portray him in the second half of the season.
When asked about Jerome Valeska 's return in the season, Stephens stated, "What I will say about Jerome is that Jerome is in Arkham right now, and when you think about Arkham 's record of keeping people locked up, we will probably see him again before the end of the year. '' In September 2017, Stephens explained, "You 're totally gon na see him this year. You 're gon na see him in a new position this year '', also teasing that Jerome would be an ally to Penguin on the season. Ben McKenzie said, "Jerome is one of our most beloved characters. The idea here was to really give the audience more time to enjoy and savor (Cameron Monaghan 's) performance. '' Regarding the partnership between Jerome and Penguin, Robin Lord Taylor said "You have Jerome, who is chaos, and you have Oswald, who is control. So you can imagine, there are ways that those can integrate, but at the same time they 're opposites. '' Stephens also added that Fish Mooney is "gone for good '', saying, "Now, that one was it. At a certain point, you got ta say ' Definitely. ' People die at a certain point, and that 's the second or third time they die (on Gotham) ''
Filming for the season began on June 20, 2017, at Steiner Studios in Brooklyn, New York. In January 2018, it was announced that Ben McKenzie would direct an episode after making his directional debut the previous season. It was later revealed that he would be directing the 16th episode, titled "One of My Three Soups ''. Production on the season officially wrapped in late March 2018.
The season was originally set to air on September 28, 2017, on Fox in the United States. However, on July 28, 2017, Fox decided to move up the premiere to September 21, 2017 in order to give its companion newcomer series The Orville a continuous run. The fourth season is moving to a Thursday timeslot, alongside The Orville, after airing its past seasons on Mondays.
In July 2017, the cast and crew attended San Diego Comic - Con to discuss and promote the season, showing a five - minute sizzle reel from season 3 as well as the debut trailer for the season. The second episode "The Fear Reaper '' was screened on September 23, 2017, when Cannon, McKenzie, Taylor, Bicondova, Mazouz, Pertwee and Lucas promoted the series at the inaugural Tribeca TV Festival. Besides, the cast will attend the New York Comic Con on October 2017 to promote the season as well as a Q&A presentation with the cast. The season was also heavily marketed by trailers showcasing Bruce 's beginning of vigilantism as well as Jonathan Crane 's debut, both of whom received positive response from audience with Digital Spy 's Justin Hart commenting, "Sounds like a perfect time for young Bruce Wayne to finally embrace his destiny as a masked vigilante, does n't it? '' while Albert Achar from IndieWire commented, "it looks like it is going to be a very wild ride. ''
As part of promotion for the ninth episode "Let Them Eat Pie '', Fox released a "red band '' trailer featuring Michael Cerveris as Professor Pyg, teasing a Sweeney Todd storyline in the episode as well as a musical number, which was considered by TV Guide as "insane. ''
The premiere was watched by 3.21 million viewers with a 1.0 in the 18 -- 49 demo, which was a 17 % decline from the previous season premiere but on par with last season 's average.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 92 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.8 / 10 based on 13 reviews.
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away down south in the land of traitors rattlesnakes and alligators | Dixie (song) - wikipedia
"Dixie, '' also known as "Dixie 's Land, '' "I Wish I Was in Dixie, '' and other titles, is a popular song in the Southern United States. It is one of the most distinctively Southern musical products of the 19th century and probably the best - known song to have come out of blackface minstrelsy. It was not a folk song at its creation, but it has since entered the American folk vernacular. The song likely cemented the word "Dixie '' in the American vocabulary as a nickname for the Southern United States.
Most sources credit Ohio - born Daniel Decatur Emmett with the song 's composition, although other people have claimed credit, even during Emmett 's lifetime. Compounding the problem are Emmett 's own confused accounts of its writing and his tardiness in registering its copyright. The latest challenge has been made on behalf of the Snowden Family Band of Knox County, Ohio, who may have collaborated with Emmett to write "Dixie. ''
"Dixie '' originated in the blackface minstrel shows of the 1850s and quickly became popular throughout the United States. During the American Civil War, it was adopted as a de facto national anthem of the Confederate States of America. New versions appeared at this time that more explicitly tied the song to the events of the Civil War. Since the advent of the Civil Rights Movement, many have identified the lyrics with the iconography and ideology of the Old South.
In the early 1800s, it was customary for local U.U. Banks to issue their own money. Given the large French speaking population in Louisiana, the ten - dollar bills that come from that area frequently had DIX (French for "ten '') printed on them. People began to refer those bills as Dixies and to Louisiana as Dixie Land. Today, "Dixie '' is sometimes considered offensive, and its critics claim that singing it demonstrates a sympathy for slavery or racial oppression in the American South. Its supporters, on the other hand, view it as a legitimate aspect of Southern culture and heritage, and the fight for states ' rights and freedom from big government. The song was a favorite of President Abraham Lincoln; he had it played at some of his political rallies and at the announcement of General Robert E. Lee 's surrender.. The earliest known recording of this song was performed by Billy Murray, in a duet with Ada Jones, in 1916.
"Dixie '' is structured into five two - measure groups of alternating verses and refrains, following an AABC pattern. As originally performed, a soloist or small group stepped forward and sang the verses, and the whole company answered at different times; the repeated line "look away '' was probably one part sung in unison like this. As the song became popular, the audience likely joined the troupe in singing the chorus. Traditionally, another eight measures of unaccompanied fiddle playing followed, coming to a partial close in the middle; since 1936, this part has rarely been printed with the sheet music.
The song was traditionally played at a tempo slower than the one usually played today. Rhythmically, the music is "characterized by a heavy, nonchalant, inelegant strut, '' and is in duple meter, which makes it suitable for both dancing and marching. "Dixie '' employs a single rhythmic motive (two sixteenth note pickups followed by a longer note), which is integrated into long, melodic phrases. The melodic content consists primarily of arpeggiations of the tonic triad, firmly establishing the major tonality. The melody of the chorus emulates natural inflections of the voice (particularly on the word "away ''), and may account for some of the song 's popularity.
According to musicologist Hans Nathan, "Dixie '' resembles other material that Dan Emmett wrote for Bryant 's Minstrels, and in writing it, the composer drew on a number of earlier works. The first part of the song is anticipated by other Emmett compositions, including "De Wild Goose - Nation '' (1844), itself a derivative of "Gumbo Chaff '' (1830s) and ultimately an 18th - century English song called "Bow Wow Wow ''. The second part is probably related to even older material, most likely Scottish folk songs. The chorus follows portions of "Johnny Roach, '' an Emmett piece from earlier in 1859.
As with other blackface material, performances of "Dixie '' were accompanied by dancing. The song is a walkaround, which originally began with a few minstrels acting out the lyrics, only to be joined by the rest of the company (a dozen or so individuals for the Bryants). As shown by the original sheet music (see below), the dance tune used with "Dixie '' by Bryant 's Minstrels, who introduced the song on the New York stage, was "Albany Beef '', an Irish - style reel later included by Dan Emmett in an instructional book he co-authored in 1862. Dancers probably performed between verses, and a single dancer used the fiddle solo at the end of the song to "strut, twirl his cane, or mustache, and perhaps slyly wink at a girl on the front row. ''
Countless lyrical variants of "Dixie '' exist, but the version attributed to Dan Emmett and its variations are the most popular. Emmett 's lyrics as they were originally intended reflect the mood of the United States in the late 1850s toward growing abolitionist sentiment. The song presented the point of view, common to minstrelsy at the time, that slavery was overall a positive institution. The pining slave had been used in minstrel tunes since the early 1850s, including Emmett 's "I Ai n't Got Time to Tarry '' and "Johnny Roach ''. The fact that "Dixie '' and its precursors are dance tunes only further made light of the subject. In short, "Dixie '' made the case, more strongly than any previous minstrel tune had, that slaves belonged in bondage. This was accomplished through the song 's protagonist, who, in comic black dialect, implies that despite his freedom, he is homesick for the plantation of his birth.
The lyrics use many common phrases found in minstrel tunes of the day -- "I wish I was in... '' dates to at least "Clare de Kitchen '' (early 1830s), and "Away down south in... '' appears in many more songs, including Emmett 's "I 'm Gwine ober de Mountain '' (1843). The second stanza clearly echoes "Gumbo Chaff '' from the 1830s: "Den Missus she did marry Big Bill de weaver / Soon she found out he was a gay deceiver. '' The final stanza rewords portions of Emmett 's own "De Wild Goose - Nation '': "De tarapin he thot it was time for to trabble / He screw aron his tail and begin to scratch grabble. '' Even the phrase "Dixie 's land '' had been used in Emmett 's "Johnny Roach '' and "I Ai n't Got Time to Tarry, '' both first performed earlier in 1859.
As with other minstrel material, "Dixie '' entered common circulation among blackface performers, and many of them added their own verses or altered the song in other ways. Emmett himself adopted the tune for a pseudo-African American spiritual in the 1870s or 1880s. The chorus changed to:
I wish I was in Canaan Oaber dar -- Oaber dar, In Canaan 's lann de color 'd man Can lib an die in cloaber Oaber dar -- Oaber dar, Oaber dar in de lann ob Canaan.
Both Union and Confederate composers produced war versions of the song during the American Civil War. These variants standardized the spelling and made the song more militant, replacing the slave scenario with specific references to the conflict or to Northern or Southern pride. This Confederate verse by Albert Pike is representative:
Southrons! hear your country call you! Up! lest worse than death befall you!... Hear the Northern thunders mutter!... Northern flags in South wind flutter;... Send them back your fierce defiance! Stamp upon the cursed alliance!
Compare Frances J. Crosby 's Union lyrics:
On! ye patriots to the battle, Hear Fort Moultrie 's cannon rattle! Then away, then away, then away to the fight! Go meet those Southern traitors, With iron will. And should your courage falter, boys, Remember Bunker Hill. Hurrah! Hurrah! The Stars and Stripes forever! Hurrah! Hurrah! Our Union shall not sever!
A second "unofficial '' Union version was popular among Union troops, referred to as Union Dixie:
Away down South in the land of traitors, Rattlesnakes and alligators, Right away, come away, right away, come away. Where cotton 's king and men are chattels, Union boys will win the battles, Right away, come away, right away, come away. Then we 'll all go down to Dixie, Away, away, Each Dixie boy must understand That he must mind his Uncle Sam.
"The New Dixie!: The True ' Dixie ' for Northern Singers '' takes a different approach, turning the original song on its head:
Den I 'm glad I 'm not in Dixie Hooray! Hooray! In Yankee land I 'll took my stand, Nor lib no die in Dixie
Soldiers on both sides wrote endless parody versions of the song. Often these discussed the banalities of camp life: "Pork and cabbage in the pot, / It goes in cold and comes out hot, '' or, "Vinegar put right on red beet, / It makes them always fit to eat. '' Others were more nonsensical: "Way down South in the fields of cotton, / Vinegar shoes and paper stockings. ''
Aside from its being rendered in standard English, the chorus was the only section not regularly altered, even for parodies. The first verse and chorus, in non-dialect form, are the best - known portions of the song today:
I wish I was in the land of cotton, old times there are not forgotten, Look away, look away, look away, Dixie Land. In Dixie Land where I was born in, early on a frosty mornin ', Look away, look away, look away, Dixie Land. Then I wish I was in Dixie, hooray! hooray! In Dixie Land I 'll take my stand to live and die in Dixie, Away, away, away down South in Dixie, Away, away, away down South in Dixie.
According to tradition, Ohio - born minstrel show composer Daniel Decatur Emmett wrote "Dixie '' around 1859. Over his lifetime, Emmett often recounted the story of its composition, and details vary with each account. For example, in various versions of the story, Emmett claimed to have written "Dixie '' in a few minutes, in a single night, and over a few days. An 1872 edition of The New York Clipper provides one of the earliest accounts, claiming that on a Saturday night shortly after Emmett had been taken on as songwriter for the Bryant 's Minstrels, Jerry Bryant told him they would need a new walkaround by the following Monday. By this account, Emmett shut himself inside his New York flat and wrote the song that Sunday evening.
Other details emerge in later accounts. In one, Emmett claimed that "Suddenly,... I jumped up and sat down at the table to work. In less than an hour I had the first verse and chorus. After that it was easy. '' In another version, Emmett stared out at the rainy evening and thought, "I wish I was in Dixie. '' Then, "Like a flash the thought suggested the first line of the walk - around, and a little later the minstrel, fiddle in hand, was working out the melody '' (a different story has it that Emmett 's wife uttered the famous line). Yet another variant, dated to 1903, further changes the details: "I was standing by the window, gazing out at the drizzly, raw day, and the old circus feeling came over me. I hummed the old refrain, ' I wish I was in Dixie, ' and the inspiration struck me. I took my pen and in ten minutes had written the first verses with music. The remaining verses were easy. '' In his final years, Emmett even claimed to have written the song years before he had moved to New York. A Washington Post article supports this, giving a composition date of 1843.
Emmett published "Dixie '' (under the title "I Wish I Was in Dixie 's Land '') on June 21, 1860 through Firth, Pond & Co. in New York. The original manuscript has been lost; extant copies were made during Emmett 's retirement, starting in the 1890s. Emmett 's tardiness registering the copyright for the song allowed it to proliferate among other minstrel groups and variety show performers. Rival editions and variations multiplied in songbooks, newspapers and broadsides. The earliest of these that is known today is a copyrighted edition for piano from the John Church Company of Cincinnati, published on June 26, 1860. Other publishers attributed completely made - up composers with the song: "Jerry Blossom '' and "Dixie, Jr., '' among others. The most serious of these challenges during Emmett 's lifetime came from Southerner William Shakespeare Hays; this claimant attempted to prove his allegations through a Southern historical society, but he died before they could produce any conclusive evidence. By 1908, four years after Emmett 's death, no fewer than 37 people had claimed the song as theirs.
"Dixie '' is the only song Emmett ever claimed to have written in a burst of inspiration, and analysis of Emmett 's notes and writings shows "a meticulous copyist, (who) spent countless hours collecting and composing songs and sayings for the minstrel stage...; little evidence was left for the improvisational moment. '' The New York Clipper wrote in 1872 that "(Emmett 's) claim to authorship of ' Dixie ' was and is still disputed, both in and out of the minstrel profession. '' Emmett himself said, "Show people generally, if not always, have the chance to hear every local song as they pass through the different sections of (the) country, and particularly so with minstrel companies, who are always on the look out for songs and sayings that will answer their business. '' He claimed at one point to have based the first part of "Dixie '' on "Come Philander Let 's Be Marchin, Every One for His True Love Searchin, '' which he described as a "song of his childhood days. '' Musical analysis does show some similarities in the melodic outline, but the songs are not closely related. Emmett also credited "Dixie '' to an old circus song. Despite the disputed authorship, Firth, Pond & Co. paid Emmett $300 for all rights to "Dixie '' on February 11, 1861, perhaps fearing complications spurred by the impending Civil War.
Several theories exist regarding the origin of the term "Dixie ''. According to Robert LeRoy Ripley (founder of "Ripley 's Believe It or Not ''), "Dixieland '' was a farm on Long Island, New York owned by a man named John Dixie. He befriended so many slaves before the Civil War that his place became a sort of a paradise to them.
James H. Street says that "Johaan Dixie '' was a Haarlem (Manhattan Island) farmer who decided that his slaves were not profitable because they were idle during the New York winter, so he sent them to Charleston where they were sold. Subsequently, the slaves were busy constantly, longing for the less strenuous life on the Haarlem farm; they would chant, "I sure wish we was back on Dixie 's land. ''
The most popular theory maintains that the term originated in the Mason -- Dixon line.
Bryant 's Minstrels premiered "Dixie '' in New York City on April 4, 1859, as part of their blackface minstrel show. It appeared second to last on the bill, perhaps an indication of the Bryants ' lack of faith that the song could carry the minstrel show 's entire finale. The walkaround was billed as a "plantation song and dance. '' It was a runaway success, and the Bryants quickly made it their standard closing number.
"Dixie '' quickly gained wide recognition and status as a minstrel standard, and it helped rekindle interest in plantation material from other troupes, particularly in the third act. It became a favorite of Abraham Lincoln and was played during his campaign in 1860. The New York Clipper wrote that it was "one of the most popular compositions ever produced '' and that it had "been sung, whistled, and played in every quarter of the globe. '' Buckley 's Serenaders performed the song in London in late 1860, and by the end of the decade, it had found its way into the repertoire of British sailors. As the American Civil War broke out, one New Yorker wrote,
Dixie '' has become an institution, an irrepressible institution in this section of the country... As a consequence, whenever "Dixie '' is produced, the pen drops from the fingers of the plodding clerk, spectacles from the nose and the paper from the hands of the merchant, the needle from the nimble digits of the maid or matron, and all hands go hobbling, bobbling in time with the magical music of "Dixie. ''
The Rumsey and Newcomb Minstrels brought "Dixie '' to New Orleans in March 1860; the walkaround became the hit of their show. That April, Mrs. John Wood sang "Dixie '' in a John Brougham burlesque called Po - ca - hon - tas, or The Gentle Savage, increasing the song 's popularity in New Orleans. On the surface "Dixie '' seems an unlikely candidate for a Southern hit; it has a Northern composer, stars a black protagonist, is intended as a dance song, and lacks any of the patriotic bluster of most national hymns and marches. Had it not been for the atmosphere of sectionalism in which "Dixie '' debuted, it might have faded into obscurity. Nevertheless, the refrain "In Dixie Land I 'll took my stand / To lib an die in Dixie '', coupled with the first verse and its sanguine picture of the South, hit a chord. Woods 's New Orleans audience demanded no fewer than seven encores.
New Orleans publisher P.P. Werlein took advantage and published "Dixie '' in New Orleans. He credited music to J.C. Viereck and Newcomb for lyrics. When the minstrel denied authorship, Werlein changed the credit to W.H. Peters. Werlein 's version, subtitled "Sung by Mrs. John Wood, '' was the first "Dixie '' to do away with the faux black dialect and misspellings. The publication did not go unnoticed, and Firth Pond & Co. threatened to sue. The date on Werlein 's sheet music precedes that of Firth, Pond & Co. 's version, but Emmett later recalled that Werlein had sent him a letter offering to buy the rights for $5. In a New York musical publishers ' convention, Firth, Pond & Co. succeeded in convincing those present that Emmett was the composer. In future editions of Werlein 's arrangement, Viereck is merely credited as "arranger. '' Whether ironically or sincerely, Emmett dedicated a sequel called "I 'm Going Home to Dixie '' to Werlein in 1861.
"Dixie '' quickly spread to the rest of the South, enjoying vast popularity. By the end of 1860, secessionists had adopted it as theirs; on December 20 the band played "Dixie '' after each vote for secession at St. Andrew 's Hall in Charleston, South Carolina. On February 18, 1861, the song took on something of the air of national anthem when it was played at the inauguration of Jefferson Davis, arranged as a quickstep by Herman Frank Arnold, and possibly for the first time as a band arrangement. Emmett himself reportedly told a fellow minstrel that year that "If I had known to what use they were going to put my song, I will be damned if I 'd have written it. ''
In May 1861 Confederate Henry Hotze wrote:
It is marvellous with what wild - fire rapidity this tune "Dixie '' has spread over the whole South. Considered as an intolerable nuisance when first the streets re-echoed it from the repertoire of wandering minstrels, it now bids fair to become the musical symbol of a new nationality, and we shall be fortunate if it does not impose its very name on our country.
Southerners who shunned the song 's low origins and comedic nature changed the lyrics, usually to focus on Southern pride and the war. Albert Pike 's enjoyed the most popularity; the Natchez (Mississippi) Courier published it on May 30, 1861 as "The War Song of Dixie, '' followed by Werlein, who again credited Viereck for composition. Henry Throop Stanton published another war - themed "Dixie, '' which he dedicated to "the Boys in Virginia ''. The defiant "In Dixie Land I 'll take my stand / To live and die in Dixie '' were the only lines used with any consistency. The tempo also quickened, as the song was a useful quickstep tune. Confederate soldiers by and large preferred these war versions to the original minstrel lyrics. "Dixie '' was probably the most popular song for Confederate soldiers on the march, in battle, and at camp.
Southerners who rallied to the song proved reluctant to acknowledge a Yankee as its composer. Accordingly, some ascribed it a longer tradition as a folk song. Poet John Hill Hewitt wrote in 1862 that "The homely air of ' Dixie, ' of extremely doubtful origin... (is) generally believed to have sprung from a noble stock of Southern stevedore melodies. ''
Meanwhile, many Northern abolitionists took offense to the South 's appropriation of "Dixie '' because it was originally written as a satirical critique of the institution of slavery in the South. Before even the fall of Fort Sumter, Frances J. Crosby published "Dixie for the Union '' and "Dixie Unionized. '' The tune formed part of the repertoire of both Union bands and common troops until 1863. Broadsides circulated with titles like "The Union ' Dixie ' '' or "The New Dixie, the True ' Dixie ' for Northern Singers. '' Northern "Dixies '' disagreed with the Southerners over the institution of slavery and this dispute, at the center of the divisiveness and destructiveness of the American Civil War, played out in the culture of American folk music through the disputes over the meaning of this song. Emmett himself arranged "Dixie '' for the military in a book of fife instruction in 1862, and a 1904 work by Charles Burleigh Galbreath claims that Emmett gave his official sanction to Crosby 's Union lyrics. At least 39 versions of the song, both vocal and instrumental, were published between 1860 and 1866.
Northerners, Emmett among them, also declared that the "Dixie Land '' of the song was actually in the North. One common story, still cited today, claimed that Dixie was a Manhattan slave owner who had sent his slaves south just before New York 's 1827 banning of slavery. The stories had little effect; for most Americans, "Dixie '' was synonymous with the South.
On April 10, 1865, one day after the surrender of General Robert E. Lee, Lincoln addressed a White House crowd:
I propose now closing up by requesting you play a certain piece of music or a tune. I thought "Dixie '' one of the best tunes I ever heard... I had heard that our adversaries over the way had attempted to appropriate it. I insisted yesterday that we had fairly captured it... I presented the question to the Attorney - General, and he gave his opinion that it is our lawful prize... I ask the Band to give us a good turn upon it.
By that and other actions, Lincoln demonstrated his willingness to be conciliatory to the South and to restore the Union as soon as practicable.
"Dixie '' slowly re-entered Northern repertoires, mostly in private performances. New Yorkers resurrected stories about "Dixie '' being a part of Manhattan, thus reclaiming the song for themselves. The New York Weekly wrote, "... no one ever heard of Dixie 's land being other than Manhattan Island until recently, when it has been erroneously supposed to refer to the South, from its connection with pathetic negro allegory. '' In 1888 the publishers of a Boston songbook included "Dixie '' as a "patriotic song, '' and in 1895 the Confederate Veterans ' Association suggested a celebration in honor of "Dixie '' and Emmett in Washington as a bipartisan tribute. One of the planners noted that:
In this era of peace between the sections... thousands of people from every portion of the United States will be only too glad to unite with the ex-confederates in the proposed demonstration, and already some of the leading men who fought on the Union side are enthusiastically in favor of carrying out the programme. Dixie is as lively and popular an air today as it ever was, and its reputation is not confined to the American continent... (W) herever it is played by a big, strong band the auditors can not help keeping time to the music.
However, "Dixie '' was still most strongly associated with the South. Northern singers and writers often used it for parody or as a quotation in other pieces to establish a person or setting as Southern. For example, African Americans Eubie Blake and Noble Sissle quoted "Dixie '' in the song "Bandana Days '' for their 1921 musical Shuffle Along. In 1905 the United Daughters of the Confederacy mounted a campaign to acknowledge an official Southern version of the song (one that would purge it forever of its African American associations). Although they obtained the support of the United Confederate Veterans and the United Sons of Confederate Veterans, Emmett 's death the year before turned sentiments against the project, and the groups were ultimately unsuccessful in having any of the 22 entries universally adopted. The song was played at the dedication of Confederate monuments like Confederate Private Monument in Centennial Park, Nashville, Tennessee, on June 19, 1909.
As African Americans entered minstrelsy, they exploited the song 's popularity in the South by playing "Dixie '' as they first arrived in a Southern town. According to Tom Fletcher, a black minstrel of the time, it tended to please those who might otherwise be antagonistic to the arrival of a group of black men.
Still, "Dixie '' was not rejected outright in the North. An article in the New York Tribune, c. 1908, said that "though ' Dixie ' came to be looked upon as characteristically a song of the South, the hearts of the Northern people never grew cold to it. President Lincoln loved it, and to - day it is the most popular song in the country, irrespective of section. '' As late as 1934, the music journal The Etude asserted that "the sectional sentiment attached to Dixie has been long forgotten; and today it is heard everywhere -- North, East, South, West. ''
"Dixie '' had become Emmett 's most enduring legacy. In the 1900 census of Knox County, Emmett 's occupation is given as "author of Dixie. '' The band at Emmett 's funeral played "Dixie '' as he was lowered into his grave. His grave marker, placed 20 years after his death, reads,
The song added a new term to the American lexicon: "Whistling ' Dixie ' '' is a slang expression meaning "(engaging) in unrealistically rosy fantasizing. '' For example, "Do n't just sit there whistling ' Dixie '! '' is a reprimand against inaction, and "You ai n't just whistling ' Dixie '! '' indicates that the addressee is serious about the matter at hand.
Beginning in the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s and 1960s, African Americans have frequently challenged "Dixie '' as a racist relic of the Confederacy and a reminder of decades of white domination and segregation. This position was amplified when white opponents to civil rights began answering songs such as "We Shall Overcome '' with the unofficial Confederate anthem.
The earliest of these protests came from students of Southern universities, where "Dixie '' was a staple of a number of marching bands. Similar protests have since occurred at the University of Virginia, the Georgia Institute of Technology, and Tulane University. In 1968, the President of the University of Miami banned the song from its band 's performances.
The debate has since moved beyond student populations. Members of the 75th United States Army Band protested "Dixie '' in 1971. In 1989, three black Georgia senators walked out when the Miss Georgia Sweet Potato Queen sang "Dixie '' in the Georgia chamber. Meanwhile, many black musicologists have challenged the song 's allegedly racist origins. For example, Sam Dennison writes that "Today, the performance of ' Dixie ' still conjures visions of an unrepentant, militarily recalcitrant South, ready to reassert its aged theories of white supremacy at any moment... This is why the playing of ' Dixie ' still causes hostile reactions. ''
On the other hand, for many Southerners, "Dixie, '' like the Confederate flag, is a symbol of Southern heritage and identity. Until somewhat recently, a few Southern universities maintained the "Dixie '' fight song, coupled with the Rebel mascot and the Confederate battle flag school symbol, despite protests. Confederate heritage websites regularly feature the song, and Confederate heritage groups routinely sing "Dixie '' at their gatherings. In his song "Dixie on My Mind, '' country musician Hank Williams, Jr., cites the absence of "Dixie '' on Northern radio stations as an example of how Northern culture pales in comparison to its Southern counterpart.
Others consider the song a part of the patriotic American repertoire on a par with "America the Beautiful '' and "Yankee Doodle. '' For example, Chief Justice William Rehnquist regularly included "Dixie '' in his annual sing - along for the 4th Circuit Judicial Conference in Virginia. However, its performance prompted some African American lawyers to avoid the event.
Campaigns against "Dixie '' and other Confederate symbols have helped create a sense of political ostracism and marginalization among working - class white Southerners. Confederate heritage groups and literature proliferated in the late 1980s and early 1990s in response to criticism of the song. Journalist Clint Johnson calls modern opposition to "Dixie '' "an open, not - at - all - secret conspiracy '' and an example of political correctness. Johnson claims that modern versions of the song are not racist and simply reinforce that the South "extols family and tradition. '' Other supporters, such as State Senator Glenn McConnell of South Carolina, have called the attempts to suppress the song cultural genocide.
Performers who choose to sing "Dixie '' today usually remove the black dialect and combine the song with other pieces. For example, Rene Marie 's jazz version mixes "Dixie '' with "Strange Fruit '', a Billie Holiday song about a lynching. Mickey Newbury 's "An American Trilogy '' (often performed by Elvis Presley) combines "Dixie '' with the Union 's "Battle Hymn of the Republic '' and the negro spiritual "All My Trials. '' Bob Dylan also recorded a version of the song for the 2003 film Masked and Anonymous.
As an instrumental piece, to countless people "Dixie '' signifies nothing more than "Southern United States. '' This interpretation has been reinforced through years of American popular culture. For example, the soundtracks of cartoons featuring Southern characters like Foghorn Leghorn often play "Dixie '' to quickly set the scene. On the television series The Dukes of Hazzard, which takes place in a fictional county in Georgia, the musical car horn of the General Lee plays the initial twelve notes of the melody from the song. Sacks and Sacks argue that such apparently innocent associations only further serve to tie "Dixie '' to its blackface origins, as these comedic programs are, like the minstrel show, "inelegant, parodic (and) dialect - ridden. '' On the other hand, Poole sees the "Dixie '' car horn, as used on the "General Lee '' from the TV show and mimicked by white Southerners, as another example of the song 's role as a symbol of "working - class revolt. ''
However, in more serious fare, "Dixie '' signals "Southern. '' Dixie is sampled in the film scores of a great many American feature films, often to signify Confederate troops and the American Civil War. For example, Max Steiner quotes the song in the opening scene of his late 1930s score to Gone with the Wind as a down - beat nostalgic instrumental to set the scene and Ken Burns makes use of instrumental versions in his 1990 Civil War documentary.
In a widely publicized incident, Senator Jesse Helms reportedly offended Carol Moseley Braun, the first black woman in the Senate and only black senator at the time, by whistling Dixie while in an elevator with her soon after the 1993 Senate vote on the Confederate flag insignia.
In 1965 Jan & Dean sang a verse of the song on the track "Whisling Dixie '' on their album, Filet of Soul.
In Netflix 's House of Cards, Kevin Spacey 's character Francis Underwood sings "Dixie '' during a ceremony at his alma mater. His old school friends appear and they sing the first verse to cheering.
The Charlie Daniels Band guitarist Bruce Ray Brown performed a live instrumental with a slide guitar for the Freebird... The Movie soundtrack.
Ben Carson 's official campaign theme song, "This Is America, '' references the song 's leitmotif riff as it leads out of its chorus.
Comedian John Bishop performed the song at the end of his live DVD Elvis Has Left The Building, whilst joined by the Liverpool Harmonic Gospel Choir.
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which rock is used to make ajanta and ellora caves | Ajanta caves - Wikipedia
The Ajanta Caves are 30 (approximately) rock - cut Buddhist cave monuments which date from the 2nd century BCE to about 480 CE in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state of India. The caves include paintings and rock - cut sculptures described as among the finest surviving examples of ancient Indian art, particularly expressive paintings that present emotion through gesture, pose and form.
According to UNESCO, these are masterpieces of Buddhist religious art that influenced the Indian art that followed. The caves were built in two phases, the first phase starting around the 2nd century BCE, while the second phase was built around 400 -- 650 CE, according to older accounts, or in a brief period of 460 -- 480 CE according to later scholarship. The site is a protected monument in the care of the Archaeological Survey of India, and since 1983, the Ajanta Caves have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Ajanta Caves constitute ancient monasteries and worship - halls of different Buddhist traditions carved into a 250 - feet wall of rock. The caves also present paintings depicting the past lives and rebirths of the Buddha, pictorial tales from Aryasura 's Jatakamala, and rock - cut sculptures of Buddhist deities. Textual records suggest that these caves served as a monsoon retreat for monks, as well as a resting - site for merchants and pilgrims in ancient India. While vivid colours and mural wall - painting were abundant in Indian history as evidenced by historical records, Caves 16, 17, 1 and 2 of Ajanta form the largest corpus of surviving ancient Indian wall - painting.
The Ajanta Caves are mentioned in the memoirs of several medieval - era Chinese Buddhist travellers to India and by a Mughal - era official of Akbar era in the early 17th century. They were covered by jungle until accidentally "discovered '' and brought to Western attention in 1819 by a colonial British officer Captain John Smith on a tiger - hunting party. The Ajanta Caves are located on the side of a rocky cliff that is on the north side of a U-shaped gorge on the small river Waghur, in the Deccan plateau. Further round the gorge are a number of waterfalls, which, when the river is high, are audible from outside the caves.
With the Ellora Caves, Ajanta is one of the major tourist attractions of Maharashtra. It is about 59 kilometres (37 miles) from the city of Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India, 60 kilometres (37 miles) from Pachora, 104 kilometres (65 miles) from the city of Aurangabad, and 350 kilometres (220 miles) east - northeast from Mumbai. It is 100 kilometres (62 miles) from the Ellora Caves, which contain Hindu, Jain and Buddhist caves, the last dating from a period similar to Ajanta. The Ajanta style is also found in the Ellora Caves and other sites such as the Elephanta Caves, Aurangabad Caves, Shivleni Caves and the cave temples of Karnataka.
The Ajanta Caves are generally agreed to have been made in two distinct periods, the first belonging to the 2nd century BCE to 1st century CE, and a second period that followed several centuries later.
The caves consist of 36 identifiable foundations, some of them discovered after the original numbering of the caves from 1 through 29. The later identified caves have been suffixed with the letters of the alphabet, such as 15A, identified between originally numbered caves 15 and 16. The cave - numbering is a convention of convenience, and has nothing to do with chronological order of their construction.
The earliest group 's construction consists of caves 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A. This grouping, and their belonging to the Hinayana (Theravada) tradition of Buddhism, is generally accepted by scholars, but there are differing opinions on which century in which the early caves were built. According to Walter Spink, they were made during the period 100 BCE to 100 CE, probably under the patronage of the Hindu Satavahana dynasty (230 BCE -- c. 220 CE) who ruled the region. Other datings prefer the period of the Maurya Empire (300 BCE to 100 BCE). Of these, caves 9 and 10 are stupa containing worship halls of chaitya - griha form, and caves 12, 13, and 15A are vihāras (see the architecture section below for descriptions of these types). The first Satavahana period caves lacked figurative sculpture, emphasizing the stupa instead.
According to Spink, once the Satavahana period caves were made, the site was not further developed for a considerable period until the mid-5th century. However, the early caves were in use during this dormant period, and Buddhist pilgrims visited the site, according to the records left by Chinese pilgrim Faxian around 400 CE.
The second phase of construction at the Ajanta Caves site began in the 5th century. For a long time it was thought that the later caves were made over an extended period from the 4th to the 7th centuries CE, but in recent decades a series of studies by the leading expert on the caves, Walter M. Spink, have argued that most of the work took place over the very brief period from 460 to 480 CE, during the reign of Hindu Emperor Harishena of the Vākāṭaka dynasty. This view has been criticised by some scholars, but is now broadly accepted by most authors of general books on Indian art, for example Huntington and Harle.
The second phase is attributed to the theistic Mahāyāna, or Greater Vehicle tradition of Buddhism. Caves of the second period are 1 -- 8, 11, 14 -- 29, some possibly extensions of earlier caves. Caves 19, 26, and 29 are chaitya - grihas, the rest viharas. The most elaborate caves were produced in this period, which included some refurbishing and repainting of the early caves.
Spink states that it is possible to establish dating for this period with a very high level of precision; a fuller account of his chronology is given below. Although debate continues, Spink 's ideas are increasingly widely accepted, at least in their broad conclusions. The Archaeological Survey of India website still presents the traditional dating: "The second phase of paintings started around 5th -- 6th centuries A.D. and continued for the next two centuries ''.
According to Spink, the construction activity at the incomplete Ajanta Caves was abandoned by wealthy patrons in about 480 CE, a few years after the death of Harishena. However, states Spink, the caves appear to have been in use for a period of time as evidenced by the wear of the pivot holes caves constructed close to 480 CE. The second phase of constructions and decorations at Ajanta corresponds to the very apogee of Classical India, or India 's golden age.
According to Richard Cohen, 7th - century Chinese traveler Xuanzang 's reports about the caves, and the scattered graffiti from the medieval centuries uncovered at the site suggests that the Ajanta Caves were known and probably in use, but without a stable or steady Buddhist community presence at the site. The Ajanta caves are mentioned in the 17th - century text Ain - i - Akbari by Abu al - Fazl, as twenty four rock - cut cave temples each with remarkable idols.
On 28 April 1819, a British officer named John Smith, of the 28th Cavalry, while hunting tigers, "discovered '' the entrance to Cave No. 10 when a local shepherd boy guided him to the location and the door. The caves were well known by locals already. Captain Smith went to a nearby village and asked the villagers to come to the site with axes, spears, torches and drums, to cut down the tangled jungle growth that made entering the cave difficult. He then vandalised the wall by scratching his name and the date over the painting of a bodhisattva. Since he stood on a five - foot high pile of rubble collected over the years, the inscription is well above the eye - level gaze of an adult today. A paper on the caves by William Erskine was read to the Bombay Literary Society in 1822.
Within a few decades, the caves became famous for their "exotic '' setting, impressive architecture, and above all their exceptional and unique paintings. A number of large projects to copy the paintings were made in the century after rediscovery. In 1848, the Royal Asiatic Society established the "Bombay Cave Temple Commission '' to clear, tidy and record the most important rock - cut sites in the Bombay Presidency, with John Wilson as president. In 1861 this became the nucleus of the new Archaeological Survey of India.
During the colonial era, the Ajanta site was in the territory of the princely state of the Hyderabad and not British India. In the early 1920s, the Nizam of Hyderabad appointed people to restore the artwork, converted the site into a museum and built a road to bring tourists to the site for a fee. These efforts resulted in early mismanagement, states Richard Cohen, and hastened the deterioration of the site. Post-independence, the state government of Maharashtra built arrival, transport, facilities and better site management. The modern Visitor Center has good parking facilities and public conveniences and ASI operated buses run at regular intervals from Visitor Center to the caves.
The Ajanta Caves, along with the Ellora Caves, have become the most popular tourist destination in Maharashtra, and are often crowded at holiday times, increasing the threat to the caves, especially the paintings. In 2012, the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation announced plans to add to the ASI visitor centre at the entrance complete replicas of caves 1, 2, 16 & 17 to reduce crowding in the originals, and enable visitors to receive a better visual idea of the paintings, which are dimly - lit and hard to read in the caves.
The caves are carved out of flood basalt rock of a cliff, part of the Deccan Traps formed by successive volcanic eruptions at the end of the Cretaceous geological period. The rock is layered horizontally, and somewhat variable in quality. This variation within the rock layers required the artists to amend their carving methods and plans in places. The inhomogeneity in the rock have also led to cracks and collapses in the centuries that followed, as with the lost portico to cave 1. Excavation began by cutting a narrow tunnel at roof level, which was expanded downwards and outwards; as evidenced by some of the incomplete caves such as the partially - built vihara caves 21 through 24 and the abandoned incomplete cave 28.
The sculpture artists likely worked at both excavating the rocks and making the intricate carvings of pillars, roof and idols; further, the sculpture and painting work inside a cave were an integrated parallel tasks. A grand gateway to the site was carved, at the apex of the gorge 's horseshoe between caves 15 and 16, as approached from the river, and it is decorated with elephants on either side and a nāga, or protective Naga (snake) deity. Similar methods and application of artist talent is observed in other cave temples of India, such as those from Hinduism and Jainism. These include the Ellora caves, Ghototkacha caves, Elephanta Caves, Bagh Caves, Badami Caves, Aurangabad Caves and Shivleni Caves.
The caves from the first period seem to have been paid for by a number of different patrons to gain merit, with several inscriptions recording the donation of particular portions of a single cave. The later caves were each commissioned as a complete unit by a single patron from the local rulers or their court elites, again for merit in Buddhist afterlife beliefs as evidenced by inscriptions such as those in Cave 17. After the death of Harisena, smaller donors motivated by getting merit added small "shrinelets '' between the caves or add statues to existing caves, and some two hundred of these "intrusive '' additions were made in sculpture, with a further number of intrusive paintings, up to three hundred in cave 10 alone.
The majority of the caves are vihara halls with symmetrical square plans. To each vihara hall are attached smaller square dormitory cells cut into the walls. A vast majority of the caves were carved in the second period, wherein a shrine or sanctuary is appended at the rear of the cave, centred on a large statue of the Buddha, along with exuberantly detailed reliefs and deities near him as well as on the pillars and walls, all carved out of the natural rock. This change reflects the shift from Hinayana to Mahāyāna Buddhism. These caves are often called monasteries.
The central square space of the interior of the viharas is defined by square columns forming a more - or-less square open area. Outside this are long rectangular aisles on each side, forming a kind of cloister. Along the side and rear walls are a number of small cells entered by a narrow doorway; these are roughly square, and have small niches on their back walls. Originally they had wooden doors. The centre of the rear wall has a larger shrine - room behind, containing a large Buddha statue.
The viharas of the earlier period are much simpler, and lack shrines. Spink places the change to a design with a shrine to the middle of the second period, with many caves being adapted to add a shrine in mid-excavation, or after the original phase.
The plan of Cave 1 shows one of the largest viharas, but is fairly typical of the later group. Many others, such as Cave 16, lack the vestibule to the shrine, which leads straight off the main hall. Cave 6 is two viharas, one above the other, connected by internal stairs, with sanctuaries on both levels.
Cave 12 plan, an early type of vihara (1st century BCE) without internal shrine.
Cave 1 plan, a monastery known for its paintings.
Cave 6 plan, a two - storey monastery with "Miracle of Sravasti '' and "Temptation of Mara '' painted.
Cave 16 plan, a monastery featuring two side aisles.
The other type of main hall architecture is the narrower rectangular plan with high arched ceiling type chaitya - griha -- literally, "the house of stupa ''. This hall is longitudinally divided into a nave and two narrower side aisles separated by a symmetrical row of pillars, with a stupa in the apse. The stupa is surrounded by pillars and a concentric walking space for circumambulation. Some of the caves have elaborate carved entrances, some with large windows over the door to admit light. There is often a colonnaded porch or verandah, with another space inside the doors running the width of the cave. The oldest worship halls at Ajanta were built in the 2nd to 1st century BCE, the newest ones in the late 5th century CE, and the architecture of both resembles the architecture of a Christian church, but without the crossing or chapel chevette. The Ajanta Caves follow the Cathedral - style architecture found in still older rock - cut cave carvings of ancient India, such as the Lomas Rishi Cave of the Ajivikas near Gaya in Bihar dated to the 3rd century BCE. These chaitya - griha are called worship or prayer halls.
The four completed chaitya halls are caves 9 and 10 from the early period, and caves 19 and 26 from the later period of construction. All follow the typical form found elsewhere, with high ceilings and a central "nave '' leading to the stupa, which is near the back, but allows walking behind it, as walking around stupas was (and remains) a common element of Buddhist worship (pradakshina). The later two have high ribbed roofs carved into the rock, which reflect timber forms, and the earlier two are thought to have used actual timber ribs and are now smooth, the original wood presumed to have perished. The two later halls have a rather unusual arrangement (also found in Cave 10 at Ellora) where the stupa is fronted by a large relief sculpture of the Buddha, standing in Cave 19 and seated in Cave 26. Cave 29 is a late and very incomplete chaitya hall.
The form of columns in the work of the first period is very plain and un-embellished, with both chaitya halls using simple octagonal columns, which were later painted with images of the Buddha, people and monks in robes. In the second period columns were far more varied and inventive, often changing profile over their height, and with elaborate carved capitals, often spreading wide. Many columns are carved over all their surface with floral motifs and Mahayana deities, some fluted and others carved with decoration all over, as in cave 1.
Cave 10 plan, a worship hall with Jataka tales - related art, (1st century BCE).
Cave 9 plan, a worship hall with early paintings and animal freezes (1st century CE).
Cave 19 plan, known for its figures of the Buddha, Kubera and other arts (5th century CE)
Cave 19 plan another view (5th century CE).
The paintings in the Ajanta caves predominantly narrate the Jataka tales. These are Buddhist legends describing the previous births of the Buddha. These fables embed ancient morals and cultural lores that are also found in the fables and legends of Hindu and Jain texts. The Jataka tales are exemplified through the life example and sacrifices that the Buddha made in hundreds of his past incarnations, where he is depicted as having been reborn as an animal or human.
Mural paintings survive from both the earlier and later groups of caves. Several fragments of murals preserved from the earlier caves (Caves 10 and 11) are effectively unique survivals of ancient painting in India from this period, and "show that by Sātavāhana times, if not earlier, the Indian painters had mastered an easy and fluent naturalistic style, dealing with large groups of people in a manner comparable to the reliefs of the Sāñcī toraņa crossbars ''. Some connections with the art of Gandhara can also be noted, and there is evidence of a shared artistic idiom.
Four of the later caves have large and relatively well - preserved mural paintings which, states James Harle, "have come to represent Indian mural painting to the non-specialist '', and represent "the great glories not only of Gupta but of all Indian art ''. They fall into two stylistic groups, with the most famous in Caves 16 and 17, and apparently later paintings in Caves 1 and 2. The latter group were thought to be a century or more later than the others, but the revised chronology proposed by Spink would place them in the 5th century as well, perhaps contemporary with it in a more progressive style, or one reflecting a team from a different region. The Ajanta frescos are classical paintings and the work of confident artists, without cliches, rich and full. They are luxurious, sensuous and celebrate physical beauty, aspects that early Western observers felt were shockingly out of place in these caves presumed to be meant for religious worship and ascetic monastic life.
The paintings are in "dry fresco '', painted on top of a dry plaster surface rather than into wet plaster. All the paintings appear to be the work of painters supported by discriminating connoisseurship and sophisticated patrons from an urban atmosphere. We know from literary sources that painting was widely practised and appreciated in the Gupta period. Unlike much Indian mural painting, compositions are not laid out in horizontal bands like a frieze, but show large scenes spreading in all directions from a single figure or group at the centre. The ceilings are also painted with sophisticated and elaborate decorative motifs, many derived from sculpture. The paintings in cave 1, which according to Spink was commissioned by Harisena himself, concentrate on those Jataka tales which show previous lives of the Buddha as a king, rather than as deer or elephant or another Jataka animal. The scenes depict the Buddha as about to renounce the royal life.
In general the later caves seem to have been painted on finished areas as excavating work continued elsewhere in the cave, as shown in caves 2 and 16 in particular. According to Spink 's account of the chronology of the caves, the abandonment of work in 478 after a brief busy period accounts for the absence of painting in places including cave 4 and the shrine of cave 17, the later being plastered in preparation for paintings that were never done.
Cave 2, showing the extensive paint loss of many areas. It was never finished by its artists, and shows Vidhura Jataka.
Cave 17 verandah doorway, eight Buddhas above eight couples.
Section of the mural in Cave 17, the ' coming of Sinhala '. The prince (Prince Vijaya) is seen in both groups of elephants and riders.
Hamsa jâtaka, cave 17: the Buddha as the golden goose in his previous life.
Walter M. Spink has over recent decades developed a very precise and circumstantial chronology for the second period of work on the site, which unlike earlier scholars, he places entirely in the 5th century. This is based on evidence such as the inscriptions and artistic style, dating of nearby cave temple sites, comparative chronology of the dynasties, combined with the many uncompleted elements of the caves. He believes the earlier group of caves, which like other scholars he dates only approximately, to the period "between 100 BCE -- 100 CE '', were at some later point completely abandoned and remained so "for over three centuries ''. This changed during the Hindu emperor Harishena of the Vakataka Dynasty, who reigned from 460 to his death in 477, who sponsored numerous new caves during his reign. Harisena 's rule extended the Central Indian Vakataka Empire to include a stretch of the east coast of India; the Gupta Empire ruled northern India at the same period, and the Pallava dynasty much of the south.
According to Spink, Harisena encouraged a group of associates, including his prime minister Varahadeva and Upendragupta, the sub-king in whose territory Ajanta was, to dig out new caves, which were individually commissioned, some containing inscriptions recording the donation. This activity began in many caves simultaneously about 462. This activity was mostly suspended in 468 because of threats from the neighbouring Asmaka kings. Thereafter work continued on only Caves 1, Harisena 's own commission, and 17 -- 20, commissioned by Upendragupta. In 472 the situation was such that work was suspended completely, in a period that Spink calls "the Hiatus '', which lasted until about 475, by which time the Asmakas had replaced Upendragupta as the local rulers.
Work was then resumed, but again disrupted by Harisena 's death in 477, soon after which major excavation ceased, except at cave 26, which the Asmakas were sponsoring themselves. The Asmakas launched a revolt against Harisena 's son, which brought about the end of the Vakataka Dynasty. In the years 478 -- 480 CE major excavation by important patrons was replaced by a rash of "intrusions '' -- statues added to existing caves, and small shrines dotted about where there was space between them. These were commissioned by less powerful individuals, some monks, who had not previously been able to make additions to the large excavations of the rulers and courtiers. They were added to the facades, the return sides of the entrances, and to walls inside the caves. According to Spink, "After 480, not a single image was ever made again at the site ''. However, there exists a Rashtrakuta inscription outside of cave 26 dateable to end of seventh or early 8th century, suggesting the caves were not abandoned until then.
Spink does not use "circa '' in his dates, but says that "one should allow a margin of error of one year or perhaps even two in all cases ''.
The Ajanta Caves were built in a period when both the Buddha and the Hindu gods were simultaneously revered in Indian culture. According to Spink and other scholars, not only the Ajanta Caves but other nearby cave temples were sponsored and built by Hindus. This is evidenced by inscriptions wherein the role as well as the Hindu heritage of the donor is proudly proclaimed. According to Spink,
That one could worship both the Buddha and the Hindu gods may well account for Varahadeva 's participation here, just as it can explain why the emperor Harisena himself could sponsor the remarkable Cave 1, even though most scholars agree that he was certainly a Hindu, like earlier Vakataka kings.
The role of Hindu artisans is confirmed by archaeological excavations across the river from the Ajanta caves. The caves must have employed a large workforce of artisans who likely lived for extended period of time nearby, across from the river near the site. Excavations have uncovered extensive brick structures for workers and visiting elite sponsors, along with Shaiva and Shakta Hindu deities such as a red sandstone image of Durga Mahishasuramardini. According to Yuko Yokoschi and Walter Spink, these excavated artifacts of the 5th century near the site suggest that the Ajanta caves deployed a huge number of builders.
Cave 1 was built on the eastern end of the horse - shoe - shaped scarp and is now the first cave the visitor encounters. This cave, when first made, would have been a less prominent position, right at the end of the row. According to Spink, it is one of the last caves to have been excavated, when the best sites had been taken, and was never fully inaugurated for worship by the dedication of the Buddha image in the central shrine. This is shown by the absence of sooty deposits from butter lamps on the base of the shrine image, and the lack of damage to the paintings that would have happened if the garland - hooks around the shrine had been in use for any period of time. Spink states that the Vākāţaka Emperor Harishena was the benefactor of the work, and this is reflected in the emphasis on imagery of royalty in the cave, with those Jataka tales being selected that tell of those previous lives of the Buddha in which he was royal.
The cliff has a more steep slope here than at other caves, so to achieve a tall grand facade it was necessary to cut far back into the slope, giving a large courtyard in front of the facade. There was originally a columned portico in front of the present facade, which can be seen "half - intact in the 1880s '' in pictures of the site, but this fell down completely and the remains, despite containing fine carvings, were carelessly thrown down the slope into the river, from where they have been lost.
This cave (35.7 mx 27.6 m) has one of the most elaborate carved façades, with relief sculptures on entablature and ridges, and most surfaces embellished with decorative carving. There are scenes carved from the life of the Buddha as well as a number of decorative motifs. A two - pillared portico, visible in the 19th - century photographs, has since perished. The cave has a front court with cells fronted by pillared vestibules on either side. These have a high plinth level. The cave has a porch with simple cells on both ends. The absence of pillared vestibules on the ends suggests that the porch was not excavated in the latest phase of Ajanta when pillared vestibules had become customary. Most areas of the porch were once covered with murals, of which many fragments remain, especially on the ceiling. There are three doorways: a central doorway and two side doorways. Two square windows were carved between the doorways to brighten the interiors.
Each wall of the hall inside is nearly 40 feet (12 m) long and 20 feet (6.1 m) high. Twelve pillars make a square colonnade inside supporting the ceiling, and creating spacious aisles along the walls. There is a shrine carved on the rear wall to house an impressive seated image of the Buddha, his hands being in the dharmachakrapravartana mudra. There are four cells on each of the left, rear, and the right walls, though due to rock fault there are none at the ends of the rear aisle.
The paintings of Cave 1 cover the walls and the ceilings. They are in a fair state of preservation, although the full scheme was never completed. The scenes depicted are mostly didactic, devotional, and ornamental, with scenes from the Jataka stories of the Buddha 's former lives as a bodhisattva, the life of the Gautama Buddha, and those of his veneration. The two most famous individual painted images at Ajanta are the two over-life - size figures of the protective bodhisattvas Padmapani and Vajrapani on either side of the entrance to the Buddha shrine on the wall of the rear aisle (see illustrations above). Other significant frescoes in Cave 1 include the Sibi, Sankhapala, Mahajanaka, Mahaummagga and Champeyya Jataka tales. The cave - paintings also show the Temptation of Mara, miracle of Sravasti where the Buddha simultaneously manifests in many forms, the story of Nanda, and the story of Siddhartha and Yasodhara.
One of four frescoes for the Mahajanaka Jataka tale. The king announces he abdicates to become an ascetic.
Sibi Jataka: king undergoes the traditional rituals for renouncers. He receives a ceremonial bath.
The Bodhisattva of compassion Padmapani with lotus.
The Vajrapani.
Cave 2, adjacent to Cave 1, is known for the paintings that have been preserved on its walls, ceilings, and pillars. It looks similar to Cave 1 and is in a better state of preservation. This cave is best known for its feminine focus, intricate rock carvings and paint artwork yet it is incomplete and lacks consistency. One of the 5th - century frescoes in this cave also shows children at a school, with those in the front rows paying attention to the teacher, while those in the back row are shown distracted and acting.
Cave 2 (35.7 mx 21.6 m) was started in the 460s, but mostly carved between 475 and 477 CE, probably sponsored and influenced by a woman closely related to emperor Harisena. It has a porch quite different from Cave 1. Even the façade carvings seem to be different. The cave is supported by robust pillars, ornamented with designs. The front porch consists of cells supported by pillared vestibules on both ends.
The hall has four colonnades which are supporting the ceiling and surrounding a square in the center of the hall. Each arm or colonnade of the square is parallel to the respective walls of the hall, making an aisle in between. The colonnades have rock - beams above and below them. The capitals are carved and painted with various decorative themes that include ornamental, human, animal, vegetative, and semi-divine motifs. Major carvings include that of goddess Hariti. She is a Buddhist deity who originally was the demoness of smallpox and a child eater, who the Buddha converted into a guardian goddess of fertility, easy child birth and one who protects babies.
The paintings on the ceilings and walls of Cave 2 have been widely published. They depict the Hamsa, Vidhurapandita, Ruru, Kshanti Jataka tales and the Purna Avadhana. Other frescoes show the miracle of Sravasti, Ashtabhaya Avalokitesvara and the dream of Maya. Just as the stories illustrated in cave 1 emphasise kingship, those in cave 2 show many noble and powerful women in prominent roles, leading to suggestions that the patron was an unknown woman. The porch 's rear wall has a doorway in the center, which allows entrance to the hall. On either side of the door is a square - shaped window to brighten the interior.
Cave 2 fresco above the right door shows Buddha in Tushita heaven.
A scene from Vidurapandita Jataka: the birth of the Buddha.
The artworks of Cave 2 are known for their feminine focus, such as two females.
The Miracle of Sravasti.
Cave 3 is merely a start of an excavation; according to Spink it was begun right at the end of the final period of work and soon abandoned.
This is an incomplete monastery and only the preliminary excavations of pillared veranda exists. The cave was one of the very last projects to start at the site. Its date could be ascribed to circa 477 CE, just before the sudden death of Emperor Harisena. The work stopped after the scooping out of a rough entrance of the hall.
Cave 4, a vihara, was sponsored by Mathura, likely not a noble or courtly official, rather a wealthy devotee. This is the largest vihara in the inaugural group, which suggests he had immense wealth and influence without being a state official. It is placed at a significantly higher level, possibly because the artists realized that the rock quality at the lower and same level of other caves was poor and they had a better chance of a major vihara at an upper location. Another likely possibility is that the planners wanted to carve into the rock another large cistern to the left court side for more residents, mirroring the right, a plan implied by the height of the forward cells on the left side.
The Archaeological Survey of India dates it to the 6th century CE. Spink, in contrast, dates this cave 's inauguration a century earlier, to about 463 CE, based on construction style and other inscriptions. Cave 4 shows evidence of a dramatic collapse of its ceiling in the central hall, likely in the 6th century, something caused by the vastness of the cave and geological flaws in the rock. Later, the artists attempted to overcome this geological flaw by raising the height of the ceiling through deeper excavation of the embedded basalt lava.
The cave has a squarish plan, houses a colossal image of the Buddha in preaching pose flanked by bodhisattvas and celestial nymphs hovering above. It consists, of a verandah, a hypostylar hall, sanctum with an antechamber and a series of unfinished cells. This monastery is the largest among the Ajanta caves and it measures nearly 970 square metres (10,400 sq ft) (35m x 28m). The door frame is exquisitely sculpted flanking to the right is carved Bodhisattva as reliever of Eight Great Perils. The rear wall of the verandah contains the panel of litany of Avalokiteśvara. The cave 's ceiling collapse likely affected its overall plan, caused it being left incomplete. Only the Buddha 's statue and the major sculptures were completed, and except for what the sponsor considered most important elements all other elements inside the cave were never painted.
Cave 5, an unfinished excavation was planned as a monastery (10.32 X 16.8 m). Cave 5 is devoid of sculpture and architectural elements except the door frame. The ornate carvings on the frame has female figures with mythical makara creatures found in ancient and medieval era Indian arts. The cave 's construction was likely initiated about 465 CE but abandoned because the rock has geological flaws. The construction was resumed in 475 CE after Asmakas restarted work at the Ajanta caves, but abandoned again as the artists and sponsor redesigned and focussed on an expanded Cave 6 that abuts Cave 5.
Cave 6 is two storey monastery (16.85 X 18.07 m). It consists of a sanctum, a hall on both levels. The lower level is pillared and has attached cells. The upper hall also has subsidiary cells. The sanctums on both level feature a Buddha in the teaching posture. Elsewhere, the Buddha is shown in different mudras. The lower level walls depict the Miracle of Sravasti and the Temptation of Mara legends. Only the lower floor of cave 6 was finished. The unfinished upper floor of cave 6 has many private votive sculptures, and a shrine Buddha.
The lower level of the Cave 6 likely was the earliest excavation in the second stage of construction. This stage marked the Mahayana theme and Vakataka renaissance period of Ajanta reconstruction that started about four centuries after the earlier Hinayana theme construction. The upper storey was not envisioned in the beginning, it was added as an after thought, likely around the time when the architects and artists abandoned further work on the geologically - flawed rock of Cave 5 immediately next to it. Both lower and upper Cave 6 show crude experimentation and construction errors. The cave work was most likely in progress between 460 and 470 CE, and it is the first that shows attendant Bodhisattvas. The upper cave construction probably began in 465, progressed swiftly, and much deeper into the rock than the lower level.
The walls and sanctum 's door frame of the both levels are intricately carved. These show themes such as makaras and other mythical creatures, apsaras, elephants in different stages of activity, females in waving or welcoming gesture. The upper level of Cave 6 is significant in that it shows a devotee in a kneeling posture at the Buddha 's feet, an indication of devotional worship practices by the 5th century. The colossal Buddha of the shrine has an elaborate throne back, but was hastily finished in 477 / 478 CE, when king Harisena died. The shrine antechamber of the cave features an unfinished sculptural group of the Six Buddhas of the Past, of which only five statues were carved. This idea may have been influenced from those in Bagh Caves of Madhya Pradesh.
The most intact painting in Cave 6: Buddha seated in dharma - chakra - mudra.
Painting showing the Mahayana devotional worship to the Buddha.
Buddha in the upper level, deers below and apsaras above (artificial lighting).
The Cave 7 is also a monastery (15.55 X 31.25 m) but a single storey. It consists of a sanctum, a hall with octagonal pillars, and eight small rooms for monks. The sanctum Buddha is shown in preaching posture. There are many art panels narrating Buddhist themes, including those of the Buddha with Nagamuchalinda and Miracle of Sravasti.
Cave 7 has a grand facade with two porticos. The veranda has eight pillars of two types. One has an octagonal base with amalaka and lotus capital. The other lacks a distinctly shaped base, features an octagonal shaft instead with a plain capital. The veranda opens into an antechamber. On the left side in this antechamber are seated or standing sculptures such as those of 25 carved seated Buddhas in various postures and facial expressions, while on the right side are 58 seated Buddha reliefs in different postures, all placed on lotus. These Buddhas and others on the inner walls of the antechamber are a sculptural depiction of the Miracle of Sravasti in Buddhist theology. The bottom row show two Nagas (serpents with hoods) holding the blooming lotus stalk. The antechamber leads to the sanctum through a door frame. On this frame are carved two females standing on makaras (mythical sea creatures). Inside the sanctum is the Buddha sitting on a lion throne in cross legged posture, surrounded by other Bodhisattva figures, two attendants with chauris and flying apsaras above.
Perhaps because of faults in the rock, Cave 7 was never taken very deep into the cliff. It consists only of the two porticos and a shrine room with antechamber, with no central hall. Some cells were fitted in. The cave artwork likely underwent revisions and refurbishments over time. The first version was complete by about 469 CE, the myriad Buddhas added and painted a few years later between 476 and 478 CE.
Cave 7 plan (Robert Gill sketch, 1850).
Buddhas on the antechamber left wall. Cave 7 (James Burgess sketch, 1880).
Buddhas on the antechamber 's right wall.
The shallow corridor before the shrine.
Cave 8 is another unfinished monastery (15.24 X 24.64 m). For many decades in the 20th - century, this cave was used as a storage and generator room. It is at the river level with easy access, relatively lower than other caves, and according to Archaeological Survey of India it is possibly one of earliest monasteries. Much of its front is damaged, likely from a landslide. The cave excavation proved difficult and probably abandoned after a geological fault consisting of a mineral layer proved disruptive to stable carvings.
Spink, in contrast, states that Cave 8 is perhaps the earliest cave from the second period, its shrine an "afterthought ''. It may well be the oldest Mahayana monastery excavated in India, according to Spink. The statue may have been loose rather than carved from the living rock, as it has now vanished. The cave was painted, but only traces remain.
Caves 9 and 10 are the two chaitya or worship halls from the 2nd to 1st century BCE -- the first period of construction, though both were reworked upon the end of the second period of construction in the 5th century CE.
Cave 9 (18.24 mx 8.04 m) is smaller than Cave 10 (30.5 mx 12.2 m), but more complex. This has led Spink to the view that Cave 10 was perhaps originally of the 1st century BCE, and cave 9 about a hundred years later. The small "shrinelets '' called caves 9A to 9D and 10A also date from the second period. These were commissioned by individuals. Cave 9 arch has remnant profile that suggests that it likely had wooden fittings.
The cave has a distinct apsidal shape, nave, aisle and an apse with an icon, an architecture and plan that reminds one of cathedrals built in Europe many centuries later. The aisle has a row of 23 pillars. The ceiling is vaulted. The stupa is at the center of the apse, with a circumambulation path around it. The stupa sits on a high cylindrical base. On the left wall of the cave are votaries approaching the stupa, which suggests a devotional tradition.
According to Spink, the paintings in this cave, including the intrusive standing Buddhas on the pillars, were added in the 5th century. Above the pillars and also behind the stupa are colorful paintings of the Buddha with Padmapani and Vajrapani next to him, they wear jewels and necklaces, while yogis, citizens and Buddhist bhikshu are shown approaching the Buddha with garlands and offerings, with men wearing dhoti and turbans wrapped around their heads. On the walls are friezes of Jataka tales, but likely from the Hinayana phase of early construction. Some of the panels and reliefs inside as well as outside Cave 10 do not make narrative sense, but are related to Buddhist legends. This lack of narrative flow may be because these were added by different monks and official donors in the 5th century wherever empty space was available. This devotionalism and the worship hall character of this cave is the likely reason why four additional shrinelets 9A, 9B, 9C and 9D were added between Cave 9 and 10.
Buddha statue on the porch of Cave 9.
The apsidal hall with plain hemispherical stupa at apse 's center.
Pillar paintings
Frescoe with Buddhas in orange robes and protected by chatra umbrellas, Cave 9.
Cave 10, a vast prayer hall or Chaitya, is dated to about the 1st century BCE, together with the nearby vihara cave No 12. These two caves are thus among the earliest of the Ajanta complex. It has a large central apsidal hall with a row of 39 octagonal pillars, a nave separating its aisle and stupa at the end for worship. The stupa has a pradakshina patha (circumambulatory path).
This cave is significant because its scale confirms the influence of Buddhism in South Asia by the 1st century BCE and its continued though declining influence in India through the 5th century CE. Further, the cave includes a number of inscriptions where parts of the cave are "gifts of prasada '' by different individuals, which in turn suggests that the cave was sponsored as a community effort rather than a single king or one elite official. Cave 10 is also historically important because in April 1819, a British Army officer John Smith saw its arch and introduced his discovery to the attention to the Western audience.
Several others caves were also built in Western India around the same period under royal sponsorship. It is thought that the chronology of these early Chaitya Caves is as follows: first Cave 9 at Kondivite Caves and then Cave 12 at the Bhaja Caves, which both predate Cave 10 of Ajanta. Then, after Cave 10 of Ajanta, in chronological order: Cave 3 at Pitalkhora, Cave 1 at Kondana Caves, Cave 9 at Ajanta, which, with its more ornate designs, may have been built about a century later, Cave 18 at Nasik Caves, and Cave 7 at Bedse Caves, to finally culminate with the "final perfection '' of the Great Chaitya at Karla Caves.
Cave 10 features a Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi script that is archaeologically important. The inscription is the oldest of the Ajanta site and reads:
"The gift of a cave - façade by Vasisthiputra Katahadi. ''
The paintings in cave 10 include some surviving from the early period, many from an incomplete programme of modernisation in the second period, and a very large number of smaller late intrusive images for votive purposes, around the 479 -- 480 CE, nearly all Buddhas and many with donor inscriptions from individuals. These mostly avoided over-painting the "official '' programme and after the best positions were used up are tucked away in less prominent positions not yet painted; the total of these (including those now lost) was probably over 300, and the hands of many different artists are visible. The paintings are numerous and from two periods, many narrating the Jataka tales in a clockwise sequence. Both Hinayana and Mahayana stage paintings are discernable, though the former are more faded and begrimed with early centuries of Hinayana worship. Of interest here is the Saddanta Jataka tale -- the fable about six tusked elephant, and the Shyama Jataka -- the story about the man who dedicates his life serving his blind parents. According to Stella Kramrisch, the oldest layer of the Cave 10 paintings date from about 100 BCE, and the principles behind their composition are analogous to those from the same era at Sanchi and Amaravati.
Cave 10, condition in 1839.
The Buddha in long, heavy robe, a design derived from the art of Gandhara.
Later painting with devotional figures, on pillars and ceiling.
Paintings of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas on the arches.
The Cave 11 is a monastery (19.87 X 17.35 m) from the later 5th century. The cave veranda has pillars with octagonal shafts and square bases. The ceiling of the veranda shows evidence of floral designs and eroded reliefs. Only the center panel is discernible wherein the Buddha is seen with votaries lining up to pray before him. Inside, the cave consists of a hall with a long rock bench opening into six rooms. Similar stone benches are found in Nasik caves. Another pillared verandah ends in a sanctum with seated Buddha against an incomplete stupa, and has four cells.
The cave has a few paintings showing Bodhisattvas and the Buddha. Of these, the Padmapani, a couple gathered to pray, a pair of peafowl, and a female figure painting have survived in the best condition. The sanctum of this cave may be among the last structures built at Ajanta because it features a circumambulation path around the seated Buddha.
According to Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Cave 12 is an early stage Hinayana (Theravada) monastery (14.9 X 17.82 m) from the 2nd to 1st century BCE. Spink however only dates it to the 1st century BCE.
The cave is damaged with its front wall completely collapsed. Its three sides inside have twelve cells, each with two stone beds.
Cave 13 is another small monastery from the early period, consisting of a hall with seven cells, each also with two stone beds, all carved out of the rock. Each cell has rock - cut beds for the monks. In contrast to ASI 's estimate, Gupte and Mahajan date both these caves about two to three centuries later, between 1st and 2nd century CE.
Cave 14 is another unfinished monastery (13.43 X 19.28 m) but carved above Cave 13. The entrance door frame shows sala bhanjikas.
Cave 15 is a more complete monastery (19.62 X 15.98 m) with evidence that it had paintings. The cave consists of an eight celled hall ending in a sanctum, an antechamber and a verandah with pillars. The reliefs show the Buddha, while the sanctum Buddha is shown seated in the Simhasana posture. Cave 15 door frame has carvings of pigeons eating corn.
Cave 15A is the smallest cave with a hall and one cell on each side. Its entrance is located just to the right of the elephant - decorated entrance to Cave 16. It is an ancient Hinayana cave with three cells opening around a minuscule central hall. The doors are decorated with a rail and arch pattern. It had an inscription in an ancient script, which has been lost.
Cave 13.
Cave 14.
Cave 15.
Cave 15A.
Cave 16 occupies a prime position near the middle of site, and was sponsored by Varahadeva, minister of Vakataka king Harishena (r. c. 475 -- c. 500 CE). He devoted it to the community of monks, with an inscription that expresses his wish, may "the entire world (...) enter that peaceful and noble state free from sorrow and disease ''. He was, states Spink, someone who revered both the Buddha and the Hindu gods. The 7th - century Chinese traveler Xuan Zang described the cave as the entrance to the site.
Cave 16 (19.5 mx 22.25 mx 4.6 m) influenced the architecture of the entire site. Spink and other scholars call it the "crucial cave '' that helps trace the chronology of the second and closing stages of the entire cave complex 's construction. Cave 16 is a Mahayana monastery and has the standard arrangement of a main doorway, two windows, and two aisle doorways. The veranda of this monastery is 19.5 mx 3 m, while the main hall is almost a perfect square with 19.5 m side.
The paintings in Cave 16 are numerous. Narratives include various Jataka tales such as Hasti, Mahaummagga and the Sutasoma fables. Other frescoes depict the conversion of Nanda, miracle of Sravasti, Sujata 's offering, Asita 's visit, the dream of Maya, the Trapusha and Bhallika story, and the ploughing festival. The Hasti Jataka frescoes tell the story of a Bodhisattva elephant who learns of a large group of people starving, then tells them to go below a cliff where they could find food. The elephant proceeds to sacrifice himself by jumping off that cliff thereby becoming food so that the people can survive. These frescoes are found immediately to the left of entrance, in the front corridor and the narrative follows a clockwise direction.
The Mahaummagga Jataka frescoes are found on the left wall of the corridor, which narrates the story of a child Bodhisattva. Thereafter, in the left corridor is the legend surrounding the conversion of Nanda -- the half brother of the Buddha. The story depicted is one of the two major versions of the Nanda legend in the Buddhist tradition, one where Nanda wants to lead a sensuous life with the girl he had just wed and the Buddha takes him to heaven and later hell to show the spiritual dangers of a sensual life. After the Nanda - related frescoes, the cave presents Manushi Buddhas, followed by flying votaries with offerings to worship the Buddha and the Buddha seated in teaching asana and dharma chakra mudra.
The right wall of the corridor show the scenes from the life of the Buddha. These include Sujata offering food to the Buddha with a begging bowl in white dress, Tapussa and Bhalluka next to the Buddha after they offering wheat and honey to the Buddha as monk, the future Buddha sitting alone under a tree, and the Buddha at a ploughing festival. One mural shows Buddha 's parents trying to dissuade him from becoming a monk. Another shows the Buddha at the palace surrounded by men in dhoti and women in sari as his behavior presents the four signs that he is likely to renounce. On this side of the corridor are also paintings that show the future Buddha as a baby with sage Asita with rishi - like looks. According to Spink, some of the Cave 16 paintings were left incomplete.
The conversion of sensuality - driven Nanda to Buddhism, left corridor.
Palace scene fresco, right corridor of Cave 16.
The Buddha in asceticism stage, getting sweet milk - rice from Sujata.
Manushi Buddhas painting in Cave 16.
Cave 17 (34.5 mx 25.63 m) along with Cave 16 with two great stone elephants at the entrance and Cave 26 with sleeping Buddha, were some of the many caves sponsored by the Hindu Vakataka prime minister Varahadeva. Cave 17 had additional donors such as the local king Upendragupta, as evidenced by the inscription therein.
The cave features a large and most sophisticated vihara design, along with some of the best - preserved and well known paintings of all the caves. While Cave 16 is known for depicting the life stories of the Buddha, the Cave 17 paintings has attracted much attention for extolling human virtues by narrating the Jataka tales. The narration includes an attention to details and a realism which Stella Kramrisch calls "lavish elegance '' accomplished by efficient craftsmen. The ancient artists, states Kramrisch, tried to show wind passing over a crop by showing it bending in waves, and a similar profusion of rhythmic sequences that unroll story after story, visually presenting the metaphysical.
The Cave 17 monastery includes a colonnaded porch, a number of pillars each with a distinct style, a peristyle design for the interior hall, a shrine antechamber located deep in the cave, larger windows and doors for more light, along with extensive integrated carvings of Indian gods and goddesses. The hall of this monastery is a 380.53 square metres (4,096.0 sq ft) square, with 20 pillars. The grand scale of the carving also introduced errors of taking out too much rock to shape the walls, states Spink, which led to the cave being splayed out toward the rear.
Cave 17 has one long inscription by king Upendragupta, in which he explains that he has "expended abundant wealth '' on building this vihara, bringing much satisfaction to the devotees. Altogether, Upendragupta is known to have sponsored at least 5 of the caves in Ajanta. He may have spent too much wealth on religious pursuits however, as he was ultimately defeated by the attacks of the Asmaka.
Cave 17 has thirty major murals. The paintings of Cave 17 depict Buddha in various forms and postures -- Vipasyi, Sikhi, Visvbhu, Krakuchchanda, Kanakamuni, Kashyapa and Sakyamuni. Also depicted are Avalokitesvara, the story of Udayin and Gupta, the story of Nalagiri, the Wheel of life, a panel celebrating various ancient Indian musicians and a panel that tells of Prince Simhala 's expedition to Sri Lanka. The narrative frescoes depict the various Jataka tales such as the Shaddanta, Hasti, Hamsa, Vessantara, Sutasoma, Mahakapi (in two versions), Sarabhamiga, Machchha, Matiposaka, Shyama, Mahisha, Valahassa, Sibi, Ruru and Nigrodamiga Jatakas. The depictions weave in the norms of the early 1st millennium culture and the society. They show themes as diverse as a shipwreck, a princess applying makeup, lovers in scenes of dalliance, and a wine drinking scene of a couple with the woman and man amorously seated. Some frescoes attempt to show the key characters from various parts of a Jataka tale by co-depicting animals and attendants in the same scene.
Vessantara Jataka: the story of the generous king Vessantara.
Shaddanta Jataka: six tusked elephant giving away his tusks.
Painting of the black princess.
The Buddha in Cave 17 sanctum.
Cave 18 is a small rectangular space (3.38 X 11.66 m) with two octagonal pillars and it joins into another cell. Its role is unclear.
Cave 19 is a worship hall (chaitya griha, 16.05 X 7.09 m) datable to the fifth century CE. The hall shows painted Buddha, depicted in different postures. This worship hall is now visited through what was previously a carved room. The presence of this room before the hall suggests that the original plan included a mandala style courtyard for devotees to gather and wait, an entrance and facade to this courtyard, all of whose ruins are now lost to history. Cave 19 is one of the caves known for its sculpture. It includes Naga figures with a serpent canopy protecting the Buddha, similar to those found for spiritual icons in the ancient Jain and Hindu traditions. It includes Yaksha dvarapala (guardian) images on the side of its vatayana (arches), flying couples, sitting Buddha, standing Buddhas and evidence that its ceiling was once painted.
The Cave 19 drew upon on the plan and experimentation in Cave 9. It made a major departure from the earlier Hinayana tradition, by carving a Buddha into the stupa, a decision that states Spink must have come from "the highest levels '' in the 5th - century Mahayana Buddhist establishment because the king and dynasty that built this cave was from the Shaivism Hindu tradition. Cave 19 excavation and stupa was likely in place by 467 CE, and its finishing and artistic work continued into the early 470s, but it too was an incomplete cave when it was dedicated in 471 CE.
The entrance facade of the Cave 19 worship hall is ornate. Two round pillars with fluted floral patterns and carved garlands support a porch. Its capital is an inverted lotus connecting to an amalaka. To its left is standing Buddha in varada hasta mudra with a devotee prostrating at his feet. On right is a relief of woman with one hand holding a pitcher and other touching her chin. Above is a seated Buddha in meditating mudra. Towards the right of the entrance is the "Mother and Child '' sculpture. A figure with begging bowl is the Buddha, watching him are his wife and son.
The worship hall is apsidal, with 15 pillars dividing it into two side aisles and one nave. The round pillars have floral reliefs and a fluted shaft topped with Buddha in its capitals. Next to the Buddha in the capitals are elephants, horses and flying apsara friezes found elsewhere in India, reflecting the style of the Gupta Empire artwork. According to Sharma, the similarities at the Karla caves Great Chaitya, built in the 2nd century CE, suggest that Cave 19 may have been modeled after it.
The walls and the ceiling of the side aisles inside the worship hall are covered with paintings. These show the Buddha, flowers, and in the left aisle the "Mother and Child '' legend again.
Cave 19 plan suggests that it once had a courtyard and additional artwork.
Nagaraja in ardhaparyanka asana, with his wife holding lotus and wearing mangalasutra.
The nave has 15 pillars with Buddha reliefs.
Buddha paintings in the side aisle of Cave 19.
Cave 20 is a monastery hall (16.2 X 17.91 m) from the 5th century. Its construction, states Spink, was started in the 460s by king Upendragupta, with his expressed desire "to make the great tree of religious merit grow ''. The work on Cave 20 was pursued in parallel with other caves. Cave 20 has exquisite detailing, states Spink, but it was relatively lower on priority than Caves 17 and 19. The work on Cave 20 was intermittently stopped and then continued in the following decade.
The vihara consists of a sanctum, four cells for monks and a pillared verandah with two stone cut windows for light. Prior to entering the main hall, on the left of veranda are two Buddhas carved above the window and side cell. The ceiling of the main hall has remnants of painting. The sanctum Buddha is in preaching posture. The cave is known for the sculpture showing seven Buddhas with attendants on its lintel. The cave has a dedicatory Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi script in its verandah, and it calls the cave as a mandapa.
Many of the figural and ornamental carvings in Cave 20 are similar to Cave 19, and to a lesser degree to those found in Cave 17. This may be because the same architects and artisans were responsible for the evolution of the three caves. The door frames in Cave 20 are quasi-structural, something unique at the Ajanta site. The decorations are also innovative in Cave 20, such as one showing the Buddha seated against two pillows and "a richly laden mango tree behind him '', states Spink.
The Buddha on Lion throne.
The sanctum has two Nagarajas on side as guardians.
Cave 21, 22, 23 and 24 are all monasteries, representing the final phases of Ajanta 's construction. Cave 21 is a hall (28.56 X 28.03 m) with twelve rock cut rooms for monks, a sanctum, twelve pillared and pilastered verandah. The carvings on the pilaster include those of animals and flowers. The pillars feature reliefs of apsaras, Nagaraja and Nagarani, as well as devotees bowing with the namaste mudra. The hall shows evidence that it used to be completely painted. The sanctum Buddha is shown in preaching posture.
Cave 22 is a small vihara (12.72 X 11.58 m) with a narrow veranda and four unfinished cells. It is excavated at a higher level and has to be reached by a flight of steps. Inside, the Buddha is seated in pralamba - padasana. The painted figures in Cave 22 show Manushi - Buddhas with Maitreya. A pilaster on the left side of the Cave 22 veranda has a Sanskrit prose inscription. It is damaged in parts, and the legible parts state that this is a "meritorious gift of a mandapa by Jayata '', calling Jayata 's family as "a great Upasaka '', and ending the inscription with "may the merit of this be for excellent knowledge to all sentient beings, beginning with father and mother ''.
The Cave 23 is also unfinished, consisting of a hall (28.32 X 22.52 m) but a design similar to Cave 21. The cave differs in its pillar decorations and the naga doorkeepers.
Cave 24 is like Cave 21, unfinished but much larger. It features the second largest monastery hall (29.3 X 29.3 m) after Cave 4. The cave 24 monastery has been important to scholarly studies of the site because it shows how multiple crews of workers completed their objectives in parallel. The cell construction began as soon as the aisle had been excavated and while the main hall and sanctum were under construction. The construction of Cave 24 was planned in 467 CE, but likely started in 475 CE, with support from Buddhabhadra, then abruptly ended in 477 with the sponsor king Harisena 's death.
Cave 24 is significant in having one of the most complex capitals on a pillar at the Ajanta site, an indication of how the artists excelled and continuously improved their sophistication as they worked with the rock inside the cave. The artists carved fourteen complex miniature figures on the central panel of the right center porch pillar, while working in dim light in a cramped cave space. The medallion reliefs in Cave 24 similarly show loving couples and anthropomorphic arts, rather than flowers of earlier construction. Cave 24 's sanctum has a seated Buddha in pralamba - padasana.
Cave 25 is a monastery. Its hall (11.37 X 12.24 m) is similar to other monasteries, but has no sanctum, includes an enclosed courtyard and is excavated at an upper level.
The Buddha of Cave 21.
Inside hall, Cave 22.
Inside hall of Cave 23.
Sophisticated pillars of Cave 24 with embedded loving couples. Evidence of parallel work.
Cave 26 is a worship hall (chaityagriha, 25.34 X 11.52 m) similar in plan to Cave 19, but much larger and with elements of a vihara design. An inscription states that a monk Buddhabhadra and his friend minister serving king of Asmaka gifted this vast cave. The inscription includes a vision statement and the aim to make "a memorial on the mountain that will endure for as long as the moon and the sun continue '', translates Walter Spink. It is likely that the builders focussed on sculpture, rather than paintings, in Cave 26 because they believed stone sculpture will far more endure than paintings on the wall.
The cave drew upon the experiences in building Cave 10, with attached wings similar to the ancient Cave 12 Hinayana - style vihara. The Cave 26 complex has two upper stories and it shows evidence that four wings of the cave were planned, but these were abandoned and only the carved Buddhas on the right and left wall were completed.
The sculptures in Cave 26 are elaborate and more intricate. It is among the last caves excavated, and an inscription suggests late 5th or early 6th century according to ASI. The cave consists of an apsidal hall with side aisles for circumambulation (pradikshana). This path is full of carved Buddhist legends, three depictions of the Miracle of Sravasti in the right ambulatory side of the aisle, and seated Buddhas in various mudra. Many of these were added later by devotees, and therefore are intrusive to the aims of the original planners. The artwork begins on the wall of the aisle, immediately the left side of entrance. The major artworks include the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha (reclining Buddha) on the wall, followed by the legend called the "Temptations by Mara ''. The temptations include the seduction by Mara 's daughters who are depicted below the meditating Buddha. They are shown scantly dressed and in seductive postures, while on both the left and right side of the Buddha are armies of Mara attempting to distract him with noise and threaten him with violence. In top right corner is the image of a dejected Mara frustrated by his failure to disturb the resolve or focus of the ascetic Buddha.
At the center of the apse is a rock - cut stupa. The stupa has an image of the Buddha on its front, 18 panels on its base, 18 panels above these, a three tiered torana above him, and apsaras are carved on the anda (hemispherical egg) stupa. On top of the dagoba is a nine tiered harmika, a symbolism for the nine saṃsāra (Buddhism) heavens in Mahayana cosmology. The walls, pillars, brackets and the triforium are extensively carved with Buddhist themes. Many of the wall reliefs and images in this cave were badly damaged, and have been restored as a part of the site conservation efforts.
Between cave 26 and its left wing, there is an inscription by a courtier of Rashtrakuta Nanaraj (who is mentioned in the Multai and Sangaloda plates), from late 7th or early 8th century. It is the last inscription in Ajanta.
Cave 26 plan as completed. The etchings suggest the original plan was more ambitious.
The sculptured dagoba (stupa) in the worship hall. It has 36 panels carved.
Temptation of the Buddha; the daughters of Mara carved below are trying to seduce him. Mara is on the top right.
Mahaparinirvana of Buddha, or Dying Buddha, on left aisle wall Cave 26.
Cave 27 is a monastery and it may have been planned as an attachment to Cave 26. It is damaged two storeys, with the upper level partially collapsed. Its plan is similar to other monasteries. Cave 28 is an unfinished monastery, partially excavated, at the westernmost end of the Ajanta complex and barely accessible.
Cave 29 is an unfinished monastery at the highest level of the Ajanta complex, apparently unnoticed when the initial numbering system was established, and physically located between Caves 20 and 21.
In 1956, a landslide covered the footpath leading to Cave 16. In the attempts to clear and restore the walkway, a small aperture and votive stupa were noticed in the debris by the workers, in a location near the stream bed. Further tracing and excavations led to a previously unknown Hinayana monastery cave dated to the 2nd and 1st century BCE. Cave 30 may actually be the oldest cave of the Ajanta complex. It is a 3.66 mx 3.66 m cave with three cells, each with two stone beds and stone pillows on the side of each cell. The cell door lintels show lotus and garland carvings. The cave has two inscriptions in an unknown script. It also has a platform on its veranda with a fine view of the river ravine below and the forest cover. According to Gupte and Mahajan, this cave may have been closed at some point with large carefully carved pieces as it distracted the entrance view of Cave 16.
Over 80 % of the Ajanta caves were vihara (temporary traveler residences, monasteries). The designers and artisans who built these caves included facilities for collecting donations and storing grains and food for the visitors and monks. Many of the caves include large repositories cut into the floor. The largest storage spaces are found, states Spink, in the "very commodious recesses in the shrines of both Ajanta Cave Lower 6 and Cave 11 ''. These caves were probably chosen because of their relative convenience and the security they offered due to their higher level. The choice of integrating covered vaults cut into the floor may have been driven by the need to provide sleeping space and logistical ease.
The paintings have deteriorated significantly since they were rediscovered, and a number of 19th - century copies and drawings are important for a complete understanding of the works. A number of attempts to copy the Ajanta paintings began in the 19th - century for European and Japanese museums. Some of these works have later been lost in natural and fire disasters. In 1846 for example, Major Robert Gill, an Army officer from Madras Presidency and a painter, was appointed by the Royal Asiatic Society to make copies of the frescoes on the cave walls. Gill worked on his painting at the site from 1844 to 1863. He made 27 copies of large sections of murals, but all but four were destroyed in a fire at the Crystal Palace in London in 1866, where they were on display. Gill returned to the site, and recommenced his labours, replicating the murals until his death in 1875.
Another attempt was made in 1872 when the Bombay Presidency commissioned John Griffiths to work with his students to make copies of Ajanta paintings, again for shipping to England. They worked on this for thirteen years and some 300 canvases were produced, many of which were displayed at the Imperial Institute on Exhibition Road in London, one of the forerunners of the Victoria and Albert Museum. But in 1885 another fire destroyed over a hundred of the paintings in storage in a wing of the museum. The V&A still has 166 paintings surviving from both sets, though none have been on permanent display since 1955. The largest are some 3 × 6 metres. A conservation project was undertaken on about half of them in 2006, also involving the University of Northumbria. Griffith and his students had unfortunately painted many of the paintings with "cheap varnish '' in order to make them easier to see, which has added to the deterioration of the originals, as has, according to Spink and others, recent cleaning by the ASI.
A further set of copies were made between 1909 and 1911 by Christiana Herringham (Lady Herringham) and a group of students from the Calcutta School of Art that included the future Indian Modernist painter Nandalal Bose. The copies were published in full colour as the first publication of London 's fledgling India Society. More than the earlier copies, these aimed to fill in holes and damage to recreate the original condition rather than record the state of the paintings as she was seeing them. According to one writer, unlike the paintings created by her predecessors Griffiths and Gill, whose copies were influenced by British Victorian styles of painting, those of the Herringham expedition preferred an ' Indian Renascence ' aesthetic of the type pioneered by Abanindranath Tagore.
Early photographic surveys were made by Robert Gill, who learnt to use a camera from about 1856, and whose photos, including some using stereoscopy, were used in books by him and Fergusson (many are available online from the British Library), then Victor Goloubew in 1911 and E.L. Vassey, who took the photos in the four volume study of the caves by Ghulam Yazdani (published 1930 -- 1955).
Some slightly creative copies of Ajanta frescoes, especially the painting of the Adoration of the Buddha from the shrine antechamber of Cave 17, were commissioned by Thomas Holbein Hendley (1847 - 1917) for the decoration of the walls of the hall of the Albert Hall Museum, Jaipur, India. He had the work painted by a local artist variously named Murli or Murali. The museum was opened to the public in 1887. This work is otherwise presented as characteristic of the end of the 19th century.
Another attempt to make copies of the murals was made by the Japanese artist Arai Kampō (荒井 寛 方: 1878 -- 1945) after being invited by Rabindranath Tagore to India to teach Japanese painting techniques. He worked on making copies with tracings on Japanese paper from 1916 to 1918 and his work was conserved at Tokyo Imperial University until the materials perished during the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake.
The Ajanta cave arts are a window into the culture, society and religiosity of the native population of India between the 2nd century BCE and 5th century CE. Different scholars have variously interpreted them from the perspective of gender studies, history, sociology, and the anthropology of South Asia. The dress, the jewelry, the gender relations, the social activities depicted showcase at least a lifestyle of the royalty and elite, and in others definitely the costumes of the common man, monks and rishi depicted therein. They shine "light on life in India '' around mid 1st millennium CE.
The Ajanta artworks provide a contrast between the spiritual life of monks who had given up all materialistic possessions versus the sensual life of those it considered materialistic, luxurious, symbols of wealth, leisurely and high fashion. Many frescos show scenes from shops, festivals, jesters at processions, palaces and performance art pavilions. These friezes share themes and details of those found in Bharhut, Sanchi, Amaravati, Ellora, Bagh, Aihole, Badami and other archaeological sites in India. Ajanta caves contributes to visual and descriptive sense of the ancient and early medieval Indian culture and artistic traditions, particularly those around the Gupta Empire era period.
-- Richard Cohen Beyond Enlightenment: Buddhism, Religion, Modernity
The early colonial era description of Ajanta caves was largely orientalist and critical, inconsistent with the Victorian values and stereotyping. According to William Dalrymple, the themes and arts in the Ajanta caves were puzzling to the 19th century Orientalists. Lacking the Asian cultural heritage and framework that sees "nothing odd in the juxtaposition of monk and dancing girl '', and with no knowledge of Jataka Tales or equivalent Indian fables, they could not comprehend it. They projected their own views and assumptions, calling it something that lacks reason and rationale, something that is meaningless crude representation of royalty and foreigners with mysticism and sensuousness. The 19th - century views and interpretations of the Ajanta Caves were conditioned by ideas and assumptions in the colonial mind, saw what they wanted to see.
To many who are unaware of the premises of Indian religions in general, and Buddhism in particular, the significance of Ajanta Caves has been like rest of Indian art. According to Richard Cohen, Ajanta Caves to them has been yet another example of "worship this stock, or that stone, or monstrous idol ''. In contrast, to the Indian mind and the larger Buddhist community, it is everything that art ought to be, the religious and the secular, the spiritual and the social fused to enlightened perfection.
According to Walter Spink -- one of the most respected Art historians on Ajanta, these caves were by 475 CE a much revered site to the Indians, with throngs of "travelers, pilgrims, monks and traders ''. The site was vastly transformed into its current form in just 20 years, between early 460 CE to early 480 CE, by regional architects and artisans. This accomplishment, states Spink, makes Ajanta, "one of the most remarkable creative achievements in man 's history ''.
The Ajanta Caves painting are a significant source of socio - economic information in ancient India, particularly in relation to the interactions of India with foreign cultures at the time most of the paintings were made, in the 5th century CE. Depictions of foreigners abound: according to Spink, "Ajanta 's paintings are filled with such foreign types. '' They have sometimes been a source of misinterpretation as in the so - called "Persian Embassy Scene ''. These foreigners may reflect the Sassanian merchants, visitors and the flourishing trade routes of the day.
Cave 1, for example, shows a mural fresco with characters with foreigner faces or dresses, the so - called "Persian Embassy Scene ''. This scene is located at the right of the entrance door upon entering the hall. According to Spink, James Fergusson, a 19th - century architectural historian, had decided that this scene corresponded to the Persian ambassador in 625 CE to the court of the Hindu Chalukya king Pulakeshin II. An alternate theory has been that the fresco represents a Hindu ambassador visiting the Persian king Khusrau II in 625 CE, a theory that Fergusson disagreed with. These assumptions by colonial British era art historians, state Spink and other scholars, has been responsible for wrongly dating this painting to the 7th century, when in fact this reflects an incomplete Harisena - era painting of a Jataka tale (the Mahasudarsana jataka) with the representation of trade between India and distant lands such as Sassanian near East that was common by the 5th century.
The Cave 1 has several frescoes with characters with foreigner faces or dresses. Similar depictions are found in the paintings of Cave 17. Such murals, states Pia Brancaccio, suggest a prosperous and multicultural society in 5th - century India active in international trade. These also suggest that this trade was economically important enough to the Deccan region that the artists chose to include it with precision.
Additional evidence of international trade includes the use of the blue lapis lazuli pigment to depict foreigners in the Ajanta paintings, which must have been imported from Afghanistan or Iran. It also suggests, states Branacaccio, that the Buddhist monastic world was closely connected with trading guilds and the court culture in this period. A small number of scenes show foreigners drinking wine in Caves 1 and 2. Some show foreign Near East kings with wine and their retinue which presumably add to the "general regal emphasis '' of the cave. According to Brancaccio, the Ajanta paintings show a variety of colorful, delicate textiles and women making cotton. Textile probably was one of the major exports to foreign lands, along with gems. These were exported first through the Red Sea, and later through the Persian Gulf, thereby bringing a period of economic and cultural exchange between the Indians, the Sasanian Empire and the Persian merchants before Islam was founded in the Arabian peninsula.
While scholars generally agree that these murals confirm trade and cultural connections between India and Sassanian west, their specific significance and interpretation varies. Brancaccio, for example, suggests that the ship and jars in them probably reflect foreign ships carrying wine imported to India. In contrast, Schlinghoff interprets the jars to be holding water, and ships shown as Indian ships used in international trade.
Similar depictions are found in the paintings of Cave 17, but this time in direct relation to the worship of the Buddha. In Cave 17, a painting of the Buddha descending from the Trayastrimsa Heaven shows he being attended by many foreigners. Many foreigners in this painting are thus shown as listeners to the Buddhist Dharma. The ethnic diversity is depicted in the painting in the clothes (kaftans, Sasanian helmets, round caps), haridos and skin colors. In the Visvantara Jataka of Cave 17, according to Brancaccio, the scene probably shows a servant from Central Asia holding a foreign metal ewer, while a dark - complexioned servant holds a cup to an amorous couple. In another painting in Cave 17, relating to the conversion of Nanda, a man possibly from northeast Africa appears as a servant. These representations show, states Brancaccio, that the artists were familiar with people of Sogdia, Central Asia, Persia and possibly East Africa. Another hypothesis is offered by Upadhya, who states that the artists who built Ajanta caves "very probably included foreigners ''.
Foreigners sharing a drink of wine, ceiling of Cave 2.
Another Persian - style foreign group, on the ceiling of Cave 1, one of the four such groups (one now missing) at the center of each quadrant. of the ceiling.
A servant from Central Asia, Cave 17.
Paintings and the cave artwork have become eroded due to decay and human interference. Therefore, many areas of the painted walls, ceilings, and pillars are fragmentary. The painted narratives of the Jataka tales are depicted only on the walls, which demanded the special attention of the devotees. They are didactic in nature, meant to inform the community about the Buddha 's teachings and life through successive rebirths. Their placement on the walls required the devotee to walk through the aisles and ' read ' the narratives depicted in various episodes. The narrative episodes are depicted one after another, although not in a linear order. Their identification has been a core area of research since the site 's discovery in 1819.
The Ajanta paintings, or more likely the general style they come from, influenced painting in Tibet and Sri Lanka.
The rediscovery of ancient Indian paintings at Ajanta provided Indian artists examples from ancient India to follow. Nandalal Bose experimented with techniques to follow the ancient style which allowed him to develop his unique style. Abanindranath Tagore and Syed Thajudeen also used the Ajanta paintings for inspiration.
In the Mumbai area:
In the Junnar area:
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what products that we use in australia are made in japan | List of Japanese inventions and discoveries - wikipedia
This is a list of Japanese inventions and discoveries. The Japanese contributed to a number of fields. In particular, the country has played a crucial role in the digital revolution since the 20th century, with many revolutionary and widespread technologies in fields such as electronics and robotics introduced by Japanese companies and entrepreneurs. Japanese popular culture, strongly shaped by its electronic technologies, also has considerable global influence.
Chindōgu is the Japanese art of inventing ingenious everyday gadgets that, on the face of it, seem like an ideal solution to a particular problem. However, Chindōgu has a distinctive feature: anyone actually attempting to use one of these inventions would find that it causes so many new problems, or such significant social embarrassment, that effectively it has no utility whatsoever. Thus, Chindōgu are sometimes described as "unuseless '' -- that is, they can not be regarded as ' useless ' in an absolute sense, since they do actually solve a problem; however, in practical terms, they can not positively be called "useful. '' The term "Chindōgu '' was coined by Kenji Kawakami.
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what is the reason for no meat during lent | Fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church - wikipedia
The Catholic Church historically observes the disciplines of fasting and abstinence at various times each year. For Catholics, fasting is the reduction of one 's intake of food, while abstinence refers to refraining from meat (or another type of food). The Catholic Church teaches that all people are obliged by God to perform some penance for their sins, and that these acts of penance are both personal and corporeal. The purpose of fasting is spiritual focus, self - discipline, imitation of Christ, and performing penance.
Contemporary Vatican legislation, which is followed by Catholics of the Latin Rite (who comprise most Catholics) is rooted in the 1966 Apostolic Constitution of Pope Paul VI, Paenitemini, and codified in the 1983 Code of Canon Law (in Canons 1249 -- 1253). According to Paenitemini and the 1983 Code of Canon Law, on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, both abstinence and fasting are required of Catholics who are not exempted for various reasons. All Fridays of the year are days are bound by the law of abstinence on all Fridays that are not Solemnities, while the law of fasting binds all Catholics who are aged between eighteen and sixty on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday. Nevertheless, both Paenitemini and the 1983 Code of Canon Law permitted the Episcopal Conferences to propose adjustments of the laws on fasting and abstinence for their home territories, and most have done so. For example, in some countries, the Bishops ' Conferences have obtained from Rome the substitution of pious or charitable acts for abstinence from meat on all Fridays of the year (including Fridays of Lent) except Good Friday. Others continue to abstain from eating meat on Lenten Fridays, but not on Fridays outside of Lent. Still others voluntarily abstain from meat on however, fasting may be less stringent on Holy Saturday than on Good Friday.
Members of the Eastern Catholic Churches are obliged to follow the discipline of their own particular church. While some Eastern Catholics try to follow the stricter rules of their Orthodox counterparts, the actual canonical obligations of Eastern Catholics to fast and abstain are usually much more lenient than those of the Orthodox.
The Personal Ordinariates for former Anglicans reconciled to the Catholic Church follow the discipline of the Latin Rite (of which they are a part) including the norms established by the Council of Catholic Bishops in whose territories they are erected and of which their Ordinaries are members. Thus in England the norm is abstinence on all Fridays of the year. The Bishop in the United States has emphasized the statements in the USCCB norms "Friday itself remains a special day of penitential observance throughout the year, '' and "we give first place to abstinence from flesh meat. '' The Rogation Days have been re-establised in the Calendar of the Ordinariates, and as long as a Solemnity does not take precedence, the Fridays in September and Advent are days of obligatory abstinence. Obligatory abstinence on Ember Friday in Lent is included in the universal Lenten discipline, and abstinence on Ember Friday on Whitsuntide is not required, as all days of the Octave of Pentecost are Solemnities.
The Catholic practice of abstaining from meat on Fridays popularized the Friday fish fry and inspired the creation of the Filet - O - Fish sandwich at McDonald 's.
Rules relating to fasting pertain to the quantity of food allowed on days of fasting, while those regulating abstinence refer to the quality or type of food. The Christian tradition of fasts and abstinence developed from Old Testament practices, and were an integral part of the early church community. Louis Duchesne observed that Monday and Thursday were days of fasting among pious Jews. Early Christians practiced regular weekly fasts on Wednesdays and Fridays.
There has always been a close connection between fasting and almsgiving; the money saved on food should be given to the poor.
The habit of fasting before Easter developed gradually, and with considerable diversity of practice regarding duration. As late as the latter part of the second century there were differing opinions not only regarding the manner of the paschal fast, but also the proper time for keeping Easter. In 331 St. Athanasius enjoined upon his flock a period of forty days of fasting preliminary to, but not inclusive of, the stricter fast of Holy Week, and in 339, after having traveled to Rome and over the greater part of Europe, wrote in the strongest terms to urge this observance upon the people of Alexandria as one that was universally practiced, "to the end that while all the world is fasting, we who are in Egypt should not become a laughing - stock as the only people who do not fast but take our pleasure in those days ''.
In the time of Gregory the Great (590 -- 604) there were apparently at Rome six weeks of six days each, making thirty - six fast days in all, which St. Gregory, who is followed therein by many medieval writers, describes as the spiritual tithing of the year, thirty - six days being approximately the tenth part of three hundred and sixty - five. At a later date the wish to realize the exact number of forty days led to the practice of beginning Lent on Ash Wednesday.
The ordinary rule on fasting days was to take but one meal a day and that only in the evening, white meat and, in the early centuries, wine were entirely forbidden.
These days were at one time observed with a Black Fast of strictly no more than one meal, without meat, dairy, oil, or wine. This Lenten fast was traditionally broken at sunset. In the 10th century the custom of taking the only meal of the day at three o'clock was introduced. In the 14th century the meal was allowed at mid-day, and soon the practice of an evening collation (snack) became common. A morning collation was introduced in the early 19th century.
In the early 20th century, Church law prescribed fasting throughout Lent, with abstinence only on Friday and Saturday. Some countries received dispensations: Rome in 1918 allowed the bishops of Ireland to transfer the Saturday obligation to Wednesday; in the United States, abstinence was not required on Saturday. The other weekdays were simply days of "fasting without abstinence. '' A similar practice (common in the United States) was called "partial abstinence '', which allowed meat only once during the day at the main meal. (There is nothing in current Catholic Canon Law which corresponds to "partial abstinence ''.) The countries of the former Spanish empire also had their own extensive dispensations from the Roman rules of fasting and abstinence, based on the "Crusader privileges '' of the Spanish dominions as codified in the Bull of the Crusade. In some European colonies, the obligation to fast and abstain differed by race, with natives often having more lenient rules than Europeans or mestizos.
While the rules of abstinence generally only allow seafood, there are a few exceptions. In parts of South America, especially in Venezuela, capybara meat is popular during Lent and Holy Week; in response to a question posed by French settlers in Quebec in the 17th century, beaver was classified as an exception; and the Archbishop of New Orleans said that "alligator is considered in the fish family '' in 2010. The legal basis for the classification of beaver as fish probably rests with the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas, which bases animal classification as much on habit as anatomy.
Besides Lent, there were other penitential times customarily accompanied by fasting or abstinence. These included Advent, the Ember Days, the Rogation Days, Fridays throughout the year, and vigils of important feast days.
Advent is considered a time of special self - examination, humility, and spiritual preparation in anticipation of the birth of Christ. Fridays and Saturdays in Advent were days of abstinence, and until early in the 20th century, the Fridays of Advent were also days of fasting.
The vigils observed included the Saturday before Pentecost, October 31 (the vigil of All Saints), December 24 (Christmas Eve), December 7 (the vigil of the Immaculate Conception) and August 14 (the vigil of the Assumption). These vigils all required fasting; some also required abstinence. If any of these fell on a Sunday, the vigil, but not the obligation of fasting, was moved to the Saturday before. (Some other liturgical days were also known as vigils but neither fasting nor abstinence was required, particularly the vigils of feasts of the Apostles and the Vigil of the Epiphany.) By 1959 in the United States, the fast for the vigil of Christmas was moved to December 23.
Ember days occurred four times a year. The Wednesday, Friday and Saturday of the ember week were days of fast and abstinence, though the Wednesday and Saturday were often only days of partial abstinence. In addition, Roman Catholics were required to abstain from meat (but not fast) on all other Fridays, unless the Friday coincided with a holy day of obligation.
The former regulations on abstinence obliged Roman Catholics starting as young as age seven, but there were many exceptions. Large classes of people were considered exempt from fasting and abstinence, not only the sick and those with physically demanding jobs, but also people traveling and students. The regulations were adapted to each nation, and so in most dioceses in America abstinence from meat was not required on the Friday after Thanksgiving, to accommodate any meat left over from that US national holiday.
On the eve of Vatican II, fasting and abstinence requirements in numerous Catholic countries were already greatly relaxed compared to the beginning of the 20th century, with fasting often reduced to just 4 days of the year (Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, the vigil of Christmas or the day before, and the vigil either of the Immaculate Conception or of the Assumption).
Some controversy has arisen over whether Catholics should continue to fast and abstain from the things they voluntarily gave up for Lent on the Sundays of Lent. Questions include whether the "forty days '' of Lent are limited to weekdays or whether they include Sundays, and if every Sunday is like Easter.
The Latin word for Lent is Quadragesima which literally means "forty ''. The term imitates many biblical images of fasting for forty days (e.g. Exodus 24: 18; Matthew 4: 2; Luke 4: 2). While all of this is true, Lenten and Easter practices varied in the East and the West as both traditions developed over time. The various Lenten fasts which developed did not always last forty days.
In the fourth century, the council of Nicaea referred to Lent as "the forty '' before the Paschal feast. Although it is not entirely clear, the grammar of this phrase could be read to imply that one should prepare for forty days for the coming of Easter. One thing that is clear from the council of Nicaea is the fact that whatever the length of this penance, it did not include Sundays, since this council forbade even kneeling on Sunday. Sundays were treated differently by the early Christians and penitential kneeling on Sundays was strictly forbidden. This early discipline later evolved in the Western Church as our understanding of various gestures in worship shifted. Eventually in the Western tradition kneeling became a sign of reverence not of penance.
In the history of the development of Lenten traditions in the western Church there were actually two different focuses. One was on the Baptismal liturgy of catechumens who were journeying towards the Easter Vigil to be baptized and received in to the Church. The second tradition involved a rite for reconciling adult penitents. Initially these penitents were those who were excommunicated and were in the process of being reconciled to the Church. In 1091 AD, Pope Urban II changed this and required all the faithful to receive ashes in what became Ash Wednesday. Over time the penitential aspect alone became the focus of Lent.
The Second Vatican council wished to restore the original double focus on baptism and penance. The fathers note, "The season of Lent has a twofold character: primarily by recalling or preparing for baptism and by penance, it disposes the faithful, who more diligently hear the word of God and devote themselves to prayer, to celebrate the paschal mystery. This twofold character is to be brought into greater prominence both in the liturgy and by liturgical catechesis. '' (Sacrosanctum concilium 109).
What are the implications for the Sundays in Lent? Can we solve this with Math? According to the modern General Norms for the Liturgical Year and the Calendar (2011), "The forty days of Lent run from Ash Wednesday up to but excluding the Mass of the Lord 's Supper exclusive. '' If you get a calendar out you would see that this year there are 20 days of Lent in February but only 24 days (23.5?) of Lent in March for a total of 44 days. There are 6 Sundays in Lent. Using these numbers you would not achieve the ' biblical number ' forty by subtracting the six Sundays that occur within Lenten session. Does this prove that we should fast and abstain on Sunday 's? Or perhaps two of the Sundays?
Several points need to be noted. First the definition of Lent as excluding half of Holy Thursday, the whole of Good Friday and Holy Saturday only came about in 1969. These three days are now called the Triduum and are no longer considered part of the session of Lent. In other words, the numbers did actually work until this recent change. But now is the number ' forty, ' merely figurative?
Notice that even in the current definition of Lent, Easter waits for us to complete the Triduum, and there are two more days of serious penance in the Triduum which still brings the total to forty days of penance excluding Sundays. The penitential disciple of Lent is still forty days even if the season of Lent is now shorten by the Triduum.
We must not confuse the season on Lent with the penitential disciple of Lent. The tradition of the Church did not require equal penances on each day of Lent, and no penance was required on Sunday.
Someone might say that the Sundays of Lent are part of the season of Lent and, therefore, must continue to have a penitential meaning. This is certainly partly true. We do worship in a more reserved and sober manner on the Sundays of Lent. But the fact remains that the penitential discipline of Lent always excluded these Sundays. We might also point out that the lectionary readings of the Sundays of Lent all focus on the catechumenal journey towards the Easter Vigil and not exclusively on penance.
As was pointed out above, Lenten tradiations have developed over time. One consistent feature has been that the penitential discipline of Lent excluded Sundays. This point is especially evident in the writings of St. Augustine.
In St. Augustine 's Letter 36, he refutes a rigorist who insists that Christians should fast on the Sabbath (Saturday). This might initially sound tangential but it leads Augustine to our question. Augustine, by the way, argues that we are free to fast or not fast on the Sabbath, and as Christians we are not bound by the Jewish Sabbath keeping regulations.
Augustine also tells us that in his time Christians regularly fasted on Wednesdays and Fridays throughout the year and not just in Lent (36.30) and that some Churches fasted as well on the Sabbath. By comparison, fasting on the Lord 's Day (Sunday) "would be a cause of no small scandal to the Church '' (36.2, cf. 36.10, 29). He notes, "For in these questions on which the divine scripture has determined nothing certain, the custom of the people of God or the practices of our ancestors are to be taken as law '' (36.2). He makes it clear that not fasting on the Lord 's Day was the standard practice for the Church in Rome, in Africa and in Millan. He also points out that fasting or abstaining on the Lord 's Day was a practice of the followers of the heresy of the Manichees (36.27) and Priscillianist (36.28) which the Church universally rejected.
Fasting on the Lord 's Day is a ' scandal ' and ' abominable ' (36.27) though Augustine allows one exception, "unless perhaps someone might be able to extend a fast beyond a week without taking any meal in order to approximate a fast of forty days '' (36.27). He does not seem to have in mind someone who is merely, for example, not eating meat for forty days, but an epic fast of biblical proportions. (e.g. "without taking any meal '').
Again the point is that the penitential discipline of Lent always excluded Sundays and further St. Augustine says that fasting on Sundays is a scandal and abominable.
Finally someone might add one more layer to this discussion. The person who is asking about drinking their latte on Sundays in Lent, is really taking about their own self - imposed private devotion. It is interesting to learn about the history of this practice of private devotion.
Prior to Second Vatican Council the 1917 Code of Canon Law, the Roman Pontifical and the approved regulations for the United States (Uniform Norms 1951, Modification 1956) required a rigorous scheme of fasting by all the faithful 21 - 59 - years - old. Abstinence could be complete or partial, and fasting allowed one full meal plus partial meals. All week days of Lent had either a fast or a fast and abstinence attached to them. It is very clear in these documents that we were discussing the weekdays of Lent, excluding Sundays.
During World War II special permission was given to local ordinaries to dispense the faithful from these rigorous daily requirements and this permission was extended again in 1949. In light of these dispensations the Uniform Norms 1951, and Modification 1956 for the US included a paragraph which exhorted the faithful to be generous in performing additional voluntary works of Christian perfection.
It seems the wide spread custom of taking on voluntary penance began in the 1950s. Prior to this people were satisfied fulfilling the demanding norms of Lent. Since these new voluntary acts are not required, it would seem the faithful can do whatever they want, but choosing to do penance on a Sunday is clearly not in the spirit of Catholic Tradition.
Contemporary legislation is rooted in the 1966 Apostolic Constitution of Pope Paul VI, Paenitemini. He recommended that fasting be appropriate to the local economic situation, and that all Catholics voluntarily fast and abstain. He also allowed that fasting and abstinence might be substituted with prayer and works of charity, although the norms for doing so were to be set down by the Episcopal Conferences.
Current practice of fast and abstinence is regulated by Canons 1250 -- 1253 of the 1983 code. They specify that all Fridays throughout the year, and the time of Lent are penitential times throughout the entire Church. All adults (those who have attained the ' age of majority ', which is 18 years in canon law) are bound by law to fast on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday until the beginning of their sixtieth year. All persons who have completed their fourteenth year are bound by the law of abstinence on all Fridays unless they are solemnities, and again on Ash Wednesday; but in practice this requirement has been greatly reduced by the Episcopal Conferences because under Canon 1253, it is these Conferences that have the authority to set down the local norms for fasting and abstinence in their territories. (However, the precept to both fast and abstain on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday is usually not dispensed from.)
Absent any specification of the nature of "fasting '' in the current Canon Law, the traditional definition is obviously applicable here which is that on the days of mandatory fasting, Catholics may eat only one full meal during the day. Additionally, they may eat up to two small meals or snacks, known as "collations ''. Church requirements on fasting only relate to solid food, not to drink, so Church law does not restrict the amount of water or other beverages -- even alcoholic drinks -- which may be consumed.
In some Western countries, Catholics have been encouraged to adopt non-dietary forms of abstinence during Lent. For example, in 2009 Monsignor Benito Cocchi, Archbishop of Modena, urged young Catholics to give up text messaging for Lent.
In addition to the fasts mentioned above, Roman Catholics must also observe the Eucharistic Fast, which involves taking nothing but water and medicines into the body for some time before receiving the Eucharist. The earliest recorded regular practice was to eat at home before the Lord 's Supper if one was hungry (I Corinthians 11: 34). The next known ancient practice was to fast from midnight until Mass that day. As Masses after noon and in the evening became common in the West, this was soon modified to fasting for three hours. The latest Code of Canon Law reduced the Eucharistic Fast to the current one - hour requirement for the Roman Rite. Particular law in some Eastern Catholic Churches also requires a one - hour Eucharistic fast.
The Australian Catholic Bishops ' Conference decreed on Friday 4 October 1985 that Fridays throughout the year, including in Lent (other than Good Friday) are not obligatory days of abstinence from meat, provided an alternative form of penance is practised. Although this remains the case to this day, support for the return of obligatory Friday abstinence has been gradually increasing since England and Wales returned to Friday abstinence in 2011, with some Australian bishops expressing interest.
The Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops decrees that the days of fast and abstinence in Canada are Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, and specifies that Fridays are days of abstinence. This includes all Fridays year round, not just Fridays of Lent. Catholics, however, can substitute special acts of charity or piety on these days.
Current norms for England and Wales, issued by the Bishops ' Conference in May 2011, re-introduced the expectation that all Catholics able to do so should abstain from meat on all Fridays of the year, effective Friday, September 16, 2011.
On 25 November 2010 the Irish Bishops ' Conference published the resource leaflet Friday Penance. It followed from the March 2010 Pastoral Letter to the Catholics of Ireland from Pope Benedict XVI suggesting initiatives to support renewal in the Church in Ireland. He asked that Irish Catholics offer their Friday Penances "for an outpouring of God 's mercy and the Holy Spirit 's gifts of holiness and strength, '' and that fasting, prayer, reading of Scripture and works of mercy be offered in order to obtain healing and renewal for the Church in Ireland.
The leaflet states that Penance "arises from the Lord 's call to conversion and repentance '' and describes that it is an "essential part of all genuine Christian living '':
Friday Penance also explains why penance is important: "Declaring some days throughout the year as days of fast and abstinence (Ash Wednesday and Good Friday) is meant to intensify penances of the Christian. Lent is the traditional season for renewal and penance but Catholics also observe each Friday of the year as days of penance. The link between Friday and penance is extremely ancient and is even reflected in the Irish language word for Friday: An Aoine (The Fast). ''
The leaflet suggests ways of fulfilling Friday penance such as abstaining from meat or alcohol, visiting the Blessed Sacrament or helping the poor, sick and lonely as well as other suggestions.
The U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB) produced a statement in 1966 called Pastoral Statement on Penance and Abstinence, which was modified slightly in 1983.
One writer has summarized the U.S. rules as follows:
In the United States, the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB) has declared that "the age of fasting is from the completion of the eighteenth year to the beginning of the sixtieth. '' The USCCB also allows the substitution of some other form of penance for abstinence on all of the Fridays of the year, except for those Fridays in Lent. Thus, the rules for fasting and abstinence in the United States are:
According to the USCCB:
Abstinence laws consider that meat comes only from animals such as chickens, cows, sheep or pigs -- - all of which live on land. Birds are also considered meat. Abstinence does not include meat juices and liquid foods made from meat. Thus, such foods as chicken broth, consomme, soups cooked or flavored with meat, meat gravies or sauces, as well as seasonings or condiments made from animal fat are technically not forbidden. However, moral theologians have traditionally taught that we should abstain from all animal - derived products (except foods such as gelatin, butter, cheese and eggs, which do not have any meat taste). Fish are a different category of animal. Salt and freshwater species of fish, amphibians, reptiles, (cold - blooded animals) and shellfish are permitted.
Because of this, some Catholic parishes in the United States sponsor a fish fry during Lent. In predominantly Roman Catholic areas, restaurants may adjust their menus during Lent by adding seafood items to the menu in an attempt to appeal to Roman Catholics. However, the same USCCB website says that:
While fish, lobster and other shellfish are not considered meat and can be consumed on days of abstinence, indulging in the lavish buffet at your favorite seafood place sort of misses the point. Abstaining from meat and other indulgences during Lent is a penitential practice.
The USCCB also states that:
Those that are excused from fast and abstinence outside the age limits include the physically or mentally ill including individuals suffering from chronic illnesses such as diabetes. Also excluded are pregnant or nursing women. In all cases, common sense should prevail, and ill persons should not further jeopardize their health by fasting.
In 2010, Archbishop of New Orleans Gregory Michael Aymond clarified that alligator is also considered seafood, saying "Yes, the alligator 's considered in the fish family, and I agree with you -- God has created a magnificent creature that is important to the state of Louisiana, and it is considered seafood. '' This was in response to a letter from a local alligator wrangler.
To fast customarily means to only eat one meal during the day, and to avoid animal products. Eastern Christians view fasting as one part of repentance and supporting a spiritual change of heart. Eastern Christians observe two major times of fasting, the "Great Fast '' before Easter, and "Phillip 's Fast '' before the Nativity.
During the Great Fast, meat, eggs, dairy products, fish and oil are avoided.
The fast period before Christmas is called "Philip 's Fast '' because it begins after the feast day of St. Philip. Specific practices vary, but on some days during the week meat, dairy products and (in some countries) oil are avoided, while on other days there is no restriction. During approximately the last week before the Nativity, typically meat, dairy, eggs and oil are avoided on all days, meals are moderate in quantity, and no food is taken between meals.
Notes
Further reading
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where does the last name boyd come from | Boyd (surname) - wikipedia
Boyd is a Scottish surname. It originated from a habitational name from the island of Bute, located in the Firth of Clyde. The surname was very common in Edinburgh in the 17th century. The Scottish Gaelic form of the surname is Boid (masculine), and Bhoid (feminine).
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four positive aspects that feasibility study can offer | Feasibility study - wikipedia
Feasibility study is an assessment of the practicality of a proposed project or system.
A feasibility study aims to objectively and rationally uncover the strengths and weaknesses of an existing business or proposed venture, opportunities and threats present in the natural environment, the resources required to carry through, and ultimately the prospects for success. In its simplest terms, the two criteria to judge feasibility are cost required and value to be attained.
A well - designed feasibility study should provide a historical background of the business or project, a description of the product or service, accounting statements, details of the operations and management, marketing research and policies, financial data, legal requirements and tax obligations. Generally, feasibility studies precede technical development and project implementation.
A feasibility study evaluates the project 's potential for success; therefore, perceived objectivity is an important factor in the credibility of the study for potential investors and lending institutions. It must therefore be conducted with an objective, unbiased approach to provide information upon which decisions can be based.
A project feasibility study is a comprehensive report that examines in detail the five frames of analysis of a given project. It also takes into consideration its four Ps, its risks and POVs, and its constraints (calendar, costs, and norms of quality). The goal is to determine whether the project should go ahead, be redesigned, or else abandoned altogether..
The five frames of analysis are: The frame of definition; the frame of contextual risks; the frame of potentiality; the parametric frame; the frame of dominant and contingency strategies.
The four Ps are traditionally defined as Plan, Processes, People, and Power. The risks are considered to be external to the project (e.g., weather conditions) and are divided in eight categories: (Plan) financial and organizational (e.g., government structure for a private project); (Processes) environmental and technological; (People) marketing and sociocultural; and (Power) legal and political. POVs are Points of Vulnerability: they differ from risks in the sense that they are internal to the project and can be controlled or else eliminated.
The constraints are the standard constraints of calendar, costs and norms of quality that can each be objectively determined and measured along the entire project lifecycle. Depending on projects, portions of the study may suffice to produce a feasibility study; smaller projects, for example, may not require an exhaustive environmental assessment.
The acronym TELOS refers to the five areas of feasibility - Technical, Economic, Legal, Operational and Scheduling.
This assessment is based on an outline design of system requirements, to determine whether the company has the technical expertise to handle completion of the project. When writing a feasibility report, the following should be taken to consideration:
At this level, the concern is whether the proposal is both technically and legally feasible (assuming moderate cost).
The technical feasibility assessment is focused on gaining an understanding of the present technical resources of the organization and their applicability to the expected needs of the proposed system. It is an evaluation of the hardware and software and how it meets the need of the proposed system
The selection among a number of methods to produce the same commodity should be undertaken first. Factors that make one method being preferred to other method in agricultural projects are the following:
After we determine the appropriate method of production of a commodity, it is necessary to look for the optimal technique to produce this commodity.
Once the method of production and its technique are determined, technical people have to determine the projects ' requirements during the investment and operating periods. These include:
The most important factors that determine the selection of project location are the following:
Determines whether the proposed system conflicts with legal requirements, e.g., a data processing system must comply with the local data protection regulations and if the proposed venture is acceptable in accordance to the laws of the land.
Operational feasibility is the measure of how well a proposed system solves the problems, and takes advantage of the opportunities identified during scope definition and how it satisfies the requirements identified in the requirements analysis phase of system development.
The operational feasibility assessment focuses on the degree to which the proposed development project fits in with the existing business environment and objectives with regard to development schedule, delivery date, corporate culture and existing business processes.
To ensure success, desired operational outcomes must be imparted during design and development. These include such design - dependent parameters as reliability, maintainability, supportability, usability, producibility, disposability, sustainability, affordability and others. These parameters are required to be considered at the early stages of design if desired operational behaviours are to be realised. A system design and development requires appropriate and timely application of engineering and management efforts to meet the previously mentioned parameters. A system may serve its intended purpose most effectively when its technical and operating characteristics are engineered into the design. Therefore, operational feasibility is a critical aspect of systems engineering that needs to be an integral part of the early design phases.
A project will fail if it takes too long to be completed before it is useful. Typically this means estimating how long the system will take to develop, and if it can be completed in a given time period using some methods like payback period. Schedule feasibility is a measure of how reasonable the project timetable is. Given our technical expertise, are the project deadlines reasonable? Some projects are initiated with specific deadlines. It is necessary to determine whether the deadlines are mandatory or desirable.
This involves questions such as how much time is available to build the new system, when it can be built, whether it interferes with normal business operations, type and amount of resources required, dependencies, and developmental procedures with company revenue prospectus.
In case of a new project, financial viability can be judged on the following parameters:
The financial viability of a project should provide the following information:
In 1983 the first generation of the Computer Model for Feasibility Analysis and Reporting (COMFAR), a computation tool for financial analysis of investments, was released. Since then, this United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) software has been developed to also support the economic appraisal of projects. The COMFAR III Expert is intended as an aid in the analysis of investment projects. The main module of the program accepts financial and economic data, produces financial and economic statements and graphical displays and calculates measures of performance. Supplementary modules assist in the analytical process. Cost - benefit and value - added methods of economic analysis developed by UNIDO are included in the program and the methods of major international development institutions are accommodated. The program is applicable for the analysis of investment in new projects and expansion or rehabilitation of existing enterprises as, e.g., in the case of reprivatisation projects. For joint ventures, the financial perspective of each partner or class of shareholder can be developed. Analysis can be performed under a variety of assumptions concerning inflation, currency revaluation and price escalations.
This is one of the most important sections of the feasibility study as it examines the marketability of the product or services and convinces readers that there is a potential market for the product or services. If a significant market for the product or services can not be established, then there is no project.
Typically, market studies will assess the potential sales of the product, absorption and market capture rates and the project 's timing.
The feasibility study outputs the feasibility study report, a report detailing the evaluation criteria, the study findings, and the recommendations.
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who benefited from the gold rush in california | California gold Rush - wikipedia
The California Gold Rush (1848 -- 1855) began on January 24, 1848, when gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutter 's Mill in Coloma, California. The news of gold brought approximately 300,000 people to California from the rest of the United States and abroad. The sudden influx of immigration and gold into the money supply reinvigorated the American economy, and California became one of the few American states to go directly to statehood without first being a territory, in the Compromise of 1850. The Gold Rush had severe effects on Native Californians and resulted in a precipitous population decline from disease, genocide and starvation. By the time it ended, California had gone from a thinly populated ex-Mexican territory, to the home state of the first presidential nominee for the new Republican Party, in 1856.
The effects of the Gold Rush were substantial. Whole indigenous societies were attacked and pushed off their lands by the gold - seekers, called "forty - niners '' (referring to 1849). The first to hear confirmed information of the gold rush were the people in Oregon, the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii), and Latin America, and they were the first to move to the state in late 1848. Of the approximately 300,000 people who came to California during the Gold Rush, about half arrived by sea and half came overland on the California Trail and the Gila River trail; forty - niners often faced substantial hardships on the trip. While most of the newly arrived were Americans, the gold rush attracted thousands from Latin America, Europe, Australia, and China. Agriculture and ranching expanded throughout the state to meet the needs of the settlers. San Francisco grew from a small settlement of about 200 residents in 1846 to a boomtown of about 36,000 by 1852. Roads, churches, schools and other towns were built throughout California. In 1849 a state constitution was written. The new constitution was adopted by referendum vote, and the future state 's interim first governor and legislature were chosen. In September, 1850, California became a state.
At the beginning of the Gold Rush, there was no law regarding property rights in the goldfields and a system of "staking claims '' was developed. Prospectors retrieved the gold from streams and riverbeds using simple techniques, such as panning. Although the mining caused environmental harm, more sophisticated methods of gold recovery were developed and later adopted around the world. New methods of transportation developed as steamships came into regular service. By 1869, railroads were built from California to the eastern United States. At its peak, technological advances reached a point where significant financing was required, increasing the proportion of gold companies to individual miners. Gold worth tens of billions of today 's US dollars was recovered, which led to great wealth for a few, though many who participated in the California Gold Rush earned little more than they had started with.
The Mexican -- American War ended on February 3, 1848, although California was a de facto American possession before that. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided for, among other things, the formal transfer of Upper California to the United States. The California Gold Rush began at Sutter 's Mill, near Coloma. On January 24, 1848, James W. Marshall, a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter, found shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on the American River. Marshall brought what he found to John Sutter, and the two privately tested the metal. After the tests showed that it was gold, Sutter expressed dismay: he wanted to keep the news quiet because he feared what would happen to his plans for an agricultural empire if there were a mass search for gold.
Rumors of the discovery of gold were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher and merchant Samuel Brannan. Brannan hurriedly set up a store to sell gold prospecting supplies, and walked through the streets of San Francisco, holding aloft a vial of gold, shouting "Gold! Gold! Gold from the American River! ''
On August 19, 1848, the New York Herald was the first major newspaper on the East Coast to report the discovery of gold. On December 5, 1848, US President James Polk confirmed the discovery of gold in an address to Congress. As a result, individuals seeking to benefit from the gold rush -- later called the "forty - niners '' -- began moving to the Gold Country of California or "Mother Lode '' from other countries and from other parts of the United States. As Sutter had feared, his business plans were ruined after his workers left in search of gold, and squatters took over his land and stole his crops and cattle.
San Francisco had been a tiny settlement before the rush began. When residents learned about the discovery, it at first became a ghost town of abandoned ships and businesses, but then boomed as merchants and new people arrived. The population of San Francisco increased quickly from about 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 full - time residents by 1850. Miners lived in tents, wood shanties, or deck cabins removed from abandoned ships.
In what has been referred to as the "first world - class gold rush, '' there was no easy way to get to California; forty - niners faced hardship and often death on the way. At first, most Argonauts, as they were also known, traveled by sea. From the East Coast, a sailing voyage around the tip of South America would take five to eight months, and cover approximately 18,000 nautical miles (33,000 kilometres). An alternative was to sail to the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama, take canoes and mules for a week through the jungle, and then on the Pacific side, wait for a ship sailing for San Francisco. There was also a route across Mexico starting at Veracruz. Many gold - seekers took the overland route across the continental United States, particularly along the California Trail. Each of these routes had its own deadly hazards, from shipwreck to typhoid fever and cholera.
Supply ships arrived in San Francisco with goods to supply the needs of the growing population. When hundreds of ships were abandoned after their crews deserted into go to the goldfields, many ships were converted to warehouses, stores, taverns, hotels, and one into a jail. As the city expanded and new places were needed on which to build, many ships were destroyed and used as landfill.
Within a few years, there was an important but lesser - known surge of prospectors into far Northern California, specifically into present - day Siskiyou, Shasta and Trinity Counties. Discovery of gold nuggets at the site of present - day Yreka in 1851 brought thousands of gold - seekers up the Siskiyou Trail and throughout California 's northern counties.
Settlements of the Gold Rush era, such as Portuguese Flat on the Sacramento River, sprang into existence and then faded. The Gold Rush town of Weaverville on the Trinity River today retains the oldest continuously used Taoist temple in California, a legacy of Chinese miners who came. While there are not many Gold Rush era ghost towns still in existence, the remains of the once - bustling town of Shasta have been preserved in a California State Historic Park in Northern California.
Gold was also discovered in Southern California but on a much smaller scale. The first discovery of gold, at Rancho San Francisco in the mountains north of present - day Los Angeles, had been in 1842, six years before Marshall 's discovery, while California was still part of Mexico. However, these first deposits, and later discoveries in Southern California mountains, attracted little notice and were of limited consequence economically.
By 1850, most of the easily accessible gold had been collected, and attention turned to extracting gold from more difficult locations. Faced with gold increasingly difficult to retrieve, Americans began to drive out foreigners to get at the most accessible gold that remained. The new California State Legislature passed a foreign miners tax of twenty dollars per month ($590 per month as of 2018), and American prospectors began organized attacks on foreign miners, particularly Latin Americans and Chinese.
In addition, the huge numbers of newcomers were driving Native Americans out of their traditional hunting, fishing and food - gathering areas. To protect their homes and livelihood, some Native Americans responded by attacking the miners. This provoked counter-attacks on native villages. The Native Americans, out - gunned, were often slaughtered. Those who escaped massacres were many times unable to survive without access to their food - gathering areas, and they starved to death. Novelist and poet Joaquin Miller vividly captured one such attack in his semi-autobiographical work, Life Amongst the Modocs.
The first gold found in California was made on March 9, 1842. Francisco Lopez, a native California, was searching for stray horses. He stopped on the bank of a small creek in what later was known as Placerita Canyon, about 3 miles (4.8 km) east of the present - day Newhall, California, and about 35 miles (56 km) northwest of Los Angeles. While the horses grazed, Lopez dug up some wild onions and found a small gold nugget in the roots among the onion bulbs. He looked further and found more gold.
Lopez took the gold to authorities who confirmed its worth. Lopez and others began to search for other steambeds with gold deposits in the area. They found several in the northeastern section of the forest, within present - day Ventura County. In 1843 he found gold in San Feliciano Canyon near his first discovery. Mexican miners from Sonora worked the placer deposits until 1846, when the Californios began to agitate for independence from Mexico, and the Bear Flag Revolt caused many Mexicans to leave California.
The first people to rush to the goldfields, beginning in the spring of 1848, were the residents of California themselves -- primarily agriculturally oriented Americans and Europeans living in Northern California, along with Native Americans and some Californios (Spanish - speaking Californians). These first miners tended to be families in which everyone helped in the effort. Women and children of all ethnicities were often found panning next to the men. Some enterprising families set up boarding houses to accommodate the influx of men; in such cases, the women often brought in steady income while their husbands searched for gold.
Word of the Gold Rush spread slowly at first. The earliest gold - seekers were people who lived near California or people who heard the news from ships on the fastest sailing routes from California. The first large group of Americans to arrive were several thousand Oregonians who came down the Siskiyou Trail. Next came people from the Sandwich Islands, and several thousand Latin Americans, including people from Mexico, from Peru and from as far away as Chile, both by ship and overland. By the end of 1848, some 6,000 Argonauts had come to California.
Only a small number (probably fewer than 500) traveled overland from the United States that year. Some of these "forty - eighters '', as the earliest gold - seekers were sometimes called, were able to collect large amounts of easily accessible gold -- in some cases, thousands of dollars worth each day. Even ordinary prospectors averaged daily gold finds worth 10 to 15 times the daily wage of a laborer on the East Coast. A person could work for six months in the goldfields and find the equivalent of six years ' wages back home. Some hoped to get rich quick and return home, and others wished to start businesses in California.
By the beginning of 1849, word of the Gold Rush had spread around the world, and an overwhelming number of gold - seekers and merchants began to arrive from virtually every continent. The largest group of forty - niners in 1849 were Americans, arriving by the tens of thousands overland across the continent and along various sailing routes (the name "forty - niner '' was derived from the year 1849). Many from the East Coast negotiated a crossing of the Appalachian Mountains, taking to riverboats in Pennsylvania, poling the keelboats to Missouri River wagon train assembly ports, and then travelling in a wagon train along the California Trail. Many others came by way of the Isthmus of Panama and the steamships of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. Australians and New Zealanders picked up the news from ships carrying Hawaiian newspapers, and thousands, infected with "gold fever '', boarded ships for California.
Forty - niners came from Latin America, particularly from the Mexican mining districts near Sonora and Chile. Gold - seekers and merchants from Asia, primarily from China, began arriving in 1849, at first in modest numbers to Gum San ("Gold Mountain ''), the name given to California in Chinese. The first immigrants from Europe, reeling from the effects of the Revolutions of 1848 and with a longer distance to travel, began arriving in late 1849, mostly from France, with some Germans, Italians, and Britons.
It is estimated that approximately 90,000 people arrived in California in 1849 -- about half by land and half by sea. Of these, perhaps 50,000 to 60,000 were Americans, and the rest were from other countries. By 1855, it is estimated at least 300,000 gold - seekers, merchants, and other immigrants had arrived in California from around the world. The largest group continued to be Americans, but there were tens of thousands each of Mexicans, Chinese, Britons, Australians, French, and Latin Americans, together with many smaller groups of miners, such as African Americans, Filipinos, Basques and Turks.
People from small villages in the hills near Genova, Italy were among the first to settle permanently in the Sierra Nevada foothills; they brought with them traditional agricultural skills, developed to survive cold winters. A modest number of miners of African ancestry (probably less than 4,000) had come from the Southern States, the Caribbean and Brazil.
A number of immigrants were from China. Several hundred Chinese arrived in California in 1849 and 1850, and in 1852 more than 20,000 landed in San Francisco. Their distinctive dress and appearance was highly recognizable in the goldfields. Chinese miners suffered enormously, enduring violent racism from white miners who aimed their frustrations at foreigners. To this day, there has been no justice for known victims. Further animosity toward the Chinese led to legislation such as the Chinese Exclusion Act and Foreign Miners Tax.
There were also women in the Gold Rush. However, their numbers were small. Of the 40,000 people who arrived by ship in the San Francisco harbor in 1849, only 700 were women. They held various roles including prostitutes, single entrepreneurs, married women, poor and wealthy women. They were of various ethnicities including Anglo - American, African - American, Hispanic, Native, European, Chinese, and Jewish. The reasons they came varied: some came with their husbands, refusing to be left behind to fend for themselves, some came because their husbands sent for them, and others came (singles and widows) for the adventure and economic opportunities. On the trail many people died from accidents, cholera, fever, and myriad other causes, and many women became widows before even setting eyes on California. While in California, women became widows quite frequently due to mining accidents, disease, or mining disputes of their husbands. Life in the goldfields offered opportunities for women to break from their traditional work.
Described as the "city of bachelors '', the disproportionate number of men to women in San Francisco created an environment where homosexuality and gay culture flourished. Barbary Coast was a district where men went to gamble, "satisfy their sexual desires '', and pay for sex with women or female impersonators.
When the Gold Rush began, the California goldfields were peculiarly lawless places. When gold was discovered at Sutter 's Mill, California was still technically part of Mexico, under American military occupation as the result of the Mexican -- American War. With the signing of the treaty ending the war on February 2, 1848, California became a possession of the United States, but it was not a formal "territory '' and did not become a state until September 9, 1850. California existed in the unusual condition of a region under military control. There was no civil legislature, executive or judicial body for the entire region. Local residents operated under a confusing and changing mixture of Mexican rules, American principles, and personal dictates. Lax enforcement of federal laws, such as the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, encouraged the arrival of free blacks and escaped slaves.
While the treaty ending the Mexican -- American War obliged the United States to honor Mexican land grants, almost all the goldfields were outside those grants. Instead, the goldfields were primarily on "public land '', meaning land formally owned by the United States government. However, there were no legal rules yet in place, and no practical enforcement mechanisms.
The benefit to the forty - niners was that the gold was simply "free for the taking '' at first. In the goldfields at the beginning, there was no private property, no licensing fees, and no taxes. The miners informally adapted Mexican mining law that had existed in California. For example, the rules attempted to balance the rights of early arrivers at a site with later arrivers; a "claim '' could be "staked '' by a prospector, but that claim was valid only as long as it was being actively worked.
Miners worked at a claim only long enough to determine its potential. If a claim was deemed as low - value -- as most were -- miners would abandon the site in search for a better one. In the case where a claim was abandoned or not worked upon, other miners would "claim - jump '' the land. "Claim - jumping '' meant that a miner began work on a previously claimed site. Disputes were often handled personally and violently, and were sometimes addressed by groups of prospectors acting as arbitrators. This often led to heightened ethnic tensions. In some areas the influx of many prospectors could lead to a reduction of the existing claim size by simple pressure.
Four hundred million years ago, California lay at the bottom of a large sea; underwater volcanoes deposited lava and minerals (including gold) onto the sea floor. By tectonic forces these minerals and rocks came to the surface of the Sierra Nevada, and eroded. Water carried the exposed gold downstream and deposited it in quiet gravel beds along the sides of old rivers and streams. The forty - niners first focused their efforts on these deposits of gold.
Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, early forty - niners were able to retrieve loose gold flakes and nuggets with their hands, or simply "pan '' for gold in rivers and streams. However, panning can not take place on a large scale, and industrious miners and groups of miners graduated to placer mining, using "cradles '' and "rockers '' or "long - toms '' to process larger volumes of gravel. Miners would also engage in "coyoteing '', a method that involved digging a shaft 6 to 13 meters (20 to 43 ft) deep into placer deposits along a stream. Tunnels were then dug in all directions to reach the richest veins of pay dirt.
In the most complex placer mining, groups of prospectors would divert the water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river, and then dig for gold in the newly exposed river bottom. Modern estimates by the U.S. Geological Survey are that some 12 million ounces (370 t) of gold were removed in the first five years of the Gold Rush (worth over US $ 16 billion at December 2010 prices).
In the next stage, by 1853, hydraulic mining was used on ancient gold - bearing gravel beds on hillsides and bluffs in the goldfields. In a modern style of hydraulic mining first developed in California, and later used around the world, a high - pressure hose directed a powerful stream or jet of water at gold - bearing gravel beds. The loosened gravel and gold would then pass over sluices, with the gold settling to the bottom where it was collected. By the mid-1880s, it is estimated that 11 million ounces (340 t) of gold (worth approximately US $15 billion at December 2010 prices) had been recovered by "hydraulicking ''.
A byproduct of these extraction methods was that large amounts of gravel, silt, heavy metals, and other pollutants went into streams and rivers. As of 1999 many areas still bear the scars of hydraulic mining, since the resulting exposed earth and downstream gravel deposits do not support plant life.
After the Gold Rush had concluded, gold recovery operations continued. The final stage to recover loose gold was to prospect for gold that had slowly washed down into the flat river bottoms and sandbars of California 's Central Valley and other gold - bearing areas of California (such as Scott Valley in Siskiyou County). By the late 1890s, dredging technology (also invented in California) had become economical, and it is estimated that more than 20 million ounces (620 t) were recovered by dredging (worth approximately US $28 billion at December 2010 prices).
Both during the Gold Rush and in the decades that followed, gold - seekers also engaged in "hard - rock '' mining, that is, extracting the gold directly from the rock that contained it (typically quartz), usually by digging and blasting to follow and remove veins of the gold - bearing quartz. By 1851, quartz mining had become the major industry of Coloma. Once the gold - bearing rocks were brought to surface, the rocks were crushed and the gold separated, either using separation in water, using its density difference from quartz sand, or by washing the sand over copper plates coated with mercury (with which gold forms an amalgam). Loss of mercury in the amalgamation process was a source of environmental contamination. Eventually, hard - rock mining wound up becoming the single largest source of gold produced in the Gold Country. The total production of gold in California from then till now is estimated at 118 million ounces (3700 t).
Forty - niner panning for gold
Sluice for separation of gold from dirt with water
Excavating a river bed after the water has been diverted
Crushing quartz ore prior to washing out gold
Excavating a gravel bed with jets, circa 1863
Recent scholarship confirms that merchants made far more money than miners during the Gold Rush. The wealthiest man in California during the early years of the rush was Samuel Brannan, a tireless self - promoter, shopkeeper and newspaper publisher. Brannan opened the first supply stores in Sacramento, Coloma, and other spots in the goldfields. Just as the rush began he purchased all the prospecting supplies available in San Francisco and re-sold them at a substantial profit.
Some gold - seekers made a significant amount of money. On average, half the gold - seekers made a modest profit, after taking all expenses into account; economic historians have suggested that white miners were more successful than black, Indian, or Chinese miners. However, taxes such as the California foreign miners tax passed in 1851, targeted mainly Latino miners and kept them from making as much money as whites, who did not have any taxes imposed on them. In California most late arrivals made little or wound up losing money. Similarly, many unlucky merchants set up in settlements which disappeared, or which succumbed to one of the calamitous fires that swept the towns that sprang up. By contrast, a businessman who went on to great success was Levi Strauss, who first began selling denim overalls in San Francisco in 1853.
Other businessmen reaped great rewards in retail, shipping, entertainment, lodging, or transportation. Boardinghouses, food preparation, sewing, and laundry were highly profitable businesses often run by women (married, single, or widowed) who realized men would pay well for a service done by a woman. Brothels also brought in large profits, especially when combined with saloons and gaming houses.
By 1855, the economic climate had changed dramatically. Gold could be retrieved profitably from the goldfields only by medium to large groups of workers, either in partnerships or as employees. By the mid-1850s, it was the owners of these gold - mining companies who made the money. Also, the population and economy of California had become large and diverse enough that money could be made in a wide variety of conventional businesses.
Once extracted, the gold itself took many paths. First, much of the gold was used locally to purchase food, supplies and lodging for the miners. It also went towards entertainment, which consisted of anything from a traveling theater to alcohol, gambling, and prostitutes. These transactions often took place using the recently recovered gold, carefully weighed out. These merchants and vendors in turn used the gold to purchase supplies from ship captains or packers bringing goods to California.
The gold then left California aboard ships or mules to go to the makers of the goods from around the world. A second path was the Argonauts themselves who, having personally acquired a sufficient amount, sent the gold home, or returned home taking with them their hard - earned "diggings ''. For example, one estimate is that some US $ 80 million worth of California gold was sent to France by French prospectors and merchants.
As the Gold Rush progressed, local banks and gold dealers issued "banknotes '' or "drafts '' -- locally accepted paper currency -- in exchange for gold, and private mints created private gold coins. With the building of the San Francisco Mint in 1854, gold bullion was turned into official United States gold coins for circulation. The gold was also later sent by California banks to U.S. national banks in exchange for national paper currency to be used in the booming California economy.
The arrival of hundreds of thousands of new people in California within a few years, compared to a population of some 15,000 Europeans and Californios beforehand, had many dramatic effects.
A 2017 study attributes the record - long economic expansion of the United States in the recession - free period of 1841 -- 1856 primarily to "a boom in transportation - goods investment following the discovery of gold in California. ''
The Gold Rush propelled California from a sleepy, little - known backwater to a center of the global imagination and the destination of hundreds of thousands of people. The new immigrants often showed remarkable inventiveness and civic - mindedness. For example, in the midst of the Gold Rush, towns and cities were chartered, a state constitutional convention was convened, a state constitution written, elections held, and representatives sent to Washington, D.C. to negotiate the admission of California as a state.
Large - scale agriculture (California 's second "Gold Rush '') began during this time. Roads, schools, churches, and civic organizations quickly came into existence. The vast majority of the immigrants were Americans. Pressure grew for better communications and political connections to the rest of the United States, leading to statehood for California on September 9, 1850, in the Compromise of 1850 as the 31st state of the United States.
Between 1847 and 1870, the population of San Francisco increased from 500 to 150,000. The Gold Rush wealth and population increase led to significantly improved transportation between California and the East Coast. The Panama Railway, spanning the Isthmus of Panama, was finished in 1855. Steamships, including those owned by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, began regular service from San Francisco to Panama, where passengers, goods and mail would take the train across the Isthmus and board steamships headed to the East Coast. One ill - fated journey, that of the S.S. Central America, ended in disaster as the ship sank in a hurricane off the coast of the Carolinas in 1857, with approximately three tons of California gold aboard.
The human and environmental costs of the Gold Rush were substantial. Native Americans, dependent on traditional hunting, gathering and agriculture, became the victims of starvation and disease, as gravel, silt and toxic chemicals from prospecting operations killed fish and destroyed habitats. The surge in the mining population also resulted in the disappearance of game and food gathering locales as gold camps and other settlements were built amidst them. Later farming spread to supply the settlers ' camps, taking more land away from the Native Americans.
In some areas, systematic attacks against tribespeople in or near mining districts occurred. Various conflicts were fought between natives and settlers. Miners often saw Native Americans as impediments to their mining activities. Ed Allen, interpretive lead for Marshall Gold Discovery State Historic Park, reported that there were times when miners would kill up to 50 or more Natives in one day. Retribution attacks on solitary miners could result in larger scale attacks against Native populations, at times tribes or villages not involved in the original act. During the 1852 Bridge Gulch Massacre, a group of settlers attacked a band of Wintu Indians in response to the killing of a citizen named J.R. Anderson. After his killing, the sheriff led a group of men to track down the Indians, whom the men then attacked. Only three children survived the massacre that was against a different band of Wintu than the one that had killed Anderson.
Historian Benjamin Madley recorded the numbers of killings of California Indians between 1846 and 1873 and estimated that during this period at least 9,400 to 16,000 California Indians were killed by non-Indians, mostly occurring in more than 370 massacres (defined as the "intentional killing of five or more disarmed combatants or largely unarmed noncombatants, including women, children, and prisoners, whether in the context of a battle or otherwise ''). According to demographer Russell Thornton, between 1849 and 1890, the Indigenous population of California fell below 20,000 -- primarily because of the killings. According to the government of California, some 4,500 Native Americans suffered violent deaths between 1849 and 1870. Furthermore, California stood in opposition of ratifying the eighteen treaties signed between tribal leaders and federal agents in 1851.
The state government, in support of miner activities funded and supported death squads, appropriating over 1 million dollars towards the funding and operation of the paramilitary organizations. Peter Burnett, California 's first governor declared that California was a battleground between the races and that there were only two options towards California Indians, extermination or removal. "That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the two races until the Indian race becomes extinct, must be expected. While we can not anticipate the result with but painful regret, the inevitable destiny of the race is beyond the power and wisdom of man to avert. '' For Burnett, like many of his contemporaries, the genocide was part of God 's plan, and it was necessary for Burnett 's constituency to move forward in California. The Act for the Government and Protection of Indians, passed on April 22, 1850 by the California Legislature, allowed settlers to capture and use Native people as bonded workers, prohibited Native peoples ' testimony against settlers, and allowed the adoption of Native children by settlers, often for labor purposes.
After the initial boom had ended, explicitly anti-foreign and racist attacks, laws and confiscatory taxes sought to drive out foreigners -- not just Native Americans -- from the mines, especially the Chinese and Latin American immigrants mostly from Sonora, Mexico and Chile. The toll on the American immigrants was severe as well: one in twelve forty - niners perished, as the death and crime rates during the Gold Rush were extraordinarily high, and the resulting vigilantism also took its toll.
The Gold Rush stimulated economies around the world as well. Farmers in Chile, Australia, and Hawaii found a huge new market for their food; British manufactured goods were in high demand; clothing and even prefabricated houses arrived from China. The return of large amounts of California gold to pay for these goods raised prices and stimulated investment and the creation of jobs around the world. Australian prospector Edward Hargraves, noting similarities between the geography of California and his home country, returned to Australia to discover gold and spark the Australian gold rushes. Preceding the Gold Rush, the United States was on a bi-metallic standard, but the sudden increase in physical gold supply increased the relative value of physical silver and drove silver money from circulation. The increase in gold supply also created a monetary supply shock.
Within a few years after the end of the Gold Rush, in 1863, the groundbreaking ceremony for the western leg of the First Transcontinental Railroad was held in Sacramento. The line 's completion, some six years later, financed in part with Gold Rush money, united California with the central and eastern United States. Travel that had taken weeks or even months could now be accomplished in days.
California 's name became indelibly connected with the Gold Rush, and fast success in a new world became known as the "California Dream. '' California was perceived as a place of new beginnings, where great wealth could reward hard work and good luck. Historian H.W. Brands noted that in the years after the Gold Rush, the California Dream spread across the nation:
The old American Dream... was the dream of the Puritans, of Benjamin Franklin 's "Poor Richard ''... of men and women content to accumulate their modest fortunes a little at a time, year by year by year. The new dream was the dream of instant wealth, won in a twinkling by audacity and good luck. (This) golden dream... became a prominent part of the American psyche only after Sutter 's Mill.
Overnight California gained the international reputation as the "golden state ''. Generations of immigrants have been attracted by the California Dream. California farmers, oil drillers, movie makers, airplane builders, and "dot - com '' entrepreneurs have each had their boom times in the decades after the Gold Rush.
Included among the modern legacies of the California Gold Rush are the California state motto, "Eureka '' ("I have found it ''), Gold Rush images on the California State Seal, and the state nickname, "The Golden State '', as well as place names, such as Placer County, Rough and Ready, Placerville (formerly named "Dry Diggings '' and then "Hangtown '' during rush time), Whiskeytown, Drytown, Angels Camp, Happy Camp, and Sawyers Bar. The San Francisco 49ers National Football League team, and the similarly named athletic teams of California State University, Long Beach, are named for the prospectors of the California Gold Rush.
In addition, the standard route shield of state highways in California is in the shape of a miner 's spade to honor the California Gold Rush. Today, aptly named State Route 49 travels through the Sierra Nevada foothills, connecting many Gold Rush - era towns such as Placerville, Auburn, Grass Valley, Nevada City, Coloma, Jackson, and Sonora. This state highway also passes very near Columbia State Historic Park, a protected area encompassing the historic business district of the town of Columbia; the park has preserved many Gold Rush - era buildings, which are presently occupied by tourist - oriented businesses.
The literary history of the Gold Rush is reflected in the works of Mark Twain (The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County), Bret Harte (A Millionaire of Rough - and - Ready), Joaquin Miller (Life Amongst the Modocs), and many others.
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show me some pictures of the eiffel tower | Eiffel tower - wikipedia
The Eiffel Tower (/ ˈaɪfəl ˈtaʊ. ər / EYE - fəl TOW - ər; French: tour Eiffel, pronounced (tuʁ ‿ ɛfɛl) listen) is a wrought iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower.
Constructed from 1887 -- 89 as the entrance to the 1889 World 's Fair, it was initially criticized by some of France 's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, but it has become a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognisable structures in the world. The Eiffel Tower is the most - visited paid monument in the world; 6.91 million people ascended it in 2015.
The tower is 324 metres (1,063 ft) tall, about the same height as an 81 - storey building, and the tallest structure in Paris. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres (410 ft) on each side. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to become the tallest man - made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York City was finished in 1930. Due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres (17 ft). Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second - tallest structure in France after the Millau Viaduct.
The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top level 's upper platform is 276 m (906 ft) above the ground -- the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift (elevator) to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the climb from the first level to the second. Although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually accessible only by lift.
The design of the Eiffel Tower was the product of Maurice Koechlin and Émile Nouguier, two senior engineers working for the Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel, after discussion about a suitable centrepiece for the proposed 1889 Exposition Universelle, a world 's fair to celebrate the centennial of the French Revolution. Eiffel openly acknowledged that inspiration for a tower came from the Latting Observatory built in New York City in 1853. In May 1884, working at home, Koechlin made a sketch of their idea, described by him as "a great pylon, consisting of four lattice girders standing apart at the base and coming together at the top, joined together by metal trusses at regular intervals ''. Eiffel initially showed little enthusiasm, but he did approve further study, and the two engineers then asked Stephen Sauvestre, the head of company 's architectural department, to contribute to the design. Sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments.
The new version gained Eiffel 's support: he bought the rights to the patent on the design which Koechlin, Nougier, and Sauvestre had taken out, and the design was exhibited at the Exhibition of Decorative Arts in the autumn of 1884 under the company name. On 30 March 1885, Eiffel presented his plans to the Société des Ingénieurs Civils; after discussing the technical problems and emphasising the practical uses of the tower, he finished his talk by saying the tower would symbolise,
Not only the art of the modern engineer, but also the century of Industry and Science in which we are living, and for which the way was prepared by the great scientific movement of the eighteenth century and by the Revolution of 1789, to which this monument will be built as an expression of France 's gratitude.
Little progress was made until 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as president of France and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as minister for trade. A budget for the exposition was passed and, on 1 May, Lockroy announced an alteration to the terms of the open competition being held for a centrepiece to the exposition, which effectively made the selection of Eiffel 's design a foregone conclusion, as entries had to include a study for a 300 m (980 ft) four - sided metal tower on the Champ de Mars. (A 300 - meter tower was then considered a herculean engineering effort). On 12 May, a commission was set up to examine Eiffel 's scheme and its rivals, which, a month later, decided that all the proposals except Eiffel 's were either impractical or lacking in details.
After some debate about the exact location of the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. This was signed by Eiffel acting in his own capacity rather than as the representative of his company, and granted him 1.5 million francs toward the construction costs: less than a quarter of the estimated 6.5 million francs. Eiffel was to receive all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition and for the next 20 years. He later established a separate company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself.
The proposed tower had been a subject of controversy, drawing criticism from those who did not believe it was feasible and those who objected on artistic grounds. These objections were an expression of a long - standing debate in France about the relationship between architecture and engineering. It came to a head as work began at the Champ de Mars: a "Committee of Three Hundred '' (one member for each metre of the tower 's height) was formed, led by the prominent architect Charles Garnier and including some of the most important figures of the arts, such as Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Maupassant, Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet. A petition called "Artists against the Eiffel Tower '' was sent to the Minister of Works and Commissioner for the Exposition, Charles Alphand, and it was published by Le Temps on 14 February 1887:
We, writers, painters, sculptors, architects and passionate devotees of the hitherto untouched beauty of Paris, protest with all our strength, with all our indignation in the name of slighted French taste, against the erection... of this useless and monstrous Eiffel Tower... To bring our arguments home, imagine for a moment a giddy, ridiculous tower dominating Paris like a gigantic black smokestack, crushing under its barbaric bulk Notre Dame, the Tour Saint - Jacques, the Louvre, the Dome of les Invalides, the Arc de Triomphe, all of our humiliated monuments will disappear in this ghastly dream. And for twenty years... we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the hateful column of bolted sheet metal.
Gustave Eiffel responded to these criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian pyramids: "My tower will be the tallest edifice ever erected by man. Will it not also be grandiose in its way? And why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris? '' These criticisms were also dealt with by Édouard Lockroy in a letter of support written to Alphand, ironically saying, "Judging by the stately swell of the rhythms, the beauty of the metaphors, the elegance of its delicate and precise style, one can tell this protest is the result of collaboration of the most famous writers and poets of our time '', and he explained that the protest was irrelevant since the project had been decided upon months before, and construction on the tower was already under way.
Indeed, Garnier was a member of the Tower Commission that had examined the various proposals, and had raised no objection. Eiffel was similarly unworried, pointing out to a journalist that it was premature to judge the effect of the tower solely on the basis of the drawings, that the Champ de Mars was distant enough from the monuments mentioned in the protest for there to be little risk of the tower overwhelming them, and putting the aesthetic argument for the tower: "Do not the laws of natural forces always conform to the secret laws of harmony? ''
Some of the protesters changed their minds when the tower was built; others remained unconvinced. Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the tower 's restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible.
By 1918, it had become a symbol of Paris and of France after Guillaume Apollinaire wrote a nationalist poem in the shape of the tower (a calligram) to express his feelings about the war against Germany. Today, it is widely considered to be a remarkable piece of structural art, and is often featured in films and literature.
Work on the foundations started on 28 January 1887. Those for the east and south legs were straightforward, with each leg resting on four 2 m (6.6 ft) concrete slabs, one for each of the principal girders of each leg. The west and north legs, being closer to the river Seine, were more complicated: each slab needed two piles installed by using compressed - air caissons 15 m (49 ft) long and 6 m (20 ft) in diameter driven to a depth of 22 m (72 ft) to support the concrete slabs, which were 6 m (20 ft) thick. Each of these slabs supported a block of limestone with an inclined top to bear a supporting shoe for the ironwork.
Each shoe was anchored to the stonework by a pair of bolts 10 cm (4 in) in diameter and 7.5 m (25 ft) long. The foundations were completed on 30 June, and the erection of the ironwork began. The visible work on - site was complemented by the enormous amount of exacting preparatory work that took place behind the scenes: the drawing office produced 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detailed drawings of the 18,038 different parts needed. The task of drawing the components was complicated by the complex angles involved in the design and the degree of precision required: the position of rivet holes was specified to within 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) and angles worked out to one second of arc. The finished components, some already riveted together into sub-assemblies, arrived on horse - drawn carts from a factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois - Perret and were first bolted together, with the bolts being replaced with rivets as construction progressed. No drilling or shaping was done on site: if any part did not fit, it was sent back to the factory for alteration. In all, 18,038 pieces were joined together using 2.5 million rivets.
At first the legs were constructed as cantilevers, but about halfway to the first level, construction was paused in order to create a substantial timber scaffold. This renewed concerns about the structural integrity of the tower, and sensational headlines such as "Eiffel Suicide! '' and "Gustave Eiffel Has Gone Mad: He Has Been Confined in an Asylum '' appeared in the tabloid press. At this stage, a small "creeper '' crane designed to move up the tower was installed in each leg. They made use of the guides for the lifts which were to be fitted in the four legs. The critical stage of joining the legs at the first level was completed by the end of March 1888. Although the metalwork had been prepared with the utmost attention to detail, provision had been made to carry out small adjustments in order to precisely align the legs; hydraulic jacks were fitted to the shoes at the base of each leg, capable of exerting a force of 800 tonnes, and the legs were intentionally constructed at a slightly steeper angle than necessary, being supported by sandboxes on the scaffold. Although construction involved 300 on - site employees, only one person died thanks to Eiffel 's stringent safety precautions and the use of movable gangways, guardrails and screens.
The start of the erection of the metalwork.
7 December 1887: Construction of the legs with scaffolding.
20 March 1888: Completion of the first level.
15 May 1888: Start of construction on the second stage.
21 August 1888: Completion of the second level.
26 December 1888: Construction of the upper stage.
15 March 1889: Construction of the cupola.
Equipping the tower with adequate and safe passenger lifts was a major concern of the government commission overseeing the Exposition. Although some visitors could be expected to climb to the first level, or even the second, lifts clearly had to be the main means of ascent.
Constructing lifts to reach the first level was relatively straightforward: the legs were wide enough at the bottom and so nearly straight that they could contain a straight track, and a contract was given to the French company Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape for two lifts to be fitted in the east and west legs. Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape used a pair of endless chains with rigid, articulated links to which the car was attached. Lead weights on some links of the upper or return sections of the chains counterbalanced most of the car 's weight. The car was pushed up from below, not pulled up from above: to prevent the chain buckling, it was enclosed in a conduit. At the bottom of the run, the chains passed around 3.9 m (12 ft 10 in) diameter sprockets. Smaller sprockets at the top guided the chains.
Installing lifts to the second level was more of a challenge because a straight track was impossible. No French company wanted to undertake the work. The European branch of Otis Brothers & Company submitted a proposal but this was rejected: the fair 's charter ruled out the use of any foreign material in the construction of the tower. The deadline for bids was extended but still no French companies put themselves forward, and eventually the contract was given to Otis in July 1887. Otis were confident they would eventually be given the contract and had already started creating designs.
The car was divided into two superimposed compartments, each holding 25 passengers, with the lift operator occupying an exterior platform on the first level. Motive power was provided by an inclined hydraulic ram 12.67 m (41 ft 7 in) long and 96.5 cm (38.0 in) in diameter in the tower leg with a stroke of 10.83 m (35 ft 6 in): this moved a carriage carrying six sheaves. Five fixed sheaves were mounted higher up the leg, producing an arrangement similar to a block and tackle but acting in reverse, multiplying the stroke of the piston rather than the force generated. The hydraulic pressure in the driving cylinder was produced by a large open reservoir on the second level. After being exhausted from the cylinder, the water was pumped back up to the reservoir by two pumps in the machinery room at the base of the south leg. This reservoir also provided power to the lifts to the first level.
The original lifts for the journey between the second and third levels were supplied by Léon Edoux. A pair of 81 m (266 ft) hydraulic rams were mounted on the second level, reaching nearly halfway up to the third level. One lift car was mounted on top of these rams: cables ran from the top of this car up to sheaves on the third level and back down to a second car. Each car only travelled half the distance between the second and third levels and passengers were required to change lifts halfway by means of a short gangway. The 10 - ton cars each held 65 passengers.
The main structural work was completed at the end of March 1889 and, on 31 March, Eiffel celebrated by leading a group of government officials, accompanied by representatives of the press, to the top of the tower. Because the lifts were not yet in operation, the ascent was made by foot, and took over an hour, with Eiffel stopping frequently to explain various features. Most of the party chose to stop at the lower levels, but a few, including the structural engineer, Émile Nouguier, the head of construction, Jean Compagnon, the President of the City Council, and reporters from Le Figaro and Le Monde Illustré, completed the ascent. At 2: 35 pm, Eiffel hoisted a large Tricolour to the accompaniment of a 25 - gun salute fired at the first level.
There was still work to be done, particularly on the lifts and facilities, and the tower was not opened to the public until nine days after the opening of the exposition on 6 May; even then, the lifts had not been completed. The tower was an instant success with the public, and nearly 30,000 visitors made the 1,710 - step climb to the top before the lifts entered service on 26 May. Tickets cost 2 francs for the first level, 3 for the second, and 5 for the top, with half - price admission on Sundays, and by the end of the exhibition there had been 1,896,987 visitors.
After dark, the tower was lit by hundreds of gas lamps, and a beacon sent out three beams of red, white and blue light. Two searchlights mounted on a circular rail were used to illuminate various buildings of the exposition. The daily opening and closing of the exposition were announced by a cannon at the top.
On the second level, the French newspaper Le Figaro had an office and a printing press, where a special souvenir edition, Le Figaro de la Tour, was made. There was also a pâtisserie.
At the top, there was a post office where visitors could send letters and postcards as a memento of their visit. Graffitists were also catered for: sheets of paper were mounted on the walls each day for visitors to record their impressions of the tower. Gustave Eiffel described some of the responses as vraiment curieuse ("truly curious '').
Famous visitors to the tower included the Prince of Wales, Sarah Bernhardt, "Buffalo Bill '' Cody (his Wild West show was an attraction at the exposition) and Thomas Edison. Eiffel invited Edison to his private apartment at the top of the tower, where Edison presented him with one of his phonographs, a new invention and one of the many highlights of the exposition. Edison signed the guestbook with this message:
To M Eiffel the Engineer the brave builder of so gigantic and original specimen of modern Engineering from one who has the greatest respect and admiration for all Engineers including the Great Engineer the Bon Dieu, Thomas Edison.
Eiffel had a permit for the tower to stand for 20 years. It was to be dismantled in 1909, when its ownership would revert to the City of Paris. The City had planned to tear it down (part of the original contest rules for designing a tower was that it should be easy to dismantle) but as the tower proved to be valuable for communication purposes, it was allowed to remain after the expiry of the permit.
Eiffel made use of his apartment at the top of the tower to carry out meteorological observations, and also used the tower to perform experiments on the action of air resistance on falling bodies.
For the 1900 Exposition Universelle, the lifts in the east and west legs were replaced by lifts running as far as the second level constructed by the French firm Fives - Lille. These had a compensating mechanism to keep the floor level as the angle of ascent changed at the first level, and were driven by a similar hydraulic mechanism to the Otis lifts, although this was situated at the base of the tower. Hydraulic pressure was provided by pressurised accumulators located near this mechanism. At the same time the lift in the north pillar was removed and replaced by a staircase to the first level. The layout of both first and second levels was modified, with the space available for visitors on the second level. The original lift in the south pillar was removed 13 years later.
On 19 October 1901, Alberto Santos - Dumont, flying his No. 6 airship, won a 100,000 - franc prize offered by Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe for the first person to make a flight from St. Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and back in less than half an hour.
Many innovations took place at the Eiffel Tower in the early 20th century. In 1910, Father Theodor Wulf measured radiant energy at the top and bottom of the tower. He found more at the top than expected, incidentally discovering what are known today as cosmic rays. Just two years later, on 4 February 1912, Austrian tailor Franz Reichelt died after jumping from the first level of the tower (a height of 57 metres) to demonstrate his parachute design. In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, a radio transmitter located in the tower jammed German radio communications, seriously hindering their advance on Paris and contributing to the Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne. From 1925 to 1934, illuminated signs for Citroën adorned three of the tower 's sides, making it the tallest advertising space in the world at the time. In April 1935, the tower was used to make experimental low - resolution television transmissions, using a shortwave transmitter of 200 watts power. On 17 November, an improved 180 - line transmitter was installed.
On two separate but related occasions in 1925, the con artist Victor Lustig "sold '' the tower for scrap metal. A year later, in February 1926, pilot Leon Collet was killed trying to fly under the tower. His aircraft became entangled in an aerial belonging to a wireless station. A bust of Gustave Eiffel by Antoine Bourdelle was unveiled at the base of the north leg on 2 May 1929. In 1930, the tower lost the title of the world 's tallest structure when the Chrysler Building in New York City was completed. In 1938, the decorative arcade around the first level was removed.
Upon the German occupation of Paris in 1940, the lift cables were cut by the French. The tower was closed to the public during the occupation and the lifts were not repaired until 1946. In 1940, German soldiers had to climb the tower to hoist a swastika - centered Reichskriegsflagge, but the flag was so large it blew away just a few hours later, and was replaced by a smaller one. When visiting Paris, Hitler chose to stay on the ground. When the Allies were nearing Paris in August 1944, Hitler ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz, the military governor of Paris, to demolish the tower along with the rest of the city. Von Choltitz disobeyed the order. On 25 June, before the Germans had been driven out of Paris, the German flag was replaced with a Tricolour by two men from the French Naval Museum, who narrowly beat three men led by Lucien Sarniguet, who had lowered the Tricolour on 13 June 1940 when Paris fell to the Germans.
A fire started in the television transmitter on 3 January 1956, damaging the top of the tower. Repairs took a year, and in 1957, the present radio aerial was added to the top. In 1964, the Eiffel Tower was officially declared to be a historical monument by the Minister of Cultural Affairs, André Malraux. A year later, an additional lift system was installed in the north pillar.
According to interviews, in 1967, Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau negotiated a secret agreement with Charles de Gaulle for the tower to be dismantled and temporarily relocated to Montreal to serve as a landmark and tourist attraction during Expo 67. The plan was allegedly vetoed by the company operating the tower out of fear that the French government could refuse permission for the tower to be restored in its original location.
In 1982, the original lifts between the second and third levels were replaced after 97 years in service. These had been closed to the public between November and March because the water in the hydraulic drive tended to freeze. The new cars operate in pairs, with one counterbalancing the other, and perform the journey in one stage, reducing the journey time from eight minutes to less than two minutes. At the same time, two new emergency staircases were installed, replacing the original spiral staircases. In 1983, the south pillar was fitted with an electrically driven Otis lift to serve the Jules Verne restaurant. The Fives - Lille lifts in the east and west legs, fitted in 1899, were extensively refurbished in 1986. The cars were replaced, and a computer system was installed to completely automate the lifts. The motive power was moved from the water hydraulic system to a new electrically driven oil - filled hydraulic system, and the original water hydraulics were retained solely as a counterbalance system. A service lift was added to the south pillar for moving small loads and maintenance personnel three years later.
Robert Moriarty flew a Beechcraft Bonanza under the tower on 31 March 1984. In 1987, A.J. Hackett made one of his first bungee jumps from the top of the Eiffel Tower, using a special cord he had helped develop. Hackett was arrested by the police. On 27 October 1991, Thierry Devaux, along with mountain guide Hervé Calvayrac, performed a series of acrobatic figures while bungee jumping from the second floor of the tower. Facing the Champ de Mars, Devaux used an electric winch between figures to go back up to the second floor. When firemen arrived, he stopped after the sixth jump.
For its "Countdown to the Year 2000 '' celebration on 31 December 1999, flashing lights and high - powered searchlights were installed on the tower. Fireworks were set off all over it. An exhibition above a cafeteria on the first floor commemorates this event. The searchlights on top of the tower made it a beacon in Paris 's night sky, and 20,000 flashing bulbs gave the tower a sparkly appearance for five minutes every hour on the hour.
The lights sparkled blue for several nights to herald the new millennium On 31 December 2000. The sparkly lighting continued for 18 months until July 2001. The sparkling lights were turned on again on 21 June 2003, and the display was planned to last for 10 years before they needed replacing.
The tower received its 200,000,000 th guest on 28 November 2002. The tower has operated at its maximum capacity of about 7 million visitors since 2003. In 2004, the Eiffel Tower began hosting a seasonal ice rink on the first level. A glass floor was installed on the first level during the 2014 refurbishment.
The puddled iron (wrought iron) of the Eiffel Tower weighs 7,300 tons, and the addition of lifts, shops and antennae have brought the total weight to approximately 10,100 tons. As a demonstration of the economy of design, if the 7,300 tons of metal in the structure were melted down, it would fill the square base, 125 metres (410 ft) on each side, to a depth of only 6.25 cm (2.46 in) assuming the density of the metal to be 7.8 tons per cubic metre. Additionally, a cubic box surrounding the tower (324 mx 125 mx 125 m) would contain 6,200 tons of air, weighing almost as much as the iron itself. Depending on the ambient temperature, the top of the tower may shift away from the sun by up to 18 cm (7 in) due to thermal expansion of the metal on the side facing the sun.
When it was built, many were shocked by the tower 's daring form. Eiffel was accused of trying to create something artistic with no regard to the principles of engineering. However, Eiffel and his team -- experienced bridge builders -- understood the importance of wind forces, and knew that if they were going to build the tallest structure in the world, they had to be sure it could withstand them. In an interview with the newspaper Le Temps published on 14 February 1887, Eiffel said:
Is it not true that the very conditions which give strength also conform to the hidden rules of harmony?... Now to what phenomenon did I have to give primary concern in designing the Tower? It was wind resistance. Well then! I hold that the curvature of the monument 's four outer edges, which is as mathematical calculation dictated it should be... will give a great impression of strength and beauty, for it will reveal to the eyes of the observer the boldness of the design as a whole.
He used graphical methods to determine the strength of the tower and empirical evidence to account for the effects of wind, rather than a mathematical formula. Close examination of the tower reveals a basically exponential shape. All parts of the tower were over-designed to ensure maximum resistance to wind forces. The top half was even assumed to have no gaps in the latticework. In the years since it was completed, engineers have put forward various mathematical hypotheses in an attempt to explain the success of the design. The most recent, devised in 2004 after letters sent by Eiffel to the French Society of Civil Engineers in 1885 were translated into English, is described as a non-linear integral equation based on counteracting the wind pressure on any point of the tower with the tension between the construction elements at that point.
The Eiffel Tower sways by up to 9 centimetres (3.5 in) in the wind.
When originally built, the first level contained three restaurants -- one French, one Russian and one Flemish -- and an "Anglo - American Bar ''. After the exposition closed, the Flemish restaurant was converted to a 250 - seat theatre. A promenade 2.6 - metre (8 ft 6 in) wide ran around the outside of the first level. At the top, there were laboratories for various experiments, and a small apartment reserved for Gustave Eiffel to entertain guests, which is now open to the public, complete with period decorations and lifelike mannequins of Eiffel and some of his notable guests.
In May 2016, an apartment was created on the first level to accommodate four competition winners during the UEFA Euro 2016 football tournament in Paris in June. The apartment has a kitchen, two bedrooms, a lounge, and views of Paris landmarks including the Seine, the Sacre Coeur, and the Arc de Triomphe.
The arrangement of the lifts has been changed several times during the tower 's history. Given the elasticity of the cables and the time taken to align the cars with the landings, each lift, in normal service, takes an average of 8 minutes and 50 seconds to do the round trip, spending an average of 1 minute and 15 seconds at each level. The average journey time between levels is 1 minute. The original hydraulic mechanism is on public display in a small museum at the base of the east and west legs. Because the mechanism requires frequent lubrication and maintenance, public access is often restricted. The rope mechanism of the north tower can be seen as visitors exit the lift.
Gustave Eiffel engraved on the tower the names of 72 French scientists, engineers and mathematicians in recognition of their contributions to the building of the tower. Eiffel chose this "invocation of science '' because of his concern over the artists ' protest. At the beginning of the 20th century, the engravings were painted over, but they were restored in 1986 -- 87 by the Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel, a company operating the tower.
The tower is painted in three shades: lighter at the top, getting progressively darker towards the bottom to perfectly complement the Parisian sky. It was originally reddish brown; this changed in 1968 to a bronze colour known as "Eiffel Tower Brown ''.
The only non-structural elements are the four decorative grill - work arches, added in Sauvestre 's sketches, which served to make the tower look more substantial and to make a more impressive entrance to the exposition.
One of the great Hollywood movie clichés is that the view from a Parisian window always includes the tower. In reality, since zoning restrictions limit the height of most buildings in Paris to seven storeys, only a small number of tall buildings have a clear view of the tower.
Maintenance of the tower includes applying 60 tons of paint every seven years to prevent it from rusting. The tower has been completely repainted at least 19 times since it was built. Lead paint was still being used as recently as 2001 when the practice was stopped out of concern for the environment.
The nearest Paris Métro station is Bir - Hakeim and the nearest RER station is Champ de Mars - Tour Eiffel. The tower itself is located at the intersection of the quai Branly and the Pont d'Iéna.
More than 250 million people have visited the tower since it was completed in 1889. In 2015, there were 6.91 million visitors. The tower is the most - visited paid monument in the world. An average of 25,000 people ascend the tower every day which can result in long queues. Tickets can be purchased online to avoid the long queues.
The tower has two restaurants: Le 58 Tour Eiffel on the first level, and Le Jules Verne, a gourmet restaurant with its own lift on the second level. This restaurant has one star in the Michelin Red Guide. It is run by the multi-Michelin star chef Alain Ducasse and owes its name to the famous science - fiction writer Jules Verne. Additionally, there is a champagne bar at the top of the Eiffel Tower.
As one of the most iconic landmarks in the world, the Eiffel Tower has been the inspiration for the creation of many replicas and similar towers. An early example is Blackpool Tower in England. The mayor of Blackpool, Sir John Bickerstaffe, was so impressed on seeing the Eiffel Tower at the 1889 exposition that he commissioned a similar tower to be built in his town. It opened in 1894 and is 158.1 metres (518 ft) tall. Tokyo Tower in Japan, built as a communications tower in 1958, was also inspired by the Eiffel Tower.
There are various scale models of the tower in the United States, including a half - scale version at the Paris Las Vegas, Nevada, one in Paris, Texas built in 1993, and two 1: 3 scale models at Kings Island, Ohio, and Kings Dominion, Virginia, amusement parks opened in 1972 and 1975 respectively. Two 1: 3 scale models can be found in China, one in Durango, Mexico that was donated by the local French community, and several across Europe.
In 2011, the TV show Pricing the Priceless on the National Geographic Channel speculated that a full - size replica of the tower would cost approximately US $480 million to build.
The tower has been used for making radio transmissions since the beginning of the 20th century. Until the 1950s, sets of aerial wires ran from the cupola to anchors on the Avenue de Suffren and Champ de Mars. These were connected to longwave transmitters in small bunkers. In 1909, a permanent underground radio centre was built near the south pillar, which still exists today. On 20 November 1913, the Paris Observatory, using the Eiffel Tower as an aerial, exchanged wireless signals with the United States Naval Observatory, which used an aerial in Arlington, Virginia. The object of the transmissions was to measure the difference in longitude between Paris and Washington, D.C. Today, radio and digital television signals are transmitted from the Eiffel Tower.
A television antenna was first installed on the tower in 1957, increasing its height by 18.7 m (61.4 ft). Work carried out in 2000 added a further 5.3 m (17.4 ft), giving the current height of 324 m (1,063 ft). Analogue television signals from the Eiffel Tower ceased on 8 March 2011.
The tower and its image have long been in the public domain. In June 1990 a French court ruled that a special lighting display on the tower in 1989 to mark the tower 's 100th anniversary was an "original visual creation '' protected by copyright. The Court of Cassation, France 's judicial court of last resort, upheld the ruling in March 1992. The Société d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SETE) now considers any illumination of the tower to be a separate work of art that falls under copyright. As a result, the SNTE alleges that it is illegal to publish contemporary photographs of the lit tower at night without permission in France and some other countries for commercial use.
The imposition of copyright has been controversial. The Director of Documentation for what was then called the Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SNTE), Stéphane Dieu, commented in 2005: "It is really just a way to manage commercial use of the image, so that it is n't used in ways (of which) we do n't approve ''. SNTE made over € 1 million from copyright fees in 2002. However, it could also be used to restrict the publication of tourist photographs of the tower at night, as well as hindering non-profit and semi-commercial publication of images of the illuminated tower.
French doctrine and jurisprudence allows pictures incorporating a copyrighted work as long as their presence is incidental or accessory to the subject being represented, a reasoning akin to the de minimis rule. Therefore, SETE may be unable to claim copyright on photographs of Paris which happen to include the lit tower.
The Eiffel Tower was the world 's tallest structure when completed in 1889, a distinction it retained until 1929 when the Chrysler Building in New York City was topped out. The tower has lost its standing both as the world 's tallest structure and the world 's tallest lattice tower but retains its status as the tallest freestanding (non-guyed) structure in France.
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In the New Testament, the Sanhedrin trial of Jesus refers to the trial of Jesus before the Sanhedrin (a Jewish judicial body) following his arrest in Jerusalem and prior to his dispensation by Pontius Pilate. It is an event reported by all four Canonical gospels of the New Testament, although John 's Gospel does not explicitly mention a Sanhedrin trial in this context.
Jesus is generally quiet, does not mount a defense, and rarely responds to the accusations, but is condemned by the Jewish authorities when he will not deny that he is the Son of God. The Jewish leaders then take Jesus to Pontius Pilate, the governor of Roman Judaea, and ask that he be tried for claiming to be the King of the Jews.
The trial as depicted in the Gospel accounts is temporally placed informally on Thursday night and then again formally on Friday morning.
In the narrative of the canonical gospels, after the betrayal and arrest of Jesus, he is taken to the Sanhedrin. From a historical perspective, in the era in which the narrative is set, the Sanhedrin body was an ad hoc gathering, rather than a fixed court.
In the four canonical gospels, Jesus was tried and condemned by a majority of the Sanhedrin members, although at least one member, Joseph of Arimathea, dissented from this decision. Jesus was mocked and beaten and condemned for making the claim of being the Son of God. Although the Gospel accounts vary with respect to some of the details, they agree on the general character and overall structure of the trials of Jesus.
Matthew 26: 57 states that Jesus was taken to the house of Caiaphas the High Priest, where the scribes and the elders were gathered together. Matthew 27: 1 adds that, the next morning, the priests held another meeting. Mark 14: 53 states that Jesus was taken that night "to the high priest '' (without naming the priest), where all the chief priests and the elders gathered, and Mark 15: 1 adds that another consultation was held among the priests the next morning. Luke 22: 54 states that Jesus was taken to "the high priest 's house '' (without naming the priest), where he was mocked and beaten that night. It is added in 22: 66 that, "as soon as it was day '', the chief priests and scribes gathered together and led Jesus away into their council.
In John 18: 12 - 14, however, Jesus is first taken to Annas, the father - in - law of Caiaphas, who was the high priest at that time. Annas is believed to have been the former high priest, and it appears that Caiaphas sought Annas ' confirmation of Caiaphas ' actions. In 18: 24, Jesus is sent from Annas to Caiaphas the high priest, and 18: 28 states that, in the morning, Jesus was led from Caiaphas to Pontius Pilate in the Praetorium.
In all four Gospel accounts, the trial of Jesus before the priests and scribes is interleaved with the Denial of Peter narrative, where Apostle Peter, who has followed Jesus, denies knowing him three times. Luke 22: 61 states that as Jesus was bound and standing at the priest 's house Peter was in the courtyard. Jesus "turned and looked straight at him '', and Peter remembered the words Jesus had spoken to him: "Before the rooster crows today, you will disown me three times. ''
In the Gospel accounts, Jesus speaks very little, and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the questions of the priests, prompting an officer to slap him. In Matthew 26: 62, the lack of response from Jesus prompts the high priest to ask him: "Answerest thou nothing? '' In the Gospel accounts, the men that hold Jesus at the high priest 's house mock, blindfold, insult and beat him, at times slapping him and asking him to guess who had hit him that time.
Mark 14: 55 -- 59 states that the chief priests had sought witness against Jesus to put him to death but did not find any, so they arranged false witness against him, but their witnesses did not agree together. Mark 14: 61 states that the high priest then asked Jesus: "Art thou the Christ, the Son of the Blessed? '' And Jesus said "I am '', at which point the high priest tore his own robe in anger and accused Jesus of blasphemy. In Matthew 26: 63, the high priest asks: "tell us whether you are the Christ, the Son of God. '' Jesus responds "You have said it '', prompting the High Priest to tear his own robe, breaking Mosaic Law (Leviticus 21: 10).
In Luke 22: 67, Jesus is asked: "If thou art the Christ, tell us. But he said unto them, If I tell you, ye will not believe ''. But, in 22: 70, when asked "Are you then the Son of God? '', Jesus answers "You say that I am '', affirming the title Son of God. At that point, the priests say "What further need have we of witness? for we ourselves have heard from his own mouth '', and they decide to condemn Jesus.
Thereafter, in Pilate 's Court, the Jewish elders ask Pontius Pilate to judge and condemn Jesus, accusing him of claiming to be the King of the Jews. Such a claim would be considered treasonous, being a direct challenge to the Roman authorities.
Matthias Stom 's depiction of Jesus before Caiaphas, c. 1630.
Rembrandt 's 1660 depiction of Peter 's Denial. Jesus, in the upper right hand corner, is at the high priest 's house, his hands bound behind him, and turns to look at Peter.
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who was the british monarch when canada became a country | List of Canadian monarchs - wikipedia
Listed here are the monarchs who reigned over the French and British colonies of Canada, followed by the British Dominion of Canada, and finally the present - day sovereign state of Canada. The date of the first claim by a monarch over Canada varies, with most sources giving the year as 1497, when John Cabot made landfall somewhere on the North American coast (likely either modern - day Newfoundland or Nova Scotia), and claimed the land for England on behalf of King Henry VII. However, some sources instead put this date at 1534 when the word "Canada '' was first used to refer to the French colony of Canada, which was founded in the name of King Francis I. Monarchical governance subsequently evolved under a continuous succession of French, British, and eventually uniquely Canadian sovereigns. Since the first claim by Henry VII, there have been 33 sovereigns of Canada, including two sets of co-sovereigns.
While Canada became a Dominion within the British Empire upon Confederation in 1867, the concept of a fully independent Canada sharing the person of the sovereign with the United Kingdom and other countries, such as Australia and New Zealand, only emerged gradually over time through constitutional convention, and was officially confirmed with the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931. Since then, the Canadian Crown has been legally distinct from those of the other Commonwealth realms, with its own separate and distinct monarch. Although the term king of Canada was used as early as the beginning of the reign of George VI, it was not until 1953 that the monarch 's title was made official, with Elizabeth II being the first monarch to be separately proclaimed as Queen of Canada, as per the Royal Style and Titles Act.
In 1931 the Canadian Crown emerged as an independent entity from that of the British Crown due to the Statute of Westminster 1931.
The Canadian monarchs ' consort -- his or her spouse -- has no constitutional status or power, but is a member of the Canadian Royal Family. In the United Kingdom, all female consorts have had the right to and have held the title of Queen Consort; as Canada does not have laws or letters patent under the Great Seal of Canada laying out the styles of any Royal Family members besides the monarch, royal consorts are addressed in Canada using the style and title as they hold in the UK. After informal discussions among the various Commonwealth prime ministers between 1954 and 1957, it was decided that Prince Philip, husband of Elizabeth II, would not be granted the title of Prince Consort.
Since Confederation, two sovereigns have reigned over Canada without a consort: Victoria, whose husband, Albert, died before Confederation, and Edward VIII, who married Wallis Simpson after his abdication. Though Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall (the current wife of Charles, Prince of Wales, heir apparent to the throne of Canada), will technically become queen consort in the United Kingdom, Clarence House has stated that, due to public opinion regarding her relationship with the Prince of Wales, she will be styled there as Princess Consort.
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what movie was the song sweet dreams in | Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This) - wikipedia
"Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This) '' is a song written and performed by the British new wave music duo Eurythmics. The song is the title track of their album of the same name and was released as the fourth and final single from the album in early 1983. The song became their breakthrough hit, establishing the duo worldwide. Its music video helped to propel the song to number 2 on the UK Singles Chart and number 1 on the US Billboard Hot 100. It was the first single released by Eurythmics in the US.
"Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This) '' is arguably Eurythmics ' signature song. Following its success, their previous single, "Love Is a Stranger '', was re-released and also became a worldwide hit. On Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time issue in 2003, "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This) '' was ranked number 356. Eurythmics have regularly performed the song in all their live sets since 1982, and it is often performed by Lennox on her solo tours.
In 1991, the song was remixed and reissued to promote Eurythmics ' Greatest Hits album. It re-charted in the UK, reaching number 48, and was also a moderate hit in dance clubs. Another remix by Steve Angello was released in France in 2006, along with the track "I 've Got a Life '' (peaking at number 10).
The original recording 's main instrumentation featured a sequenced analog synthesizer riff, which Stewart accidentally discovered in the studio when he played a bass track backward. Apart from the synthesizer, the arrangement also uses a Movement Systems Drum Computer, a piano in the middle eight, and Lennox 's multitracked harmony vocals.
"Sweet Dreams '' was Eurythmics ' commercial breakthrough in the United Kingdom and all over the world. The single entered the UK chart at # 63 in February 1983 and reached number two the following month.
"Sweet Dreams '' was the first ever single release by Eurythmics in the United States when it was released in May 1983. The single debuted at # 90 and slowly eased up the chart. By August, the single had reached number two and stayed there for four weeks, kept from the top by The Police 's "Every Breath You Take '' before "Sweet Dreams '' took the number one spot.
The music video for "Sweet Dreams '' was directed by Chris Ashbrook and filmed in January 1983, shortly before the single and the album was released. The video received heavy airplay on the then - fledgling MTV channel and is widely considered a classic clip from the early - MTV era.
The music video begins with a fist (presumably Stewart 's) pounding on a table, with the camera panning up to reveal Lennox in a boardroom, with images of a Saturn V launch projected on a screen behind her, which are later replaced by a shot of a crowd walking down a street. Stewart is shown typing on a computer (actually an MCS drum computer). The camera cuts to Lennox and Stewart meditating on the table. Stewart is next shown playing a cello in a field. The scene then returns to the boardroom, with Lennox and Stewart lying down on the table, and a cow walking around them. Stewart is shown again typing on the computer, with the cow chewing something right next to him. The scene cuts to the duo in a field, with a herd of cows, and Stewart still typing. Lennox and Stewart are then seen floating in a boat, with Stewart again playing a cello. The video ends with Lennox lying in bed, with the last shot being a book on a nightstand bearing a cover identical to the album. The screen then fades to black as Lennox turns off the bedside lamp. The video has more than 160 million views as of August, 2017.
Lennox 's androgynous visual image, with close - cropped, orange - coloured hair, and attired in a man 's suit brandishing a cane, immediately made her a household name. Her gender - bending image would be further explored in other Eurythmics videos such as "Love Is a Stranger '' and "Who 's That Girl? ''.
A second video was also produced, featuring Lennox and Stewart on a train. A close - up shot of Lennox 's lips is occasionally seen in the train car 's window as she sings the song.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Marilyn Manson released a cover version of "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This) '' as the first single from the 1995 EP, Smells Like Children. This version became an MTV staple and helped to establish the band in the mainstream. Their groundbreaking video was directed by Dean Karr and produced by Arthur Gorson. It also appears on the band 's greatest hits album, Lest We Forget: The Best Of. This version is featured on the soundtracks to the films Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room (2005) and Gamer (2009). It is also featured in the films House on Haunted Hill (1999), Trick ' r Treat (2007), the trailer to Wrath of the Titans (2012), in the pilot of The Following and on the BBC drama Luther. In Manson 's autobiography, The Long Hard Road Out of Hell, he states that Nothing Records did not want to release this as a single. They wanted to release their cover of Screamin ' Jay Hawkins ' "I Put a Spell on You '', which, according to Manson, "was far too dark, sprawling and esoteric, even for some of our fans. ''
Marilyn Manson added some extra lines to the lyrics that are not present in the Eurythmics version: "I wan na use you and abuse you / I wan na know what 's inside you '' along with "I 'm gon na use you and abuse you / I got ta know what 's inside you. ''
The video for Manson 's cover contains several clips of Manson and bandmates in what appears to be an abandoned building. In between the clips are a number of surreal shots of Manson wearing a wedding gown, Manson wandering around an abandoned street in a tutu, birds fluttering around him and leaving droppings on his body, and of him riding a pig wearing a cowboy hat and covered with mud. In 2010 the music video was rated the "Scariest music video ever made '' by Billboard, beating Michael Jackson 's Thriller for the top spot. Dave Stewart has said he liked the Marilyn Manson version of his song and "the video was one of the scariest things I 'd seen at the time. ''
Australian CD single
US promotional CD single
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the heart of the house of lean production is | Lean manufacturing - wikipedia
Lean manufacturing or lean production, often simply "lean '', is a systematic method for waste minimization ("Muda '') within a manufacturing system without sacrificing productivity. Lean also takes into account waste created through overburden ("Muri '') and waste created through unevenness in work loads ("Mura ''). Working from the perspective of the client who consumes a product or service, "value '' is any action or process that a customer would be willing to pay for.
Lean manufacturing makes obvious what adds value, by reducing everything else (which is not adding value). This management philosophy is derived mostly from the Toyota Production System (TPS) and identified as "lean '' only in the 1990s. TPS is renowned for its focus on reduction of the original Toyota seven wastes to improve overall customer value, but there are varying perspectives on how this is best achieved. The steady growth of Toyota, from a small company to the world 's largest automaker, has focused attention on how it has achieved this success.
Lean principles are derived from the Japanese manufacturing industry. The term was first coined by John Krafcik in his 1988 article, "Triumph of the Lean Production System '', based on his master 's thesis at the MIT Sloan School of Management. Krafcik had been a quality engineer in the Toyota - GM NUMMI joint venture in California before joining MIT for MBA studies. Krafcik 's research was continued by the International Motor Vehicle Program (IMVP) at MIT, which produced the international best - selling book co-authored by James P. Womack, Daniel Jones, and Daniel Roos called The Machine That Changed the World. A complete historical account of the IMVP and how the term "lean '' was coined is given by Holweg (2007).
For many, lean is the set of "tools '' that assist in the identification and steady elimination of waste. As waste is eliminated quality improves while production time and cost are reduced. A non exhaustive list of such tools would include: SMED, value stream mapping, Five S, Kanban (pull systems), poka - yoke (error - proofing), total productive maintenance, elimination of time batching, mixed model processing, rank order clustering, single point scheduling, redesigning working cells, multi-process handling and control charts (for checking mura).
There is a second approach to lean manufacturing, which is promoted by Toyota, called The Toyota Way, in which the focus is upon improving the "flow '' or smoothness of work, thereby steadily eliminating mura ("unevenness '') through the system and not upon ' waste reduction ' per se. Techniques to improve flow include production leveling, "pull '' production (by means of kanban) and the Heijunka box. This is a fundamentally different approach from most improvement methodologies, and requires considerably more persistence than basic application of the tools, which may partially account for its lack of popularity.
The difference between these two approaches is not the goal itself, but rather the prime approach to achieving it. The implementation of smooth flow exposes quality problems that already existed, and thus waste reduction naturally happens as a consequence. The advantage claimed for this approach is that it naturally takes a system - wide perspective, whereas a waste focus sometimes wrongly assumes this perspective.
Both lean and TPS can be seen as a loosely connected set of potentially competing principles whose goal is cost reduction by the elimination of waste. These principles include: pull processing, perfect first - time quality, waste minimization, continuous improvement, flexibility, building and maintaining a long term relationship with suppliers, autonomation, load leveling and production flow and visual control. The disconnected nature of some of these principles perhaps springs from the fact that the TPS has grown pragmatically since 1948 as it responded to the problems it saw within its own production facilities. Thus what one sees today is the result of a ' need ' driven learning to improve where each step has built on previous ideas and not something based upon a theoretical framework.
Toyota 's view is that the main method of lean is not the tools, but the reduction of three types of waste: muda (non-value - adding work), muri (overburden), and mura (unevenness), to expose problems systematically and to use the tools where the ideal can not be achieved. From this perspective, the tools are workarounds adapted to different situations, which explains any apparent incoherence of the principles above.
Also known as the flexible mass production, the TPS has two pillar concepts: Just - in - time (JIT) or "flow '', and "autonomation '' (smart automation). Adherents of the Toyota approach would say that the smooth flowing delivery of value achieves all the other improvements as side - effects. If production flows perfectly (meaning it is both "pull '' and with no interruptions) then there is no inventory; if customer valued features are the only ones produced, then product design is simplified and effort is only expended on features the customer values. The other of the two TPS pillars is the very human aspect of autonomation, whereby automation is achieved with a human touch. In this instance, the "human touch '' means to automate so that the machines / systems are designed to aid humans in focusing on what the humans do best.
Lean implementation emphasizes the importance of optimizing work flow through strategic operational procedures while minimizing waste and being adaptable. Flexibility is required to allow production leveling (Heijunka) using tools such as SMED, but have their analogues in other processes such as research and development (R&D). However, adaptability is often constrained, and therefore may not require significant investment. More importantly, all of these concepts have to be acknowledged by employees who develop the products and initiate processes that deliver value. The cultural and managerial aspects of lean are arguably more important than the actual tools or methodologies of production itself. There are many examples of lean tool implementation without sustained benefit, and these are often blamed on weak understanding of lean throughout the whole organization.
Lean aims to enhance productivity by simplifying the operational structure enough to understand, perform and manage the work environment. To achieve these three goals simultaneously, one of Toyota 's mentoring methodologies (loosely called Senpai and Kohai which is Japanese for senior and junior), can be used to foster lean thinking throughout the organizational structure from the ground up. The closest equivalent to Toyota 's mentoring process is the concept of "Lean Sensei, '' which encourages companies, organizations, and teams to seek third - party experts that can provide advice and coaching.
In 1999, Spear and Bowen identified four rules which characterize the "Toyota DNA '':
Most of the basic goals of lean manufacturing and waste reduction were derived from Benjamin Franklin through documented examples. Poor Richard 's Almanack says of wasted time, "He that idly loses 5 s. worth of time, loses 5s., and might as prudently throw 5s. into the river. '' He added that avoiding unnecessary costs could be more profitable than increasing sales: "A penny saved is two pence clear. A pin a-day is a groat a-year. Save and have. ''
Again Franklin 's The Way to Wealth says the following about carrying unnecessary inventory. "You call them goods; but, if you do not take care, they will prove evils to some of you. You expect they will be sold cheap, and, perhaps, they may (be bought) for less than they cost; but, if you have no occasion for them, they must be dear to you. Remember what Poor Richard says, ' Buy what thou hast no need of, and ere long thou shalt sell thy necessaries. ' In another place he says, ' Many have been ruined by buying good penny worths '. '' Henry Ford cited Franklin as a major influence on his own business practices, which included Just - in - time manufacturing.
The accumulation of waste and energy within the work environment was noticed by motion efficiency expert Frank Gilbreth, who witnessed the inefficient practices of masons who often bend over to gather bricks from the ground. The introduction of a non-stooping scaffold, which delivered the bricks at waist level, allowed masons to work about three times as quickly, and with the least amount of effort.
Frederick Winslow Taylor, the father of scientific management, introduced what are now called standardization and best practice deployment. In Principles of Scientific Management, (1911), Taylor said: "And whenever a workman proposes an improvement, it should be the policy of the management to make a careful analysis of the new method, and if necessary conduct a series of experiments to determine accurately the relative merit of the new suggestion and of the old standard. And whenever the new method is found to be markedly superior to the old, it should be adopted as the standard for the whole establishment. ''
Taylor also warned explicitly against cutting piece rates (or, by implication, cutting wages or discharging workers) when efficiency improvements reduce the need for raw labor: "... after a workman has had the price per piece of the work he is doing lowered two or three times as a result of his having worked harder and increased his output, he is likely entirely to lose sight of his employer 's side of the case and become imbued with a grim determination to have no more cuts if soldiering (marking time, just doing what he is told) can prevent it. ''
Shigeo Shingo, the best - known exponent of single minute exchange of die and error - proofing or poka - yoke, cites Principles of Scientific Management as his inspiration.
American industrialists recognized the threat of cheap offshore labor to American workers during the 1910s, and explicitly stated the goal of what is now called lean manufacturing as a countermeasure. Henry Towne, past President of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, wrote in the Foreword to Frederick Winslow Taylor 's Shop Management (1911), "We are justly proud of the high wage rates which prevail throughout our country, and jealous of any interference with them by the products of the cheaper labor of other countries. To maintain this condition, to strengthen our control of home markets, and, above all, to broaden our opportunities in foreign markets where we must compete with the products of other industrial nations, we should welcome and encourage every influence tending to increase the efficiency of our productive processes. ''
Henry Ford initially ignored the impact of waste accumulation while developing his mass assembly manufacturing system. Charles Buxton Going wrote in 1915:
Ford, in My Life and Work (1922), provided a single - paragraph description that encompasses the entire concept of waste:
Poor arrangement of the workplace -- a major focus of the modern kaizen -- and doing a job inefficiently out of habit -- are major forms of waste even in modern workplaces.
Ford also pointed out how easy it was to overlook material waste. A former employee, Harry Bennett, wrote:
In other words, Ford saw the rust and realized that the steel plant was not recovering all of the iron.
Ford 's early success, however, was not sustainable. As James P. Womack and Daniel Jones pointed out in "Lean Thinking '', what Ford accomplished represented the "special case '' rather than a robust lean solution. The major challenge that Ford faced was that his methods were built for a steady - state environment, rather than for the dynamic conditions firms increasingly face today. Although his rigid, top - down controls made it possible to hold variation in work activities down to very low levels, his approach did not respond well to uncertain, dynamic business conditions; they responded particularly badly to the need for new product innovation. This was made clear by Ford 's precipitous decline when the company was forced to finally introduce a follow - on to the Model T.
Design for Manufacture (DFM) is a concept derived from Ford which emphasizes the importance of standardizing individual parts as well as eliminating redundant components in My Life and Work. This standardization was central to Ford 's concept of mass production, and the manufacturing "tolerances '', or upper and lower dimensional limits that ensured interchangeability of parts became widely applied across manufacturing. Decades later, the renowned Japanese quality guru, Genichi Taguchi, demonstrated that this "goal post '' method of measuring was inadequate. He showed that "loss '' in capabilities did not begin only after exceeding these tolerances, but increased as described by the Taguchi Loss Function at any condition exceeding the nominal condition. This became an important part of W. Edwards Deming 's quality movement of the 1980s, later helping to develop improved understanding of key areas of focus such as cycle time variation in improving manufacturing quality and efficiencies in aerospace and other industries.
While Ford is renowned for his production line, it is often not recognized how much effort he put into removing the fitters ' work to make the production line possible. Previous to the use, Ford 's car 's components were fitted and reshaped by a skilled engineer at the point of use, so that they would connect properly. By enforcing very strict specification and quality criteria on component manufacture, he eliminated this work almost entirely, reducing manufacturing effort by between 60 - 90 %. However, Ford 's mass production system failed to incorporate the notion of "pull production '' and thus often suffered from overproduction.
Toyota 's development of ideas that later became lean may have started at the turn of the 20th century with Sakichi Toyoda, in a textile factory with looms that stopped themselves when a thread broke. This became the seed of autonomation and Jidoka. Toyota 's journey with just - in - time (JIT) may have started back in 1934 when it moved from textiles to produce its first car. Kiichiro Toyoda, founder of Toyota Motor Corporation, directed the engine casting work and discovered many problems in their manufacturing. He decided he must stop the repairing of poor quality by intense study of each stage of the process. In 1936, when Toyota won its first truck contract with the Japanese government, his processes hit new problems and he developed the "Kaizen '' improvement teams.
Levels of demand in the Post War economy of Japan were low and the focus of mass production on lowest cost per item via economies of scale therefore had little application. Having visited and seen supermarkets in the USA, Taiichi Ohno recognised the scheduling of work should not be driven by sales or production targets but by actual sales. Given the financial situation during this period, over-production had to be avoided and thus the notion of Pull (build to order rather than target driven Push) came to underpin production scheduling.
It was with Taiichi Ohno at Toyota that these themes came together. He built on the already existing internal schools of thought and spread their breadth and use into what has now become the Toyota Production System (TPS). It is principally from the TPS (which was widely referred to in the 1980s as just - in - time manufacturing), but now including many other sources, that lean production is developing. Norman Bodek wrote the following in his foreword to a reprint of Ford 's Today and Tomorrow:
I was first introduced to the concepts of just - in - time (JIT) and the Toyota production system in 1980. Subsequently I had the opportunity to witness its actual application at Toyota on one of our numerous Japanese study missions. There I met Mr. Taiichi Ohno, the system 's creator. When bombarded with questions from our group on what inspired his thinking, he just laughed and said he learned it all from Henry Ford 's book. '' The scale, rigor and continuous learning aspects of TPS have made it a core concept of lean.
Although the elimination of waste may seem like a simple and clear subject, it is noticeable that waste is often very conservatively identified. This then hugely reduces the potential of such an aim. The elimination of waste is the goal of lean, and Toyota defined three broad types of waste: muda, muri and mura; for many lean implementations this list shrinks to the first waste type only with reduced corresponding benefits.
To illustrate the state of this thinking Shigeo Shingo observed that only the last turn of a bolt tightens it -- the rest is just movement. This ever finer clarification of waste is key to establishing distinctions between value - adding activity, waste and non-value - adding work. Non-value adding work is waste that must be done under the present work conditions. One key is to measure, or estimate, the size of these wastes, to demonstrate the effect of the changes achieved and therefore the movement toward the goal.
The "flow '' (or smoothness) based approach aims to achieve JIT, by removing the variation caused by work scheduling and thereby provide a driver, rationale or target and prioritizes for implementation, using a variety of techniques. The effort to achieve JIT exposes many quality problems that are hidden by buffer stocks; by forcing smooth flow of only value - adding steps, these problems become visible and must be dealt with explicitly.
Muri is all the unreasonable work that management imposes on workers and machines because of poor organization, such as carrying heavy weights, moving things around, dangerous tasks, even working significantly faster than usual. It is pushing a person or a machine beyond its natural limits. This may simply be asking a greater level of performance from a process than it can handle without taking shortcuts and informally modifying decision criteria. Unreasonable work is almost always a cause of multiple variations.
To link these three concepts is simple in TPS and thus lean. Firstly, muri focuses on the preparation and planning of the process, or what work can be avoided proactively by design. Next, mura then focuses on how the work design is implemented and the elimination of fluctuation at the scheduling or operations level, such as quality and volume. Muda is then discovered after the process is in place and is dealt with reactively. It is seen through variation in output. It is the role of management to examine the muda, in the processes and eliminate the deeper causes by considering the connections to the muri and mura of the system. The muda and mura inconsistencies must be fed back to the muri, or planning, stage for the next project.
A typical example of the interplay of these wastes is the corporate behaviour of "making the numbers '' as the end of a reporting period approaches. Demand is raised to ' make plan, ' increasing (mura), when the "numbers '' are low, which causes production to try to squeeze extra capacity from the process, which causes routines and standards to be modified or stretched. This stretch and improvisation leads to muri - style waste, which leads to downtime, mistakes and back flows, and waiting, thus the muda of waiting, correction and movement.
The original seven mudas are:
Eventually, an eighth "muda '' was defined by Womack et al. (2003); it was described as manufacturing goods or services that do not meet customer demand or specifications. Many others have added the "waste of unused human talent '' to the original seven wastes. For example, six sigma includes the waste of Skills, referred to as "under - utilizing capabilities and delegating tasks with inadequate training ''. Other additional wastes added were for example "space ''. These wastes were not originally a part of the seven deadly wastes defined by Taiichi Ohno in TPS, but were found to be useful additions in practice. In 1999 Geoffrey Mika in his book, "Kaizen Event Implementation Manual '' added three more forms of waste that are now universally accepted; The waste associated with working to the wrong metrics or no metrics, the waste associated with not utilizing a complete worker by not allowing them to contribute ideas and suggestions and be part of Participative Management, and lastly the waste attributable to improper use of computers; not having the proper software, training on use and time spent surfing, playing games or just wasting time. For a complete listing of the "old '' and "new '' wastes see Bicheno and Holweg (2009)
The identification of non-value - adding work, as distinct from wasted work, is critical to identifying the assumptions behind the current work process and to challenging them in due course. Breakthroughs in SMED and other process changing techniques rely upon clear identification of where untapped opportunities may lie if the processing assumptions are challenged.
The role of the leaders within the organization is the fundamental element of sustaining the progress of lean thinking. Experienced kaizen members at Toyota, for example, often bring up the concepts of Senpai, Kohai, and Sensei, because they strongly feel that transferring of Toyota culture down and across Toyota can only happen when more experienced Toyota Sensei continuously coach and guide the less experienced lean champions.
One of the dislocative effects of lean is in the area of key performance indicators (KPI). The KPIs by which a plant / facility are judged will often be driving behaviour, because the KPIs themselves assume a particular approach to the work being done. This can be an issue where, for example a truly lean, Fixed Repeating Schedule (FRS) and JIT approach is adopted, because these KPIs will no longer reflect performance, as the assumptions on which they are based become invalid. It is a key leadership challenge to manage the impact of this KPI chaos within the organization.
Similarly, commonly used accounting systems developed to support mass production are no longer appropriate for companies pursuing lean. Lean accounting provides truly lean approaches to business management and financial reporting.
After formulating the guiding principles of its lean manufacturing approach in the Toyota Production System (TPS), Toyota formalized in 2001 the basis of its lean management: the key managerial values and attitudes needed to sustain continuous improvement in the long run. These core management principles are articulated around the twin pillars of Continuous Improvement (relentless elimination of waste) and Respect for People (engagement in long term relationships based on continuous improvement and mutual trust).
This formalization stems from problem solving. As Toyota expanded beyond its home base for the past 20 years, it hit the same problems in getting TPS properly applied that other western companies have had in copying TPS. Like any other problem, it has been working on trying a series of countermeasures to solve this particular concern. These countermeasures have focused on culture: how people behave, which is the most difficult challenge of all. Without the proper behavioral principles and values, TPS can be totally misapplied and fail to deliver results. As with TPS, the values had originally been passed down in a master - disciple manner, from boss to subordinate, without any written statement on the way. Just as with TPS, it was internally argued that formalizing the values would stifle them and lead to further misunderstanding. However, as Toyota veterans eventually wrote down the basic principles of TPS, Toyota set to put the Toyota Way into writing to educate new joiners.
Continuous Improvement breaks down into three basic principles:
Respect For People is less known outside of Toyota, and essentially involves two defining principles:
While lean is seen by many as a generalization of the Toyota Production System into other industries and contexts, there are some acknowledged differences that seem to have developed in implementation:
Lean principles have been successfully applied to various sectors and services, such as call centers and healthcare. In the former, lean 's waste reduction practices have been used to reduce handle time, within and between agent variation, accent barriers, as well as attain near perfect process adherence. In the latter, several hospitals have adopted the idea of lean hospital, a concept that priorizes the patient, thus increasing the employee commitment and motivation, as well as boosting medical quality and cost effectiveness.
Lean principles also have applications to software development and maintenance as well as other sectors of information technology (IT). More generally, the use of lean in information technology has become known as Lean IT. Lean methods are also applicable to the public sector, but most results have been achieved using a much more restricted range of techniques than lean provides.
The challenge in moving lean to services is the lack of widely available reference implementations to allow people to see how directly applying lean manufacturing tools and practices can work and the impact it does have. This makes it more difficult to build the level of belief seen as necessary for strong implementation. However, some research does relate widely recognized examples of success in retail and even airlines to the underlying principles of lean. Despite this, it remains the case that the direct manufacturing examples of ' techniques ' or ' tools ' need to be better ' translated ' into a service context to support the more prominent approaches of implementation, which has not yet received the level of work or publicity that would give starting points for implementors. The upshot of this is that each implementation often ' feels its way ' along as must the early industrial engineering practices of Toyota. This places huge importance upon sponsorship to encourage and protect these experimental developments.
Lean management is nowadays implemented also in non-manufacturing processes and administrative processes. In non-manufacturing processes is still huge potential for optimization and efficiency increase.
The espoused goals of lean manufacturing systems differ between various authors. While some maintain an internal focus, e.g. to increase profit for the organization, others claim that improvements should be done for the sake of the customer.
Some commonly mentioned goals are:
The strategic elements of lean can be quite complex, and comprise multiple elements. Four different notions of lean have been identified:
Lean production has been adopted into other industries to promote productivity and efficiency in an ever changing market. In global supply chain and outsource scale, Information Technology is necessary and can deal with most of hard lean practices to synchronise pull system in supply chains and value system. The manufacturing industry can renew and change strategy of production just in time.
The supply chains take changes in deploying second factory or warehouse near their major markets in order to react consumers ' need promptly instead of investing manufacturing factories on the lost - cost countries. For instance, Dell sells computers directly from their website, cutting franchised dealers out of their supply chains. Then, the firm use outsourced partners to produce its components, deliver components to their assembly plants on these main markets around the world, like America and China.
Zara made decision of speeding their fashion to the consumers market by fast - producing cloths within five weeks with their local partners in Spain and never involved in mass production to pursue new styles and keep products fresh.
The other way to avoid market risk and control the supply efficiently is to cut down in stock. P&G has done the goal to co-operate with Walmart and other wholesales companies by building the response system of stocks directly to the suppliers companies.
With the improvement of global scale supply chains, firms apply lean practices (JIT, supplier partnership, and customer involvement) built between global firms and suppliers intensively to connect with consumers markets efficiently.
After years of success of Toyota 's Lean Production, the consolidation of supply chain networks has brought Toyota to the position of being the world 's biggest carmaker in the rapid expansion. In 2010, the crisis of safety - related problems in Toyota made other carmakers that duplicated Toyota 's supply chain system wary that the same recall issue might happen to them.
James Womack had warned Toyota that cooperating with single outsourced suppliers might bring unexpected problems. Indeed, the crisis cost a great fortune and left Toyota thinking whether the JIT practice has problems about outsourced suppliers without enough experience and senior engineers could not achieve the monitoring job close to their suppliers out of Japan. That is proven as the economy of scale becomes global, the soft - learn practices become more important in their outsourced suppliers, if they could keep good Sensei relationship with their partners and constantly modify production process to perfection. Otherwise, Toyota begins to consider whether to have more choices of suppliers of producing the same component, it might bring more safety on risk - control and reduce the huge cost that might happen in the future.
The appliance of JIT in supply chain system is the key issue of Lean implementation in global scale. How do the supply partners avoid causing production flow? Global firms should make more suppliers who can compete with each other in order to get the best quality and lower the risk of production flow at the same time.
The following steps should be implemented to create the ideal lean manufacturing system:
A fundamental principle of lean manufacturing is demand - based flow manufacturing. In this type of production setting, inventory is only pulled through each production center when it is needed to meet a customer 's order. The benefits of this goal include:
A continuous improvement mindset is essential to reach the company 's goals. The term "continuous improvement '' means incremental improvement of products, processes, or services over time, with the goal of reducing waste to improve workplace functionality, customer service, or product performance. Lean is founded on the concept of continuous and incremental improvements on product and process while eliminating redundant activities. "The value of adding activities are simply only those things the customer is willing to pay for, everything else is waste, and should be eliminated, simplified, reduced, or integrated '' (Rizzardo, 2003). Improving the flow of material through new ideal system layouts at the customer 's required rate would reduce waste in material movement and inventory.
Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) is a set of performance metrics that fit well in a lean environment. Also, PMTS, methods - time measurement, cost analysis and perhaps time study can be used to evaluate the wastes and IT effectiveness in the operational processes. For example, Jun - Ing Ker and Yichuan Wang analyze two prescribing technologies, namely no carbon required (NCR) and digital scanning technologies to quantify the advantages of the medication ordering, transcribing, and dispensing process in a multi-hospital health system. With comparison between these two technologies, the statistical analysis results show a significant reduction on process times by adopting digital scanning technology. The results indicated a reduction of 54.5 % in queue time, 32.4 % in order entry time, 76.9 % in outgoing delay time, and 67.7 % in outgoing transit time with the use of digital scanning technology.
One criticism of lean is that its practitioners may focus on tools and methodologies rather than on the philosophy and culture of lean. Consequently, adequate management is needed in order to avoid failed implementation of lean methodologies. Another pitfall is that management decides what solution to use without understanding the true problem and without consulting shop floor personnel. As a result, lean implementations often look good to the manager but fail to improve the situation.
In addition, many of the popular lean initiatives, coming from the TPS, are solutions to specific problems that Toyota was facing. Toyota, having an undesired current condition, determined what the end state would look like. Through much study, the gap was closed, which resulted in many of the tools in place today. Often, when a tool is implemented outside of TPS, a company believes that the solution lay specifically within one of the popular lean initiatives. The tools which were the solution to a specific problem for a specific company may not be able to be applied in exactly the same manner as designed. Thus, the solution does not fit the problem and a temporary solution is created vs. the actual root cause.
The lean philosophy aims to reduce costs while optimizing and improving performance. Value stream mapping (VSM) and 5S are the most common approaches companies take on their first steps towards making their organisation leaner. Lean actions can be focused on the specific logistics processes, or cover the entire supply chain. For example, you might start from analysis of SKUs (stock keeping units), using several days to identify and draw each SKUs path, evaluating all the participants from material suppliers to the consumer. Conducting a gap analysis determines the company 's ' must take ' steps to improve the value stream and achieve the objective. Based on that evaluation, the improvement group conducts the failure mode effects analysis (FMEA), in order to identify and prevent risk factors. It is crucial for front - line workers to be involved in VSM activities since they understood the process and can directly increase the efficiency. Although the impact may be small and limited for each lean activity, implementing a series small improvements incrementally along the supply chain can bring forth enhanced productivity.
After adopting the lean approach, both managers and employees experience change. Therefore, decisive leaders are needed when starting on a lean journey. There are several requirements to control the lean journey. First and most importantly, experts recommend that the organization have its own lean plan, developed by the lean Leadership. In other words, the lean team provides suggestions for the leader who then makes the actual decisions about what to implement. Second, coaching is recommended when the organization starts off on its lean journey. They will impart their knowledge and skills to shopfloor staff and the lean implementation will be much more efficient. Third, the metrics or measurements used for measuring lean and improvements are extremely important. It will enable collection of the data required for informed decision - making by a leader. One can not successfully implement lean without sufficient aptitude at measuring the process and outputs. To control and improve results going forward, one must see and measure, i.e. map, what is happening now.
Lean manufacturing is different from lean enterprise. Recent research reports the existence of several lean manufacturing processes but of few lean enterprises. One distinguishing feature opposes lean accounting and standard cost accounting. For standard cost accounting, SKUs are difficult to grasp. SKUs include too much hypothesis and variance, i.e., SKUs hold too much indeterminacy. Manufacturing may want to consider moving away from traditional accounting and adopting lean accounting. In using lean accounting, one expected gain is activity - based cost visibility, i.e., measuring the direct and indirect costs at each step of an activity rather than traditional cost accounting that limits itself to labor and supplies.
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why do fish produce more eggs than mammals | Egg - wikipedia
An egg is the organic vessel containing the zygote in which an animal embryo develops until it can survive on its own; at which point the animal hatches. An egg results from fertilization of an ovum. Most arthropods, vertebrates, and mollusks lay eggs, although some, such as scorpions and most mammals, do not.
Reptile eggs, bird eggs, and monotreme eggs are laid out of water, and are surrounded by a protective shell, either flexible or inflexible. Eggs laid on land or in nests are usually kept within a warm and favorable temperature range while the embryo grows. When the embryo is adequately developed it hatches, i.e. breaks out of the egg 's shell. Some embryos have a temporary egg tooth they use to crack, pip, or break the eggshell or covering.
The largest recorded egg is from a whale shark, and was 30 cm × 14 cm × 9 cm (11.8 in × 5.5 in × 3.5 in) in size. Whale shark eggs typically hatch within the mother. At 1.5 kg (3.3 lb) and up to 17.8 cm × 14 cm (7.0 in × 5.5 in), the ostrich egg is the largest egg of any living bird, though the extinct elephant bird and some dinosaurs laid larger eggs. The bee hummingbird produces the smallest known bird egg, which weighs half of a gram (around 0.02 oz). Some eggs laid by reptiles and most fish, amphibians, insects and other invertebrates can be even smaller.
Reproductive structures similar to the egg in other kingdoms are termed "spores, '' or in spermatophytes "seeds, '' or in gametophytes "egg cells ''.
Several major groups of animals typically have readily distinguishable eggs.
The most common reproductive strategy for fish is known as oviparity, in which the female lays undeveloped eggs that are externally fertilized by a male. Typically large numbers of eggs are laid at one time (an adult female cod can produce 4 -- 6 million eggs in one spawning) and the eggs are then left to develop without parental care. When the larvae hatch from the egg, they often carry the remains of the yolk in a yolk sac which continues to nourish the larvae for a few days as they learn how to swim. Once the yolk is consumed, there is a critical point after which they must learn how to hunt and feed or they will die.
A few fish, notably the rays and most sharks use ovoviviparity in which the eggs are fertilized and develop internally. However the larvae still grow inside the egg consuming the egg 's yolk and without any direct nourishment from the mother. The mother then gives birth to relatively mature young. In certain instances, the physically most developed offspring will devour its smaller siblings for further nutrition while still within the mother 's body. This is known as intrauterine cannibalism.
In certain scenarios, some fish such as the hammerhead shark and reef shark are viviparous, with the egg being fertilized and developed internally, but with the mother also providing direct nourishment.
The eggs of fish and amphibians are jellylike. Cartilagenous fish (sharks, skates, rays, chimaeras) eggs are fertilized internally and exhibit a wide variety of both internal and external embryonic development. Most fish species spawn eggs that are fertilized externally, typically with the male inseminating the eggs after the female lays them. These eggs do not have a shell and would dry out in the air. Even air - breathing amphibians lay their eggs in water, or in protective foam as with the Coast foam - nest treefrog, Chiromantis xerampelina.
Bird eggs are laid by females and incubated for a time that varies according to the species; a single young hatches from each egg. Average clutch sizes range from one (as in condors) to about 17 (the grey partridge). Some birds lay eggs even when not fertilized (e.g. hens); it is not uncommon for pet owners to find their lone bird nesting on a clutch of unfertilized eggs, which are sometimes called wind - eggs.
The default color of vertebrate eggs is the white of the calcium carbonate from which the shells are made, but some birds, mainly passerines, produce colored eggs. The pigment biliverdin and its zinc chelate give a green or blue ground color, and protoporphyrin produces reds and browns as a ground color or as spotting.
Non-passerines typically have white eggs, except in some ground - nesting groups such as the Charadriiformes, sandgrouse and nightjars, where camouflage is necessary, and some parasitic cuckoos which have to match the passerine host 's egg. Most passerines, in contrast, lay colored eggs, even if there is no need of cryptic colors.
However some have suggested that the protoporphyrin markings on passerine eggs actually act to reduce brittleness by acting as a solid state lubricant. If there is insufficient calcium available in the local soil, the egg shell may be thin, especially in a circle around the broad end. Protoporphyrin speckling compensates for this, and increases inversely to the amount of calcium in the soil.
For the same reason, later eggs in a clutch are more spotted than early ones as the female 's store of calcium is depleted.
The color of individual eggs is also genetically influenced, and appears to be inherited through the mother only, suggesting that the gene responsible for pigmentation is on the sex determining W chromosome (female birds are WZ, males ZZ).
It used to be thought that color was applied to the shell immediately before laying, but this research shows that coloration is an integral part of the development of the shell, with the same protein responsible for depositing calcium carbonate, or protoporphyrins when there is a lack of that mineral.
In species such as the common guillemot, which nest in large groups, each female 's eggs have very different markings, making it easier for females to identify their own eggs on the crowded cliff ledges on which they breed.
Bird eggshells are diverse. For example:
Tiny pores in bird eggshells allow the embryo to breathe. The domestic hen 's egg has around 7000 pores.
Most bird eggs have an oval shape, with one end rounded and the other more pointed. This shape results from the egg being forced through the oviduct. Muscles contract the oviduct behind the egg, pushing it forward. The egg 's wall is still shapeable, and the pointed end develops at the back. Long, pointy eggs are an incidental consequence of having a streamlined body typical of birds with strong flying abilities; flight narrows the oviduct, which changes the type of egg a bird can lay. Cliff - nesting birds often have highly conical eggs. They are less likely to roll off, tending instead to roll around in a tight circle; this trait is likely to have arisen due to evolution via natural selection. In contrast, many hole - nesting birds have nearly spherical eggs.
Many animals feed on eggs. For example, principal predators of the black oystercatcher 's eggs include raccoons, skunks, mink, river and sea otters, gulls, crows and foxes. The stoat (Mustela erminea) and long - tailed weasel (M. frenata) steal ducks ' eggs. Snakes of the genera Dasypeltis and Elachistodon specialize in eating eggs.
Brood parasitism occurs in birds when one species lays its eggs in the nest of another. In some cases, the host 's eggs are removed or eaten by the female, or expelled by her chick. Brood parasites include the cowbirds and many Old World cuckoos.
An average whooping crane egg is 102 mm (4.0 in) long and weighs 208 g (7.3 oz)
Eurasian oystercatcher eggs camouflaged in the nest
Egg of a senegal parrot, a bird that nests in tree holes, on a 1 cm (0.39 in) grid
Eggs of ostrich, emu, kiwi and chicken
Finch egg next to American dime
Eggs of duck, goose, guineafowl and chicken
Eggs of ostrich, cassowary, chicken, flamingo, pigeon and blackbird
Egg of an emu
Like amphibians, amniotes are air - breathing vertebrates, but they have complex eggs or embryos, including an amniotic membrane. Amniotes include reptiles (including dinosaurs and their descendants, birds) and mammals.
Reptile eggs are often rubbery and are always initially white. They are able to survive in the air. Often the sex of the developing embryo is determined by the temperature of the surroundings, with cooler temperatures favouring males. Not all reptiles lay eggs; some are viviparous ("live birth '').
Dinosaurs laid eggs, some of which have been preserved as petrified fossils.
Among mammals, early extinct species laid eggs, as do platypuses and echidnas (spiny anteaters). Platypuses and two genera of echidna are Australian monotremes. Marsupial and placental mammals do not lay eggs, but their unborn young do have the complex tissues that identify amniotes.
The eggs of the egg - laying mammals (the platypus and the echidnas) are macrolecithal eggs very much like those of reptiles. The eggs of marsupials are likewise macrolecithal, but rather small, and develop inside the body of the female, but do not form a placenta. The young are born at a very early stage, and can be classified as a "larva '' in the biological sense.
In placental mammals, the egg itself is void of yolk, but develops an umbilical cord from structures that in reptiles would form the yolk sac. Receiving nutrients from the mother, the fetus completes the development while inside the uterus.
Eggs are common among invertebrates, including insects, spiders, mollusks, and crustaceans.
All sexually reproducing life, including both plants and animals, produces gametes. The male gamete cell, sperm, is usually motile whereas the female gamete cell, the ovum, is generally larger and sessile. The male and female gametes combine to produce the zygote cell. In multicellular organisms the zygote subsequently divides in an organised manner into smaller more specialised cells, so that this new individual develops into an embryo. In most animals the embryo is the sessile initial stage of the individual life cycle, and is followed by the emergence (that is, the hatching) of a motile stage. The zygote or the ovum itself or the sessile organic vessel containing the developing embryo may be called the egg.
A recent proposal suggests that the phylotypic animal body plans originated in cell aggregates before the existence of an egg stage of development. Eggs, in this view, were later evolutionary innovations, selected for their role in ensuring genetic uniformity among the cells of incipient multicellular organisms.
Scientists often classify animal reproduction according to the degree of development that occurs before the new individuals are expelled from the adult body, and by the yolk which the egg provides to nourish the embryo.
Vertebrate eggs can be classified by the relative amount of yolk. Simple eggs with little yolk are called microlecithal, medium - sized eggs with some yolk are called mesolecithal, and large eggs with a large concentrated yolk are called macrolecithal. This classification of eggs is based on the eggs of chordates, though the basic principle extends to the whole animal kingdom.
Small eggs with little yolk are called microlecithal. The yolk is evenly distributed, so the cleavage of the egg cell cuts through and divides the egg into cells of fairly similar sizes. In sponges and cnidarians the dividing eggs develop directly into a simple larva, rather like a morula with cilia. In cnidarians, this stage is called the planula, and either develops directly into the adult animals or forms new adult individuals through a process of budding.
Microlecithal eggs require minimal yolk mass. Such eggs are found in flatworms, roundworms, annelids, bivalves, echinoderms, the lancelet and in most marine arthropods. In anatomically simple animals, such as cnidarians and flatworms, the fetal development can be quite short, and even microlecithal eggs can undergo direct development. These small eggs can be produced in large numbers. In animals with high egg mortality, microlecithal eggs are the norm, as in bivalves and marine arthropods. However, the latter are more complex anatomically than e.g. flatworms, and the small microlecithal eggs do not allow full development. Instead, the eggs hatch into larvae, which may be markedly different from the adult animal.
In placental mammals, where the embryo is nourished by the mother throughout the whole fetal period, the egg is reduced in size to essentially a naked egg cell.
Mesolecithal eggs have comparatively more yolk than the microlecithal eggs. The yolk is concentrated in one part of the egg (the vegetal pole), with the cell nucleus and most of the cytoplasm in the other (the animal pole). The cell cleavage is uneven, and mainly concentrated in the cytoplasma - rich animal pole.
The larger yolk content of the mesolecithal eggs allows for a longer fetal development. Comparatively anatomically simple animals will be able to go through the full development and leave the egg in a form reminiscent of the adult animal. This is the situation found in hagfish and some snails. Animals with smaller size eggs or more advanced anatomy will still have a distinct larval stage, though the larva will be basically similar to the adult animal, as in lampreys, coelacanth and the salamanders.
Eggs with a large yolk are called macrolecithal. The eggs are usually few in number, and the embryos have enough food to go through full fetal development in most groups. Macrolecithal eggs are only found in selected representatives of two groups: Cephalopods and vertebrates.
Macrolecithal eggs go through a different type of development than other eggs. Due to the large size of the yolk, the cell division can not split up the yolk mass. The fetus instead develops as a plate - like structure on top of the yolk mass, and only envelopes it at a later stage. A portion of the yolk mass is still present as an external or semi-external yolk sac at hatching in many groups. This form of fetal development is common in bony fish, even though their eggs can be quite small. Despite their macrolecithal structure, the small size of the eggs does not allow for direct development, and the eggs hatch to a larval stage ("fry ''). In terrestrial animals with macrolecithal eggs, the large volume to surface ratio necessitates structures to aid in transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and for storage of waste products so that the embryo does not suffocate or get poisoned from its own waste while inside the egg, see amniote.
In addition to bony fish and cephalopods, macrolecithal eggs are found in cartilaginous fish, reptiles, birds and monotreme mammals. The eggs of the coelacanths can reach a size of 9 cm in diameter, and the young go through full development while in the uterus, living on the copious yolk.
Animals are commonly classified by their manner of reproduction, at the most general level distinguishing egg - laying (Latin. oviparous) from live - bearing (Latin. viviparous).
These classifications are divided into more detail according to the development that occurs before the offspring are expelled from the adult 's body. Traditionally:
The term hemotropic derives from the Latin for blood - feeding, contrasted with histotrophic for tissue - feeding.
Eggs laid by many different species, including birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish, have probably been eaten by mankind for millennia. Popular choices for egg consumption are chicken, duck, roe, and caviar, but by a wide margin the egg most often humanly consumed is the chicken egg, typically unfertilized.
According to the Kashrut, that is the set of Jewish dietary laws, kosher food may be consumed according to halakha (Jewish law). Kosher meat and milk (or derivatives) can not be mixed (Deuteronomy 14: 21) or stored together. Eggs are considered pareve (neither meat nor dairy) despite being an animal product and can be mixed with either milk or kosher meat. Mayonnaise, for instance, is usually marked "pareve '' despite by definition containing egg.
Many vaccines for infectious diseases are produced in fertile chicken eggs. The basis of this technology was the discovery in 1931 by Alice Miles Woodruff and Ernest William Goodpasture at Vanderbilt University that the rickettsia and viruses that cause a variety of diseases will grow in chicken embryos. This enabled the development of vaccines against influenza, chicken pox, smallpox, yellow fever, typhus, Rocky mountain spotted fever and other diseases.
The egg is a symbol of new life and rebirth in many cultures around the world. Christians view Easter egg as a symbolic of the resurrection of Jesus Christ. A popular Easter tradition in some parts of the world is the decoration of hard - boiled eggs (usually by dyeing, but often by spray - painting). Adults often hide the eggs for children to find, an activity known as an Easter egg hunt. A similar tradition of egg painting exists in areas of the world influenced by the culture of Persia. Before the spring equinox in the Persian New Year tradition (called Norouz), each family member decorates a hard - boiled egg and sets them together in a bowl. The tradition of a dancing egg is held during the feast of Corpus Christi in Barcelona and other Catalan cities since the 16th century. It consists of an emptied egg, positioned over the water jet from a fountain, which starts turning without falling.
Although being a food item, eggs are sometimes thrown at houses, cars, or people. This act, known commonly as "egging '' in the various English - speaking countries, is a minor form of vandalism and, therefore, usually a criminal offense and is capable of damaging property (egg whites can degrade certain types of vehicle paint) as well as causing serious eye injury. On Halloween, for example, trick or treaters have been known to throw eggs (and sometimes flour) at property or people from whom they received nothing. Eggs are also often thrown in protests, as they are inexpensive and nonlethal, yet very messy when broken.
Egg collecting was once a popular hobby. White settlers favored this practice when they first came to Australia. Traditionally, the embryo would be removed before a collector stored the egg shell.
Collecting eggs of wild birds is now banned by many countries and regions in consideration of the threaten to rare species. In the United Kingdom, Protection of Birds Act 1954 and Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 both state that if a person intentionally takes or destroys an egg of any wild bird, he shall be considered guilty and penalized. On the other hand, ongoing underground trading is becoming a serious issue. In the documentary film Poached (2015), director Timothy Wheeler got the opportunity to work with the U.K. 's Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and the country 's National Wildlife Crime Unit, and delved into the motivation behind egg - collecting criminals.
Since the protection of wild bird eggs was regulated, early collections have come to the museums as curiosities. For example, the Australian Museum hosts a collection of about 20,000 registered clutches of eggs, and the collection in Western Australia Museum has been archived in a gallery. Scientists regard egg collections as a good natural - history data, the details recorded in the collectors ' notes have helped them to understand birds ' nesting behaviors.
Insect eggs, in this case those of the Emperor gum moth, are often laid on the underside of leaves.
Fish eggs, such as these herring eggs are often transparent and fertilized after laying.
Skates and some sharks have a uniquely shaped egg case called a mermaid 's purse.
A Testudo hermanni emerging fully developed from a reptilian egg.
A Schistosoma mekongi egg.
Eggs of Huffmanela hamo, a nematode parasite in a fish
Eggs of various parasites (mainly nematodes) from wild primates
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where did the phantom of the opera originate | The Phantom of the Opera - wikipedia
The Phantom of the Opera (French: Le Fantôme de l'Opéra) is a novel by French writer Gaston Leroux. It was first published as a serialization in Le Gaulois from 23 September 1909, to 8 January 1910. It was published in volume form in late March 1910 by Pierre Lafitte. The novel is partly inspired by historical events at the Paris Opera during the nineteenth century and an apocryphal tale concerning the use of a former ballet pupil 's skeleton in Carl Maria von Weber 's 1841 production of Der Freischütz. It has been successfully adapted into various stage and film adaptations, most notable of which are the 1925 film depiction featuring Lon Chaney, and Andrew Lloyd Webber 's 1986 musical.
In Paris in the 1890s, the Palais Garnier opera house is believed to be haunted by an entity known as the Phantom of the Opera, or simply the Opera Ghost. A stagehand named Joseph Buquet is found hanged and the rope around his neck goes missing. At a gala performance for the retirement of the opera house 's two managers, a young little - known Swedish soprano, Christine Daaé, is called upon to sing in the place of the Opera 's leading soprano, Carlotta, who is ill, and her performance is an astonishing success. The Vicomte Raoul de Chagny, who was present at the performance, recognises her as his childhood playmate, and recalls his love for her. He attempts to visit her backstage, where he hears a man complimenting her from inside her dressing room. He investigates the room once Christine leaves, only to find it empty.
At Perros - Guirec, Christine meets with Raoul, who confronts her about the voice he heard in her room. Christine tells him she has been tutored by the Angel of Music, whom her father used to tell them about. When Raoul, who is skeptical, suggests that she might be the victim of a prank, she storms off. Christine visits her father 's grave one night, where a mysterious figure appears and plays the violin for her. Raoul attempts to confront it but is attacked and knocked out in the process.
Back at the Palais Garnier, the new managers receive a letter from the Phantom demanding that they allow Christine to perform the lead role of Marguerite in Faust, and that box 5 be left empty for his use, lest they perform in a house with a curse on it. The managers ignore his demands as a prank, resulting in disastrous consequences: Carlotta ends up croaking like a toad, and the chandelier suddenly drops into the audience, killing a spectator. The Phantom, having abducted Christine from her dressing room, reveals himself as a deformed man called Erik. Erik intends to keep her in his lair with him for a few days, but she causes him to change his plans when she unmasks him and, to the horror of both, beholds his noseless, lipless, sunken - eyed face, which resembles a skull dried up by the centuries, covered in yellowed dead flesh.
Fearing that she will leave him, he decides to keep her with him forever, but when Christine requests release after two weeks, he agrees on condition that she wear his ring and be faithful to him. On the roof of the opera house, Christine tells Raoul about her abduction, and makes Raoul promise to take her away to a place where Erik can never find her, even if she resists. Raoul tells Christine he will act on his promise the next day, to which she agrees. However, Christine sympathises with Erik, and decides to sing for him one last time as a means of saying good - bye. Unbeknownst to Christine and Raoul, Erik has been watching them and overheard their whole conversation.
The following night, the enraged and jealous Erik abducts Christine during a production of Faust, and tries to force her to marry him. Raoul is led by a mysterious opera regular known as "The Persian '' into Erik 's secret lair deep in the bowels of the opera house, but they end up trapped into a mirrored room by Erik, who threatens that unless Christine agrees to marry him, he will kill them and everyone in the Opera House by using explosives. Christine agrees to marry Erik. Erik initially tries to drown Raoul and the Persian, using the water which would have been used to douse the explosives, but Christine begs and offers to be his "living bride '', promising him not to kill herself after becoming his bride, as she had both contemplated and attempted earlier in the novel. Erik eventually releases Raoul and the Persian from his torture chamber.
When Erik is alone with Christine, he lifts his mask to kiss her on her forehead, and is given a kiss back. Erik reveals that he has never received a kiss, not even from his own mother, nor has been allowed to give one and is overcome with emotion. He and Christine then cry together and their tears "mingle ''. Erik later says that he has never felt so close to another human being. He allows the Persian and Raoul to escape, though not before making Christine promise that she will visit him on his death day, and return the gold ring he gave her. He also makes the Persian promise that afterwards he will go to the newspaper and report his death, as he will die soon and will die "of love ''. Indeed, some time later Christine returns to Erik 's lair, buries him somewhere he will never be found (by Erik 's request) and returns the gold ring. Afterwards, a local newspaper runs the simple note: "Erik is dead ''. Christine and Raoul (who finds out that Erik has killed his older brother) elope together, never to return.
Passages narrated directly by the Persian and the final chapter piece together Erik 's life: the son of a construction business owner deformed from birth, he ran away from his native Normandy to work in fairs and in caravans, schooling himself in the arts of the circus across Europe and Asia, and eventually building trick palaces in Persia and Turkey. Eventually, he returned to France and, wearing a mask, started his own construction business. After being subcontracted to work on the foundations of the Palais Garnier, Erik had discreetly built himself a lair to disappear in, complete with hidden passages and other tricks that allowed him to spy on the managers and racket them.
There have been many literary and other dramatic works based on Leroux 's novel, ranging from stage musicals to films to children 's books. Some well known stage and screen adaptations of the novel are the 1925 film and the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical.
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what is the meaning of back in black | Back in Black (song) - wikipedia
"Back in Black '' is a song by AC / DC, appearing as the first track on side two of their 1980 album of the same name. Known for its opening guitar riff, the song was AC / DC 's tribute to their former singer Bon Scott. His replacement Brian Johnson recalled to Mojo magazine in 2009 that when the band asked him to write a lyric for this song, "they said, ' it ca n't be morbid -- it has to be for Bon and it has to be a celebration. ' '' He added: "I thought, ' Well no pressure there, then ' (laughs). I just wrote what came into my head, which at the time seemed like mumbo, jumbo. ' Nine lives. Cats eyes. Abusing every one of them and running wild. ' The boys got it though. They saw Bon 's life in that lyric. '' It peaked in the U.S. at No. 37 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1981 and was No. 51 on Billboard 's Top Tracks chart, which debuted in March 1981. "Back in Black '' received the RIAA 's Master Ringtone Sales Award (Gold and Platinum) in 2006 and reached 2 × Platinum status in 2007.
The song was ranked No. 4 by VH1 on their list of the 40 Greatest Metal Songs, and in 2009, it was named the second greatest hard rock song of all time by VH1. It was also ranked No. 187 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The same magazine has also ranked "Back in Black '' No. 29 on "The 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time ''.
In 2010, this song came No. 2 in Triple M 's Ultimate 500 Rock Countdown in Melbourne, Australia. The top five were all AC / DC songs.
It officially charted on the UK charts after 31 years in release; peaking in at no. 27 as a result of AC / DC music becoming available on iTunes. It also reached no. 1 on the UK Rock Charts in the same week.
In 1984, the Beastie Boys sampled "Back in Black '' without permission for their song "Rock Hard ''. In 1999, when they wished to include it on an upcoming CD compilation release, they sought permission but AC / DC refused. Mike D of the Beastie Boys quoted Malcolm Young 's reason for refusing as: "' Nothing against you guys, but we just do n't endorse sampling. ' ''
The song "Rock'n Roll Dance (' 92 Heavy Mix) '' from Seo Taiji and Boys ' 1992 self - titled debut album samples "Back in Black ''. Eminem released a version of his 1999 hit, "My Name Is '', with "Back in Black '' as the bassline. The song was also heavily sampled by the Evolution Control Committee in creating the song "Rocked by Rape ''. Art Brut usually began their song "Formed a Band '' with the intro to "Back in Black '' when they played it live. A recorded version of this can be found on their 2006 Nag Nag Nag Nag EP. In 2010, Limp Bizkit samples the song during live performances of "My Way. ''
Two live versions of the song later appeared on both versions of the album Live, as well as the Australian tour edition of Stiff Upper Lip. It has been covered by a number of artists, including Living Colour and Shakira. Other versions include:
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who does benvolio love in romeo and juliet | Benvolio - wikipedia
Benvolio is a fictional character in Shakespeare 's drama Romeo and Juliet. He is Lord Montague 's nephew and Romeo 's cousin. Benvolio serves as an unsuccessful peacemaker in the play, attempting to prevent violence between the Capulet and Montague families.
In 1554, Matteo Bandello published the second volume of his Novelle which included his version of Giuletta e Romeo. Bandello emphasises Romeo 's initial depression and the feud between the families, and introduces the Nurse and Benvolio. Bandello 's story was translated into French by Pierre Boaistuau in 1559 in the second volume of his Histoires Tragiques. Boaistuau adds much moralizing and sentiment, and the characters indulge in rhetorical outbursts.
The name Benvolio means "good - will '' or "well - wisher '' or "Peacemaker '' which is a role he fills, to some degree, as a peace - maker and Romeo 's friend. He also wants peace so civil brawls between him and Tybalt can stop but will also do anything for his family even if that means war against the Capulets (For comparison, see the derivation of Malvolio - ill - will - in Twelfth Night.)
Benvolio is Lord Montague 's nephew and Romeo 's cousin. He is usually portrayed by Shakespeare as a kind and thoughtful person who attempts to look out for his cousin.
Benvolio tries to lessen Romeo 's sentence after attempting to prevent the duels that end in Mercutio and Tybalt 's death, leaving Romeo only with a banishment and not a death sentence.
Benvolio spends most of Act I attempting to distract his cousin from his infatuation with Rosaline but following the first appearance of Mercutio in I. iv, he and Mercutio become more closely aligned until III. i. In that scene, he drags the fatally wounded Mercutio offstage, before returning to inform Romeo of Mercutio 's death and the Prince of the course of Tybalt and Mercutio 's deaths. Benvolio then disappears from the play (though, as a Montague, he may implicitly be included in the stage direction in the final scene "Enter Lord Montague and others '', and he is sometimes doubled with Balthasar).
Part of Benvolio 's role is encouraging Romeo to go to the party, where he falls in love with Juliet.
A mock - Victorian revisionist version of Romeo and Juliet 's final scene (with a happy ending, Romeo, Juliet, Mercutio and Paris restored to life, and Benvolio revealing that he is Paris 's love, Benvolia, in disguise) forms part of the 1980 stage - play The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby. He also attempts to romance Rosaline in Sharman Macdonald 's After Juliet.
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when do pacey and joey first get together | Joey Potter - wikipedia
Josephine Lillian "Joey '' Potter (born September, 1983) is a fictional character and de facto lead role from the WB television drama Dawson 's Creek, portrayed by Katie Holmes. Joey appeared in all episodes of the series, which ran from 1998 -- 2003.
Joey has been friends with Dawson Leery since they were very young. She lives with her older sister, Bessie, Bessie 's son Alexander and (sometimes) boyfriend, Bodie. Her father Mike, is in and out of prison for drug trafficking. Her mother, Lillian, died of breast cancer when Joey was thirteen. Joey is also the only character to appear in every episode of the series.
In season one, Joey is the "girl next door. '' She is confused by her growth into a teenager and her developing feelings for her longtime best friend Dawson, who she also admitted is her soulmate. She immediately becomes jealous when Jen Lindley arrives and steals Dawson away from her. She is intimidated by Jen, who grew up in New York and does not know how to compete. She lives with her pregnant sister Bessie, and she works for her at the Ice House, the Potter family restaurant. She is frustrated with having to deal with work and taking care of her sister along with significant helpings of teenage angst. Nonetheless, Joey manages to be helpful with the birth of Bessie 's son, Alexander, as does their critical neighbor, Evelyn Ryan. One day she is convinced to compete in the beauty pageant, which she does so that she can win the cash prize. But instead of winning the contest, she wins Dawson 's heart, as he finally sees past his best friend image, and realizes that he has strong romantic feelings towards her. At the end of the season, she finds herself with the opportunity of going to Paris for a year, but rejects it in favor of staying in Capeside with Dawson after she and Dawson kiss.
At the start of the season, she and Dawson are a couple and things start out well, but Joey begins to think that she is losing her identity, as she ca n't see where Dawson ends and she begins. During a full moon, the new guy in town, Jack McPhee, kisses her. Dawson finds out during a school dance. After a huge argument, Joey decides to break up with him, even though for the first time they both say that they love each other. She says that she wants to "find herself, '' and so she breaks up with him.
Joey and Jack begin dating afterward but the relationship ends just as quickly when Jack realizes that he 's gay. Joey 's father is released from prison and comes back into her life. At first this change is uneasy, but they heal the rift between them and she gets back together with Dawson. However, Dawson finds out that Joey 's father is dealing cocaine. After a fire at the restaurant which was started by rivals of Joey 's father, Dawson tells his parents who advise him he needs to go to the police. He tells Joey instead. He convinces her to wear a wire, and get a confession from her father so that nothing like the fire will happen again. She gets the confession from her father and shows him the wire. Knowing that she had betrayed her father, she is understandably heartbroken and angry with Dawson. She breaks up with him and tells him she does n't even want to know him and that she will never forgive him.
After Dawson returns from visiting his mom over the summer, Joey offers herself to him but Dawson rejects her. Joey flees and Dawson asks Pacey Witter to keep an eye on her. As the season progresses, it becomes obvious that Pacey and Joey 's friendship evolves into something deeper. Joey has a brief relationship with a college student, A.J. Moller (Robin Dunne). This relationship makes Pacey jealous and forces him to confront his true feelings for Joey. After months of build up, Pacey finally kisses Joey after she confides in him that he and Dawson are the only ones to "have ever known her in a way that no one else does. '' Joey initially is angry when Pacey kisses her; however, later she comes to realize that she may also have feelings for him, as well.
Joey took a job at a Logan 's Marina, where she received unwanted sexual advances from her supervisor, Rob Logan.
During a trip to the home of Dawson 's aunt, Gwen (Gail 's sister), Joey and Pacey confront their feelings for one another. Joey confesses that being around Pacey makes her feel more alive resulting in Pacey kissing her again. Pacey tells Joey she needs to figure out what she wants and leaves. Joey stops him and pulls Pacey into a kiss, having made her choice, but Dawson 's aunt Gwen sees this happen. After this realization, they begin a secret romantic relationship.
When Dawson finds out about Joey and Pacey 's relationship, he is furious, and the friendship between the three is never the same again. Dawson gives Joey an ultimatum - him or Pacey. Joey stupidly pulls back from Pacey in an effort to mend his and her friendship with Dawson. Dawson, however, sees Pacey as his enemy and opponent in winning Joey 's heart. Dawson tries his best to win Joey back, including throwing an alternative prom with Joey as his date. However, Dawson witnesses Joey and Pacey share a romantic dance before the night is over.
In the season finale, Joey comes to realize that while she 's just fearful of losing her oldest friend, Dawson, she has fallen in love with Pacey. With Dawson 's urging, Joey rushes off to tell Pacey that she loves him before he departs for a summer at sea on his boat. She joins Pacey on his boat and the two then sail off into the sunset.
Joey and Pacey return to Capeside from their summer at sea in the fourth season, and are quickly brought back to reality when they must confront the events of the past year and the subsequent fallout. Joey is eager to mend fences, though Dawson is still hurt by what happened. Pacey 's relationship with Dawson never quite recovers until the end of the series, though the two are civil and acknowledge a shared history and group of friends.
Joey and Dawson get chosen as class couple as a practical joke by Drue Valentine. Also, Pacey has returned to academic probation while Joey dreams of admittance to the prestigious Worthington College in Boston. On a ski trip with the senior class, Pacey and Joey finally sleep together for the first time. However, when Dawson questions her, she lies about losing her virginity. Pacey finds out about the lie and is unsettled. He is further disturbed when Joey accepts money from Dawson to attend Worthington.
After Joey returns from New York with Jen, she discovers from Gretchen that Pacey was arrested for public drunkness and that she also believes she may be pregnant. Bessie soon finds out that Joey believes she may be pregnant at Gail 's baby shower, and Bessie argues with her about not being ready to have a baby, and having an immature boyfriend who would never cope with a child. Joey later defends herself by saying that whatever happens in her life will be different. Joey later does a test and finds out she is not pregnant, but the situation draws the sisters close together. When Joey finally reaches Pacey on the phone, she lies about the pregnancy scare and is disappointed that Pacey did n't tell her about his arrest.
Pacey soon begins to feel insecure about Joey 's success and their relationship despite her insistence that her future lies with him, believes that he is n't good enough for her, and that their futures are worlds apart. At their senior prom, Pacey breaks up with Joey, who is devastated. The season ends with Joey headed to Worthington and Pacey to another summer at sea.
At the end of the season, as Dawson is preparing to leave Capeside for Los Angeles, in a scene reminiscent of Season One 's ending, Dawson and Joey share a kiss.
In season five, Joey attends Worthington University in Boston, where she meets and befriends her roommate Audrey Liddell. Joey is studying English Literature, and for a time starts seeing her college professor, David Wilder.
Throwing everyone for a loop, Mitch is killed in a car accident leaving Gail, Dawson and baby Lily behind. Having been a witness to her mother 's painful last days, Joey thinks that she can help Dawson through the process of grieving for his father. She attends Mitch 's funeral, but is rejected when she tries to help Dawson deal with his whirl of emotions. Upon returning to her dorm room in Boston, a crying Joey is comforted by Audrey. While Jen convinces Dawson to go to counseling, Joey catches Jack in a ' bid ' to get one of his frat brothers in bed with Audrey during the fraternity 's Winter Formal.
Joey later joins the band, Aggressive Mediocrity, as lead singer with Jen 's cheating ex, Charlie Todd (Chad Michael Murray). They embark on a whirlwind romance before she tells him to leave to pursue his dream of being a touring musician. She has an unforgettable run - in with a mugger, who luckily for her, gets hit by a car shortly after robbing her at gunpoint. However, when she is requested to be at his side in the hospital, Joey discovers that the mugger is also a drug addict, and has a young daughter, Sammie, with his wife, Grace. When the mugger dies with Joey at his side, she returns to the waiting room, all of her belongings returned, including the money. Thinking of Sammie, whose situation reminds her of the relationship she has with her own father, Joey leaves all the money hidden in Grace 's backpack.
At the end of the season she returns to Capeside, and Dawson confesses to her that he wants to be with her. She rejects him saying that all those feelings were in the past, but in the last episode she rushes to the airport, to declare her true feelings for Dawson. She catches him, and they kiss. Joey tells Dawson to go to Los Angeles as that is his destiny, and that they 'll meet up after the summer. As she goes to get a refund, she is offered the chance to go to Paris, and the audience is left hanging.
In the beginning of the sixth season, it is revealed that Joey did n't end up going to Paris, but went home to Capeside. After not talking all summer, she and Dawson meet up and have a one - night stand in her dorm room. The next day it is revealed that Dawson has a girlfriend in California. Joey breaks things off with him. She takes a job as a waitress at Hell 's Kitchen, with the help of aspiring drummer, Emma Jones. Joey eventually falls for the bartender, Eddie Doling (Oliver Hudson). They both have a love for writing and literature, but it turns out that he is not officially a student at Worthington, as his family was too poor to afford the tuition.
After Christmas, Eddie disappears without telling Joey, going back to Worcester to live with his parents. In trying to find him, Joey gets some help from Harley Hetson -- the 15 - year - old, alienated, headstrong daughter of her snobbish and somewhat misogynist English professor, Greg Hetson (Roger Howarth), whom Joey clashes with several times during the entire season. Harley lies, telling Eddie that Joey was pregnant with his child in order to lure him back to Boston.
Joey and Pacey begin to rekindle their romance after sharing a kiss at his apartment. After being locked overnight in a K - Mart together, they discuss their past and current relationship. Each admits that they miss the other. They briefly reunite, but when Eddie reappears in Joey 's life, she breaks it off with Pacey (ironically Pacey and Joey break up at another high school dance resembling the prom).
After Pacey and Dawson have another falling out after Pacey 's stocks tank and Dawson loses his entire investment, Joey decides that it 's time they worked things out for themselves without her in the middle because it "is not her fight '' and that it never has been, and never will be. After a heart to heart with Pacey on the dock, Joey brings everyone together to help Dawson make his movie. Joey finally goes to Paris and the final episode of the season ends with her standing before the famous Eiffel Tower.
The final two episodes are set approximately five years after the season finale. Joey is a junior editor living in New York with her writer boyfriend, Christopher (Jeremy Sisto). During this double episode, the five friends return to Capeside for Gail Leery 's third wedding (but second husband). Although she had originally planned to spend the weekend with Christopher, Joey runs scared after finding an engagement ring hidden in the couple 's dresser while she is packing for the trip.
The five friends reunite at Pacey 's restaurant to reminisce about the past. Afterwards, Joey drops by Dawson 's house, and the two reestablish their friendship. During Gail 's wedding reception, Joey and Pacey kiss (reigniting lingering feelings between the two), but the moment is interrupted when Jen collapses. It is later discovered that Jen has a deadly heart condition.
At the same time, Joey ends her relationship with Christopher and chooses between Dawson and Pacey. Though she loves Dawson, she acknowledges that he is her soulmate who is tied to her childhood, a love that is pure and eternally innocent. She also can not deny she is still in love with Pacey. After Jen 's death, she decides to stop running and confront her feelings for Pacey.
In the midst of their romantic entanglements, Joey, Dawson, Jack, and Pacey are brought together at the Ice House, now owned by Pacey, to say goodbye to Jen, who dies from pulmonary congestion.
In the epilogue, Joey and Pacey watch Dawson 's semi-autobiographical television series The Creek in their apartment before calling up Dawson together, where they discover he is going to meet his hero, Steven Spielberg. They have renewed their romantic relationship, and the series ends with them as a couple living together in New York.
"I 'm a lot like Joey, '' said Holmes. "I think they saw that. I come from a small town. I was a tomboy. Joey tries to be articulate and deny that she does n't have a lot of experience in life. Her life parallels mine, which is all about new everything -- relationships, personal perceptions -- and about being guarded. '' Holmes filmed the pilot of Dawson 's Creek in Wilmington, North Carolina, during spring break of her senior year of high school in 1997. When the show was picked up by The WB, Holmes moved to Wilmington, where the show filmed.
Dawson 's Creek ran from 1998 to 2003, and Holmes was the only actor to appear in all 128 episodes. "It was very difficult for me to leave Wilmington, to have my little glass bubble burst and move on. I hate change. On the other hand it was refreshing to play someone else, '' she said in 2004. Holmes confirmed that, as often happens on soaps, the character was a caricature of the actor:
"Joey Potter is a headstrong, vibrant, wily, sultry, and determined go - getter. And yet, in a gloriously contradictory manner, in spite of her tough - as - nails exterior demeanor, Joey 's also a frail, sometimes uncertain, emotionally sensitive, in - need - of - love person '', said the show 's official book. Joey, named for Jo in Little Women, for years had been climbing in Dawson 's bedroom window and platonically sharing his bed. Joey 's mother had died from cancer when Joey was thirteen and her father, Mike (Gareth Williams), was in prison for "conspiracy to traffic in marijuana in excess of 10,000 pounds. '' Her harried, unmarried, and very pregnant sister, Bessie (Nina Repeta), about ten years older than Joey, was raising her while running the Ice House restaurant, where Joey worked as a waitress. GQ described Joey as "kind of an uptight fussbudget -- one who 's always twisted up over doing the right thing and bungling - up ways to hook up with her crush and across the creek neighbor, Dawson. ''
The 5 ft 9 in (1.75 m) tall brunette enchanted the press, writers of both sexes commenting how Holmes was the sort of girl one wants to bring home to meet the parents and to marry. "The Audrey Hepburn of her generation '', was one typical comment. Time called her "impossibly lovely '' and Entertainment Weekly said she was "next up for idolhood. '' Variety, reviewing the pilot, said Holmes "is a confident young performer who delivers her lines with slyness and conviction. '' Holmes made such an impression in Hollywood, The New York Times Magazine claimed everyone was seeking to cast a "Katie Holmes type '', who, the reporter claimed, "is a throwback to the 1950s: she is a smart girl next door (as opposed to the babe - o-rama blondes) '' -- the sort represented by her Dawson 's Creek co-star Michelle Williams. But her "type '' was no less attractive, Arena magazine declaring her "the most coquettishly sexy woman on television. Anywhere. ''
Holmes was soon on the covers of magazines such as Seventeen, TV Guide, and Rolling Stone. Jancee Dunn, an editor at Rolling Stone said she was chosen for the cover because "every time you mention Dawson 's Creek you tend to get a lot of dolphin - like shrieks from teenage girls. The fact that she is drop - dead gorgeous did n't hurt either. ''
Reviews were mixed. The Blade said the characters "just talk like they came from a planet ruled by Manhattan psychologists, one where small talk is punishable by death. '' Holmes herself needed help with the dialogue. "Sometimes before we read a script, I have to get my dictionary and call people to make sure I 'm pronouncing some of the words correctly. '' The show brought her national attention and many fans back home; Toledo 's Thanksgiving Day parade in November 1998 had record attendance when Holmes was named grand marshal.
"As Joey '', said Life magazine, "Holmes has had seismic influences on teen life... Through it all, Joey has managed to hang on to her integrity... The show -- and Katie 's character in particular -- has touched a nerve. ''
Her relationship with Pacey was included in TV Guide 's list of "The Best TV Couples of All Time ''. Flavorwire chose the show 's other central pairing, Joey and Dawson, in its list of "TV 's Best ' 90s Teen Power Couples ''.
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when was the last time australia had an earthquake | List of earthquakes in Australia - Wikipedia
This is a list of significant earthquakes recorded within Australia and its territories. The currency used is the Australian dollar (A $) unless noted otherwise.
Sources
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jane i don't want to fall in love | Do n't Wanna Fall in Love - wikipedia
"Do n't Wanna Fall in Love '' is a 1990 hit song for Toronto - born singer / songwriter / musician Jane Child. Released as the second single from her self - titled debut album, the single went to number two for three weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart in late April and early May 1990, kept out of the top spot by Sinéad O'Connor 's ballad "' Nothing Compares 2 U ''. In addition, a "new jack swing '' remix of the song was produced by Teddy Riley and reached number six on the R&B chart, and number eleven on the dance chart. Shep Pettibone also remixed the single, but was only released to DJ 's. When released around Europe it also became successful albeit more modestly. In the UK, the single stalled at # 22 after Child refused to appear on the popular British TV program Top of the Pops while the single was climbing the charts, considering the program to be a "sellout ''.
In April 1990, the single was certified gold by the RIAA.
It is Child 's best known song and only top 40 hit, making her a one hit wonder in the public eye.
In 2013, the song was featured on Grand Theft Auto V 's soundtrack, as part of the radio station Non-Stop Pop 's playlist.
The music video shot in B&W and in color, was filmed in New York City by cinematographer Derek M. Allen at the request of Child, due to having written the song while living there. In it, Child is seen walking through downtown Manhattan at night, alternating with scenes of the artist at work, laying down tracks on a Fairlight and mixing the results on a multitrack board.
The song was covered in 2008 by Kimberly Wyatt of the Pussycat Dolls, appearing on the bonus disc for their album Doll Domination.
It was also sampled by producer M - Phazes, which was used for the 2014 song "Do n't Wanna Fall in Love '' by singer / rapper KYLE.
The song is featured in Grand Theft Auto V, it is played on Non-Stop Pop FM.
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movies made about lucille ball and desi arnaz | Lucille Ball - Wikipedia
Lucille Désirée Ball Morton (August 6, 1911 -- April 26, 1989) was an American actress, comedian, model, film - studio executive, and producer. She was best known as the star of the self - produced sitcoms I Love Lucy, The Lucy -- Desi Comedy Hour, The Lucy Show, and Here 's Lucy.
Ball 's career began in 1929 when she landed work as a model. Shortly thereafter, she began her performing career on Broadway using the stage names Diane Belmont and Dianne Belmont. She later appeared in several minor film roles in the 1930s and 1940s as a contract player for RKO Radio Pictures, being cast as a chorus girl or in similar roles. During this time, she met Cuban bandleader Desi Arnaz, and the two eloped in November 1940. In the 1950s, Ball ventured into television. In 1951, she and Arnaz created the sitcom I Love Lucy, a series that became one of the most beloved programs in television history. The same year, Ball gave birth to their first child, Lucie Arnaz, followed by Desi Arnaz, Jr. in 1953. Ball and Arnaz divorced in May 1960, and she married comedian Gary Morton in 1961.
In 1962, Ball became the first woman to run a major television studio, Desilu Productions, which produced many popular television series, including Mission: Impossible and Star Trek. Ball did not back away from acting completely, appearing in film and television roles for the rest of her career until her death in April 1989 from an abdominal aortic dissection at the age of 77.
Ball was nominated for 13 Primetime Emmy Awards, winning four times. In 1977, Ball was among the first recipients of the Women in Film Crystal Award.
She was the recipient of the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award in 1979, inducted into the Television Hall of Fame in 1984, the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Kennedy Center Honors in 1986, and the Governors Award from the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences in 1989.
Born at 69 Stewart Avenue, Jamestown, New York, Lucille Désirée Ball was the daughter of Henry Durrell Ball (1887 -- 1915) and Désirée "DeDe '' Evelyn Ball (née Hunt; 1892 -- 1977). Her family lived in Wyandotte, Michigan for a time.
When she was three years old, her 27 - year - old father died of typhoid fever. She sometimes later claimed that she had been born in Butte, Montana where her grandparents had lived. A number of magazines reported inaccurately that she had decided that Montana was a more romantic place to be born than New York and repeated a fantasy of a "western childhood ''. In fact, her father had moved the family to Anaconda, Montana, where they lived briefly, among other places, for work. Her family was Baptist, and her ancestry was mostly English, and included small amounts of Scottish, French, and Irish.
Some of her genealogy leads to the earliest settlers in the colonies, including Elder John Crandall of Westerly, Rhode Island, and Edmund Rice, an early emigrant from England to the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
Her father was a lineman for Bell Telephone Company and was frequently transferred because of his occupation. Within three years of her birth, Lucille had moved with her parents from Jamestown to Anaconda, Montana, and later to Trenton, New Jersey. While DeDe Ball was pregnant with her second child, Frederick, Henry Ball contracted typhoid fever and died in February 1915. Ball recalled little from the day her father died, but remembered a bird getting trapped in the house. From that day forward, she suffered from ornithophobia.
After Ball 's father died, her mother returned to New York. Ball and her brother, Fred Henry Ball (1915 -- 2007), were raised by their mother and maternal grandparents in Celoron, New York, a summer resort village on Lake Chautauqua, just 2.5 miles west of downtown Jamestown. Lucy loved Celoron Park, one of the best amusement areas in the United States at that time. Its boardwalk had a ramp to the lake that served as a children 's slide, the Pier Ballroom, a roller - coaster, a bandstand, and a stage where vaudeville concerts and regular theatrical shows were presented which made Celoron Park an entertainment destination.
Four years after Henry Ball 's death, DeDe Ball married Edward Peterson. While her mother and stepfather looked for work in another city, Lucy 's stepfather 's parents cared for her brother and her. Ball 's new guardians were a puritanical Swedish couple who banished all mirrors from the house except for one over the bathroom sink. When the young Ball was caught admiring herself in it, she was severely chastised for being vain. This period of time affected Ball so deeply that, in later life, she claimed that it lasted seven or eight years.
Peterson was a Shriner. When his organization needed female entertainers for the chorus line of their next show, he encouraged his 12 - year - old stepdaughter to audition. While Ball was onstage, she realized performing was a great way to gain praise and recognition. Her appetite for recognition had thus been awakened at an early age. In 1927, her family suffered misfortune. Their house and furnishings were lost to settle a financial legal judgment after a neighborhood boy was accidentally shot and paralyzed by someone target shooting in their yard under the supervision of Ball 's grandfather. The family subsequently moved into a small apartment in Jamestown.
In 1925, Ball, then only 14, started dating Johnny DeVita, a 21 - year - old local hoodlum. DeDe was unhappy with the relationship, but was unable to influence her daughter to end it. She expected the romance to burn out in a few weeks, but that did not happen. After about a year, DeDe tried to separate them by using Lucille 's desire to be in show business. Despite the family 's meager finances, she arranged for Lucille to go to the John Murray Anderson School for the Dramatic Arts in New York City, where Bette Davis was a fellow student. Ball later said about that time in her life, "All I learned in drama school was how to be frightened. '' Ball 's instructors felt that she would not be successful in the entertainment business, and were not afraid to say this in front of her, a criticism which Ball did not enjoy hearing.
Ball was determined to prove her teachers wrong and returned to New York City in 1928. Among her other jobs, she landed work as a fashion model for Hattie Carnegie. Her career was thriving when she became ill with rheumatoid arthritis, and was unable to work for two years.
She moved back to New York City in 1932 to resume her pursuit of a career as an actress and supported herself by again working for Carnegie and as the Chesterfield cigarette girl. Using the name Diane (sometimes spelled Dianne) Belmont, she started getting some chorus work on Broadway, but the work was not lasting. Ball was hired -- but then quickly fired -- by theatre impresario Earl Carroll, from his Vanities, and by Florenz Ziegfeld, from a touring company of Rio Rita.
After an uncredited stint as a Goldwyn Girl in Roman Scandals (1933), starring Eddie Cantor and Gloria Stuart, Ball moved permanently to Hollywood to appear in films. She appeared in many small movie roles in the 1930s as a contract player for RKO Radio Pictures, including a two - reel comedy short with the Three Stooges (Three Little Pigskins, 1934) and a movie with the Marx Brothers (Room Service, 1938). She can also be seen as one of the featured models in the Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers film Roberta (1935), briefly as the flower girl in Top Hat (1935), and in a brief supporting role at the beginning of Follow the Fleet (1936), another Astaire - Rogers film. Ball and Ginger Rogers, who were distant maternal cousins, played aspiring actresses in the film Stage Door (1937).
In 1936, she landed the role she hoped would lead her to Broadway, in the Bartlett Cormack play Hey Diddle Diddle, a comedy set in a duplex apartment in Hollywood. The play premiered in Princeton, New Jersey, on January 21, 1937, with Ball playing the part of Julie Tucker, "one of three roommates coping with neurotic directors, confused executives, and grasping stars who interfere with the girls ' ability to get ahead ''.
The play received good reviews, but problems existed, chiefly with its star, Conway Tearle, who was in poor health. Cormack wanted to replace him, but the producer, Anne Nichols, said the fault lay with the character and insisted that the part needed to be reshaped and rewritten. The two were unable to agree on a solution. The play was scheduled to open on Broadway at the Vanderbilt Theatre, but closed after one week in Washington, DC, when Tearle suddenly became gravely ill.
Ball once considered and auditioned for the role of Scarlett O'Hara for Gone with the Wind (1939), but Vivien Leigh got the part, winning an Academy Award for Best Actress for her role. Ball signed with Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer in the 1940s, but never achieved major stardom from her appearance in the studio 's films. She was known in many Hollywood circles as "Queen of the B 's '' -- a title previously held by Fay Wray -- starring in a number of B - movies, such as Five Came Back (1939). Like many budding actresses, Ball picked up radio work to earn side income, as well as gain exposure. In 1937, she appeared regularly on The Phil Baker Show.
When that completed its run in 1938, Ball joined the cast of The Wonder Show starring Jack Haley (best remembered as the Tin Woodman in The Wizard of Oz, 1939). Here she began her 50 - year professional relationship with Gale Gordon, who served as show announcer. The Wonder Show lasted one season, with the final episode airing on April 7, 1939. MGM producer Arthur Freed purchased the Broadway hit musical play DuBarry Was a Lady (1943) especially for Ann Sothern, but when Sothern turned down the part, the choice role was awarded to Ball, who in real life was Sothern 's best friend. In 1946, Ball starred in Lover Come Back. In 1947, she appeared in the murder mystery Lured as Sandra Carpenter, a Taxi dancer in London.
In 1948, Ball was cast as Liz Cugat (later "Cooper ''), a wacky wife, in My Favorite Husband, a radio program for CBS Radio.
The program was successful, and CBS asked her to develop it for television. She agreed, but insisted on working with her real - life husband, Cuban bandleader Desi Arnaz. CBS executives were reluctant, thinking the public would not accept an All - American redhead and a Cuban as a couple. CBS was initially not impressed with the pilot episode produced by the couple 's Desilu Productions company, so the couple toured the road in a vaudeville act with Lucy as the zany housewife wanting to get in Arnaz 's show. The tour was a great success, and CBS put I Love Lucy into their lineup.
I Love Lucy was not only a star vehicle for Lucille Ball, but also a way for her to try to salvage her marriage to Arnaz, which had become badly strained, in part because both had hectic performing schedules which often kept them apart but mostly due to Desi 's attraction to other women.
Along the way, she created a television dynasty and reached several "firsts ''. Ball was the first woman in television to be head of a production company: Desilu, the company that Arnaz and she formed. After their divorce, Ball bought out Arnaz 's share of the studio, and she proceeded to function as a very active studio head. Desilu and I Love Lucy pioneered a number of methods still in use in television production today such as filming before a live studio audience with a number of cameras, and distinct sets adjacent to each other. During this time, Ball taught a 32 - week comedy workshop at the Brandeis - Bardin Institute. Ball was quoted as saying, "You can not teach someone comedy; either they have it or they do n't. ''
Ball and Arnaz wanted to remain in their Los Angeles home, but the time zone logistics made that broadcast norm impossible. Prime time in L.A. was too late at night on the East Coast to air a major network series, meaning the majority of the TV audience would be seeing not only the inferior picture of kinescopes, but seeing them at least a day later.
Sponsor Philip Morris did not want to show day - old kinescopes to the major markets on the East Coast, yet neither did they want to pay for the extra cost that filming, processing, and editing would require, pressuring Ball and Arnaz to relocate to New York City. Ball and Arnaz offered to take a pay cut to finance filming, on the condition that their company, Desilu, would retain the rights to that film once it was aired. CBS relinquished the show rights to Desilu after initial broadcast, not realizing they were giving away a valuable and durable asset. In 1957, CBS bought the rights back for $1,000,000 ($8.71 million in today 's terms), which provided Ball and Arnaz the down payment for the purchase of the former RKO Pictures studios, which became Desilu Studios.
I Love Lucy dominated the ratings in the United States for most of its run. (An attempt was made to adapt the show for radio; the cast and writers adapted the memorable "Breaking the Lease '' episode -- in which the Ricardos and Mertzes fall out over an argument, the Ricardos threaten to move, but they are stuck in a firm lease -- for a radio audition disc that never aired, but has survived.)
A scene in which Lucy and Ricky practice the tango, in the episode "Lucy Does The Tango '', evoked the longest recorded studio audience laugh in the history of the show; it was so long, the sound editor had to cut that particular part of the soundtrack in half. During the show 's production breaks, Lucy and Desi starred together in two feature films: The Long, Long Trailer (1954) and Forever, Darling (1956). After I Love Lucy ended its run in 1957, the main cast continued to appear in occasional hour - long specials under the title The Lucy -- Desi Comedy Hour until 1960.
Desilu produced several other popular shows, such as The Untouchables, Star Trek, and Mission: Impossible. The studio was eventually sold for $17,000,000 ($125 million in today 's terms) and merged into Paramount Pictures in 1967.
The 1960 Broadway musical Wildcat ended its run early when Ball became too ill to continue in the show. The show was the source of the song she made famous, "Hey, Look Me Over '', which she performed with Paula Stewart on The Ed Sullivan Show. Ball hosted a CBS Radio talk show entitled Let 's Talk to Lucy in 1964 -- 65. She also made a few more movies including Yours, Mine, and Ours (1968), and the musical Mame (1974), and two more successful long - running sitcoms for CBS: The Lucy Show (1962 -- 68), which costarred Vivian Vance and Gale Gordon, and Here 's Lucy (1968 -- 74), which also featured Gordon, as well as Lucy 's real - life children, Lucie Arnaz and Desi Arnaz, Jr. She appeared on the Dick Cavett show in 1974 and spoke of her history and life with Arnaz.
Ball 's close friends in the business included perennial co-star Vivian Vance and film stars Judy Garland, Ann Sothern, and Ginger Rogers, and comedic television performers Jack Benny, Barbara Pepper, Mary Wickes and Mary Jane Croft; all except Garland appeared at least once on her various series. Former Broadway co-stars Keith Andes and Paula Stewart also appeared at least once on her later sitcoms, as did Joan Blondell, Rich Little and Ann - Margret. Ball mentored actress and singer Carole Cook, and befriended Barbara Eden, when Eden appeared on an episode of I Love Lucy.
In 1966, Ball became a friend and mentor to Carol Burnett. After having guested on Burnett 's highly successful CBS - TV special Carol + 2 and having the younger performer reciprocate by appearing on The Lucy Show, Ball reportedly offered Burnett her own sitcom called Here 's Agnes, to be produced by Desilu Productions. Burnett declined the offer, not wanting to commit herself to a weekly series. The two remained close friends until Ball 's death in 1989. Ball sent flowers every year on Burnett 's birthday. When Burnett awoke on the day of her 56th birthday in 1989, she discovered via the morning news that Lucille Ball had died. Later that afternoon, flowers arrived at Burnett 's house with a note reading, "Happy Birthday, Kid. Love, Lucy. ''
Ball was originally considered by Frank Sinatra for the role of Mrs. Iselin in the Cold War thriller The Manchurian Candidate. Director / producer John Frankenheimer, however, had worked with Angela Lansbury in a mother role in All Fall Down and insisted on having her for the part.
During the mid-1980s, Ball attempted to resurrect her television career. In 1982, she hosted a two - part Three 's Company retrospective, showing clips from the show 's first five seasons, summarizing memorable plotlines, and commenting on her love of the show.
A 1985 dramatic made - for - TV film about an elderly homeless woman, Stone Pillow, received mixed reviews. Her 1986 sitcom comeback Life with Lucy, costarring her longtime foil Gale Gordon and co-produced by Ball, Gary Morton, and prolific producer / former actor Aaron Spelling was cancelled less than two months into its run by ABC. In February 1988, Ball was named the Hasty Pudding Woman of the Year.
In May 1988, Ball was hospitalized after suffering a mild heart attack. Her last public appearance, just one month before her death, was at the 1989 Academy Awards telecast in which she and fellow presenter Bob Hope were given a standing ovation.
When Ball registered to vote in 1936, she listed her party affiliation as Communist. (She was registered as a Communist in 1938 as well.)
To sponsor the Communist Party 's 1936 candidate for the California State Assembly 's 57th District, Ball signed a certificate stating, "I am registered as affiliated with the Communist Party. '' The same year, she was appointed to the State Central Committee of the Communist Party of California, according to records of the California Secretary of State. In 1937, Hollywood writer Rena Vale, a self - identified former Communist, attended a Communist Party new members ' class at Ball 's home, according to Vale 's testimony before the United States House of Representatives ' Special House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), on July 22, 1940. Two years later, Vale affirmed this testimony in a sworn deposition:
Within a few days after my third application to join the Communist Party was made, I received a notice to attend a meeting on North Ogden Drive, Hollywood; although it was a typed, unsigned note, merely requesting my presence at the address at 8 o'clock in the evening on a given day, I knew it was the long - awaited notice to attend Communist Party new members classes... on arrival at this address I found several others present; an elderly man informed us that we were the guests of the screen actress, Lucille Ball, and showed us various pictures, books and other objects to establish that fact, and stated she was glad to loan her home for a Communist Party new members class.
In a 1944 British Pathé newsreel, titled Fund Raising for Roosevelt, Ball was featured prominently among several stage and film stars at events in support of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's fundraising campaign for the March of Dimes. She stated that in the 1952 US Presidential Election, she voted for Republican Dwight Eisenhower.
On September 4, 1953, Ball met privately with HUAC investigator William A. Wheeler in Hollywood and gave him sealed testimony. She stated that she had registered to vote as a Communist "or intended to vote the Communist Party ticket '' in 1936 at her socialist grandfather 's insistence. She stated she "at no time intended to vote as a Communist '',
Ball stated she has never been a member of the Communist Party "to her knowledge ''... (She) did not know whether or not any meetings were ever held at her home at 1344 North Ogden Drive; stated... (that if she had been appointed) as a delegate to the State Central Committee of the Communist Party of California in 1936 it was done without her knowledge or consent; (and stated that she) did not recall signing the document sponsoring EMIL FREED for the Communist Party nomination to the office of member of the assembly for the 57th District... A review of the subject 's file reflects no activity that would warrant her inclusion on the Security Index.
Immediately before the filming of episode 68 ("The Girls Go Into Business '') of I Love Lucy, Desi Arnaz, instead of his usual audience warm - up, told the audience about Lucy and her grandfather. Reusing the line he had first given to Hedda Hopper in an interview, he quipped: "The only thing red about Lucy is her hair, and even that is not legitimate. ''
In 1940, Ball met Cuban - born bandleader Desi Arnaz while filming the Rodgers and Hart stage hit Too Many Girls. When they met again on the second day, the two connected immediately and eloped the same year. Although Arnaz was drafted into the Army in 1942, he ended up being classified for limited service due to a knee injury. As a result, Arnaz stayed in Los Angeles, organizing and performing USO shows for wounded GIs being brought back from the Pacific.
Ball filed for divorce in 1944, going so far as obtaining an interlocutory decree; however, she and Arnaz reconciled, which precluded the entry of a final decree.
On July 17, 1951, one month before her 40th birthday, Ball gave birth to daughter Lucie Désirée Arnaz. A year and a half later, Ball gave birth to her second child, Desiderio Alberto Arnaz IV, known as Desi Arnaz, Jr. Before he was born, I Love Lucy was a solid ratings hit, and Ball and Arnaz wrote the pregnancy into the show. (Ball 's necessary and planned caesarean section in real life was scheduled for the same date that her television character gave birth.)
Several demands were made by CBS, insisting that a pregnant woman could not be shown on television, nor could the word "pregnant '' be spoken on - air. After approval from several religious figures the network allowed the pregnancy storyline, but insisted that the word "expecting '' be used instead of "pregnant ''. (Arnaz garnered laughs when he deliberately mispronounced it as "' spectin ' ''.) The episode 's official title was "Lucy Is Enceinte '', borrowing the French word for pregnant; however, episode titles never appeared on the show.
The episode aired on the evening of January 19, 1953, with 44 million viewers watching Lucy Ricardo welcome little Ricky, while in real life Ball delivered her second child, Desi Jr., that same day in Los Angeles. The birth made the cover of the first issue of TV Guide for the week of April 3 -- 9, 1953.
In October 1956, Ball, Arnaz, Vance, and William Frawley all appeared on a Bob Hope special on NBC, including a spoof of I Love Lucy, the only time all four stars were together on a color telecast. By the end of the 1950s, Desilu had become a large company, causing a good deal of stress for both Ball and Arnaz.
On March 3, 1960, a day after Desi 's 43rd birthday (and one day after the filming of Lucy and Desi 's last episode together), Ball filed papers in Santa Monica Superior Court, claiming married life with Desi was "a nightmare '' and nothing at all as it appeared on I Love Lucy.
On May 4, 1960, just two months after filming that episode (the final episode of The Lucy - Desi Comedy Hour), the couple divorced. Until his death in 1986, however, Arnaz and Ball remained friends and often spoke very fondly of each other. Her real - life divorce indirectly found its way into her later television series, as she was always cast as an unmarried woman.
The following year, Ball starred in the Broadway musical Wildcat, which co-starred Keith Andes and Paula Stewart. It marked the beginning of a 30 - year friendship between Lucy and Stewart, who introduced Lucy to second husband, Gary Morton, a Borscht Belt comic who was 13 years her junior. According to Ball, Morton claimed he had never seen an episode of I Love Lucy due to his hectic work schedule. Ball immediately installed Morton in her production company, teaching him the television business and eventually promoting him to producer. Morton played occasional bit parts on Ball 's various series.
Ball was outspoken against the relationship her son had with actress Patty Duke. Later, commenting on when her son dated Liza Minnelli, she was quoted as saying, "I miss Liza, but you can not domesticate Liza. ''
On April 18, 1989, Ball was at her home in Beverly Hills when she complained of chest pains. An ambulance was called and she was rushed to the emergency room of Cedars - Sinai Medical Center. She was diagnosed with dissecting aortic aneurysm and underwent heart surgery for nearly eight hours, including the transplant of a new aorta. The surgery appeared to have been successful, and Ball began recovering very quickly, even walking around her room with little assistance. She received a flurry of get - well wishes from Hollywood, and across the street from Cedars - Sinai Medical Center, the Hard Rock Café erected a sign reading "Hard Rock Loves Lucy ''. However, shortly after dawn on April 26, Ball awoke with severe back pains and soon lost consciousness.
Attempts to revive her proved unsuccessful and she died at 5: 47 a.m. PDT. Doctors determined that Ball, who was 77 years old, had succumbed to a second aortic rupture, this time in the abdominal area, and that it was not directly related to her surgery the previous week.
Her body was cremated and the ashes were initially interred in Forest Lawn -- Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles. However, in 2002, her children moved her remains to the Hunt family plot at Lake View Cemetery in Jamestown, New York, where her parents, Henry and Desirée (Hunt) Ball, and her grandparents are buried.
On February 8, 1960, Ball was awarded two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame: one at 6436 Hollywood Boulevard for contributions to motion pictures, and one at 6100 Hollywood Boulevard for television.
Ball received many prestigious awards throughout her career, including some posthumously such as the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George H.W. Bush on July 6, 1989, and The Women 's International Center 's ' Living Legacy Award '.
A Lucille Ball - Desi Arnaz Center museum is in Lucy 's hometown of Jamestown, New York. The Little Theatre was renamed the Lucille Ball Little Theatre in her honor. Ball was among Time magazine 's "100 Most Important People of the Century ''.
On June 7, 1990, Universal Studios Florida opened a walk - through attraction dedicated to Ball, Lucy - A Tribute, which featured clips of shows, as well as various pieces of trivia about her, along with items owned by or associated with Lucille, and an interactive quiz for guests. The attraction was permanently closed on August 17, 2015.
On August 6, 2001, which would have been her 90th birthday, the United States Postal Service honored her with a commemorative postage stamp as part of its Legends of Hollywood series.
Ball appeared on the cover of TV Guide more than any other person; she appeared on 39 covers, including the first cover in 1953 with her baby son, Desi Arnaz, Jr. TV Guide voted Lucille Ball as the ' Greatest TV Star of All Time ' and it later commemorated the 50th anniversary of I Love Lucy with eight collector covers celebrating memorable scenes from the show. In another instance it named I Love Lucy the second - best television program in American history, after Seinfeld.
Due to her support for the Women 's Movement, Ball was inducted into the National Women 's Hall of Fame in 2001.
The Friars Club named a room in its New York clubhouse for Lucille Ball. She was posthumously awarded the ' Legacy of Laughter ' award at the fifth Annual TV Land Awards in 2007. In November 2007, Lucille Ball was chosen as number two on a list of the ' 50 Greatest TV Icons '; a public poll, however, chose her as number one.
On August 6, 2011, which would have been her 100th birthday, Google honored Ball with an interactive doodle on their homepage, which displayed six classic moments from I Love Lucy. On the same day, a total of 915 Ball look - alikes converged on Jamestown to celebrate the birthday and set a new world record for such a gathering.
Since 2009, a statue of Ball has been on display in Celoron, New York. Residents deemed the original statue "scary '' and not accurate, earning it the nickname "Scary Lucy ''. On August 1, 2016, it was announced that a new statue of Ball would replace the original. The new statue was revealed on August 6, 2016.
In 2015, it was announced that Ball would be played by Cate Blanchett in an untitled biographical film, to be written by Aaron Sorkin.
Ball was portrayed by Gillian Anderson, as her character Lucy Ricardo, in the American Gods episode "The Secret of Spoons '' (2017).
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who has won 3 nba championships in a row | List of NBA players with most championships - wikipedia
This is a list of NBA players with most championships won as a player. The National Basketball Association (NBA) is a major professional basketball league in North America. It was founded in 1946 as the Basketball Association of America (BAA). The league adopted its current name at the start of the 1949 -- 50 season when it merged with the National Basketball League (NBL). The NBA Finals is the championship series for the NBA and the conclusion of the sport 's postseason. The winning team of the series receives the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy. Players from the winning team usually receive championship rings from the team honoring their contribution. However, in some rare occasion, the teams opted to give other commemorative items, such as wrist watches, instead of rings. The number of championships won by NBA superstars is often used as a measurement of their greatness.
Boston Celtics center Bill Russell holds the record for the most NBA championships won with 11 titles during his 13 - year playing career. He won his first championship with the Boston Celtics in his rookie year. Afterwards, he went on to win ten championships in the next 12 years, including eight consecutive championships from 1959 to 1966. He won the last two championships in 1968 and 1969 as player - coach. Russell 's teammate, Sam Jones, won ten championships from 1959 to 1969, the second most in NBA history. Four Celtics players, Tom Heinsohn, K.C. Jones, Satch Sanders and John Havlicek, won eight championships each. Two other Celtics, Jim Loscutoff and Frank Ramsey, won seven championships each. Four players, Bob Cousy, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen, won six championships each. Jordan and Pippen are members of the Chicago Bulls team who won three consecutive championships twice in the 1990s. George Mikan won two championships in the NBL before it merged with the BAA to form the NBA, and won five championships in the NBA.
Robert Horry and John Salley are the only players to have won championships with three different teams. Horry won seven championships: two with the Houston Rockets, three with the Los Angeles Lakers and another two with San Antonio Spurs. Salley 's four NBA titles came via two championships with the Detroit Pistons and one each with the Bulls and the Lakers. Horry is also the only non-Celtic to win more than 6 times. Frank Saul and Steve Kerr are the only players to win two championships with two different teams in consecutive seasons. Saul won consecutive championships with the Rochester Royals and the Minneapolis Lakers in the 1950s, and Kerr won consecutive championships with the Bulls and the Spurs in the 1990s. Both Saul and Kerr were NBA champions four years in a row, each having participated in three - peats, Saul with the Lakers and Kerr with the Bulls.
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when did us start fighting in europe ww2 | Military history of the United States during World war II - Wikipedia
The military history of the United States in World War II covers the war against Germany, Italy, Japan and starting with the 7 December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor. During the first two years of World War II, the United States had maintained formal neutrality as made officially in the Quarantine Speech delivered by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937, while supplying Britain, the Soviet Union, and China with war materiel through the Lend - Lease Act which was signed into law on 11 March 1941, as well as deploying the U.S. military to replace the British invasion forces in Iceland. In the Pacific Theater, there was unofficial early U.S. combat activity such as the Flying Tigers.
During the war, over 16 million Americans served in the United States Armed Forces, with 405,399 killed in action and 671,278 wounded. There were also 130,201 American prisoners of war, of whom 116,129 returned home after the war. Key civilian advisors to President Roosevelt included Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, who mobilized the nation 's industries and induction centers to supply the Army, commanded by General George Marshall and the Army Air Forces under General Hap Arnold. The Navy, led by Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox and Admiral Ernest King, proved more autonomous. Overall priorities were set by Roosevelt and the Joint Chiefs of Staff, chaired by William Leahy. Highest priority went to the defeat of Germany in Europe, but first the war against Japan in the Pacific was more urgent after the sinking of the main battleship fleet at Pearl Harbor.
Admiral King put Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, based in Hawaii, in charge of the Pacific War against Japan. The result was a series of some of the most famous naval battles in history. The Imperial Japanese Navy had the advantage, taking the Philippines as well as British and Dutch possessions, and threatening Australia but in June 1942, its main carriers were sunk during the Battle of Midway, and the Americans seized the initiative. The Pacific War became one of island hopping, so as to move air bases closer and closer to Japan. The Army, based in Australia under General Douglas MacArthur, steadily advanced across New Guinea to the Philippines, with plans to invade the Japanese home islands in late 1945. With its merchant fleet sunk by American submarines, Japan ran short of aviation gasoline and fuel oil, as the U.S. Navy in June 1944 captured islands within bombing range of the Japanese home islands. Strategic bombing directed by General Curtis Lemay destroyed all the major Japanese cities, as the U.S. captured Okinawa after heavy losses in spring 1945. With the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and an invasion and Soviet intervention imminent, Japan surrendered.
The war against Germany involved aid to Britain, her allies, and the Soviet Union, with the U.S. supplying munitions until it could ready an invasion force. U.S. forces were first tested to a limited degree in the North African Campaign and then employed more significantly with British Forces in Italy in 1943 -- 45, where U.S. forces, representing about a third of the Allied forces deployed, bogged down after Italy surrendered and the Germans took over. Finally the main invasion of France took place in June 1944, under General Dwight D. Eisenhower. Meanwhile, the U.S. Army Air Forces and the British Royal Air Force engaged in the area bombardment of German cities and systematically targeted German transportation links and synthetic oil plants, as it knocked out what was left of the Luftwaffe post Battle of Britain in 1944. With the Soviets unstoppable in the east, and the Allies unstoppable in the west, Germany was squeezed to death. Berlin fell to the Soviets in May 1945, and with Adolf Hitler dead, the Germans surrendered.
The military effort was strongly supported by civilians on the home front, who provided the military personnel, the munitions, the money, and the morale to fight the war to victory. World War II cost the United States an estimated $341 billion in 1945 dollars -- equivalent to 74 % of America 's GDP and expenditures during the war. In 2015 dollars, the war cost over $4.5 trillion.
American public opinion was hostile to Hitler 's Germany, but how much aid to give the Allies was controversial. Public opinion was even more hostile to Japan, and there was little opposition to increased support for China. By 1940 the U.S., while still neutral, was becoming the "Arsenal of Democracy '' for the Allies, supplying money and war materials. The sudden defeat of France in spring 1940 caused the nation to begin to greatly grow its armed forces, including the first peacetime draft. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, America began sending Lend Lease aid to the Soviet Union as well as Britain and China.
Prior to America 's entry into World War II in December 1941, individual Americans volunteered to fight against the Axis powers in other nations ' armed forces. Although under American law, it was illegal for United States citizens to join the armed forces of foreign nations and in doing so, they lost their citizenship, many American volunteers changed their nationality to Canadian. However Congress passed a blanket pardon in 1944. American mercenary Colonel Charles Sweeny living in London began recruiting American citizens to fight as a U.S. volunteer detachment in the French Air force, however France fell before this was implemented. During the Battle of Britain, 11 American pilots flew in the RAF, one of whom was killed. Charles Sweeney 's nephew, also called Charles formed a Home Guard unit from American volunteers living in London.
One notable example was the Eagle Squadrons, these being RAF Squadrons made up of American volunteers and British personnel. The first was formed; No. 71 Squadron on 19 September 1940 by followed by No. 121 Squadron on 14 May 1941 and No. 133 Squadron on 1 August 1941. 6,700 Americans applied to join but only 244 Americans got to serve with the three Eagle Squadrons, 16 Britons also served as squadron and flight commanders. The first became operational in February 1941 and the Squadrons scored their first kill in July 1941. On 29 September 1942, the three squadrons were officially turned over by the RAF to the Eighth Air Force of the U.S. Army Air Forces and became the 4th Fighter Group. In their time with the RAF the squadrons claim to have shot 731⁄2 German planes; 77 Americans and 5 Britons were killed.
Another notable example was the Flying Tigers, created by Claire L. Chennault, a retired U.S. Army Air Corps officer working in the China since August 1937, first as military aviation advisor to Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek in the early months of the Sino - Japanese War. Officially known as the 1st American Volunteer Group (AVG) but nicknamed the "Flying Tigers '', this was a group of American Pilots already serving in the US Armed forces and recruited under presidential authority. As a unit they would serve in the Chinese Air Force to fight against the Japanese. The group comprised three fighter squadrons of around thirty aircraft each, the AVG 's first combat mission was on 20 December 1941, twelve days after the Pearl Harbor attack. On 4 July 1942 the AVG was disbanded, it was replaced by the 23rd Fighter Group of the United States Army Air Forces, which was later absorbed into the U.S. Fourteenth Air Force. During their time in the Chinese Air Force, they succeeded in destroying 296 enemy aircraft, while losing only fourteen pilots in combat.
In 1942 President Franklin D. Roosevelt set up a new command structure to provide leadership in the US Armed Forces while retaining authority as Commander - in - Chief as assisted by Secretary of War Henry Stimson with Admiral Ernest J. King as Chief of Naval Operations in complete control of the Navy and of the Marine Corps through its Commandant, then Lt. General Thomas Holcomb and his successor as Commandant of the Marine Corps, Lt. General Alexander Vandegrift, General George C. Marshall in charge of the Army, and in nominal control of the Air Force, which in practice was commanded by General Hap Arnold on Marshall 's behalf. King was also in control for wartime being of the US Coast Guard under its Commandant, Admiral Russell R. Waesche. Roosevelt formed a new body, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which made the final decisions on American military strategy and as the chief policy - making body for the armed forces. The Joint Chiefs was a White House agency chaired by Admiral William D. Leahy, who became FDR 's chief military advisor and the highest military officer of the US at that time.
As the war progressed Marshall became the dominant voice in the JCS in the shaping of strategy. When dealing with Europe, the Joint Chiefs met with their British counterparts and formed the Combined Chiefs of Staff. Unlike the political leaders of the other major powers, Roosevelt rarely overrode his military advisors. The civilians handled the draft and procurement of men and equipment, but no civilians -- not even the secretaries of War or Navy, had a voice in strategy. Roosevelt avoided the State Department and conducted high level diplomacy through his aides, especially Harry Hopkins. Since Hopkins also controlled $50 billion in Lend Lease funds given to the Allies, they paid attention to him.
The year 1940 marked a change in attitude in the United States. The German victories in France, Poland and elsewhere, combined with the Battle of Britain, led many Americans to believe that the United States would be forced to fight soon. In March 1941, the Lend - Lease program began shipping money, munitions, and food to Britain, China, and (by that fall) the Soviet Union.
By 1941 the United States was taking an active part in the war, despite its nominal neutrality. In spring U-boats began their "wolf - pack '' tactics which threatened to sever the trans - Atlantic supply line; Roosevelt extended the Pan-American Security Zone east almost as far as Iceland. The US Navy 's "neutrality patrols '' were anything but, as in practice their function was to report Axis ship and submarine sightings to the British and Canadian navies, and from April the US Navy began escorting Allied convoys from Canada as far as the "Mid-Atlantic Meeting Point '' (MOMP) south of Iceland, where they handed off to the RN.
On 16 June 1941, after negotiation with Churchill, Roosevelt ordered the United States occupation of Iceland to replace the British invasion forces. On 22 June 1941, the US Navy sent Task Force 19 (TF 19) from Charleston, South Carolina to assemble at Argentia, Newfoundland. TF 19 included 25 warships and the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade of 194 officers and 3714 men from San Diego, California under the command of Brigadier General John Marston. Task Force 19 (TF 19) sailed from Argentia on 1 July. On 7 July, Britain persuaded the Althing to approve an American occupation force under a U.S. - Icelandic defense agreement, and TF 19 anchored off Reykjavík that evening. U.S. Marines commenced landing on 8 July, and disembarkation was completed on 12 July. On 6 August, the U.S. Navy established an air base at Reykjavík with the arrival of Patrol Squadron VP - 73 PBY Catalinas and VP - 74 PBM Mariners. U.S. Army personnel began arriving in Iceland in August, and the Marines had been transferred to the Pacific by March 1942. Up to 40,000 U.S. military personnel were stationed on the island, outnumbering adult Icelandic men (at the time, Iceland had a population of about 120,000.) The agreement was for the US military to remain until the end of the war (although the US military presence in Iceland remained through 2006, as postwar Iceland became a member of NATO).
American warships escorting Allied convoys in the western Atlantic had several hostile encounters with U-boats. On 4 September, a German U-Boat attacked the destroyer USS Greer off Iceland. A week later Roosevelt ordered American warships to attack U-boats on sight. A U-boat shot up the USS Kearny as it escorted a British merchant convoy. The USS Reuben James was sunk by U-552 on 31 October 1941.
On 11 December 1941, Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany declared war against the United States, the same day that the United States declared war on Germany and Italy.
The established grand strategy of the Allies was to defeat Germany and its allies in Europe first, and then focus could shift towards Japan in the Pacific. This was because two of the Allied capitals (London and Moscow) could be directly threatened by Germany, but none of the major Allied capitals were threatened by Japan. Germany was the United Kingdom 's primary threat, especially after the Fall of France in 1940, which saw Germany overrun most of the countries of Western Europe, leaving the United Kingdom alone to combat Germany. Germany 's planned invasion of the UK, Operation Sea Lion, was averted by its failure to establish air superiority in the Battle of Britain. At the same time, war with Japan in East Asia seemed increasingly likely. Although the U.S. was not yet at war with either Germany or Japan, it met with the UK on several occasions to formulate joint strategies.
In the 29 March 1941 report of the ABC - 1 conference, the Americans and British agreed that their strategic objectives were: (1) "The early defeat of Germany as the predominant member of the Axis with the principal military effort of the United States being exerted in the Atlantic and European area; and (2) A strategic defensive in the Far East. '' Thus, the Americans concurred with the British in the grand strategy of "Europe first '' (or "Germany first '') in carrying out military operations in World War II. The UK feared that, if the United States was diverted from its main focus in Europe to the Pacific (Japan), Hitler might crush both the Soviet Union and Britain, and would then become an unconquerable fortress in Europe. The wound inflicted on the United States by Japan at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, did not result in a change in U.S. policy. Prime Minister Winston Churchill hastened to Washington shortly after Pearl Harbor for the Arcadia Conference to ensure that the Americans did n't have second thoughts about Europe First. The two countries reaffirmed that, "notwithstanding the entry of Japan into the War, our view remains that Germany is still the prime enemy. And her defeat is the key to victory. Once Germany is defeated the collapse of Italy and the defeat of Japan must follow. ''
The Battle of the Atlantic was the longest continuous military campaign in World War II, running from 1939 to the defeat of Germany in 1945. At its core was the Allied naval blockade of Germany, announced the day after the declaration of war, and Germany 's subsequent counter-blockade. It was at its height from mid-1940 through to the end of 1943. The Battle of the Atlantic pitted U-boats and other warships of the Kriegsmarine (German navy) and aircraft of the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) against the Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Navy, the United States Navy, and Allied merchant shipping. The convoys, coming mainly from North America and predominantly going to the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union, were protected for the most part by the British and Canadian navies and air forces. These forces were aided by ships and aircraft of the United States from September 13, 1941. The Germans were joined by submarines of the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina) after their Axis ally Italy entered the war on June 10, 1940.
The United States entered the war in the west with Operation Torch on 8 November 1942, after their Soviet allies had pushed for a second front against the Germans. General Dwight Eisenhower commanded the assault on North Africa, and Major General George Patton struck at Casablanca.
The United States did not have a smooth entry into the war against Nazi Germany. Early in 1943, the U.S. Army suffered a near - disastrous defeat at the Battle of the Kasserine Pass in February. The senior Allied leadership was primarily to blame for the loss as internal bickering between American General Lloyd Fredendall and the British led to mistrust and little communication, causing inadequate troop placements. The defeat could be considered a major turning point, however, because General Eisenhower replaced Fredendall with General Patton.
Slowly the Allies stopped the German advance in Tunisia and by March were pushing back. In mid April, under British General Bernard Montgomery, the Allies smashed through the Mareth Line and broke the Axis defense in North Africa. On 13 May 1943, Axis troops in North Africa surrendered, leaving behind 275,000 men. Allied efforts turned towards Sicily and Italy.
The first stepping stone for the Allied liberation of Europe was, in Prime Minister Winston Churchill 's words, the "soft underbelly '' of Europe on the Italian island of Sicily. Launched on 9 July 1943, Operation Husky was, at the time, the largest amphibious operation ever undertaken. The American seaborne assault by the U.S. 7th Army landed on the southern coast of Sicily between the town of Licata in the west, and Scoglitti in the east and units of the 82nd airborne division parachuted ahead of landings. Despite the elements, the operation was a success and the Allies immediately began exploiting their gains. On 11 August, seeing that the battle was lost, the German and Italian commanders began evacuating their forces from Sicily to Italy. On 17 August, the Allies were in control of the island, U.S. 7th Army lost 8,781 men (2,237 killed or missing, 5,946 wounded, and 598 captured).
Following the Allied victory in Sicily, Italian public sentiment swung against the war and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. He was deposed in a coup, and the Allies struck quickly, hoping resistance would be slight. The first Allied troops landed on the Italian peninsula on 3 September 1943 and Italy surrendered on 8 September, however the Italian Social Republic was established soon afterwards. The first American troops landed at Salerno on 9 September 1943, by U.S. 5th Army, however German troops in Italy were prepared and after the Allied troops at Salerno had consolidated their beachhead, The Germans launched fierce counterattacks. However they failed to destroy the beachhead and retreated on 16 September and in October 1943 began preparing a series of defensive lines across central Italy. The US 5th Army and other Allied armies broke through the first two lines (Volturno and the Barbara Line) in October and November 1943. As winter approached, the Allies made slow progress due to the weather and the difficult terrain against the heavily defended German Winter Line, they did however manage to breakthrough the Bernhardt Line in January 1944. By early 1944 the Allied attention had turned to the western front and the Allies were taking heavy losses trying to breakthrough the Winter line at Monte Cassino. The Allies landed at Anzio on 22 January 1944 with the aim of outflanking the Gustav line and pulling Axis forces out of it so other allied armies could breakthrough. After slow progress, the Germans counterattacked in February but failed to stamp out the Allies, after months of stalemate, the Allies broke out in May 1944 and Rome fell to the Allies on 4 June 1944.
Following the Normandy invasion on 6 June 1944, the equivalent of seven US and French divisions were pulled out of Italy to Participate in Operation Dragoon: the allied landings in southern France, despite this the remaining US forces in Italy with other Allied forces pushed up to the Gothic line in northern Italy, the last major defensive line. From August 1944 to March 1945 the Allies managed to breach the formidable defenses but they narrowly failed to break out into the Lombardy Plains before the winter weather closed in and made further progress impossible. In April 1945 the Allies broke through the remaining Axis positions in Operation Grapeshot ending the Italian Campaign on 2 May 1945, US forces in mainland Italy suffered between 114,000 and over 119,000 casualties.
Numerous bombing runs were launched by the United States aimed at the industrial heart of Germany. Using the high altitude B - 17, it was necessary for the raids to be conducted in daylight for the drops to be accurate. As adequate fighter escort was rarely available, the bombers would fly in tight, box formations, allowing each bomber to provide overlapping machine - gun fire for defense. The tight formations made it impossible to evade fire from Luftwaffe fighters, however, and American bomber crew losses were high. One such example was the Schweinfurt - Regensburg mission, which resulted in staggering losses of men and equipment. The introduction of the revered P - 51 Mustang, which had enough fuel to make a round trip to Germany 's heartland, helped to reduce losses later in the war.
In mid-1942, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) arrived in the UK and carried out a few raids across the English Channel. The USAAF Eighth Air Force 's B - 17 bombers were called the "Flying Fortresses '' because of their heavy defensive armament of ten to twelve machine guns, and armor plating in vital locations. In part because of their heavier armament and armor, they carried smaller bomb loads than British bombers. With all of this, the USAAF 's commanders in Washington, DC, and in Great Britain adopted the strategy of taking on the Luftwaffe head on, in larger and larger air raids by mutually defending bombers, flying over Germany, Austria, and France at high altitudes during the daytime. Also, both the U.S. Government and its Army Air Forces commanders were reluctant to bomb enemy cities and towns indiscriminately. They claimed that by using the B - 17 and the Norden bombsight, the USAAF should be able to carry out "precision bombing '' on locations vital to the German war machine: factories, naval bases, shipyards, railroad yards, railroad junctions, power plants, steel mills, airfields, etc.
In January 1943, at the Casablanca Conference, it was agreed RAF Bomber Command operations against Germany would be reinforced by the USAAF in a Combined Operations Offensive plan called Operation Pointblank. Chief of the British Air Staff MRAF Sir Charles Portal was put in charge of the "strategic direction '' of both British and American bomber operations. The text of the Casablanca directive read: "Your primary object will be the progressive destruction and dislocation of the German military, industrial and economic system and the undermining of the morale of the German people to a point where their capacity for armed resistance is fatally weakened. '', At the beginning of the combined strategic bombing offensive on 4 March 1943 669 RAF and 303 USAAF heavy bombers were available.
In the late 1943, the ' Pointblank ' attacks manifested themselves in the infamous Schweinfurt raids (first and second). Formations of unescorted bombers were no match for German fighters, which inflicted a deadly toll. In despair, the Eighth halted air operations over Germany until a long - range fighter could be found in 1944; it proved to be the P - 51 Mustang, which had the range to fly to Berlin and back.
USAAF leaders firmly held to the claim of "precision bombing '' of military targets for much of the war, and dismissed claims they were simply bombing cities. However the American Eighth Air Force received the first H2X radar sets in December 1943. Within two weeks of the arrival of these first six sets, the Eighth command gave permission for them to area bomb a city using H2X and would continue to authorize, on average, about one such attack a week until the end of the war in Europe.
In reality, the day bombing was "precision bombing '' only in the sense that most bombs fell somewhere near a specific designated target such as a railway yard. Conventionally, the air forces designated as "the target area '' a circle having a radius of 1000 feet around the aiming point of attack. While accuracy improved during the war, Survey studies show that, in the over-all, only about 20 % of the bombs aimed at precision targets fell within this target area. In the fall of 1944, only seven percent of all bombs dropped by the Eighth Air Force hit within 1,000 feet of their aim point. The only offensive ordnance possessed by the USAAF that was guidable, the VB - 1 Azon, saw very limited service in both Europe and in the CBI Theater late in the war.
Nevertheless, the sheer tonnage of explosive delivered by day and by night was eventually sufficient to cause widespread damage, and, more importantly from a military point of view, forced Germany to divert resources to counter it. This was to be the real significance of the Allied strategic bombing campaign -- resource allocation. For the sake of improving the US air - force Fire bombing capabilities a mock - up German Village was built up and repeatedly burned down. It contained full - scale replicas of German residential homes. Fire bombing attacks proved quite successful, in a single 1943 attack on Hamburg roughly 50,000 civilians were killed and practically the entire city destroyed.
With the arrival of the brand - new Fifteenth Air Force, based in Italy, command of the U.S. Air Forces in Europe was consolidated into the United States Strategic Air Forces (USSTAF). With the addition of the Mustang to its strength, the Combined Bomber Offensive was resumed. Planners targeted the Luftwaffe in an operation known as ' Big Week ' (20 -- 25 February 1944) and succeeded brilliantly -- losses were so heavy German planners were forced into a hasty dispersal of industry and the day fighter arm never fully recovered.
The dismissal of General Ira Eaker at the end of 1943 as commander of the Eighth Air Force and his replacement by American aviation legend, Maj. Gen Jimmy Doolittle signaled a change in how the American bombing effort went forward over Europe. Doolittle 's major influence on the European air war occurred early in the year when he changed the policy requiring escorting fighters to remain with the bombers at all times. With his permission, initially performed with P - 38s and P - 47s with both previous types being steadily replaced with the long - ranged P - 51s as the spring of 1944 wore on, American fighter pilots on bomber defense missions would primarily be flying far ahead of the bombers ' combat box formations in air supremacy mode, literally "clearing the skies '' of any Luftwaffe fighter opposition heading towards the target. This strategy fatally disabled the twin - engined Zerstörergeschwader heavy fighter wings and their replacement, single - engined Sturmgruppen of heavily armed Fw 190As, clearing each force of bomber destroyers in their turn from Germany 's skies throughout most of 1944. As part of this game - changing strategy, especially after the bombers had hit their targets, the USAAF 's fighters were then free to strafe German airfields and transport while returning to base, contributing significantly to the achievement of air superiority by Allied air forces over Europe.
On 27 March 1944, the Combined Chiefs of Staff issued orders granting control of all the Allied air forces in Europe, including strategic bombers, to General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander, who delegated command to his deputy in SHAEF Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder. There was resistance to this order from some senior figures, including Winston Churchill, Harris, and Carl Spaatz, but after some debate, control passed to SHAEF on 1 April 1944. When the Combined Bomber Offensive officially ended on 1 April, Allied airmen were well on the way to achieving air superiority over all of Europe. While they continued some strategic bombing, the USAAF along with the RAF turned their attention to the tactical air battle in support of the Normandy Invasion. It was not until the middle of September that the strategic bombing campaign of Germany again became the priority for the USSTAF.
The twin campaigns -- the USAAF by day, the RAF by night -- built up into massive bombing of German industrial areas, notably the Ruhr, followed by attacks directly on cities such as Hamburg, Kassel, Pforzheim, Mainz and the often - criticized bombing of Dresden.
The second European front that the Soviets had pressed for was finally opened on 6 June 1944, when the Allies attacked the heavily fortified Atlantic Wall. Supreme Allied commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower had delayed the attack because of bad weather, but finally the largest amphibious assault in history began.
After prolonged bombing runs on the French coast by the Army Air Forces, 225 U.S. Army Rangers scaled the cliffs at Pointe du Hoc under intense enemy fire and destroyed the German gun emplacements that could have threatened the amphibious landings. Also prior to the main amphibious assault, the American 82nd and 101st Airborne divisions dropped behind the beaches into Nazi - occupied France, in an effort to protect the coming landings. Many of the paratroopers were not dropped on their intended landing zones and were scattered throughout Normandy.
As the paratroops fought their way through the hedgerows, the main amphibious landings began. The Americans came ashore at the beaches codenamed ' Omaha ' and ' Utah '. The landing craft bound for Utah, as with so many other units, went off course, coming ashore two kilometers off target. The 4th Infantry Division faced weak resistance during the landings and by the afternoon were linked up with paratroopers fighting their way towards the coast.
At Omaha the Germans had prepared the beaches with land mines, Czech hedgehogs and Belgian Gates in anticipation of the invasion. Intelligence prior to the landings had placed the less experienced German 714th Division in charge of the defense of the beach. However, the highly trained and experienced 352nd moved in days before the invasion. As a result, the soldiers from the 1st and 29th Infantry Divisions became pinned down by superior enemy fire immediately after leaving their landing craft. In some instances, entire landing craft full of men were mowed down by the well - positioned German defenses. As the casualties mounted, the soldiers formed impromptu units and advanced inland.
The small units then fought their way through the minefields that were in between the Nazi machine - gun bunkers. After squeezing through, they then attacked the bunkers from the rear, allowing more men to come safely ashore.
By the end of the day, the Americans suffered over 6,000 casualties. Omaha Beach is the code name for one of the five sectors of the Allied invasion of German - occupied France in the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944, during World War II. The beach is located on the coast of Normandy, France, facing the English Channel, and is 5 miles (8 km) long, from east of Sainte - Honorine - des - Pertes to west of Vierville - sur - Mer on the right bank of the Douve River estuary. Landings here were necessary in order to link up the British landings to the east at Gold Beach with the American landing to the west at Utah Beach, thus providing a continuous lodgement on the Normandy coast of the Bay of the Seine. Taking Omaha was to be the responsibility of United States Army troops, with sea transport and naval artillery support provided by the U.S. Navy and elements of the British Royal Navy.
On D - Day, the untested 29th Infantry Division, joined by the veteran 1st Infantry Division and nine companies of U.S. Army Rangers redirected from Pointe du Hoc, were to assault the western half of the beach. The battle - hardened 1st Infantry Division was given the eastern half. The initial assault waves, consisting of tanks, infantry, and combat engineer forces, were carefully planned to reduce the coastal defenses and allow the larger ships of the follow - up waves to land.
The primary objective at Omaha was to secure a beachhead of some five miles (eight kilometres) depth, between Port - en - Bessin and the Vire River, linking with the British landings at Gold Beach to the east, and reaching the area of Isigny to the west to link up with VII Corps landing at Utah Beach. Opposing the landings was the German 352nd Infantry Division, a large portion of whom were teenagers, though they were supplemented by veterans who had fought on the Eastern Front. The 352nd had never had any battalion or regimental training. Of the 12,020 men of the division, only 6,800 were experienced combat troops, detailed to defend a 53 - kilometre - long (33 - mile) front. The Germans were largely deployed in strongpoints along the coast -- the German strategy was based on defeating any seaborne assault at the water line. Nevertheless, Allied calculations indicated that Omaha 's defenses were three times as strong as those they had encountered during the Battle of Kwajalein, and its defenders were four times as many.
Very little went as planned during the landing at Omaha Beach. Difficulties in navigation caused the majority of landing craft to miss their targets throughout the day. The defenses were unexpectedly strong, and inflicted heavy casualties on landing US troops. Under heavy fire, the engineers struggled to clear the beach obstacles; later landings bunched up around the few channels that were cleared. Weakened by the casualties taken just in landing, the surviving assault troops could not clear the heavily defended exits off the beach. This caused further problems and consequent delays for later landings. Small penetrations were eventually achieved by groups of survivors making improvised assaults, scaling the bluffs between the most heavily defended points. By the end of the day, two small isolated footholds had been won, which were subsequently exploited against weaker defenses further inland, thus achieving the original D - Day objectives over the following days.
With the Beaches secured, the Allies needed to secure a deep - water port to allow reinforcements to be brought in, with American forces at the base of the Cotentin Peninsula the target was Cherbourg, at the end of the Cotentin. The US VII Corps immediately began making their push after the beaches were secured on 6 June, facing mix of weak regiments and battlegroups from several divisions who used the bocage terrain, flooded fields and narrow roads to their advantage which slowed the American advance. After being reinforced, VII corps took control of the peninsula in fierce fighting on 19 June and launched their assault on Cherbourg on 22 June. The German garrison surrendered on 29 June, but by this time they had destroyed the port facilities, which were not made fully operational until September.
The Battle of Saint - Lô is one of the three conflicts in the Battle of the Hedgerows (fr), which took place between July 9 -- 24, 1944, just before Operation Cobra. Saint - Lô had fallen to Germany in 1940, and, after the Invasion of Normandy, the Americans targeted the city, as it served as a strategic crossroads. American bombardments caused heavy damage (up to 95 % of the city was destroyed) and a high number of casualties, which resulted in the martyr city being called "The Capital of Ruins '', popularized in a report by Samuel Beckett
The Battle of Carentan was an engagement between airborne forces of the United States Army and the German Wehrmacht during the Battle of Normandy. The battle took place between 10 and 15 June 1944, on the approaches to and within the city of Carentan, France.
The objective of the attacking American forces was consolidation of the U.S. beachheads (Utah Beach and Omaha Beach) and establishment of a continuous defensive line against expected German counterattacks. The defending German force attempted to hold the city long enough to allow reinforcements en route from the south to arrive, prevent or delay the merging of the lodgments, and keep the U.S. First Army from launching an attack towards Lessay - Périers that would cut off the Cotentin Peninsula.
Carentan was defended by two battalions of Fallschirmjäger - Regiment 6 (6th Parachute Regiment) of the 2nd Fallschirmjäger - Division and two Ost battalions. The 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division, ordered to reinforce Carentan, was delayed by transport shortages and attacks by Allied aircraft. The attacking 101st Airborne Division, landed by parachute on 6 June as part of the American airborne landings in Normandy, was ordered to seize Carentan.
In the ensuing battle, the 101st forced passage across the causeway into Carentan on 10 and 11 June. A lack of ammunition forced the German forces to withdraw on 12 June. The 17th SS PzG Division counter-attacked the 101st Airborne on 13 June. Initially successful, its attack was thrown back by Combat Command A (CCA) of the U.S. 2nd Armored Division
After the amphibious assault, the Allied forces remained stalled in Normandy for some time, advancing much more slowly than expected with close - fought infantry battles in the dense hedgerows. However, with Operation Cobra, launched on 24 July with mostly American troops, the Allies succeeded in breaking the German lines and sweeping out into France with fast - moving armored divisions. This led to a major defeat for the Germans, with 400,000 soldiers trapped in the Falaise pocket, and the capture of Paris on 25 August.
Operation Lüttich was a codename given to a German counter-attack during the Battle of Normandy, which took place around the American positions near Mortain from 7 August to 13 August 1944. (Lüttich is the German name for the city of Liège in Belgium, where the Germans had won a victory in the early days of August 1914 during World War I.) The offensive is also referred to in American and British histories of the Battle of Normandy as the Mortain counter-offensive.
The assault was ordered by Adolf Hitler, to eliminate the gains made by the First United States Army during Operation Cobra and the subsequent weeks, and by reaching the coast in the region of Avranches at the base of the Cotentin peninsula, cut off the units of the Third United States Army which had advanced into Brittany.
The main German striking force was the XLVII Panzer Corps, with one and a half SS Panzer Divisions and two Wehrmacht Panzer Divisions. Although they made initial gains against the defending U.S. VII Corps, they were soon halted and Allied aircraft inflicted severe losses on the attacking troops, eventually destroying nearly half of the German tanks involved in the attack. (2) Although fighting continued around Mortain for six days, the American forces had regained the initiative within a day of the opening of the German attack.
As the German commanders on the spot had warned Hitler in vain, there was little chance of the attack succeeding, and the concentration of their armoured reserves at the western end of the front in Normandy soon led to disaster, as they were outflanked to their south and the front to their east collapsed, resulting in many of the German troops in Normandy being trapped in the Falaise Pocket.
Following Operation Cobra, the American breakout from the Normandy beachhead, rapid advances were made to the south and south - east by the Third U.S. Army under the command of General George Patton. Despite lacking the resources to defeat the U.S. breakthrough and simultaneous British and Canadian offensives south of Caumont and Caen, Field Marshal Günther von Kluge, the commander of Army Group B, was not permitted by Adolf Hitler to withdraw but was ordered to conduct a counter-offensive at Mortain against the U.S. breakthrough. Four depleted panzer divisions were not enough to defeat the First U.S. Army. Operation Lüttich was a disaster, which drove the Germans deeper into the Allied envelopment.
On 8 August, the Allied ground forces commander, General Bernard Montgomery, ordered the Allied armies to converge on the Falaise -- Chambois area to envelop Army Group B, the First U.S. Army forming the southern arm, the British Second Army the base and the First Canadian Army the northern arm of the encirclement. The Germans began to withdraw on 17 August and on 19 August, the Allies linked up in Chambois. Gaps were forced in the Allied lines by German counter-attacks, the biggest being a corridor forced past the 1st Polish Armoured Division on Hill 262, a commanding position at the mouth of the pocket. By the evening of 21 August, the pocket had been sealed, with c. 50,000 Germans trapped inside. Many Germans escaped but losses in men and equipment were huge. Two days later the Allied Liberation of Paris was completed and on 30 August, the remnants of Army Group B retreated across the Seine, which ended Operation Overlord.
On 15 August 1944, the US 7th Army, spearheaded by the 3rd Infantry Division and 36th Infantry Division and other Allied forces landed in southern France between Cannes and Hyères. The aim of the operation was to secure the southern half of France and one objective in particular was to capture Marseille as a main supply harbor for the Allies in France. The operation was a success and forced the German Army Group G to abandon southern France and to retreat under constant Allied attacks to the Vosges Mountains. By the time the operation finished on 14 September 1944, US forces suffered 2,050 killed, captured or missing 7,750 other casualties, on 15 September 1944 the Allied forces of the operation were renamed the Sixth Army Group and placed under Eisenhower 's command.
The next major Allied operation came on 17 September. Devised by British General Bernard Montgomery, its primary objective was the capture of several bridges in the Netherlands. Fresh off of their successes in Normandy, the Allies were optimistic that an attack on the Nazi - occupied Netherlands would force open a route across the Rhine and onto the North German Plain. Such an opening would allow Allied forces to break out northward and advance toward Denmark and, ultimately, Berlin.
The plan involved a daylight drop of the American 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions. The 101st was to capture the bridges at Eindhoven, with the 82nd taking the bridges at Grave and Nijmegen. After the bridges had been captured, the ground force, also known as XXX Corps or "Garden '', would drive up a single road and link up with the paratroops.
The operation failed because the Allies were unable to capture the bridge furthest to the north at Arnhem. There, the British 1st Airborne had been dropped to secure the bridges, but upon landing they discovered that a highly experienced German SS Panzer unit was garrisoning the town. The paratroopers were only lightly equipped in respect to anti-tank weaponry and quickly lost ground. Failure to quickly relieve those members of the 1st who had managed to seize the bridge at Arnhem on the part of the armored XXX Corps, meant that the Germans were able to stymie the entire operation. In the end, the operation 's ambitious nature, the fickle state of war, and failures on the part of Allied intelligence (as well as tenacious German defense) can be blamed for Market - Garden 's ultimate failure. This operation also signaled the last time that either the 82nd or 101st would make a combat jump during the war.
Unable to push north into the Netherlands, the Allies in western Europe were forced to consider other options to get into Germany. In the summer of 1944, the Allies suffered from a large supply crisis, due to the long supply route. But by the fall of 1944, this has largely been resolved (Red Ball Express). As part of the Siegfriend Line Campaign, the Allies tried to push into Germany towards the Rhine. As a first step, Aachen was captured during a heavy battle. The Germans now had the advantage of their old fortification system, the Siegfried line. During the Battle of Hürtgen Forest, the Allies fought a long battle of attrition with the Germans, which ended initially in a stalemate, with the Allies unable to take the complete forest. The battle of the Hürtgen Forrest was later absorbed by a larger offensive, Operation Queen. During this offensive, the Allies intended to push towards the Rur River, as a staging point for a subsequent thrust over the river to the Rhine into Germany. However, against underestimated and stiffened German resistance, the Allies were only able to make slow progress. By mid-December the Allies were finally at the Rur, but by then the Germans had prepared their own offensive through the Ardennes, which was launched in the midst of an unsuccessful Allied attack against the Rur dams.
On 16 December 1944, the Germans launched a massive attack westward in the Ardennes forest, along a battlefront extending southwards from Monschau to Echternach, hoping to punch a hole in the Allied lines and capture the Belgian city of Antwerp. The Allies responded slowly, allowing the German attack to create a large "bulge '' in the Allied lines. In the initial stages of the offensive, American POW 's from the 285th Field Artillery Observation Battalion were executed at the Malmedy massacre by Nazi SS and Fallschirmjäger.
As the Germans pushed westward, General Eisenhower ordered the 101st Airborne and elements of the U.S. 10th Armored Division into the road junction town of Bastogne to prepare a defense. The town quickly became cut off and surrounded. The winter weather slowed Allied air support, and the defenders were outnumbered and low on supplies. When given a request for their surrender from the Germans, General Anthony McAuliffe, acting commander of the 101st, replied, "Nuts! '', contributing to the stubborn American defense. On 19 December, General Patton told Eisenhower that he could have his army in Bastogne in 48 hours. Patton then turned his army, at the time on the front in Luxembourg, north to break through to Bastogne. Patton 's armor pushed north, and by 26 December was in Bastogne, effectively ending the siege. By the time it was over, more American soldiers had served in the battle than in any engagement in American history.
On 31 December, the Germans launched their last major offensive of the war on the Western Front, Operation Nordwind, in Alsace and Lorraine in northeastern France. Against weakened American forces there, the Germans were able to push the Americans back to the south bank of the Moder River on 21 January. On 25 January, Allied reinforcements from the Ardennes arrived, the German offensive was stopped and in fierce fighting the so - called Colmar Pocket was eliminated.
The German offensive was supported by several subordinate operations known as Unternehmen Bodenplatte, Greif, and Währung. Germany 's goal for these operations was to split the British and American Allied line in half, capturing Antwerp and then proceed to encircle and destroy four Allied armies, forcing the Western Allies to negotiate a peace treaty in the Axis Powers ' favour. Once accomplished, Hitler could fully concentrate on the eastern theatre of war.
The offensive was planned with the utmost secrecy, minimizing radio traffic and moving troops and equipment under cover of darkness. The Third U.S. Army 's intelligence staff predicted a major German offensive, and Ultra indicated that a "substantial and offensive '' operation was expected or "in the wind '', although a precise date or point of attack could not be given. Aircraft movement from the Soviet Front to the Ardennes and transport of forces by rail to the Ardennes was noticed but not acted upon, according to a report later written by Peter Calvocoressi and F.L. Lucas at the codebreaking centre Bletchley Park.
Near - complete surprise was achieved by a combination of Allied overconfidence, preoccupation with Allied offensive plans, and poor aerial reconnaissance. The Germans attacked a weakly defended section of the Allied line, taking advantage of a heavy overcast, which grounded the Allies ' overwhelmingly superior air forces. Fierce resistance on the northern shoulder of the offensive around Elsenborn Ridge and in the south around Bastogne blocked German access to key roads to the west that they counted on for success. This and terrain that favoured the defenders threw the German timetable behind schedule and allowed the Allies to reinforce the thinly placed troops. Improved weather conditions permitted air attacks on German forces and supply lines, which sealed the failure of the offensive. In the wake of the defeat, many experienced German units were left severely depleted of men and equipment, as survivors retreated to the defenses of the Siegfried Line.
With about 610,000 men committed and some 89,000 casualties, including 19,000 killed, the Battle of the Bulge was the largest and bloodiest battle fought by the United States in World War II.
The Colmar Pocket (French: Poche de Colmar; German: Brückenkopf Elsaß) was the area held in central Alsace, France by the German Nineteenth Army from November 1944 -- February 1945, against the U.S. 6th Army Group during World War II. It was formed when 6th AG liberated southern and northern Alsace and adjacent eastern Lorraine, but could not clear central Alsace. During Operation Nordwind in December 1944, the 19th Army attacked north out of the Pocket in support of other German forces attacking south from the Saar into northern Alsace. In late January and early February 1945, the French First Army (reinforced by the U.S. XXI Corps) cleared the Pocket of German forces.
By early 1945, events favored the Allied forces in Europe. On the Western Front the Allies had been fighting in Germany since the Battle of Aachen in October 1944 and by January had turned back the Germans in the Battle of the Bulge. The failure of this last major German offensive exhausted much of Germany 's remaining combat strength, leaving it ill - prepared to resist the final Allied campaigns in Europe. Additional losses in the Rhineland further weakened the German Army, leaving shattered remnants of units to defend the east bank of the Rhine. On 7 March, the Allies seized the last remaining intact bridge across the Rhine at Remagen, and had established a large bridgehead on the river 's east bank. During Operation Lumberjack and Operation Plunder in February -- March 1945, German casualties are estimated at 400,000 men, including 280,000 men captured as prisoners of war.
The South German Offensive is the general name of one of the final offensives of World War II in Europe. The offensive was led by the Seventh and Third armies of the United States along with the First Army of France. Soviet troops linked up with American forces in Czechoslovakia notably in the Battle of Slivice. The offensive was made by the US 6th Army Group to protect the 12th Army Group 's right flank and to prevent a German last stand in the Alps. However German resistance was much more fierce than in the north, which slowed the 6th Army Group 's progress. However, by the end of April, many German divisions surrendered without a fight to the advancing American forces to avoid the inevitable destruction. The VI Corps of the Seventh Army linked up with the US Fifth Army, which fought through Italy, in the Alps as the Third Army advanced into Austria and Czechoslovakia, where it linked up with Soviet forces advancing from the east. Fighting continued a few days after the Surrender of Germany on 8 May, due to German forces fighting west to surrender to the Americans instead of the Soviets.
Following the defeat of the German army in the Ardennes, the Allies pushed back towards the Rhine and the heart of Germany. With the capture of the Ludendorff bridge at Remagen, the Allies crossed the Rhine in March 1945. The Americans then executed a pincer movement, setting up the Ninth Army north, and the First Army south. When the Allies closed the pincer, 300,000 Germans were captured in the Ruhr Pocket. The Americans then turned east, first meeting up with the Soviets at Torgau on the Elbe River in April. The Germans surrendered Berlin to the Soviets on 2 May 1945.
The war in Europe came to an official end on V-E Day, 8 May 1945.
Because of Japanese advances in French Indochina and China, the United States, in coordination with the British and Dutch, cut off all oil supplies to Japan, which had imported 90 % of its oil. The oil embargo threatened to grind the Japanese military machine to a halt. Japan refused American demands to leave China and decided that war with the United States was inevitable; its only hope was to strike first. President Roosevelt had months earlier transferred the American fleet to Hawaii from California in order to deter the Japanese. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto argued the only way to win the war was to knock out the powerful main American fleet immediately. His elaborately trained fleet approached within 200 miles of Hawaii without being detected. Admiral Chūichi Nagumo held tactical command. Over a five - hour period his six carriers sent two waves of 360 dive - bombers, torpedo planes, and fighters. They destroyed or severely damaged eight battleships, ten smaller warships, and 230 aircraft; 2,403 American servicemen and civilians were killed. Japanese losses were negligible -- 29 planes shot down (several American planes were also shot down by anti-aircraft fire). Commander Minoru Genda, the chief planner of the raid, begged Nagumo to strike again at the shore facilities, oil storage tanks, and submarines, and to hunt down the American carriers that were supposedly nearby. But Nagumo, having just smashed the Americans in one of the greatest victories of naval history, decided not to risk further action. Japanese success was due to courage, good equipment, excellent pilots, total surprise, and above all, a daring and imaginative plan. To even reach Pearl Harbor, they had to learn how to refuel at sea (a technique the US Navy already had worked out); to sink all those ships they used their superb electric torpedoes and perfected shallow - water bombing tactics. Surprise was decisive. While everyone knew that war was imminent, no one at Pearl expected an attack. Despite later rumors, there was no advance knowledge of the Japanese plan. The commanders had been complacent about routine defensive measures. Even if the defense had been more alert, the surprise and overwhelming power of the Japanese strike probably would have been decisive. In broader perspective, the attack was a failure. The lost battleships reflected obsolete doctrine and were not needed; the lost planes were soon replaced; the casualty list was short by World War II standards. Tokyo 's calculation that the Americans would lose heart and seek a compromise peace proved wildly wrong -- the "sneak attack '' electrified public opinion, committing America with near unanimity to a war to the death against the Japanese Empire.
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, President Roosevelt officially pronounced 7 December 1941, as "a date which will live in infamy '' and asked for a declaration of war on Japan before a joint session of Congress on 8 December 1941. The motion passed with only one vote against it, in both chambers. Just three days later, on 11 December 1941 Adolf Hitler declared war on the United States, and had already remarked on the evening of the date of the Japanese attack that "We ca n't lose the war at all. We now have an ally which has never been conquered in 3,000 years ''.
Within hours of Pearl Harbor Japanese air forces from Formosa destroyed much of the U.S. Far East Air Force, based near Manila. The Japanese army invaded and trapped the American and Filipino forces on the Bataan peninsula. Roosevelt evacuated General Douglas MacArthur and the nurses, but there was no way to save the trapped men against overwhelming Japanese naval power. MacArthur flew to Australia, vowing "I came out of Bataan and I shall return. '' Major General Jonathan M. Wainwright surrendered on 8 May; the prisoners died by the thousands in the Bataan Death March and in disease - ridden Japanese prison camps where food and medicine were in very short supply.
The Japanese Navy seemed unstoppable as they seized the Dutch East Indies to gain its rich oil resources. The American, British, Dutch, and Australian forces were combined under the ABDA command but its fleet was quickly sunk in several naval battles around Java.
Following their rapid advance, the Japanese started the Solomon Islands Campaign from their newly conquered main base at Rabaul in January 1942. The Japanese seized several islands including Tulagi and Guadalcanal, before they were halted by further events leading to the Guadalcanal Campaign. This campaign also converged with the New Guinea campaign.
In May 1942, the United States fleet engaged the Japanese fleet during the first battle in history in which neither fleet fired directly on the other, nor did the ships of both fleets actually see each other. It was also the first time that aircraft carriers were used in battle. While indecisive, it was nevertheless a starting point because American commanders learned the tactics that would serve them later in the war.
The Battle of the Aleutian Islands was the last battle between sovereign nations to be fought on American soil. As part of a diversionary plan for the Battle of Midway, the Japanese took control of two of the Aleutian Islands (Attu and Kiska Island). Their hope was that strong American naval forces would be drawn away from Midway, enabling a Japanese victory. Because their ciphers were broken, the American forces only drove the Japanese out after Midway. On 11 May 1943, American and Canadian forces, spearheaded by the U.S. 7th Infantry Division landed on Attu, beginning the operation to take back the islands, by the end of May 1943 and after a series of battles, Allied forces retook Attu. On 15 August 1943, Allied forces landed on Kiska to retake it, only to find the Island abandoned by the Japanese.
Having learned important lessons at Coral Sea, the United States Navy was prepared when the Japanese navy under Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto launched an offensive aimed at destroying the American Pacific Fleet at Midway Island. The Japanese hoped to embarrass the Americans after the humiliation of the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo. Midway was a strategic island that both sides wished to use as an air base. Yamamoto hoped to achieve complete surprise and a quick capture of the island, followed by a decisive carrier battle with which he could completely destroy the American carrier fleet. Before the battle began, however, American intelligence intercepted his plan, allowing Admiral Chester Nimitz to formulate an effective defensive ambush of the Japanese fleet. The battle began on 4 June 1942. By the time it was over, the Japanese had lost four carriers, as opposed to one American carrier lost. The Battle of Midway was the turning point of the war in the Pacific because the United States had seized the initiative and was on the offensive for the remaining duration of the war.
Following the resounding victory at Midway, the United States began a major land offensive. The Allies came up with a strategy known as Island hopping, or the bypassing of islands that either served little or no strategic importance or were heavily defended but could be bypassed, such as Rabaul. Because air power was crucial to any operation, only islands that could support airstrips were targeted by the Allies. The fighting for each island in the Pacific Theater would be savage, as the Americans faced a determined and battle - hardened enemy who had known little defeat on the ground.
General George Kenney, in charge of tactical air power under MacArthur, never had enough planes, pilots or supplies. (He was not allowed any authority whatsoever over the Navy 's carriers.) But the Japanese were always in worse shape -- their equipment deteriorated rapidly because of poor airfields and incompetent maintenance. The Japanese had excellent planes and pilots in 1942, but ground commanders dictated their missions and ignored the need for air superiority before any other mission could be attempted. Theoretically, Japanese doctrine stressed the need to gain air superiority, but the infantry commanders repeatedly wasted air assets defending minor positions. When Arnold, echoing the official Army line, stated the Pacific was a "defensive '' theater, Kenney retorted that the Japanese pilot was always on the offensive. "He attacks all the time and persists in acting that way. To defend against him you not only have to attack him but to beat him to the punch. ''
A key to Kenney 's strategy was the neutralization of bypassed Japanese strongpoints like Rabaul and Truk through repeated bombings. He said a major shortfall was "the kids coming here from the States were green as grass. They were not getting enough gunnery, acrobatics, formation flying, or night flying. '' So he set up extensive retraining programs. The arrival of superior fighters, especially the twin - tailed Lockheed P - 38 Lightning, gave the Americans an edge in range and performance. Occasionally a ripe target appeared, as in the Battle of the Bismarck Sea (March 1943) when bombers sank a major convoy bringing troops and supplies to New Guinea. That success was no fluke. High - flying bombers almost never could hit moving ships. Kenney solved that weakness by teaching pilots the effective new tactic of flying in close to the water then pulling up and lobbing bombs that skipped across the water and into the target.
The goal of island hopping was to build forward air fields. AAF commander General Hap Arnold correctly anticipated that he would have to build forward airfields in inhospitable places. Working closely with the Army Corps of Engineers, he created Aviation Engineer Battalions that by 1945 included 118,000 men; it operated in all theatres. Runways, hangars, radar stations, power generators, barracks, gasoline storage tanks and ordnance dumps had to be built hurriedly on tiny coral islands, mud flats, featureless deserts, dense jungles, or exposed locations still under enemy artillery fire. The heavy construction gear had to be imported, along with the engineers, blueprints, steel - mesh landing mats, prefabricated hangars, aviation fuel, bombs and ammunition, and all necessary supplies. As soon as one project was finished the battalion would load up its gear and move forward to the next challenge, while headquarters inked in a new airfield on the maps. Heavy rains often reduced the capacity of old airfields, so new ones were built. Often engineers had to repair and use a captured enemy airfield. Unlike the well - built German air fields in Europe, the Japanese installations were ramshackle affairs with poor siting, poor drainage, scant protection, and narrow, bumpy runways. Engineering was a low priority for the offense - minded Japanese, who chronically lacked adequate equipment and imagination.
Airmen flew far more often in the Southwest Pacific than in Europe, and although rest time in Australia was scheduled, there was no fixed number of missions that would produce transfer out of combat, as was the case in Europe. Coupled with the monotonous, hot, sickly environment, the result was bad morale that jaded veterans quickly passed along to newcomers. After a few months, epidemics of combat fatigue (now called Combat stress reaction) would drastically reduce the efficiency of units. The men who had been at jungle airfields longest, the flight surgeons reported, were in a bad shape:
The Marines had their own land - based aviation, built around the excellent Chance - Vought F4U Corsair, an unusually large fighter - bomber. By 1944 10,000 Marine pilots operated 126 combat squadrons. Marine Aviation originally had the mission of close support for ground troops, but it dropped that role in the 1920s and 1930s and became a junior component of naval aviation. The new mission was to protect the fleet from enemy air attacks. Marine pilots, like all aviators, fiercely believed in the prime importance of air superiority; they did not wish to be tied down to supporting ground troops. On the other hand, the ground Marines needed close air support because they lacked heavy firepower of their own. Mobility was a basic mission of Marine ground forces; they were too lightly armed to employ the sort of heavy artillery barrages and massed tank movements the Army used to clear the battlefield. The Japanese were so well dug in that Marines often needed air strikes on positions 300 to 1,500 yards ahead. In 1944, after considerable internal acrimony, Marine Aviation was forced to start helping out. At Iwo Jima ex-pilots in the air liaison party (ALP) not only requested air support, but actually directed it in tactical detail. The Marine formula increased responsiveness, reduced "friendly '' casualties, and (flying weather permitting) substituted well for the missing armor and artillery. For the next half century close air support would remain central to the mission of Marine Aviation, provoking eternal jealousy from the Army which was never allowed to operate fixed - wing fighters or bombers, although the Army was allowed to have some unarmed transports and spotter planes.
Guadalcanal, fought from August 1942 to February 1943, was the first major Allied offensive of the war in the Pacific Theater. This campaign pitted American air, naval and ground forces (later augmented by Australians and New Zealanders) against determined Japanese resistance. Guadalcanal was the key to control the Solomon Islands, which both sides saw as strategically essential. Both sides won some battles but both sides were overextended in terms of supply lines. Logistical failures in a hostile physical environment hampered everyone. As happened time and again in the Pacific, the Japanese logistical support system failed, as only 20 % of the supplies dispatched from Rabaul to Guadalcanal ever reached there. Consequently, the 30,000 Japanese troops lacked heavy equipment, adequate ammunition and even enough food; 10,000 were killed, 10,000 starved to death, and the remaining 10,000 were evacuated in February 1943. In the end Guadalcanal was a major American victory as the Japanese inability to keep pace with the rate of American reinforcements proved decisive. Guadalcanal is an iconic episode in the annals of American military history, underscoring heroic bravery of underequipped individuals in fierce combat with a determined foe.
Marines from the 1st Marine Division landed on 7 August 1942, soldiers from the Army XIV Corps reinforced and eventually replaced in late - November 1942. They quickly captured Henderson Field, and prepared defenses. In the Battle of Bloody Ridge, the Americans held off wave after wave of Japanese counterattacks before charging what was left of the Japanese. After more than six months of combat the island was firmly in control of the Allies on 8 February 1943.
Meanwhile, the rival navies fought seven battles, with the two sides diving the victories. Following the Japanese victory at the Battle of Savo Island on 8 -- 9 August, Admiral Fletcher withdrew his ships from around Guadalcanal. A second Japanese naval force sailed south and engaged the American fleet in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 24 -- 25 August, ending in a draw but forced the Japanese naval force to retreat. On 11 -- 12 October 1942, to disrupt Japanese attempts to reinforce and resupply their troops on Guadalcanal (nicknamed the "Tokyo Express ''), a small US naval force attacked this supply lines at the Battle of Cape Esperance and succeeded. In support of the Japanese ground offensive in October, Japanese naval forces engaged and hoped to decisively defeat any US naval forces in the area of operation at the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands on 25 -- 27 October 1942, however the Japanese failed to decisively defeat US Navy. From 12 -- 15 November 1942, the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal took place: Learning that the Japanese were trying to reinforce their troops for an attack on Henderson field, U.S. forces launched aircraft and warship to prevent the Japanese ground troops from reaching Guadalcanal, the U.S. succeeded thus turning back Japan 's last major attempt to dislodge Allied forces from Guadalcanal. A small US naval force attempted to surprise and destroy the Japanese Navy were attempting to deliver supplies to their forces on Guadalcanal at Battle of Tassafaronga however it was n't successful. The final naval battle took place between 29 -- 30 January 1943, known as the Battle of Rennell Island, US naval forces attempted to stop the Japanese Navy evacuating its ground forces from Guadalcanal, however the Japanese successfully forced the US Navy to withdraw, protecting the Japanese evacuation.
Guadalcanal made it clear to the Americans that the Japanese would fight to the bitter end. After brutal fighting in which few prisoners were taken on either side, the United States and the Allies pressed on the offensive. The landings at Tarawa on 20 November 1943, by the Americans became bogged down as armor attempting to break through the Japanese lines of defense either sank, were disabled or took on too much water to be of use. The Americans were eventually able to land a limited number of tanks and drive inland. After days of fighting they took control of Tarawa on 23 November. Of the original 2,600 Japanese soldiers on the island, only 17 were still alive.
In preparation of the recapture of the Philippines, the Allies started the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign to retake the Gilbert and Marshall Islands from the Japanese in summer 1943. Moving closer to Japan, the U.S. Navy decisively won the Battle of the Philippine Sea and landing forces captured the Mariana and Palau Islands in summer 1944. The goal was building airbases within range of the new B - 29 bomber aimed at Japan 's industrial cities.
The Battle of Leyte Gulf in 23 -- 26 October 1944, was a decisive American victory that sank virtually the entire remaining Japanese fleet in arguably the largest naval battle in history. Although the Japanese came surprisingly close to inflicting a major defeat on the Americans, at the last minute the Japanese panicked and lost. The battle was a complex overlapping series of engagements fought off the Philippine island of Leyte, which the U.S. Army had just invaded. The army forces were highly vulnerable to naval attack, and the Japanese goal was to inflict massive destruction. Two American fleets were involved, the Seventh and Third, but they were independent and did not communicate well so the Japanese with a trick maneuver slipped between the two American fleets and almost reached the beaches. However the Japanese communication system was even worse, and the Japanese army and navy did not cooperate, and the three Japanese fleets were each destroyed.
General MacArthur fulfilled his promise to return to the Philippines by landing at Leyte on 20 October 1944. The grueling re-capture of the Philippines took place from 1944 to 1945 and included the battles of Leyte, Luzon, and Mindanao.
The Americans did not bypass the small island of Iwo Jima because it wanted bases for fighter escorts; it was actually used as an emergency landing base for B - 29s. The Japanese knew they could not win, but they devised a strategy to maximize American casualties. Learning from the Battle of Saipan they prepared many fortified positions on the island, including pillboxes and underground tunnels. The Marines attack began on 19 February 1945. Initially the Japanese put up no resistance, letting the Americans mass, creating more targets before the Americans took intense fire from Mount Suribachi and fought throughout the night until the hill was surrounded. Over the next 36 days, the Japanese were pressed into an ever - shrinking pocket, but they chose to fight on to the end, leaving only 1,000 of the original 21,000 defenders alive. The Marines suffered as well, suffering 25,000 casualties. The battle became iconic in America as the epitome of heroism in desperate hand - to - hand combat.
Okinawa became the last major battle of the Pacific Theater and the Second World War. The island was to become a staging area for the eventual invasion of Japan since it was just 350 miles (550 km) south of the Japanese mainland. Marines and soldiers landed unopposed on 1 April 1945, to begin an 82 - day campaign which became the largest land - sea - air battle in history and was noted for the ferocity of the fighting and the high civilian casualties with over 150,000 Okinawans losing their lives. Japanese kamikaze pilots caused the largest loss of ships in U.S. naval history with the sinking of 38 and the damaging of another 368. Total U.S. casualties were over 12,500 dead and 38,000 wounded, while the Japanese lost over 110,000 men. The fierce combat and high American losses led the Navy to oppose an invasion of the main islands. An alternative strategy was chosen: using the atomic bomb to induce surrender.
The flammability of Japan 's large cities, and the concentration of munitions production there, made strategic bombing the favorite strategy of the Americans from 1941 onward. The first efforts were made from bases in China, where massive efforts to establish B - 29 bases there and supply them over the Hump (the Himalayas) failed in 1944; the Japanese Army simply moved overland and captured the bases. Saipan and Tinian, captured by the U.S. in June 1944, gave secure bases for the very - long - range B - 29. The Boeing B - 29 Superfortress boasted four 2,200 horsepower Wright R - 3350 supercharged engines that could lift four tons of bombs 33,000 feet (high above Japanese flak or fighters), and make 3,500 mile round trips. However, the systematic raids that began in June 1944, were unsatisfactory, because the AAF had learned too much in Europe; it overemphasized self - defense. Arnold, in personal charge of the campaign (bypassing the theater commanders) brought in a new leader, brilliant, indefatigable, hard - charging General Curtis LeMay. In early 1945, LeMay ordered a radical change in tactics: remove the machine guns and gunners, fly in low at night. (Much fuel was used to get to 30,000 feet; it could now be replaced with more bombs.) The Japanese radar, fighter, and anti-aircraft systems were so ineffective that they could not hit the bombers. Fires raged through the cities, and millions of civilians fled to the mountains.
Tokyo was hit repeatedly, and during the first massive fire raid of March 9 -- 10, 1945 suffered a conflagration of about 16 square miles (41 km2) in area, that killed at least 83,000. On 5 June, 51,000 buildings in four miles of Kobe were burned out by 473 B - 29s; the Japanese were learning to fight back, as 11 B - 29s went down and 176 were damaged. Osaka, where one - sixth of the Empire 's munitions were made, was hit by 1,733 tons of incendiaries dropped by 247 B - 29s. A firestorm burned out 8.1 square miles, including 135,000 houses; 4,000 died. The Japanese local officials reported:
The Japanese army, which was not based in the cities, was largely undamaged by the raids. The Army was short of food and gasoline, but, as Iwo Jima and Okinawa proved, it was capable of ferocious resistance. The Japanese also had a new tactic that it hoped would provide the bargaining power to get a satisfactory peace, the Kamikaze.
In late 1944 the Japanese invented an unexpected and highly effective new tactic, the Kamikaze suicide plane aimed like a guided missile at American ships. The attacks began in October 1944 and continued to the end of the war. Experienced pilots were used to lead a mission because they could navigate; they were not Kamikazes, and they returned to base for another mission. The Kamikaze pilots were inexperienced and had minimal training; however most were well educated and intensely committed to the Emperor.
Kamikaze attacks were highly effective at the Battle of Okinawa as 4000 kamikaze sorties sank 38 US ships and damaged 368 more, killing 4,900 sailors. Task Force 58 analyzed the Japanese technique at Okinawa in April 1945:
The Americans decided the best defense against Kamikazes was to knock them out on the ground, or else in the air long before they approached the fleet. The Navy called for more fighters, and more warning, which meant combat air patrols circling the big ships, more radar picket ships (which themselves became prime targets), and more attacks on airbases and gasoline supplies. Japan suspended Kamikaze attacks in May 1945, because it was now hoarding gasoline and hiding planes in preparation for new suicide attacks if the Allies dared to invade their home islands. The Kamikaze strategy allowed the use of untrained pilots and obsolete planes, and since evasive maneuvering was dropped and there was no return trip, the scarce gasoline reserves could be stretched further. Since pilots guided their airplane like a guided missile all the way to the target, the proportion of hits was much higher than in ordinary bombing. Japan 's industry was manufacturing 1,500 new planes a month in 1945. However, the quality of construction was very poor, and many new planes crashed during training or before reaching targets.
Expecting increased resistance, including far more Kamikaze attacks once the main islands of Japan were invaded, the U.S. high command rethought its strategy and used atomic bombs to end the war, hoping it would make a costly invasion unnecessary.
U.S. submarines participated in the majority of naval battles in the Pacific theatre, but the submarines were most decisive in their blockade of Japan, for which Japan was dependent on its sea transport to provide resources for its war effort.
On the afternoon of 7 December 1941, six hours after the Japanese attack, U.S. naval commanders in the Pacific were ordered by the U.S. Navy Chief of Staff to "execute unrestricted air and submarine warfare against Japan ''. This order authorized all U.S. submarines in the Pacific to attack and sink any warship, commercial vessel, or civilian passenger ship flying the Japanese flag, without warning. The Pacific Fleet and the Asiatic Fleet Submarine Force immediately went into action to counter the Japanese offensive across the Pacific, such as in the Philippines, Indochina, Dutch East Indies and Malaya. The U.S. Navy submarine force was small; less than 2 %. On 7 December 1941, the U.S. Navy had 55 fleet and 18 - medium - sized submarines (S - boats) in the Pacific, 38 submarines elsewhere, and 73 under construction. By war 's end, the U.S. would complete 228 submarines.
U.S. Navy submarines were often used for surveillance. This included reconnaissance U.S. submarines landed and supplied guerillas in Japanese occupied territory and carrying in commandos for missions such as the Makin Island raid, they also rescued crews of aircraft which had been forced down over the ocean.
As a result of several key improvements in strategy and tactics, from 1943, Allied submarines waged a more effective campaign against Japanese merchant shipping and the IJN, in effect strangling the Japanese Empire of resources. By the end of the war in August, 1945, U.S. Navy submarines sank around 1300 Japanese merchant ships, as well as roughly 200 warships. Only 42 U.S. submarines were sunk in the Pacific, but 3,500 (22 %) submariners were killed, the highest casualty rate of any American force in World War II. The force destroyed over half of all Japanese merchant ships, totaling well over five million tons of shipping.
As victory for the United States slowly approached, casualties mounted. A fear in the American high command was that an invasion of mainland Japan would lead to enormous losses on the part of the Allies, as casualty estimates for the planned Operation Downfall demonstrate. President Harry Truman gave the order to drop the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima on 6 August 1945, hoping that the destruction of the city would break Japanese resolve and end the war. A second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on 9 August after it appeared that the Japanese high command was not planning to surrender. Approximately 140,000 people died in Hiroshima from the bomb and its aftereffects by the end of 1945, and approximately 74,000 in Nagasaki.
V-J Day which occurred on 15 August 1945 marked the end of the United States ' war with the Empire of Japan. Since Japan was the last remaining Axis Power, V-J Day also marked the end of World War II.
The United States contributed several forces to the China Burma India theater, such as the 5307th Composite Unit (Provisional) but nicknamed "Merrill 's Marauders '' after its commander; Frank Merrill, it was a United States Army long range penetration special operations jungle warfare unit organized as light infantry assault units. In slightly more than five months of combat in 1944, the Marauders advanced 750 miles through some of the harshest jungle terrain in the world, fought in five major engagements, mostly behind enemy lines, with or in support of British Empire and Chinese forces in Burma and suffered many casualties. On 10 August 1944 the Marauders were consolidated into the 475th Infantry. The U.S. also had an adviser to Chiang Kai - shek and Joseph Stillwell. Units of the Tenth Air Force, Fourteenth Air Force, and Twentieth Air Force of the USAAF also served in the theatre, including the previously mentioned "Flying Tigers ''.
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who played ethan hawke wife in training day | Training Day - wikipedia
Training Day is a 2001 American neo-noir crime thriller film directed by Antoine Fuqua, and written by David Ayer. Denzel Washington and Ethan Hawke star as two LAPD narcotics officers over a 24 - hour period in the gang - ridden neighborhoods of the LAPD Rampart Division and South Central Los Angeles. The film has been seen as a high - budget continuation of the blaxploitation genre.
The film was released on October 5, 2001 and grossed $104 million worldwide. The film received positive reviews, with Washington 's performance being particularly praised and earned him an Oscar for Best Actor at the 74th Academy Awards. His co-star Ethan Hawke was nominated for Best Supporting Actor.
A television series based on the film, produced by Jerry Bruckheimer, was announced in August of 2015 and premiered February 2, 2017 on CBS. The series, starring Bill Paxton and Justin Cornwell, was cancelled on May 17, 2017, after one season because of Bill Paxton 's death.
Los Angeles Police Department Officer Jake Hoyt is assigned for an evaluation headed by an experienced narcotics officer Detective Alonzo Harris. Alonzo is known to be a corrupt cop to several other narcotics officers who are also on the take. Alonzo and Jake begin the day by catching some college kids buying cannabis. Confiscating the drugs from the kids, Alonzo tells Jake to smoke it. Jake refuses initially, but only complies when Alonzo threatens him at gunpoint. Alonzo states that refusing like this while on the streets would easily get him killed. After paying a visit to Roger, an ex-police officer turned drug dealer, Jake notices a pair of drug addicts attempting to rape a young teenage girl in an alley. Jake intervenes whilst Alonzo watches. After Alonzo scares them off, Jake finds the girl 's wallet on the ground and takes it.
Later on in the day, Alonzo and Jake apprehend a wheelchair - bound dealer named Blue, and find crack rocks and a loaded handgun on him. Rather than go to jail, Blue informs on his associate Kevin "Sandman '' Miller, who is in prison. Using a fake search warrant, the two steal $40,000 from Sandman 's home. Sandman 's wife realizes the theft and calls out to nearby gang members who open fire on Alonzo and Jake as they flee. At lunch, the two visit Alonzo 's mistress Sara and their young son. After, Alonzo meets with a trio of corrupt high - ranking police officials he dubs as the "Three Wise Men ''. They tell Alonzo that they are aware the Russian Mafia are looking for him, and suggest that he skips town. Alonzo insists he has control of the situation, and trades Sandman 's drug money for an arrest warrant.
Traveling back to Roger 's house using the obtained warrant, Alonzo, Jake, and four other narcotics officers just as corrupt as Alonzo seize $4 million from the premises. Alonzo shoots and kills Roger when Jake refuses to do so. Jake wholeheartedly refuses to be a part of it, and when threatened seizes Alonzo 's shotgun, prompting a Mexican standoff with the other officers. Alonzo tells Jake that the LAPD will run a blood test on him which will identify the PCP - laced cannabis he smoked earlier. Alonzo promises he can falsify this in exchange for his cooperation, Jake reluctantly agrees.
Later that evening, Alonzo drives Jake to the home of Smiley, a Sureño to run an errand. Jake reluctantly plays poker with Smiley and his fellow gang members as he waits for Alonzo, whilst Smiley reveals Alonzo 's situation. By midnight, Alonzo must pay $1 million to the Russian Mafia for the killing of one of their men in Las Vegas, or be killed himself. Realizing that Alonzo abandoned him and has paid Smiley to kill him, Jake retaliates but is beaten and dragged to the bathroom to be executed. A gang member searches Jake for money before he is killed, and finds the teenage girl 's wallet who happens to be Smiley 's cousin. After hearing Jake 's story of how he had saved her from being raped earlier that day, Smiley shows gratitude and lets him go.
Jake returns to Sara 's apartment to arrest Alonzo, but a gunfight and chase ensue. Alonzo is subdued, whilst the entire neighborhood congregates to watch. In an attempt to get the crowd on his side, Alonzo offers money to whoever kills Jake; but nobody interferes. Instead, they allow Jake to walk away with the money, and Jake plans to submit it as evidence against Alonzo. Alonzo flees for his life to Los Angeles International Airport, but his car is ambushed by the Russians, who kill him. Jake returns home as the news broadcast Alonzo 's death, which eerily mirrors a quote spoken by Alonzo.
Detective Alonzo Harris is the main antagonist, portrayed by Denzel Washington. Detective Alonzo Harris is a highly decorated Los Angeles Police Department narcotics officer who has worked for over thirteen years on the streets. Alonzo runs an aggressive narcotics unit that is known for making major drug seizures and taking down major drug traffickers. However, he uses controversial and radical methods and is one of the most feared officers due to corruption. A ruthless sociopath, he is a selfish man who does anything, including murder, for money and lacks empathy. He is married with four sons but also has a Salvadoran mistress Sara (Eva Mendes) and a young son in Baldwin Village.
In the CBS television series Alonzo is mentioned by Deputy Chief Joy Lockhart when briefing Officer Kyle Craig on sending him undercover at LAPD 's Special Investigation Section to investigate Detective Frank Roarke. Frank briefly mentions Alonzo at the end of the first season.
Before Denzel Washington was to play the role, the producers had offered it to Gary Sinise and Tom Sizemore, but both had declined; subsequently the producers tried to interest Bruce Willis, but changed their mind. When Davis Guggenheim was set to direct the film, Alonzo was to be played by Samuel L. Jackson but later, when Antoine Fuqua was chosen to replace Guggenheim, Washington was confirmed in the role of Alonzo Harris.
Denzel Washington 's performance as Detective Alonzo Harris was highly praised by critics. Chicago Sun - Times film critic Roger Ebert said: "Washington seems to enjoy a performance that 's over the top and down the other side ''. In the Village Voice, Amy Taubin expressed: "Training Day, Antoine Fuqua 's propulsive, elegantly written police thriller, offers the unsettling spectacle of Denzel Washington, whose old - fashioned combination of decency and sexiness suggests the African American counterpart to Gregory Peck (in his To Kill a Mockingbird period), as an LAPD cop so evil he makes Harvey Keitel 's bad lieutenant look like even smaller potatoes than he was meant to be ''.
He won the Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor, the Kansas City Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor, the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor and was nominated for the Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor and the Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor.
In 2002, he received the Black Reel Award for Best Actor, the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actor in a Motion Picture, the MTV Movie Award for Best Villain and the Academy Award for Best Actor, beating out Russell Crowe for his acclaimed role as John Forbes Nash in A Beautiful Mind.
He was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Drama, the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role (losing the two to Russell Crowe) and the Satellite Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Drama (losing to Brian Cox in L.I.E.).
In June 2003, the American Film Institute named Alonzo the 50th greatest screen villain of all time in its list AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Heroes & Villains.
Although corruption in L.A. 's C.R.A.S.H. unit had yet to be exposed when Training Day was written, Antoine Fuqua has stated that the emergence of the Rampart Scandal in the late 1990s catalyzed the completion of the film. Denzel Washington also grew a beard in order to emulate the appearance of Rafael Pérez, an LAPD narcotics officer involved in multiple scandals. Fuqua wanted Washington 's character to be seductive and part of a machine, and not just a random rogue cop. In Washington 's own words: "I think in some ways he 's done his job too well. He 's learned how to manipulate, how to push the line further and further, and, in the process, he 's become more hard - core than some of the guys he 's chasing. ''
Fuqua also saw Hawke 's character as generally honorable but so driven by ambition that he was willing to compromise his principles, particularly when following the charming and persuasive example of Washington 's character. He has said that he fought with studio executives who wanted to cut the Three Wise Men scene, thinking it slowed the film. He insisted that the Wise Men scene was pivotal in establishing that at least some of Alonzo 's illegal actions were sanctioned by his superiors who regarded unethical behavior as a necessary evil.
Fuqua wanted Training Day to look as authentic as possible, and he shot on location in some of the most infamous neighborhoods of Los Angeles. He even obtained permission to shoot in the Imperial Courts housing project, the first time L.A. street gangs had allowed film crew to be brought into that neighborhood. The crew also filmed in Hoover Block and Baldwin Village. Parts of the film were shot on a dead end street called Palmwood Drive, where the Black P. Stones Blood gang members were seen on the rooftops. Cle Shaheed Sloan, the gang technical advisor of Training Day, managed to get on screen real - life gang members from Rollin ' 60 Crips, PJ Watts Crips, and B.P. Stones (a Bloods set). According to Fuqua, the actors and crew ended up receiving a warm welcome from local residents. When he was unable to shoot a scene directly on location, he recreated the locations on sets.
There were also two police officers on hand as technical advisors, Michael Patterson and Paul Lozada (the latter from the San Francisco Police Department). Washington, Hawke and other cast members also met with undercover police officers, local drug dealers, and gang members to help them understand their roles better.
Training Day received favorable reviews from critics. On review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 72 % approval rating, based on 155 reviews, with a rating average of 6.5 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "The ending may be less than satisfying, but Denzel Washington reminds us why he 's such a great actor in this taut and brutal police drama. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 70 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Roger Ebert gave the film three - out - of - four stars, praising both the lead and supporting actors and the film 's gritty, kinetic energy. However, Ebert was bothered by several plot holes and wrote that "(a) lot of people are going to be leaving the theater as I did, wondering about the logic and plausibility of the last 15 minutes. ''
Writing in The Hollywood Reporter, Michael Rechtshaffen gave the film a positive review on Sep 12, 2016 when he stated: "Denzel Washington ventures into the dark side as a seriously corrupt narcotics cop in Training Day, and the results are electrifying. So is the picture, thanks to taut, sinewy direction by Antoine Fuqua and a compelling script by David Ayer (The Fast and the Furious). ''
The film was released in theaters on October 5, 2001, and opened at # 1. At its second week of release, the film 's gross revenue was $13,386,457, staying at the # 1 position. The film stayed in the top - ten box office until the seventh week of release, landing at # 12. With an estimated budget of $45 million, Training Day ultimately grossed $76.6 million in the US and $104.9 million worldwide.
A soundtrack containing hip hop music was released on September 11, 2001, by Priority Records. It peaked at 35 on the Billboard 200 and 19 on the Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums and spawned two hit singles, Nelly 's "# 1 '' and Dr. Dre and DJ Quik 's "Put It on Me ''.
In 2002, Denzel Washington won the Academy Award for Best Actor and the MTV Movie Award for Best Villain for his performance in Training Day. Ethan Hawke was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Washington and Hawke also received SAG nominations, with the former receiving a Golden Globe nod.
On August 7, 2015, it was announced that Antoine Fuqua had decided to develop a television series based on the movie, and had teamed with Jerry Bruckheimer to develop the concept. Warner Bros. Television was shopping the show to the American broadcast networks. Will Beall would write the series, while Fuqua would serve as executive producer, and would direct the potential pilot. CBS ordered a pilot on August 14, 2015. In addition to Fuqua, Bruckheimer, Beall, and Jonathan Littman will serve as executive producers for the series, which is set 15 years after the original film. In May 2016, CBS picked up the series.
The series, starring Bill Paxton and Justin Cornwell premiered on February 2, 2017 and was cancelled on May 17, 2017, after one season.
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left hand rule for the magnetic field around a conductor | Fleming 's left - hand rule for motors - wikipedia
Fleming 's left - hand rule for motors is one of a pair of visual mnemonics, the other being Fleming 's right - hand rule (for generators). They were originated by John Ambrose Fleming, in the late 19th century, as a simple way of working out the direction of motion in an electric motor, or the direction of electric current in an electric generator.
When current flows through a conducting wire, and an external magnetic field is applied across that flow, the conducting wire experiences a force perpendicular both to that field and to the direction of the current flow (i.e they are mutually perpendicular). A left hand can be held, as shown in the illustration, so as to represent three mutually orthogonal axes on the thumb, fore finger and middle finger. Each finger is then assigned to a quantity (mechanical force, magnetic field and electric current). The right and left hand are used for generators and motors respectively.
Several memory aids have been used in order to remember the quantity each finger represents.
Van de Graaff 's translation of Fleming 's rules is the FBI rule, easily remembered because these are the initials of the Federal Bureau of Investigation.
This uses the conventional symbolic parameters of F (for Lorentz force), B (for magnetic flux density) and I (for electric current), and attributing them in that order (FBI) respectively to the thumb, first finger and second finger.
Of course, if the mnemonic is taught (and remembered) with a different arrangement of the parameters to the fingers, it could end up as a mnemonic that also reverses the roles of the two hands (instead of the standard left hand for motors, right hand for generators). These variants are catalogued more fully on the FBI mnemonics page.
Fleming 's left - hand rule is used for electric motors, while Fleming 's right - hand rule is used for electric generators.
Different hands need to be used for motors and generators because of the differences between cause and effect.
In an electric motor, the electric current and magnetic field exist (which are the causes), and they lead to the force that creates the motion (which is the effect), and so the left hand rule is used. In an electric generator, the motion and magnetic field exist (causes), and they lead to the creation of the electric current (effect), and so the right hand rule is used.
To illustrate why, consider that many types of electric motors can also be used as electric generators. A vehicle powered by such a motor can be accelerated up to high speed by connecting the motor to a fully charged battery. If the motor is then disconnected from the fully charged battery, and connected instead to a completely flat battery, the vehicle will decelerate. The motor will act as a generator and convert the vehicle 's kinetic energy back to electrical energy, which is then stored in the battery. Since neither the direction of motion nor the direction of the magnetic field (inside the motor / generator) has changed, the direction of the electric current in the motor / generator has reversed. This follows from the second law of thermodynamics (the generator current must oppose the motor current, and the stronger current outweighs the other to allow the energy to flow from the more energetic source to the less energetic source).
The rule for motors can be recalled by remembering that "motors drive on the left in Britain ''. The rule for generators can be recalled by remembering that either the letters "g '' and "r '' is common to both "right '' and "generator '', or the phrase "Jenny is always right '' ("Genny '' being a common shortened version of Generator).
When electrons, or any charged particles, flow in the same direction (for example, as an electric current in an electrical conductor, such as a metal wire) they generate a cylindrical magnetic field that wraps round the conductor (as discovered by Hans Christian Ørsted).
The direction of the induced magnetic field is sometimes remembered by Maxwell 's corkscrew rule. That is, if the conventional current is flowing away from the viewer, the magnetic field runs clockwise round the conductor, in the same direction that a corkscrew would have to turn in order to move away from the viewer. The direction of the induced magnetic field is also sometimes remembered by the right - hand grip rule, as depicted in the illustration, with the thumb showing the direction of the conventional current, and the fingers showing the direction of the magnetic field. The existence of this magnetic field can be confirmed by placing magnetic compasses at various points round the periphery of an electrical conductor that is carrying a relatively large electric current.
If an external magnetic field is applied horizontally, so that it crosses the flow of electrons (in the wire conductor, or in the electron beam), the two magnetic fields will interact. Michael Faraday introduced a visual analogy for this, in the form of imaginary magnetic lines of force: those in the conductor form concentric circles round the conductor; those in the externally applied magnetic field run in parallel lines. If those on one side of the conductor are running (from the north to south magnetic pole) in the opposite direction to those surrounding the conductor, they will be deflected so that they pass on the other side the conductor (because magnetic lines of force can not cross or run contrary to each other). Consequently, there will be a large number of magnetic field lines in a small space on that side of the conductor, and a dearth of them on the original side of the conductor. Since the magnetic field lines of force are no longer straight lines, but curved to run around the electrical conductor, they are under tension (like stretched elastic bands), with energy bound up in the magnetic field. Since this energetic field is now mostly unopposed, its build - up or expulsion in one direction creates -- in a manner analogous to Newton 's Third Law of Motion -- a force in the opposite direction. Since there is only one moveable object in this system (the electrical conductor) for this force to work upon, the net effect is a physical force working to expel the electrical conductor out of the externally applied magnetic field in the direction opposite to that which the magnetic flux is being redirected to -- in this case (motors), if the conductor is carrying conventional current upwards, and the external magnetic field is moving away from the viewer, the physical force will work to push the conductor to the left. This is the reason for torque in an electric motor. (The electric motor is then constructed so that the expulsion of the conductor out of the magnetic field causes it be placed inside the next magnetic field, and for this switching to be continued indefinitely.)
Faraday 's Law: the induced electromotive force in a conductor is directly proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux in the conductor.
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who died in the snug on coronation street | Lynne Carol - wikipedia
Josephine Caroline Gertrude Mary Faith Harber (29 June 1914 -- 30 June 1990), better known as Lynne Carol, was a Welsh born (but usually described as English) actress best known for playing busybody Martha Longhurst in the soap opera Coronation Street from the second episode in 1960 until the character was killed off in 1964.
A descendant of six generations of actors, Lynne Carol (also known as Josephine Palmer) was born in Monmouthshire, south east Wales, where her actor parents Charles Harber and Mina Harber (née McKinnon) were touring in a stage play. Carol started her own acting career at the age of only three. Before landing the part of Martha Longhurst, Carol worked in the provincial theatre for many years.
Carol played Martha Longhurst as a waspish beldam, who first appeared in December 1960; with Ena Sharples, played by Violet Carson and Minnie Caldwell, played by Margot Bryant she made up the formidable trio that held court in the snug of local public house, the Rovers Return. The verbal interplay between the three epitomised the serial 's North of England humanity and yielded some of the ' richest moments ' in the programme. The renown of Martha Longhurst became such that Carol 's unpublicised visit to the Ideal Home Exhibition caused a near riot. She was advised to leave the premises for her own safety. Her fan - base even included such international stars as the actor Laurence Olivier and the poet John Betjeman.
After only three years in the series, the character of Martha Longhurst was axed by a new producer, who assumed that Carol would be likely to find other acting jobs. Carol was deeply shocked to read in the newspaper that the days of her character were now numbered. Martha died quietly of a heart attack in the snug (one of the three bars in the Rovers, the others being the public and the select) of the public house in May 1964. The subsequent burial took place in the Manchester General Cemetery where a special grave had been prepared. Carol remained bitter about Martha 's death, and believed to the end that a terrible mistake had been made, as her character was so popular. Viewers responded by complaining in their thousands and, later, the writers acknowledged that they had made a mistake.
Carol later appeared in the short - lived BBC serial The Newcomers - alongside Alan Browning, who later appeared in Coronation Street as Alan Howard. She also appeared in the 1979 film Yanks starring Richard Gere.
Carol married Bert Palmer (1901 - 15 January 1980), a character actor from Lancashire, who appeared in two episodes of Coronation Street and the pilot episode of its first spin - off, Pardon the Expression, and they made their home in Blackpool. Her husband died in 1980. Lynne Carol died in Blackpool, Lancashire, England in 1990, aged 76, she had three children, two sons, Michael and Robert and a daughter, Jan. Her brother James Harber was also a stage actor.
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what does it mean to be pre law | Pre-law - wikipedia
In the United States, pre-law refers to any course of study taken by an undergraduate in preparation for study at a law school.
The American Bar Association requires law schools to admit only students with an accredited Bachelor 's Degree or its equivalent depending on the student 's country of origin. However, there are no specific "pre-law '' degree or majors, and unlike pre-med, an undergraduate student seeking legal education in the United States is not required to take a set of prerequisites in order to apply. Hence, most undergraduate institutions do not offer an official "pre-law '' concentration, and in some cases provide somewhat equivalents such as "Law, Society and Justice '' instead. Students awarded with Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science or equivalent degrees (and more rarely, higher degrees such as the master 's degree and doctorate) may apply for law schools as long as they meet specific admission requirements set forth by individual law schools, as well as the standard requirements (such as character and fitness) as set forth by the ABA and the Law School Admission Council.
In 2001, the five most common majors of students entering law school were political science, history, English, psychology, and criminal justice. The five majors with the highest acceptance rates were physics, philosophy, biology, chemistry, and government service.
A pre-law program is sometimes offered at some American colleges and universities; however, it is considered to be a "track '' that follows a certain curriculum.
Pre-law students may be advised or required to take upper - level political science and sociology electives, such as legal systems, criminal law, international law, policy, etc. Specific requirements for these courses vary by institution.
Benefits to being pre-law or a part of a pre-law society include interaction with lawyers and law professors, gaining a comprehensive grounding in legal studies and concepts, and receiving discounts off LSAT prep courses. In addition, being a part of a pre-law society also allows students to familiarize themselves with the law school application process including the LSAT, letters of recommendation and the personal statement. Pre-law programs encourage students to communicate effectively and think creatively and critically. Furthermore, a pre-law program can also help a student decide whether law school is the right path for them.
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who voted for president election in india in hindi | Indian Presidential election, 2017 - wikipedia
Pranab Mukherjee INC
Ram Nath Kovind BJP
A presidential election was held in India on 17 July 2017 with the votes counted and the results announced on 20 July 2017. President Pranab Mukherjee, whose term of office was due to expire on 24 July 2017, declined to seek re-election due to health concerns.
Governor of Bihar Ram Nath Kovind of the Bharatiya Janata Party had the backing of the governing National Democratic Alliance coalition, and went up against opposition candidate Meira Kumar of the Indian National Congress in the vote. Kovind secured roughly two thirds of the votes from the electoral college of elected members of federal, state and union territory legislatures and was elected to a five - year term as President. Kovind 's term of office began on 25 July 2017.
There was initial speculation that the incumbent, Pranab Mukherjee, would seek re-election. However, he decided not to run again in 2017, meaning that his term in office ended on 24 July 2017.
The President of India is indirectly elected by an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both houses of parliament, the elected members of the Legislative assemblies of the 29 states and the elected members of the legislative assemblies of the Union Territories of Delhi and Puducherry. As of 2017, the electoral college comprises 776 MPs and 4,120 MLAs. The system assigns varying numbers of votes to these electoral college members, such that the total weight of MPs and those of MLAs is roughly equal and that the voting power of states and territories are proportional to their population. Overall the members of the electoral college were eligible to cast 1,098,903 votes, yielding a threshold for a majority of 549,452 votes.
The nomination of a candidate for election to the office of the President must be subscribed by at least 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders. The election is held by means of a secret ballot under the single transferable vote system. The manner of election of President is provided by Article 55 of the Constitution.
The returning officer for the election was Anoop Mishra, the Secretary General of Lok Sabha.
At the time of the election the NDA coalition itself was short of a majority by about 25,000 votes, but was expected to be able to rely on other parties to breach the small deficit without difficulty.
Although the election was not a popular vote, some general polling was performed to measure public opinion. In both Business Insider - Ipsos and NDTV polls comparing support of the two candidates, Kovind was the more popular choice with 71 % and 63 % support respectively.
Two candidates were nominated. Both the governing NDA coalition and the opposition UPA coalition put forward candidates from their dominant parties, the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Indian National Congress respectively.
Ram Nath Kovind
Member of the Rajya Sabha from Uttar Pradesh (1994 -- 2006)
Uttar Pradesh
Ram Nath Kovind was declared the winner after the counting of votes which was held on 20 July 2017. He was administered oath by the Chief Justice of India Jagdish Singh Khehar, to take office as the 14th President of India on 25 July 2017 at the Central Hall located in The Parliament House, New Delhi.
Immediately after the results were announced, Prime Minister Narendra Modi tweeted, "Congratulations to Shri Ram Nath Kovind Ji on being elected the President of India! Best wishes for a fruitful & inspiring tenure ''. In another tweet he added "Gladdened by the extensive support for Shri Ram Nath Kovind Ji among MPs & across various parties. I thank members of the electoral college ''.
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where was regine in the last episode of living single | Living Single - wikipedia
Living Single is an American television sitcom that aired for five seasons on the Fox network from August 22, 1993 to January 1, 1998. The show centered on the lives of six friends who share personal and professional experiences while living in a Brooklyn brownstone.
Throughout its run, Living Single became one of the most popular African - American sitcoms of its era, ranking among the top five in African - American ratings in all five seasons. The series was produced by Yvette Lee Bowser 's company, Sister Lee, in association with Warner Bros. Television. In contrast to the popularity of NBC 's "Must See TV '' -- first on Sunday nights and then later on Thursday nights in the 1990s -- many African - American and Latino viewers flocked to Fox. For the 1993 -- 94 season, Living Single aired on Sunday nights between Martin and Married... with Children, and then on Thursday nights from 1994 to 1998.
Living Single centered on six people consisting of four women and two men living the single life in the heart of Brooklyn, New York.
The series focused on two different households in one brownstone, one shared by a trio of independent women and another shared by a pair of male friends who have known each other since they spent their youth in Cleveland, Ohio. In the first apartment, Khadijah James (Queen Latifah), a hard - working editor and publisher of the fictional urban independent monthly Flavor, lived with her sweet, but naive cousin, Synclaire James (Kim Coles), an aspiring actress who worked as Khadijah 's receptionist and has an affinity for Troll dolls; and her childhood friend from East Orange, New Jersey, Regina "Régine '' Hunter (Kim Fields), an image - conscious, boutique buyer who was in a constant search for a well - to - do man to spend her life with (and spend his money). Later in the series, Régine became a costume assistant for the soap opera Palo Alto. When the show was canceled, she became a wedding planner and left the apartment to move in with her fiancé, Dexter Knight (Don Franklin). Maxine "Max '' Shaw (Erika Alexander), a sharp - tongued attorney and Khadijah 's best friend from their college days at Howard University, frequently stopped by to share her unique insights, keep them entertained by sharing her day, to make sure that the girls ' refrigerator is n't overstocked, and to start trouble with Kyle.
Kyle Barker (T.C. Carson) lived in the second apartment with Overton Wakefield Jones (John Henton). Kyle was a stockbroker whose constant verbal sparring with Max did little to mask their obvious sexual attraction. Overton was the friendly, but country, maintenance man for the owner of their (and neighboring) building who held deep affection for Synclaire and plenty of hilarious homespun wisdom for everyone else. Kyle and Max ended up pursuing a sexual relationship, but when he decided to take a job in London and invited Max to join him, she turned him down. Maxine subsequently became distraught over her decision and, after defending a man who claims to be the second coming of Jesus (Harold Perrineau), she began to seriously look for the purpose of her life. Through a series of events, Max decided that her purpose must be to become a mother and during the insemination process unknowingly picked Kyle 's sperm specimen based on a list of qualities she would like for her child to have. Kyle returned in the series finale and the two reconciled. Overton and Synclaire also got together and their relationship culminated in marriage by the end of the fourth season. In season five, they moved in together, leaving Overton and Kyle 's apartment open for new character Roni DeSantos (Idalis DeLeon), a New York - area D.J., to move in. It was eventually revealed that DeSantos had a fling with Ira Lee "Tripp '' Williams III, (Mel Jackson), the new roommate of Khadijah and Régine who moved in when Synclaire 's room became available. Tripp was a songwriter. Synclaire joined a comedy improv troupe where she gained the attention of Tony Jonas, a Warner Bros. television exec who cast her as a nun for a new comedy series he was developing.
Along with trying to make Flavor a success, Khadijah also spent time looking for Mr. Right. She eventually found him in childhood friend Scooter (Cress Williams) with whom she left the brownstone for the final time in the series finale.
Warner Home Video released the complete first season of Living Single on DVD in Region 1 on February 14, 2006. The entire series is also available for digital download on Amazon.com and the iTunes Store.
Warner Archive has released Season 2 on September 19, 2017 on DVD in Region 1. This is a Manufacture - on - Demand (MOD) release, available from such sellers as Warner 's online store and Amazon.com. Season 3 was released on November 21, 2017. Season 4 was released on March 20, 2018.
Half & Half: Erika Alexander and T.C. Carson reprised their roles of Maxine Shaw and Kyle Barker on the UPN sitcom, Half & Half (a series produced by Living Single creator Yvette Lee Bowser). In the episode ("The Big Performance Anxiety Episode '', third season), ambitious law student Dee Dee learns that her mother 's co-star in a play is engaged to Maxine, Dee Dee 's idol. However, her mother gets Maxine 's beau, Kyle, fired because she fears he will take attention away from her. The episode also revealed that Maxine and Kyle remained a couple and were the proud parents of their seven - year - old daughter named Kyla.
The Crew: In one episode "The Mating Season '' of the short - lived Fox sitcom The Crew, Regine becomes a passenger on a flight and argues with a sassy stewardess in hopes of upgrading to first class. On another episode, "The Worst Noel '', Synclaire also becomes a passenger. The episode served as a bridge for The Crew and its lead - in show, Living Single.
Living Single started reruns in syndication on September 22, 1997. Reruns of the series currently run daily on TV One, Logo TV and Oxygen. Starting October 2, 2017 Bounce TV will air reruns of the series. As of January 11, 2018, all episodes began streaming on Hulu.
An hour - long retrospective special, Living Single: The Reunion Special, aired on TV One on September 22, 2008. Coles, Henton, Fields, Carson and Alexander reunited to share fond memories with the fans. Queen Latifah and Mel Jackson were unavailable to participate.
The special featured clips and revealing secrets of the cast from the show 's five - year run.
In January 2017, Queen Latifah reported that a revival of "Living Single '' is in the works with the original cast and that she plans to serve as producer.
Erika Alexander
Queen Latifah
Kim Coles
T.C. Carson
John Henton
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who is entitled to a full military funeral | Military funeral - wikipedia
A military funeral is a memorial or burial rite given by a country 's military for a soldier, sailor, marine or airman who died in battle, a veteran, or other prominent military figures or heads of state. A military funeral may feature guards of honor, the firing of volley shots as a salute, drumming and other military elements, with a flag draping over the coffin.
Canadian military funerals involve many rituals seen in other parts of the world. The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery use a 25 - pounder gun and limber as the funeral vehicle. Muffled drums accompany the graveside processional. The deceased 's headdress, insignia and medals are borne on a velvet cushion into the funeral service. Volleys are fired over the grave when the body is interred. Countries in the Commonwealth duplicate the British military drill and ceremony. The Canadian funeral described above typifies the funerary service. The bugle tune Last Post is played as the body is interred.
In Chilean military funerals, due to its Prussian military tradition, the German song "Ich hatt ' einen Kameraden '' is sung in its Spanish version ("Yo tenía un camarada ''). The casket may or may not be horse - drawn on a caisson. A bugler sounds the final honors during interment.
When the coffin enters the tomb, a fireteam executes a salvo. If for a general or flag officer, the 1st Artillery Regiment "Tacna '' fires a three - volley gun salute.
In Germany, Ludwig Uhland 's song "Ich hatt ' einen Kameraden '' is an integral part of a military funeral. It is played when the coffin is lowered into the grave, military personnel will perform a salute.
In Indonesia, military funerals are generally given only military members or former guerrillas, Konfrontasi and Trikora Operation Soldiers, especially those holding the Bintang Gerilya (Star of the Guerrilla). Exceptional politicians and Ministers have the option for such a funeral, but most opt for a more intimate religious one. Music is not performed as it is not part of Indonesian military tradition, save only during the final honors. A 21 - gun volley salute is the norm by seven soldiers - occasionally a mixture of armed forces personnel dependent on their career, Honour drill team is platoon - size formation and the larger the platoon or half company, the more illustrious the departed. A good example of an Indonesian military burial is that of the late president Suharto - (although obvious major differences exist). Prayers are led by representatives of the person 's religious faith. Similar traditions also exist in the Indonesian National Police.
See here: Indonesian Military Funeral Video Sample
In Italy the members of the Armed Forces who died in the line of duty are granted a state funeral by decree of the Prime Minister. So the funeral follows the protocol of a state funeral, and in particular the six officers in high uniform who carry the coffin are members of the same Armed Force of the departed.
In Poland, the last fragment of Władysław Tarnowski 's song Śpij, kolego ("Sleep, friend ''), a portion of the larger composition Jak to na wojence ładnie (the title has no precise English translation, but it is roughly "how nice it is in war '', with a diminutive form conveying a sense of ironic solidarity) is an integral part of a military funeral, played by a trumpeter. It is also played during state ceremonies. Also part of it is a three volley salute (salwa honorowa) with the firing party consisting of an armed platoon or company.
In Spain, the formed troops sing "La muerte no es el final '': Death is not the End during funeral ceremonies and in all military ceremonies, when the fallen are being honored. The Spanish Legion has an exception: the regimental hymn Novio de la Muerte (Bridegroom of Death) is played in full instead during occasions that the Legion attends.
The British Army carries reversed arms at military funerals. The Last Post and Rouse or Reveille are sounded at the right moment during the rite.
In the United States, the United States Army Military District of Washington (MDW) is responsible for providing military funerals. "Honoring Those Who Served '' is the title of the program for instituting a dignified military funeral with full honors to the nation 's veterans.
As of January 1, 2000, Section 578 of Public Law 106 - 65 of the National Defense Authorization Act mandates that the United States Armed Forces shall provide the rendering of honors in a military funeral for any eligible veteran if requested by his or her family. As mandated by federal law, an honor guard detail for the burial of an eligible veteran shall consist of no fewer than two members of the Armed Forces. One member of the detail shall be a representative of the parent armed service of the deceased veteran. The honor guard detail will, at a minimum, perform a ceremony that includes the folding and presenting of the flag of the United States to the next of kin and the playing of Taps which will be played by a lone bugler, if available, or by audio recording. Today, there are so few buglers available that the United States Armed Forces often can not provide one. However, federal law allows Reserve and National Guard units to assist with funeral honors duty when necessary. On the day of the burial or interment, the U.S. Flag is lowered to half - staff.
The military funeral of U.S. Navy Rear Admiral Henry H. Bell held in Hiogo, Japan on January 14, 1868.
The coffin of Lieutenant Reginald Warneford being carried to his burial plot in Brompton Cemetery by members of the Royal Naval Division on June 21, 1915.
The military funeral of Manfred von Richthofen is presided by officers of the No. 3 Squadron RAAF who carry his coffin in Bertangles Cemetery, France on April 22, 1918.
Luftwaffe Commander - in - Chief Hermann Göring giving a speech at the military funeral of Night fighter ace Lieutenant Colonel Helmut Lent, winner of the Oak Leaves with Swords and Diamonds to the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross, October 1944.
Members of the Presidential Salute Guns Battery of the 3rd United States Infantry Regiment "The Old Guard '' render a gun salute using three - inch anti-tank guns (modified to 75mm caliber) during a military funeral held at Arlington National Cemetery on August 10, 1998.
A casket team from the 1st Special Forces Group carry the flag - draped casket of Sergeant 1st Class Nathan R. Chapman on January 8, 2002 at Seattle - Tacoma International Airport.
A casket team from the United States Navy fold the flag covering the remains of NASA Astronaut and U.S. Navy Captain Laurel Blair Salton Clark, a crew member of the Space Shuttle Columbia who perished with the rest of her crewmates during the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003.
Military funeral procession for World War II soldier and Victoria Cross recipient Ernest ("Smokey '') Smith in Vancouver, Canada on August 13, 2005.
The casket of Caspar Weinberger, 15th United States Secretary of Defense, in a ceremonial funeral procession en route to its final resting place in Arlington National Cemetery on April 4, 2006.
A casket team from the 3rd United States Infantry Regiment "The Old Guard '' transports the remains of Retired Chief Warrant Officer Michael J. Novosel during a ceremonial funeral procession at Arlington National Cemetery where he was laid to rest on April 13, 2006.
The Ceremonial Unit assigned to Naval Air Station Lemoore seen rendering honors at a military funeral at San Joaquin Valley National Cemetery in Gustine, California.
Escort platoons march in the United States Naval Academy Cemetery as part of the ceremonial funeral procession for former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Admiral William J. Crowe in 2007.
A casket team carries Major Douglas A. Zembiec, former commander of E Company, 2nd Battalion, 1st Marine Regiment from the Naval Academy Chapel in Annapolis, Maryland following a funeral service held in his honor.
A Canadian honor guard carries the remains of Pte. Sebastien Courcy during a sundown ramp ceremony at Kandahar Air Field, Afghanistan on July 17, 2009.
Former Brazilian President Lula during the funeral of MINUSTAH 's Commander.
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when did nike start the just do it campaign | Just Do It - wikipedia
Just Do It (stylized as JUST DO IT.) is a trademark of shoe company Nike, and one of the core components of Nike 's brand. The slogan was coined in 1988 at an advertising agency meeting. The founder of Wieden + Kennedy agency, Dan Wieden credits the inspiration for his "Just Do It '' Nike slogan to Gary Gilmore 's last words: "Let 's do it. '' The "Just Do It '' campaign allowed Nike to further increase its share of the North American domestic sport - shoe business from 18 % to 43 %, (from $877 million to $9.2 billion in worldwide sales) from 1988 to 1998. In many Nike - related situations, "Just Do It '' appears alongside the Nike logo, known as the Swoosh.
The "Just Do It '' campaign launched in 1988 was highly successful with the Age selecting the campaign as one of the top two taglines of the 20th century with it being both "universal and intensely personal ''. While Reebok was directing their campaign at aerobics during the fitness craze of the 1980s, Nike responded with "a tough, take no prisoners ad campaign ''. One of the campaign 's objectives was to target all Americans regardless of age, gender or physical fitness level which led to Nike becoming worn as a fashion statement, not just as fitness gear (Nearly 80 % of Nike 's running shoes are not worn for their intended purpose). Nike 's fundamental objective was to represent sneakers as a fashion statement to consumers, especially females, teens and males aged 18 -- 40.
Throughout the campaign Nike enlisted numerous notable athletes in order to attract customers and promote the image of Nike as being reliable to not only everyday customers but professional athletes. Athletes such as football stars Ronaldinho and Wayne Rooney, basketball stars Michael Jordan, and Kobe Bryant and tennis stars Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal were used in their advertisements, including a range of people from varying ethnicities and races.
Nike was faced with criticism by Ernst & Young surrounding the campaign, with the pay of elite athletes compared to those in overseas shoe factories, and for violating the minimum wage in their operations in Vietnam.
The "Just Do It '' campaign went out to a range of media outlets including merchandise, outdoor billboards, print media, and graffiti art.
The campaign embodied Nike 's image as an innovative American icon associated with success through the combination of professional athletes and motivational slogans emphasizing sportsmanship and health. This led to customers associating their purchases with the prospect of achieving greatness.
In 2015, actor Shia LaBeouf used this phrase in LaBeouf, Rönkkö & Turner 's # INTRODUCTIONS video, which later become an Internet meme.
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who is carrying the flag for the united states | List of flag bearers for the United States at the Olympics - wikipedia
This is a list of flag bearers who have represented United States at the Olympics. Flag bearers carry the national flag of their country at the opening ceremony and closing ceremony of the Olympic Games. Men and women from across the country and from a variety of sports have carried the flag at both the Summer Olympic Games and the Winter Olympic Games. More than half of those representing the teams at the Summer Olympics are track or field athletes, though that sport does account for the most competitors at the Games.
James Bickford, Norman Armitage, and Pat McDonald have all performed the duty twice. Several athletes born in other countries have carried the flag, including those from Norway, Ireland, Sudan, Germany, and Czechoslovakia.
US team manager Matthew Halpin was the first to carry the flag at the 1906 Intercalated Games, though that event is no longer considered by the International Olympic Committee to be part of Olympic history. Ralph Rose became the first competitor to have the honor when he led the team out at the 1908 Summer Games, the first official Olympic Games to feature a parade of nations. The first woman to represent the United States was fencer Janice Romary in 1968, her sixth consecutive Summer Olympics. Taffy Abel was the first person to represent the United States at the Winter Olympics when he was chosen to carry the flag at the inaugural Games in Chamonix in 1924.
Irish - born Pat McDonald, one of the "Irish Whales '', became the first athlete to be selected as the flag bearer twice when he performed his second duty in 1924. In 1956 two other athletes led the U.S. team out for a second time, James Bickford at the Winter Olympics and Norman Armitage at the Summer Games.
The flag bearers are chosen by a vote of the team captains of each sport.
Athletes view their selection of flag bearer as a great honour:
"It 's more than a dream. "I keep saying, I 'm not sure if this is true or not true. I 'm making the team and now I 'm the first guy coming to the stadium and the whole world will be watching me carry the flag. There are no words to describe it. '' "I feel happy, honored. I 'm feeling so blessed to get an opportunity to present the United States of America, to present the United States flag in front of my team. ''
"I 'm still shaking. I was incredibly surprised when Brian (Martin) told me, and I 'm still trying to process it all. To be the person leading the U.S. team into the opening ceremony is just such a great honor. ''
Olympic protocol is that the flag bearer dips their flag to the head of state as part of the parade. It has become tradition that the U.S. flag is not dipped, though the origins of this are surrounded by legend and are widely misreported:
"The motives for the original refusal, the identity of the flag - bearer and the truth behind the quotation and other issues remain much murkier in the historical record than legend - tellers portray... The evolution of this flag mythology reveals a great deal about the complex strains of early 20th century American nationalism. ''
The parade of nations was introduced at the 1906 Intercalated Games with Matthew Halpin as the U.S. flag bearer. Halpin gladly dipped the flag, noting that when he did so King George I of Greece "staked me to a smile that made me feel like I belonged ''. The controversy began at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London where flag bearers were expected to dip the flag to Edward VII on two occasions. Research by the International Society of Olympic Historians concluded that the flag bearer was Ralph Rose and that he might not have dipped the flag to the British King on one of those occasions. Martin Sheridan is often attributed with the explanation of this supposed disrespect by stating at the time "This flag dips to no earthly king '' but no evidence of this can be found. Modern versions of the story describe how the Stars and Stripes have never been dipped during the parade of nations since 1908 but this is apocryphal. It has been dipped on three occasions since then: 1912, 1924, and 1932.
The 1932 winter games were held in Lake Placid and, though head of state President Herbert Hoover would normally have greeted the parade of nations, the duty was passed to New York governor Franklin Roosevelt. This was the last time that the flag was dipped at the Olympics as political forces intervened thereafter. The head of state awaiting the athletes at the 1936 Summer Games was Adolf Hitler, to whom the U.S. refused to lower their flag. The 1940 Olympics were cancelled due to the onset of World War II and, in 1942, the United States Congress introduced the United States Flag Code which stated: "That no disrespect should be given to the flag of the United States of America, the flag should not be dipped to any person or thing. '' However, since the Flag Code is legally unenforceable, it appears to be merely codified tradition.
Several foreign - born athletes have represented the United States at the opening ceremonies. Irishman Pat McDonald was the first in 1920 and he, at the age of 42, became the oldest Olympic track & field champion. Though he did not compete, he also went on to lead the U.S. team at the following Summer Olympics.
Rolf Monsen, a multi-discipline Winter sports athlete born in Oslo, Norway, competed as an American in 1928 and 1932. He qualified for the 1936 Games and though an injury prevented him from taking part, he was still chosen to carry the flag.
The American team at the 1936 Summer Games were led by Berlin - born, highly regarded gymnast Al Jochim.
Olga Fikotová was a discus - thrower at the 1956 Summer Olympics and the only athlete to win a gold medal for her home country Czechoslovakia in that year. She began a much - publicised romance with American athlete Harold Connolly, much to the frustration of the Communist authorities. Fikotová was accused of being a traitor and the Czechoslovak Olympic Committee banned her from representing her country again. Now living in the U.S., she would go on to compete for her adopted country in the next four Summer Games. Despite not being able to replicate her success, Fikotová was chosen to lead the American team at the 1972 Games in Munich, West Germany.
Lopez Lomong carried the flag at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China and became the fifth flag bearer to be born outside the United States. As a teenager in war - torn Sudan, Lomong was one of several thousand boys brought to America as a refugee in 2001. His selection came during a time when the U.S. and other Western countries had been critical of the Chinese government 's close links with Sudan, a country accused of human rights violations and war crimes.
Godfrey Dewey, son of Melvil Dewey the inventor of Dewey Decimal Classification, was the president of the Lake Placid Organizing Committee and was largely responsible for the successful candidature of Lake Placid for the 1932 Winter Olympics. In addition to his role as the U.S. ski team manager he was chosen as the flag bearer for the 1928 Games in St. Moritz, Switzerland.
List of flag bearers:
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where was the movie jingle all the way filmed | Jingle All the Way - wikipedia
Jingle All the Way is a 1996 American Christmas comedy film directed by Brian Levant and starring Arnold Schwarzenegger and Sinbad, with Phil Hartman, Rita Wilson, Jake Lloyd, James Belushi and Robert Conrad. The plot focuses on two rival fathers, workaholic Howard Langston (Schwarzenegger) and stressed out postal worker Myron Larabee (Sinbad), both desperately trying to get a Turbo - Man action figure for their respective sons on a last minute shopping spree on Christmas Eve.
Inspired by real - life Christmas toy sell - outs for products such as the Cabbage Patch Kids and Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, the film was written by Randy Kornfield. Producer Chris Columbus rewrote the script, adding in elements of satire about the commercialization of Christmas, and the project was picked up by 20th Century Fox. Delays on Fox 's reboot of Planet of the Apes allowed Schwarzenegger to come on board the film, while Columbus opted to cast Sinbad ahead of Joe Pesci as Myron. Jingle All the Way was set and filmed in the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and Saint Paul at a variety of locations, including the Mall of America. After five weeks filming, production moved to California where scenes such as the end parade were shot. The film 's swift production meant merchandising was limited to a replica of the Turbo - Man action figure used in the film.
Although some critics felt the film was good family entertainment, it was met with a broadly negative response. Much criticism was attached to the film 's script, its focus on the commercialism of Christmas, Levant 's direction and Schwarzenegger 's performance. Nevertheless, it proved a success at the box office, generating $129 million worldwide, and it receives regular broadcasts on television during the Christmas season. In 2001, Fox was ordered to pay $19 million to Murray Hill Publishing for stealing the idea for the film; the verdict was overturned three years later.
Jingle All the Way is also Sinbad and Hartman 's third collaboration after Coneheads (1993) and Houseguest (1995).
Howard Langston is a workaholic mattress salesman with no time for his wife, Liz, and his 9 - year - old son, Jamie -- especially when compared to next door "superdad '' divorcee, Ted Maltin, who continually puts Howard in a bad light. After missing Jamie 's karate class graduation, Howard resolves to redeem himself by fulfilling Jamie 's ultimate Christmas wish: getting an action figure toy of Turbo - Man, a wildly popular TV superhero. On Christmas Eve, Howard sets out to buy a Turbo - Man doll at a store, telling Liz that he already has one at work that he must retrieve.
Along the way, Howard meets Myron Larabee, a postal worker dad with a rival ambition, and the two soon become bitter competitors in their race for the action figure. During his search, Howard runs his car into the parked police motorcycle of Officer Hummel, who earlier pulled him over and gave him a ticket. After several failed attempts to find the toy in a store, Howard attempts to buy a Turbo - Man from a Mall of America Santa, who is actually the leader of a band of counterfeit toy makers. When he accuses the Santa of undermining the values of Christmas (having been ripped off and sold a defective toy that falls apart the moment he opened the package), Howard ends up in a brawl with the gang. He narrowly escapes when the police raid their warehouse and gets out by posing as an undercover detective using a toy badge.
Later, Howard arrives at Mickey 's Diner and uses their phone to call home. As he tried to get a hold of Liz, he unintentionally scolds Jamie on the phone over Turbo - Man. Jamie, in turn, rebukes his father about how he never keeps his promises, and hangs up. Liz overhears the argument and becomes disappointed in her husband. Howard then encounters Myron at the diner. As they sat down and talk, Myron tells Howard about the time when his father was unable to get him a Johnny Seven OMA toy on Christmas. They hear on the KQRS radio station that there is a trivia competition in which the winner will receive a Turbo - Man doll. They rush to the studio, with Howard breaking the door to the recording booth, under the impression that the DJ has a Turbo - Man doll in the studio. After Myron threatens to blow up the studio with a package he claims is a mail bomb, he and Howard find out that whoever wins the competition will get a doll "eventually. '' The package is revealed to be a music box. The police, led by Officer Hummell, arrive in the studio, and Myron bluffs the police into backing off by threatening them with another "mail bomb, '' allowing him and Howard to escape. Hummell confidently rips open the package and it explodes, leaving his face covered in soot.
After his car is stripped by thieves, Howard is ultimately forced to return home empty - handed. Outside his home, he sees Ted in his house placing the star on his tree. In anger, Howard breaks into Ted 's house and steals the Turbo - Man doll from under his tree. He realizes that he is stealing from a child and changes his mind. He is attacked by Ted 's pet reindeer, accidentally setting one of Ted 's decorations on fire, and kicking it out the window trying to stamp it out, drawing the attention of Ted and Liz. Liz, having had enough, leaves with Jamie, Ted, and his son Johnny to the local Christmas parade; Howard follows, aiming to make amends.
At the parade, Ted makes a pass at Liz and she hits him with a thermos of eggnog. Howard witnesses Ted 's actions from a distance, and on his way to confront him, he runs into Officer Hummel, spilling his hot coffee all over him. Howard runs and Hummell chases him, and Howard enters a room where he is mistaken as the replacement actor for Turbo - Man. As the "real '' Turbo - Man, he presents the coveted limited - edition Turbo - Man doll to his son. Before he recognizes his father, Jamie is chased by Myron, who has dressed as Turbo - Man 's arch enemy Dementor (having caught, tied up and gagged the real actor). As the crowd assumes this is all part of the show, Howard attempts to rescue his son by utilizing the Turbo - Man suit 's equipment.
Howard catches Jamie as he falls from a roof and reveals himself to his son. Officer Hummell gives the doll to Jamie, then asks Howard (as Turbo - Man) to join the police force, saluting him. Howard turns and reveals himself and Hummell is dumbfounded, as Howard apologizes for all the trouble. Myron is arrested while ranting about having to explain his failure to get the Turbo - Man toy for his son. Jamie decides to give the doll to him, telling Howard that he has "the real Turbo - Man at home. ''
During the after - credits scene, It is snowing outside. Howard puts the star on the top of his tree and celebrates Christmas with Jamie and Liz. Liz commends Howard for everything he 's done just to make Jamie happy, and then asks Howard what he got her for Christmas. Howard stares in shock at the camera before the fadeout.
The film draws inspiration from the high demand for Christmas toys such as the Cabbage Patch Kids and Mighty Morphin Power Rangers in the late 1980s and early 1990s, which often led to intense searching and occasional violence amongst shoppers. Randy Kornfield wrote the film 's original screenplay after witnessing his in - laws go to a Santa Monica toy store at dawn in order to get his son a Power Ranger. While admitting to missing the clamor for the Cabbage Patch Kids and Power Rangers, producer Chris Columbus experienced a similar situation in 1995 when he attempted to obtain a Buzz Lightyear action figure from the film Toy Story, released that year. As a result, he rewrote Kornfield 's script, which was accepted by 20th Century Fox. Columbus was always "attracted to the dark side of the happiest holiday of the year '', so wrote elements of the film as a satire of the commercialization of Christmas. Brian Levant was hired to direct the film. Columbus said Levant "underst (ood) the humor in the material '' and "was very animated and excited, and he had a vision of what he wanted to do ''. Levant said "The story that was important to me was between the father and son... it 's a story about love, and a father 's journey to deliver it in the form of a Turbo Man doll. The fact that I got to design a toy line and do the commercials and make pajamas and comic books was fun for me as a filmmaker. But at its root, the movie 's about something really sweet. It 's about love and building a better family. I think that 's consistent with everything I 've done. ''
Arnold Schwarzenegger was quickly cast. He became available in February 1996 after Fox 's remake of Planet of the Apes was held up again; Columbus also exited that project to work on Jingle All the Way. The film marks Schwarzenegger 's fourth appearance as the lead in a comedy film, following Twins (1988), Kindergarten Cop (1990) and Junior (1994). Schwarzenegger was paid a reported $20 million for the role. He enjoyed the film, having experienced last - minute Christmas shopping himself, and was attracted to playing an "ordinary '' character in a family film. Columbus initially wanted Joe Pesci to play Myron. Comedian Sinbad was chosen instead, partly due to his similar height and size to Schwarzenegger. Sinbad was suggested for the part by Schwarzenegger 's agent, but the producers felt he was unsuited to the role of a villain as it could harm his clean, family - oriented comedy act and reputation, although Sinbad felt the character would generate the audience 's sympathy rather than hate. Furthermore, he missed the audition due to his appearance with First Lady Hillary Clinton and musician Sheryl Crow on the USO tour of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but Columbus waited for him to return to allow him to audition and, although Sinbad felt he had "messed '' it up, he was given the part. He improvised the majority of his lines in the film; Schwarzenegger also improvised many of his responses in his conversations with Sinbad 's character.
Filming took place in Minnesota for five weeks from April 15, 1996; at the time, it was the largest film production to ever take place in the state. Jingle All the Way was set and filmed in the Twin Cities metropolitan area of Minnesota at locations such as Bloomington 's Mall of America, Mickey 's Diner, downtown Minneapolis, Linden Hills, residential areas of Edina and primarily downtown Saint Paul. Unused shops in the Seventh Place Mall area were redecorated to resemble Christmas decorated stores, while the Energy Park Studios were used for much of the filming and the Christmas lights stayed up at Rice Park for use in the film. The Mall of America and the state 's "semi-wintry weather '' proved attractive for the studio. Although Schwarzenegger stated that the locals were "well - behaved '' and "cooperative '', Levant often found filming "impossible '' due to the scale and noise of the crowds who came to watch production, especially in the Mall of America, but overall found the locals to be "respectful '' and "lovely people. '' Levant spent several months in the area before filming in order to prepare. The film uses artistic license by treating Minneapolis and Saint Paul as one city, as this was logistically easier; the police are labeled "Twin Cities Police '' in the film. Additionally, the city 's Holidazzle Parade is renamed the Wintertainment Parade and takes place on 2nd Avenue during the day, rather than Nicollet Mall at night. Levant wanted to film the parade at night but was overruled for practical reasons.
The parade was filmed at Universal Studios Hollywood in California on the New York Street set, due to safety concerns. The set was designed to resemble 2nd Avenue; the parade was shot from above by helicopters and stitched into matte shots of the real - life street. It took three weeks to film, with 1,500 extras being used in the scene, along with three custom designed floats. Other parts of the film to be shot in Los Angeles, California included store interiors, and the warehouse fight scene between Howard and the criminal Santas, for which a Pasadena furniture warehouse was used. Turbo - Man was created and designed for the film. This meant the commercials and scenes from the Turbo - Man TV series were all shot by Levant, while all of the Turbo - Man merchandise, packaging and props shown in the film were custom made one - offs and designed to look "authentic, as if they all sprang from the same well. '' Along with Columbus and Levant, production designer Leslie McDonald and character designer Tim Flattery crafted Turbo - Man, Booster and Dementor and helped make the full - size Turbo - Man suit for the film 's climax. Principal production finished in August; Columbus "fine - tun (ed) the picture until the last possible minute, '' using multiple test audiences "to see where the big laughs actually lie. ''
TVT Records released the film 's soundtrack album on Audio CD on November 26, 1996. It features only two of composer David Newman 's pieces from Jingle All the Way, but features many of the songs by other artists included in the film, as well as other Christmas songs and new tracks by the Brian Setzer Orchestra. Intrada Music Group released a Special Collection limited edition of Newman 's full 23 - track score on November 3, 2008.
As Schwarzenegger only signed on for the film in February and the film was shot so quickly, only six and a half months were available for merchandising, instead of the ideal year. As such, merchandising was limited to a 13.5 inch replica $25 Talking Turbo - Man action figure and the West Coast exclusive Turbo - Man Time Racer vehicle, while no tie - in promotions could be secured. Despite this, several critics wrote that the film was only being made in order to sell the toy. Columbus dismissed this notion, stating that with only roughly 200,000 Turbo - Man toys being made, the merchandising was far less than the year 's other releases, such as Space Jam and 101 Dalmatians. The film 's release coincided with the Tickle Me Elmo craze, in which high demand for the doll during the 1996 Christmas season lead to store mobbing similar to that depicted for Turbo - Man.
The world premiere was held on November 16, 1996 at the Mall of America in Bloomington where parts of the film were shot. A day of events was held to celebrate the film 's release and Schwarzenegger donated memorabilia from the film to the Mall 's Planet Hollywood. Opening on November 22 in 2,401, Jingle All the Way made $12.1 million in its first weekend, opening at # 4 behind Star Trek: First Contact, Space Jam and Ransom; it went on to gross $129 million worldwide, recouping its $75 million budget. The film was released on VHS in October 1997, and in November 1998 it was released on DVD. It was rereleased on DVD in December 2004, followed by an extended director 's cut in October 2007, known as the "Family Fun Edition ''. It contained several minutes of extra footage, as well as other DVD extras such as a behind the scenes featurette. In December of the following year, the Family Fun Edition was released on Blu - ray Disc. The film was released in the United Kingdom on December 6, 1996, and topped the country 's box office that weekend.
The film received a 16 % approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes, where it has 35 negative reviews out of 42 counted. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale. Emanuel Levy felt the film "highly formulaic '' and criticized Levant 's direction as little more advanced than a television sitcom. Although he felt Hartman, Wilson and Conrad were not given much opportunity to shine due to the script, he opined that "Schwarzenegger has developed a light comic delivery, punctuated occasionally by an ironic one - liner, '' while "Sinbad has good moments ''. Neil Jeffries of Empire disagreed, feeling Schwarzenegger to be "wooden '' and Sinbad to be "trying desperately to be funnier than his hat '' but praised Lloyd as the "saving grace '' of the film.
The New York Times critic Janet Maslin felt the film lacked any real plot, failed in its attempt at satire, should have included Myron 's only mentioned son and "mostly wasted '' Hartman, while Levant 's direction was "listless ''. Similarly, the BBC 's Neil Smith criticized the film 's script, its focus on the commercialization of Christmas, as well as Schwarzenegger 's performance which shows "the comic timing of a dead moose, '' but singled out Hartman for praise. Chicago Tribune critic Michael Wilmington panned the film, wondering why the characters (primarily Howard) acted so illogically: "Howard Langston is supposed to be a successful mattress manufacturer, but the movie paints him as a hot - tempered buffoon without a sensible idea in his head. '' Jack Garner of USA Today condemned the film, finding it more "cynical '' than satirical, stating "this painfully bad movie has been inspired strictly by the potential jingle of cash registers. '' He wrote of Levant 's directorial failure as he "offers no... sense of comic timing, '' while "pauses in the midst of much of the dialogue are downright painful. '' Trevor Johnston suggested that the film "seems to mark a point of decline in the Schwarzenegger career arc '' and the anti-consumerism message largely failed, with "Jim Belushi 's corrupt mall Santa with his stolen - goods warehouse... provid (ing) the film 's sole flash of dark humour. ''
IGN 's Mike Drucker praised its subject matter as "one of the few holiday movies to directly deal with the commercialization of Christmas '' although felt the last twenty minutes of the film let it down, as the first hour or so had "some family entertainment '' value if taken with a "grain of salt ''. He concluded the film was "a member of the so - corny - its - good genre, '' while "Arnold delivers plenty of one - liners ripe for sound board crank callers. '' Jamie Malanowski of The New York Times praised the film 's satirical premise but felt it was "full of unrealized potential '' because "the filmmakers (wrongly) equate mayhem with humor. '' Roger Ebert gave the film two - and - a-half stars, writing that he "liked a lot of the movie '', which he thought had "energy '' and humor which would have mass audience appeal. He was, though, disappointed by "its relentlessly materialistic view of Christmas, and by the choice to go with action and (mild) violence over dialogue and plot. '' Kevin Carr of 7M Pictures concluded that while the film is not very good, as a form of family entertainment it is "surprisingly fun. ''
Brian Levant was nominated for the Razzie Award for Worst Director, but lost to Andrew Bergman for Striptease; Sinbad, however, won the Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favorite Supporting Actor in a Family film.
In 1998, Murray Hill Publishing sued 20th Century Fox for $150,000, claiming that the idea for the film was stolen from a screenplay they had purchased from high school teacher Brian Webster entitled Could This Be Christmas?. They said the script had 36 similarities with Jingle All the Way, including the plot, dialogue and character names. Murray Hill President Bob Laurel bought the script from Webster in 1993, and sent it to Fox and other studios in 1994 but received no response and claimed the idea was copied by Kornfield, who was Fox 's script reader. In 2001, Fox were found guilty of stealing the idea and ordered to pay $19 million ($15 million in damages and $4 million in legal costs) to Murray Hill, with Webster to receive a portion. Laurel died a few months after the verdict, before receiving any of the money. On appeal, the damages figure was lowered to $1.5 million, before the verdict itself was quashed in 2004 after a judge decided the idea was not stolen, as Fox had bought Kornfield 's screenplay before he or anybody else at Fox had read Could This Be Christmas?.
A stand - alone sequel, Jingle All the Way 2, was released straight - to - DVD in December 2014. Directed by Alex Zamm and produced by WWE Studios and 20th Century Fox, the film has a similar plot to the original, but is otherwise not connected and none of the original cast or characters returned. The lead roles were instead played by Larry the Cable Guy and Santino Marella.
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list of most home runs in a career | List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders - wikipedia
This is a list of the top 300 Major League Baseball leaders in home runs hit. In the sport of baseball, a home run is a hit in which the batter scores by circling all the bases and reaching home plate in one play, without the benefit of a fielding error. This can be accomplished either by hitting the ball out of play while it is still in fair territory (a conventional home run), or by an inside - the - park home run.
Barry Bonds holds the Major League Baseball home run record with 762. He passed Hank Aaron, who is currently second with 755, on August 7, 2007. The only other player to have hit 700 or more is Babe Ruth with 714. Alex Rodriguez (696), Willie Mays (660), Albert Pujols (633), Ken Griffey, Jr. (630), Jim Thome (612), and Sammy Sosa (609) are the only other players to have hit 600 or more.
Listed are all Major League Baseball players with 215 or more home runs hit during an official regular season (i.e., excluding playoffs or exhibition games). Players in bold face are active as of the 2018 Major League Baseball season (including free agents), with the number in parentheses designating the number of home runs they have hit during the 2018 season. The last change in the cutoff for the top 300 occurred on September 30, 2017, when Carlos González hit his 215th career home run, displacing Jeff Conine and José Guillén.
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what was the first sentence in the opening crawl of star wars in 1977 | Star Wars opening crawl - wikipedia
The opening crawl is the signature device of every numbered film of the Star Wars series, an American epic space opera franchise created by George Lucas. It opens with the static blue text, "A long time ago in a galaxy far, far away... '', followed by the Star Wars logo and the crawl text, which describes the backstory and context of the film. The visuals are accompanied by the "Main Title Theme '', composed and conducted by John Williams.
The sequence has been featured in every live - action Star Wars film produced by Lucasfilm with the exception of Rogue One. Although it retains the basic elements, it has significantly evolved throughout the series. It is one of the most immediately recognizable elements of the franchise and has been frequently parodied.
Each film opens with the static blue text, "A long time ago in a galaxy far, far away... '', followed by the Star Wars logo shrinking in front of a field of stars. Initially the logo 's extremities are beyond the edge of the frame. While the logo is retreating, the "crawl '' text begins, starting with the film 's episode number and subtitle (with the exception of the original release of Star Wars -- see below), and followed by a three - paragraph prologue to the film. The text scrolls up and away from the bottom of the screen towards a vanishing point above the top of the frame in a perspective projection. Each version of the opening crawl ends with a four - dot ellipsis, except for Return of the Jedi which has a three - dot ellipsis. When the text has nearly reached the vanishing point, it fades out, the camera tilts down (or, in the case of Episode II: Attack of the Clones, up), and the film begins.
Two typefaces are used in the text, both in yellow: News Gothic for the episode number and main body of the text, and Univers Ultra Condensed Light for the title of the film. Three subtle exceptions were made to Star Wars, The Empire Strikes Back and The Force Awakens, as the titles of the films were presented in News Gothic. Several words are in all - capital letters to stress their importance: "DEATH STAR '' in Star Wars, "GALACTIC EMPIRE '' in Return of the Jedi, "DROID ARMY '', "ARMY OF THE REPUBLIC '' in Attack of the Clones, and "FIRST ORDER '', "REPUBLIC '' and "RESISTANCE '' in The Force Awakens. Each line of the text spans the width of the screen when it enters from the bottom. In the "fullscreen '' (4: 3 aspect ratio for standard - definition television) versions of the films, the full lines of text are cut off on the sides until they have scrolled further onto the screen. As a result, by the time the full lines are visible, the text is much smaller and harder to read. In addition, the viewer also has less time to read it.
Lucas has stated that the opening crawl was inspired by the opening crawls used at the beginning of each episode of the original Flash Gordon and Buck Rogers film serials, which were the inspiration for Lucas to write much of the Star Wars saga. The development of the opening crawl came about as part of a collaboration between Lucas and the seasoned film title designer Dan Perri. In 1976, Lucas invited Perri to Industrial Light & Magic, Lucasfilm 's post-production operation at Van Nuys, California. Perri, who had previously worked on Close Encounters of the Third Kind and The Exorcist, suggested that they take inspiration from the 1939 Cecil B. DeMille film, Union Pacific, whose opening credits are shown distorted by a sharp perspective and rolling along a railroad track towards a distant vanishing point. Lucas was keen on the idea and Perri developed sketches and prototype mechanical artwork. One of the earliest iterations of the opening crawl is evidenced in storyboards drawn by the production artist Alex Tavoularis, depicting the title "THE STAR WARS '' as a three - dimensional logo.
Perri also designed a logotype, consisting of block - capital letters filled with stars and skewed towards a vanishing point to follow the same perspective as the opening crawl. Lucas eventually rejected Perri 's logo due to readability problems, turning instead to the graphic designer Suzy Rice, an art director at the Los Angeles advertising agency Seiniger Advertising. Lucas had commissioned Rice to design a promotional brochure that was to be distributed to cinema theatre owners. He instructed Rice to produce a logo that would intimidate the viewer, and he reportedly asked for the logo to appear "very fascist '' in style. Rice, inspired by historical German typography, produced a bold logotype using an outlined, modified Helvetica Black. After some feedback from Lucas, Rice decided to join the S and T of STAR and the R and S of WARS. Lucas 's producer, Gary Kurtz, found that Rice 's logo worked well in the opening title; the logo was modified further to flatten the pointed tips on the letter W before it was inserted into the final cut. While Perri 's skewed logo did not appear on - screen, it was used widely on pre-release print advertising, and it featured prominently on film posters promoting the release of Star Wars on cinema billboards in 1977 (notably Tom Jung 's Style ' A ' poster, the Style ' B ' poster by the Brothers Hildebrandt and Tom Chantrell 's Style ' C ' poster).
In a 2005 interview, George Lucas described how the final phrasing of the text for Star Wars came about. "The crawl is such a hard thing because you have to be careful that you 're not using too many words that people do n't understand. It 's like a poem. I showed the very first crawl to a bunch of friends of mine in the 1970s. It went on for six paragraphs with four sentences each. Brian De Palma was there... ''. De Palma helped to edit the text into the form used in the film.
According to Dennis Muren, who worked on the six films, crawls on the original trilogy films were accomplished by filming physical models laid out on the floor. The models were approximately 60 cm (2 ') wide and 1.80 m (6 ') long. The crawl effect was accomplished by the camera moving longitudinally along the model. It was difficult and time - consuming to achieve a smooth scrolling effect. Furthermore, different versions in other languages (such as German, French and Spanish) were produced by Industrial Light & Magic.
With the advent of computer - generated graphics, the crawls for the prequel trilogy were achieved much more quickly. The 2004 DVD special edition versions of the original trilogy were later updated with computer - generated crawls as part of their restoration and enhancement.
Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy stated that the 2016 spin - off film Rogue One would "more than likely '' eschew certain traditional elements of the franchise, including the crawl, in an effort to distinguish it from the main film series. In fact, Rogue One retains "A long time ago, in a galaxy far, far, away... '', but then immediately cuts to the opening scene with no crawl. At the end of the opening scene, the title "ROGUE ONE '' recedes against a star field, like the "STAR WARS '' title of the main series, then there is a cut to the next scene.
The opening crawl in the first Star Wars film is very different from Lucas ' original intention. The original text, used in the rough cut he showed to friends and studio executives in February 1977, appears in the Marvel Comics adaptation of the film. When originally released in May 1977, the first film was simply titled Star Wars, as 20th Century Fox forbade Lucas to use a subtitle because it could be confusing, since there had been no other Star Wars movies prior to 1977. In addition, it was not certain if the film would be followed with a sequel. When The Empire Strikes Back was released in 1980, the episode number, "Episode V '', and subtitle "THE EMPIRE STRIKES BACK '' appeared as the first two lines of the opening crawl. To match its sequel 's crawl, the episode number "Episode IV '' and subtitle "A NEW HOPE '' were added for the film 's theatrical re-release in April 1981. The original version, without the subtitle, was not released again until the 2006 limited edition DVDs.
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why is ecology described as a holistic science | Holism in science - wikipedia
Holism in science, or holistic science, is an approach to research that emphasizes the study of complex systems. Systems are approached as coherent wholes whose component parts are best understood in context and in relation to one another and to the whole. This practice is in contrast to a purely analytic tradition (sometimes called reductionism) which aims to gain understanding of systems by dividing them into smaller composing elements and gaining understanding of the system through understanding their elemental properties. The holism - reductionism dichotomy is often evident in conflicting interpretations of experimental findings and in setting priorities for future research.
David Deutsch calls holism anti-reductionist and refers to the concept as thinking the only legitimate way to think about science is as a series of emergent, or higher level phenomena. He argues that neither approach is purely correct.
Two aspects of Holism are:
Holistic science is naturally suited to subjects such as ecology, biology, physics and the social sciences, where complex, non-linear interactions are the norm. These are systems where emergent properties arise at the level of the whole that can not be predicted by focusing on the parts alone, which may make mainstream, reductionist science ill - equipped to provide understanding beyond a certain level. This principle of emergence in complex systems is often captured in the phrase ′ the whole is greater than the sum of its parts ′. Living organisms are an example: no knowledge of all the chemical and physical properties of matter can explain or predict the functioning of living organisms. The same happens in complex social human systems, where detailed understanding of individual behaviour can not predict the behaviour of the group, which emerges at the level of the collective. The phenomenon of emergence may impose a theoretical limit on knowledge available through reductionist methodology, arguably making complex systems natural subjects for holistic approaches.
Science journalist John Horgan has expressed this view in the book The End of Science. He wrote that a certain pervasive model within holistic science, self - organized criticality, for example, "is not really a theory at all. Like punctuated equilibrium, self - organized criticality is merely a description, one of many, of the random fluctuations, the noise, permeating nature. '' By the theorists ' own admissions, he said, such a model "can generate neither specific predictions about nature nor meaningful insights. What good is it, then? ''
One of the reasons that holistic science attracts supporters is that it seems to offer a progressive, ' socio - ecological ' view of the world, but Alan Marshall 's book The Unity of Nature offers evidence to the contrary; suggesting holism in science is not ' ecological ' or ' socially - responsive ' at all, but regressive and repressive.
Permaculture takes a systems level approach to agriculture and land management by attempting to copy what happens in the natural world. Holistic management), integrates ecology and social sciences with food production. It was originally designed as a way to reverse desertification. Organic farming is sometimes considered a holistic approach.
Richard Healey offered a modal interpretation and used it to present a model account of the puzzling correlations which portrays them as resulting from the operation of a process that violates both spatial and spatiotemporal separability. He argued that, on this interpretation, the nonseparability of the process is a consequence of physical property holism; and that the resulting account yields genuine understanding of how the correlations come about without any violation of relativity theory or Local Action. Subsequent work by Clifton, Dickson and Myrvold cast doubt on whether the account can be squared with relativity theory 's requirement of Lorentz invariance but leaves no doubt of an spatially entangled holism in the theory. Paul Davies and John Gribbin further observe that Wheeler 's delayed choice experiment shows how the quantum world displays a sort of holism in time as well as space.
In the holistic approach of David Bohm, any collection of quantum objects constitutes an indivisible whole within an implicate and explicate order. Bohm said there is no scientific evidence to support the dominant view that the universe consists of a huge, finite number of minute particles, and offered in its stead a view of undivided wholeness: "ultimately, the entire universe (with all its ' particles ', including those constituting human beings, their laboratories, observing instruments, etc.) has to be understood as a single undivided whole, in which analysis into separately and independently existent parts has no fundamental status ''.
In the latter half of the 20th century, holism led to systems thinking and its derivatives. Systems in biology, psychology, or sociology are frequently so complex that their behavior is, or appears, "new '' or "emergent '': it can not be deduced from the properties of the elements alone. Holism has thus been used as a catchword. This contributed to the resistance encountered by the scientific interpretation of holism, which insists that there are ontological reasons that prevent reductive models in principle from providing efficient algorithms for prediction of system behavior in certain classes of systems.
Scientific holism holds that the behavior of a system can not be perfectly predicted, no matter how much data is available. Natural systems can produce surprisingly unexpected behavior, and it is suspected that behavior of such systems might be computationally irreducible, which means it would not be possible to even approximate the system state without a full simulation of all the events occurring in the system. Key properties of the higher level behavior of certain classes of systems may be mediated by rare "surprises '' in the behavior of their elements due to the principle of interconnectivity, thus evading predictions except by brute force simulation.
John Muir, a Scottish born early American conservationist, wrote "When we try to pick out anything by itself we find it hitched to everything else in the Universe ''. As such, holistic thinking is often applied to ecology, combining biological, chemical, physical, economic, ethical, and political insights. The complexity grows with the area, so that it is necessary to reduce the characteristic of the view in other ways, for example to a specific time of duration.
In primary care the term "holistic, '' has been used to describe approaches that take into account social considerations and other intuitive judgements. The term holism, and so - called approaches, appear in psychosomatic medicine in the 1970s, when they were considered one possible way to conceptualize psychosomatic phenomena. Instead of charting one - way causal links from psyche to soma, or vice versa, it aimed at a systemic model, where multiple biological, psychological and social factors were seen as interlinked.
Other, alternative approaches in the 1970s were psychosomatic and somatopsychic approaches, which concentrated on causal links only from psyche to soma, or from soma to psyche, respectively. At present it is commonplace in psychosomatic medicine to state that psyche and soma can not really be separated for practical or theoretical purposes.
The term systems medicine first appeared in 1992 and takes an integrative approach to all of the body and environment.
A lively debate has run since the end of the 19th century regarding the functional organization of the brain. The holistic tradition (e.g., Pierre Marie) maintained that the brain was a homogeneous organ with no specific subparts whereas the localizationists (e.g., Paul Broca) argued that the brain was organized in functionally distinct cortical areas which were each specialized to process a given type of information or implement specific mental operations. The controversy was epitomized with the existence of a language area in the brain, nowadays known as the Broca 's area.
Architecture is often argued by design academics and those practicing in design to be a holistic enterprise. Used in this context, holism tends to imply an all - inclusive design perspective. This trait is considered exclusive to architecture, distinct from other professions involved in design projects.
Some economists use a causal holism theory in their work. That is they view the discipline in the manner of Ludwig Wittgenstein and claim that it ca n't be defined by necessary and sufficient conditions.
The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives identifies many levels of cognitive functioning, which can be used to create a more holistic education. In authentic assessment, rather than using computers to score multiple choice tests, a standards based assessment uses trained scorers to score open - response items using holistic scoring methods. In projects such as the North Carolina Writing Project, scorers are instructed not to count errors, or count numbers of points or supporting statements. The scorer is instead instructed to judge holistically whether "as a whole '' is it more a "2 '' or a "3 ''. Critics question whether such a process can be as objective as computer scoring, and the degree to which such scoring methods can result in different scores from different scorers.
There is an ongoing dispute as to whether anthropology is intrinsically holistic. Supporters of this concept consider anthropology holistic in two senses. First, it is concerned with all human beings across times and places, and with all dimensions of humanity (evolutionary, biophysical, sociopolitical, economic, cultural, psychological, etc.) Further, many academic programs following this approach take a "four - field '' approach to anthropology that encompasses physical anthropology, archeology, linguistics, and cultural anthropology or social anthropology.
Some leading anthropologists disagree, and consider anthropological holism to be an artifact from 19th century social evolutionary thought that inappropriately imposes scientific positivism upon cultural anthropology.
The term "holism '' is additionally used within social and cultural anthropology to refer to an analysis of a society as a whole which refuses to break society into component parts. One definition says: "as a methodological ideal, holism implies... that one does not permit oneself to believe that our own established institutional boundaries (e.g. between politics, sexuality, religion, economics) necessarily may be found also in foreign societies. ''
A major holist movement in the early twentieth century was gestalt psychology. The claim was that perception is not an aggregation of atomic sense data but a field, in which there is a figure and a ground. Background has holistic effects on the perceived figure. Gestalt psychologists included Wolfgang Koehler, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka. Koehler claimed the perceptual fields corresponded to electrical fields in the brain. Karl Lashley did experiments with gold foil pieces inserted in monkey brains purporting to show that such fields did not exist. However, many of the perceptual illusions and visual phenomena exhibited by the gestaltists were taken over (often without credit) by later perceptual psychologists. Gestalt psychology had influence on Fritz Perls ' gestalt therapy, although some old - line gestaltists opposed the association with counter-cultural and New Age trends later associated with gestalt therapy. Gestalt theory was also influential on phenomenology. Aron Gurwitsch wrote on the role of the field of consciousness in gestalt theory in relation to phenomenology. Maurice Merleau - Ponty made much use of holistic psychologists such as work of Kurt Goldstein in his "Phenomenology of Perception. ''
Alfred Adler believed that the individual (an integrated whole expressed through a self - consistent unity of thinking, feeling, and action, moving toward an unconscious, fictional final goal), must be understood within the larger wholes of society, from the groups to which he belongs (starting with his face - to - face relationships), to the larger whole of mankind. The recognition of our social embeddedness and the need for developing an interest in the welfare of others, as well as a respect for nature, is at the heart of Adler 's philosophy of living and principles of psychotherapy.
Edgar Morin, the French philosopher and sociologist, can be considered a holist based on the transdisciplinary nature of his work.
Mel Levine, M.D., author of A Mind at a Time, and co-founder (with Charles R. Schwab) of the not - for - profit organization All Kinds of Minds, can be considered a holist based on his view of the ' whole child ' as a product of many systems and his work supporting the educational needs of children through the management of a child 's educational profile as a whole rather than isolated weaknesses in that profile.
According to skeptics, the phrase "holistic science '' is often misused by pseudosciences. In the book Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology it 's noted that "Proponents of pseudoscientific claims, especially in organic medicine, and mental health, often resort to the "mantra of holism '' to explain away negative findings. When invoking the mantra, they typically maintain that scientific claims can be evaluated only within the context of broader claims and therefore can not be evaluated in isolation. '' This is an invocation of Karl Popper 's demarcation problem and in a posting to Ask a Philosopher Massimo Pigliucci clarifies Popper by positing, "Instead of thinking of science as making progress by inductive generalization (which does n't work because no matter how many times a given theory may have been confirmed thus far, it is always possible that new, contrary, data will emerge tomorrow), we should say that science makes progress by conclusively disconfirming theories that are, in fact, wrong. ''
Victor J. Stenger states that "holistic healing is associated with the rejection of classical, Newtonian physics. Yet, holistic healing retains many ideas from eighteenth and nineteenth century physics. Its proponents are blissfully unaware that these ideas, especially superluminal holism, have been rejected by modern physics as well ''.
Some quantum mystics interpret the wave function of quantum mechanics as a vibration in a holistic ether that pervades the universe and wave function collapse as the result of some cosmic consciousness. This is a misinterpretation of the effects of quantum entanglement as a violation of relativistic causality and quantum field theory.
Schumacher College in the UK, offers an MSc degree program in Holistic Science
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who played officer pruitt on grey's anatomy | Kevin Alejandro - wikipedia
Kevin Michael Alejandro (born April 7, 1976) is an American actor. He is known for his roles as Nate Moretta in the crime drama Southland, as Jesús Velásquez in the supernatural thriller True Blood, and as Sebastian Blood / Brother Blood in The CW series Arrow.
Alejandro was featured on the ABC series Ugly Betty, playing Santos, the father of Justin Suarez and love interest of Hilda. At the time of the season 1 finale episode 's filming, he had just become a series regular on the Fox network 's newly introduced Drive, since cancelled. He was a featured player in the second season of the Showtime original series Sleeper Cell, playing Benito Velasquez, and also played Dominic Hughes in The Young and the Restless.
He made an appearance, along with fellow Ugly Betty actor Eric Mabius, in the CSI: Miami episode "One of Our Own '', and another as a gay hustler in HBO 's Big Love. He also appeared on an episode of Charmed season 7 as Malvock, a cunning demon. He also appeared in the first few episodes of 24 's fourth season, as a terrorist henchman, in which he also stars with Tony Plana, fellow Ugly Betty actor. Alejandro was a regular on the now defunct drama Shark as Deputy District Attorney Danny Reyes. Recently he had a small role on The Cleaner, an A&E television series.
Alejandro also appeared in the movie Crossing Over, which was released in February 2009, alongside Harrison Ford. He played Detective Nate Moretta in Southland, produced by Emmy Award winner John Wells. Southland was canceled by NBC Broadcasting, just two weeks prior to the première of the show 's sophomore run, but has since been picked up by the cable network TNT.
He has also had a role in Weeds, season 4 and 5. Drop Dead Diva 's Season 1, Episode 5 also features Alejandro, as the wrongfully convicted Michael Fernandez. He appeared on Season 1 of Sons of Anarchy as one of the Mayan MC members, son of Marcus, the MC 's president. Alejandro stars in the third and fourth seasons of the vampire series True Blood as Jesús Velásquez.
In 2011, he appeared in the movie Red State, opposite John Goodman and directed by Kevin Smith, as well a horror film called Cassadaga. He also played Tony Arroyo, a homicide detective in the 2013 television show, Golden Boy. Alejandro portrayed Sheriff Tommy Solano in the ABC / A&E series The Returned.
In 2013, Alejandro joined the DC Comics - produced CW series Arrow, as the villainous Brother Blood. He recurred throughout the show 's second season. In January 2016, he began his role on the Fox TV series Lucifer as LAPD Homicide Detective Dan Espinoza.
He has a wife and a child named Kaden Alejandro.
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which of the following sediments in a urine examination is rarely of any pathological significance | Urinary cast - wikipedia
Urinary casts are microscopic cylindrical structures produced by the kidney and present in the urine in certain disease states. They form in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts of nephrons, then dislodge and pass into the urine, where they can be detected by microscopy.
They form via precipitation of Tamm -- Horsfall mucoprotein which is secreted by renal tubule cells, and sometimes also by albumin in conditions of proteinuria. Cast formation is pronounced in environments favoring protein denaturation and precipitation (low flow, concentrated salts, low pH). Tamm -- Horsfall protein is particularly susceptible to precipitation in these conditions.
Casts were first described by Henry Bence Jones (1813 -- 1873).
As reflected in their cylindrical form, casts are generated in the small distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of the kidney, and generally maintain their shape and composition as they pass through the urinary system. Although the most common forms are benign, others indicate disease. All rely on the inclusion or adhesion of various elements on a mucoprotein base -- the hyaline cast. "Cast '' itself merely describes the shape, so an adjective is added to describe the composition of the cast. Various casts found in urine sediment may be classified as follows.
The most common type of cast, hyaline cast are solidified Tamm -- Horsfall mucoprotein secreted from the tubular epithelial cells of individual nephrons. Low urine flow, concentrated urine, or an acidic environment can contribute to the formation of hyaline casts, and, as such, they may be seen in normal individuals in dehydration or vigorous exercise. Hyaline casts are cylindrical and clear, with a low refractive index, so that they can easily be missed on cursory review under brightfield microscopy, or in an aged sample where dissolution has occurred whereas, on the other hand, phase contrast microscopy leads to easier identification. Given the ubiquitous presence of Tamm -- Horsfall protein, other cast types are formed via the inclusion or adhesion of other elements to the hyaline base.
The second-most common type of cast, granular casts can result either from the breakdown of cellular casts or the inclusion of aggregates of plasma proteins (e.g., albumin) or immunoglobulin light chains. Depending on the size of inclusions, they can be classified as fine or coarse, though the distinction has no diagnostic significance. Their appearance is generally more cigar - shaped and of a higher refractive index than hyaline casts. While most often indicative of chronic renal disease, these casts, as with hyaline casts, can also be seen for a short time following strenuous exercise. The "muddy brown cast '' seen in acute tubular necrosis is a type of granular cast.
Thought to represent the end product of cast evolution, waxy casts suggest the very low urine flow associated with severe, longstanding kidney disease such as renal failure. Additionally, due to urine stasis and their formation in diseased, dilated ducts, these casts are significantly larger than hyaline casts.
Waxy casts are broad casts, which is a more general term to describe the wider cast product of a dilated duct. It is seen in chronic renal failure.
In nephrotic syndrome many additional types of cast exist including broad and waxy casts if the condition is chronic (this is referred to as a telescopic urine with the presence of many casts).
Formed by the breakdown of lipid - rich epithelial cells, these are hyaline casts with fat globule inclusions, yellowish - tan in color. If cholesterol or cholesterol esters are present, they are associated with the "Maltese cross '' sign under polarized light. They are pathognomonic for high urinary protein nephrotic syndrome.
Formed by the adhesion of metabolic breakdown products or drug pigments, these casts are so named due to their discoloration. Pigments include those produced endogenously, such as hemoglobin in hemolytic anemia, myoglobin in rhabdomyolysis, and bilirubin in liver disease. Drug pigments, such as phenazopyridine, may also cause cast discoloration.
Though crystallized urinary solutes, such as oxalates, urates, or sulfonamides, may become enmeshed within a ketanaline cast during its formation, the clinical significance of this occurrence is not felt to be great.
The presence of red blood cells within the cast is always pathological, and is strongly indicative of granulomatosis with polyangiitis, systemic lupus erythematosus, post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis or Goodpasture 's syndrome. They can also be associated with renal infarction and subacute bacterial endocarditis. They are a yellowish - brown color and are generally cylindrical with sometimes ragged edges; their fragility makes inspection of a fresh sample necessary. They are usually associated with nephritic syndromes or urinary tract injury.
Indicative of inflammation or infection, the presence of white blood cells within or upon casts strongly suggests pyelonephritis, a direct infection of the kidney. They may also be seen in inflammatory states, such as acute allergic interstitial nephritis, nephrotic syndrome, or post-streptococcal acute glomerulonephritis. White cells sometimes can be difficult to discern from epithelial cells and may require special staining. Differentiation from simple clumps of white cells can be made by the presence of hyaline matrix.
Given their appearance in pyelonephritis, these should be seen in association with loose bacteria, white blood cells, and white blood cell casts. Their discovery is likely rare, due to the infection - fighting efficiency of neutrophils, and the possibility of misidentification as a fine granular cast.
This cast is formed by inclusion or adhesion of desquamated epithelial cells of the tubule lining. Cells can adhere in random order or in sheets and are distinguished by large, round nuclei and a lower amount of cytoplasm. These can be seen in acute tubular necrosis and toxic ingestion, such as from mercury, diethylene glycol, or salicylate. In each case, clumps or sheets of cells may slough off simultaneously, depending of the focality of injury. Cytomegalovirus and viral hepatitis are organisms that can cause epithelial cell death as well.
This type of cast contains eosinophils. It is seen in Tubulo Interstitial Nephritis and occurs in allergy, commonly to drugs like Methicillin & NSAIDs.
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where did the story of king arthur happen | King Arthur - wikipedia
King Arthur is a legendary British leader who, according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the late 5th and early 6th centuries. The details of Arthur 's story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, and his historical existence is debated and disputed by modern historians. The sparse historical background of Arthur is gleaned from various sources, including the Annales Cambriae, the Historia Brittonum, and the writings of Gildas. Arthur 's name also occurs in early poetic sources such as Y Gododdin.
Arthur is a central figure in the legends making up the Matter of Britain. The legendary Arthur developed as a figure of international interest largely through the popularity of Geoffrey of Monmouth 's fanciful and imaginative 12th - century Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain). In some Welsh and Breton tales and poems that date from before this work, Arthur appears either as a great warrior defending Britain from human and supernatural enemies or as a magical figure of folklore, sometimes associated with the Welsh Otherworld, Annwn. How much of Geoffrey 's Historia (completed in 1138) was adapted from such earlier sources, rather than invented by Geoffrey himself, is unknown.
Although the themes, events and characters of the Arthurian legend varied widely from text to text, and there is no one canonical version, Geoffrey 's version of events often served as the starting point for later stories. Geoffrey depicted Arthur as a king of Britain who defeated the Saxons and established an empire over Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Norway and Gaul. Many elements and incidents that are now an integral part of the Arthurian story appear in Geoffrey 's Historia, including Arthur 's father Uther Pendragon, the wizard Merlin, Arthur 's wife Guinevere, the sword Excalibur, Arthur 's conception at Tintagel, his final battle against Mordred at Camlann, and final rest in Avalon. The 12th - century French writer Chrétien de Troyes, who added Lancelot and the Holy Grail to the story, began the genre of Arthurian romance that became a significant strand of medieval literature. In these French stories, the narrative focus often shifts from King Arthur himself to other characters, such as various Knights of the Round Table. Arthurian literature thrived during the Middle Ages but waned in the centuries that followed until it experienced a major resurgence in the 19th century. In the 21st century, the legend lives on, not only in literature but also in adaptations for theatre, film, television, comics and other media.
The historical basis for the King Arthur legend has long been debated by scholars. One school of thought, citing entries in the Historia Brittonum (History of the Britons) and Annales Cambriae (Welsh Annals), sees Arthur as a genuine historical figure, a Romano - British leader who fought against the invading Anglo - Saxons some time in the late 5th to early 6th century. The Historia Brittonum, a 9th - century Latin historical compilation attributed in some late manuscripts to a Welsh cleric called Nennius, contains the first datable mention of King Arthur, listing twelve battles that Arthur fought. These culminate in the Battle of Badon, where he is said to have single - handedly killed 960 men. Recent studies, however, question the reliability of the Historia Brittonum.
The other text that seems to support the case for Arthur 's historical existence is the 10th - century Annales Cambriae, which also link Arthur with the Battle of Badon. The Annales date this battle to 516 -- 518, and also mention the Battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut (Mordred) were both killed, dated to 537 -- 539. These details have often been used to bolster confidence in the Historia 's account and to confirm that Arthur really did fight at Badon. Problems have been identified, however, with using this source to support the Historia Brittonum 's account. The latest research shows that the Annales Cambriae was based on a chronicle begun in the late 8th century in Wales. Additionally, the complex textual history of the Annales Cambriae precludes any certainty that the Arthurian annals were added to it even that early. They were more likely added at some point in the 10th century and may never have existed in any earlier set of annals. The Badon entry probably derived from the Historia Brittonum.
This lack of convincing early evidence is the reason many recent historians exclude Arthur from their accounts of sub-Roman Britain. In the view of historian Thomas Charles - Edwards, "at this stage of the enquiry, one can only say that there may well have been an historical Arthur (but...) the historian can as yet say nothing of value about him ''. These modern admissions of ignorance are a relatively recent trend; earlier generations of historians were less sceptical. The historian John Morris made the putative reign of Arthur the organising principle of his history of sub-Roman Britain and Ireland, The Age of Arthur (1973). Even so, he found little to say about an historical Arthur.
Partly in reaction to such theories, another school of thought emerged which argued that Arthur had no historical existence at all. Morris 's Age of Arthur prompted the archaeologist Nowell Myres to observe that "no figure on the borderline of history and mythology has wasted more of the historian 's time ''. Gildas ' 6th - century polemic De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae (On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain), written within living memory of Badon, mentions the battle but does not mention Arthur. Arthur is not mentioned in the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle or named in any surviving manuscript written between 400 and 820. He is absent from Bede 's early - 8th - century Ecclesiastical History of the English People, another major early source for post-Roman history that mentions Badon. The historian David Dumville has written: "I think we can dispose of him (Arthur) quite briefly. He owes his place in our history books to a ' no smoke without fire ' school of thought... The fact of the matter is that there is no historical evidence about Arthur; we must reject him from our histories and, above all, from the titles of our books. ''
Some scholars argue that Arthur was originally a fictional hero of folklore -- or even a half - forgotten Celtic deity -- who became credited with real deeds in the distant past. They cite parallels with figures such as the Kentish Hengist and Horsa, who may be totemic horse - gods that later became historicised. Bede ascribed to these legendary figures a historical role in the 5th - century Anglo - Saxon conquest of eastern Britain. It is not even certain that Arthur was considered a king in the early texts. Neither the Historia nor the Annales calls him "rex '': the former calls him instead "dux bellorum '' (leader of battles) and "miles '' (soldier).
Historical documents for the post-Roman period are scarce, so a definitive answer to the question of Arthur 's historical existence is unlikely. Sites and places have been identified as "Arthurian '' since the 12th century, but archaeology can confidently reveal names only through inscriptions found in secure contexts. The so - called "Arthur stone '', discovered in 1998 among the ruins at Tintagel Castle in Cornwall in securely dated 6th - century contexts, created a brief stir but proved irrelevant. Other inscriptional evidence for Arthur, including the Glastonbury cross, is tainted with the suggestion of forgery. Although several historical figures have been proposed as the basis for Arthur, no convincing evidence for these identifications has emerged.
The origin of the Welsh name "Arthur '' remains a matter of debate. The most widely accepted etymology derives it from the Roman nomen gentile (family name) Artorius. Artorius itself is of obscure and contested etymology, but possibly of Messapian or Etruscan origin. Linguist Stephan Zimmer suggests Artorius possibly had a Celtic origin, being a Latinization of a hypothetical name * Artorījos, in turn derived from an older patronym * Arto - rīg - ios, meaning "son of the bear / warrior - king ''. This patronym is unattested, but the root, * arto - rīg, "bear / warrior - king '', is the source of the Old Irish personal name Artrí. Some scholars have suggested it is relevant to this debate that the legendary King Arthur 's name only appears as Arthur or Arturus in early Latin Arthurian texts, never as Artōrius (though Classical Latin Artōrius became Arturius in some Vulgar Latin dialects). However, this may not say anything about the origin of the name Arthur, as Artōrius would regularly become Art (h) ur when borrowed into Welsh.
Another commonly proposed derivation of Arthur from Welsh arth "bear '' + (g) wr "man '' (earlier * Arto - uiros in Brittonic) is not accepted by modern scholars for phonological and orthographic reasons. Notably, a Brittonic compound name * Arto - uiros should produce Old Welsh * Artgur (where u represents the short vowel / u /) and Middle / Modern Welsh * Arthwr, rather than Arthur (where u is a long vowel / ʉː /). In Welsh poetry the name is always spelled Arthur and is exclusively rhymed with words ending in - ur -- never words ending in - wr -- which confirms that the second element can not be (g) wr "man ''.
An alternative theory, which has gained only limited acceptance among professional scholars, derives the name Arthur from Arcturus, the brightest star in the constellation Boötes, near Ursa Major or the Great Bear. Classical Latin Arcturus would also have become Art (h) ur when borrowed into Welsh, and its brightness and position in the sky led people to regard it as the "guardian of the bear '' (which is the meaning of the name in Ancient Greek) and the "leader '' of the other stars in Boötes.
The creator of the familiar literary persona of Arthur was Geoffrey of Monmouth, with his pseudo-historical Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain), written in the 1130s. The textual sources for Arthur are usually divided into those written before Geoffrey 's Historia (known as pre-Galfridian texts, from the Latin form of Geoffrey, Galfridus) and those written afterwards, which could not avoid his influence (Galfridian, or post-Galfridian, texts).
The earliest literary references to Arthur come from Welsh and Breton sources. There have been few attempts to define the nature and character of Arthur in the pre-Galfridian tradition as a whole, rather than in a single text or text / story - type. A 2007 academic survey that does attempt this by Caitlin Green identifies three key strands to the portrayal of Arthur in this earliest material. The first is that he was a peerless warrior who functioned as the monster - hunting protector of Britain from all internal and external threats. Some of these are human threats, such as the Saxons he fights in the Historia Brittonum, but the majority are supernatural, including giant cat - monsters, destructive divine boars, dragons, dogheads, giants, and witches. The second is that the pre-Galfridian Arthur was a figure of folklore (particularly topographic or onomastic folklore) and localised magical wonder - tales, the leader of a band of superhuman heroes who live in the wilds of the landscape. The third and final strand is that the early Welsh Arthur had a close connection with the Welsh Otherworld, Annwn. On the one hand, he launches assaults on Otherworldly fortresses in search of treasure and frees their prisoners. On the other, his warband in the earliest sources includes former pagan gods, and his wife and his possessions are clearly Otherworldly in origin.
One of the most famous Welsh poetic references to Arthur comes in the collection of heroic death - songs known as Y Gododdin (The Gododdin), attributed to 6th - century poet Aneirin. One stanza praises the bravery of a warrior who slew 300 enemies, but says that despite this, "he was no Arthur '' -- that is, his feats can not compare to the valour of Arthur. Y Gododdin is known only from a 13th - century manuscript, so it is impossible to determine whether this passage is original or a later interpolation, but John Koch 's view that the passage dates from a 7th - century or earlier version is regarded as unproven; 9th - or 10th - century dates are often proposed for it. Several poems attributed to Taliesin, a poet said to have lived in the 6th century, also refer to Arthur, although these all probably date from between the 8th and 12th centuries. They include "Kadeir Teyrnon '' ("The Chair of the Prince ''), which refers to "Arthur the Blessed ''; "Preiddeu Annwn '' ("The Spoils of Annwn ''), which recounts an expedition of Arthur to the Otherworld; and "Marwnat vthyr pen (dragon) '' ("The Elegy of Uther Pen (dragon) ''), which refers to Arthur 's valour and is suggestive of a father - son relationship for Arthur and Uther that pre-dates Geoffrey of Monmouth.
Other early Welsh Arthurian texts include a poem found in the Black Book of Carmarthen, "Pa gur yv y porthaur? '' ("What man is the gatekeeper? ''). This takes the form of a dialogue between Arthur and the gatekeeper of a fortress he wishes to enter, in which Arthur recounts the names and deeds of himself and his men, notably Cei (Kay) and Bedwyr (Bedivere). The Welsh prose tale Culhwch and Olwen (c. 1100), included in the modern Mabinogion collection, has a much longer list of more than 200 of Arthur 's men, though Cei and Bedwyr again take a central place. The story as a whole tells of Arthur helping his kinsman Culhwch win the hand of Olwen, daughter of Ysbaddaden Chief - Giant, by completing a series of apparently impossible tasks, including the hunt for the great semi-divine boar Twrch Trwyth. The 9th - century Historia Brittonum also refers to this tale, with the boar there named Troy (n) t. Finally, Arthur is mentioned numerous times in the Welsh Triads, a collection of short summaries of Welsh tradition and legend which are classified into groups of three linked characters or episodes to assist recall. The later manuscripts of the Triads are partly derivative from Geoffrey of Monmouth and later continental traditions, but the earliest ones show no such influence and are usually agreed to refer to pre-existing Welsh traditions. Even in these, however, Arthur 's court has started to embody legendary Britain as a whole, with "Arthur 's Court '' sometimes substituted for "The Island of Britain '' in the formula "Three XXX of the Island of Britain ''. While it is not clear from the Historia Brittonum and the Annales Cambriae that Arthur was even considered a king, by the time Culhwch and Olwen and the Triads were written he had become Penteyrnedd yr Ynys hon, "Chief of the Lords of this Island '', the overlord of Wales, Cornwall and the North.
In addition to these pre-Galfridian Welsh poems and tales, Arthur appears in some other early Latin texts besides the Historia Brittonum and the Annales Cambriae. In particular, Arthur features in a number of well - known vitae ("Lives '') of post-Roman saints, none of which are now generally considered to be reliable historical sources (the earliest probably dates from the 11th century). According to the Life of Saint Gildas, written in the early 12th century by Caradoc of Llancarfan, Arthur is said to have killed Gildas ' brother Hueil and to have rescued his wife Gwenhwyfar from Glastonbury. In the Life of Saint Cadoc, written around 1100 or a little before by Lifris of Llancarfan, the saint gives protection to a man who killed three of Arthur 's soldiers, and Arthur demands a herd of cattle as wergeld for his men. Cadoc delivers them as demanded, but when Arthur takes possession of the animals, they turn into bundles of ferns. Similar incidents are described in the medieval biographies of Carannog, Padarn, and Eufflam, probably written around the 12th century. A less obviously legendary account of Arthur appears in the Legenda Sancti Goeznovii, which is often claimed to date from the early 11th century (although the earliest manuscript of this text dates from the 15th century and the text is now dated to the late 12th to early 13th century). Also important are the references to Arthur in William of Malmesbury 's De Gestis Regum Anglorum and Herman 's De Miraculis Sanctae Mariae Laudensis, which together provide the first certain evidence for a belief that Arthur was not actually dead and would at some point return, a theme that is often revisited in post-Galfridian folklore.
The first narrative account of Arthur 's life is found in Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Latin work Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain), completed c. 1138. This work is an imaginative and fanciful account of British kings from the legendary Trojan exile Brutus to the 7th - century Welsh king Cadwallader. Geoffrey places Arthur in the same post-Roman period as do Historia Brittonum and Annales Cambriae. He incorporates Arthur 's father, Uther Pendragon, his magician advisor Merlin, and the story of Arthur 's conception, in which Uther, disguised as his enemy Gorlois by Merlin 's magic, sleeps with Gorlois 's wife Igerna (Igraine) at Tintagel, and she conceives Arthur. On Uther 's death, the fifteen - year - old Arthur succeeds him as King of Britain and fights a series of battles, similar to those in the Historia Brittonum, culminating in the Battle of Bath. He then defeats the Picts and Scots before creating an Arthurian empire through his conquests of Ireland, Iceland and the Orkney Islands. After twelve years of peace, Arthur sets out to expand his empire once more, taking control of Norway, Denmark and Gaul. Gaul is still held by the Roman Empire when it is conquered, and Arthur 's victory naturally leads to a further confrontation between his empire and Rome 's. Arthur and his warriors, including Kaius (Kay), Beduerus (Bedivere) and Gualguanus (Gawain), defeat the Roman emperor Lucius Tiberius in Gaul but, as he prepares to march on Rome, Arthur hears that his nephew Modredus (Mordred) -- whom he had left in charge of Britain -- has married his wife Guenhuuara (Guinevere) and seized the throne. Arthur returns to Britain and defeats and kills Modredus on the river Camblam in Cornwall, but he is mortally wounded. He hands the crown to his kinsman Constantine and is taken to the isle of Avalon to be healed of his wounds, never to be seen again.
How much of this narrative was Geoffrey 's own invention is open to debate. Certainly, Geoffrey seems to have made use of the list of Arthur 's twelve battles against the Saxons found in the 9th - century Historia Brittonum, along with the battle of Camlann from the Annales Cambriae and the idea that Arthur was still alive. Arthur 's personal status as the king of all Britain would also seem to be borrowed from pre-Galfridian tradition, being found in Culhwch and Olwen, the Triads, and the saints ' lives. Finally, Geoffrey borrowed many of the names for Arthur 's possessions, close family, and companions from the pre-Galfridian Welsh tradition, including Kaius (Cei), Beduerus (Bedwyr), Guenhuuara (Gwenhwyfar), Uther (Uthyr) and perhaps also Caliburnus (Caledfwlch), the latter becoming Excalibur in subsequent Arthurian tales. However, while names, key events, and titles may have been borrowed, Brynley Roberts has argued that "the Arthurian section is Geoffrey 's literary creation and it owes nothing to prior narrative. '' So, for instance, the Welsh Medraut is made the villainous Modredus by Geoffrey, but there is no trace of such a negative character for this figure in Welsh sources until the 16th century. There have been relatively few modern attempts to challenge this notion that the Historia Regum Britanniae is primarily Geoffrey 's own work, with scholarly opinion often echoing William of Newburgh 's late - 12th - century comment that Geoffrey "made up '' his narrative, perhaps through an "inordinate love of lying ''. Geoffrey Ashe is one dissenter from this view, believing that Geoffrey 's narrative is partially derived from a lost source telling of the deeds of a 5th - century British king named Riotamus, this figure being the original Arthur, although historians and Celticists have been reluctant to follow Ashe in his conclusions.
Whatever his sources may have been, the immense popularity of Geoffrey 's Historia Regum Britanniae can not be denied. Well over 200 manuscript copies of Geoffrey 's Latin work are known to have survived, and this does not include translations into other languages. Thus, for example, around 60 manuscripts are extant containing Welsh - language versions of the Historia, the earliest of which were created in the 13th century; the old notion that some of these Welsh versions actually underlie Geoffrey 's Historia, advanced by antiquarians such as the 18th - century Lewis Morris, has long since been discounted in academic circles. As a result of this popularity, Geoffrey 's Historia Regum Britanniae was enormously influential on the later medieval development of the Arthurian legend. While it was by no means the only creative force behind Arthurian romance, many of its elements were borrowed and developed (e.g., Merlin and the final fate of Arthur), and it provided the historical framework into which the romancers ' tales of magical and wonderful adventures were inserted.
The popularity of Geoffrey 's Historia and its other derivative works (such as Wace 's Roman de Brut) is generally agreed to be an important factor in explaining the appearance of significant numbers of new Arthurian works in continental Europe during the 12th and 13th centuries, particularly in France. It was not, however, the only Arthurian influence on the developing "Matter of Britain ''. There is clear evidence that Arthur and Arthurian tales were familiar on the Continent before Geoffrey 's work became widely known (see for example, the Modena Archivolt), and "Celtic '' names and stories not found in Geoffrey 's Historia appear in the Arthurian romances. From the perspective of Arthur, perhaps the most significant effect of this great outpouring of new Arthurian story was on the role of the king himself: much of this 12th - century and later Arthurian literature centres less on Arthur himself than on characters such as Lancelot and Guinevere, Percival, Galahad, Gawain, Ywain, and Tristan and Iseult. Whereas Arthur is very much at the centre of the pre-Galfridian material and Geoffrey 's Historia itself, in the romances he is rapidly sidelined. His character also alters significantly. In both the earliest materials and Geoffrey he is a great and ferocious warrior, who laughs as he personally slaughters witches and giants and takes a leading role in all military campaigns, whereas in the continental romances he becomes the roi fainéant, the "do - nothing king '', whose "inactivity and acquiescence constituted a central flaw in his otherwise ideal society ''. Arthur 's role in these works is frequently that of a wise, dignified, even - tempered, somewhat bland, and occasionally feeble monarch. So, he simply turns pale and silent when he learns of Lancelot 's affair with Guinevere in the Mort Artu, whilst in Chrétien de Troyes 's Yvain, the Knight of the Lion, he is unable to stay awake after a feast and has to retire for a nap. Nonetheless, as Norris J. Lacy has observed, whatever his faults and frailties may be in these Arthurian romances, "his prestige is never -- or almost never -- compromised by his personal weaknesses... his authority and glory remain intact. ''
Arthur and his retinue appear in some of the Lais of Marie de France, but it was the work of another French poet, Chrétien de Troyes, that had the greatest influence with regard to the development of Arthur 's character and legend. Chrétien wrote five Arthurian romances between c. 1170 and 1190. Erec and Enide and Cligès are tales of courtly love with Arthur 's court as their backdrop, demonstrating the shift away from the heroic world of the Welsh and Galfridian Arthur, while Yvain, the Knight of the Lion, features Yvain and Gawain in a supernatural adventure, with Arthur very much on the sidelines and weakened. However, the most significant for the development of the Arthurian legend are Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart, which introduces Lancelot and his adulterous relationship with Arthur 's queen Guinevere, extending and popularising the recurring theme of Arthur as a cuckold, and Perceval, the Story of the Grail, which introduces the Holy Grail and the Fisher King and which again sees Arthur having a much reduced role. Chrétien was thus "instrumental both in the elaboration of the Arthurian legend and in the establishment of the ideal form for the diffusion of that legend '', and much of what came after him in terms of the portrayal of Arthur and his world built upon the foundations he had laid. Perceval, although unfinished, was particularly popular: four separate continuations of the poem appeared over the next half century, with the notion of the Grail and its quest being developed by other writers such as Robert de Boron, a fact that helped accelerate the decline of Arthur in continental romance. Similarly, Lancelot and his cuckolding of Arthur with Guinevere became one of the classic motifs of the Arthurian legend, although the Lancelot of the prose Lancelot (c. 1225) and later texts was a combination of Chrétien 's character and that of Ulrich von Zatzikhoven 's Lanzelet. Chrétien 's work even appears to feed back into Welsh Arthurian literature, with the result that the romance Arthur began to replace the heroic, active Arthur in Welsh literary tradition. Particularly significant in this development were the three Welsh Arthurian romances, which are closely similar to those of Chrétien, albeit with some significant differences: Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain is related to Chrétien 's Yvain; Geraint and Enid, to Erec and Enide; and Peredur son of Efrawg, to Perceval.
Up to c. 1210, continental Arthurian romance was expressed primarily through poetry; after this date the tales began to be told in prose. The most significant of these 13th - century prose romances was the Vulgate Cycle (also known as the Lancelot - Grail Cycle), a series of five Middle French prose works written in the first half of that century. These works were the Estoire del Saint Grail, the Estoire de Merlin, the Lancelot propre (or Prose Lancelot, which made up half the entire Vulgate Cycle on its own), the Queste del Saint Graal and the Mort Artu, which combine to form the first coherent version of the entire Arthurian legend. The cycle continued the trend towards reducing the role played by Arthur in his own legend, partly through the introduction of the character of Galahad and an expansion of the role of Merlin. It also made Mordred the result of an incestuous relationship between Arthur and his sister Morgause and established the role of Camelot, first mentioned in passing in Chrétien 's Lancelot, as Arthur 's primary court. This series of texts was quickly followed by the Post-Vulgate Cycle (c. 1230 -- 40), of which the Suite du Merlin is a part, which greatly reduced the importance of Lancelot 's affair with Guinevere but continued to sideline Arthur, and to focus more on the Grail quest. As such, Arthur became even more of a relatively minor character in these French prose romances; in the Vulgate itself he only figures significantly in the Estoire de Merlin and the Mort Artu. During this period, Arthur was made one of the Nine Worthies, a group of three pagan, three Jewish and three Christian exemplars of chivalry. The Worthies were first listed in Jacques de Longuyon 's Voeux du Paon in 1312, and subsequently became a common subject in literature and art.
The development of the medieval Arthurian cycle and the character of the "Arthur of romance '' culminated in Le Morte d'Arthur, Thomas Malory 's retelling of the entire legend in a single work in English in the late 15th century. Malory based his book -- originally titled The Whole Book of King Arthur and of His Noble Knights of the Round Table -- on the various previous romance versions, in particular the Vulgate Cycle, and appears to have aimed at creating a comprehensive and authoritative collection of Arthurian stories. Perhaps as a result of this, and the fact that Le Morte D'Arthur was one of the earliest printed books in England, published by William Caxton in 1485, most later Arthurian works are derivative of Malory 's.
The end of the Middle Ages brought with it a waning of interest in King Arthur. Although Malory 's English version of the great French romances was popular, there were increasing attacks upon the truthfulness of the historical framework of the Arthurian romances -- established since Geoffrey of Monmouth 's time -- and thus the legitimacy of the whole Matter of Britain. So, for example, the 16th - century humanist scholar Polydore Vergil famously rejected the claim that Arthur was the ruler of a post-Roman empire, found throughout the post-Galfridian medieval "chronicle tradition '', to the horror of Welsh and English antiquarians. Social changes associated with the end of the medieval period and the Renaissance also conspired to rob the character of Arthur and his associated legend of some of their power to enthrall audiences, with the result that 1634 saw the last printing of Malory 's Le Morte d'Arthur for nearly 200 years. King Arthur and the Arthurian legend were not entirely abandoned, but until the early 19th century the material was taken less seriously and was often used simply as a vehicle for allegories of 17th - and 18th - century politics. Thus Richard Blackmore 's epics Prince Arthur (1695) and King Arthur (1697) feature Arthur as an allegory for the struggles of William III against James II. Similarly, the most popular Arthurian tale throughout this period seems to have been that of Tom Thumb, which was told first through chapbooks and later through the political plays of Henry Fielding; although the action is clearly set in Arthurian Britain, the treatment is humorous and Arthur appears as a primarily comedic version of his romance character. John Dryden 's masque King Arthur is still performed, largely thanks to Henry Purcell 's music, though seldom unabridged.
In the early 19th century, medievalism, Romanticism, and the Gothic Revival reawakened interest in Arthur and the medieval romances. A new code of ethics for 19th - century gentlemen was shaped around the chivalric ideals embodied in the "Arthur of romance ''. This renewed interest first made itself felt in 1816, when Malory 's Le Morte d'Arthur was reprinted for the first time since 1634. Initially, the medieval Arthurian legends were of particular interest to poets, inspiring, for example, William Wordsworth to write "The Egyptian Maid '' (1835), an allegory of the Holy Grail. Pre-eminent among these was Alfred Tennyson, whose first Arthurian poem "The Lady of Shalott '' was published in 1832. Arthur himself played a minor role in some of these works, following in the medieval romance tradition. Tennyson 's Arthurian work reached its peak of popularity with Idylls of the King, however, which reworked the entire narrative of Arthur 's life for the Victorian era. It was first published in 1859 and sold 10,000 copies within the first week. In the Idylls, Arthur became a symbol of ideal manhood who ultimately failed, through human weakness, to establish a perfect kingdom on earth. Tennyson 's works prompted a large number of imitators, generated considerable public interest in the legends of Arthur and the character himself, and brought Malory 's tales to a wider audience. Indeed, the first modernisation of Malory 's great compilation of Arthur 's tales was published in 1862, shortly after Idylls appeared, and there were six further editions and five competitors before the century ended.
This interest in the "Arthur of romance '' and his associated stories continued through the 19th century and into the 20th, and influenced poets such as William Morris and Pre-Raphaelite artists including Edward Burne - Jones. Even the humorous tale of Tom Thumb, which had been the primary manifestation of Arthur 's legend in the 18th century, was rewritten after the publication of Idylls. While Tom maintained his small stature and remained a figure of comic relief, his story now included more elements from the medieval Arthurian romances and Arthur is treated more seriously and historically in these new versions. The revived Arthurian romance also proved influential in the United States, with such books as Sidney Lanier 's The Boy 's King Arthur (1880) reaching wide audiences and providing inspiration for Mark Twain 's satiric A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur 's Court (1889). Although the ' Arthur of romance ' was sometimes central to these new Arthurian works (as he was in Burne - Jones 's "The Sleep of Arthur in Avalon '', 1881 - 1898), on other occasions he reverted to his medieval status and is either marginalized or even missing entirely, with Wagner 's Arthurian operas providing a notable instance of the latter. Furthermore, the revival of interest in Arthur and the Arthurian tales did not continue unabated. By the end of the 19th century, it was confined mainly to Pre-Raphaelite imitators, and it could not avoid being affected by World War I, which damaged the reputation of chivalry and thus interest in its medieval manifestations and Arthur as chivalric role model. The romance tradition did, however, remain sufficiently powerful to persuade Thomas Hardy, Laurence Binyon and John Masefield to compose Arthurian plays, and T.S. Eliot alludes to the Arthur myth (but not Arthur) in his poem The Waste Land, which mentions the Fisher King.
In the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of the romance tradition of Arthur continued, through novels such as T.H. White 's The Once and Future King (1958) and Marion Zimmer Bradley 's The Mists of Avalon (1982) in addition to comic strips such as Prince Valiant (from 1937 onward). Tennyson had reworked the romance tales of Arthur to suit and comment upon the issues of his day, and the same is often the case with modern treatments too. Bradley 's tale, for example, takes a feminist approach to Arthur and his legend, in contrast to the narratives of Arthur found in medieval materials, and American authors often rework the story of Arthur to be more consistent with values such as equality and democracy. In John Cowper Powys 's Porius: A Romance of the Dark Ages (1951), set in Wales in 499, just prior to the Saxon invasion, Arthur, the Emperor of Britain, is only a minor character, whereas Myrddin (Merlin) and Nineue, Tennyson 's Vivien, are major figures. Myrddin 's disappearance at the end of the novel is "in the tradition of magical hibernation when the king or mage leaves his people for some island or cave to return either at a more propitious or more dangerous time '' (see King Arthur 's messianic return). Also Powys 's earlier novel, A Glastonbury Romance (1932) is concerned with both the Holy Grail and the legend that Arthur is buried in the town of Glastonbury.
The romance Arthur has become popular in film and theatre as well. T.H. White 's novel was adapted into the Lerner and Loewe stage musical Camelot (1960) and Walt Disney 's animated film The Sword in the Stone (1963); Camelot, with its focus on the love of Lancelot and Guinevere and the cuckolding of Arthur, was itself made into a film of the same name in 1967. The romance tradition of Arthur is particularly evident and, according to critics, successfully handled in Robert Bresson 's Lancelot du Lac (1974), Éric Rohmer 's Perceval le Gallois (1978) and perhaps John Boorman 's fantasy film Excalibur (1981); it is also the main source of the material used in the Arthurian spoof Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975).
Re-tellings and re-imaginings of the romance tradition are not the only important aspect of the modern legend of King Arthur. Attempts to portray Arthur as a genuine historical figure of c. 500, stripping away the "romance '', have also emerged. As Taylor and Brewer have noted, this return to the medieval "chronicle tradition '' of Geoffrey of Monmouth and the Historia Brittonum is a recent trend which became dominant in Arthurian literature in the years following the outbreak of the Second World War, when Arthur 's legendary resistance to Germanic invaders struck a chord in Britain. Clemence Dane 's series of radio plays, The Saviours (1942), used a historical Arthur to embody the spirit of heroic resistance against desperate odds, and Robert Sherriff 's play The Long Sunset (1955) saw Arthur rallying Romano - British resistance against the Germanic invaders. This trend towards placing Arthur in a historical setting is also apparent in historical and fantasy novels published during this period. In recent years the portrayal of Arthur as a real hero of the 5th century has also made its way into film versions of the Arthurian legend, most notably the TV series ' Arthur of the Britons (1972 -- 73), Merlin (2008 -- 12), The Legend of King Arthur (1979), and Camelot (2011) and the feature films King Arthur (2004), The Last Legion (2007) and King Arthur: Legend of the Sword (2017).
Arthur has also been used as a model for modern - day behaviour. In the 1930s, the Order of the Fellowship of the Knights of the Round Table was formed in Britain to promote Christian ideals and Arthurian notions of medieval chivalry. In the United States, hundreds of thousands of boys and girls joined Arthurian youth groups, such as the Knights of King Arthur, in which Arthur and his legends were promoted as wholesome exemplars. However, Arthur 's diffusion within modern culture goes beyond such obviously Arthurian endeavours, with Arthurian names being regularly attached to objects, buildings, and places. As Norris J. Lacy has observed, "The popular notion of Arthur appears to be limited, not surprisingly, to a few motifs and names, but there can be no doubt of the extent to which a legend born many centuries ago is profoundly embedded in modern culture at every level. ''
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lyrics it's alright ma i'm only bleeding bob dylan | It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) - wikipedia
"It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' is a song written and performed by Bob Dylan and first released on his 1965 album Bringing It All Back Home. It was written in the summer of 1964, first performed live on October 10, 1964, and recorded on January 15, 1965. Described by Dylan biographer Howard Sounes as a "grim masterpiece, '' the song features some of Dylan 's most memorable lyrical images. Among the well - known lines sung in the song are "He not busy being born is busy dying, '' "Money does n't talk, it swears, '' "Although the masters make the rules, for the wisemen and the fools '' and "But even the president of the United States sometimes must have to stand naked. '' The lyrics express Dylan 's anger at what he sees as the hypocrisy, commercialism, consumerism, and war mentality inherent in contemporary American culture. Dylan 's preoccupations in the lyrics, nevertheless, extend beyond the socio - political, expressing existential concerns, touching on urgent matters of personal experience.
Dylan has stated that "It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' is one of his songs that means the most to him, and he has played the song often in live concerts. Since its original release on Bringing It All Back Home, live versions of the song have been issued on The Bootleg Series Vol. 6: Bob Dylan Live 1964, Concert at Philharmonic Hall, Before the Flood and Bob Dylan at Budokan. Dylan can also be seen performing the song in the film Dont Look Back and the video of the HBO special Hard to Handle. The song has been covered by a number of other artists, including Roger McGuinn, the Byrds, Billy Preston, Hugo Race, Terence Trent D'Arby, Mick Farren, Caetano Veloso, Marilyn Scott, and The Duhks.
Dylan wrote "It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' in the summer of 1964. Although he was prepared to take his time developing the song, as he did with "Mr. Tambourine Man '', he finished it in time for inclusion on the Bringing It All Back Home album, which was recorded in January 1965. Dylan first performed "It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' live on October 10, 1964 at Philadelphia Town Hall. The version included on Bringing It All Back Home was recorded on January 15, 1965, the same day that the other three songs on side 2 of the album ("Mr. Tambourine Man '', "Gates of Eden '' and "It 's All Over Now, Baby Blue '') were recorded, with Tom Wilson producing.
It was long thought that the four songs that make up side 2 of Bringing It All Back Home were recorded in one long take. This is not true, but "Gates of Eden '' was recorded in a single take and "It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' was recorded in one take after a single false start (the false start can be heard on both the 6 - disc and 18 - disc versions of The Bootleg Series Vol. 12: The Cutting Edge 1965 -- 1966, released in 2015).
Dylan biographer Howard Sounes described "It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' as a "grim masterpiece. '' The only accompaniment is Dylan 's guitar, playing folk - blues riffs and up and down chord progressions. Author Sean Wilentz has noted that the song 's chord structure is similar to that used by the Everly Brothers ' in their hit recording of "Wake Up Little Susie ''. The lyrics of "It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' express Dylan 's anger at what he sees as the hypocrisy, commercialism, consumerism, and war mentality inherent in contemporary American culture, but unlike those in his earlier protest songs, do not express optimism in the possibility of political solutions. In his book Bob Dylan, Performing Artist, author Paul Williams has suggested that the song addresses "the possibility that the most important (and least articulated) political issue of our times is that we are all being fed a false picture of reality, and it 's coming at us from every direction. '' Williams goes on to say that the song successfully paints a portrait of an "alienated individual identifying the characteristics of the world around him and thus declaring his freedom from its ' rules '. '' As such, a major target in the song is the old, established concepts which give a false picture of reality and hinder new worldviews from being accepted.
While it shares a sense of prevailing entropy with the previous song on the album, "Gates of Eden '', the critique in "It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' is more direct and less allusive. Author Michael Gray has commented that although the vitriol Dylan unleashes towards his targets is similar to his earlier political protest songs, "It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' is a transitional song in that it does not express optimism in the possibility of political solutions. Instead, Dylan sings in a new prophetic voice that would become his trademark. However, with the political pessimism comes a more poetic vision than in his earlier protest songs, along with a more complex figurative language. Howard Sounes notes that the song features some of Dylan 's most memorable images. The opening lines begin the song 's torrent of apocalyptic images:
Critic Andy Gill links the opening line of the song to the title of Arthur Koestler 's bleak novel Darkness at Noon, set in the Great Stalinist purge of 1938 in Soviet Russia. For Gill, Dylan is suggesting that the human spirit can be cast into darkness by the dead hand of communism as well as by American capitalism.
According to Seth Rogovoy, this opening echoes the Book of Ecclesiastes, where the author states (1: 17) "I observed all deeds beneath the sun, and behold all is futile. '' There are echoes of Ecclesiastes throughout the song. Another example is:
The author of Ecclesiastes laments (2: 15 -- 16) "The fate of the fool will befall me also; to what advantage, then, have I become wise? But I come to the conclusion that this, too, was futility, because the wise man and the fool are both forgotten. The wise man dies, just like the fool. ''
One of the most famous lines from the song reminds listeners that even the most powerful people will ultimately be judged:
These lines seemed particularly prescient when Dylan performed the song on his 1974 tour with the Band, a few months before Richard Nixon resigned as President of the United States as a result of the Watergate crisis. After the song has confronted sex, religion and politics, it ends with the lines:
Dylan 's preoccupations in the lyrics extend beyond socio - political commentary, and touch on urgent matters of personal experience -- the challenge to live and grow in the face of uncertainty.
Jimmy Carter would later refer to the line in his presidential nomination speech at the 1976 Democratic National Convention, though it addresses matters of the self which supersede politics, in the process displaying certain themes associated with existentialism. Throughout the song, the words pour out quickly, with Dylan barely taking a breath between lines, so that the intricate rhyming structure is often missed: AAAAAB CCCCCB DDDDDB in the verses and AAB in the chorus.
Dylan has cited "It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' as one of his songs that means the most to him. In 1980 he stated that "I do n't think I could sit down now and write ' It 's Alright, Ma ' again. I would n't even know where to begin, but I can still sing it. '' In 1997, Dylan told The New York Times, "I 've written some songs that I look at, and they just give me a sense of awe. Stuff like, ' It 's Alright, Ma, ' just the alliteration in that blows me away. ''
"It 's Alright Ma '' song has featured in Dylan 's live concerts throughout his long career. Dylan 's website records that, as of March 2015, the song has been performed 772 times by Dylan in live performance. Concert performances of the songs have been released on The Bootleg Series Vol. 6: Bob Dylan Live 1964, Concert at Philharmonic Hall (recorded on October 31, 1964), Live 1962 - 1966: Rare Performances From The Copyright Collections (recorded on April 30, 1965), Before the Flood (recorded on February 14, 1974) and Bob Dylan at Budokan (recorded on February 28, 1978). Dylan also played the song on his Rolling Thunder Revue Tour in 1975 and 1976, as well as on his 1978 tour and his Never Ending Tour from the late 1980s up to the present. Footage of Dylan playing "It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' in May 1965 is included in the film Dont Look Back, and a live performance of Dylan playing the song with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers on February 25, 1986 is included in the video of the HBO special Hard to Handle. Dylan also sang this song at his October 16, 1992 30th Anniversary Concert Celebration at Madison Square Garden, which was released on The 30th Anniversary Concert Celebration album. The studio recording was re-released on the 2008 compilation album Playlist: The Very Best of Bob Dylan ' 60s.
A widely known cover of "It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' is that performed by Roger McGuinn for the soundtrack of the 1969 film, Easy Rider. One of the film 's scriptwriters, the star, Peter Fonda, had originally intended to use Dylan 's version of the song in the film but after failing to secure the appropriate licensing he asked McGuinn to record a cover of it instead. McGuinn 's version of the song included on the Easy Rider soundtrack album, features McGuinn on guitar and vocals, accompanied by his bandmate from The Byrds, Gene Parsons, on harmonica.
The Byrds also recorded a version of the song during the 1970 recording sessions for their album (Untitled) but it was not included in the final track listing. The Byrds occasionally performed the song in concert during 1970 and a live recording of it, from a March 1, 1970 appearance at the Felt Forum, was included on the 2000 remaster of the (Untitled) album, which was re-titled as (Untitled) / (Unissued). This version also appears as a bonus track on the 2002 remastered version of the compilation album, The Byrds Play Dylan, and on the 2006 4 - disc box set There Is a Season.
In 1971, Nannie Parres included "It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' on her album I Thought About You and in 1973 Billy Preston included the song on Everybody Likes Some Kind Of Music. Artists who have covered the song since then include Hugo Race, Terence Trent D'Arby, Mick Farren, Caetano Veloso, Marilyn Scott, The Duhks, and Ground Components.
In 2014, Lee Abramson covered "It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' on his band 's album Blood.
Clinton Heylin, in his biography Bob Dylan: Behind the Shades Revisited, wrote that the recording "opened up a whole new genre of finger - pointing song, not just for Dylan but for the entire panoply of pop. '' Heylin adds that "It 's Alright, Ma '' probably contained more "memorable aphorisms '' than any of Dylan 's songs. One of these lines is "he not busy being born is busy dying, '' from the song 's second verse, which was used by Jimmy Carter in his 1976 presidential nomination acceptance speech at the Democratic National Convention. During his presidential campaign in 2000, Al Gore told talk show host Oprah Winfrey that this was his favorite quotation. Writer and journalist Christopher Hitchens quoted from the song 's lyrics in his last article for Vanity Fair, written shortly before his death from esophageal cancer. Hitchens posted at the top of his essay the verse of "It 's Alright Ma '' that ends with the words "That he who is not busy being born is busy dying ''.
Another memorable line is "Money does n't talk, it swears, '' which appears in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations. In addition, the Columbia Dictionary of Quotations lists this as well as three other lines from the song: "Although the masters make the rules, for the wisemen and the fools, '' "But even the president of the United States sometimes must have to stand naked '' and "Everything from toy guns that spark to flesh - colored Christs that glow in the dark, it 's easy to see without looking too far that not much is really sacred. '' Other well - known lines include "Propaganda, all is phony '' and "Advertising signs they con you into thinking you 're the one. ''
In a 2005 reader 's poll reported in Mojo magazine, "It 's Alright, Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' was listed as the # 8 all - time greatest Bob Dylan song, and a similar poll of artists ranked the song at # 21. In 2002, Uncut magazine listed it as the # 5 all - time Dylan song. The song was featured in the final episode of The Sopranos. It has also been referenced by other songwriters. For instance, the indie - rocker Stephen Malkmus quotes "It 's Alright Ma (I 'm Only Bleeding) '' at the end of his song "Jo - Jo 's Jacket '' from Malkmus ' debut solo album.
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who said that all living things are made of cells | Cell theory - wikipedia
In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells, that they are the basic structural / organizational unit of all organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, also known as cell biology. Over a century later, many debates about cells began amongst scientists. Most of these debates involved the nature of cellular regeneration, and the idea of cells as a fundamental unit of life. Cell theory was eventually formulated in 1839. This is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. However, many other scientists like Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory. It was an important step in the movement away from spontaneous generation.
The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below:
The first of these tenets is disputed, as non-cellular entities such as viruses are sometimes considered life - forms.
The discovery of the cell was made possible through the invention of the microscope. In the first century BC, Romans were able to make glass, discovering that objects appeared to be larger under the glass. In Italy during the 12th century, Salvino D'Armate made a piece of glass fit over one eye, allowing for a magnification effect to that eye. The expanded use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century probably led to wider spread use of simple microscopes (magnifying glasses) with limited magnification. Compound microscope, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image achieving much higher magnification, first appeared in Europe around 1620 In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope about six inches long with two convex lenses inside and examined specimens under reflected light for the observations in his book Micrographia. Hooke also used a simpler microscope with a single lens for examining specimens with directly transmitted light, because this allowed for a clearer image.
Extensive microscopic study was done by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a draper who took the interest in microscopes after seeing one while on an apprenticeship in Amsterdam in 1648. At some point in his life before 1668, he was able to learn how to grind lenses. This eventually led to Leeuwenhoek making his own unique microscope. His were a single lens simple microscope, rather than a compound microscope. This was because he was able to use a single lens that was a small glass sphere but allowed for a magnification of 270x. This was a large progression since the magnification before was only a maximum of 50x. After Leeuwenhoek, there was not much progress for the microscopes until the 1850s, two hundred years later. Carl Zeiss, a German engineer who manufactured microscopes, began to make changes to the lenses used. But the optical quality did not improve until the 1880s when he hired Otto Schott and eventually Ernst Abbe.
Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science.
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 ' observations ' in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope. One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells ''. This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ' a small room ' like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function. What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae '' were alive. His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe "seeds '' that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old Aristotelian theory still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved until Leeuwenhoek later discovers generation is achieved otherwise.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon after Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or 270x. Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to The Royal Society on October 9, 1676, he states that motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Over time, he wrote many more papers in which described many specific forms of microorganisms. Leeuwenhoek named these "animalcules, '' which included protozoa and other unicellular organisms, like bacteria. Though he did not have much formal education, he was able to identify the first accurate description of red blood cells and discovered bacteria after gaining interest in the sense of taste that resulted in Leeuwenhoek to observe the tongue of an ox, then leading him to study "pepper water '' in 1676. He also found for the first time the sperm cells of animals and humans. Once discovering these types of cells, Leeuwenhoek saw that the fertilization process requires the sperm cell to enter the egg cell. This put an end to the previous theory of spontaneous generation. After reading letters by Leeuwenhoek, Hooke was the first to confirm his observations that were thought to be unlikely by other contemporaries.
The cells in animal tissues were observed after plants were because the tissues were so fragile and susceptible to tearing, it was difficult for such thin slices to be prepared for studying. Biologists believed that there was a fundamental unit to life, but were unsure what this was. It would not be until over a hundred years later that this fundamental unit was connected to cellular structure and existence of cells in animals or plants. This conclusion was not made until Henri Dutrochet. Besides stating "the cell is the fundamental element of organization '', Dutrochet also claimed that cells were not just a structural unit, but also a physiological unit.
In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link were awarded the prize for "solving the problem of the nature of cells '', meaning they were the first to prove that cells had independent cell walls by the Königliche Societät der Wissenschaft (Royal Society of Science), Göttingen. Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and the fluid passed between them this way.
Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to two scientists: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden. While Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory, he is not as credited for his attributions toward it. In 1839, Schleiden suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells or the result of cells. He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization process either within other cells or from the outside. However, this was not an original idea of Schleiden. He claimed this theory as his own, though Barthelemy Dumortier had stated it years before him. This crystallization process is no longer accepted with modern cell theory. In 1839, Theodor Schwann states that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or the product of cells in their structures. This was a major advancement in the field of biology since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated.
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
2. The cell is the most basic unit of life
Schleiden 's theory of free cell formation through crystallization was refuted in the 1850s by Robert Remak, Rudolf Virchow, and Albert Kolliker. In 1855, Rudolf Virchow added the third tenet to cell theory. In Latin, this tenet states Omnis cellula e cellula. This translated to:
3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells
However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit. Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect about generation schemes. He instead said that binary fission, which was first introduced by Dumortier, was how reproduction of new animal cells were made. Once this tenet was added, the classical cell theory was complete.
The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:
The modern version of the cell theory includes the ideas that:
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope. The first cell theory is credited to the work of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the 1830s. In this theory the internal contents of cells were called protoplasm and described as a jelly - like substance, sometimes called living jelly. At about the same time, colloidal chemistry began its development, and the concepts of bound water emerged. A colloid being something between a solution and a suspension, where Brownian motion is sufficient to prevent sedimentation. The idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it was n't until 1877, when the botanist Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. In 1889 Hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes. By measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. He also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50 % in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells.
Two opposing concepts developed within the context of studies on osmosis, permeability, and electrical properties of cells. The first held that these properties all belonged to the plasma membrane whereas the other predominant view was that the protoplasm was responsible for these properties. The membrane theory developed as a succession of ad - hoc additions and changes to the theory to overcome experimental hurdles. Overton (a distant cousin of Charles Darwin) first proposed the concept of a lipid (oil) plasma membrane in 1899. The major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so Nathansohn (1904) proposed the mosaic theory. In this view, the membrane is not a pure lipid layer, but a mosaic of areas with lipid and areas with semipermeable gel. Ruhland refined the mosaic theory to include pores to allow additional passage of small molecules. Since membranes are generally less permeable to anions, Leonor Michaelis concluded that ions are adsorbed to the walls of the pores, changing the permeability of the pores to ions by electrostatic repulsion. Michaelis demonstrated the membrane potential (1926) and proposed that it was related to the distribution of ions across the membrane. Harvey and Danielli (1939) proposed a lipid bilayer membrane covered on each side with a layer of protein to account for measurements of surface tension. In 1941 Boyle & Conway showed that the membrane of frog muscle was permeable to both K and Cl, but apparently not to Na, so the idea of electrical charges in the pores was unnecessary since a single critical pore size would explain the permeability to K, H, and Cl as well as the impermeability to Na, Ca, and Mg. Over the same time period, it was shown (Procter & Wilson, 1916) that gels, which do not have a semipermeable membrane, would swell in dilute solutions. Loeb (1920) also studied gelatin extensively, with and without a membrane, showing that more of the properties attributed to the plasma membrane could be duplicated in gels without a membrane. In particular, he found that an electrical potential difference between the gelatin and the outside medium could be developed, based on the H concentration. Some criticisms of the membrane theory developed in the 1930s, based on observations such as the ability of some cells to swell and increase their surface area by a factor of 1000. A lipid layer can not stretch to that extent without becoming a patchwork (thereby losing its barrier properties. Such criticisms stimulated continued studies on protoplasm as the principal agent determining cell permeability properties. In 1938, Fischer and Suer proposed that water in the protoplasm is not free but in a chemically combined form -- the protoplasm represents a combination of protein, salt and water -- and demonstrated the basic similarity between swelling in living tissues and the swelling of gelatin and fibrin gels. Dimitri Nasonov (1944) viewed proteins as the central components responsible for many properties of the cell, including electrical properties. By the 1940s, the bulk phase theories were not as well developed as the membrane theories. In 1941, Brooks & Brooks published a monograph, "The Permeability of Living Cells '', which rejects the bulk phase theories.
With the development of radioactive tracers, it was shown that cells are not impermeable to Na. This was difficult to explain with the membrane barrier theory, so the sodium pump was proposed to continually remove Na as it permeates cells. This drove the concept that cells are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly using energy to maintain ion gradients. In 1935, Karl Lohmann discovered ATP and its role as a source of energy for cells, so the concept of a metabolically - driven sodium pump was proposed. The tremendous success of Hodgkin, Huxley, and Katz in the development of the membrane theory of cellular membrane potentials, with differential equations that modeled the phenomena correctly, provided even more support for the membrane pump hypothesis.
The modern view of the plasma membrane is of a fluid lipid bilayer that has protein components embedded within it. The structure of the membrane is now known in great detail, including 3D models of many of the hundreds of different proteins that are bound to the membrane. These major developments in cell physiology placed the membrane theory in a position of dominance and stimulated the imagination of most physiologists, who now apparently accept the theory as fact -- there are, however, a few dissenters. (citation needed)
In 1956, Afanasy S. Troshin published a book, The Problems of Cell Permeability, in Russian (1958 in German, 1961 in Chinese, 1966 in English) in which he found that permeability was of secondary importance in determination of the patterns of equilibrium between the cell and its environment. Troshin showed that cell water decreased in solutions of galactose or urea although these compounds did slowly permeate cells. Since the membrane theory requires an impermanent solute to sustain cell shrinkage, these experiments cast doubt on the theory. Others questioned whether the cell has enough energy to sustain the sodium / potassium pump. Such questions became even more urgent as dozens of new metabolic pumps were added as new chemical gradients were discovered.
In 1962, Gilbert Ling became the champion of the bulk phase theories and proposed his association - induction hypothesis of living cells.
Cells can be subdivided into the following subcategories:
Animals have evolved a greater diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100 -- 150 different cell types), compared with 10 -- 20 in plants, fungi, and protoctista.
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when was attack on titan season 1 released | List of Attack on Titan episodes - Wikipedia
Attack on Titan is an anime series adapted from the manga of the same title by Hajime Isayama. It is set in a world where humanity lives inside cities surrounded by enormous walls due to the Titans, gigantic humanoid beings who devour humans seemingly without reason. The story follows the adventures of Eren Yeager, his adopted friend Mikasa Ackerman, and their friend Armin Arlert, whose lives are changed forever after a Colossal Titan breaches the wall of their home town. Vowing revenge and to reclaim the world from the Titans, Eren and his friends join the Survey Corps, an elite group of soldiers who fight Titans.
Produced by IG Port 's Wit Studio and directed by Tetsurō Araki, Attack on Titan was broadcast on the Mainichi Broadcasting System from April 7 to September 29, 2013, and later aired on Tokyo MX, FBS, TOS, HTB, TVA and BS11. Both Funimation and Crunchyroll have streamed the series with subtitles on their respective websites. Funimation has also licensed the anime for home video release in 2014. Episode 1 of the English version premiered at Anime Boston, with other episodes put on Funimation 's subscription services. On television of the series has broadcast weekly on Adult Swim 's Toonami block on May 3, 2014, starting at 11: 30 p.m. EST.
From episode 1 to 13, the anime 's opening theme song is "Feuerroter Pfeil und Bogen '' (紅蓮 の 弓矢, Guren no Yumiya, lit. "Crimson Bow and Arrow '') by Linked Horizon and the ending theme song is "Utsukushiki Zankoku na Sekai '' (美しき 残酷 な 世界, lit. "A Beautiful Cruel World '') by Yōko Hikasa. From episode 14 to 25, the anime 's opening theme song is "Die Flügel der Freiheit '' (自由 の 翼, Jiyū no Tsubasa, lit. "The Wings of Freedom '') by Linked Horizon and the ending theme song is "great escape '' by Cinema Staff. The opening themes were collected on Linked Horizon 's single "Jiyū e no Shingeki '' which sold over 100 thousand copies in its first week of sales.
A second season premiered on April 1, 2017 on MBS and other television networks. Funimation and Crunchyroll are streaming the second season on their respective websites, with Adult Swim airing a dubbed version. The opening theme song is "Opfert eure Herzen! '' (心臓 を 捧げよ!, Shinzō o Sasageyo!, lit. "Dedicate Your Hearts! '') by Linked Horizon and the ending theme song is "Yūgure no Tori '' (夕暮れ の 鳥) by Shinsei Kamattechan.
On June 17, 2017, a third season was announced at the close of the second season 's final episode, with a release date slated for April 2018.
The following bonus original video animation episodes were released alongside select volumes of the manga.
Chibi Theater: Fly, Cadets, Fly! (ち み キャラ 劇場 と んで け! 訓練 兵団, Chimi Kyara Gekijō -- Tondeke! Kunren Heidan) is a series of flash animated gag shorts included with the Blu - ray Disc / DVD releases, featuring the characters in chibi form based on designs by Yuupon.
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where does one person one vote come from | One man, one vote - wikipedia
One man, one vote (or one person, one vote) is a slogan used by advocates of political equality through various electoral reforms such as universal suffrage, proportional representation, or the elimination of plurality voting, malapportionment, or gerrymandering.
The British trade unionist George Howell used the phrase "one man, one vote '' in political pamphlets in 1880. During the 20th - century period of decolonisation and the struggles for national sovereignty, from the late 1940s onwards this phrase became widely used in developing countries where majority populations sought to gain political power in proportion to their numbers.
The slogan was notably used by the anti-apartheid movement during the 1980s, which sought to end white minority rule in South Africa.
In the United States, the "one person, one vote '' principle was invoked in a series of cases in the 1960s. Applying the Equal Protection Clause of the United States Constitution, the Supreme Court majority opinion in Reynolds v. Sims (1964) ruled that state legislatures needed to redistrict in order to have congressional districts with roughly equal represented populations. In addition, the court ruled that, unlike the United States Congress, both houses of state legislatures needed to have representation based on districts containing roughly equal populations, with redistricting as needed after censuses.
This phrase was traditionally used in the context of demands for suffrage reform. Historically the emphasis within the House of Commons was on representing areas: counties, boroughs and, later on, universities. The entitlement to vote for the Members of Parliament representing the constituencies varied widely, with different qualifications over time, such as owning property of a certain value, holding an apprenticeship, qualifying for paying the local - government rates, or holding a degree from the university in question. Those who qualified for the vote in more than one constituency were entitled to vote in each constituency, while many adults did not qualify for the vote at all. Plural voting was also present in local government, whereby the owners of business property qualified for votes in the relevant wards.
Reformers argued that Members of Parliament and other elected officials should represent citizens equally, and that each voter should be entitled to exercise the vote once in an election. Successive Reform Acts by 1950 had both extended the franchise eventually to almost all adult citizens (barring convicts, lunatics and members of the House of Lords), and also reduced and finally eliminated most of the plural voting for both Westminster and local - government elections.
But, there were two significant exceptions:
The City of London had never expanded its boundaries and, with many residential dwellings being replaced by businesses, and the destruction of The Blitz, after the Second World War the financial district had barely five thousand residents altogether. The system of plural voting was retained for electing the City of London Corporation, with some modifications.
When Northern Ireland was established in 1921, it adopted the same political system then in place for the Westminster Parliament and British local government. But, the Parliament of Northern Ireland did not follow Westminster in changes to the franchise up to 1950. As a result, into the 1960s, plural voting was still allowed for both Parliament and local government. This meant that in local council elections only ratepayers and their spouses, whether renting or owning the property, could vote while company directors had an extra vote by virtue of their company 's status. University representation continued at Stormont to 1969, while it was abolished for Westminster in 1948. Historians and political scholars have debated the extent to which the franchise for local government contributed to Unionist electoral success in controlling councils in Nationalist - majority areas.
Based on a number of inequities, the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association was founded in 1967. It had five primary demands, and added the demand that each citizen in Northern Ireland be afforded the same number of votes for local elections (national elections followed the same eligibility rules as the rest of the UK). The slogan "one man, one vote '' became a rallying cry for this campaign. The Parliament of Northern Ireland voted to update the voting rules, which were implemented for the Northern Ireland general election, 1969.
The United States Constitution requires a decennial census for the purpose of assuring fair apportionment. Reapportionment has generally been conducted without incident with the exception of the reapportionment that should have followed the 1920 Census was effectively skipped pending resolution by the Reapportionment Act of 1929. Congressional seats have been reapportioned based on population changes between states. State legislatures initially established election of congressional representatives from districts, often based on traditional counties or parishes which preceded founding of the new government. The question arose as to whether the state legislatures were required to ensure that congressional districts were roughly equal in population and to draw new districts to accommodate demographic changes.
Some states redrew their U.S. House districts every ten years to reflect changes in population patterns; many did not. Some never redrew them, except when it was mandated by a change in the number of seats to which that state was entitled in the House of Representatives. In many states, this led to a skewing of influence for voters in some districts over those in others. For example, if the 2nd congressional district eventually had a population of 1.5 million, but the 3rd had only 500,000, then, in effect -- since each district elected the same number of representatives -- a voter in the 3rd district had three times the voting "power '' of a 2nd - district voter. Alabama 's state legislature resisted redistricting from 1910 to 1972 (when forced by federal court order). As a result, rural residents retained a wildly disproportionate amount of power in a time when other areas of the state became urbanized and industrialized, attracting greater populations. Such urban areas were under - represented in the state legislature and underserved; their residents had difficulty getting needed funding for infrastructure and services. They paid far more in taxes to the state than they received in benefits in relation to the population.
The Constitution includes the result of the Great Compromise resulting in representation for the US Senate. Each state was equally represented in the Senate with two representatives, without regard to population. The Founding Fathers considered this principle of such importance that they included a clause in the Constitution to prohibit any state from being deprived of equal representation in the Senate without its permission; see Article V of the United States Constitution. For this reason, "one person, one vote '' has never been implemented in the U.S. Senate, in terms of representation by states.
When states established their legislatures, they often adopted a bicameral model based on colonial governments. Many copied the Senate principle, establishing an upper house based on geography - for instance a state senate with one representative drawn from each county. By the 20th century, this often led to state senators having widely varying amounts of power, with ones from rural areas having votes equal to senators representing much greater urban populations.
Activism in the Civil Rights Movement to regain the ability of African Americans in the South to register and vote highlighted other voting inequities across the country. Numerous court challenges were raised, including in Alabama due to the lack of reapportionment, for decades.
In Colegrove v. Green, 328 U.S. 549 (1946) the United States Supreme Court held in a 4 - 3 plurality decision that Article I, Section 4 left to the legislature of each state the authority to establish the time, place, and manner of holding elections for representatives.
However, in Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186 (1962) the United States Supreme Court overturned the previous decision in Colegrove holding that malapportionment claims under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment were not exempt from judicial review under Article IV, Section 4, as the equal protection issue in this case was separate from any political questions.
The "one person, one vote '' doctrine, which requires electoral districts to be apportioned according to population, thus making each district roughly equal in population, was further cemented in the cases that followed Baker, including Gray v. Sanders, 372 U.S. 368 (1963) which concerned state county districts, Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533 (1964) which concerned state legislature districts, Wesberry v. Sanders, 376 U.S. 1 (1964) which concerned U.S. Congressional districts and Avery v. Midland County, 390 U.S. 474 (1968) which concerned local government districts, a decision which was upheld in Board of Estimate of City of New York v. Morris, 489 U.S. 688 (1989). Evenwel v. Abbott, 578 U.S. ___ (2016) said states may use total population in drawing districts.
Under the ' M.P.V. System ', however, no one person or voter has more than one effective vote for one office. No voter 's vote can be counted more than once for the same candidate. In the final analysis, no voter is given greater weight in his or her vote over the vote of another voter, although to understand this does require a conceptual understanding of how the effect of a ' M.P.V. System ' is like that of a run - off election. The form of majority preferential voting employed in the City of Ann Arbor 's election of its Mayor does not violate the one - man, one - vote mandate nor does it deprive anyone of equal protection rights under the Michigan or United States Constitutions.
The term "One man, one vote, once '' has been applied to Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), Zambia, and Angola, where elections were successfully held that were relatively free of corruption and violence, but then a strongman took hold and free voting ended.
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when did rudolph the red nosed reindeer first air | Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer (TV special) - wikipedia
Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer is a 1964 Christmas stop - motion animated television special produced by Videocraft International, Ltd. (later known as Rankin / Bass Productions) and currently distributed by Universal Television. It first aired Sunday, December 6, 1964, on the NBC television network in the United States, and was sponsored by General Electric under the umbrella title of The General Electric Fantasy Hour. The special was based on the Johnny Marks song "Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer '' which was itself based on the poem of the same name written in 1939 by Marks ' brother - in - law, Robert L. May. Since 1972, the special has aired on CBS, with the network unveiling a high - definition, digitally remastered version of the program in 2005. As with A Charlie Brown Christmas and How the Grinch Stole Christmas, Rudolph no longer airs just once annually, but several times during the Christmas and holiday season on CBS. Unlike other holiday specials that also air on several cable channels (including Freeform), Rudolph only airs on CBS. It has been telecast every year since 1964, making it the longest continuously running Christmas TV special in history. 2014 marked the 50th anniversary of the television special and a series of postage stamps featuring Rudolph was issued by the United States Postal Service on November 6, 2014.
Sam the Snowman welcomes the viewers to Christmastown at the North Pole and introduces Santa and Mrs. Claus who live in a castle located north of the Christmas Tree Forest. Mrs. Claus fusses over Santa as she wants him to fatten up by Christmas Eve. Sam then recalls the year Christmas was almost cancelled due to a snowstorm and tells the story of how a very special reindeer saved the day.
Donner, Santa 's lead reindeer, and his wife have given birth to their new baby fawn, Rudolph. Upon admiring him, they are surprised to see that Rudolph has been born with a glowing red nose. When Santa arrives, he warns Donner that Rudolph will not make the sleigh team because of his nose. Donner then decides to hide the nose by covering it with mud to allow Rudolph to fit in with all the other reindeer.
Over Rudolph 's first year of life, Donner trains him in the basics of being a reindeer, including hiding from the Abominable Snow Monster of the North. Rudolph enters the reindeer games, competing against his fellow fawns. During flight practice, Rudolph meets a doe named Clarice who tells him he is cute, and kisses him, which causes an elated Rudolph to fly higher and faster than everyone else. However, while celebrating with the other bucks, Rudolph 's nose cover pops off, and the others react with fear, then scorn and finally rejection as Rudolph is kicked out of the Reindeer Games. Walking away, Rudolph walks with Clarice, who supports him, until her father firmly tells her to never have any more contacts with a red - nosed reindeer. Then, Rudolph meets up with Hermey, an elf who ran away from Santa 's workshop because he wanted to be a dentist instead of making toys, and they decide to run away together. The pair then meet a prospector named Yukon Cornelius, who has fruitlessly searched his whole life for silver and gold. After escaping the snow monster on an ice floe, the trio crash land on the Island of Misfit Toys where unloved or unwanted toys live with their ruler, a winged lion named King Moonracer. The king allows the group to stay one night on the island in exchange for returning to Christmastown to ask Santa to find homes for the unwanted toys. However, Rudolph leaves the island in the middle of the night on his own, fearing that his nose, which attracts the snow monster, will endanger his friends.
Time goes by and Rudolph grows into adulthood; he tries and fails to find a place to settle where he will be accepted despite his nose. Returning home, he finds that his parents and Clarice have been looking for him for months. He sets out once again to find them, only to discover that the snow monster has captured them. Rudolph tries to save Clarice from being eaten, but the monster hits him in the head with a stalactite, dazing him. Hermey and Yukon return to Christmastown and go to save Rudolph. Hermey, posing as a pig, lures the monster out of his cave and Yukon drops rocks on his head to knock him out. Hermey then pulls out all the monster 's teeth. Realizing Yukon drives the toothless (and now terrified) monster back, only to follow it over the cliff with all his pack dogs. Mourning Yukon 's presumed death, Rudolph, Hermey, Clarice, and the Donners return home where everyone apologizes to them. After hearing their story, Santa welcomes the group back to Christmastown, promises that he will find homes for the Misfit Toys, Hermey opens his own dentist 's office, and Clarice 's father apologizes for being so hard on Rudolph. Yukon then returns with a reformed snow monster (Yukon notes that they bounce) and demonstrates the beast 's ability to trim a Christmas tree. While everybody 's celebrating, Santa interrupts, grimly informing everyone that because of the storm, he is forced to cancel the Christmas trip. Santa is soon distracted by Rudolph 's red nose and realizes that its light could cut through the storm. He asks Rudolph to lead the sleigh and Rudolph agrees. The team then flies off to the island and pick up the toys. The special ends with Santa wishing the viewers a merry Christmas as he and Rudolph fly off into the night.
The TV special, with the teleplay by Romeo Muller, introduced several new characters inspired by the song 's lyrics. Muller told an interviewer shortly before his death that he would have preferred to base the teleplay on May 's original book, but could not find a copy. Other than Burl Ives, all characters were portrayed by Canadian actors recorded at RCA studios in Toronto under the supervision of Bernard Cowan.
After the script, concept designs and storyboards for Rudolph were done by Arthur Rankin, Jr. and his staff of artists at Rankin / Bass in New York City. The company 's trademark stop motion animation process, known as "Animagic '', was filmed at MOM Productions in Tokyo with supervision by Tadahito Mochinaga and associate direction by Kizo Nagashima. Besides Rudolph, Mochinaga and the rest of the Japanese puppet animation staff are also known for their partnership with Rankin / Bass on their other Animagic productions almost throughout the 1960s, from The New Adventures of Pinocchio, to Willy McBean and his Magic Machine, to The Daydreamer and Mad Monster Party?.
Since those involved with the production had no idea of the future value of the stop - motion puppet figures used in the production, many were not preserved. Rankin claimed in 2007 to be in possession of an original Rudolph figure. Nine other puppets -- including Santa and young Rudolph -- were given to a secretary, who gave them to family members. Eventually seven were discarded. In 2005, the remaining two puppets of Rudolph and Santa were appraised on Antiques Roadshow; the episode aired in 2006 on PBS. At that time, their appraised value was between $8,000 and $10,000. The puppets had been damaged through years of rough handling by children and storage in an attic. Toy aficionado Kevin Kriess bought Santa and Rudolph in 2005; in 2007, he had both puppets restored by Screen Novelties, a Los Angeles - based collective of film directors specializing in stop motion animation with puppet fabricator Robin Walsh leading the project. The figures have been shown at conventions since then.
This version has the NBC "living color '' peacock at the introduction. It includes the original end credits, where an elf drops presents that list all the technical credits. It also includes commercials that were exclusively for GE small appliances with some of the same animated elves from the main program introducing each of the products, and closing NBC network bumpers, including promos for the following week 's episodes of GE College Bowl and Meet the Press, which were presumably pre-empted that Sunday for the inaugural 5: 30 PM (EST) telecast. The College Bowl quiz show was also sponsored by GE. The original does not include Santa traveling to the Island of Misfit Toys, but does include a scene near the end of the special in which Yukon Cornelius discovers a peppermint mine near Santa 's workshop. He can be seen throughout the special tossing his pickax into the air, sniffing, then licking the end that contacts the snow or ice. Deletion of the peppermint segment in 1965, to make room for Santa traveling to the Island of Misfit Toys, leaves audience to assume that Cornelius was attempting to find either silver or gold by taste alone.
The 1965 broadcast also included a new duet between Rudolph and Hermey called "Fame and Fortune '', which replaced a scene in which the same characters sang "We 're a Couple of Misfits ''. Viewers of the 1964 special complained that Santa was not shown fulfilling his promise to the Misfit Toys (to include them in his annual toy delivery). In reaction, a new scene for subsequent rebroadcasts was produced with Santa making his first stop at the Island to pick up the toys. This is the ending that has been shown on all telecasts and video releases ever since. Until sometime in the 1970s the special aired without additional cuts, but eventually more commercial time was required by the network. In 1978, several sequences were deleted to make room for more advertising: the instrumental bridge from "We Are Santa 's Elves '' featuring the elf orchestra, additional dialogue by Burl Ives, and the "Peppermint Mine '' scene resolving the fate of Yukon Cornelius. The special 's 1993 restoration saw "Misfits '' returned to its original film context, and the 2004 DVD release showcases "Fame and Fortune '' as a separate musical number.
Most of the 1965 deletions were restored in 1998, and "Fame and Fortune '' was replaced with the original "We 're a Couple of Misfits '' reprise. A short slide reading "Rankin / Bass Presents '' was inserted at the beginning of the special to reflect the company 's name change. The "Peppermint Mine '' scene was not restored; it has not aired on CBS since the mid 70s.
Starting in 2005, CBS aired the video of the "Fame and Fortune '' scene with the soundtrack replaced by an edited version of "We 're a Couple of Misfits ''. The special has been edited to make more time for commercial advertising by shortening some musical numbers.
When Rudolph was first issued on VHS, Betamax, and LaserDisc by Family Home Entertainment and Broadway Video from 1989 to 1997 under the Christmas Classics Series label, the 1965 rebroadcast print described above was used. All current video prints of Rudolph by Classic Media are a compendium of the two previous telecast versions of the special. All the footage in the current versions follow the original NBC airing (without the original GE commercials) up until the "Peppermint Mine '' scene, followed by the final act of the 1965 edit (with the Island of Misfit Toys finale and the 1965 alternate credits in place of the original end credit sequence).
In 1998, the special was released by Sony Wonder on VHS. In 2000, it was released on DVD, and on Blu - ray Disc in 2010 (although the Blu - ray does not contain the bonus features from the previous DVD release.) This edit has been made available in original color form by former rights holders Classic Media, (which in 2012 became the DreamWorks Classics division of DreamWorks Animation, and finally in 2016, part of Universal Pictures) As previously mentioned, this is also the version currently airing on CBS, albeit in edited form to accommodate more commercial time. In November 2014, Classic Media released a 50th anniversary edition of the special on Blu - ray. Walmart released an exclusive 50th anniversary Blu - ray edition with a storybook.
The songs and incidental music were all written by Johnny Marks, with Maury Laws supervising. In addition to the songs previously mentioned, the score also includes the film 's love theme "There 's Always Tomorrow '', sung by Clarice after Rudolph is kicked out of the reindeer games. Marks ' holiday standard "Rockin ' Around the Christmas Tree '' appears as instrumental background music when Rudolph first arrives at the Reindeer Games. Also included in the soundtrack is an instrumental version of Marks ' setting of the Christmas hymn "I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day. ''
In 1964, an LP record of the soundtrack was released on Decca Records. It contained all the original songs performed as they are in the special, with the exception of Burl Ives ' material, which has been re-recorded. MCA Special Products released the soundtrack on CD in June 1995. It is an exact duplication of the original LP released in 1964. Tracks 1 - 9 are the original soundtrack selections while tracks 10 - 19 are the same songs performed by the Decca Concert Orchestra. The song "Fame and Fortune '' is not contained on either release. On November 30, 2004 the soundtrack was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for selling over 500,000 copies.
Ives re-recorded "Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer '' and "A Holly Jolly Christmas '', with different arrangements, for his own album Have a Holly Jolly Christmas in 1965.
Books and other items related to the show have in some cases misspelled "Hermey '' as "Herbie ''. Rich Goldschmidt, who wrote Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer: The Making of the Rankin / Bass Holiday Classic, says the scripts by Romeo Muller show the spelling to be "Hermey ''.
A Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer video game was released on November 9, 2010. The adaptation was published by Red Wagon Games for the Wii and Nintendo DS, and was developed by High Voltage Software and Glyphic Entertainment respectively. The Wii version was received poorly, and garnered extremely negative reviews from sites such as IGN giving it a 1.5 / 10.
The Rankin / Bass special, which currently airs on CBS, inspired numerous television sequels made by the same studio:
The television special 's familiarity to American audiences through its annual rebroadcasts, along with its primitive stop - motion animation that is easy to recreate with modern technology and the special 's ambiguous copyright status, has lent itself to numerous parodies and homages over the years.
Animator Corky Quakenbush has produced parodies of Rudolph for several American television shows:
In the sci - fi / comedy series The Orville, in the episode "About a Girl '', characters watch Rudolph to make the character Bortus consider his plans to arrange gender reassignment surgery for his newborn daughter (Bortus 's species, the Moclans, are a single - gender species who statistically produce only one female every seventy - five years, with females thus having no clear place in their society) by demonstrating how unconventional people can accomplish great things, although Bortus humorously misinterprets the film to suggest that Rudolph 's father might have considered euthanizing his child as an anomaly.
The copyright of the Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer special lies in a loophole of American federal copyright law. When the recording was originally published, the date of copyright (published in Roman numerals) was accidentally listed as 1164 (MCLXIV), omitting an M that should have been present (1964 in Roman numerals is MCMLXIV); this mistake was not corrected with subsequent edits and remains on televised prints to this day. The songs were validly and separately copyrighted, and the original character on which the special was based also remains under copyright and trademark protection, extending some indirect copyright protection to the special as a derivative work. (A number of films, such as It 's a Wonderful Life and His Girl Friday, fall under similar circumstances: a public domain film loosely based on a copyrighted work.)
Assuming the error in the copyright is considered substantial enough to invalidate it (U.S. copyright law before 1988 required works to have a valid date on a copyright notice, while providing some leeway in regard to non-substantial errors), the error puts large portions of the special not directly tied to the songs or original story into the public domain. (Some of the characters, particularly Santa Claus and the adult reindeer, relied on material that was already public domain anyway; all of the characters except Rudolph, most of the images, and large portions of the spoken soundtrack would thus be public domain in this interpretation.) Because of the indirect copyright protections and uncertainty over their extent, permission is still required to show the program as a whole. The extensive derivative works seen in popular culture are likely a byproduct of this uncertain copyright status.
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the world health organization is headquartered in berlin germany | List of United Nations organizations by location - wikipedia
While the Secretariat of the United Nations is headquartered in New York City, its many bodies, specialized agencies and related organizations in other parts of the world, particularly in Europe.
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