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who wrote season of mist and mellow fruitfulness | To Autumn - wikipedia
"To Autumn '' is a poem by English Romantic poet John Keats (31 October 1795 -- 23 February 1821). The work was composed on 19 September 1819 and published in 1820 in a volume of Keats 's poetry that included Lamia and The Eve of St. Agnes. "To Autumn '' is the final work in a group of poems known as Keats 's "1819 odes ''. Although personal problems left him little time to devote to poetry in 1819, he composed "To Autumn '' after a walk near Winchester one autumnal evening. The work marks the end of his poetic career, as he needed to earn money and could no longer devote himself to the lifestyle of a poet. A little over a year following the publication of "To Autumn '', Keats died in Rome.
The poem has three eleven - line stanzas which describe a progression through the season, from the late maturation of the crops to the harvest and to the last days of autumn when winter is nearing. The imagery is richly achieved through the personification of Autumn, and the description of its bounty, its sights and sounds. It has parallels in the work of English landscape artists, with Keats himself describing the fields of stubble that he saw on his walk as being like that in a painting.
The work has been interpreted as a meditation on death; as an allegory of artistic creation; as Keats 's response to the Peterloo Massacre, which took place in the same year; and as an expression of nationalist sentiment. One of the most anthologised English lyric poems, "To Autumn '' has been regarded by critics as one of the most perfect short poems in the English language.
During the spring of 1819, Keats wrote many of his major odes: "Ode on a Grecian Urn '', "Ode on Indolence '', "Ode on Melancholy '', "Ode to a Nightingale '', and "Ode to Psyche ''. After the month of May, he began to pursue other forms of poetry, including the verse tragedy Otho the Great in collaboration with friend and roommate Charles Brown, the second half of Lamia, and a return to his unfinished epic Hyperion. His efforts from spring until autumn were dedicated completely to a career in poetry, alternating between writing long and short poems, and setting himself a goal to compose more than fifty lines of verse each day. In his free time he also read works as varied as Robert Burton 's Anatomy of Melancholy, Thomas Chatterton 's poetry, and Leigh Hunt 's essays.
Although Keats managed to write many poems in 1819, he was suffering from a multitude of financial troubles throughout the year, including concerns over his brother, George, who, after emigrating to America, was badly in need of money. Despite these distractions, on 19 September 1819 he found time to write "To Autumn ''. The poem marks the final moment of his career as a poet. No longer able to afford to devote his time to the composition of poems, he began working on more lucrative projects. Keats 's declining health and personal responsibilities also raised obstacles to his continuing poetic efforts.
On 19 September 1819, Keats walked near Winchester along the River Itchen. In a letter to his friend John Hamilton Reynolds written on 21 September, Keats described the impression the scene had made upon him and its influence on the composition of "To Autumn '': "How beautiful the season is now -- How fine the air. A temperate sharpness about it (...) I never lik 'd stubble fields so much as now (...) Somehow a stubble plain looks warm -- in the same way that some pictures look warm -- this struck me so much in my sunday 's walk that I composed upon it. '' Not everything on Keats 's mind at the time was bright; the poet knew in September that he would have to finally abandon Hyperion. Thus, in the letter that he wrote to Reynolds, Keats also included a note saying that he abandoned his long poem. Keats did not send "To Autumn '' to Reynolds, but did include the poem within a letter to Richard Woodhouse, Keats 's publisher and friend, and dated it on the same day.
The poem was revised and included in Keats 's 1820 collection of poetry titled Lamia, Isabella, the Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems. Although the publishers Taylor and Hessey feared the kind of bad reviews that had plagued Keats 's 1818 edition of Endymion, they were willing to publish the collection after the removal of any potentially controversial poems to ensure that there would be no politically motivated reviews that could give the volume a bad reputation.
"To Autumn '' describes, in its three stanzas, three different aspects of the season: its fruitfulness, its labour and its ultimate decline. Through the stanzas there is a progression from early autumn to mid autumn and then to the heralding of winter. Parallel to this, the poem depicts the day turning from morning to afternoon and into dusk. These progressions are joined with a shift from the tactile sense to that of sight and then of sound, creating a three - part symmetry which is not present in Keats 's other odes.
As the poem progresses, Autumn is represented metaphorically as one who conspires, who ripens fruit, who harvests, who makes music. The first stanza of the poem represents Autumn as involved with the promotion of natural processes, growth and ultimate maturation, two forces in opposition in nature, but together creating the impression that the season will not end. In this stanza the fruits are still ripening and the buds still opening in the warm weather. Stuart Sperry says that Keats emphasises the tactile sense here, suggested by the imagery of growth and gentle motion: swelling, bending and plumping.
In the second stanza Autumn is personified as a harvester, to be seen by the viewer in various guises performing labouring tasks essential to the provision of food for the coming year. There is a lack of definitive action, all motion being gentle. Autumn is not depicted as actually harvesting but as seated, resting or watching. In lines 14 -- 15 the personification of Autumn is as an exhausted labourer. Near the end of the stanza, the steadiness of the gleaner in lines 19 -- 20 again emphasises a motionlessness within the poem. The progression through the day is revealed in actions that are all suggestive of the drowsiness of afternoon: the harvested grain is being winnowed, the harvester is asleep or returning home, the last drops issue from the cider press.
The last stanza contrasts Autumn 's sounds with those of Spring. The sounds that are presented are not only those of Autumn but essentially the gentle sounds of the evening. Gnats wail and lambs bleat in the dusk. As night approaches within the final moments of the song, death is slowly approaching alongside the end of the year. The full - grown lambs, like the grapes, gourds and hazel nuts, will be harvested for the winter. The twittering swallows gather for departure, leaving the fields bare. The whistling red - breast and the chirping cricket are the common sounds of winter. The references to Spring, the growing lambs and the migrating swallows remind the reader that the seasons are a cycle, widening the scope of this stanza from a single season to life in general.
Of all of Keats 's poems, "To Autumn '', with its catalogue of concrete images, most closely describes a paradise as realized on earth while also focusing on archetypal symbols connected with the season. Within the poem, autumn represents growth, maturation, and finally an approaching death. There is a fulfilling union between the ideal and the real.
Scholars have noted a number of literary influences on "To Autumn '', from Virgil 's Georgics, to Edmund Spenser 's "Mutability Cantos '', to the language of Thomas Chatterton, to Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's "Frost at Midnight '', to an essay on autumn by Leigh Hunt, which Keats had recently read.
"To Autumn '' is thematically connected to other odes that Keats wrote in 1819. For example, in his "Ode to Melancholy '' a major theme is the acceptance of the process of life. When this theme appears later in "To Autumn '', however, it is with a difference. This time the figure of the poet disappears, and there is no exhortation of an imaginary reader. There are no open conflicts, and "dramatic debate, protest, and qualification are absent ''. In process there is a harmony between the finality of death and hints of renewal of life in the cycle of the seasons, paralleled by the renewal of a single day.
Critics have tended to emphasize different aspects of the process. Some have focused on renewal; Walter Jackson Bate points to the theme of each stanza including "its contrary '' idea, here death implying, though only indirectly, the renewal of life. Also, noted by both Bate and Jennifer Wagner, the structure of the verse reinforces the sense of something to come; the placing of the couplet before the end of each stanza creates a feeling of suspension, highlighting the theme of continuation.
Others, like Harold Bloom, have emphasized the "exhausted landscape '', the completion, the finality of death, although "Winter descends here as a man might hope to die, with a natural sweetness ''. If death in itself is final, here it comes with a lightness, a softness, also pointing to "an acceptance of process beyond the possibility of grief. '' The progress of growth is no longer necessary; maturation is complete, and life and death are in harmony. The rich description of the cycle of the seasons enables the reader to feel a belonging "to something larger than the self '', as James O'Rourke expresses it, but the cycle comes to an end each year, analogous to the ending of single life. O'Rourke suggests that something of a fear of that ending is subtly implied at the end of the poem, although, unlike the other great odes, in this poem the person of the poet is entirely submerged, so there is at most a faint hint of Keats 's own possible fear.
According to Helen Vendler, "To Autumn '' may be seen as an allegory of artistic creation. As the farmer processes the fruits of the soil into what sustains the human body, so the artist processes the experience of life into a symbolic structure that may sustain the human spirit. This process involves an element of self - sacrifice by the artist, analogous to the living grain 's being sacrificed for human consumption. In "To Autumn '', as a result of this process, the "rhythms '' of the harvesting "artist - goddess '' "permeate the whole world until all visual, tactile, and kinetic presence is transubstantiated into Apollonian music for the ear, '' the sounds of the poem itself.
In a 1979 essay, Jerome McGann argued that while the poem was indirectly influenced by historical events, Keats had deliberately ignored the political landscape of 1819. Countering this view, Andrew Bennett, Nicholas Roe and others focused on what they believed were political allusions actually present in the poem, Roe arguing for a direct connection to the Peterloo Massacre of 1819. Later, Paul Fry argued against McGann 's stance when he pointed out, "It scarcely seems pertinent to say that ' To Autumn ' is therefore an evasion of social violence when it is so clearly an encounter with death itself (...) it is not a politically encoded escape from history reflecting the coerced betrayal (...) of its author 's radicalism. McGann thinks to rescue Keats from the imputation of political naïveté by saying that he was a radical browbeaten into quietism ''.
In his 1999 study of the effect on British literature of the diseases and climates of the colonies, Alan Bewell read "the landscape of ' To Autumn ' '' as "a kind of biomedical allegory of the coming into being of English climatic space out of its dangerous geographical alternatives. '' Britain 's colonial reach over the previous century and a half had exposed the mother country to foreign diseases and awareness of the dangers of extreme tropical climates. Keats, with medical training, having suffered chronic illness himself, and influenced like his contemporaries by "colonial medical discourse '', was deeply aware of this threat.
According to Bewell, the landscape of "To Autumn '' presents the temperate climate of rural England as a healthful alternative to disease - ridden foreign environments. Though the "clammy '' aspect of "fever '', the excessive ripeness associated with tropical climates, intrude into the poem, these elements, less prominent than in Keats 's earlier poetry, are counterbalanced by the dry, crisp autumnal air of rural England. In presenting the particularly English elements of this environment, Keats was also influenced by contemporary poet and essayist Leigh Hunt, who had recently written of the arrival of autumn with its "migration of birds '', "finished harvest '', "cyder (...) making '' and migration of "the swallows '', as well as by English landscape painting and the "pure '' English idiom of the poetry of Thomas Chatterton.
In "To Autumn '', Bewell argues, Keats was at once voicing "a very personal expression of desire for health '' and constructing a "myth of a national environment ''. This "political '' element in the poem, Bewell points out, has also been suggested by Geoffrey Hartman, who expounded a view of "To Autumn '' as "an ideological poem whose form expresses a national idea ''.
Thomas McFarland, on the other hand, in 2000 cautioned against overemphasizing the "political, social, or historical readings '' of the poem, which distract from its "consummate surface and bloom ''. Most important about "To Autumn '' is its concentration of imagery and allusion in its evocation of nature, conveying an "interpenetration of livingness and dyingness as contained in the very nature of autumn ''.
"To Autumn '' is a poem of three stanzas, each of eleven lines. Like others of Keats 's odes written in 1819, the structure is that of an odal hymn, having three clearly defined sections corresponding to the Classical divisions of strophe, antistrophe, and epode. The stanzas differ from those of the other odes through use of eleven lines rather than ten, and have a couplet placed before the concluding line of each stanza.
"To Autumn '' employs poetical techniques which Keats had perfected in the five poems written in the Spring of the same year, but departs from them in some aspects, dispensing with the narrator and dealing with more concrete concepts. There is no dramatic movement in "To Autumn '' as there is in many earlier poems; the poem progresses in its focus while showing little change in the objects it is focusing on. There is, in the words of Walter Jackson Bate, "a union of process and stasis '', "energy caught in repose '', an effect that Keats himself termed "stationing ''. At the beginning of the third stanza he employs the dramatic Ubi sunt device associated with a sense of melancholy, and questions the personified subject: "Where are the songs of Spring? ''
Like the other odes, "To Autumn '' is written in iambic pentameter (but greatly modified from the very beginning) with five stressed syllables to a line, each usually preceded by an unstressed syllable. Keats varies this form by the employment of Augustan inversion, sometimes using a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable at the beginning of a line, including the first: "Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness ''; and employing spondees in which two stressed syllables are placed together at the beginnings of both the following stanzas, adding emphasis to the questions that are asked: "Who hath not seen thee... '', "Where are the songs...? ''
The rhyme of "To Autumn '' follows a pattern of starting each stanza with an ABAB pattern which is followed by rhyme scheme of CDEDCCE in the first verse and CDECDDE in the second and third stanzas. In each case, there is a couplet before the final line. Some of the language of "To Autumn '' resembles phrases found in earlier poems with similarities to Endymion, Sleep and Poetry, and Calidore. Keats characteristically uses monosyllabic words such as "... how to load and bless with fruit the vines that round the thatch - eves run. '' The words are weighted by the emphasis of bilabial consonants (b, m, p), with lines like "... for Summer has o'er - brimm 'd their clammy cells. '' There is also an emphasis on long vowels which control the flow of the poem, giving it a slow measured pace: "... while barred clouds bloom the soft dying day ''.
Between the manuscript version and the published version of "To Autumn '' Keats tightened the language of the poem. One of Keats 's changes emphasised by critics is the change in line 17 of "Drows 'd with red poppies '' to "Drows 'd with the fume of poppies '', which emphasises the sense of smell instead of sight. The later edition relies more on passive, past participles, as apparent in the change of "While a gold cloud '' in line 25 to "While barred clouds ''. Other changes involve the strengthening of phrases, especially within the transformation of the phrase in line 13 "whoever seeks for thee may find '' into "whoever seeks abroad may find ''. Many of the lines within the second stanza were completely rewritten, especially those which did not fit into a rhyme scheme. Some of the minor changes involved adding punctuation missing from the original manuscript copy and altering capitalisation.
Critical and scholarly praise has been unanimous in declaring "To Autumn '' one of the most perfect poems in the English language. A.C. Swinburne placed it with "Ode on a Grecian Urn '' as "the nearest to absolute perfection '' of Keats 's odes; Aileen Ward declared it "Keats 's most perfect and untroubled poem ''; and Douglas Bush has stated that the poem is "flawless in structure, texture, tone, and rhythm ''; Walter Evert, in 1965, stated that "To Autumn '' is "the only perfect poem that Keats ever wrote -- and if this should seem to take from him some measure of credit for his extraordinary enrichment of the English poetic tradition, I would quickly add that I am thinking of absolute perfection in whole poems, in which every part is wholly relevant to and consistent in effect with every other part. ''
Early reviews of "To Autumn '' focused on it as part of Keats 's collection of poems Lamia, Isabella, the Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems. An anonymous critic in the July 1820 Monthly Review claimed, "this writer is very rich both in imagination and fancy; and even a superabundance of the latter faculty is displayed in his lines ' On Autumn, ' which bring the reality of nature more before our eyes than almost any description that we remember. (...) If we did not fear that, young as is Mr K., his peculiarities are fixed beyond all the power of criticism to remove, we would exhort him to become somewhat less strikingly original, -- to be less fond of the folly of too new or too old phrases, -- and to believe that poetry does not consist in either the one or the other. '' Josiah Conder in the September 1820 Eclectic Review mentioned, "One naturally turns first to the shorter pieces, in order to taste the flavour of the poetry. The following ode to Autumn is no unfavourable specimen. '' An anonymous reviewer in The Edinburgh Magazine for October 1820 added to a discussion of some of Keats 's longer poems the afterthought that "The ode to ' Fancy, ' and the ode to ' Autumn, ' also have great merit. ''
Although, after Keats 's death, recognition of the merits of his poetry came slowly, by mid century, despite widespread Victorian disapproval of the alleged "weakness '' of his character and the view often advanced "that Keats 's work represented mere sensuality without substance '', some of his poems began to find an appreciative audience, including "To Autumn ''. In an 1844 essay on Keats 's poetry in the Dumfries Herald, George Gilfillian placed "To Autumn '' among "the finest of Keats ' smaller pieces ''. In an 1851 lecture, David Macbeth Moir acclaimed "four exquisite odes, -- ' To a Nightingale, ' ' To a Grecian Urn, ' ' To Melancholy, ' and ' To Autumn, ' -- all so pregnant with deep thought, so picturesque in their limning, and so suggestive. '' In 1865, Matthew Arnold singled out the "indefinable delicacy, charm, and perfection of (...) Keats 's (touch) in his Autumn ''. John Dennis, in an 1883 work about great poets, wrote that "the ' Ode to Autumn ', ripe with the glory of the season it describes -- must ever have a place among the most precious gems of lyrical poetry. '' The 1888 Britannica declared, "Of these (odes) perhaps the two nearest to absolute perfection, to the triumphant achievement and accomplishment of the very utmost beauty possible to human words, may be that to Autumn and that on a Grecian Urn ''.
At the turn of the 20th century, a 1904 analysis of great poetry by Stephen Gwynn claimed, "above and before all (of Keats 's poems are) the three odes, To a Nightingale, On a Grecian Urn, and To Autumn. Among these odes criticism can hardly choose; in each of them the whole magic of poetry seems to be contained. '' Sidney Colvin, in his 1917 biography, pointed out that "the ode To Autumn (...) opens up no such far - reaching avenues to the mind and soul of the reader as the odes To a Grecian Urn, To a Nightingale, or On Melancholy, but in execution is more complete and faultless than any of them. '' Following this in a 1934 analysis of Romantic poetry, Margaret Sherwood stated that the poem was "a perfect expression of the phase of primitive feeling and dim thought in regard to earth processes when these are passing into a thought of personality. ''
Harold Bloom, in 1961, described "To Autumn '' as "the most perfect shorter poem in the English language. '' Following this, Walter Jackson Bate, in 1963, claimed that "(...) each generation has found it one of the most nearly perfect poems in English. '' Later, in 1973, Stuart Sperry wrote, "' To Autumn ' succeeds through its acceptance of an order innate in our experience -- the natural rhythm of the seasons. It is a poem that, without ever stating it, inevitably suggests the truth of ' ripeness is all ' by developing, with a richness of profundity of implication, the simple perception that ripeness is fall. '' In 1981, William Walsh argued that "Among the major Odes (...) no one has questioned the place and supremacy of ' To Autumn ', in which we see wholly realized, powerfully embodied in art, the complete maturity so earnestly laboured at in Keats 's life, so persuasively argued about in his letters. '' Literary critic and academic Helen Vendler, in 1988, declared that "in the ode ' To Autumn, ' Keats finds his most comprehensive and adequate symbol for the social value of art. ''
In 1997, Andrew Motion summarised the critical view on "To Autumn '': "it has often been called Keats 's ' most... untroubled poem ' (...) To register the full force of its achievement, its tensions have to be felt as potent and demanding. '' Following in 1998, M.H. Abrams explained, "' To Autumn ' was the last work of artistic consequence that Keats completed (...) he achieved this celebratory poem, with its calm acquiescence to time, transience and mortality, at a time when he was possessed by a premonition (...) that he had himself less than two years to live ''. James Chandler, also in 1998, pointed out that "If To Autumn is his greatest piece of writing, as has so often been said, it is because in it he arguably set himself the most ambitious challenge of his brief career and managed to meet it. '' Timothy Corrigan, in 2000, claimed that "' To Autumn ' may be, as other critics have pointed out, his greatest achievement in its ability (...) to redeem the English vernacular as the casual expression of everyday experience, becoming in this his most exterior poem even in all its bucolic charm. '' In the same year, Thomas McFarland placed "To Autumn '' with "Ode to a Nightingale '', "Ode on a Grecian Urn '', "The Eve of St. Agnes '' and Hyperion as Keats 's greatest achievement, together elevating Keats "high in the ranks of the supreme makers of world literature ''. In 2008, Stanley Plumly wrote, "history, posterity, immortality are seeing ' Ode to a Nightingale, ' ' Ode on a Grecian Urn, ' and ' To Autumn ' as three of the most anthologized lyric poems of tragic vision in English. ''
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what is the significance of the big dipper | Big Dipper - wikipedia
The Big Dipper (US) or the Plough (UK) is an asterism consisting of seven bright stars of the constellation Ursa Major; six of them are of second magnitude and one, Megrez (δ), of third magnitude. Four define a "bowl '' or "body '' and three define a "handle '' or "head ''. It is recognized as a distinct grouping in many cultures.
The North Star (Polaris), the current northern pole star and the tip of the handle of the Little Dipper (Little Bear), can be located by extending an imaginary line through the front two stars of the asterism, Merak (β) and Dubhe (α). This makes it useful in celestial navigation.
The constellation of Ursa Major has been seen as a bear, a wagon, or a ladle. The "bear '' tradition is Greek, but apparently the name "bear '' has parallels in Siberian or North American traditions.
The name "Bear '' is Homeric, and apparently native to Greece, while the "Wain '' tradition is Mesopotamian. Book XVIII of Homer 's Iliad mentions it as "the Bear, which men also call the Wain ''. In Latin, these seven stars were known as the "Seven Oxen '' (septentriones, from septem triōnēs). The classical mythographer identified the "Bear '' as the nymph Callisto, changed into a she - bear by Hera, the jealous wife of Zeus.
In Ireland and the United Kingdom, this pattern is known as the Plough. The symbol of the Starry Plough has been used as a political symbol by Irish Republican and left wing movements. Former names include the Great Wain (i.e., wagon) or Butcher 's Cleaver. The terms Charles 's Wain and Charles his Wain are derived from the still older Carlswæn. A folk etymology holds that this derived from Charlemagne, but the name is common to all the Germanic languages and intended the churls ' wagon (i.e., "the men 's wagon ''), in contrast with the women 's wagon (the Little Dipper). An older "Odin 's Wain '' may have preceded these Nordic designations.
In German, it is known as the "Great Wagon '' (Großer Wagen) and, less often, the "Great Bear '' (Großer Bär). In Scandinavia, it is known by variations of "Charles 's Wagon '' (Karlavagnen, Karlsvogna, or Karlsvognen), but also the "Great Bear '' (Stora Björn). In Dutch, its official name is the "Great Bear '' (Grote Beer), but it is popularly known as the "Saucepan '' (Steelpannetje). In Italian, too, it is called the "Great Wagon '' (Grande Carro).
In Romanian and most Slavic languages, it is known as the "Great Wagon '' as well, but, in Hungarian, it is commonly called "Göncöl 's Wagon '' (Göncölszekér) or, less often, "Big Göncöl '' (Nagy Göncöl) after a táltos (shaman) in Hungarian mythology who carried medicine that could cure any disease. In Finnish, the figure is known as Otava with established etymology in the archaic meaning ' salmon net ', although other uses of the word refer to ' bear ' and ' wheel '. The bear relation is claimed to stem from the animal 's resemblance to -- and mythical origin from -- the asterism rather than vice versa.
In the Lithuanian language, the stars of Ursa Major are known as Didieji Grįžulo Ratai ("Stars of the Riding Hall 's Wheels ''). Other names for the constellation include Perkūno Ratai ("Wheels of Perkūnas ''), Kaušas ("Bucket ''), Vežimas ("Carriage ''), and Samtis ("Summit '').
In traditional Chinese astronomy, which continues to be used throughout East Asia (e.g., in astrology), these stars are generally considered to compose the Right Wall of the Purple Forbidden Enclosure which surrounds the Northern Celestial Pole, although numerous other groupings and names have been made over the centuries. Similarly, each star has a distinct name, which likewise has varied over time and depending upon the asterism being constructed. The Western asterism is now known as the "Northern Dipper '' (北斗) or the "Seven Stars of the Northern Dipper '' (Chinese and Japanese: 北斗 七星; pinyin: Běidǒu Qīxīng; Cantonese Yale: Bak1 - dau2 Cat1 - sing1; rōmaji: Hokutō Shichisei; Korean: 북두칠성; romaja: Bukdu Chilseong; Vietnamese: Sao Bắc Đẩu). The personification of the Big Dipper itself is also known as "Doumu '' (斗 母) in Chinese folk religion and Taoism, and Marici in Buddhism.
In Shinto, the seven largest stars of Ursa Major belong to Amenominakanushi, the oldest and most powerful of all kami.
In North Korea, the constellation is featured on the flag of the country 's special forces.
In South Korea, the constellation is referred to as "the seven stars of the north ''. In the related myth, a widow with seven sons found comfort with a widower, but to get to his house required crossing a stream. The seven sons, sympathetic to their mother, placed stepping stones in the river. Their mother, not knowing who put the stones in place, blessed them and, when they died, they became the constellation.
In Malaysian, it is known as the "Dipper Stars '' (Buruj Biduk); in Indonesian, as the "Canoe Stars '' (Bintang Biduk).
In Burmese, these stars are known as Pucwan Tārā (ပုဇွန် တာရာ, pronounced "bazun taya ''). Pucwan (ပုဇွန်) is a general term for a crustacean, such as prawn, shrimp, crab, lobster, etc.
In Javanese, as known as "Bintang Kartika ''. This name comes from Sanskrit which refers "krttikã '' the same star cluster. In ancient Javanese this brightest seven stars are known as Lintang Wuluh, literally means "seven stars ''. This star cluster is so popular because its emergence into the sky signals the time marker for planting.
In Hindu astronomy, it is referred to as the "Collection of Seven Great Sages '' (Saptarshi Mandala), as each star is named after a mythical Hindu sage.
An Arabian story has the four stars of the Plough 's bowl as a coffin, with the three stars in the handle as mourners, following it.
In Mongolian, it is known as the "Seven Gods '' (Долоон бурхан). In Kazakh, they are known as the Jetiqaraqshi (Жетіқарақшы) and, in Kyrgyz, as the Jetigen (Жетиген).
Within Ursa Major the stars of the Big Dipper have Bayer designations in consecutive Greek alphabetical order from the bowl to the handle.
In the same line of sight as Mizar, but about one light - year beyond it, is the star Alcor (80 UMa). Together they are known as the "Horse and Rider ''. At fourth magnitude, Alcor would normally be relatively easy to see with the unaided eye, but its proximity to Mizar renders it more difficult to resolve, and it has served as a traditional test of sight. Mizar itself has four components and thus enjoys the distinction of being part of an optical binary as well as being the first - discovered telescopic binary (1617) and the first - discovered spectroscopic binary (1889).
Five of the stars of the Big Dipper are at the core of the Ursa Major Moving Group. The two at the ends, Dubhe and Alkaid, are not part of the swarm, and are moving in the opposite direction. Relative to the central five, they are moving down and to the right in the map. This will slowly change the Dipper 's shape, with the bowl opening up and the handle becoming more bent. In 50,000 years the Dipper will no longer exist as we know it, but be re-formed into a new Dipper facing the opposite way. The stars Alkaid to Phecda will then constitute the bowl, while Phecda, Merak, and Dubhe will be the handle.
Not only are the stars in the Big Dipper easily found themselves, they may also be used as guides to yet other stars. Thus it is often the starting point for introducing Northern Hemisphere beginners to the night sky:
Additionally, the Dipper may be used as a guide to telescopic objects:
The "Seven Stars '' referenced in the Bible 's Book of Amos may refer to these stars or, more likely, to the Pleiades.
In addition, the constellation has also been used in corporate logos and the Alaska flag. The seven stars on a red background of the Flag of the Community of Madrid, Spain, are the stars of the Big Dipper Asterism. It can be said the same thing about the seven stars pictured in the bordure azure of the Coat of arms of Madrid, capital of Spain.
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windows 98 is not a gui based operating system | History of the graphical user interface - Wikipedia
The history of the graphical user interface, understood as the use of graphic icons and a pointing device to control a computer, covers a five - decade span of incremental refinements, built on some constant core principles. Several vendors have created their own windowing systems based on independent code, but with basic elements in common that define the WIMP "window, icon, menu and pointing device '' paradigm.
There have been important technological achievements, and enhancements to the general interaction in small steps over previous systems. There have been a few significant breakthroughs in terms of use, but the same organizational metaphors and interaction idioms are still in use. Although many GUI operating systems are controlled by using a mouse, the keyboard can also be used with keyboard shortcuts or arrow keys. The interface developments described, below, have been summarized and omit many details in the interest of brevity. The influence of game computers and joystick operation has been omitted.
Early dynamic information devices such as radar displays, where input devices were used for direct control of computer - created data, set the basis for later improvements of graphical interfaces. Some early cathode - ray - tube (CRT) screens used a light pen, rather than a mouse, as the pointing device.
The concept of a multi-panel windowing system was introduced by the first real - time graphic display systems for computers: the SAGE Project and Ivan Sutherland 's Sketchpad.
In the 1960s, Douglas Engelbart 's Augmentation of Human Intellect project at the Augmentation Research Center at SRI International in Menlo Park, California developed the oN - Line System (NLS). This computer incorporated a mouse - driven cursor and multiple windows used to work on hypertext. Engelbart had been inspired, in part, by the memex desk - based information machine suggested by Vannevar Bush in 1945.
Much of the early research was based on how young children learn. So, the design was based on the childlike primitives of eye - hand coordination, rather than use of command languages, user - defined macro procedures, or automated transformations of data as later used by adult professionals.
Engelbart 's work directly led to the advances at Xerox PARC. Several people went from SRI to Xerox PARC in the early 1970s. In 1973, Xerox PARC developed the Alto personal computer. It had a bitmapped screen, and was the first computer to demonstrate the desktop metaphor and graphical user interface (GUI). It was not a commercial product, but several thousand units were built and were heavily used at PARC, as well as other XEROX offices, and at several universities for many years. The Alto greatly influenced the design of personal computers during the late 1970s and early 1980s, notably the Three Rivers PERQ, the Apple Lisa and Macintosh, and the first Sun workstations.
The GUI was first developed at Xerox PARC by Alan Kay, Larry Tesler, Dan Ingalls, David Smith, Clarence Ellis and a number of other researchers. It used windows, icons, and menus (including the first fixed drop - down menu) to support commands such as opening files, deleting files, moving files, etc. In 1974, work began at PARC on Gypsy, the first bitmap What - You - See - Is - What - You - Get (WYSIWYG) cut & paste editor. In 1975, Xerox engineers demonstrated a Graphical User Interface "including icons and the first use of pop - up menus ''.
In 1981 Xerox introduced a pioneering product, Star, a workstation incorporating many of PARC 's innovations. Although not commercially successful, Star greatly influenced future developments, for example at Apple, Microsoft and Sun Microsystems.
The Xerox Alto (and later Xerox Star) was an early personal computer developed at Xerox PARC in 1973. It was the first computer to use the desktop metaphor and mouse - driven graphical user interface (GUI).
The Alto, unlike Star, was not a commercial product, but several thousand units were built and were heavily used at PARC, other Xerox facilities, at least one government facility and at several universities for many years. The Alto greatly influenced the design of some personal computers in the following decades, notably the Apple Macintosh and the first Sun workstations.
The Blit, a graphics terminal, was developed at Bell Labs in 1982.
Lisp machines originally developed at MIT and later commercialized by Symbolics and other manufacturers, were early high - end single user computer workstations with advanced graphical user interfaces, windowing, and mouse as an input device. First workstations from Symbolics came to market in 1981, with more advanced designs in the subsequent years.
Beginning in 1979, started by Steve Jobs and led by Jef Raskin, the Apple Lisa and Macintosh teams at Apple Computer (which included former members of the Xerox PARC group) continued to develop such ideas. The Lisa, released in 1983, featured a high - resolution stationery - based (document - centric) graphical interface atop an advanced hard disk based OS that featured such things as preemptive multitasking and graphically oriented inter-process communication. The comparatively simplified Macintosh, released in 1984 and designed to be lower in cost, was the first commercially successful product to use a multi-panel window interface. A desktop metaphor was used, in which files looked like pieces of paper. File directories looked like file folders. There were a set of desk accessories like a calculator, notepad, and alarm clock that the user could place around the screen as desired; and the user could delete files and folders by dragging them to a trash - can icon on the screen. The Macintosh, in contrast to the Lisa, used a program - centric rather than document - centric design. Apple revisited the document - centric design, in a limited manner, much later with OpenDoc.
There is still some controversy over the amount of influence that Xerox 's PARC work, as opposed to previous academic research, had on the GUIs of the Apple Lisa and Macintosh, but it is clear that the influence was extensive, because first versions of Lisa GUIs even lacked icons. These prototype GUIs are at least mouse - driven, but completely ignored the WIMP ("window, icon, menu, pointing device '') concept. Screenshots of first GUIs of Apple Lisa prototypes show the early designs. Note also that Apple engineers visited the PARC facilities (Apple secured the rights for the visit by compensating Xerox with a pre-IPO purchase of Apple stock) and a number of PARC employees subsequently moved to Apple to work on the Lisa and Macintosh GUI. However, the Apple work extended PARC 's considerably, adding manipulatable icons, and drag and drop manipulation of objects in the file system (see Macintosh Finder) for example. A list of the improvements made by Apple, beyond the PARC interface, can be read at Folklore.org. Jef Raskin warns that many of the reported facts in the history of the PARC and Macintosh development are inaccurate, distorted or even fabricated, due to the lack of usage by historians of direct primary sources.
In 1984, Apple released a television commercial which introduced the Apple Macintosh during the telecast of Super Bowl XVIII by CBS, with allusions to George Orwell 's noted novel, Nineteen Eighty - Four. The commercial was aimed at making people think about computers, identifying the user - friendly interface as a personal computer which departed from previous business - oriented systems, and becoming a signature representation of Apple products.
In 1986, the Apple IIgs was launched. The IIgs was a very advanced model of the successful Apple II series, based on 16 - bit technology (in fact, virtually two machines into one). It came with a new operating system, the Apple GS / OS, which features a Finder - like GUI, very similar to that of the Macintosh series, able to deal with the advanced graphic abilities of its Video Graphics Chip (VGC).
Released in 1983, the Soviet Union Agat PC featured a graphical interface and a mouse device.
Founded 1982, SGI introduced the IRIS 1000 Series in 1983. The first graphical terminals (IRIS 1000) shipped in late 1983, and the corresponding workstation model (IRIS 1400) was released in mid-1984. The machines used an early version of the MEX windowing system on top of the GL2 Release 1 operating environment. Examples of the MEX user interface can be seen in a 1988 article in the journal "Computer Graphics '', while earlier screenshots can not be found. The first commercial GUI - based systems, these did not find widespread use as to their (discounted) academic list price of $22,500 and $35,700 for the IRIS 1000 and IRIS 1400, respectively. However, these systems were commercially successful enough to start SGI 's business as one of the main graphical workstation vendors. In later revisions of graphical workstations, SGI switched to the X window system, which had been developed starting at MIT since 1984 and which became the standard for UNIX workstations.
Digital Research (DRI) created the Graphics Environment Manager (GEM) as an add - on program for personal computers. GEM was developed to work with existing CP / M and DOS operating systems on business computers such as IBM PC compatibles. It was developed from DRI software, known as GSX, designed by a former PARC employee. The similarity to the Macintosh desktop led to a copyright lawsuit from Apple Computer, and a settlement which involved some changes to GEM. This was to be the first of a series of ' look and feel ' lawsuits related to GUI design in the 1980s.
GEM received widespread use in the consumer market from 1985, when it was made the default user interface built into the Atari TOS operating system of the Atari ST line of personal computers. It was also bundled by other computer manufacturers and distributors, such as Amstrad. Later, it was distributed with the best - sold Digital Research version of DOS for IBM PC compatibles, the DR - DOS 6.0. The GEM desktop faded from the market with the withdrawal of the Atari ST line in 1992 and with the popularity of the Microsoft Windows 3.0 in the PC front around the same period of time. The Falcon030, released in 1993 was the last computer from Atari to use GEM.
Tandy 's DeskMate appeared in the early 1980s on its TRS - 80 machines and was ported to its Tandy 1000 range in 1984. Like most PC GUIs of the time, it depended on a disk operating system such as TRSDOS or MS - DOS. The application was popular at the time and included a number of programs like Draw, Text and Calendar, as well as attracting outside investment such as Lotus 1 - 2 - 3 for DeskMate.
MSX - View was developed for MSX computers by ASCII Corporation and HAL Laboratory. MSX - View contains software such as Page Edit, Page View, Page Link, VShell, VTed, VPaint and VDraw. An external version of the built - in MSX View of the Panasonic FS - A1GT was released as an add - on for the Panasonic FS - A1ST on disk instead of 512 kB ROM DISK.
The Amiga computer was launched by Commodore in 1985 with a GUI called Workbench. Workbench was based on an internal engine developed mostly by RJ Mical, called Intuition, which drove all the input events. The first versions used a blue / orange / white / black default palette, which was selected for high contrast on televisions and composite monitors. Workbench presented directories as drawers to fit in with the "workbench '' theme. Intuition was the widget and graphics library that made the GUI work. It was driven by user events through the mouse, keyboard, and other input devices.
Due to a mistake made by the Commodore sales department, the first floppies of AmigaOS (released with the Amiga1000) named the whole OS "Workbench ''. Since then, users and CBM itself referred to "Workbench '' as the nickname for the whole AmigaOS (including Amiga DOS, Extras, etc.). This common consent ended with release of version 2.0 of AmigaOS, which re-introduced proper names to the installation floppies of AmigaDOS, Workbench, Extras, etc.
Starting with Workbench 1.0, AmigaOS treated the Workbench as a backdrop, borderless window sitting atop a blank screen. With the introduction of AmigaOS 2.0, however, the user was free to select whether the main Workbench window appeared as a normally layered window, complete with a border and scrollbars, through a menu item.
Amiga users were able to boot their computer into a command - line interface (also known as the CLI or Amiga Shell). This was a keyboard - based environment without the Workbench GUI. Later they could invoke it with the CLI / SHELL command "LoadWB '' which loaded Workbench GUI.
One major difference between other OS 's of the time (and for some time after) was the Amiga 's fully multi-tasking operating system, a powerful built - in animation system using a hardware blitter and copper and 4 channels of 26 kHz 8 - bit sampled sound. This made the Amiga the first multi-media computer years before other OS 's.
Like most GUIs of the day, Amiga 's Intuition followed Xerox 's, and sometimes Apple 's, lead. But a CLI was included which dramatically extended the functionality of the platform. However, the CLI / Shell of Amiga is not just a simple text - based interface like in MS - DOS, but another graphic process driven by Intuition, and with the same gadgets included in Amiga 's graphics. library. The CLI / Shell interface integrates itself with the Workbench, sharing privileges with the GUI.
The Amiga Workbench evolved over the 1990s, even after Commodore 's 1994 bankruptcy.
Acorn 's 8 - bit BBC Master Compact shipped with Acorn 's first public GUI interface in 1986. Little commercial software, beyond that included on the Welcome disk, was ever made available for the system, despite the claim by Acorn at the time that "the major software houses have worked with Acorn to make over 100 titles available on compilation discs at launch ''. The most avid supporter of the Master Compact appeared to be Superior Software, who produced and specifically labelled their games as ' Master Compact ' compatible.
RISC OS / rɪskoʊˈɛs / is a series of graphical user interface - based computer operating systems (OSes) designed for ARM architecture systems. It takes its name from the RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) architecture supported. The OS was originally developed by Acorn Computers for use with their 1987 range of Archimedes personal computers using the Acorn RISC Machine processors. It comprises a command - line interface and desktop environment with a windowing system.
Originally branded as the Arthur 1.20 the subsequent Arthur 2 release was shipped under the name RISC OS 2.
The WIMP interface incorporates three mouse buttons (named Select, Menu and Adjust), context - sensitive menus, window order control (i.e. send to back) and dynamic window focus (a window can have input focus at any position on the stack). The Icon bar (Dock) holds icons which represent mounted disc drives, RAM discs, running applications, system utilities and docked: Files, Directories or inactive Applications. These icons have context - sensitive menus and support drag - and - drop behaviour. They represent the running application as a whole, irrespective of whether it has open windows.
The GUI is centred around the concept of files. The Filer displays the contents of a disc. Applications are run from the Filer view and files can be dragged to the Filer view from applications to perform saves. Application directories are used to store applications. The OS differentiates them from normal directories through the use of a pling (exclamation mark, also called shriek) prefix. Double - clicking on such a directory launches the application rather than opening the directory. The application 's executable files and resources are contained within the directory, but normally they remain hidden from the user. Because applications are self - contained, this allows drag - and - drop installation and removal.
The RISC OS Style Guide encourages a consistent look and feel across applications. This was introduced in RISC OS 3 and specifies application appearance and behaviour. Acorn 's own main bundled applications were not updated to comply with the guide until RISCOS Ltd 's Select release in 2001.
The outline fonts manager provides spatial anti-aliasing of fonts, the OS being the first operating system to include such a feature, having included it since before January 1989. Since 1994, in RISC OS 3.5, it has been possible to use an outline anti-aliased font in the WindowManager for UI elements, rather than the bitmap system font from previous versions.
Because most of the very early IBM PC and compatibles lacked any common true graphical capability (they used the 80 - column basic text mode compatible with the original MDA display adapter), a series of file managers arose, including Microsoft 's DOS Shell, which features typical GUI elements as menus, push buttons, lists with scrollbars and mouse pointer. The name text - based user interface was later invented to name this kind of interface. Many MS - DOS text mode applications, like the default text editor for MS - DOS 5.0 (and related tools, like QBasic), also used the same philosophy. The IBM DOS Shell included with IBM DOS 5.0 (circa 1992) supported both text display modes and actual graphics display modes, making it both a TUI and a GUI, depending on the chosen mode.
Advanced file managers for MS - DOS were able to redefine character shapes with EGA and better display adapters, giving some basic low resolution icons and graphical interface elements, including an arrow (instead of a coloured cell block) for the mouse pointer. When the display adapter lacks the ability to change the character 's shapes, they default to the CP437 character set found in the adapter 's ROM. Some popular utility suites for MS - DOS, as Norton Utilities (pictured) and PC Tools used these techniques as well.
DESQview was a text mode multitasking program introduced in July 1985. Running on top of MS - DOS, it allowed users to run multiple DOS programs concurrently in windows. It was the first program to bring multitasking and windowing capabilities to a DOS environment in which existing DOS programs could be used. DESQview was not a true GUI but offered certain components of one, such as resizable, overlapping windows and mouse pointing.
Before the MS - Windows age, and with the lack of a true common GUI under MS - DOS, most graphical applications which worked with EGA, VGA and better graphic cards had proprietary built - in GUIs. One of the best known such graphical applications was Deluxe Paint, a popular painting software with a typical WIMP interface.
The original Adobe Acrobat Reader executable file for MS - DOS was able to run on both the standard Windows 3. x GUI and the standard DOS command prompt. When it was launched from the command prompt, on a machine with a VGA graphics card, it provided its own GUI.
Windows 1.0, a GUI for the MS - DOS operating system was released in 1985. The market 's response was less than stellar. Windows 2.0 followed, but it was n't until the 1990 launch of Windows 3.0, based on Common User Access that its popularity truly exploded. The GUI has seen minor redesigns since, mainly the networking enabled Windows 3.11 and its Win32s 32 - bit patch. The 16 - bit line of MS Windows were discontinued with the introduction of Windows 95 and Windows NT 32 - bit based architecture in the 1990s. See the next section.
The main window of a given application can occupy the full screen in maximized status. The users must then to switch between maximized applications using the Alt + Tab keyboard shortcut; no alternative with the mouse except for de-maximize. When none of the running application windows are maximized, switching can be done by clicking on a partially visible window, as is the common way in other GUIs.
In 1988, Apple sued Microsoft for copyright infringement of the LISA and Apple Macintosh GUI. The court case lasted 4 years before almost all of Apple 's claims were denied on a contractual technicality. Subsequent appeals by Apple were also denied. Microsoft and Apple apparently entered a final, private settlement of the matter in 1997.
GEOS was launched in 1986. Originally written for the 8 - bit home computer Commodore 64 and shortly after, the Apple II series. The name was later used by the company as PC / Geos for IBM PC systems, then Geoworks Ensemble. It came with several application programs like a calendar and word processor, and a cut - down version served as the basis for America Online 's DOS client. Compared to the competing Windows 3.0 GUI it could run reasonably well on simpler hardware, but its developer had a restrictive policy towards third - party developers that prevented it from becoming a serious competitor. And it was targeted at 8 - bit machines and the 16 - bit computer age was dawning.
The standard windowing system in the Unix world is the X Window System (commonly X11 or X), first released in the mid-1980s. The W Window System (1983) was the precursor to X; X was developed at MIT as Project Athena. Its original purpose was to allow users of the newly emerging graphic terminals to access remote graphics workstations without regard to the workstation 's operating system or the hardware. Due largely to the availability of the source code used to write X, it has become the standard layer for management of graphical and input / output devices and for the building of both local and remote graphical interfaces on virtually all Unix, Linux and other Unix - like operating systems, with the notable exceptions of macOS and Android.
X allows a graphical terminal user to make use of remote resources on the network as if they were all located locally to the user by running a single module of software called the X server. The software running on the remote machine is called the client application. X 's network transparency protocols allow the display and input portions of any application to be separated from the remainder of the application and ' served up ' to any of a large number of remote users. X is available today as free software.
The PostScript - based NeWS (Network extensible Window System) was developed by Sun Microsystems in the mid-1980s. For several years SunOS included a window system combining NeWS and the X Window System. Although NeWS was considered technically elegant by some commentators, Sun eventually dropped the product. Unlike X, NeWS was always proprietary software.
The widespread adoption of the PC platform in homes and small businesses popularized computers among people with no formal training. This created a fast - growing market, opening an opportunity for commercial exploitation and of easy - to - use interfaces and making economically viable the incremental refinement of the existing GUIs for home systems.
Also, the spreading of Highcolor and True Color capabilities of display adapters providing thousands and millions of colors, along with faster CPUs and accelerated graphic cards, cheaper RAM, storage devices orders of magnitude larger (from megabytes to gigabytes) and larger bandwidth for telecom networking at lower cost helped to create an environment in which the common user was able to run complicated GUIs which began to favor aesthetics.
After Windows 3.11, Microsoft began to develop a new consumer - oriented version of the operating system. Windows 95 was intended to integrate Microsoft 's formerly separate MS - DOS and Windows products and included an enhanced version of DOS, often referred to as MS - DOS 7.0. It also featured a significant redesign of the GUI, dubbed "Cairo ''. While Cairo never really materialized, parts of Cairo found their way into subsequent versions of the operating system starting with Windows 95. Both Win95 and WinNT could run 32 - bit applications, and could exploit the abilities of the Intel 80386 CPU, as the preemptive multitasking and up to 4 GiB of linear address memory space. Windows 95 was touted as a 32 - bit based operating system but it was actually based on a hybrid kernel (VWIN32. VXD) with the 16 - bit user interface (USER. EXE) and graphic device interface (GDI. EXE) of Windows for Workgroups (3.11), which had 16 - bit kernel components with a 32 - bit subsystem (USER32. DLL and GDI32. DLL) that allowed it to run native 16 - bit applications as well as 32 - bit applications. In the marketplace, Windows 95 was an unqualified success, promoting a general upgrade to 32 - bit technology, and within a year or two of its release had become the most successful operating system ever produced.
Accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign, Windows 95 was a major success in the marketplace at launch and shortly became the most popular desktop operating system.
Windows 95 saw the beginning of the browser wars, when the World Wide Web began receiving a great deal of attention in popular culture and mass media. Microsoft at first did not see potential in the Web, and Windows 95 was shipped with Microsoft 's own online service called The Microsoft Network, which was dial - up only and was used primarily for its own content, not internet access. As versions of Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer were released at a rapid pace over the following few years, Microsoft used its desktop dominance to push its browser and shape the ecology of the web mainly as a monoculture.
Windows 95 evolved through the years into Windows 98 and Windows ME. Windows ME was the last in the line of the Windows 3. x-based operating systems from Microsoft. Windows underwent a parallel 32 - bit evolutionary path, where Windows NT 3.1 was released in 1993. Windows NT (for New Technology) was a native 32 - bit operating system with a new driver model, was unicode - based, and provided for true separation between applications. Windows NT also supported 16 - bit applications in an NTVDM, but it did not support VxD based drivers. Windows 95 was supposed to be released before 1993 as the predecessor to Windows NT. The idea was to promote the development of 32 - bit applications with backward compatibility -- leading the way for more successful NT release. After multiple delays, Windows 95 was released without unicode and used the VxD driver model. Windows NT 3.1 evolved to Windows NT 3.5, 3.51 and then 4.0 when it finally shared a similar interface with its Windows 9x desktop counterpart and included a Start button. The evolution continued with Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, then Windows 7. Windows XP and higher were also made available in 64 - bit modes. Windows server products branched off with the introduction of Windows Server 2003 (available in 32 - bit and 64 - bit IA64 or x64), then Windows Server 2008 and then Windows Server 2008 R2. Windows 2000 and XP shared the same basic GUI although XP introduced Visual Styles. With Windows 98, the Active Desktop theme was introduced, allowing an HTML approach for the desktop, but this feature was coldly received by customers, who frequently disabled it. At the end, Windows Vista definitively discontinued it, but put a new SideBar on the desktop.
The Macintosh 's GUI has been revised multiple times since 1984, with major updates including System 7 and Mac OS 8. It underwent its largest revision to date with the introduction of the "Aqua '' interface in 2001 's Mac OS X. It was a new operating system built primarily on technology from NeXTStep with UI elements of the original Mac OS grafted on. macOS uses a technology known as Quartz, for graphics rendering and drawing on - screen. Some interface features of macOS are inherited from NeXTStep (such as the Dock, the automatic wait cursor, or double - buffered windows giving a solid appearance and flicker - free window redraws), while others are inherited from the old Mac OS operating system (the single system - wide menu - bar). Mac OS X 10.3 introduced features to improve usability including Exposé, which is designed to make finding open windows easier.
With Mac OS X 10.4 released in April 2005, new features were added, including Dashboard (a virtual alternate desktop for mini specific - purpose applications) and a search tool called Spotlight, which provides users with an option for searching through files instead of browsing through folders.
With Mac OS X 10.7 released in July 2011, included support for full - screen apps and Mac OS X 10.11 released in September 2015 support creating a full - screen split view by pressing the green button on left upper corner of the window or Control + Cmd + F keyboard shortcut.
In the early days of X Window development, Sun Microsystems and AT&T attempted to push for a GUI standard called OPEN LOOK in competition with Motif. OPEN LOOK was developed from scratch in conjunction with Xerox, while Motif was a collective effort that fell into place, with a look and feel patterned after Windows 3.11. Motif prevailed in the UNIX GUI battles and became the basis for the Common Desktop Environment (CDE). CDE was based on Visual User Environment (VUE), a proprietary desktop from Hewlett - Packard that in turn was based on the Motif look and feel.
In the late 1990s, there was significant growth in the Unix world, especially among the free software community. New graphical desktop movements grew up around Linux and similar operating systems, based on the X Window System. A new emphasis on providing an integrated and uniform interface to the user brought about new desktop environments, such as KDE Plasma 5, GNOME and Xfce which have supplanted CDE in popularity on both Unix and Unix - like operating systems. The Xfce, KDE and GNOME look and feel each tend to undergo more rapid change and less codification than the earlier OPEN LOOK and Motif environments.
Later releases added improvements over the original Workbench, like support for high - color Workbench screens, context menus, and embossed 2D icons with pseudo-3D aspect. Some Amiga users preferred alternative interfaces to standard Workbench, such as Directory Opus Magellan.
The use of improved, third - party GUI engines became common amongst users who preferred more attractive interfaces -- such as Magic User Interface (MUI), and ReAction. These object - oriented graphic engines driven by user interface classes and methods were then standardized into the Amiga environment and changed Amiga Workbench to a complete and modern guided interface, with new standard gadgets, animated buttons, true 24 - bit - color icons, increased use of wallpapers for screens and windows, alpha channel, transparencies and shadows as any modern GUI provides.
Modern derivatives of Workbench are Ambient for MorphOS, Scalos, Workbench for AmigaOS 4 and Wanderer for AROS. There is a brief article on Ambient and descriptions of MUI icons, menus and gadgets at aps.fr and images of Zune stay at main AROS site.
Use of object oriented graphic engines dramatically changes the look and feel of a GUI to match actual styleguides.
Originally collaboratively developed by Microsoft and IBM to replace DOS, OS / 2 version 1.0 (released in 1987) had no GUI at all. Version 1.1 (released 1988) included Presentation Manager (PM), an implementation of IBM Common User Access, which looked a lot like the later Windows 3.1 UI. After the split with Microsoft, IBM developed the Workplace Shell (WPS) for version 2.0 (released in 1992), a quite radical, object - oriented approach to GUIs. Microsoft later imitated much of this look in Windows 95.
The NeXTSTEP user interface was used in the NeXT line of computers. NeXTSTEP 's first major version was released in 1989. It used Display PostScript for its graphical underpinning. The NeXTSTEP interface 's most significant feature was the Dock, carried with some modification into Mac OS X, and had other minor interface details that some found made it easier and more intuitive to use than previous GUIs. NeXTSTEP 's GUI was the first to feature opaque dragging of windows in its user interface, on a comparatively weak machine by today 's standards, ideally aided by high performance graphics hardware.
BeOS was developed on custom AT&T Hobbit - based computers before switching to PowerPC hardware by a team led by former Apple executive Jean - Louis Gassée as an alternative to Mac OS. BeOS was later ported to Intel hardware. It used an object - oriented kernel written by Be, and did not use the X Window System, but a different GUI written from scratch. Much effort was spent by the developers to make it an efficient platform for multimedia applications. Be Inc. was acquired by PalmSource, Inc. (Palm Inc. at the time) in 2001. The BeOS GUI still lives in Haiku, an open source software reimplementation of the BeOS.
In 2007 with the iPhone and later in 2010 with the introduction of the iPad, Apple popularized the post-WIMP style of interaction for multi-touch screens, with those devices considered to be milestones in the development of mobile devices.
Other portable devices such as MP3 players and cell phones have been a burgeoning area of deployment for GUIs in recent years. Since the mid-2000s, a vast majority of portable devices have advanced to having high - screen resolutions and sizes. (The Galaxy Note 4 's 2,560 × 1,440 pixel display is an example). Because of this, these devices have their own famed user interfaces and operating systems that have large homebrew communities dedicated to creating their own visual elements, such as icons, menus, wallpapers, and more. Post-WIMP interfaces are often used in these mobile devices, where the traditional pointing devices required by the desktop metaphor are not practical.
As high - powered graphics hardware draws considerable power and generates significant heat, many of the 3D effects developed between 2000 and 2010 are not practical on this class of device. This has led to the development of simpler interfaces making a design feature of two dimensionality such as exhibited by the Metro (Modern) UI first used in Windows 8 and the 2012 Gmail redesign.
In the first decade of the 21st century, the rapid development of GPUs led to a trend for the inclusion of 3D effects in window management. It is based in experimental research in User Interface Design trying to expand the expressive power of the existing toolkits in order to enhance the physical cues that allow for direct manipulation. New effects common to several projects are scale resizing and zooming, several windows transformations and animations (wobbly windows, smooth minimization to system tray...), composition of images (used for window drop shadows and transparency) and enhancing the global organization of open windows (zooming to virtual desktops, desktop cube, Exposé, etc.) The proof - of - concept BumpTop desktop combines a physical representation of documents with tools for document classification possible only in the simulated environment, like instant reordering and automated grouping of related documents.
These effects are popularized thanks to the widespread use of 3D video cards (mainly due to gaming) which allow for complex visual processing with low CPU use, using the 3D acceleration in most modern graphics cards to render the application clients in a 3D scene. The application window is drawn off - screen in a pixel buffer, and the graphics card renders it into the 3D scene.
This can have the advantage of moving some of the window rendering to the GPU on the graphics card and thus reducing the load on the main CPU, but the facilities that allow this must be available on the graphics card to be able to take advantage of this.
Examples of 3D user - interface software include XGL and Compiz from Novell, and AIGLX bundled with Red Hat Fedora. Quartz Extreme for macOS and Windows 7 and Vista 's Aero interface use 3D rendering for shading and transparency effects as well as Exposé and Windows Flip and Flip 3D, respectively. Windows Vista uses Direct3D to accomplish this, whereas the other interfaces use OpenGL.
Virtual reality devices such as the Oculus Rift and Sony 's PlayStation VR (formerly Project Morpheus) aim to provide users with presence, a perception of full immersion into a virtual environment.
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when do they vote on nba rookie of the year | NBA rookie of the Year award - wikipedia
The National Basketball Association 's Rookie of the Year Award is an annual National Basketball Association (NBA) award given to the top rookie (s) of the regular season. Initiated following the 1952 -- 53 NBA season, it confers the Eddie Gottlieb Trophy, named after the former Philadelphia Warriors head coach.
The winner is selected by a panel of United States and Canadian sportswriters and broadcasters, each casting first, second, and third place votes (worth five points, three points, and one point respectively). The player (s) with the highest point total, regardless of the number of first - place votes, wins the award.
The most recent Rookie of the Year winner is Malcolm Brogdon. Twenty - one winners were drafted first overall. Sixteen winners have also won the NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP) award in their careers; Wilt Chamberlain and Wes Unseld earning both honors the same season. Nineteen of the forty two non-active winners have been elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. Three seasons had joint winners -- Dave Cowens and Geoff Petrie in the 1970 -- 71 season, Grant Hill and Jason Kidd in the 1994 -- 95 season, and Elton Brand and Steve Francis in the 1999 -- 2000 season. Five players won the award unanimously (by capturing all of the first - place votes) -- Ralph Sampson, David Robinson, Blake Griffin, Damian Lillard, and Karl - Anthony Towns.
Patrick Ewing of Jamaica, Pau Gasol of Spain, Kyrie Irving of Australia and Andrew Wiggins of Canada are the only winners not born in the United States. Ewing immigrated to the Boston area at age 11, Irving moved to the United States at age 2, and Wiggins moved to the U.S. as a junior in high school; Gasol is the only winner trained totally outside the U.S.
Prior to the 1952 -- 53 season, the Rookie of the Year was selected by newspaper writers; however, the NBA does not officially recognize those players as winners. The league did publish the pre-1953 winners in their 1994 -- 95 edition of the Official NBA Guide and the 1994 Official NBA Basketball Encyclopedia, but those winners have not been listed in subsequent publications.
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who scored the most points in the superbowl | List of Super Bowl records - wikipedia
This is a list of Super Bowl records, which includes performances of the highest and lowest caliber throughout the history of the Super Bowl. The list of records is separated by individual players and teams. Players and teams, along with their records, are noted with the Super Bowl game played. All records can be referenced at the National Football League (NFL) 's official website, NFL.com.
A complete list of Super Bowl records can be found in the 2017 Official NFL Record & Fact Book beginning at page 654. Records can also be found at Pro Football Reference.com.
00 In this category R = rushing touchdown (TD); P = pass reception TD; KR = kickoff return TD
This category includes rushing, receiving, interception returns, punt returns, kickoff returns, and fumble returns.
Note: The goal posts were moved to the back of the end zone in 1974. As such, this record can not be broken without another change to the layout of the field. Standard field goal protocol does not currently allow a kick 17 yards or shorter.
All records can be referenced at NFL.com.
Record holder team listed first.
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Combined rushing and passing
Record holder team listed first.
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Turnovers are defined as the number of times losing the ball on interceptions and fumbles.
Record holder team listed first.
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In the history of the Super Bowl, the following firsts have yet to occur:
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youtube hum saath saath hain full movie in hindi | Hum Saath - Saath Hain - Wikipedia
Hum Saath Saath Hain (English: We are together) is a 1999 Indian drama film written and directed by Sooraj R. Barjatya. The film was produced and distributed by the home production of Sooraj Barjatya, Rajshri Productions. The film stars Saif Ali Khan, Salman Khan, Mohnish Behl, Mudit jain, Tabu, Sonali Bendre and Karisma Kapoor, while Alok Nath, Reema Lagoo, Neelam Kothari, and Mahesh Thakur play pivotal supporting roles.
The story centers on a family headed by Ramkishan, and containing his wife Mamta as well as three sons, played by the leading actors. The film was shot in Mumbai 's Film City and in the villages of Rajasthan state.
Earning over ₹ 280 million (US $3.9 million), the film went on to become the highest - grossing film of the year. The film was declared a blockbuster by Box Office India. It received overwhelming response from the audiences and predominantly positive reviews from critics. It was also the first Bollywood film to be played in Canadian theatres, with six screenings in Toronto.
Salman Khan 's performance earned him Best Actor nomination at Zee Cine Awards held in 2000. Meanwhile, Mohnish Behl received a Best Supporting Actor nomination at 45th Filmfare Awards for his performance. The film was also dubbed into the Telugu and released with the title Premaanuraagam.
Hum Saath Saath Hain is a story of Ramkishan (Alok Nath), a popular businessman in Uttar Pradesh. He runs his company in the name of his wife Mamta (Reema Lagoo). Ramkishan has 4 children, 3 sons and a daughter. The elder son, Vivek (Mohnish Behl) is the stepson of Mamta but she considers him as her own child as well. He is disabled in his right arm due to an accident many years ago in which he saved his brothers. Vivek is tasked with the care of his father 's business. Mamta 's first biological son is Prem (Salman Khan). Prem is pursuing his master 's degree from US. He has much respect for his elder brother Vivek and considers him as a role model. He is often scolded for having his nose in a book at all times. After Prem is Sangita (Neelam Kothari). Sangita is married to a Computer Engineer, Anand (Mahesh Thakur) and they have a daughter Radhika (Zoya Afroz).
She also considers Anand 's elder brother Anuraag (Dhilip Dhawan) and his wife Jyoti (Shilpa Sharma) and their children, Bablu (Hardik Tanna) and Raju (Zaki Mukkadam) as her own as well. Then, we have Vinod (Saif Ali Khan). He is the youngest and energetic son in the family and an easy - go - lucky guy. He is lazy at times, but he helps out Vivek at the office. Preeti (Sonali Bendre) is a beautiful girl, doctor by profession and the daughter of Pritam (Satish Shah), a close relative to Ramkishan 's, and she has feelings for Prem. Prem too has feelings for her and it is obvious to the family that they love each other since childhood, yet their feelings remain unspoken. Vivek 's disability keeps away suitable brides for himself. On the 25th wedding anniversary party for Ramkishan and Mamta, a business tycoon, Adharsh (Rajeev Verma) comes with his only daughter, Sadhna (Tabu).
It is then revealed that Adharsh had thoughts of getting Sadhana married to Vivek. Ramkishan and Mamta happily accept the proposal. Wedding bells ring in the mansion while Vinod is happy that Sapna (Karisma Kapoor) is here with them. Sapna is also a close relative to the family, and just like Prem and Preeti, Vinod and Sapna also have crushes on each other. Prem returns from the US after a long time for his parent 's anniversary, but just to get caught in a hustle of his younger brother and sister by teasing him with Preeti. Eventually, this leads to their engagement soon after Vivek and Sadhna 's wedding reception. Between these moments, Mamta 's three ladies club friends (Kunika, Jayshree T. and Kalpana Iyer) who constantly irritates Mamta 's sister - in - law (Himani Shivpuri), always try to turn her against Vivek. Sapna 's father, Dharamraj (Sadashiv Amrapurkar) also joins with them in order to get his daughter 's life better by getting her married to Vinod, which is not known by Sapna at all. They try to convince Mamta to ask her husband to separate the shares between the 3 sons equally. Later, when speaking of honeymoon for Vivek and Sadhna, Vivek suggests that everyone should come and its a holiday and not a honeymoon.
Everyone reluctantly agrees and gets ready to go to Rampur as per Sadhna 's wish. Vinod, who is deeply in love with Sapna, is excited to meet her and confess his love. They reach the mansion in Rampur. Ramkishan feels that he can give the business administration to his sons and retire. He decides to give the Managing Directing post to Vivek, who is the most experienced in his 3 sons. After sometime, Vinod and Sapna get engaged, much to Dharamraj relief. Yet he tries to change Pritam 's mind because he is giving Preeti 's hand to Prem. But Pritam turns against him and everything goes smoothly until Sangita calls up her brother. It is revealed that Anand gets cheated by Anuraag and they are chased out to find a new job and home. They go to Bangalore and do a small living. Buying the chance, Mamta 's friends and Dharamraj poisons her mind saying that the brothers will face issues like Anuraag and Anand and also that the 3 daughters - in - law would not get along well in future. Mamta is already confused and this leads to Vivek and Sadhna leaving the house. Prem is not around and Vinod is upset with his mother for her decision. Vinod goes with Vivek and Sadhna to Rampur and takes care of their factory that is being built, which brings electricity to the village. Prem comes to India and goes straight to Rampur. Much to his surprise, it 's revealed that Vivek and Sadhna are expecting their first child. Prem agrees to sit as the Managing Director, much to Vivek 's insistence, but not before telling him that he is always the leader, firmly. Prem goes home and see that his things are vacated from his room and shifted to Vivek 's room upstairs.
When Mamta says that Prem and Preeti must stay here after marriage, Prem gets infuriated. They get into a heated argument in which Prem tries to make his mother realize her mistake by pointing out that if not for Vivek, he and Vinod wo n't be alive. Prem also accuses his mother that she is showing her true face of being a step - mother. This leads to Mamta slapping him, which indicates that she still loves Vivek. Prem ends his conversation by swearing on her most beloved sister - in - law, Sadhna, whom she brought home with love, that he wo n't marry Preeti unless the both of them come home. Mamta gets dumbfounded. Prem goes to Preeti 's house and tells her father. Pritam tells Prem that he is aware that he would end up in this decision and already told Preeti and assures him that she respects his decision. Prem meets Preeti and she tells him that she also respects Vivek and Sadhna just like he does and that they wo n't get married until they return. She also tells him that she will take care of Sadhna 's delivery.
Meanwhile, Anuraag faces difficulties in his company without Anand and at home, Bablu and Raju fall ill due to the absence of Anand 's family. This ends up in Jyoti calling them and Anuraag realizes his mistake. He comes to Ramkishan 's home and apologies to everyone. Sangita tells her mother to bring Vivek and Sadhna back. Mamta makes up her mind and all of them go to Rampur just in time for Sadhna to deliver a baby boy. Mamta unites with Vivek and Sadhna. Sadhna asks Prem and Preeti to get ready for their wedding. In the end, everything gets solved and Prem - Preeti and Vinod - Sapna get married on the same day. The three daughters - in - law open the new factory. Dharamraj comes and apologizes to Mamta that his love for his daughter and the fear for her future made him like that. All of them forgive him and says that such things happen. After everything, Vivek becomes the MD of Ramkishan 's business with Mamta 's blessings. Her three ladies club friends come there and much to their shock, Mamta throws them out, which indicates that nothing can break her bond with her sons and daughters - in - law. In the last minutes, it shows that Vivek 's hand is recovering.
Anil Kapoor and Rishi Kapoor were the initial choices for Mohnish Behl 's role. Rishi Kapoor was offered Neelam 's husband 's role but declined it. Madhuri Dixit was the first choice for Tabu 's role. Aishwarya Rai was offered a role in this film but was n't able to fulfill it. Nitish Bharadwaj was considered for the role of Neelam 's husband in the film after Rishi Kapoor declined but Nitish rejected as he was busy with his serial Vishnu Puran those days. Later the role went to Mahesh Thakur.
The Music was composed Raamlaxman, who teamed up with Sooraj Barjatya for the third time. The soundtrack features seven songs. It features playback singers Kumar Sanu (as Prem), Alka Yagnik (as Preeti), Kavita Krishnamurthy (as Sapna) Udit Narayan (as Vinod), Anuradha Paudwal (as Sadhna), Hariharan (as Vivek) and Sonu Nigam (as Anwar).
Nominated
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person who has to be center of attention | Histrionic personality disorder - wikipedia
Histrionic personality disorder (HPD) is defined by the American Psychiatric Association as a personality disorder characterized by a pattern of excessive attention - seeking emotions, usually beginning in early adulthood, including inappropriately seductive behavior and an excessive need for approval. Histrionic people are lively, dramatic, vivacious, enthusiastic, and flirtatious. HPD is diagnosed four times as frequently in women as men. It affects 2 -- 3 % of the general population and 10 -- 15 % in inpatient and outpatient mental health institutions.
HPD lies in the dramatic cluster of personality disorders. People with HPD have a high need for attention, make loud and inappropriate appearances, exaggerate their behaviors and emotions, and crave stimulation. They may exhibit sexually provocative behavior, express strong emotions with an impressionistic style, and can be easily influenced by others. Associated features include egocentrism, self - indulgence, continuous longing for appreciation, and persistent manipulative behavior to achieve their own needs.
People with HPD are usually high - functioning, both socially and professionally. They usually have good social skills, despite tending to use them to manipulate others into making them the center of attention. HPD may also affect a person 's social and / or romantic relationships, as well as their ability to cope with losses or failures. They may seek treatment for clinical depression when romantic (or other close personal) relationships end.
Individuals with HPD often fail to see their own personal situation realistically, instead dramatizing and exaggerating their difficulties. They may go through frequent job changes, as they become easily bored and may prefer withdrawing from frustration (instead of facing it). Because they tend to crave novelty and excitement, they may place themselves in risky situations. All of these factors may lead to greater risk of developing clinical depression.
Additional characteristics may include:
Some people with histrionic traits or personality disorder change their seduction technique into a more maternal or paternal style as they age.
A mnemonic that can be used to remember the characteristics of histrionic personality disorder is shortened as "PRAISE ME '':
Little research has been done to find evidence of what causes histrionic personality disorder and from where it stems. Although direct causes are inconclusive there are a few theories and studies conducted that suggests there are multiple possible causes. There are neurochemical, genetic, psychoanalytical, and environmental causes contributing to histrionic personality disorder. Traits such as extravagance, vanity, and seductiveness of hysteria have similar qualities to women diagnosed with HPD. HPD symptoms do not fully develop until the age of 15 with treatment only beginning at approximately 40 years of age. An example of over-zealousness could be compared to the famous "grande hystérie '', a well - known demonstration of hypnotism by Jean - Martin Charcot by using his best - known subject, Blanche Wittmann. Wittmann was known for her attractiveness and ability to make herself the center of attention, based on her hysteria and lavish performance.
Studies have shown that there is a strong correlation between the function of neurotransmitters and the Cluster B personality disorders such as HPD. Individuals diagnosed with HPD have highly responsive noradrenergic systems which is responsible for the synthesis, storage, and release of the neurotransmitter, norepinephrine. High levels of norepinephrine leads to anxiety - proneness, dependency, and high sociability.
Twin studies has aided in breaking down the genetic vs. environment debate. A twin study conducted by the department of Psychology at Oslo University attempted to establish a correlation between genetic and Cluster B personality disorders. With a test sample of 221 twins, 92 monozygotic and 129 dizygotic twins researchers interviewed the twins with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM - III - R Personality Disorders (SCID - II) and concluded that there was a correlation of 0.67 that Histrionic Personality Disorder is hereditary.
Psychoanalytic theories incriminate authoritarian or distant attitudes by one (mainly the mother) or both parents, along with conditional love based on expectations the child can never fully meet. Using psychoanalysis, Freud believed that lustfulness was a projection of the patient 's lack of ability to love unconditionally and develop cognitively to maturity, and that such patients were overall emotionally shallow. He believed the reason for being unable to love could have resulted from a traumatic experience, such as the death of a close relative during childhood or divorce of one 's parents, which gave the wrong impression of committed relationships. Exposure to one or multiple traumatic occurrences of a close friend or family member 's leaving (via abandonment or mortality) would make the person unable to form true and affectionate attachments towards other people.
Another theory suggests a possible relationship between histrionic personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder. Research has found 2 / 3 of patients diagnosed with histrionic personality disorder also meet criteria similar to those of the antisocial personality disorder, which suggests both disorders based towards sex - type expressions may have the same underlying cause. Women are hypersexualized in the media consistently, ingraining thoughts that the only way women are to get attention is by exploiting themselves, and when seductiveness is n't enough, theatricals are the next step in achieving attention. Men can just as well be flirtatious towards multiple women yet feel no empathy or sense of compassion towards them. They may also become the center of attention by exhibiting the "Don Juan '' macho figure as a role - play.
Some family history studies have found that histrionic personality disorder, as well as borderline and antisocial personality disorders, tend to run in families, but it is unclear if this is due to genetic or environmental factors. Both examples suggest that predisposition could be a factor as to why certain people are diagnosed with histrionic personality disorder, however little is known about whether or not the disorder is influenced by any biological compound or is genetically inheritable. Little research has been conducted to determine the biological sources, if any, of this disorder.
The person 's appearance, behavior, and history, along with a psychological evaluation, are usually sufficient to establish a diagnosis. There is no test to confirm this diagnosis. Because the criteria are subjective, some people may be wrongly diagnosed.
The previous edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM IV - TR, defines histrionic personality disorder (in Cluster B) as:
A pervasive pattern of excessive emotionality and attention - seeking, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the following:
The DSM - IV requires that a diagnosis for any specific personality disorder also satisfies a set of general personality disorder criteria.
The World Health Organization 's ICD - 10 lists histrionic personality disorder as:
A personality disorder characterized by:
It is a requirement of ICD - 10 that a diagnosis of any specific personality disorder also satisfies a set of general personality disorder criteria.
Most histrionics also have other mental disorders. Comorbid conditions include: antisocial, dependent, borderline, and narcissistic personality disorders, as well as depression, anxiety disorders, panic disorder, somatoform disorders, anorexia nervosa, substance use disorder and attachment disorders, including reactive attachment disorder.
Theodore Millon identified six subtypes of histrionic personality disorder. Any individual histrionic may exhibit none or one of the following:
Treatment is often prompted by depression associated with dissolved romantic relationships. Medication does little to affect the personality disorder, but may be helpful with symptoms such as depression. Treatment for HPD itself involves psychotherapy, including cognitive therapy.
In general clinical practice with assessment of personality disorders, one form of interview is the most popular; an unstructured interview. The actual preferred method is a semi-structured interview but there is reluctance to use this type of interview because they can seem impractical or superficial. The reason that a semi-structured interview is preferred over an unstructured interview is that semi-structured interviews tend to be more objective, systematic, replicable, and comprehensive. Unstructured interviews, despite their popularity, tend to have problems with unreliability and are susceptible to errors leading to false assumptions of the client.
One of the single most successful methods for accessing personality disorders by researchers of normal personality functioning is the self - report inventory following up with a semi-structured interview. There are some disadvantages with the self - report inventory method that with histrionic personality disorder there is a distortion in character, self - presentation, and self - image. This can not be assessed simply by asking most clients if they match the criteria for the disorder. Most projective testing depend less on the ability or willingness of the person to provide an accurate description of the self, but there is currently limited empirical evidence on projective testing to assess histrionic personality disorder.
Another way to treat histrionic personality disorder after identification is through functional analytic psychotherapy. The job of a Functional Analytic Psychotherapist is to identify the interpersonal problems with the patient as they happen in session or out of session. Initial goals of functional analytic psychotherapy are set by the therapist and include behaviors that fit the client 's needs for improvement. Functional analytic psychotherapy differs from the traditional psychotherapy due to the fact that the therapist directly addresses the patterns of behavior as they occur in - session.
The in - session behaviors of the patient or client are considered to be examples of their patterns of poor interpersonal communication and to adjust their neurotic defenses. To do this, the therapist must act on the client 's behavior as it happens in real time and give feedback on how the client 's behavior is affecting their relationship during therapy. The therapist also helps the client with histrionic personality disorder by denoting behaviors that happen outside of treatment; these behaviors are termed "Outside Problems '' and "Outside Improvements ''. This allows the therapist to assist in problems and improvements outside of session and to verbally support the client and condition optimal patterns of behavior ". This then can reflect on how they are advancing in - session and outside of session by generalizing their behaviors over time for changes or improvement ''.
This is called coding client and therapist behavior. In these sessions there is a certain set of dialogue or script that can be forced by the therapist for the client to give insight on their behaviors and reasoning ". Here is an example from '' the conversation is hypothetical. T = therapist C = Client This coded dialogue can be transcribed as:
Another example of treatment besides coding is Functional Ideographic Assessment Template. The functional ideographic assessment template, also known as FIAT, was used as a way to generalize the clinical processes of functional analytic psychotherapy. The template was made by a combined effort of therapists and can be used to represent the behaviors that are a focus for this treatment. Using the FIAT therapists can create a common language to get stable and accurate communication results through functional analytic psychotherapy at the ease of the client; as well as the therapist.
When people talk about Histrionic Personality Disorder, there is a significant amount of talk about it 's prevalent diagnosis in women compared to men as well as its stereotypical criteria. A study on this was performed by June Sprock and is published in Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, Vol. 22, No. 2. She had a group of 1st and 2nd year psychology students separated into 3 different groups. They were each asked to look at the different criteria in the DSM - IIIR and the DSM - IV and create 3 behavioral examples for the gender they were assigned or a neutral condition. The list was then edited before it was sent to a group of psychologists and psychiatrists for them to answer to get their results. The results of this test was not surprising with "masculine behaviors () rated as significantly poorer examples of the HPD criteria than non-sex - typed and feminine (trend) behaviors. ''
Approximately 2 -- 3 % of the general population may be diagnosed with HPD. Major character traits may be inherited, while other traits may be due to a combination of genetics and environment, including childhood experiences. This personality is seen more often in women than in men. Approximately 65 % of HPD diagnoses are women while 35 % are men. Women are generally over diagnosed due to potential biases. In Kaplan 's "A Women 's View of DSM - III, she expresses that even healthy women are often automatically diagnosed with HBD.
Many symptoms representing HPD in the DSM are exaggerations of traditional feminine behaviors. In a peer and self - review study it showed that femininity was correlated with Histrionic, Dependent, and Narcissistic personality disorders. Although two thirds of HPD diagnoses are female, however there have been a few exceptions. Whether or not the rate will be significantly higher than the rate of women within a particular clinical setting depends upon many factors that are mostly independent of the differential sex prevalence for HPD. Those with HPD are more likely to look for multiple people for attention which leads to marital problems due to jealousy and lack of trust from the other party. This makes them more likely to become divorced or separated once married. With few studies done to find direct causations between HPD and culture, cultural and social aspects play a role in inhibiting and exhibiting HPD behaviors.
The history of histrionic personality disorder stems from the word hysteria. Hysteria can be described as an exaggerated or uncontrollable emotion that people, especially in groups, experience. Beliefs about hysteria have varied throughout time. It was n't until Sigmund Freud who studied histrionic personality disorder in a psychological manner. "The roots of histrionic personality can be traced to cases of hysterical neurosis described by Freud. '' He developed the psychoanalytic theory in the late 19th century and the results from his development led to split concepts of hysteria. One concept labeled as hysterical neurosis (also known as conversion disorder) and the other concept labeled as hysterical character (currently known as histrionic personality disorder). These two concepts must not be confused with each other, as they are two separate and different ideas.
Histrionic Personality Disorder is also known as hysterical personality. Hysterical personality has evolved in the past 400 years and it first appeared in the DSM II (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 2nd edition) under the name hysterical personality disorder. The name we know today as histrionic personality disorder is due to the name change in DSM III, 3rd edition. Renaming hysterical personality to histrionic personality disorder is believed to be because of possible negative connotations to the roots of hysteria, such as intense sexual expressions, demon possessions, etc.
Histrionic Personality Disorder has gone through many changes. From hysteria, to hysterical character, to hysterical personality disorder, to what it is listed as in the most current DSM, DSM - 5. "Hysteria is one of the oldest documented medical disorders. '' Hysteria dates back to both ancient Greek and Egyptian writings. Most of the writings related hysteria and women together, similar to today where the epidemiology of histrionic personality disorder is generally more prevalent in women and also frequently diagnosed in women.
The prevalence of Histrionic Personality Disorder in women is apparent and urges a re-evaluation of culturally constructed ideas around what is considered normal emotional behaviour. The diagnostic approach classifies Histrionic Personality Disorder behaviour as "excessive '', considering it in reference to a social understanding of normal emotionality.
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what is the passport issuing authority in sri lanka | Sri Lankan passport - wikipedia
Sri Lankan passports are issued to citizens of Sri Lanka for the purpose of international travel. The Department of Immigration and Emigration is responsible for issuing Sri Lankan passports.
Immigration and Emigration Department has begun to issue biometric passports according to international standards with effect from 10 August 2015 Despite undertaking such measures, successive governments in Sri Lanka have made little effort to improve visa free access for its citizens.
All newly issued passports for adults will have a maximum validity of ten years from the date of issue under the Immigrants and Emigrants Act, regardless of when the previous passport (if any) was issued.
Specified countries * = Bahrain, Bangladesh, Iran, Iraq, India, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Maldives, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, Yemen
In case of a lost passport, a fine of රු. 10,000 charge in addition to the passport fee.
The Sri Lankan passport includes the following data:
The information page ends with the Machine Readable Zone.
From the 10 August 2015, all newly issued passports are to be enabled with Biometric interfaces to allow holders to be applicable for ' Visa Waiver Programmes ' (VWP) available in certain countries. The passport is valid like the Machine Readable PP for 10 yrs. from issuance. The Sri Lankan passport is ranked very poorly in global visa free access lists.
Citizens interested to receive this or renew their existing passport are to be photographed by authorized photo studios around the island and be present for "fingerprint scanning ' at the office in Colombo and other major cities. A list of authorized studios are available here.
IMPORTANT INFORMATION: (as at 10 / 08 / 2015)
Sri Lanka allows dual citizenship. However, under the 19th amendment of that country 's constitution. An individual who holds citizenship in both Sri Lanka and another country can obtain a Sri Lankan passport.
An individual who holds citizenship in both Sri Lanka and another country can obtain a Sri Lankan passport by submitting the following documents.
(Download printable versions of the Application Forms here)
For further information: click here to be redirected to the department 's website
The passport contains the following note:
Sinhalese:
Tamil:
English:
In 2016, Sri Lankan citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 40 countries and territories, ranking the Sri Lankan passport 96th in the world according to the Visa Restrictions Index. For a middle income country such as Sri Lanka, this ranking is considered to be extremely low. No concerted effort has been made to improve the ranking. One major implication of the poor ranking has been a brain drain. Many expatriate Sri Lankans have given up their citizenship due to this.
B) The Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey are not part of the European Union, but Manxmen and Channel Islanders are citizens of the European Union; the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey, and Manxmen and Channel Islanders themselves (unless they qualify and apply for recognition of a change in status), are however excluded from the benefits of the Four Freedoms of the European Union.
C) The Government of the United Kingdom also issue passports to British nationals who are not British citizens with the right of abode in the United Kingdom and who are also not otherwise citizens of the European Union.
Non-EU country that has open border with Schengen Area.
Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here.
Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Turkey has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.
Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus.
Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Kazakhstan has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.
Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe.
Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and Western Asia. Egypt has a small part of its territory in Western Asia called Sinai Peninsula.
Partially recognized.
Not recognized by any other state.
Special administrative regions of China
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who wrote we belong together by mariah carey | We Belong Together - wikipedia
"We Belong Together '' is a song by American singer Mariah Carey from her tenth studio album, The Emancipation of Mimi (2005). The song was released on March 29, 2005, through Island Records, as the second single from the album. "We Belong Together '' was written by Carey, Jermaine Dupri, Manuel Seal, and Johntá Austin, and produced by the former three. As the song samples lyrics from Bobby Womack 's "If You Think You 're Lonely Now '' (1981) and the Deele 's "Two Occasions '' (1987), several other songwriters are credited. "We Belong Together '' is built on a simple piano arrangement with an understated backbeat. The lyrics chronicle a woman 's desperation for her former lover to return.
Following her decline in popularity between 2001 and 2005, critics dubbed the song her musical comeback, as many had considered her career over. "We Belong Together '' earned her several music industry awards and nominations throughout 2005 -- 06. The song broke chart records in the United States and became Carey 's sixteenth topper on the US Billboard Hot 100. After staying at number one for fourteen non-consecutive weeks, it joined four other songs in a tie as the second longest running number one song in US chart history, behind Carey 's own 1995 collaboration with Boyz II Men titled "One Sweet Day ''. Billboard listed it as the "song of the decade '' and the ninth most popular song of all time. Additionally, it broke several airplay records, gathering both the largest one - day and one - week audiences in history. "We Belong Together '' also topped the charts in Australia and the top five in Canada, Denmark, Hungary, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Scotland, Spain, and the United Kingdom.
The song 's music video was filmed as a two - part story with "It 's Like That '', which featured Carey at her bachelorette party. The video for "We Belong Together '' is a continuation focusing on Carey 's wedding to an older and powerful man and ends with the singer eloping with her ex-lover. Rumors arose of the video 's connection to her 1993 marriage to Tommy Mottola. Carey performed the song on several award shows and television appearances around the world, namely MTV Movie Awards, MTV Video Music Awards, Macy 's Fourth of July Parade, The Oprah Winfrey Show and the 48th Grammy Awards. In Europe the song was performed at the Live 8 charity concert, the Fashion Rocks in Monaco, and the German Bambi Awards. Carey performed the song on both her Adventures of Mimi and Angels Advocate Tours.
Carey had produced back - to - back commercially and critically unsuccessful albums, Glitter (2001) and Charmbracelet (2002). Though fueled by strong media attention regarding Carey 's return to music, as well as her new deal with Island Records, the albums failed to deliver the type of success she had been accustomed to throughout the 1990s, and only managed sales of 3 million copies globally. After the album 's release, and its succeeding tour, Carey began conceptualizing and working on a new project, eventually titled The Emancipation of Mimi, her tenth studio effort. "We Belong Together '' became a song that critics considered Carey 's "return to form '' and "the return of The Voice '', after several questioned her vocal abilities following the release of Charmbracelet.
By November 2004, Carey had already recorded several songs for The Emancipation of Mimi. Island Records chairman L.A. Reid suggested Carey that she compose a few more strong singles to ensure the project 's commercial success. Noting that she had written some of her best work with Jermaine Dupri, Reid recommended her to meet with Dupri for a brief studio session. Carey headed to Atlanta to collaborate with Dupri where the duo wrote and produced "Shake It Off '' and "Get Your Number '', which were eventually released as the album 's third and fourth singles. (Following this recording session, "Shake It Off '' was briefly selected as the album 's lead single, replacing the originally planned "Say Somethin ' ''.) Carey returned to Atlanta for a second meeting with Dupri; during this trip, Carey and Dupri penned the last two songs to be included on the album, "We Belong Together '' and "It 's Like That ''. In an interview with Billboard, Carey described her sentiments regarding the song during the production stage:
I had the chills. I had a great feeling about it when we finished writing the song, and I was flying back from Atlanta at some crazy hour of the morning... But we were listening to it on the plane ride on the way home, and even from the demo version, I really felt something very special.
Carey and her management then decided to release "It 's Like That '', which Carey called "the right fire - starter '', as the album 's lead single. She later reminisced about her experience with Dupri: "I am so grateful I went to Atlanta, '' she said. "And I have to say, we wrote some of my favorite songs on the album. I 'm so proud of Jermaine -- he 's so focused, and he knew what had to be done. ''
"We Belong Together '' is an R&B ballad. Rolling Stone called it "soulful. '' The song is propelled by a programmed Roland TR - 808 - styled kick and hi - hat, which is prominently utilized in hip hop music. Reviewer Jennifer Vineyard from MTV News commented that Carey 's spare and understated singing approach gave the song more power, which would not have been achieved if she had belted. The song also incorporates 1980s retro - soul music by "cleverly '' referencing Bobby Womack 's "If You Think You 're Lonely Now '' (1981) and the Deele 's "Two Occasions '' (1987), with Babyface. In the second verse of "We Belong Together '', Carey sings: "Bobby Womack 's on the radio / Singing to me, ' If you think you 're lonely now '. '' She then flips across a radio dial: "So I turn the dial, tryin ' to catch a break / And then I hear Babyface / ' I only think of you... '. '' The line "If you think you 're lonely now '' is from the song of the same name and "I only think of you '' is from the chorus of "Two Occasions. '' In the remix she also says "I only think of you / On two occasions / That 's day and night... '' Due to the inclusion of the lyrics from both songs, the songwriters were given co-writing credits on the song. "We Belong Together '' follows the common verse - chorus form and is structured into three distinct sections, with each section presenting the protagonist in different emotions. The first section chronicles the break - up of the couple, and a sorrowful tone is established as she laments her former mistakes. In the second section, the narrative switches to the present, and the protagonist becomes increasingly agitated and feels "all out of her element '' when she attempts to distract herself by listening to the radio, but fails. "We Belong Together '' does not have a bridge; instead, Carey transitions into the third section by raising the pitch an octave, which emphasizes the sheer frustration and desperation of the protagonist. Metro Times writer Johnny Loftus described the song 's production, lyrics and vocals in detail:
It 's straightforward, heartfelt and classy. Mariah pleads with her departed lover -- ' When you left I lost a part of me / It 's still so hard to believe ' -- and the song 's gentle R&B roll is perfectly understated, built from a few piano chords and a slowed - down So So Def rhythm. It has a homebody quality, almost like an autumn song would -- you can imagine a split - up couple singing it quietly, separately, as the world goes on around them. She 's on a porch with tea; he 's stuck in traffic when he finds Mariah on the radio. It even cleverly references that feel, with Mariah finding the Bobby Womack and Babyface songs on her radio just too tough to hear. There 's no tired ' I tried to 2 - way you ' retorts, no trash - technology love affair ' I was at the grocery store and this guy had the same ring tone as you, and I cried. ' No, there 's a classic sensibility to the lyrics and sound of ' We Belong Together ' that makes for perfect -- and perfectly universal -- pop / R&B songwriting. In other words, it 's the jam. And there 's probably a happy ending, too: Mariah 's triumphant octave shift finale makes the song 's title an emphatic.
"We Belong Together '' is a simple, understated musical arrangement set in F lydian and composed in 4 / 4 time. Similarly, within the song, Carey 's voice spans from G to the high note of A. Carey 's vocal range is demonstrated with a greater emphasis in the ending chorus, where the chorus is raised an octave higher, lying from G to A. As such, Carey ends with an anticipated coda, completing both the chorus and the song with a potent, belted note of C for approximately four semibreves (around 17 seconds). It follows the common verse - chorus form and is structured into three sections that portray the protagonist in a range of emotions; from doleful and resigned in the first section, to desperate and agitated in the second. In the last section the song climaxes with an octave raise, which not only emphasizes the protagonist 's heightened desperation, but her determination to be with her lover. The song is written in the key of C major with a slow tempo of 70 beats per minute. Carey 's vocals span from G to A, and the song follows a chord progression of Am -- G -- Em -- F.
"We Belong Together '' became a "career re-defining '' song for Carey, at a point when many critics had considered her career over. Unlike most of Carey 's recent singles at that time, "We Belong Together '' received generally positive reviews from critics, most of whom hailed the song as her "return to form '', following reviews for Charmbracelet (2002), that suggested Carey had lost her signature vocal range and power. Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote "the... diva (keeps) cool with breathy, rapid - fire verses until the final full strong - voiced climax that... proves that ' The Voice ' has indeed returned. '' Additionally, he said that "The song is as ' innovative ' as Mariah has been in years. '' Other critics commended Carey on her novel singing style which, according to Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times, gave the song its propulsion, writing "This style is part of the reason why she has been able to turn a ballad into a summer smash. ' We Belong Together ' does n't have a guest rapper, or a hard - hitting beat, but Ms. Carey 's tricky vocal lines give the song more propulsion than you 'd expect, with tightly coiled counter-rhythms that tug against the beat. '' Johnny Loftus from Metro Times called it a "summer hit '' and wrote "We all know it 's the intangibles that make a summer single anyway, those untraceable currents that grab the heart and feet, and despite not being an anthem, ' We Belong Together ' is that rousing. ''
Writing for Vibe, Michael Ehrlich claimed the song would "cut across generations '', while Cinquemani felt it would revive "faith in Mariah the balladeer ''. Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic chose "We Belong Together '' as a "top Pick '' from the album, while Todd Burns from Stylus Magazine described it as "beautifully cadenced ''. Echoing Cinquemani 's comments about the song and Carey 's past as a balladeer, Jozen Cummings from PopMatters wrote "Carey makes the song her own, reminding fans of her ' Hero ' days with full, throaty vocals and a crashing climax at the end. The dichotomy between ' The Emancipation of Mimi 's ' first two tracks is the album 's bread and butter. '' Since first hearing the song on the radio, Sherri Winston from South Florida Sun - Sentinel claimed she "knew it would be a smash '', complimenting its understated beat and Carey 's vocals. Billboard 's Michael Paoletta described "We Belong Together '' as one of the album 's strongest cuts, claiming that it highlighted the strongest focal point on the song: Carey 's voice. Slant Magazine ranked it 2nd on their best songs of 2005 list.
Between 2001 and 2004, Carey 's popularity had substantially declined and many had considered her career as over. The song spent fourteen non-consecutive weeks at number one on both the US Billboard Hot 100 -- after making its debut at number 81 -- and on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart. It had major cross-over success, becoming the first song to simultaneously occupy the number one position on nine Billboard charts on the week ending August 6, 2005: the Hot 100, Billboard Hot 100 Airplay, Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs, Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Airplay, Pop 100 Airplay, Top 40 Mainstream, Rhythmic Airplay Chart, Hot Dance Club Songs, and the Hot Ringtones charts. Spending fourteen weeks atop the Hot 100, "We Belong Together '' became the one of the second longest running number one songs in US chart history, behind only Carey 's 1995 collaboration with Boyz II Men, "One Sweet Day '', which spent sixteen weeks at number one. Aside from its chart success, the song broke several airplay records, and according to Mediabase and Nielsen BDS, gathered both the largest one - day and one - week audiences in BDS history, reaching 32.8 million and 223 million impressions respectively. This record was held until it was broken by Robin Thicke 's "Blurred Lines '' in 2013, with 234.65 million listeners on July 28.
During the week of September 25, 2005, Carey set another record, becoming the first female to occupy the first two spots atop the Hot 100, as "We Belong Together '' remained at number one, and her next single, "Shake It Off '', held the number two spot. Additionally, the song held the top position on the official Hot 100 Airplay chart for sixteen weeks, tying for the second all time spot with No Doubt 's "Do n't Speak '' (1996). "We Belong Together '' was certified 3хPlatinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of a 3 million copies throughout the United States. On the Billboard Hot 100 Year - end Chart of 2005, the song was declared the number one song, a career first for Carey. Billboard listed "We Belong Together '' ninth on The Billboard Hot 100 All - Time Top Songs and second on Top Billboard Hot 100 R&B / Hip - Hop Songs. The song was also declared the most popular song of the 2000s decade by Billboard, which makes Carey the first artist to have more than one song being the most popular of a decade, as "One Sweet Day '' was the most popular song of the 1990s.
Besides its success in the United States, "We Belong Together '' achieved strong charting throughout Europe and Australia. On the ARIA Charts, the song debuted atop the singles chart in Australia during the week dated July 3, 2005. The following week, it held the number one spot for a second week, and stayed on the chart for a total of eleven weeks. To date, "We Belong Together '' was certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of 70,000 units. The song finished at number seventeen on the 2005 Australian Year - End Chart. In both Flemish and Wallonian territories in Belgium, "We Belong Together '' peaked at numbers twelve and twenty - four, spending a total of fifteen and fourteen weeks fluctuating in the singles chart, respectively. The song finished at number forty - seven on the Flemish Year - End Chart of 2005. "We Belong Together '' made its debut at number fifteen on the Danish Tracklisten chart during the week of August 7, 2005, eventually peaking at number three. In France, the song peaked at number twelve, and spent nineteen weeks fluctuating within the French singles chart. On the Dutch Top 40 chart, "We Belong Together '' reached number one in its fourth week, and spent a total of sixteen weeks in the chart, four of which were at the number two position. The song finished at number forty - one on the Dutch Year - End Chart of 2005. In New Zealand, the song spend three weeks at number two on the singles chart, and a total of twelve before making its exit on October 3, 2005. At the end of 2005, "We Belong Together '' finished at number thirty - six, and was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ). In both Norway and Spain, the song peaked at number nine and three, and spent nine and seven weeks within the charts. In Switzerland, the song peaked at number four on the official singles chart, and charted for thirteen weeks. During mid-week predictions in the United Kingdom, "We Belong Together '' was positioned to become Carey 's third UK number one single. However, it wound up debuting at number two on the UK Singles Chart. In its second week, the song dropped to number three, before re-surfacing to number two in its third week, this time blocked by James Blunt 's "You 're Beautiful ''. The song spent a total of eighteen weeks within the singles chart, and has estimated sales of over 240,000 units in the United Kingdom.
"We Belong Together '' was awarded several prestigious music industry awards throughout 2005 and 2006. At the 2005 Billboard Music Awards ceremony, Carey won five awards, with the song receiving awards in the "Rhythmic Top 40 Title of the Year '', "Hot 100 song of the Year '' and "Hot 100 Airplay of the Year '' categories. On November 6, 2005, Carey earned two awards for "We Belong Together '' at the Radio Music Awards ceremony, in the "Song of the Year / Mainstream Hit Radio '' and "Song of the Year / Urban and Rhythmic Radio '' categories. Similarly, "We Belong Together '' won the "Best R&B / Soul Single '' and "Best R&B / Soul Single, Female '' awards at the 20th annual Soul Train Music Awards, "Choice Love Song '' at the Teen Choice Awards, "Best R&B Song '' at the Vibe Awards, and "World 's Most - Played Single '' at the 2005 World Music Awards.
At the 48th annual Grammy Awards, held at the Shrine Auditorium on February 8, 2006, Carey was nominated for eight awards, the most she had received in one night throughout her career. "We Belong Together '' was nominated for Song of the Year and Record of the Year; however, it won two awards: "Best R&B Song '' and "Best Female R&B Vocal Performance ''. The song was named "Song of the Year '' at the ASCAP Awards, and "Song of the Year '', "Most Performed Song '' and "Number - one Billboard Song '' at the BMI Awards. Towards the summer of 2006, Carey took home "Song of the Year '', "Best Pop Female Song Performance '' and "Best R&B / Soul Female Song Performance '' at the GrooveVolt Music & Fashion Awards.
Carey recorded an official remix version for "We Belong Together '', which she produced with DJ Clue. The remix features vocals from rappers Jadakiss and Styles P, two - thirds of the hip - hop trio the LOX. The remix is fundamentally different from the original, described as having "a faster, springier backbeat '' by Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times. Lyrically, the song is similar to the album version of the song, in which both rappers ' verses contemplate on past memories. Styles P raps "Past is the past, just let it be bygones / Matter of fact I know a fly song that we could vibe on '', which Sanneh writes "Cheerfully out of place, he sounds like a man who has wandered into the wrong summertime party, but so what? He figures he might as well stick around and enjoy it. '' In two separate reviews of The Emancipation of Mimi, Sanneh referred to the song as both "great '' and "excellent '', in regards to the remix.
Aside from the album version 's main remix, several others were commissioned and released, although none contained new vocals from Carey. Peter Rauhofer created the "Reconstruction Mix / Atlantic Soul Vocal Mix '' and "Atlantic Soul Vocal Mix '', which both feature a synthetic bass line, a piano and guitar line, and distinctive hi - hats that produce a more up - tempo, hard - hitting beat.
The song 's music video premiered worldwide on April 11, 2005, although MSN offered an exclusive look at the music video on April 9. Carey 's "We Belong Together '' is Yahoo! Music 's most watched video of 2005 with 7.5 million streamed performances. The video was shot by film director Brett Ratner in Los Angeles alongside the video for Carey 's previous single, "It 's Like That ''. Carey had collaborated with Ratner several times in the past, having worked on the video for "Heartbreaker '', which became one of the most expensive of all time, costing an estimated $2.5 million. The video was filmed through February 9 to February 10, 2005, in conjunction with "It 's Like That '' and serves as the second half to the two - part story. The music video for "It 's Like That '' features Carey at her bachelorette party set to wed an older and powerful man, played by Eric Roberts. Towards the end of the video, her ex-lover and past flame, played by Wentworth Miller, arrives at the event, and the video concludes with them staring into each other 's eyes as Carey 's soon - to - be husband watches from a balcony. The video for "We Belong Together '' finishes their tale of love, and features Carey on her wedding day. For the scenes of Carey 's wedding to the older man, she wore her Vera Wang gown she originally wore during her nuptials to Tommy Mottola in 1993. In an interview with MSNBC, when asked if there was a connection to the use of the dress in the video and reality, Carey responded:
The wedding dress was a Vera Wang original dress from a while ago that I actually wore on a certain occasion and had it in storage and when we came up with the concept for the video that had the element of a wedding in it, I said, ' well, I do have my old wedding dress, '. ' It 's still worth (sic) for me ' cause I ca n't believe I was ever married but whatever, end of story. And I knew that we would n't be able to get a fabulous dress like in two days so I just took that dress out of the storage -- it has a 27 - foot train and it was just all hand - beaded and stuff and so I figured we might as well get a use out of it. '
The video features Carey readying for her wedding, and follows her to the altar, as well as her escape from the reception. Many of the actors featured in Carey 's "It 's Like That '' video were in that of "We Belong Together '', which was shot as a continuation from the "It 's Like That '' video. It begins with a scene of a large mansion, apparently owned by the older man who she is to marry. Carey is seen walking barefoot in a room, shedding a black sheer robe and laying down on a bed draped with white linens. Dressed in lingerie, Carey 's face is shown close - up, as scenes of her tossing in the bed are shown. As the song begins, Carey is seen sitting in front of a large mirror, preparing for her wedding by putting on earrings and shoes, and staring at the ring on her finger. Additional scenes of Carey sitting on a small blue sofa, wearing a purple dress, and Carey staring at the camera during a shower moment are interspersed. The wedding is then shown, with Miller approaching the reception through a stairwell in the back. Small children as seen throwing flowers on the white carpet, followed by Roberts and Carey walking down the aisle.
As Carey, now dry and clothed, is shown in another scenario following the dressing scene, a still of Carey and Miller in the video for "It 's like That '' is shown, during the lyrics "I ca n't sleep at night / When you are on my mind ''. After several other scenes of Carey dressed in the purple gown and white shirt are interspersed, the altar is displayed, where before being ordained by the minister, Carey looks into her ex-lover's eyes once more. She turns to Roberts, and begins running towards Miller, leaving the reception. As the song 's climax is reached, Carey and Miller are shown running from the reception, as the guests stand up in awe, and watch the pair leave. Carey, dressed in the white shirt, is shown with growing anticipation, crying to the camera and moving her hands and hair. Back at the wedding scene, Carey and her lover get into his vehicle, and drive away as her 27 - foot train hangs behind the car. The video was nominated for "Best R&B Video '' and "Best Female Video '' at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards.
Due to its continued chart success, Carey performed "We Belong Together '' on several live televised performances and included it on the set - lists of all of her tours following its release. In the United Kingdom, Carey filmed a two - part appearance on the British music program Top of the Pops, performing "It 's Like That '', "We Belong Together '', and "Shake It Off ''. Additional European and Asian appearances included an interview on the French talk show Le Grand Journal, and a performance of "We Belong Together '' on both Music Station and Riponggi Hills in Japan. After returning to the United States for a string of televised performances, Carey launched the release of the album on Good Morning America, in the form of a five - piece outdoor concert. The concert, taking place in Times Square and featuring the largest crowd in the plaza since the 2004 New Year 's Eve celebration, featured the first three singles from the album, as well as "Fly Like a Bird '' and "Make It Happen '' (1991). The following week, she performed "We Belong Together '' at the 2005 BET Awards, with an additional appearance at the annual VH1 Save the Music special, filmed live on April 17 from the Beacon Theatre. Throughout May, Carey appeared on several US television programs, performing "We Belong Together '' on the Late Show with David Letterman (May 5), The Tonight Show with Jay Leno (May 11), and The Ellen DeGeneres Show (May 13), which included a performance of "It 's Like That ''. As June approached, Carey made an appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show (May 24), featuring a live rendition of "We Belong Together ''. She appeared on stage wearing a long blue evening gown, and featured a four piece band, as well as three background vocalists. Eleven days later on June 4, she performed at the annual Macy 's Fourth of July Parade, singing "America the Beautiful '' and "We Belong Together ''.
The following week, Carey made a live appearance at the 2005 MTV Movie Awards. The recital aired on television in black and white format, with Carey wearing a red Armani Privé and sporting a retro curled hairstyle, appearing in color. She performed "We Belong Together '' on a white runway - styled stage with four male and female dancers. Following the stateside promotion of the album, Carey traveled to the United Kingdom on July 2, 2005 for a benefit concert held in Hyde Park, London titled Live 8. The televised event was watched by over 9.6 million British citizens and held a live audience of over 200,000. Carey performed a three song set - list, opening with "Make It Happen '' and "Hero '', which featured a live choir of African children, and followed by "We Belong Together ''. On August 3, USA Today announced that Carey would be added to the roster of performers at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards, held on the 28th of the month. The ceremony was held at the American Airlines Arena in downtown Miami Beach Florida, with Carey 's performance taking place at the National Hotel in South Beach. Apart from the Killers, she was the only performer to tape their appearance from an undisclosed location in Miami. After being introduced by Eva Longoria, Carey appeared on a long stage in the hotel 's courtyard, with Dupri opening the song in a nearby cabana. After performing "Shake It Off '' and the official remix version of "We Belong Together '', Carey made her way into the shallow pool, followed by Dupri and the back - up dancers. Following the awards ceremony, Carey once again took to Europe, being featured as a head - lining performer at the 2005 Fashion Rocks, held in Monaco. Following her introduction by Donatella Versace, Carey performed the Peter Rauhofer Remix for "We Belong Together '' on a suspended rafter, while wearing a metallic Versace gown. Carey played a similarly - choreographed performance of the song 's Peter Rauhofer Remix at the German Bambi Awards, held in October 2005. Two months later, she celebrated the new year on television, placing as the featured performer at the Times Square Ball drop on New Year 's Eve in New York. The special, titled Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest, aired on ABC at 10 pm on December 31, and featured Carey on stage wearing a short sparkling dress, and performing a selection of the album 's singles.
At the 48th Grammy Awards, held on February 8, 2006, Carey was nominated for eight awards -- the most she had ever received in one night. That night, Carey returned to the Grammy stage for the first time since 1996. Her performance opened with a pre-taped video in which she discussed the importance of God and religion in her life. Carey then came to the stage, dressed in a white Chanel gown, and sang a shortened version of "We Belong Together ''. Next, Carey 's pastor Clarence Keaton read a Bible passage to open Carey 's performance of "Fly Like a Bird '', as he did in the studio recording of the song. Midway through the song, a black temporary wall was removed, revealing a large choir who joined Carey for the song 's gospel climax. The performance earned the night 's only standing ovation, prompting Teri Hatcher, who was presenting the next award, to exclaim, "It 's like we 've all just been saved! '' Carey 's performance earned rave reviews from critics. Gary Susman from Entertainment Weekly called Carey the "comeback queen '', noting that her voice "soar (ed) into the rafters like only Carey 's can. '' Carey included "We Belong Together '' on both succeeding tours following its release, the Adventures of Mimi and Angels Advocate Tours. On the former, the song was featured as the encore number, with Carey re-entering the arenas in a form fitting beige evening gown. Backed by three background vocalists, Trey Lorenz, Sherry Tatum, and MaryAnn Tatum, Carey began the song as confetti dropped the arena rafters. According to Jennifer Vineyard from MTV News, the performance was "a major accomplishment '', and the highlight of the show, and found Carey re-connect with the audience in ways that she was unable throughout most of the show. Similarly, during her Angel 's Advocate Tour, the song was placed as one of the final numbers on the set - list. Dressed in a black Herve Leger gown, Carey introduced the song as the Billboard 's "song of the decade '', and thanked the audience for making it her 16th number - one single in the United States. Following the song 's completion, Carey exited the arena for a few moments, before returning to perform "Hero '' as the encore.
Australian CD single
Danish maxi - single (Promo)
European CD single
Japanese CD single
UK CD single
UK CD maxi - single
US CD single (Promo)
Credits for The Emancipation of Mimi adapted from the album 's liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Works cited
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what is the difference between conduction band and valence band | Valence and conduction bands - wikipedia
In solid - state physics, the valence band and conduction band are the bands closest to the Fermi level and thus determine the electrical conductivity of the solid. In non-metals, the valence band is the highest range of electron energies in which electrons are normally present at absolute zero temperature, while the conduction band is the lowest range of vacant electronic states. On a graph of the electronic band structure of a material, the valence band is located below the Fermi level, while the conduction band is located above it. This distinction is meaningless in metals where conduction occurs in one or more partially filled bands, taking on the properties of both the valence and conduction bands.
In semiconductors and insulators the two bands are separated by a band gap, while in semimetals the bands overlap. A band gap is an energy range in a solid where no electron states can exist due to the quantization of energy. Electrical conductivity of non-metals is determined by the susceptibility of electrons to excitation from the valence band to the conduction band.
In solids, the ability of electrons to act as charge carriers depends on the availability of vacant electronic states. This allows the electrons to increase their energy (i.e., accelerate) when an electric field is applied. Similarly, holes (empty states) in the almost filled valence band also allow for conductivity.
As such, the electrical conductivity of a solid depends on its capability to flow electrons from the valence to the conduction band. Hence, in the case of a semimetal with an overlap region, the electrical conductivity is high. If there is a small band gap (E), then the flow of electrons from valence to conduction band is possible only if an external energy (thermal, etc.) is supplied; these groups with small E are called semiconductors. If the E is sufficiently high, then the flow of electrons from valence to conduction band becomes negligible under normal conditions; these groups are called insulators.
There is some conductivity in semiconductors, however. This is due to thermal excitation -- some of the electrons get enough energy to jump the band gap in one go. Once they are in the conduction band, they can conduct electricity, as can the hole they left behind in the valence band. The hole is an empty state that allows electrons in the valence band some degree of freedom.
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where does sue go to college on the middle | The Middle (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the television comedy series The Middle began airing on September 25, 2013 on ABC in the United States. It is produced by Blackie and Blondie Productions and Warner Bros. Television with series creators DeAnn Heline and Eileen Heisler as executive producers.
The show features Frances "Frankie '' Heck (Patricia Heaton), a working - class, Midwestern woman married to Mike Heck (Neil Flynn) who resides in the small fictional town of Orson, Indiana. They are the parents of three children, Axl (Charlie McDermott), Sue (Eden Sher), and Brick (Atticus Shaffer).
Episode 7 Thanksgiving V Episode 11 War Of The Hecks and Episode 20 The Optimist
Episode 14 The Award Episode 16 Stormy Moon and Episode 18 The Smell
Episode 4 The 100th Episode 8 The Kiss Episode 10 Sleepless In Orson Episode 16 Stormy Moon and Episode 17 The Walk
Episode 2 Change In The Air Episode 4 The 100th Episode 8 The kiss Episode 10 Sleepless In Orson Episode 14 The Award Episode 17 The Walk Episode 19 The Wind Chimes Episode 21 Office Hours and Episode 22 Heck On A Hard Body
Episode 2 Change In The Air Episode 4 The 100th Episode 10 Sleepless In Orson Episode 14 The Award Episode 15 Vacation Days Episode 17 The Walk and Episode 22 Heck On A Hard Body
Episode 5 Halloween IV The Ghost Story Episode 12 The Carpool Episode 18 The Smell Episode 19 The Wind Chimes and Episode 20 The Optimist
Episode 4 The 100th Episode 21 Office Hours and Episode 22 Heck On A Hard Body
The ultimate prank battle is on between brother and sister when Sue discovers that Axl stole Orson High 's Thundering Hens mascot head over a year ago, forcing Sue to wear an embarrassing chicken head in her role as the school mascot. A friendless Dr. Goodwin invites a reluctant Frankie to accompany him to multiple after - work gatherings; meanwhile, she 's forced to give up Colin Firth (the stray dog she took in) just as Mike finally starts to bond with him.
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what is the name of owner of tata motors | Tata Motors - Wikipedia
Tata Motors Limited (formerly TELCO, short for Tata Engineering and Locomotive Company) headquartered in Mumbai, is an Indian multinational automotive manufacturing company and a member of the Tata Group. Its products include passenger cars, trucks, vans, coaches, buses, sports cars, construction equipment and military vehicles.
Tata Motors has auto manufacturing and assembly plants in Jamshedpur, Pantnagar, Lucknow, Sanand, Dharwad, and Pune in India, as well as in Argentina, South Africa, Great Britain and Thailand. It has research and development centres in Pune, Jamshedpur, Lucknow, and Dharwad, India and in South Korea, Great Britain and Spain. Tata Motors ' principal subsidiaries purchased the English premium car maker Jaguar Land Rover (the maker of Jaguar and Land Rover cars) and the South Korean commercial vehicle manufacturer Tata Daewoo. Tata Motors has a bus - manufacturing joint venture with Marcopolo S.A. (Tata Marcopolo), a construction - equipment manufacturing joint venture with Hitachi (Tata Hitachi Construction Machinery), and a joint venture with Fiat Chrysler which manufactures automotive components and Fiat Chrysler and Tata branded vehicles.
Founded in 1945 as a manufacturer of locomotives, the company manufactured its first commercial vehicle in 1954 in a collaboration with Daimler - Benz AG, which ended in 1969. Tata Motors entered the passenger vehicle market in 1988 with the launch of the TataMobile followed by the Tata Sierra in 1991, becoming the first Indian manufacturer to achieve the capability of developing a competitive indigenous automobile. In 1998, Tata launched the first fully indigenous Indian passenger car, the Indica, and in 2008 launched the Tata Nano, the world 's cheapest car. Tata Motors acquired the South Korean truck manufacturer Daewoo Commercial Vehicles Company in 2004 and purchased Jaguar Land Rover from Ford in 2008.
Tata Motors is listed on the (BSE) Bombay Stock Exchange, where it is a constituent of the BSE SENSEX index, the National Stock Exchange of India, and the New York Stock Exchange. The company is ranked 226th on the Fortune Global 500 list of the world 's biggest corporations as of 2016.
On 17 January 2017, Natarajan Chandrasekaran was appointed chairman of the company Tata Group.
Tata entered the commercial vehicle sector in 1954 after forming a joint venture with Daimler - Benz of Germany. After years of dominating the commercial vehicle market in India, Tata Motors entered the passenger vehicle market in 1991 by launching the Tata Sierra, a multi utility vehicle. Tata subsequently launched the Tata Estate (1992; a station wagon design based on the earlier TataMobile (1988), a light commercial vehicle), the Tata Sumo (1994; LCV) and the Tata Safari (1998; India 's first sports utility vehicle).
Tata launched the Indica in 1998, the first fully indigenous Indian passenger car. Although initially criticized by auto analysts, its excellent fuel economy, powerful engine, and an aggressive marketing strategy made it one of the best - selling cars in the history of the Indian automobile industry. A newer version of the car, named Indica V2, was a major improvement over the previous version and quickly became a mass favourite. Tata Motors also successfully exported large numbers of the car to South Africa. The success of the Indica played a key role in the growth of Tata Motors.
In 2004, Tata Motors acquired Daewoo 's South Korea - based truck manufacturing unit, Daewoo Commercial Vehicles Company, later renamed Tata Daewoo.
On 27 September 2004, Tata Motors rang the opening bell at the New York Stock Exchange to mark the listing of Tata Motors.
In 2005, Tata Motors acquired a 21 % controlling stake in the Spanish bus and coach manufacturer Hispano Carrocera. Tata Motors continued its market area expansion through the introduction of new products such as buses (Starbus and Globus, jointly developed with subsidiary Hispano Carrocera) and trucks (Novus, jointly developed with subsidiary Tata Daewoo).
In 2006, Tata formed a joint venture with the Brazil - based Marcopolo, Tata Marcopolo Bus, to manufacture fully built buses and coaches.
In 2008, Tata Motors acquired the English car maker Jaguar Land Rover, manufacturer of the Jaguar and Land Rover from Ford Motor Company.
In May 2009, Tata unveiled the Tata World Truck range jointly developed with Tata Daewoo; the range went on sale in South Korea, South Africa, the SAARC countries, and the Middle East at the end of 2009.
Tata acquired full ownership of Hispano Carrocera in 2009.
In 2009, its Lucknow plant was awarded the "Best of All '' Rajiv Gandhi National Quality Award.
In 2010, Tata Motors acquired an 80 % stake in the Italian design and engineering company Trilix for € 1.85 million. The acquisition formed part of the company 's plan to enhance its styling and design capabilities.
In 2012, Tata Motors announced it would invest around ₹ 6 billion in the development of Futuristic Infantry Combat Vehicles in collaboration with DRDO.
In 2013, Tata Motors announced it will sell in India, the first vehicle in the world to run on compressed air (engines designed by the French company MDI) and dubbed "Mini CAT ''.
In 2014, Tata Motors introduced first Truck Racing championship in India "T1 Prima Truck Racing Championship ''.
On 26 January 2014, the Managing Director Karl Slym was found dead. He fell from the 22nd floor to the fourth floor of the Shangri - La Hotel in Bangkok, where he was to attend a meeting of Tata Motors Thailand.
On 2 November 2015, Tata Motors announced Lionel Messi as global brand ambassador at New Delhi, to promote and endorse passenger vehicles globally.
On 27 December 2016, Tata Motors announced the Bollywood actor Akshay Kumar as brand ambassador for its commercial vehicles range.
On 8 March 2017, Tata Motors announced that it has signed a memorandum of understanding with Volkswagen to develop vehicles for India 's domestic market.
On 3 May 2018, Tata Motors announced that it sold its aerospace and defense business to another Tata Group Entity, Tata Advanced Systems, to unlock their full potential.
Tata Motors has vehicle assembly operations in India, Great Britain, South Korea, Thailand, Spain and South Africa. It plans to establish plants in Turkey, Indonesia, and Eastern Europe.
Tata Motors Cars is a division of Tata Motors which produces passenger cars under the Tata Motors marque. Tata Motors is among the top four passenger vehicle brands in India with products in the compact, midsize car, and utility vehicle segments. The company 's manufacturing base in India is spread across Jamshedpur (Jharkhand), Pune (Maharashtra), Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh), Pantnagar (Uttarakhand), Dharwad (Karnataka) and Sanand (Gujarat). Tata 's dealership, sales, service, and spare parts network comprises over 3,500 touch points. Tata Motors has more than 250 dealerships in more than 195 cities across 27 states and four Union Territories of India. It has the third - largest sales and service network after Maruti Suzuki and Hyundai.
Tata also has franchisee / joint venture assembly operations in Kenya, Bangladesh, Ukraine, Russia, and Senegal. Tata has dealerships in 26 countries across 4 continents. Tata is present in many countries, it has managed to create a large consumer base in the Indian Subcontinent, namely India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Nepal. Tata is also present in Italy, Spain, Poland, Romania, Turkey, Chile, South Africa, Oman, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Iraq, Syria and Australia.
Tata Daewoo (officially Tata Daewoo Commercial Vehicle Company and formerly Daewoo Commercial Vehicle Company) is a commercial vehicle manufacturer headquartered in Gunsan, Jeollabuk - do, South Korea, and a wholly owned subsidiary of Tata Motors. It is the second - largest heavy commercial vehicle manufacturer in South Korea and was acquired by Tata Motors in 2004. The principal reasons behind the acquisition were to reduce Tata 's dependence on the Indian commercial vehicle market (which was responsible for around 94 % of its sales in the MHCV segment and around 84 % in the light commercial vehicle segment) and expand its product portfolio by leveraging on Daewoo 's strengths in the heavy - tonnage sector.
Tata Motors has jointly worked with Tata Daewoo to develop trucks such as Novus and World Truck and buses including GloBus and StarBus. In 2012, Tata began developing a new line to manufacture competitive and fuel - efficient commercial vehicles to face the competition posed by the entry of international brands such as Mercedes - Benz, Volvo, and Navistar into the Indian market.
Tata Hispano Motors Carrocera, S.A. was a bus and coach manufacturer based in Zaragoza, Aragon, Spain, and a wholly owned subsidiary of Tata Motors. Tata Hispano has plants in Zaragoza, Spain, and Casablanca, Morocco. Tata Motors first acquired a 21 % stake in Hispano Carrocera SA in 2005, and purchased the remaining 79 % for an undisclosed sum in 2009, making it a fully owned subsidiary, subsequently renamed Tata Hispano. In 2013, Tata Hispano ceased production at its Zaragoza plant.
Jaguar Land Rover PLC is a British premium automaker headquartered in Whitley, Coventry, United Kingdom, and has been a wholly owned subsidiary of Tata Motors since June 2008, when it was acquired from Ford Motor Company of USA. Its principal activity is the development, manufacture and sale of Jaguar luxury and sports cars and Land Rover premium four - wheel - drive vehicles.
Jaguar Land Rover has two design centres and three assembly plants in the United Kingdom. Under Tata ownership, Jaguar Land Rover has launched new vehicles including the Range Rover Evoque, Jaguar F - Type, the Jaguar XE, the Jaguar XJ (X351), the second - generation Range Rover Sport, and Jaguar XF, the fourth - generation Land Rover Discovery, Range Rover Velar and the Range Rover (L405).
TML Drivelines Ltd. is a wholly owned subsidiary of Tata Motors engaged in the manufacture of gear boxes and axles for heavy and medium commercial vehicles. It has production facilities at Jamshedpur and Lucknow. TML Forge division is also a recent acquisition of TML Drivelines. TML Drivelines was formed through the merger of HV Transmission and HV Axles.
Tata Technologies Limited (TTL) is a 43 % - owned subsidiary of Tata Motors which provides design, engineering, and business process outsourcing services to the automotive industry. It is headquartered in Pune (Hinjewadi) and also has operations in London, Detroit and Thailand. Its clients include Ford, General Motors, Honda, and Toyota.
The British engineering and design services company Incat International, which specialises in engineering and design services and product lifecycle management in the automotive, aerospace, and engineering sectors, is a wholly owned subsidiary of TTL. It was acquired by TTL in August 2005 for ₹ 4 billion.
In 2017, TAL, a subsidiary of Tata Motors, manufactured India 's first industrial articulated robot for micro, small, and medium enterprises.
The Tata Motors European Technical Centre (TMETC) is an automotive design, engineering, and research company based at Warwick Manufacturing Group (WMG) on the campus of the University of Warwick in Great Britain. It was established in 2005 and is a wholly owned subsidiary of Tata Motors. It was the joint developer of the World Truck.
In September 2013, it was announced that a new National Automotive Innovation Campus would be built at WMG at Warwick 's main campus at a cost of £ 100 million. The initiative will be a partnership between Tata Motors, the university, and Jaguar Land Rover, with £ 30 million in funding coming from Tata Motors.
Tata Marcopolo is a bus - manufacturing joint venture between Tata Motors (51 %) and the Brazil - based Marcopolo S.A. (49 %). The joint venture manufactures and assembles fully built buses and coaches targeted at developing mass rapid transportation systems. It uses technology and expertise in chassis and aggregates from Tata Motors, and know - how in processes and systems for bodybuilding and bus body design from Marcopolo. Tata Marcopolo has launched a low - floor city bus which is widely used by transport corporations in many Indian cities. Its manufacturing facility is based in Dharwad, Karnataka State, India.
Fiat - Tata is an India - based joint venture between Tata and Fiat Automobiles which produces Fiat and Tata branded passenger cars, as well as engines and transmissions. Tata Motors has gained access to Fiat 's diesel engine and transmission technology through the joint venture.
The two companies formerly also had a distribution joint venture through which Fiat products were sold in India through joint Tata - Fiat dealerships. This distribution arrangement was ended in March 2013; Fiats have since been distributed in India by Fiat Automobiles India Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of Fiat.
Tata Hitachi Construction Machinery is a joint venture between Tata Motors and Hitachi which manufactures excavators and other construction equipment. It was previously known as Telcon Construction Solutions.
The TATA Motors European Technical Centre is an automotive design, engineering, and research company. Company based at Warwick Manufacturing Group (WMG) on the campus of the University of Warwick in Great Britain. It was established in 2005 and is wholly owned subsidiary of Tata Motors. It was the joint developer of the World Truck. In September 2013 it was announced that a new National Automotive Innovative Campus would be built at WMG at Warwicks main campus at a cost of 100 million pounds. The initiative will be a partnership between Tata Motors, the University, and Jaguar Land Rover, with the 30 million pounds in funding coming from Tata Motors.
For details of Tata Motors passenger cars, see Tata Motors Cars. For details of Land Rover and Jaguar products, see Jaguar Land Rover.
Tata Motors proposed overhaul of armoured fighting vehicles and infantry main combat vehicles in 2015. The inter-ministerial committee was chaired by Secretary in the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP) approved most of the proposals from the defense Manufacturing sector in India.
Tata Motors has unveiled electric versions of the Tata Indica passenger car powered by TM4 electric motors and inverters, as well as the Tata Ace commercial vehicle, both of which run on lithium batteries.
Tata Motors ' UK subsidiary, Tata Motors European Technical Centre, has bought a 50.3 % holding in electric vehicle technology firm Miljøbil Grenland / Innovasjon of Norway for US $ 1.93 million, which specialises in the development of innovative solutions for electric vehicles, and plans to launch the electric Indica hatchback in Europe next year. In September 2010, Tata Motors presented four CNG -- Electric Hybrid low - floored Starbuses to the Delhi Transport Corporation, to be used during the Commonwealth Games. These were the first environmentally friendly buses to be used for public transportation in India.
The Nano was launched in 2009 as a city car intended to appeal as an affordable alternative to the section of the Indian populace that is primarily the owner of motorcycles and has not bought their first car. Initially priced at ₹ 100,000 (US $1,500), the vehicle attracted a lot of attention for its relatively low price. Production declined to 2 units per day in November 2017.
Tata Ace, India 's first indigenously developed sub-one - ton minitruck, was launched in May 2005. The minitruck was a huge success in India with auto analysts claiming that Ace had changed the dynamics of the light commercial vehicle (LCV) market in the country by creating a new market segment termed the small commercial vehicle segment. Ace rapidly emerged as the first choice for transporters and single truck owners for city and rural transport. By October 2005, LCV sales of Tata Motors had grown by 36.6 % to 28,537 units due to the rising demand for Ace. The Ace was built with a load body produced by Autoline Industries. By 2005, Autoline was producing 300 load bodies per day for Tata Motors.
Ace is still a top seller for TML with 500,000 units sold by June 2010. In 2011, Tata Motors invested Rs 1000 crore in Dharwad Plant, Karnataka, with the capacity of 90,000 units annually and launched two models of 0.5 - T capacity as Tata Ace Zip, Magic Iris.
Ace has also been exported to several Asian, European, South American, and African countries and all - electric models are sold through Polaris Industries ' Global Electric Motorcars division. In Sri Lanka, it is sold through Diesel and Motor Engineering (DIMO) PLC under the name of DIMO Batta.
The Tata 407 is a light commercial vehicle (LCV) that has sold over 500,000 units since its launch in 1986. In India, this vehicle dominates market share of the LCV category, accounting for close to 75 % of LCV sales.
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who serves on a grand jury in texas | Grand juries in the United States - wikipedia
The United States is one of only two common law jurisdictions in the world, along with Liberia, that continues to use the grand jury to screen criminal indictments. Generally speaking, a grand jury may issue an indictment for a crime, also known as a "true bill, '' only if it finds, based upon the evidence that has been presented to it, that there is probable cause to believe that a crime has been committed by a criminal suspect. Unlike a petit jury, which resolves a particular civil or criminal case, a grand jury (typically having twelve to twenty - three members) serves as a group for a sustained period of time in all or many of the cases that come up in the jurisdiction, generally under the supervision of a federal U.S. attorney, a county district attorney, or a state attorney - general and hears evidence ex parte (i.e. without suspect or person of interest involvement in the proceedings).
While all states in the U.S. currently have provisions for grand juries, only half of the states actually employ them and twenty - two require their use, to varying extents. The modern trend is to use an adversarial preliminary hearing before a trial court judge, rather than grand jury, in the screening role of determining whether there is evidence establishing probable cause that a defendant committed a serious felony before that defendant is required to go to trial and risk a conviction on those charges.
California, Florida, and some other states, also use ' civil grand juries ', ' investigating grand juries ', or the equivalent, to oversee and investigate the conduct of government institutions, in addition to dealing with criminal indictments.
In the early decades of the United States grand juries played a major role in public matters. During that period counties followed the traditional practice of requiring all decisions be made by at least twelve of the grand jurors, (e.g., for a twenty - three - person grand jury, twelve people would constitute a bare majority). Any citizen could bring a matter before a grand jury directly, from a public work that needed repair, to the delinquent conduct of a public official, to a complaint of a crime, and grand juries could conduct their own investigations. In that era most criminal prosecutions were conducted by private parties, either a law enforcement officer, a lawyer hired by a crime victim or his family, or even by laymen. A layman could bring a bill of indictment to the grand jury; if the grand jury found there was sufficient evidence for a trial, that the act was a crime under law, and that the court had jurisdiction, it would return the indictment to the complainant. The grand jury would then appoint the complaining party to exercise the authority of an attorney general, that is, one having a general power of attorney to represent the state in the case. The grand jury served to screen out incompetent or malicious prosecutions. The advent of official public prosecutors in the later decades of the 19th century largely displaced private prosecutions.
The federal constitutional right to have federal criminal charges screened by a grand jury is one of just a handful of provisions of the federal Bill of Rights that does not also apply to state and local governments.
The Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides that "No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger... ''
Misdemeanors are not presented to a grand jury, and are instead charged by prosecutor 's "information. '' In the United States armed forces, an Article 32 hearing is used for a similar purpose.
The grand jury right may be waived, including by plea agreement. A valid waiver must be made in open court and after the defendant has been advised of the nature of the charge and of the defendant 's rights.
Rule 6 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure governs grand juries. It requires grand juries to be composed of 16 to 23 members and that 12 members must concur in an indictment. A grand jury is instructed to return an indictment if the probable cause standard has been met. The grand jury 's decision is either a "true bill '' (formerly billa vera, resulting in an "indictment ''), or "no true bill ''.
Grand jury proceedings are secret. No judge is present; the proceedings are led by a prosecutor; and the defendant has no right to present his case or (in many instances) to be informed of the proceedings at all. While court reporters usually transcribe the proceedings, the records are sealed. The case for such secrecy was unanimously upheld by the Burger Court in Douglas Oil Co. of Cal. v. Petrol Stops Northwest, 441 US 211 (1979). The dissenting opinion was joined by Justices Burger and Stewart but concurred with the Court 's opinion as to the importance and rationale of grand jury secrecy. Writing for the Court, Justice Powell found that "if preindictment proceedings were made public, many prospective witnesses would be hesitant to come forward voluntarily ''; "witnesses who appeared before the grand jury would be less likely to testify fully and frankly ''; and "there also would be the risk that those about to be indicted would flee, or would try to influence individual grand jurors ''. Further, "persons who are accused but exonerated by the grand jury (should) not be held up to public ridicule ''.
United States v. Procter & Gamble Co., 356 US 677 (1958), permitted the disclosure of grand jury transcripts under certain restrictions: "a private party seeking to obtain grand jury transcripts must demonstrate that ' without the transcript a defense would be greatly prejudiced or that without reference to it an injustice would be done ' '' and must make its requests "with particularity ''. Further, First Amendment protections generally permit the witnesses summoned by a grand jury to discuss their testimony, although Dennis v. United States, 384 US 855 (1966), found that such public discussion permits release of the transcripts of their actual testimony.
The Jencks Act, 18 U.S.C. § 3500, requires the government to disclose to the defense any statements made by the accused to the grand jury, and, with respect to non-party witnesses, that after a witness has testified on direct examination at trial, any statement made to the grand jury by such witness be disclosed to the defense.
The grand jury can compel a witness to testify. The target of a grand jury investigation has no right to testify or put on a defense before the grand jury. The U.S. Attorney 's Manual anticipates the possibility of allowing investigatory targets to testify.
The U.S. Attorneys ' Manual states that prosecutors "must recognize that the grand jury is an independent body, whose functions include not only the investigation of crime and the initiation of criminal prosecution but also the protection of the citizenry from unfounded criminal charges '' and that targets of investigations have the right to, and can, "request or demand the opportunity to tell the grand jury their side of the story. ''
United States law also provides for the formation of special grand juries. While a regular grand jury primarily decides whether to bring charges, a special grand jury is called into existence to investigate whether organized crime is occurring in the community in which it sits. This could include, for instance, organized drug activity or organized corruption in government. As provided in 18 U.S.C. § 3331 (a), the U.S. District Court in every judicial district having more than four million inhabitants must impanel a special grand jury when requested by a designated official of the Justice Department.
The grand jury clause of the Fifth Amendment has not been incorporated against the U.S. states. As a matter of state law, nearly all states employ some form of grand jury, though only about half require a grand jury indictment to commence a criminal prosecution, and among those, many limit the requirement to felonies or even certain types of felonies. The size of the grand jury and the number of grand jurors required to issue an indictment varies among the states and even, at times, within a single state.
The California constitution requires each county to have at least one grand jury impaneled at all times. Grand juries are governed by Title 4 and Title 5 of the California Penal Code, as well as Government Code 3060 and other more general provisions. In addition, grand juries are not subject to the Brown Act.
Most county grand juries in California do not consider criminal matters. A decision to present criminal cases to the grand jury may be made by the county District Attorney, but it is neither a constitutional nor a statutory requirement.
These county - level grand juries primarily focus on oversight of government institutions at the county level or lower. This is why California 's grand juries are often called civil grand juries. Almost any entity that receives public money can be examined by the grand jury, including county governments, cities, and special districts.
Each panel selects the topics that it wishes to examine each year. A jury is not allowed to continue an oversight from a previous panel. If a jury wishes to look at a subject that a prior jury was examining, it must start its own investigation and independently verify all information. It may use information obtained from the prior jury but this information must be verified before it can be used by the current jury. Upon completing its investigation, the jury may, but is not required to, issue a report detailing its findings and recommendations.
Most grand juries are seated on a fiscal cycle, i.e. July through June. Most counties have panels consisting of nineteen jurors, some have as few as eleven jurors, others have as many as twenty - three. Due to the length of service, grand jurors are usually selected on a volunteer basis.
The grand jury is required to publish a minimum of one report containing a minimum of one finding and one recommendation. The published reports are the only public record of the grand jury 's work; there is no minority report. Each published report includes a list of those public entities that are required or requested to respond. The format of these responses is dictated by California Penal Code Section 933.05, as is the time span in which they must respond.
County grand juries develop areas to examine by two avenues: juror interests and public complaints. Complaints filed by the public are kept confidential. The protection of whistleblowers is one of the primary reasons for the confidential nature of the grand jury 's work.
Grand juries may charge public officials of "willful or corrupt misconduct in office. '' The accusation is tried as if it were an indictment, and may not be dismissed for political or extra-legal motives. The definition of "willful misconduct in office '' is reserved for serious misconduct, that is, criminal behavior or "purposeful failure to carry out mandatory duties of office. ''
In addition to the county grand juries in California, at least twice a year, the state impanels several Federal Grand Juries. The summons arrive in the mail just like regular jury summons. Jurors are requested to come on a certain date to be impaneled on the jury. There are over 500 people that attend this impanelment and multiple grand juries are chosen at this time. When the juries are chosen there are at least 50 alternates chosen as well. Each Grand Jury has 23 members and are expected to attend jury service one day per week for the time impaneled.
The California Federal Grand Jury has two sections - the Accusatory and the Investigatory. Accusatory Grand Juries hear shorter less complicated criminal cases and often hear several cases each day in attendance. Accusatory Grand Juries are impaneled for four to six months. Accusatory grand jurors meet one day each week, always on the same day of the week. Each day met, the number of cases varies and jurors are expected to be available from 9: 00 a.m. until 4: 30 p.m. for these cases. Often accusatory jurors have a shortened day, but this is never predictable. A typical Accusatory Grand Juror 's day begins at 9: 00 a.m. A Federal Attorney, the prosecutor, presents an indictment to the members of the jury. Then he brings in a witness, usually a Federal agent involved with the case, and questions him. When there are no more questions, the attorney, court reporter, and witness exit the room and the jurors are asked to deliberate the case. Grand jurors do not choose guilt but only decide if the case has probable cause to go to trial.
Investigatory Grand Jurors are impaneled for at least one year of service. They meet one day a week, the same day of the week each week, to discuss and hear more involved Federal criminal cases that took place in California and in the county of the grand jury, some extending from week to week. Investigatory Grand Jurors are expected to be available from 9: 00 a.m. until 4: 30 p.m. for their cases. They are expected to return each week when called in to continue cases or start new ones.
Federal Grand Jurors are paid a nominal fee for all days they are in court and receive travel expenses. The experience opens a small window into the inner workings of criminal proceedings and the input of Grand Jurors is an important check and balance to the government. Jurors are exposed to all manner of cases and work with a cross section of society to come to decisions on probable cause.
In Kentucky, grand jurors are impaneled in each county, at the Circuit Court level (felonies only) for a four - month term (three panels per year). During the trial jury orientation for the given four - month term, the grand jurors are selected from the trial jury pool, although the method of selection is not necessarily random. The meetings are twice a month in most counties (however, grand juries in more populous counties such as Jefferson (Louisville) and Fayette (Lexington) generally meet more often), with each meeting usually going through 20 - 30 cases in a four - to five - hour period. The indictment rate is about 98 - 99 %; the grand jury can broaden (about 1 % of the time) or narrow (about 3 % of the time) the counts in the indictment as well. Usually, fifteen to twenty grand jurors are required to report to meetings; the hope is that twelve will show to each meeting, which is the number of jurors required to hear cases (an additional juror may be kept as an alternate while other extra jurors are typically excused for the day). It takes nine yes votes to the question of probable cause to sign a true bill of indictment. Fewer than nine yes votes either causes a no true bill or a narrowing of the indictment (depending on the votes per count).
The rules are very similar to the federal process; the grand jury usually only hears from law enforcement personnel, with the exception of property crimes, where store detectives or actual victims of theft or vandalism are called to testify. The only cases brought to the grand jury are those initiated from the Commonwealth 's Attorney 's office (the prosecutor for felonies). For the vast majority of cases, the grand jurors generally only hear a recitation of facts from the police report, crime laboratory & medical examiner reports, and other documentation generated during the evidence gathering process. Grand jurors can ask factual questions of the witnesses and legal questions of the Commonwealth 's Attorney or Assistant Commonwealth 's Attorney. The ability to broaden or narrow indictments does technically allow for grand juries to open new avenues of investigation, although since it is dependent on prosecutors for facts, this is very rarely done. Rules of confidentiality that apply to Kentucky grand jurors are similar to those that apply to federal grand juries.
The law of Louisiana is distinct from the other 49 states; it has a civil law legal system rather than a common law system. The start of a grand jury may be attributed to an 1805 enactment of a law requiring all "crimes, offenses and misdemeanors (to) be taken, intended and construed according to and in conformity with the common law of England. '' Provisions for a grand jury are spelled out in Article V Section § 34 (a) of the Louisiana Constitution of 1974 which states a grand jury shall consist of twelve members of a community, as peers of an accused, to weigh evidence presented to them to determine whether there is probable cause to charge the person with the offense. Secrecy is also covered, to be stipulated by law. Section § 34 (b) provides for a witness ' right to counsel stating, "The legislature may establish by law the terms and conditions under which a witness may have the right to the advice of counsel while testifying before the grand jury. '' However, since a witness has no "right to counsel '' under the United States Constitution, a Constitutional Amendment would be required to implement this language.
Historically, a grand jury was empowered to investigate crimes committed within its jurisdiction, identify persons suspected of having committed offenses, determine whether there is probable cause to charge the person with the offense, and publish its findings to the court. This has changed over time, most notably in Article 209 of the 1928 Code stating the grand jury "is to investigate non-capital offenses triable within the parish only when called to their attention by the district attorney or the court, '' and further removing the ability "to act as a censory body of public morals. '' This effectively relegated the grand jury as a tool of the prosecutor. The 1950 Revised Statutes made a return to an 1870 provision that "any member of the grand jury is required, under penalty of law, to bring to the attention of his fellow members any violation of the criminal law which may have come to his personal knowledge, or of which he may have been informed. '' This gives the view that a grand jury could initiate investigations or file charges on its own. Privileges against self - incrimination and the fact that a prosecutor can declare Nolle prosequi provides limitations. Although a grand jury may have the right to subpoena and to have persons and documents called before it, this is almost always limited to evidence and witnesses presented by a prosecutor. A grand jury is considered a jury of accusation and the petit jury as the jury of conviction.
A grand jury may be presented with a bill of indictment, before or after a warrant of arrest on an indictable charge, at the discretion of a district attorney. He or she then presents evidence and witnesses to prove the charge. A grand jury can return a true bill, no true bill or a third option, "pretermitting entirely the matter investigated ''. This requires nine of the twelve grand jurors to determine there is not enough evidence presented to determine if a person should or should not be charged with a crime. A grand jury is sometimes referred to as the passive collaborator of a prosecutor or a "rubber stamp '' for an indictment, especially if simple acceptance of the bill of indictment is returned as a "true bill. '' If a "No True Bill '' is presented by a grand jury, the case is usually dropped. If a defendant is incarcerated, unless there are other charges, a prosecutor declares nolle prosequi, resubmits an indictment with new evidence, or brings charges of a lesser crime then, providing there is no gross oversight, the defendant is released. The theory is that if a prosecutor can not obtain a true bill, presenting the prosecutorial evidence with no defensive rebuttal, then a conviction is not likely.
A 1979 National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) document identifies three steps that could be taken to remove the adversarial role of the grand jury and make them more independent; (1) giving the target of the grand jury investigation the opportunity to testify; (2) making a grand jury subpoena returnable only when the grand jury is sitting and identifying the general subject area of the investigation; and (3) recording all grand jury proceedings (except the jurors ' deliberations), making them accessible for pretrial discovery.
Hennepin County, Minnesota (which contains Minneapolis) keeps a grand jury impaneled at all times. Each grand jury serves a term of four months, typically meets one day each week, and focuses almost exclusively on homicide cases.
In the State of New York, while a person can initially be charged with a felony via a sworn written accusation alone (a "felony complaint ''), the state constitution provides a defendant with a right to have all felonies prosecuted by way of a grand jury indictment. This right can be waived by a defendant, who can then be prosecuted using an indictment substitute called a "superior court information. '' Grand juries are composed of between 16 and 23 jurors (16 being a quorum for all proceedings) and indictments require a minimum vote of 12 such jurors. Grand juries may produce not only indictments but may direct the filing of misdemeanor charges in local courts, the removal of cases to Family Court, and may also issue "grand jury reports '' concerning malfeasance of public officials and recommending their discipline.
Both the prosecutor and the grand jury itself have the right to call witnesses to testify before the grand jury. With few exceptions, every witness who testifies before a grand jury receives transactional immunity automatically, whether they invoke their right to silence or not. If a grand jury is considering criminal charges against a person, that person has a right to testify before that grand jury, provided they make a timely written demand and then agree to waive their right to immunity. Despite this fact, an unwitting target of a grand jury proceeding has no right to be informed that their case is even being considered by a grand jury in the first place, unless they have already been arraigned on a felony complaint charging a related crime and are awaiting a preliminary hearing on that complaint. A defendant held in the state may testify to the grand jury.
The Commonwealth of Virginia requires that all felonies be presented to a grand jury either directly or, more often, after certification following a preliminary hearing in district court. Commonwealth 's attorneys also have the option of obtaining a misdemeanor indictment from a grand jury. Grand juries are a part of the Commonwealth 's circuit court system and they meet at the beginning of each court term.
The most persistent criticism of grand juries is that jurors are not a representative sampling of the community, and are not qualified for jury service, in that they do not possess a satisfactory ability to ask pertinent questions, or sufficient understanding of local government and the concept of due process. Unlike potential jurors in regular trials, grand jurors are not screened for bias or other improper factors. They are rarely read any instruction on the law, as this is not a requirement; their job is only to judge on what the prosecutor produced. The prosecutor drafts the charges and decides which witnesses to call.
The prosecutor is not obliged to present evidence in favor of those being investigated.
Individuals subject to grand jury proceedings do not have a Sixth Amendment constitutional right to counsel in the grand jury room, nor do they have a Sixth Amendment right to confront and cross-examine witnesses. Additionally, individuals in grand jury proceedings can be charged with holding the court in contempt (punishable with incarceration for the remaining term of the grand jury) if they refuse to appear before the jury. Media coverage is not allowed. Furthermore, all evidence is presented by a prosecutor in a cloak of secrecy, as the prosecutor, grand jurors, and the grand jury stenographer are prohibited from disclosing what happened before the grand jury unless ordered to do so in a judicial proceeding.
In 1974 the Supreme Court of the United States held in U.S. v. Calandra that "the exclusionary rule in search - and - seizure cases does not apply to grand jury proceedings because the principal objective of the rule is ' to deter future unlawful police conduct, ' (...) and ' it is unrealistic to assume that application of the rule to grand jury proceedings would significantly further that goal. ' '' Illegally obtained evidence, therefore, is admissible in grand jury proceedings, and the Fourth Amendment 's exclusionary rule does not apply.
After a grand jury was commissioned to investigate whistleblowers organization WikiLeaks, grand juries have been accused of being used as an intimidation and persecution mechanism against whistleblowers who have been accused of leaking classified information.
According to the American Bar Association (ABA), the grand jury has come under increasing criticism for being a mere "rubber stamp '' for the prosecution without adequate procedural safeguards. Critics argue that the grand jury has largely lost its historic role as an independent bulwark protecting citizens from unfounded accusations by the government. Grand juries provide little protection to accused suspects and are much more useful to prosecutors. Grand juries have such broad subpoena power that they can investigate alleged crimes very thoroughly and often assist the prosecutor in his or her job. Grand juries sometimes compel witnesses to testify without the presence of their attorneys. Evidence uncovered during the grand jury investigation can be used by the prosecutor in a later trial. Grand jurors also often lack the ability and knowledge to judge sophisticated cases and complicated federal laws. This puts them at the mercy of very well trained and experienced federal prosecutors. Grand jurors often hear only the prosecutor 's side of the case and are usually persuaded by them. Grand juries almost always indict people on the prosecutor 's recommendation. A chief judge of New York State 's highest court, Sol Wachtler, once said that grand juries were so pliable that a prosecutor could get a grand jury to "indict a ham sandwich. '' And William J. Campbell, a former federal district judge in Chicago, noted: "(T) oday, the grand jury is the total captive of the prosecutor who, if he is candid, will concede that he can indict anybody, at any time, for almost anything, before any grand jury. ''
The grand jury system in the United States came under renewed criticism following three high - profile cases in 2014, where police officers caused the deaths of Michael Brown, Eric Garner, and Tamir Rice. In all three cases, after being presented the evidence, the grand juries voted not to return indictments. Public perception was that the officers involved had failed to follow proper police procedure. As a result, these grand jury decisions sparked riots across the United States.
Due to the criticism against the federal grand jury system there are some reform proposals which include the following proposals:
Besides the above stated reform proposals, the National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers (NACDL) established The Commission to Reform the Federal Grand Jury, a bi-partisan, blue - ribbon panel that included current and former prosecutors, as well as academics and defense attorneys. The unanimous conclusions and proposals of this diverse group were contained in the publication Federal Grand Jury Reform Report & ' Bill of Rights '. Among the reforms detailed in that report were the right to counsel for grand jury witnesses who are not receiving immunity, an obligation to present evidence which may exonerate the target or subject of the offense, and the right for targets or subjects to testify.
Researchers Erin Crites, Jon Gould and Colleen Shepard of the Center for Justice, Law & Society at George Mason University studied the experiences of prosecutors, defense lawyers, and retired judges in New York and Colorado. Four key reform recommendations emerged from their Evaluating Grand Jury Reform in Two States: The Case for Reform research study are:
The Cato Institute, an American libertarian think tank headquartered in Washington, D.C., presented a report, A Grand Facade: How the Grand Jury was Captured by Government which addresses the history of, problems with, and reforms for the grand jury system.
Occasionally, grand juries go aggressively beyond the control of the prosecuting attorney. When the grand jury does so the situation is called a "runaway '' grand jury. Runaway grand juries sometimes happen in government corruption or organized crime cases if the grand jury comes to believe that the prosecutor himself has been improperly influenced. Such cases were common in the 19th century but have become infrequent since the 1930s.
The 1935 Runaway Grand Jury in New York County was investigating gambling and mobster Dutch Schultz when jury members complained in open court that prosecutors were not pursuing obvious leads and hinted that the district attorney was possibly receiving payoffs. Thomas E. Dewey was appointed as an independent prosecutor.
Scott Turow 's second novel The Burden of Proof deals extensively with the workings and shortcomings of the Federal Grand Jury system in a fictional county in Illinois. Turow is himself a practicing lawyer and acted as an Assistant U.S. Attorney in Chicago between 1978 and 1986.
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om shanti om box office collection in japan | Om Shanti Om - wikipedia
Om Shanti Om (Hindi pronunciation: (oːm ʃaːnt̪ɪ oːm)) is a 2007 Indian romantic melodrama film directed and co-written by Farah Khan with Mayur Puri and Mushtaq Shiekh. It stars Shah Rukh Khan as Om, a junior artist of the 1970s who has a crush on a secretly married superstar, played by Deepika Padukone. Her husband, a producer played by Arjun Rampal, kills her in a fire; Om witnesses this and dies from the injuries sustained from trying to rescue her. Reincarnated as a superstar in the 2000s, he seeks to avenge his love. Om Shanti Om had Shreyas Talpade, Kirron Kher, Bindu and Javed Sheikh play supporting roles.
The film was produced and presented by Shah Rukh 's wife Gauri Khan under the banner Red Chillies Entertainment on a budget of ₹ 400 million. Farah conceived Om Shanti Om while directing the musical Bombay Dreams (2002), which was based on the Indian film industry. After Shah Rukh rejected the first version of Happy New Year, she was reminded of Om Shanti Om; the film 's title derives from a similar titled song from the 1980 film Karz. The soundtrack album was composed by Vishal -- Shekhar, with lyrics written by Javed Akhtar. The background score was composed by Sandeep Chowta. The album received positive reviews and was also commercially successful, becoming the highest - selling album of the year in India.
Released on 9 November 2007, Om Shanti Om earned over ₹ 1.49 billion worldwide, becoming the highest - grossing Indian film at the time, both in India and overseas territories. It received positive reviews from critics, with praise directed to the performances and the film 's narrative. The film won several awards in major Indian film award ceremonies. At 53rd Filmfare Awards, it received 12 nominations, winning for Best Female Debut and Best Special Effects, and also won the National Film Award for Best Production Design.
Om Prakash Makhija, a junior artist in 1970s Hindi cinema, is in love with film superstar Shantipriya. One evening, Om attends the premiere of Shanti 's film, and envisions himself as the lead actor, Manoj Kumar. Om and his friend Pappu take on numerous small acting roles as extras, and one night, a drunk Om describes his fantasy of one day winning a Filmfare Award for Best Actor. At the shooting of a film, Om rescues Shanti after a fire grows out of control, and they become friends. Om tries to romance her.
Om overhears a conversation between Shanti and film producer Mukesh Mehra. The pair have recently married in secret, and Shanti reveals that she is pregnant with his child. Mukesh seems overjoyed and asks Shanti to meet him at the set of their upcoming film Om Shanti Om. Mukesh promises to cancel the film, reveal their marriage to the public, and have a grand wedding on the set. However, revealing his true colours, he tells Shanti that their relationship and child will ruin his career and sets the backdrop on fire.
Om attempts to rescue Shanti, but is attacked by Mukesh 's guards. After the guards leave, he again attempts to rescue Shanti, but he is thrown from the building by the explosion. A disorientated Om is hit by a car owned by Rajesh Kapoor, an actor taking his pregnant wife, Lovely, to the hospital. At the hospital, Om remembers his moments with Shanti as he dies, while Lovely gives birth to a son, also named Om. The soul of Om Prakash reincarnates into the newborn Om Kapoor.
Years later, Om Kapoor (nicknamed OK) becomes a famous actor and lives the luxurious life dreamt of by Om Prakash, but experiences pyrophobia and subconsciously inherits Om Prakash 's memories. At an awards ceremony, OK unknowingly delivers a speech Om Prakash made when he was drunk, which is heard by Pappu on television. At the event, OK 's father introduces him to Mukesh, whose introduction causes OK to fully remember the events of Om Prakash 's life. OK later reunites with Om Prakash 's mother Bela and Pappu, and conspires to avenge Shanti 's death by making Mukesh confess his crime.
OK convinces Mukesh to restart shooting for Om Shanti Om, and he plans to convince Mukesh that Shanti 's spirit is haunting him. To impersonate Shanti, OK finds a super-fan Sandhya (Sandy), a doppelgänger of Shanti. Throughout the film 's shooting, OK and his friends arrange incidents to remind Mukesh of the past. During the music launch of the film, OK taunts Mukesh by revealing the extent to which he knows the story of Shanti 's death. But when Mukesh runs after Sandy thinking she is the ghost of Shanti, Sandy accidentally cuts her arm and bleeds. Seeing this, Mukesh realises that she is not Shanti 's ghost. Mukesh tries to confront OK, but he is suddenly hit by the set 's swinging chandelier.
After Mukesh regains consciousness, OK confronts him but Mukesh reveals that he knows Sandy is not a ghost after all. During the quarrel, Sandy reappears and taunts Mukesh. She reveals that after the fire ceased to burn, Mukesh found that Shanti had survived and buried her alive below the chandelier. OK is confused about how Sandy knows this detail. Mukesh attempts to shoot Sandy, shocked by the revelation about the murder, but Mukesh and OK fight, which results in yet another fire. Just when O.K is about to kill Mukesh, Sandy stops him, saying Mukesh will not die by his hand. The chandelier falls on Mukesh, killing him instantly.
Pappu and Sandy rush to join OK, who is shocked when he sees Sandy in two places at once. OK realises that the person he assumed to be Sandy was actually Shanti 's ghost, and recalls instances where supernatural events helped when OK 's plans almost did not work, realising that Shanti was responsible. She smiles warmly towards OK and tearfully bids him goodbye, disappearing as she moves into the light.
Special appearances during the song "Deewangi Deewangi '' (in order of appearance)
Other Cameo appearances throughout the film (in alphabetical order)
Additionally, young versions of 3 Famous Bollywood actors are recreated using Archive footage, Body Doubles, and CGI for the song "Dhoom Tana ''. They are
Out of these three, Jeetendra actually makes a cameo during Deewangi song, while Dutt had passed away in 2005, and Khanna was unwell.
In 2002, Farah Khan worked as a choreographer for the musical Bombay Dreams in London, which she felt presented a "clichéd and outdated version '' of the Indian film industry. She thought that the musical would not be successful if released in India. She instead thought of a new story, writing her initial thoughts about the subject on Andrew Lloyd Webber 's letterhead while staying in his house. Later in 2006, Farah began to work on her next project, which was tentatively titled Happy New Year. Amid speculations that Shah Rukh Khan would star in Happy New Year, the actor rejected the first draft of the film, upon which Farah 's husband and editor Shirish Kunder reminded her of the story she had conceived while in London. Happy New Year, which was to mark Deepika Padukone 's Hindi debut, was put on hiatus and revived more than 8 years later under the same title.
Farah completed writing the first script of Om Shanti Om within two weeks. She set the first half in the 1970s as she felt the Hindi films made during that period were much more influential than those made in other periods, particularly the 1980s, which she felt was a period when "the worst movies were made ''. She also included many references to the 1970s, which were also prevalent in films of that time. She said, "Everything in the first half is about the 70s -- such as the mother who overacts, mouthing cliched dialogues. Then there are cabarets, badminton and other stuff popular during that era. '' Shah Rukh 's costumes were designed by Karan Johar, while Manish Malhotra designed Padukone 's costumes. The rest of the cast had their costumes designed by Sanjeev Mulchadni.
In addition to directing the film, Farah co-wrote the story with Mayur Puri and Mushtaq Shiekh. She was also the film 's choreographer. Puri wrote the screenplay and dialogues. He completed the writing process in two months and rewrote the film 's second half. Puri created the screenplay by writing his natural reaction to the characters as scenarios. He knew that despite being part of a crowd, junior artists do not want to be recognized as such, ruins their chances of landing a leading role in future. This was used in a sequence involving Shah Rukh and Talpade, who play junior artists. Puri blended different genres together in Om Shanti Om, which he felt was challenging. He used his personal memories from childhood for creating the 1970s. Shirish Kunder was the editor, while V. Manikandan was the cinematographer.
Sabu Cyril was the film 's production designer. Sabu was first offered the Mani Ratnam - directed Guru (2007) at a time when Om Shanti Om was being planned, but ultimately chosen the latter due to his earlier commitment to Farah for her future project. Farah used two particular dialogues in the film: "When you want something badly, the whole universe conspires to give to you '' and "In the end everything will be ok and if its not ok its not the end ''. These were used as Khan felt that it reflected her philosophy in her life. Farah stated that the film 's opening scene was her most favorite in it. In 2008, Puri felt his most favourite dialogue from the ones he wrote would be the Filmfare Awards speech. The film 's title derives from the eponymous song from the film Karz (1980). Om is a Hindu mantra; Om Shanti Om roughly translates to "Peace Be With You ''.
Shah Rukh was cast as the lead; he gained six packs for a song sequence. He felt Om Shanti Om was a "happy film ''. Farah was advised by Malaika Arora to cast Padukone as the female lead, who was suggested by Wendell Roddick, under whom Padukone was working. She was cast without a screen test. Khan felt that she was "a beautiful, classic Indian beauty '' who fit the role of an actor of the 1970s. She was excited at the prospect of working with Shah Rukh and said, "I 've grown up watching (Shah Rukh) and always admired him so much. To get to work with him... is quite wonderful. It was also fantastic that Farah showed faith in my talent and cast me opposite him. ''
In preparation for her role, Padukone watched several films of actresses Helen and Hema Malini to study their body language. Her character was modelled after Malini and nicknamed Dreamy Girl after her the latter 's nickname as Dream Girl. Rampal was approached by both Khan and Shah Rukh at the latter 's New Year 's Eve party. Rampal was initially reluctant to do the role as he felt it was "too evil '' for someone like him. With persuasion from Shah Rukh, he agreed. Rampal wore a mustache in the film which was suggested by Shah Rukh. Shreyas Talpade played a supporting role as the best friend of Khan 's character. After the release of Iqbal (2005) and completing the filming of Dor, Talpade, who attended the same gym as Khan, was called for a narration of what would be Om Shanti Om. He agreed to do the role.
Kirron Kher, Bindu and Javed Sheikh also appear in the film. 31 Bollywood film actors appeared in cameo appearances for the song "Deewangi Deewangi ''. Other actors were also supposed to play cameos, including Fardeen Khan, who was arrested at Dubai airport in a drug case. Dev Anand refused as he always played lead roles in his career. Dilip Kumar and Saira Banu did n't appear in the song, despite plans to include them. Amitabh Bachchan refused due to his son 's wedding, while Aamir Khan refused due to Taare Zameen Par 's (2007) pending editing. Khan had wanted the three Khans to appear together in a film. Rekha, who appears in the song, carried out 2 days of rehearsal for it. All those who appeared for the song received gifts, including a Blackberry phone and a Tag Heuer watch.
Om Shanti Om was made on a budget of ₹ 400 million. The first scene to be filmed was one where Talpade 's character tells Shah Rukh 's character that he will be a hero; Shah Rukh was an hour late for filming. Farah was pregnant with triplets while filming and experienced difficulties while shooting, she would constantly vomit while directing the film. The film was shot entirely in sync sound; Farah dismissed rumours of Padukone 's voice being dubbed. In 2015, however, Mona Ghosh Shetty admitted to have dubbed for Padukone in the film. The fake fight scene involving a stuffed tiger was inspired by a similar scene in the film Tarzan 303. Old cars owned by actors Rajesh Khanna and Hema Malini were used for filming for authenticity.
A number of references to real life was also filmed, including a scene in which Om saves Shantipriya from a fire, which was a spoof of Sunil Dutt rescuing Nargis from a fire on the sets of Mother India (1957). For a shot involving a Filmfare Awards ceremony, Khan stood on the red carpet of an actual Filmfare Award ceremony and requested actors to dictate dialogues as she stated. The song "Deewangi Deewangi '' was shot over a period of six days. The song "Dhoom Tana '' has digitally altered guest appearances, which included Sunil Dutt from Amrapali (1966), Rajesh Khanna from Sachaa Jhutha (1970) and Jeetendra from Jay Vejay (1977). Farah wanted to film Shakira for filming a special appearance had made her commit a few days for the role. Due to the uncertainty of her dates, the idea was scrapped.
In February 2007, a filming schedule was completed in Film City. It was then reported that filming would move outdoors after Shah Rukh completed filming for Kaun Banega Crorepati. In October 2007, Abhishek Bachchan finished filming for his cameo appearance; he shot between 10 and 2 in the night for his screen time of about one and a half minutes. Filming of the last sequence and the end - credit song was done in Film City. Farah continued the tradition of featuring an end - credits song beginning with Main Hoon Na (2004).
Om Shanti Om was produced by Shah Rukh 's wife Gauri Khan under their Red Chillies Entertainment banner. While Marching Ants handled the publicity design, Gauri was the presenter. Shyam Kaushal, Amar Shetty and Shah Rukh were the action directors. The film 's final reel length was 4013.94 ft (1223.45 m).
The Om Shanti Om soundtrack features 12 songs composed by musical duo Vishal - Shekhar with lyrics by Javed Akhtar and a background score was composed by Sandeep Chowta. The vocals are provided by KK, Sukhwinder Singh, Marianne, Nisha, Caralisa Monteiro, Shaan, Udit Narayan, Shreya Ghoshal, Sunidhi Chauhan, Rahul Saxena, Sonu Nigam, Rahat Fateh Ali Khan, Richa Sharma, Abhijeet Bhattacharya, DJ Aqeel, DJ G, Kiran Karnath, Jackie V, Nikhil Chinapa, DJ Nawed and Zoheb. Initially, A.R. Rahman was signed in to compose original songs and background score for the film but he opted out after disagreements with T - Series as he wanted them to share the copyrights of music between him and the lyricist. Farah then approached Vishal - Shekhar, and asked them to compose modern, retro music for the film. They intended the soundtrack to be a tribute to the music of the 1960s and 1970s, while appealing to newer audiences at the same time. Trade reports predicted that the album will be commercially successful. The soundtrack album of Om Shanti Om was released on 18 September 2007 on CD.
In a soundtrack review, Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama gave it four stars out of five and opines, "Om Shanti Om is easily one of the most complete scores by Vishal - Shekhar and Javed Akhtar. '' Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com also gave it four stars out of five, applauding the tracks but criticized the "Dark Side '' mix. She concludes her review by writing, "Om Shanti Om is an out and out musical that captivates with its roaring polyphony and unabashed drama. '' Aakash Gandhi of Planet Bollywood gave a rating of 8.5 stars out of 10 and writes, "not only have (Vishal - Shekhar) proven themselves in terms of musical ingenuity and quality, they have shown us the confidence, the poise, and the ability to step up to the plate and hit a grand - slam when they 're called upon to do so. '' He further gave them a "standing ovation ''. Writing for AllMusic, Bhaskar Gupta gave the album four and a half stars out of five and praises the composers, writing, "Vishal - Shekhar finally delivered a soundtrack that could be deemed their signature offering. ''
Vishal - Shekhar was nominated for Best Music at the 53rd Filmfare Awards, Producers Guild Awards 2008 and Zee Cine Awards 2008, winning for Best Composer at the 2nd Asian Film Awards. Vishal Dadlani was alone nominated for Best Lyrics at the Filmfare and Producers Film Guild award ceremonies. Akhtar was nominated for Best Lyrics at the Filmfare and Zee Cine awards, winning at the 9th IIFA Awards. It was the highest - selling music album of the year in India, with sales of around 2 million units.
Om Shanti Om created a record of sorts by going in for an unheard of 2000 prints (worldwide) release. This was the highest number of prints (including digital) for any Indian movie at the time of its release. Om Shanti Om set another record for registered pre-advance booking of 18,000 tickets in a chain of theatres in Delhi a few days before the advance booking was to start. A special screening was conducted for Bollywood actors. Red Chillies Entertainment had reportedly sold the world rights for the film to Eros International for an amount between Rs. 720 -- 750 million. Baba Films, production and distribution company, had offered a record Rs. 110 million for the rights to the Mumbai Circuit, easily surpassing the highest amount ever paid for the territory. As a marketing strategy, Amul advertised Shah Rukh.
Nina Davuluri 's talent for Miss America 2014 was a Hindi Film fusion dance choreographed by Nakul Dev Mahajan and performed to Dhoom Taana. It was the first time Hindi Film ever appeared on the Miss America stage and Davuluri is the first Indian American to win the competition. Om Shanti Om was remade into a Japanese musical titled Oomu Shanti Oumu. A book, titled The Making of Om Shanti Om written by Mushtaq Sheikh, was released after the release of the film. The book gives an insight into the production and happenings behind the camera of the film.
Manoj Kumar planned to sue the makers of Om Shanti Om for showing his body double in bad taste. Kumar added, "Are the Mumbai police so stupid that they ca n't recognise Manoj Kumar and lathicharge him in the ' 70s when he was a star? ''. Kumar also alleged that Shahrukh Khan is communal. Later, in a press conference, Shahrukh Khan and director Farah Khan accepted their mistake and apologised for the matter. Farah Khan even offered to cut the scene which Manoj Kumar felt was hurtful, but Kumar refused on grounds that, as Farah had stated, "I (Farah Khan) am like his daughter. He said, ' Betiyaan maafi nahi maangti ' (Daughters do n't ask for forgiveness). I told him that he could 've called me and scolded me. '' Later, Kumar said that though this incident was hurtful to him, he wishes to forgive, ignore, and move on, saying that he prefers to "see Ram in everyone and ignore the Ravana. ''
In 2008, before the film 's television premiere on Sony TV, Manoj Kumar filed for a stay on the television release, at civil court in Mumbai. On 8 August 2008, he won permanent injunction on the scenes in Om Shanti Om that lampooned him. The court ordered the producers and Sony Entertainment Television, to edit the Manoj Kumar look - alike scenes before showing the film on the channel on 10 August 2008. It also ordered that the film could not be shown in any media -- TV, DVD or Internet -- without the scene being deleted.
On 7 August 2008, before its television release, scriptwriter Ajay Monga moved the Bombay High Court alleging that the basic storyline of the film was lifted from a film script he had emailed to Shah Rukh Khan in 2006. According to the petition, "Monga, along with one more writer Hemant Hegde, had registered the script with the Cine Writers Association (CWA) in September 2005. In January 2008, Cine Writers Association (CWA) rejected Monga 's appeal at a special Executive Committee meeting. Thereafter, he approached the court to stay the film 's screening on television. Though, on 6 August the court rejected Monga 's plea for seeking a stay on the television telecast, it directed all the respondents including Shahrukh Khan, Farah Khan, Red Chillies Entertainment, Gauri Khan (director Red Chillies) and film 's co-writer Mushtaq Sheikh, to file their say by the next hearing on 29 September 2008. In November 2008, the Film Writers ' association sent a communication to Red Chillies and Ajay Monga that it had found similarities in Om Shanti Om and Monga 's script. The similarities were more than mere coincidences according to Sooni Taraporewala who chaired a special committee that has investigated the case on behalf of the Film Writers ' association.
Another allegation of plagiarism came from Rinki Bhattacharya, daughter of late Bimal Roy, who directed Madhumati. She threatened legal action against Red Chillies Entertainment and the producer - director of Om Shanti Om, as she felt that the film 's second half was similar to Madhumati, also a rebirth saga.
Om Shanti Om was received positively by Indian film critics. Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave it four stars out of five and writes, "Om Shanti Om is Bollywood masala in its truest form and also, at its best '' but notes, "the second half could 've been crisper ''. Khalid Mohamed of Hindustan Times gave the film four stars out of five and appreciated the performances, observing how Rampal is "consistently first - rate as the suave villain '' while Padukone is "fantastic, so surprisingly assured that you marvel at her poised debut ''. He notes that "the enterprise belongs to Shah Rukh Khan, who tackles comedy, high drama and action with his signature style -- spontaneous and intuitively intelligent. Six - pack or no - packs, he 's the entertainer of the year in this valentine to the movies. ''
Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India gave the film three and a half stars out of five and writes, "Farah Khan 's re-birth saga literally makes an art of retro and paints the seventies pop culture in Andy Warholish strokes ''. She called it an "unabashed tribute '' to Karz. Raja Sen of Rediff.com gave it three and a half stars out of five and applauded the performances of Shah Rukh, Padukone and Talpade. He writes, "Om Shanti Om is an exultant, heady, joyous film reveling in Bollywood, and as at most parties where the bubbly flows free, there is much silly giggling and tremendous immaturity. '' He criticized the dialogues and excessive cameos in the film.
Rajeev Masand of CNN - News18 gave the film three stars out of five and writes, "Unpretentious and completely transparent in its intentions, Om Shanti Om is an entertainer in the true sense of the word, mixing up genre elements like comedy, drama, action and emotion to create a heady broth of Manmohan Desai - style exaggerated entertainment. '' He compliments the dialogues "which so cleverly incorporates Bollywood 's oldest clichés into these characters ' everyday parlance. '' A commentator for Indo - Asian News Service felt that Shah Rukh 's acting was repetitive and writes, "He needs to curtail his unwarranted superstar mannerisms even in a total masala film like Om Shanti Om '', while complimenting the performances of Padukone, Rampal and Talpade.
Sudish Kamnath of The Hindu stated that the film is "an unabashed celebration of willing suspension of disbelief, calling it a "light - hearted tribute to Hindi cinema the way we know it and love it ''. He praised the performances of Shah Rukh, Padukone and Talpade, while criticizing Rampal and Kher. He also praised the various spoofs, especially the ones directed at Manoj Kumar, Sanjay Leela Bhansali and Abhishek Bachchan. Writing for SantaBanta.com, Subhash K. Jha gave it one star out of five and criticizes the spoofs "which keeps swinging from homage to imitation with infuriating artifice '', writing, "The mood is one of patronizing and condescension rather than genuine admiration for an era that 's gone with the wind ''.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave Om Shanti Om a rating of 83 %, based upon 6 reviews (5 fresh and 1 rotten). Tajpal Rathore of BBC gave it 4 out of 5 stars as well and stated, "Both a homage to and parody of Hindi Films, this cinematic feast delivered straight from the heart of the film industry will have you glued to your seats till the end. '' Mark Medley of National Post gave 3 stars and stated, "The film is a mess for all the right reasons; elements of comedy, drama, romance, action and the supernatural are packed in. But really, the plot is just a vehicle to get from one song - and - dance number to the next. '' AOL gave the film 3 out of 5 stars stating, "The movie consists of all the elements that are essentially called the ' navratnas ' of Indian cinema -- from joy to grief to romance to revenge. And she mixes these well to cook up a potboiler, which is sure to be a run away hit. ''
Om Shanti Om opened across 878 cinemas in 2000 prints worldwide. The film 's net gross (after deducting entertainment tax) was ₹ 994 million (US $14 million) in India. The film collected US $2.78 million in the United Kingdom, US $3.6 million in North America and US $3.7 million collectively from the rest of the world, which resulted in total overseas collections of $10,080,000, the 4th largest of all time as of 2010. As a result of these collections, a worldwide gross of ₹ 1.50 billion (US $21 million) was accumulated.
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characters in a midsummer night's dream movie | A Midsummer Night 's Dream (1999 film) - wikipedia
A Midsummer Night 's Dream is a 1999 romantic comedy fantasy film based on the play A Midsummer Night 's Dream by William Shakespeare. It was directed by Michael Hoffman. The ensemble cast features Kevin Kline as Bottom, Michelle Pfeiffer and Rupert Everett as Titania and Oberon, Stanley Tucci as Puck, and Calista Flockhart, Anna Friel, Christian Bale, and Dominic West as the four lovers.
In 19th century Monte Athena, in the Kingdom of Italy, young lovers Lysander (Dominic West) and Hermia (Anna Friel) are forbidden to marry by her father Egeus (Bernard Hill), who has promised Hermia to Demetrius (Christian Bale). Lysander and Hermia make plans to flee to the forest to escape the arrangement. Demetrius follows them, having been made aware of the plan by Helena (Calista Flockhart), a young woman who is desperately in love with him. Once in the forest, they wander into the fairy world, ruled by Oberon (Rupert Everett) and Titania (Michelle Pfeiffer), King and Queen of the fairies. Oberon and his servant sprite Puck (Stanley Tucci) cause mayhem among the lovers with a magic potion that causes both Lysander and Demetrius to fall in love with Helena, leading to a rift between all four that culminates (famously in this adaptation) in a mud - wrestling scene. Oberon then bewitches Titania with the same potion.
Meanwhile, an acting troupe prepares a play for the entertainment of the Duke. The leader of the actors (Roger Rees) and the actors, including a weaver named Bottom (Kevin Kline), and Francis Flute (Sam Rockwell) take their rehearsal to the forest. The mischievous Puck magically enchants Bottom with the head of an ass and Bottom is then seen by the bewitched Titania. Titania woos Bottom in her bower, attended by fairies. Oberon tires of the sport and puts all to rights, pairing Lysander back with Hermia and Demetrius with Helena, and reconciling with his own queen, Titania.
In the final part, Bottom and his troupe of "rude Mechanicals '' perform their amateur play, based on the tragedy of Pyramus and Thisbe, before Duke Theseus (David Strathairn), his wife Hippolyta (Sophie Marceau), and the court, unintentionally producing a comedy that turns to be a tragedy.
A Midsummer Night 's Dream was filmed on location in Lazio and Tuscany, and at Cinecittà Studios, Rome, Italy. The action of the play was transported from Athens, Greece, to a fictional Monte Athena, located in the Tuscan region of Italy, although all textual mentions of Athens were retained.
The film made use of Felix Mendelssohn 's incidental music for an 1843 stage production (including the famous Wedding March), alongside operatic works from Giuseppe Verdi, Gaetano Donizetti, Vincenzo Bellini, Gioacchino Rossini and Pietro Mascagni.
A Midsummer Night 's Dream received mixed - to - positive reviews, and currently holds a rating of 67 % on Rotten Tomatoes, and a score of 61 on Metacritic, indicating generally favorable reviews. Many critics singled out Kevin Kline and Stanley Tucci for particular praise.
In the New York Times, Janet Maslin wrote:
Michael Hoffman 's fussy production of A Midsummer Night 's Dream is just such a parade of incongruities, with performances ranging from the sublime to the you - know - what... Not even Michelle Pfeiffer 's commanding loveliness as the fairy queen Titania, and her ability to speak of such things as ' my bower ' with perfect ease, can offset the decision to have the actors grapple awkwardly with bicycles... The hoodwinked characters of A Midsummer Night 's Dream are meant to be mismatched much of the time. But not like this. The distraught Helena, played as a hand - waving, eye - rolling ditz by Calista Flockhart, hardly fits into the same film with David Strathairn 's reserved Duke Theseus, or with Rupert Everett as a slinky Oberon. Everett, like the inspired Kevin Kline as the ham actor Bottom, is utterly at ease with this material in ways that many other cast members are not... Though West and especially Ms. Friel approach their roles with gratifying ease, Bale is once again given the cheesecake treatment and little occasion to rise above it. This production tarts up the play any way it can... The theatrical carryings - on of Bottom and company provide the film 's best attempts at comedy. Staging a play about Pyramus and Thisbe with a troupe including Bill Irwin, Roger Rees and Sam Rockwell (as the beauteous heroine), Bottom 's acting company delights its late - 19th - century audience in ways Hoffman 's film can only occasionally manage. In a completely unexpected turn, Rockwell moves the sceptical and bemused audience to tears as he performs Thisbe 's scene reacting to the death of Pyramus, proving that he alone among the band of actors has any real talent for the craft.
In the Chicago Sun - Times, Roger Ebert wrote:
Michael Hoffman 's new film of William Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream (who else 's?) is updated to the 19th century, set in Italy and furnished with bicycles and operatic interludes. But it is founded on Shakespeare 's language and is faithful, by and large, to the original play... It 's wonderful to behold Pfeiffer 's infatuation with the donkey - eared Bottom, who she winds in her arms as ' doth the woodbine the sweet honeysuckle gently twist '; her love is so real, we almost believe it. Kline 's Bottom tactfully humors her mad infatuation, good - natured and accepting. And Tucci 's Puck suggests sometimes that he has a darker side, but it not so much malicious as incompetent.
In the San Francisco Chronicle, Peter Stack wrote:
Purists will quibble, but William Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream is a playful, sexy piece of work - just what the Bard might have conjured up for a movie adaptation of his beloved spring - fever comedy. The film is over the top - and willfully so... As might be expected, Kevin Kline steals the show with his hearty gifts for comedy... Kline, a Shakespearean veteran, has that flourish, that golden touch. In his glorious way of overdoing it - turning the very notion of acting into farce - he embodies a supreme comic madness that is audacious yet embracing... Michelle Pfeiffer plays it regal, pouty and come - hither as Titania. Her seduction of Bottom, turned to an ass under the spell of Puck (Stanley Tucci with horns and impish grin), is riotous... A real surprise is the sly comic depth of Calista Flockhart 's bicycle - riding Helena, miles from Ally McBeal... Rupert Everett is imperious as Oberon, the jealous fairy king, and Tucci 's Puck is amusingly tweaky as he keeps messing up his missions to drop magic nectar into lovers ' eyes.
In Time Out New York, Andrew Johnston (critic) wrote:
A strangely uneven adaptation of the Bard 's most famous comedy, Michael Hoffman 's Dream is, if nothing else, admirable for its lack of a contrived gimmick. Yes, the story has been transplanted to Tuscany in the 1890s, and the cast is packed with big names, but Hoffman rightly treats the text as the real star of the show. The film soars when actors who remember that Shakespeare was primarily an entertainer carry the ball, but things get pretty turgid when the focus is on those who seem cowed by appearing in an adaptation of a Major Literary Classic.
In the Washington Post, Jane Horwitz wrote:
Instead of Shakespeare 's Athens, Hoffman dreams his Dream in a gorgeous Tuscan hill town at the turn of the century, with production designer Luciana Arrighi and costume designer Gabriella Pescucci creating a luscious milieu of dusty green shutters, olive groves and vineyards reminiscent of the 1986 Merchant - Ivory gem A Room With a View... some in the cast negotiate Shakespeare 's lines better than others. Kevin Kline 's stage savvy serves him especially well as a movie - stealing Bottom.
Also in the Washington Post, Desson Howe wrote:
After watching William Shakespeare 's ' A Midsummer Night 's Dream, Michael Hoffman 's adaptation of the romantic comedy, I 'm left with more admiration than fairy dust. But it was pleasurable all the same... Kline and Flockhart do most of the pedaling. When Kline gets goofy -- as he did in A Fish Called Wanda and In & Out, he 's an irresistible, madcap Errol Flynn, twisting his good looks into hilarious contortions. And Flockhart exudes a wonderful vulnerability and sense of comic timing, as she pursues Demetrius, suffering all manner of indignity and incredulity along the way.
In Variety, Emanuel Levy described the film as a "whimsical, intermittently enjoyable but decidedly unmagical version of the playwright 's wild romantic comedy... There is not much chemistry between Pfeiffer and Everett, nor between Pfeiffer and Kline, particularly in their big love scene. Kline overacts physically and emotionally, Flockhart is entertaining in a broad manner, and Pfeiffer renders a strenuously theatrical performance. Overall, the Brits give more coherent and resonant performances, especially Friel and West as the romantic couple, a restrained Everett as Oberon, and Rees as the theatrical manager. ''
Time Out wrote that "this Dream is middlebrow and unashamed of it. Injecting the film with fun and pathos, Kline makes a superb Bottom; it 's his play and he acts it to the hilt. ''
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when is the last time the united states had a full eclipse | List of Solar eclipses visible from the United states - wikipedia
This is an incomplete list of solar eclipses visible from the United States between 1901 and 2050. All eclipses whose path of totality or annularity passes through the land territory of the current fifty U.S. states are included. For lists of eclipses worldwide, see the list of 20th - century solar eclipses and 21st - century solar eclipses.
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where did high fructose corn syrup come from | High - fructose corn syrup - wikipedia
High - fructose corn syrup (HFCS) (also called glucose - fructose, isoglucose and glucose - fructose syrup) is a sweetener made from corn starch that has been processed by glucose isomerase to convert some of its glucose into fructose. HFCS was first marketed in the early 1970s by the Clinton Corn Processing Company, together with the Japanese Agency of Industrial Science and Technology where the enzyme was discovered in 1965.
As a sweetener, HFCS is often compared to granulated sugar, but manufacturing advantages of HFCS over sugar include that it is easier to handle and more cost - effective. The United States Food and Drug Administration has determined that HFCS is a safe ingredient for food and beverage manufacturing. There is debate over whether HFCS presents greater health risks than other sweeteners. Uses and exports of HFCS from American producers have continued to grow during the early 21st century.
Apart from comparisons between HFCS and table sugar, there is some evidence that the overconsumption of added sugar in any form, including HFCS, is a major health problem, especially for onset of obesity. Consuming added sugars, particularly as sweetened soft drinks, is strongly linked to weight gain. The World Health Organization has recommended that people limit their consumption of added sugars to 10 % of calories, but experts say that typical consumption of empty calories in the United States is nearly twice that level.
In the U.S., HFCS is among the sweeteners that mostly replaced sucrose (table sugar) in the food industry. Factors in the rise of HFCS use include production quotas of domestic sugar, import tariff on foreign sugar, and subsidies of U.S. corn, raising the price of sucrose and lowering that of HFCS, making it cheapest for many sweetener applications. The relative sweetness of HFCS 55, used most commonly in soft drinks, is comparable to sucrose. HFCS (and / or standard corn syrup) is the primary ingredient in most brands of commercial "pancake syrup '', as a less expensive substitute for maple syrup.
Because of its similar sugar profile and lower price, HFCS has been used illegally to "stretch '' honey. Assays to detect adulteration with HFCS use differential scanning calorimetry and other advanced testing methods.
In the contemporary process, corn is milled to extract corn starch and an "acid - enzyme '' process is used, in which the corn - starch solution is acidified to begin breaking up the existing carbohydrates. It is necessary to carry out the extraction process in the presence of mercuric chloride (0.01 M) in order to inhibit endogenous starch - degrading enzymes. High - temperature enzymes are added to further metabolize the starch and convert the resulting sugars to fructose. The first enzyme added is alpha - amylase, which breaks the long chains down into shorter sugar chains -- oligosaccharides. Glucoamylase is mixed in and converts them to glucose; the resulting solution is filtered to remove protein, then using activated carbon, and then demineralized using ion - exchange resins. The purified solution is then run over immobilized xylose isomerase, which turns the sugars to ~ 50 -- 52 % glucose with some unconverted oligosaccharides and 42 % fructose (HFCS 42), and again demineralized and again purified using activated carbon. Some is processed into HFCS 90 by liquid chromatography, then mixed with HFCS 42 to form HFCS 55. The enzymes used in the process are made by microbial fermentation.
HFCS is 24 % water, the rest being mainly fructose and glucose with 0 -- 5 % unprocessed glucose oligomers. There are several varieties of HFCS, numbered by the percentage of fructose they contain:
Commercial production of corn syrup began in 1864. In the late 1950s, scientists at Clinton Corn Processing Company of Clinton, Iowa tried to turn glucose from corn starch into fructose, but the process was not scalable. In 1965 -- 1970 Yoshiyuki Takasaki, at the Japanese National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) developed a heat - stable xylose isomerase enzyme from yeast. In 1967, the Clinton Corn Processing Company obtained an exclusive license to a manufacture glucose isomerase derived from Streptomyces bacteria and began shipping an early version of HFCS in February 1967. In 1983, the FDA approved HFCS as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS), and that decision was reaffirmed in 1996
Prior to the development of the worldwide sugar industry, dietary fructose was limited to only a few items. Milk, meats, and most vegetables, the staples of many early diets, have no fructose, and only 5 -- 10 % fructose by weight is found in fruits such as grapes, apples, and blueberries. Most traditional dried fruits, however, contain about 50 % fructose. From 1970 to 2000, there was a 25 % increase in "added sugars '' in the U.S. After being classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1976, HFCS began to replace sucrose as the main sweetener of soft drinks in the United States. At the same time, rates of obesity rose. That correlation, in combination with laboratory research and epidemiological studies that suggested a link between consuming large amounts of fructose and changes to various proxy health measures, including elevated blood triglycerides, size and type of low - density lipoproteins, uric acid levels, and weight, raised concerns about health effects of HFCS itself.
In the U.S., sugar tariffs and quotas keep imported sugar at up to twice the global price since 1797, while subsidies to corn growers cheapen the primary ingredient in HFCS, corn. Industrial users looking for cheaper replacements rapidly adopted HFCS in the 1970s.
HFCS is easier to handle than granulated sucrose, although some sucrose is transported as solution. Unlike sucrose, HFCS can not be hydrolyzed, but the free fructose in HFCS may produce hydroxymethylfurfural when stored at high temperatures; these differences are most prominent in acidic beverages. Soft drink makers such as Coca - Cola and Pepsi continue to use sugar in other nations but transitioned to HFCS for U.S. markets in 1980 before completely switching over in 1984. Large corporations, such as Archer Daniels Midland, lobby for the continuation of government corn subsidies.
Consumption of HFCS in the U.S. has declined since it peaked at 37.5 lb (17.0 kg) per person in 1999. The average American consumed approximately 27.1 lb (12.3 kg) of HFCS in 2012, versus 39.0 lb (17.7 kg) of refined cane and beet sugar. This decrease in domestic consumption of HFCS resulted in a push in exporting of the product. In 2014, exports of HFCS were valued at $436 million, a decrease of 21 % in one year, with Mexico receiving about 75 % of the export volume.
In 2010, the Corn Refiners Association petitioned the FDA to call HFCS "corn sugar '', but the petition was denied.
In the European Union (EU), HFCS, known as isoglucose in sugar regime, is subject to a production quota. In 2005, this quota was set at 303,000 tons; in comparison, the EU produced an average of 18.6 million tons of sugar annually between 1999 and 2001.
In Japan, HFCS is manufactured mostly from imported U.S. corn, and the output is regulated by the government. For the period from 2007 to 2012, HFCS had a 27 -- 30 % share of the Japanese sweetener market.
Health concerns have been raised about a relationship between HFCS and metabolic disorders, and with regard to manufacturing contaminants. In general, however, the United States Food and Drug Administration has declared HFCS as a safe ingredient in food manufacturing, and there is no evidence that retail HFCS products contain harmful compounds or cause diseases.
HFCS is composed of 76 % carbohydrates and 24 % water, containing no fat, no protein, and no essential nutrients in significant amounts (table). In a 100 gram serving, it supplies 281 Calories, whereas in one tablespoon of 19 grams, it supplies 53 Calories (table link).
In the 1980s and 1990s were publications cautioning consumption of sucrose and of HFCS. In subsequent interviews, two of the study 's authors stated the article was distorted to place emphasis solely on HFCS when the actual issue was the overconsumption of any type of sugar. While fructose absorption and modification by the intestines and liver does differ from glucose initially, the majority of the fructose molecules are converted to glucose or metabolized into byproducts identical to those produced by glucose metabolism. Consumption of moderate amounts of fructose has also been linked to positive outcomes, including reducing appetite if consumed before a meal, lower blood sugar increases compared to glucose, and (again compared to glucose) delaying exhaustion if consumed during exercise.
In 2007, an expert panel assembled by the University of Maryland 's Center for Food, Nutrition and Agriculture Policy reviewed the links between HFCS and obesity and concluded there was no ecological validity in the association between rising body mass indexes (a measure of obesity) and the consumption of HFCS. The panel stated that since the ratio of fructose to glucose had not changed substantially in the United States since the 1960s when HFCS was introduced, the changes in obesity rates were probably not due to HFCS specifically, but rather a greater consumption of calories overall. In 2009 the American Medical Association published a review article on HFCS and concluded it was unlikely that HFCS contributed more to obesity or other health conditions than sucrose, and there was insufficient evidence to suggest warning about or restricting use of HFCS or other fructose - containing sweeteners in foods. The review did report that while some studies found direct associations between high intakes of fructose and other sugars and adverse health outcomes, including obesity and the metabolic syndrome, there was insufficient evidence to ban or restrict use of HFCS in the food supply or to require warning labels on products containing HFCS.
Epidemiological research has suggested that the increase in metabolic disorders like obesity and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease is linked to increased consumption of sugars and / or calories in general and not due to any special effect of HFCS. A 2014 systematic review found little evidence for an association between HFCS consumption and liver diseases, enzyme levels or fat content. A 2012 review found that fructose did not appear to cause weight gain when it replaced other carbohydrates in diets with similar calories. One study investigating HFCS as a possible contributor to diabetes and obesity states that, "As many of the metabolic consequences of a diet high in fructose - containing sugars in humans can also be observed with high - fat or high - glucose feeding, it is possible that excess calories may be the main culprit in the development of the metabolic syndrome. '' Another study compared similar intakes of honey, white cane sugar, and HFCS, showing similar rises in both blood sugar level and triglycerides. High fructose consumption has been linked to high levels of uric acid in the blood, though this is only thought to be a concern for patients with gout.
Numerous agencies in the United States recommend reducing the consumption of all sugars, including HFCS, without singling it out as presenting extra concerns. The Mayo Clinic cites the American Heart Association 's recommendation that women limit the added sugar in their diet to 100 calories a day (~ 6 teaspoons) and that men limit it to 150 calories a day (~ 9 teaspoons), noting that there is not enough evidence to support HFCS having more adverse health effects than excess consumption of any other type of sugar. The United States departments of Agriculture and Health and Human Services recommendations for a healthy diet state that consumption of all types of added sugars be reduced.
People with fructose malabsorption should avoid foods containing HFCS.
Since 2014, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has declared HFCS to be safe as a food ingredient. In 2015, production of HFCS in the United States was 8.5 million tons from some 500 million bushels of corn.
One consumer concern about HFCS is that processing of corn is more complex than used for "simpler '' or "more natural '' sugars, such as fruit juice concentrates or agave nectar, but all sweetener products derived from raw materials involve similar processing steps of pulping, hydrolysis, enzyme treatment, and filtration, among other common steps of sweetener manufacturing from natural sources. In the contemporary process to make HFCS, an "acid - enzyme '' step is used in which the cornstarch solution is acidified to digest the existing carbohydrates, then enzymes are added to further metabolize the cornstarch and convert the resulting sugars to their constituents of fructose and glucose. Analyses published in 2014 showed that HFCS content of fructose was consistent across samples from 80 randomly selected carbonated beverages sweetened with HFCS.
One prior concern in manufacturing was whether HFCS contains reactive carbonyl compounds or advanced glycation end - products evolved during processing. This concern was dismissed, however, with evidence that HFCS poses no dietary risk from these compounds.
Through the early 21st Century, some factories manufacturing HFCS had used a chlor - alkali corn processing method which, in cases of applying mercury cell technology for digesting corn raw material, left trace residues of mercury in some batches of HFCS. In a 2009 release, The Corn Refiners Association stated that all factories in the American industry for manufacturing HFCS had used mercury - free processing over several previous years, making the prior report outdated. As of 2017, the USDA, FDA and US Centers for Disease Control list HFCS as a safe food ingredient, and do not mention mercury as a safety concern in HFCS products.
Some countries, including Mexico, use sucrose, or table sugar, in soft drinks. In the U.S., soft drinks, including Coca - Cola, are typically made with HFCS. Some Americans seek out drinks such as Mexican Coca - Cola in ethnic groceries because they prefer the taste over that of HFCS - sweetened Coca - Cola. Kosher Coca - Cola, sold in the U.S. around the Jewish holiday of Passover, also uses sucrose rather than HFCS and is highly sought after by people who prefer the original taste. While these are simply opinions, a 2011 study further backed up the idea that people enjoy sucrose (table sugar) more than HFCS. The study, conducted by Michigan State University, included a 99 - member panel that evaluated yogurt sweetened with sucrose (table sugar), HFCS, and different varieties of honey for likeness. The results showed that, overall, the panel enjoyed the yogurt with sucrose (table sugar) added more than those that contained HFCS or honey.
In apiculture in the United States, HFCS is a honey substitute for some managed honey bee colonies during times when nectar is in low supply. However, when HFCS is heated to about 45 ° C (113 ° F), hydroxymethylfurfural, which is toxic to bees, can form from the breakdown of fructose. Although some researchers cite honey substitution with HFCS as one factor among many for colony collapse disorder, there is no evidence that HFCS is the only cause. Compared to hive honey, HFCS may be a deficiency in the diet for developing genes associated with protein metabolism and physiological benefits affecting bee health.
There are various public relations concerns with HFCS, including how HFCS products are advertised and labeled as "natural. '' As a consequence, several companies reverted to manufacturing with sucrose (table sugar) from products that had previously been made with HFCS. In 2010, the Corn Refiners Association (CRA) applied to allow HFCS to be renamed "corn sugar '', but that petition was rejected by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 2012.
In August 2016 in a move to please consumers with health concerns, McDonald 's announced they would be replacing all HFCS in their buns with sucrose (table sugar) and would cut out preservatives and other artificial additives from their menu items. Marion Gross, senior vice president of McDonald 's stated, "We know that they (consumers) do n't feel good about high - fructose corn syrup so we 're giving them what they 're looking for instead. '' Over the early 21st century, other companies such as Yoplait, Gatorade, and Hershey 's also phased out HFCS, replacing it with conventional sugar because consumers perceived sugar to be ' healthier '. Companies such as PepsiCo and Heinz have also released products that use sugar in lieu of HFCS, although they still sell HFCS - sweetened products.
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episode where jim talks to dwight about pam | Conflict Resolution (the Office) - wikipedia
"Conflict Resolution '' is the twenty - first and penultimate episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office, the show 's twenty - seventh episode overall. Written by executive producer and show runner Greg Daniels and directed by Charles McDougall, "Conflict Resolution '' first aired in the United States on May 4, 2006 on NBC. The episode guest stars Scott Adsit, from Moral Orel and 30 Rock, as a photographer.
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. In the episode, Michael Scott (Steve Carell) resolves a conflict between Oscar Martinez (Oscar Nunez) and Angela Martin (Angela Kinsey), and then discovers a file of other unresolved complaints between staff members and he determines to resolve them. But Michael 's attempts actually unearth old tensions and create new ones between the office employees. Meanwhile, an unkind comment from Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) about being transferred causes Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) to seriously rethink his work situation.
"Conflict Resolution '' features the return of a poster created for the earlier episode "Christmas Party ''. The ending of the installment bears a striking similarity to the ending of the 1981 action film Raiders of the Lost Ark. Receiving largely positive reviews, the episode received a 3.7 Nielsen rating and was watched by 7.4 million viewers.
When Michael Scott (Steve Carell) hears Oscar Martinez (Oscar Nunez) complaining about Angela Martin 's (Angela Kinsey) baby poster to Toby Flenderson (Paul Lieberstein), he intervenes and resolves the conflict himself by forcing his "solution '' onto all parties. Inspired, Michael wrests the file outlining other unresolved office complaints from Toby, determined to resolve them all. Meanwhile, when photos for identification badges are being taken in the break room, Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) uses the situation as a way to prank Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson).
Michael publicly reads all the outstanding complaints against everyone, even though they were supposed to be anonymous, which only serves to further increase office tensions. Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) is particularly troubled by a nameless complaint that she plans her wedding during office hours, a complaint she concludes was filed by Angela. Enraged at Jim 's latest prank (Jim made Dwight 's new ID which was 5x7 inches, labeled Dwight as a security threat, and changed his middle name from Kurt to "Fart ''), Dwight becomes even more furious that his voluminous complaints against Jim have gone ignored, and tells Michael that either Jim gets fired or Dwight will quit. When Michael reads all of Jim 's pranks on Dwight, Jim begins to regret how much time he has wasted at the office. Dwight taunts Jim with a notice of a Dunder - Mifflin position in Stamford, saying that Jim should look into it because Dwight will still be working in Scranton by next week. Michael surveys the angry, divided office and silently nods to a watching Toby, acknowledging his efforts were a disaster. He then defuses Dwight 's anger by saying he will make his decision but needs indeterminate time to do so, which placates Dwight.
As everyone prepares to leave, Michael pays the photographer (Scott Adsit) to take a special group photo, but goes through a lot of money before he, albeit poorly, Photoshops one himself. During the procedure, Jim admits to Pam that he had registered the complaint about her wedding planning, and Pam looks shocked. The next day, Jim secretly sees Vice President Jan Levinson (Melora Hardin) for an interview about a transfer.
"Conflict Resolution '' was the fifth episode of the series written by Greg Daniels, who is also the executive producer and show runner for The Office. The episode was the third of the series directed by Charles McDougall; he had previously directed the earlier season two episodes "Christmas Party '' and "Dwight 's Speech ''. The episode features Angela and Oscar arguing over Angela 's poster of two babies playing saxophones. Jenna Fischer said that "As a cast, the baby poster is one of our favorite props... Angela received the poster from her Secret Santa in the Christmas episode. '' Fischer went on to say that "I had to stand in between Angela and Oscar as they bicker about the poster while Michael tries to mediate the situation. The whole time, the cute jazz babies are staring at me from the poster. It was hilarious! ''
The Season Two DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode. Notable cut scenes include Dwight finding his desk encircled in police tape, Dwight annoying the photographer in various ways, Michael discussing conflict and conflict resolution and dedicating himself to resolving all the old cases "before Toby can kill or rape another person '', Dwight giving Pam "Level Red '' security clearance, Meredith and Kevin getting their pictures taken, Dwight being hassled by building security.
The ending of "Conflict Resolution '' bares a striking similarity to the ending of the 1981 action film Raiders of the Lost Ark. In the film, the Ark of the Covenant is boarded up hidden away in a secret warehouse containing thousands of identical boxes. In "Conflict Resolution '', Toby is seen taking the box of complaints and placing it in a warehouse containing hundreds of other identical paper boxes to be sold.
"Conflict Resolution '' originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 4, 2006. The episode received a 3.7 / 9 among 18 - to 49 - year - olds in the Nielsen ratings. This means that 3.7 percent of all people 18 -- 49 viewed the episode, and nine percent of all people 18 -- 49 watching television viewed the episode. "Conflict Resolution '' was watched by 7.4 million viewers overall, and retained 93 percent of viewers 18 -- 49 from its lead - in My Name is Earl.
The episode received generally good reviews from critics. Terry Morrow, of the Knoxville News Sentinel, stated that "But better yet, this episode defines what The Office does best. It turns mundane work events -- like having new security - badge photos taken -- into insightful and witty character studies. '' Morrow also praised the acting in the episode, saying that "Tonight 's episode, in which Michael decides to mediate files filled with official office complaints, is one of this show 's finest moments. '' Michael Sciannamea, of TV Squad, stated that "After a so - so episode last week, this was one was a return to brilliance. '' Like Morrow, Sciannamea went on to praise the work of the cast, stating that "The interplay between the cast was top - notch, and even though I 've complained much about Dwight 's over-the - top behavior, it seemed to work quite well this time around, and actually had a purpose to the story. '' M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode a rare "A + ''. He called the scene wherein Michael reads aloud Dwight 's complaints "my favorite sequence in The Office history, if not sitcom history. ''
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how long has the s7 edge been out | Samsung Galaxy S7 - wikipedia
Samsung Galaxy S7 and Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge are Android smartphones manufactured and marketed by Samsung Electronics. The S7 series serves as the successor to the Galaxy S6, S6 Edge and S6 Edge+ released in 2015. The phones were officially unveiled on 21 February 2016, during a Samsung press conference at Mobile World Congress, with a European and North American release on 11 March 2016.
The Galaxy S7 is an evolution of the prior year 's model, with upgraded hardware, design refinements, and the restoration of features removed from the Galaxy S6, such as IP certification for water and dust resistance, as well as expandable storage. As with the S6, the S7 is produced in a standard model with a display size of 5.1 - inch (130 mm), as well as an Edge variant whose display is curved along the wide sides of the screen. Unlike the S6, the S7 Edge also utilizes a larger 5.5 - inch (140 mm) display rather than matching the screen size of the base models. The Galaxy S7 and S7 Edge are the last two phones in the Samsung Galaxy S series to have a physical home button with a front - sided fingerprint sensor embedded in the button.
The Galaxy S7 's hardware design is largely identical to that of the S6; Unlike the S6 though, Samsung has decided to remove the built - in IR Blaster due to low demand. The device retains its metal and glass chassis, but with refinements such as a square home button, and a thinner protrusion for the camera. Both models are available in black and gold colors; white, pink, blue and silver versions are available depending on market. As a Worldwide Olympic Partner, special editions of the Galaxy S7 Edge were released by Samsung for the 2016 Summer Olympics, with a dark blue body and hardware and software accents inspired by the colors of the Olympic rings. The devices were sold in limited quantities in selected markets, and were given to nearly all athletes participating in the 2016 Summer Olympics (the 31 phones meant for the North Korean team were confiscated by order of the country 's government). In October 2016, Samsung announced a new light blue ("Blue Coral '') color option, as previously offered on the recalled Galaxy Note 7.
The S7 and S7 Edge are IP68 - certified for dust and water resistance; unlike the Galaxy S5, the ports are sealed and thus do not require protective flaps. Both the S7 and S7 Edge feature a 1440p Quad HD Super AMOLED display; the S7 has a 5.1 - inch panel, while the S7 Edge uses a larger 5.5 - inch panel. As with the prior model, the S7 Edge 's screen is curved along the side bezels of the device. Both models also have larger batteries in comparison to the S6, with 3000 mAh and 3600 mAh capacity respectively and support for AirFuel Inductive (formerly PMA) and Qi wireless charging standards; however, the S7 does use MicroUSB charging. They also feature a 12 - megapixel rear - facing camera with a "Dual Pixel '' image sensor and f / 1.7 aperture lens.
Galaxy S7 devices are equipped with an octa - core Exynos 8890 system on a chip and 4GB of RAM. In China and the United States, the S7 uses the quad - core Qualcomm Snapdragon 820; unlike Exynos, this SoC supports older CDMA networks that are extensively used by carriers in these markets. The heat from the processor is transferred with a 0.4 mm thick water - to - steam heat pipe cooling system. The S7 includes either 32, 64 or 128 GB of internal storage (in most markets only the 32 GB model will be available). Storage can be expanded using a microSD card.
S7 devices are packaged with a USB OTG adapter. It can be used with the included "Smart Switch '' app to help transfer content and settings from a previous Samsung Galaxy device running Android 4.3 or later, iPhone running iOS 5 or later, or BlackBerry running BlackBerry OS 7 or earlier.
The Galaxy S7 ships with Android Marshmallow (6.0) and Samsung 's proprietary TouchWiz software suite. The new TouchWiz also allows the user to disable the app drawer. A new "Always On '' functionality displays a clock, calendar, and notifications on - screen when the device is in standby. The display is turned off completely if the device 's proximity sensor detects that it is in an enclosed space such as a pocket. Samsung claims this feature would only consume half a percentage of battery capacity per - hour. New widget panes can be displayed on the edge of the S7 Edge, in "Edge Single '' and wider "Edge Single Plus '' sizes. Android Marshmallow 's "adopted storage '' feature was disabled by Samsung and is not usable.
An update in September 2016, added support for Vulkan, a new low - level graphics API. In January 2017, Samsung began to deploy Android 7.0 "Nougat '' for the S7. It introduces a refreshed interface, Samsung Pass -- a platform allowing apps to provide biometric authentication via the fingerprint reader, and new "Performance mode '' settings with optimizations for gaming, entertainment, and battery usage.
The Galaxy S7 received generally positive reviews with critics praising the return of the micro SD card slot and water resistance, though some felt the device was too similar to the preceding Galaxy S6. However, the Galaxy S7 received negative reviews too, for example, Samsung removed the IR Blaster of the Galaxy S6, stock music and video player apps have been replaced by the Google Play equivalents, the use of an "obsolete '' Micro USB charging port, and finally the camera megapixels decreased to 12 MP.
The Exynos version is faster than the Qualcomm Snapdragon version at multitasking where there is a clear difference, as the Qualcomm version fails to keep as many apps in the background and takes more time to switch between apps. However, the Snapdragon version performs better in graphically intensive apps and games.
iFixit gave the S7 a repairability score of 3 out of 10, noting an excessive use of glue and glass panels, as well as it being nearly impossible to service certain components of the device (such as the daughterboard and other components) without removing the screen, which is not designed to be removed, and that "replacing the glass without destroying the display is probably impossible ''.
Between the Samsung Galaxy S7 and the Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge, approximately 100,000 devices were sold within two days of the official launch in South Korea. The Galaxy S7 had between 7 - 9 million units shipped in its first month. A total of 48 million units were sold in 2016.
At release, videos recorded at high frame rates stuttered, with both Exynos and Snapdragon models suffering from the issue. A following firmware update claimed to fix "flickering video playback after recording ''.
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where is zuma rock located in niger state | Zuma Rock - Wikipedia
Zuma Rock is a large monolith, an igneous intrusion composed of gabbro and granodiorite, that is located in Niger State, Nigeria. It rises spectacularly immediately west of Nigeria 's capital Abuja, along the main road from Abuja to Kaduna off Madala, and is sometimes referred to as the "Gateway to Abuja from Suleja ''. Zuma Rock rises 725 metres (2,379 ft) above its surroundings.
Zuma is depicted on the 100 naira note. It was used for a defensive retreat by the Gbagyi people against invading neighbouring tribes during intertribal warring.
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moody blues lovely to see you again my friend | Lovely to See You - wikipedia
"Lovely to See You '' is a 1969 song by the progressive rock band The Moody Blues. It was written by the band 's guitarist Justin Hayward, and was recorded and released in 1969 on the Moody Blues Album On the Threshold of a Dream.
Despite not being released as a single, "Lovely to See You '' can be considered the album 's most popular song, being a staple of rock radio, and is often performed live in concert as their opening song. "Lovely to See You '' even became more popular than the album 's only single "Never Comes the Day '', which itself was a commercial flop.
The song 's popularity also led the Moody Blues to name one of their live albums after it. Lovely to See You: Live was recorded at a performance at the Greek Theater, and was released in 2005, with the song "Lovely to See You '' as the lead track. The song was the first to be played at the launch of the Bournemouth (UK) radio station 2CR.
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west palm beach christian convention center jehovah's witnesses | West Palm Beach Christian Convention Center - Wikipedia
West Palm Beach Christian Convention Center (originally known as West Palm Beach Auditorium) is a 5,000 - seat multi-purpose arena in West Palm Beach, Florida, at the intersection of North Congress Avenue and Palm Beach Lakes Boulevard. It was built in 1965 as the West Palm Beach Auditorium and was designed by famed architect Bertrand Goldberg. It was home to the West Palm Beach Blaze ice hockey team, Florida Bobcats arena football team and Florida Hammerheads roller hockey team. It hosted the twelfth WWF In Your House pay - per - view in 1996. The Fort Lauderdale Strikers played their indoor soccer games here in the early 1980s. It was also host to innumerable concerts from different rock acts.
The facility was sold in the late 1990s to the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, Inc., the main legal entity used by Jehovah 's Witnesses. The building and grounds were renovated and the name was changed to West Palm Beach Christian Convention Center. It is now used only for their assemblies and conventions. Conventions usually run from the end of May to the end of September in English, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Haitian Creole.
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chief minister of a union territory is appointed by | Union territory - Wikipedia
A union territory is a type of administrative division in the Republic of India. Unlike states, which have their own elected governments, union territories are ruled directly by the Union Government (Central Government), hence the name "union territory ''. Union territories in India qualify as federal territories, by definition.
The Parliament of India can pass a law to amend the Constitution and provide a Legislature with elected Members and a Chief Minister for a Union Territory, as it has done for Delhi and Puducherry. In general, The President of India appoints an administrator or lieutenant - governor for each UT. There are seven union territories, including Chandigarh, the joint capital of Punjab and Haryana.
Delhi and Puducherry (Pondicherry) operate somewhat differently from the other five. Delhi and Puducherry were given partial statehood and Delhi was redefined as the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT). Delhi and Puducherry have their own elected legislative assemblies and the executive councils of ministers with partially state - like function.
The seven current union territories are:
Union territories of India have special rights and status due to their constitutional formation and development. The status of "Union Territory '' may be assigned to an Indian sub-jurisdiction for reasons such as safeguarding the rights of indigenous cultures, averting political turmoil related to matters of governance, and so on. These union territories could be changed to states in the future for more efficient administrative control.
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who plays riggs on lethal weapon the tv show | Clayne Crawford - wikipedia
Clayne Crawford (born April 20, 1978) is an American actor. He is best known for portraying the role of Martin Riggs on the Fox action comedy - drama television series Lethal Weapon (2016 -- 2018). He also portrayed Teddy Talbot on the critically acclaimed Sundance drama Rectify (2013 - 2016).
Crawford had supporting roles in the films A Walk to Remember (2002) and Swimfan (2002). He also appeared in A Love Song for Bobby Long (2004) and The Great Raid (2005). He also played in some small independent films that were not widely distributed.
Born Joseph "Joey '' Crawford in Clay, Alabama, he is the son of Brian and Lennie Crawford. By high school, he was on the football and wrestling teams, and graduated from Hewitt - Trussville High School.
In 1996, he drove to Los Angeles to seek work as an actor. He often worked in construction to support himself while appearing in small theaters. In 2000, he changed his name professionally from Joey to Clayne, a combination to honor an ancestor ("Clan '') and his hometown (Clay, Alabama).
He had a recurring role in the first season of Jericho as Mitchell "Mitch '' Cafferty. In 2008, he appeared on Life in the episode "Evil... and His Brother Ziggy. '' Crawford was the protagonist in the 2010 straight - to - DVD prequel to Smokin ' Aces, Smokin ' Aces 2: Assassins ' Ball.
In 2010, he had a recurring role in the eighth season of 24 as ' Kevin Wade, ' a young, mysterious man. He also appeared in the first and second season of the A&E series The Glades.
Crawford played the role of Teddy (Ted Talbot, Jr.) in the first SundanceTV original series, Rectify, which was aired for four seasons from 2013 to 2016. The series, exploring a man who is released from prison after 19 years on death row after DNA evidence appears to support his innocence, also looks at the effects on his family and town. It received critical praise and won a Peabody Award in 2014, also receiving notice for its treatment of issues in criminal justice.
Crawford played the role of Cade LaSalle, older brother to Christopher LaSalle on NCIS: New Orleans.
Crawford portrayed Martin Riggs in the pilot for the Fox Television Lethal Weapon reboot, which was later picked up as a series. On May 8, 2018, it was announced that Crawford would be exiting Lethal Weapon. On May 14, 2018, a third season was confirmed, with Seann William Scott replacing Crawford as a new character.
2016 TV Critics ' Choice Awards -- Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Nominated)
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will there be a sequel to tiger zinda hai | Tiger (franchise) - Wikipedia
Tiger is an Indian media franchise, consisting of two Bollywood films and a graphic novel series. The original work is 2012 film, named Ek Tha Tiger, directed by Kabir Khan and produced by Yash Raj Films. It centers on a fictional character, an Indian spy (RAW) named "Tiger '', who falls in love with a Pakistani spy (ISI). It has a sequel named Tiger Zinda Hai, directed by Ali Abbas Zafar, that released on 22 December 2017. The sequel is based on the 2014 abduction of Indian nurses by ISIL. The first film also spawned a series of graphic novels, published by Yomics World.
An agent code - named "Tiger '' (Salman Khan) -- India 's top spy and an officer of the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) -- is conducting a mission in northern Iraq. Tiger is forced to kill one of his own men who has defected to Pakistan 's spy agency Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI). He subsequently kills many ISI agents in his escape from Iraq. Tiger returns to India and reports to his boss, Shenoy (Girish Karnad), in New Delhi. He is immediately sent on a mission to Dublin to observe a scientist of Indian origin, Professor Anwar Jamaal Kidwai (Roshan Seth), who teaches at Trinity College and is suspected of sharing his findings with the Pakistani defence establishment. Fellow RAW agent Gopi (Ranvir Shorey) accompanies Tiger on this mission. Tiger meets the scientist but fails to spend enough time for his observance and instead begins to spend time with the scientist 's caretaker Zoya (Katrina Kaif), who is studying at a local dance academy. He tries to befriend Zoya to extract information, but begins to discover his human side as he grows closer to her. Tiger is attacked and robbed at his residence by a person suspected to be an ISI agent. Gopi repeatedly warns Tiger not to fall in love with Zoya, but his love can not be stopped. Tiger asks Zoya for a date and there they both came to know about their feelings for each other. Before telling her his feelings, during a visit to dance academy, Tiger discovers that Zoya is an ISI agent and refuses to commit treason on Pakistan when he asks. Instead of killing Zoya, Tiger lets her go.
Some time later, Tiger and Zoya meet again at a UN Foreign Minister 's Meeting in Istanbul when Zoya signals to him using a cryptic message. They decide to leave everything for their love and fool their respective agencies by taking a flight to Cuba, having told their agencies that they are in Kazakhstan. Some years later, their agencies trace Zoya and Tiger due to a CCTV recording. They track them down in Havana, Cuba, and the ISI agents catch Zoya. Tiger meets Gopi, who is searching for him for RAW, and having lied to Gopi that both Tiger and Zoya intend to return to India and cooperate with RAW, convinces Gopi to save Zoya from the ISI agents. Instead of returning to India, the pair trick Gopi and escape aboarding an aeroplane. Tiger calls Shenoy, who tells him that RAW will find both spies. Tiger tells Shenoy that they will only return when Pakistan and India no longer need ISI and RAW. In the epilogue, several images of Tiger and Zoya in cities including Venice, Cape Town, Zurich and London are shown, where sightings of them have been reported. But neither agencies could catch them.
A sequel titled Tiger Zinda Hai was announced on 13 September 2016. Salman Khan and Katrina Kaif reprise their roles from the first film. In this film, Tiger is presumed to be dead by both the agencies, but it turns out that he is alive and fighting by himself against a global terror organization. This sequel is based on the 2014 abduction of Indian nurses by ISIL. Indian agent Tiger and Pakistani agent Zoya join forces in the name of humanity, against the militant messiah Abu Usman. Tiger Zinda Hai is an espionage action drama that follows a daring rescue mission in Iraq.
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pakistan took the dispute of baglihar dam to the world bank on | Baglihar dam - Wikipedia
Baglihar Dam (Hindi: बगलिहार बाँध Baglihār Bāndh), also known as Baglihar Hydroelectric Power Project, is a run - of - the - river power project on the Chenab River in the southern Doda district of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. This project was conceived in 1992, approved in 1996 and construction began in 1999. The project is estimated to cost USD $1 billion. The first phase of the Baglihar Dam was completed in 2004. With the completion of the second phase on 10 October 2008, Ex-Prime Minister Manmohan Singh of India dedicated the 900 - MW Baglihar hydroelectric power project to the nation.
After construction began in 1999, Pakistan claimed that design parameters of Baglihar project violated the Indus Water Treaty (full text) of 1960. The treaty provided India with exclusive control over three eastern rivers, Near Beacon tunnel while granting Pakistan exclusive to three western rivers, including Chenab River. However it contained provisions for India to establish run - of - the - river power projects with limited reservoir capacity and flow control needed for feasible power generation. Availing this provision India established several run - of - the - river projects, with Pakistan objecting to these. Also in the case of the Baglihar and Kishanganga Hydroelectric Plants, Pakistan claimed that some design parameters were too lax than were needed for feasible power generation and provided India with excessive ability to accelerate, decelerate or block flow of the river, thus giving India a strategic leverage in times of political tension or war.
During 1999 - 2004 India and Pakistan held several rounds of talks on the design of projects, but could not reach an agreement. After failure of talks on 18 January 2005, Pakistan raised six objections to the World Bank, a broker and signatory of Indus Water Treaty. In April 2005 the World Bank determined the Pakistani claim as a ' Difference ', a classification between the less serious ' Question ' and more serious ' Dispute ', and in May 2005 appointed Professor Raymond Lafitte, a Swiss civil engineer as a neutral expert, to adjudicate the difference.
Lafitte declared his final verdict on 12 February 2007, in which he upheld some minor objections of Pakistan, declaring that pondage capacity be reduced by 13.5 %, height of dam structure be reduced by 1.5 meter and power intake tunnels be raised by 3 meters, thereby limiting some flow control capabilities of the earlier design. However he rejected Pakistani objections on height and gated control of spillway declaring these conformed to engineering norms of the day. India had already offered Pakistan similar minor adjustments for it to drop its objection. The Indus Waters Treaty of 1960 divided the Indus river -- into which the Chenab flows -- between the two countries and bars India from interfering with the flow into Pakistan while allowing it to generate electricity. However the key issue that any dam constructed by India should be strictly run of the river was rejected. Pakistan government expressed its disappointment at the final outcome. Both parties (India and Pakistan) have already agreed that they will abide by the final verdict.
The verdict acknowledged India 's right to construct ' gated spillways ' under Indus water treaty 1960. The report allowed pondage of 32,560,000 cubic meters as against India 's demand for 37,500,000 cubic metres. The report also recommended to reduce the height of freeboard from 4.5 m to 3.0 m.
On 1 June 2010 India and Pakistan resolved the issue relating to the initial filling of Baglihar dam in Jammu and Kashmir with the neighbouring country deciding not to raise the matter further. The decision was arrived at the talks of Permanent Indus Commissioners of the two countries who are meeting. "The two sides discussed the issue at length without any prejudice to each other 's stand... Indian and Pakistani teams resolved the issue relating to initial filling of Baglihar dam after discussions, '' sources said. Pakistan also agreed not to raise the issue further.
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what is a benefice in the church of england | Benefice - wikipedia
A benefice / ˈbɛnɪfɪs / is a reward received in exchange for services rendered and as a retainer for future services. The Roman Empire used the Latin term beneficium as a benefit to an individual from the Empire for services rendered. Its use was adopted by the western church in the Carolingian Era as a benefit bestowed by the crown or church officials. A benefice specifically from a church is called a precaria (pl. precarii) such as a stipend and one from a monarch or nobleman is usually called a fief. A benefice is distinct from an allod, in that an allod is property owned outright, not bestowed by a higher authority.
In ancient Rome a benefice was a gift of land (precaria) for life as a reward for services rendered, originally, to the state. The word comes from the Latin noun beneficium, meaning "benefit ''.
In the 8th century, using their position as Mayor of the Palace, Charles Martel, Carloman I and Pepin II usurped a large number of church benefices for distribution to vassals, and later Carolingians continued this practice as emperors. These estates were held in return for oaths of military assistance, which greatly aided the Carolingians in consolidating and strengthening their power. Charlemagne (emperor 800 -- 814) continued the late Roman concept of granting benefices in return for military and administrative service to his empire. Thus, the imperial structure was bound together through a series of oaths between the monarch and the recipient of land (and the resulting income) (see Fief). He ordered and administered his kingdom and later his empire through a series of published statutes called capitularies. The Capitulary of Herstal (AD 779) distinguished between his vassals who were styled casati (sing. casatus) and non-casati, that is those subjects who had received a benefice from the hand of the king and those who had not, and
towards the end of Charlemagne 's reign it appears that a royal vassal who had satisfactorily fulfilled his duties could always look forward to the grant of a benefice in some part of the Empire. Once he had received a benefice, he would take up his residence on it; it was only rarely that a vassus casatus continued to work in the Palace.
In the year 800 Pope Leo III placed the crown of Holy Roman Emperor on the head of Charlemagne. This act caused great turmoil for future generations, who would afterward argue that the emperor thereby received his position as a benefice from the papacy. In his March 1075 Dictatus Papae, Pope Gregory VII declared that only the pope could depose an emperor, which implied that he could do so just as a lord might take a benefice away from a vassal. This declaration inflamed Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and furthered the friction caused in the Investiture Conflict.
The expanded practice continued through the Middle Ages within the European feudal system. This same customary method became adopted by the Catholic Church.
The church 's revenue streams came from, amongst other things, rents and profits arising from assets gifted to the church, its endowment, given by believers, be they monarch, lord of the manor or vassal, and later also upon tithes calculated on the sale of the product of the people 's personal labour in the entire parish such as cloth or shoes and the people 's profits from specific forms of likewise God - given, natural increase such as crops and in livestock.
Initially the Catholic Church granted buildings, grants of land and greater and / or lesser tithes for life but the land was not alienated from the dioceses. However the Council of Lyons of 566 annexed these grants to the churches. By the time of the Council of Mainz of 813 these grants were known as beneficia.
Holding a benefice did not necessarily imply a cure of souls although each benefice had a number of spiritual duties attached to it. For providing these duties, a priest would receive "temporalities ''.
Benefices were used for the worldly support of much of its pastoral clergy -- clergy gaining rewards for carrying out their duties with rights to certain revenues, the "fruits of their office ''. The original donor of the temporalities or his nominee, the patron and his successors in title, held the advowson (right to nominate a candidate for the post subject to the approval of the bishop or other prelate as to the candidate 's sufficiency for the demands of the post).
Parish priests were charged with the spiritual and temporal care of their congregation. The community provided for the priest as necessary, later, as organisation improved, by tithe (which could be partially or wholly lost to a temporal lord or patron but relief for that oppression could be found under canon law).
Some individual institutions within the church accumulated enormous endowments and, with that, temporal power. These endowments sometimes concentrated great wealth in the "dead hand '' (mortmain) of the church, so called because it endured beyond any individual 's life. The church was exempt from some or all taxes. This was in contrast to feudal practice where the nobility would hold land on grant from the king in return for service, especially service in war. This meant that the church over time gained a large share of land in many feudal states and so was a cause of increasing tension between the church and the Crown.
The holder of more than one benefice, later known as a pluralist, could keep the revenue to which he was entitled and pay lesser sums to deputies to carry out the corresponding duties.
By a Decree of the Lateran Council of 1215 no clerk could hold two benefices with cure of souls, and if a beneficed clerk took a second benefice with cure of souls, he vacated ipso facto his first benefice. Dispensations, however, could be easily obtained from Rome.
The benefice system was open to abuse. Acquisitive prelates occasionally held multiple major benefices. The holding of more than one benefice is termed pluralism. An English example was Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury (1052 -- 72).
After the Reformation, the new denominations generally adopted systems of ecclesiastical polity that did not entail benefices and the Second Vatican Council (1962 -- 1965) called "for the abandonment or reform of the system of benefices ''.
The French Revolution replaced France 's system by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy following debates and a report headed by Martineau in 1790, confiscating all endowments of the church, which was until then the highest order (premier ordre) of the Ancien Régime; instead, the state awarded a salary to the formerly endowment - dependent clergy, and abolished canons, prebendaries and chaplains. This constitution kept the separation between the nomination (advowson) and the canonical institution (benefice / living, which conferred a jurisdiction) but the state set a fixed system of salaries and would elect the metropolitan bishops who in turn would elect the curates.
Parts of these changes remain such as the abolition of the three historic roles mentioned and the constitution is still in force in Belgium.
The term benefice, according to the canon law, denotes an ecclesiastical office (but not always a cure of souls) in which the incumbent is required to perform certain duties or conditions of a spiritual kind (the "spiritualities '') while being supported by the revenues attached to the office (the "temporalities '').
The spiritualities of parochial benefices, whether rectories, vicarages or perpetual curacies, include due observation of the ordination vows and due solicitude for the moral and spiritual welfare of the parishioners. The temporalities are the revenues of the benefice and assets such as the church properties and possessions within the parish.
By keeping this distinction in mind, the right of patronage in the case of parochial benefices ("the advowson '') appears logical, being in fact the right, which was originally vested in the donor of the temporalities, to present to his bishop a clerk to be admitted, if found fit by the bishop, to the office to which those temporalities are annexed. In other words, the gift of the glebe which can be called a rectory manor or church furlong was only ever granted subject to receiving an incorporeal hereditament (inheritable and transferable right) for the original donor.
Nomination or presentation on the part of the patron of the benefice is thus the first requisite in order that a clerk should become legally entitled to a benefice. The next requisite is that he should be admitted by the bishop as a fit person for the spiritual office to which the benefice is annexed, and the bishop is the judge of the sufficiency of the clerk to be so admitted.
Under the early constitutions of the Church of England a bishop was allowed a space of two months to inquire and inform himself of the sufficiency of every presentee, but by the 95th of the Canons of 1604 that interval was reduced to 28 days, within which the bishop must admit or reject the clerk. If the bishop rejects the clerk within that time he is liable to a duplex querela (Latin: "double complaint '', the procedure in ecclesiastical law for challenging a bishop 's refusal to admit a presentee to a benefice) in the ecclesiastical courts or to a quare impedit in the common law courts, and the bishop must then certify the reasons of his refusal.
In the rare cases where the patron happens to be a clergyman (a clerk in orders) and wishes to be admitted to the benefice of his own advowson, he must proceed by way of petition instead of by deed of presentation, reciting that the benefice is in his own patronage, and petitioning the bishop to examine him and admit him.
Upon the bishop having satisfied himself of the sufficiency of the clerk, he proceeded to institute him to the spiritual office to which the benefice is annexed, but before such institution could take place, the clerk had to make the declaration of assent, the Thirty - nine Articles of Religion and the Book of Common Prayer, take the oaths of allegiance and canonical obedience and make a declaration against simony. The first was laid down by the Canons of 1603 / 04 and modified by the Clerical Subscription Act 1865 which also prescribed the form of the declaration against simony; the words of the oath of allegiance accorded to the form in the Promissory Oaths Act 1868. Current practice is to make a declaration of assent to the doctrine and liturgical practice of the Church of England, and take the oaths of allegiance and canonical obedience as defined by Canons of the Church of England.
The bishop, by the act of institution, commits to the presentee the cure of souls attached to the office to which the benefice is annexed. In cases where the bishop himself is patron of the benefice, no presentation or petition is required to be tendered by the clerk, but the bishop having satisfied himself of the sufficiency of the clerk, collates him to the benefice and office. A bishop need not personally institute or collate a clerk; he may issue a fiat to his vicar - general or to a special commissary for that purpose.
After the bishop or his commissary has instituted the presentee, he issues a mandate under seal, addressed to the archdeacon or some other neighbouring clergyman, authorizing him to induct the clerk into his benefice -- in other words, to put him into legal possession of the temporalities, which is done by some outward form, and for the most part by delivery of the bell - rope to the presentee, who then tolls the church bell. This form of induction is required to give the clerk a legal title to his beneficium, although his admission to the office by institution is sufficient to vacate any other benefice which he may already possess.
A benefice is avoided or vacated
Dispensation, enabling a clerk to hold several ecclesiastical dignities or benefices at the same time, was transferred to the Archbishop of Canterbury by the Ecclesiastical Licences Act 1533, certain ecclesiastical persons having been declared by a previous statute (of 1529) to be entitled to such dispensations. The system of pluralities carried with it, as a direct consequence, systematic non-residence on the part of many incumbents, and delegation of their spiritual duties in respect of their cures of souls to assistant curates. The evils attendant on this system were found to be so great that the Pluralities Act 1838 was passed to abridge the holding of benefices in plurality, requiring that no person should hold under any circumstances more than two benefices and such privilege was subject to the restriction that both benefices must be within 10 miles (16 km) of each other.
By the Pluralities Act 1850 restrictions were further narrowed so that no spiritual person could hold two benefices except the churches of such benefices within 3 miles (4.8 km) of each other by the nearest road, and the annual value of one of such benefices did not exceed £ 100. By this statute the term "benefice '' is defined to mean "benefice with cure of souls '' and no other, and therein to comprehend all parishes, perpetual curacies, donatives, endowed public chapels, parochial chapelries and chapelries or districts belonging or reputed to belong, or annexed or reputed to be annexed, to any church or chapel.
The Pluralities Acts Amendment Act 1885 superseded these, however, and enacted that by dispensation from the Archbishop of Canterbury, two benefices can be held together, the churches of which are within 4 miles (6.4 km) of each other, and the annual value of one of which does not exceed £ 200.
A benefice or living in the Church of England describes any ecclesiastical parish or group of ecclesiastical parishes under a single stipendiary minister, as well as its related historical meaning.
The term dates from the grant of benefices by bishops to clerks in holy orders as a reward for extraordinary services. The holder of a benefice owns the "freehold '' of the post (the church and the parsonage house) for life.
Such a life freehold is now subject to certain constraints. To comply with European Regulations on atypical workers, the parson 's freehold is to be phased out in favour of new conditions of service called "common tenure ''.
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who played rodrick in diary of a wimpy kid the long haul | Diary of a Wimpy Kid: the Long Haul (film) - wikipedia
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul is a 2017 American family road comedy film directed by David Bowers. It is the fourth installment in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid film series, and is based on the ninth and tenth books in the series, The Long Haul and Old School, and one element based on the eighth book, Hard Luck about Meemaw. Despite not being a reboot, the original cast members from the first three films do not reprise their roles. It was theatrically released on May 19, 2017, by 20th Century Fox. The film grossed $40 million worldwide on a $22 million budget, and was panned by critics, mainly due to its recasting.
One year after the previous film, while at the Corny 's family restaurant, the Heffley family plans to attend Meemaw 's 90th birthday. However, after Greg rescues his younger brother Manny, who got stuck inside a tube in the play area, Greg ends up in a ball pit with a diaper stuck on his hand. He subsequently becomes infamous after the people around him record him and post the footage on the internet, leading Greg to be dubbed as "Diaper Hands ''.
Later, at the Heffley residence, Greg learns that Player Expo is taking place not very far from Meemaw 's house in Indianapolis. Greg 's gaming star, Mac Digby, will be attending, and Greg hopes to meet him and get in one of his videos so he will gain popularity. He acknowledges that he will have to somehow sneak off from the road trip and attend the Expo without his parents ' knowledge, however. The Heffley family hits the road, where Greg, Rodrick, Frank, and Manny 's devices are immediately confiscated by Susan, who wants the road trip to be absolutely technology - free.
After arriving at a motel, Greg discreetly gets into the car and takes his phone out of the bag Susan had put it in and plans to use it. Later, when Greg and Rodrick are relaxing in the hot tub, Rodrick hears a notification from Greg 's phone and discovers his plans to go to Player Expo. Greg discourages Rodrick from telling Susan, saying that they had a rock band video game tournament there that Rodrick could participate in. Liking the idea, Rodrick opts to go with Greg to the Expo.
Going to sleep, Greg is annoyed by a loud bang noise created by the Beardo siblings, who playfully crash a trolley into a wall, and storms out of the room. He confronts them but Brandi, the eldest sibling, rolls the trolley -- which is meant for Greg -- into their car, leaving a huge scratch. Just as Mr. Beardo comes out of his motel room, Brandi blames Greg responsible and Mr. Beardo goes after him but he manages to outrun him. Greg returns to his room, but the next morning, he actually slept next to Mr. Beardo, who chases him again, but he manages to escape from the motel with his family.
The Heffleys attend a county fair where Manny wins a pig, but Mr. Beardo and his family notices Greg and begins chasing after him but manages to outrun again. Back at the road, the Heffleys, unable to take care of the pig, drop it off at the petting zoo, much to Manny 's dismay, but not before Greg reroutes the GPS to the Player Expo convention. Checking at the hotel room, Greg and Rodrick sneak out to go to Player Expo using the excuse that they are going to get a present for Meemaw. However, after Frank and Susan sees their children on live TV, they go to get the boys themselves.
Greg finally sees Mac Digby participating in a video game competition. Desperate to be in one of his videos, Greg instructs Rodrick to record him going up on stage with Mac so his popularity will boost. But the attempt fails when Susan storms into the stage and inadvertently reveals that he is Diaper Hands to the public, causing them to chant at him. Susan opens up to Greg and says that all she wanted was a nice road trip that would bring the family closer together, and she accuses Greg of not caring. Greg snaps back at Susan, saying that she does n't care about what he wants, which is why he had to sneak out to the Expo in the first place. Hurt by her son 's words, Susan hands her phone to Greg because she does n't care anymore.
On the road again, the tarp on the boat -- hitched to the car -- carrying the majority of their belongings flies off all across the road. The Heffleys recover their belongings but the Beardo 's van pulls up and begins stealing suitcases and clothes. This causes Susan to be very upset that the trip became a disaster. Greg saw his family hit rock bottom. He encourages them to continue the trip. They found the Beardos. They get into the motel room, where the Beardos occupied, and successfully retrieve their belongings.
After encountering some obstacles, the Heffleys celebrate happily at Meemaw 's and get their car fixed, but the radiator breaks due to the AC not being cranked up all the way. A Spanish - speaking man, Mr. Luis, who works for a towing company pulls over to assist them, but none of the Heffleys can understand him, except Manny, who speaks in fluent Spanish (thanks to the Spanish tutorial CD Susan put in during the road trip) to the man and explains their current situation.
Luis then tows their car and Manny gives him instructions to the petting zoo where his pig is, and the two reunite. At the end, Greg explains that although the road trip was n't perfect, he still would n't change a thing. He says that Manny was allowed to keep his pig as a pet, Rodrick was able to get a new van, and Dad was able to explain having time off from work to bond with family. Greg expresses excitement for where they 'll be going next year, but Susan steps in to say they will be flying.
In a mid-credits scene, two girls take selfies with Greg, who they recognize as Diaper Hands.
In 2012, the series ' third entry, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days was described as the last live action film in the franchise. In August 2012, while doing press for the film, author Jeff Kinney and actors Zachary Gordon and Robert Capron each indicated that there were no plans for a fourth movie, but did not dismiss the possibility entirely.
Kinney replied to inquiries regarding the possibility of another sequel, stating, "At present, we do n't have a fourth film in development, but you never know! '' When describing the likelihood of starring in another film in the series, Gordon explained, "Dog Days most likely will be the last movie. The main problem is (the cast) is getting older. You ca n't stop it. There 's no way to temporarily stop us from changing and growing up. You know, that 's the problem because the characters are supposed to be timeless. ''
In March 2013, Gordon stated in a Spreecast live stream that there would not be a fourth live action film. Previously, Kinney had indicated that instead of making a live action film of the third novel, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Last Straw, instead he would like to see Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Cabin Fever adapted into an animated film, stating in an interview, "I hope that it gets made into an animated movie. but I 'd really like to see it turn into an animated television special. ''
On July 29, 2016, it was announced that a fourth live - action Diary of a Wimpy Kid film was in production, and will have a completely different cast, as many of the members from the original cast were too old and have outgrown from their roles. Jason Drucker and Owen Asztalos portray Greg and Rowley, with David Bowers returning as the director. Alicia Silverstone and Tom Everett Scott portray Greg 's parents, Susan and Frank, and Charlie Wright portrays Greg 's older brother Rodrick.
Filming of The Long Haul began on September 20, 2016, in Atlanta, and concluded on November 18, 2016.
The film somewhat acts as a parody film, referencing two films directed by Alfred Hitchcock. The film in one scene parodies the film The Birds, where the Heffley family getting mauled by seagulls. The film also parodies the film Psycho in the third act, where Greg Heffley is caught by Mr. Beardo in the shower, which Greg is stuck in, which Mr. Beardo nearly catches him, and wet mud goes down the drain. Additionally, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul also referenced a scene of the film Are We There Yet?.
The film was released on May 17, 2017, in the Philippines, May 19, 2017, in the United States, and May 20, 2017, in the United Kingdom.
On February 23, 2017, a theatrical poster and teaser trailer were released, and the following month, the official trailer was released. Both trailers received negative feedback from fans for its recasting of the main characters, most notably Charlie Wright as Rodrick. To further express their outrage, the fans took to social media and started the hashtag "# NotMyRodrick '' (a parody of the "# NotMyPresident '' trend that followed the election of U.S. president Donald Trump), which has spawned countless online memes. Other hashtags included "# NotMyHeffleys '' and "# NotMyRowley ''.
Both trailers received significant backlash from audiences, and the official trailer received over 46 thousand dislikes, compared to only 9 thousand likes.
As of August 12, 2017, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul had grossed $20.7 million in the United States and Canada and $17.5 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $38.2 million, against a production budget of $22 million thus making the film the lowest grossing film of the Diary of a Wimpy Kid series.
In North America, the film was released alongside Everything, Everything and Alien: Covenant, and was initially projected to gross around $12 million from 3,129 theaters during its opening weekend. However, after grossing $2 million on its first day, projections were lowered to $7 million. It ended up finishing with $7.1 million, placing 6th at the box office and marking the lowest opening of the franchise.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul has received mostly negative reviews. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 20 % based on 65 reviews and an average rating of 4.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "With an all - new cast but the same juvenile humor, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul finds the franchise still stuck in arrested -- and largely unfunny -- development. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 39 out of 100 based on 16 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul was released on Digital HD from Amazon Video and iTunes on August 1, 2017, and on Blu - ray and DVD on August 8, 2017.
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three distinct ethnic groups that make up iraq | Kirkuk - wikipedia
Kirkuk (Arabic: كركوك Karkūk; Kurdish: کەرکووک Kerkûk; Turkish: Kerkük) is a city in Iraq, serving as the capital of the Kirkuk Governorate, located 238 kilometres (148 miles) north of Baghdad. Kirkuk lies in a wide zone with an enormously diverse population and has been multilingual for centuries. There were dramatic demographic changes during Kirkuk 's urbanization in the twentieth century, which saw the development of distinct ethnic groups. Kurds, Turkmen, Arabs and Assyrians lay conflicting claims to this zone, and all have their historical accounts and memories to buttress their claims.
The city sits on the ruins of the original Kirkuk Citadel, site of the ancient mid-3rd millennium BC, Assyrian city of Arrapha, and which sits near the Khasa River. The city is mentioned during the Sumero - Akkadian period of Assyria in cuneiform script from about 2400 BC. The region became a part of the Akkadian empire (2335 -- 2154 BC) which united all of the Akkadian and Sumerian speaking Mesopotamians under one rule. After its collapse, the language isolate - speaking Gutians, a pre-Iranic race from Ancient Iran, overran the region for a few decades, making Arrapha their capital, before being ejected from Mesopotamia by the Sumerians during the Neo-Sumerian Empire (2112 -- 2004 BC). The city later came to be dominated by the Hurrians from eastern Anatolia before being incorporated into the Old Assyrian Empire (2025 -- 1750 BC), after which Arrapha and the whole of northern Mesopotamia, together with parts of north east Syria and south east Turkey, became a part of Assyria proper. During the late 15th century BC Assyria and Arrapha was under the domination of the short - lived Mittani - Hurrian empire, but after the Assyrians overthrew and destroyed the Hurri - Mitanni in the early 14th century BC the city was once more under Assyrian rule. Arrapha remained an important Assyrian city until the fall of the Assyrian empire between 615 -- 599 BC. After this it remained a part of the geo - political province of Assyria (Achaemenid Assyria, Athura, Seleucid Syria, Assyria (Roman province) and Assuristan) under various foreign empires, and between the 2nd century BC and 3rd century AD became the capital of the Neo-Assyrian state of Beth Garmai before this was conquered into the Sassanid empire and became a part of Assuristan. The Arab Islamic conquest of the 7th century AD saw the dissolution of Assyria as a geo - political entity.
Kurds and Turkmens have claimed the city as a cultural capital. It was named the "capital of Iraqi culture '' by the Iraqi ministry of culture in 2010. The city currently consists mainly of people who self - identify as Kurds, Arabs, Iraqi Turkmens and Assyrians, with changes in population after the fall of Saddam Hussein, the US invasion, and the war against the Islamic State.
The ancient name of Kirkuk was the Assyrian Arrap'ha. During the Parthian era, a Korkura / Corcura (Ancient Greek: Κόρκυρα) is mentioned by Ptolemy, which is believed to refer either to Kirkuk or to the site of Baba Gurgur 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi) from the city. Since the Seleucid Empire it was known as Karkha D - Bet Slokh, which means ' Citadel of the House of Seleucid ' in Mesopotamian Aramaic, the lingua franca of the Fertile Crescent in that era.
The region around Kirkuk was known historically in the Eastern Aramaic and Syriac Assyrian sources as "Beth Garmai '' (Syriac: ܒܝܬܓܪܡܝ ). The name "Beth Garmai '' or "Beth Garme '' may be of Syriac origin which meaning "the house of bones '', which is thought to be a reference to bones of slaughtered Achaemenids after a decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius III on the plains between the Upper Zab and Diyala river. It was one of a number of independent Neo-Assyrian states which flourished during the Parthian empire (150 BC - 226 AD). Kirkuk itself was the Assyrian Karkha D'Beth Slokh, the metropolitan centre of Beth Garmai.
It is also thought that region was known during the Parthian and Sassanid periods as Garmakan, which means the ' Land of Warmth ' or the ' Hot Land '. In Persian "Garm '' means warm;
During the Seleucid period, the city was renamed after king Seleucus, Karkha d ' Beth Slokh ("Fort Seleucus ''), a corruption of which is at the root of modern name Karkuk / Kirkuk. After the 7th century, Muslim writers used the name Kirkheni (Syriac for "citadel '') to refer to the city. Others used other variant, such as Bajermi (a corruption of Aramaic "B'th Garmayeh '' or Jermakan (a corruption of Persian Garmakan). A cuneiform script found in 1927 at the foot of Kirkuk Citadel stated that the city of Erekha of Babylonia was on the site of Kirkuk. Other sources consider Erekha to have been simply one part of the larger Arrapha metropolis.
It is suggested that Kirkuk was one of the places occupied by Neanderthals based on archeological findings in the Shanidar Cave settlement. A large amount of pottery shards dating to the Ubaid period were also excavated from several Tells in the city.
Ancient Arrapkha was a part of Sargon of Akkad 's Akkadian Empire (2335 -- 2154 BC), and city was exposed to the raids of the Lullubi during Naram - Sin 's reign.
Later the city was occupied around 2150 BC by language Isolate speaking Zagros Mountains dwellers who were known as the Gutian people by the Semitic and Sumerian of Mesopotamians. Arraphkha was the capital of the short lived Guti kingdom (Gutium), before it was destroyed and the Gutians driven from Mesopotamia by the Neo-Sumerian Empire c. 2090 BC. Arrapkha became a part of the Old Assyrian Empire (c. 2025 -- 1750 BC), before Hammurabi briefly subjected Assyria to the short lived Babylonian Empire, after which it again became a part of Assyria c. 1725 BC.
However, by the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C. the Indo - Aryan Mittani of Anatolia formed a ruling class over the language isolate speaking Hurrians, and began to expand into a Hurri - Mitanni Empire. In the 1450s they attacked Assyria, sacking Assur, and bringing the cities of Gasur and Arrapkha under their control. From c. 1450 to 1393 BC the kings of Assyria paid tribute to the kingdom of Mittani.
The Middle Assyrian Empire (1365 -- 1020 BC) overthrew the Hurri - Mitanni in the mid 14th century BC and Arrapha once more became incorporated into Assyria proper. In the 11th and 10th centuries BC the city rose to prominence, becoming an important city in Assyria until the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911 -- 605 BC).
The Hurri - Mitanni domination of Assyria was broken in the 1390s BC, and Arrapkha once more became an integral part of Assyria with the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365 -- 1020 BC) which saw the Hurrian population driven from the region. It remained as such throughout the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911 -- 605 BC) where it became an important Assyrian city.
After the fall of Assyria between 612 -- 599 BC it was still an integral part of the geo - political province of Assyria -- Achaemenid Assyria, Athura, Seleucid Syria, Assyria (Roman province) and Assuristan. In the Parthian and Sassanid eras Kirkuk was capital of the small Assyrian state of Beth Garmai (c. 160 BC - 250 AD).
The city briefly came to be part of the short lived Median Empire before falling to the Achaemenid Empire (546 -- 332 BC) where it was incorporated into the province of Athura (Achaemenid Assyria).
Later it became part of the Macedonian Empire (332 -- 312 BC) and succeeding Seleucid Empire (311 -- 150 BC) before falling to the Parthian Empire (150 BC - 224 AD) as a part of Athura. The Parthians seemed to only exercise loose control, and a number of small Neo-Assyrian kingdoms sprang up in the region between the 2nd century BC and 4th century AD, one such kingdom named "ܒܝܬܓܪܡܝ '', (that is Bit Garmai in Syriac) had Arrapha as its capital. Christianity also arose during this period, with Arrapha and its surrounds being influenced by the Assyrian Church of the East. The Sassanid Empire destroyed these kingdoms during 3rd and early 4th centuries AD, and Arrapha was incorporated into Sassanid ruled Assuristan (Sassanid Assyria).
In AD 341, the Zoroastrian Shapur II ordered the massacre of all Assyrian Christians in the Persian Sassanid Empire. During the persecution, about 1,150 were martyred in Arrapha. The city appears on the Peutinger Map of this time. The city remained a part of the Sassanid Empire until the Islamic conquest in the mid 7th century AD.
Arab Muslims fought the Sassanid empire in the 7th century AD, conquering the region. The city was a part of the Islamic Caliphate until the tenth century. Kirkuk and the surrounding areas were then ruled by the Seljuk Turks for many years. After the divided empire collapsed, the city became a part of Turkic Zengid dynasty for a century. After the Mongol invasion, the Ilkhanate State was founded in the region and the city became a part of the Mongol Ilkhanate. The Ilkhanate region was then conquered by the Black Sheep Turkomans and White Sheep Turkomans. Ottoman Empire took control of Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Hejaz in the early 16th century. Turkish rule continued until World War I when the Ottoman Empire was overthrown in the region by the British Empire.
At the end of World War I, the British occupied Kirkuk on 7 May 1918. Abandoning the city after about two weeks, the British returned to Kirkuk a few months later after the Armistice of Mudros. Kirkuk avoided the troubles caused by the British - backed Shaykh Mahmud, who quickly attempted to defy the British and establish his own fiefdom in Sulaymaniyah.
As both Turkey and Great Britain desperately wanted control of the Vilayet of Mosul (of which Kirkuk was a part), the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 failed to solve the issue. For this reason, the question of Mosul was sent to the League of Nations. A committee travelled to the area before coming to a final decision: the territory south of the "Brussels line '' belonged to Iraq. By the Treaty of Angora of 1926, Kirkuk became a part of the Kingdom of Iraq.
In 1927, Iraqi and American drillers working for the foreign - owned and British - led Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC) struck a huge oil gusher at Baba Gurgur ("St. Blaze '' or father blaze in Kurdish) near Kirkuk. The IPC began exports from the Kirkuk oil field in 1934. The Company moved its headquarters from Tuz Khormatu to a camp on the outskirts of Kirkuk, which they named Arrapha after the ancient city. Arrapha remains a large neighborhood in Kirkuk to this day. The IPC exercised significant political power in the city and played a central role in Kirkuk 's urbanization, initiating housing and development projects in collaboration with Iraqi authorities in the 1940s and 1950s.
The presence of the oil industry had an effect on Kirkuk 's demographics. The exploitation of Kirkuk 's oil, which began around 1930, attracted both Arabs and Kurds to the city in search of work. Kirkuk, which had been a predominantly Turkmen city, gradually lost its uniquely Turkmen character. At the same time, large numbers of Kurds from the mountains were settling in the uninhabited but cultivable rural parts of the district of Kirkuk. The influx of Kurds into Kirkuk continued through the 1960s. According to the 1957 census, Kirkuk city was 37.63 % Iraqi Turkmen, 33.26 % Kurdish with Arabs and Assyrians making up less than 23 % of its population.
Some analysts believe that poor reservoir - management practices during the Saddam Hussein years may have seriously, and even permanently, damaged Kirkuk 's oil field. One example showed an estimated 1,500,000,000 barrels (240,000,000 m) of excess fuel oil being reinjected. Other problems include refinery residue and gas - stripped oil. Fuel oil reinjection has increased oil viscosity at Kirkuk making it more difficult and expensive to get the oil out of the ground.
Over all, between April 2003 and late December 2004 there were an estimated 123 attacks on Iraqi energy infrastructures, including the country 's 7,000 km - long pipeline system. In response to these attacks, which cost Iraq billions of US dollars in lost oil - export revenues and repair costs, the US military set up the Task Force Shield to guard Iraq 's energy infrastructure and the Kirkuk - Ceyhan Oil Pipeline in particular. In spite of the fact that little damage was done to Iraq 's oil fields during the war itself, looting and sabotage after the war ended was highly destructive and accounted for perhaps eighty percent of the total damage.
The discovery of vast quantities of oil in the region after World War I provided the impetus for the annexation of the former Ottoman Vilayet of Mosul (of which the Kirkuk region was a part), to the Iraqi Kingdom, established in 1921. Since then and particularly from 1963 onwards, there have been continuous attempts to transform the ethnic make - up of the region.
Pipelines from Kirkuk run through Turkey to Ceyhan on the Mediterranean Sea and were one of the two main routes for the export of Iraqi oil under the Oil - for - Food Programme following the Gulf War of 1991. This was in accordance with a United Nations mandate that at least 50 % of the oil exports pass through Turkey. There were two parallel lines built in 1977 and 1987.
In 1970 the Iraqi government reached an agreement with Kurdish leader Mustafa Barzani called the March Agreement of 1970, but the question of whether the oil - rich province of Kirkuk would be included within the Kurdish autonomous region remained unresolved, pending a new census.
Despite the signing of the March Agreement, relations between the Kurds and Iraqi government continued to deteriorate due to the unresolved status of Kirkuk, and there were two attempts to assassinate Barzani in 1972. In response to Barzani 's continued demands during the early 1970s for Kirkuk to be recognized as part of the autonomous region under the terms of the March Agreement, settlement construction for newly arrived Arab families increased drastically as the Ba'athist government implemented Arabization policies to increase the Arab population of Kirkuk. Kurds were forbidden from buying property in Kirkuk, and could sell their properities only to Arabs. They were denied permission to renovate properties in need of maintenance, and poor Shi'a Arab families were paid to move to Kirkuk, while Kurds were paid to move out.
Negotiations between Barzani 's Kurdish Democratic Party and the Iraqi government collapsed in March 1974 and Barzani rejected President Ahmed Hassan al - Bakr declaration of Kurdish autonomy. Many disputes persisted between the Kurds and Arabs and the conflict escalated into the Second Iraqi -- Kurdish War (also called the Barzani rebellion). The rebellion collapsed after Iran withdrew it 's support for Barzani 's forces following the 1975 Algiers Agreement and the Ba'ath regime intensified Arabization efforts.
After Barzani 's rebellion was defeated in 1974, the districts of Chemchemal and Kelar, which had been part of Kirkuk, became part of Sulaymaniyah and Kifri became part of Diyala province. Other Arab - populated districts, like Zab, became part of Kirkuk. Kurds, Turkmen and Christian populations were forcibly relocated and replaced with Shi'a from Iraq 's south. The expulsions continued after the 1991 uprisings. Kurdish villages were razed and thousands of new homes were built, including at least 200 homes for relatives of Iraqi soldiers killed during the Iran - Iraq War. Between 1968, when the Ba'ath Party first rose to power in Iraq, and 2003 between 200,000 and 300,000 persons were forcibly relocated out of Kirkuk. According to the Iraqi Ministry of Planning, by August 2005 (during the Iraq War), approximately 224,544 Kurds had returned to Kirkuk and 52,973 Arab persons had left the city.
In 1972 the Iraqi government, led by then Vice-President Saddam Hussein, nationalized the Iraqi Petroleum Company (IPC), after being unable to reach an agreement that would increase oil exports and resolve a longstanding dispute over Law 80 of 1961. The Iraqi government began to sell its oil to Eastern bloc countries and the IPC 's French partner CFP. After reaching an agreement with the Iraqis in 1973, the IPC members were able to retain some of their interests in southern Iraq through the Basra Petroleum Company but had lost Iraq 's main oilfields, including the Kirkuk field.
In 1991, Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait and was quickly routed by the United States in the First Gulf War (also called Operation Desert Storm). In the aftermath of the Iraqi army 's defeat, rebellions broke out in Iraq; first in southern Iraq on March 1, and in the northern Kurdish region a few days later. By March 24th Kurdish peshmerga forces had seized control of Kirkuk, but they were only able to hold it until March 28th when it was reclaimed by Hussein 's forces. The US and UK began to enforce a no - fly zone in Northern Iraq and a de facto Kurdish Autonomous region emerged in the North. Arabs families were expelled from the Kurdish region and relocated to Kirkuk, which was still controlled by the Iraqi government. In these circumstances, Hussein 's government further intensified the decades long policy of Arabization in Kirkuk, requiring that Kurds, Turkmen and Assyrians fill out "ethnic identity correction '' forms and register as Arabs and many who refused to comply were forcibly relocated north of the Green Line. In May 1991, Massoud Barzani announced that Baghdad had conceded Kirkuk as the capital of the autonomous region, but when the Iraqi government demanded the Kurds join the Ba'athist government the dispute once again escalated to violent conflict and in October 1991 Iraqi forces had withdrawn from several Kurdish provinces in the North including Erbil, Dohuk and Sulaymaniyah.
American and British military forces led an invasion of Iraq in March 2003, marking the start the Second Iraq War. Kurdish peshmerga fighters assisted in the 2003 capture of Kirkuk. Though the peshmerga were allowed to operate even after the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) disbanded and outlawed most of the armed militias in Iraq, the peshmerga were eventually asked to to withdraw from Kirkuk and other Kurdish held provinces.
Under the supervision of chief executive of Coalition Provisional Authority L. Paul Bremer, a convention was held on 24 May 2003 to select the first City Council in the history of this oil - rich, ethnically divided city. Each of the city 's four major ethnic groups was invited to send a 39 - member delegation from which they would be allowed to select six to sit on the City Council. Another six council members were selected from among 144 delegates to represent independents social groups such as teachers, lawyers, religious leaders and artists.
Kirkuk 's 30 members council is made up of five blocs of six members each. Four of those blocs are formed along ethnic lines -- Kurds, Arabs, Assyrian and Turkmen -- and the fifth is made up of independents. Turkmen and Arabs complained that the Kurds allegedly hold five of the seats in the independent block. They were also infuriated that their only representative at the council 's helm was an assistant mayor whom they considered pro-Kurdish. Abdul Rahman Mustafa (Arabic: عبدالرحمن مصطفى ), a Baghdad - educated lawyer was elected mayor by 20 votes to 10. The appointment of an Arab, Ismail Ahmed Rajab Al Hadidi (Arabic: اسماعيل احمد رجب الحديدي ), as deputy mayor went some way towards addressing Arab concerns.
On 30 June 2005, through a secret direct voting process, with the participation of the widest communities in the province and despite all the political legal security complexities of this process in the country generally and in Kirkuk in particular, Kirkuk witnessed the birth of its first elected Provincial Council. The Independent Electoral Commission of Iraq IECI approved and announced the outcomes of this process, which filled the 41 seats of Kirkuk Provincial Council as follows:
The new Kirkuk Provincial Council started its second turn on 6 March 2005. Its inaugural session was dedicated to the introduction of its new members, followed by an oath ceremony supervised by Judge Thahir Hamza Salman, the Head of Kirkuk Appellate Court.
Kirkuk is located in a disputed area of Iraq that runs from Sinjar on the Syrian border southeast to Khanaqin and Mandali on the Iranian border. Kirkuk has been a disputed territory for around eighty years -- Kurds have wanted Kirkuk to become part of Kurdistan Regional Government, which has been opposed by the regions Arab and Turkmen populations. (Turkmen are Turkic people who remained in Iraq after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire).
The Kurds sought to annex the long disputed territory to the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) through Article 140 of the Iraqi Constitution that was enacted in 2005. Under Article 140 the Ba'athist Arabization policy would be reversed: Displaced Kurds who had relocated to areas in the Kurdish autonomous region would return to Kirkuk, while the Arab Shi'a population would be compensated and relocated to areas in the south. After the Ba'athist regimes demographic and redistricting policies were undone a census and referendum would determine whether Kirkuk would be administered by the KRG or Baghdad.
Following the 2010 parliamentary election the Kurds signed the Erbil Agreement and backed Nouri al - Maliki on the condition that Article 140 would be implemented.
Five churches in Kirkuk were targeted with bombs in August 2011 On 12 July 2013, Kirkuk was hit by a deadly bomb, killing 38 people in an attack on a café. A few days prior, on 11 July 2013, over 40 people were killed in a series of bombings and shootings across Iraq, including in Kirkuk.
On 12 June 2014, following the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive, during which ISIS secured control of Tikrit and nearby areas in Syria, the Iraqi army fled Kirkuk and Kurdish forces took control of the city.
On 21 October 2016, ISIL launched multiple attacks in Kirkuk to divert Iraqi military resources during the Battle of Mosul. Witnesses reported multiple explosions and gun battles in the city, most centered on a government compound. At least 11 workers, including several Iranians, were killed by a suicide bomber at a power plant in nearby Dibis. The attack was brought to an end by 24 October, with 74 militants being killed and others including the leader of the attackers being arrested.
On 16 October 2017, the Iraqi national army and PMF militia retook control of Kirkuk, which had been under Kurdish Peshmerga control since 2014..
Kirkuk has been a disputed territory for around eighty years -- Kurds have wanted Kirkuk to become part of Kurdistan Regional Government, which is opposed by the regions Arab and Turkmen populations. (Turkmen are Turkic people who remained in Iraq after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire).
The Kurds were promised a referendum to resolve Kirkuk 's status under Article 140 of the Iraqi Constitution. Following the 2010 parliamentary election the Kurds signed the Erbil Agreement and backed Nouri al - Maliki on the condition that Article 140 would be implemented.
The most reliable census concerning the ethnic composition of Kirkuk dates back to 1957. Kirkuk province borders were later altered, the province was renamed al - Ta'mim and Kurdish dominated districts were added to Erbil and Sulamaniya provinces.
The three largest ethnicities in Kirkuk are Turkmen, Kurdish and Arabs.
Kurds have a long history in Kirkuk before the Baban family. The Baban family was a Kurdish family that, in the 18th and 19th centuries, dominated the political life of the province of Sharazor, in present - day Iraqi Kurdistan. The first member of the clan to gain control of the province and its capital, Kirkuk, was Sulayman Beg. Enjoying almost full autonomy, the Baban family established Kirkuk as their capital. It was from this time that Kurds in Iraq began to view Kirkuk as their capital. This persisted even after the Babans moved their administration to the new town of Sulaymaniya, named after the dynasty 's founder, in the late 18th century.
The Turkmens are descendants of Turkic migrants to Iraq dating back to the Umayyads and Abbasid eras, when they arrived as military recruits. Considerable Turcoman settlement began during the Seljuq era when Toghrul entered Iraq in 1055 with his army composed mostly of Oghuz Turks. Kirkuk remained under the control of the Seljuq Empire for 63 years. The Turcoman settlement in Kirkuk was further expanded later during the Ottoman Era, when people were brought to the city from there. Kirkuk had a population near 30,000 in the late 1910s, Turkmens were majority in the city center, dominating the political and economic life of the area.
During the Ottoman period the Turcoman were the predominant population of Kirkuk city and its close environs but Kurds constituted the majority of the rural population of Kirkuk.
Currently Iraqi Turkmen politicians hold just over 20 percent of seats on Kirkuk 's city council, while Turkmen leaders say they make up nearly a third of the city.
The principal Arab extended families in the city of Kirkuk were: the Tikriti and the Hadidi (Arabic: حديدي ). The Tikriti family was the main Arab family in Kirkuk coming from Tikrit in the 17th century. Other Arab tribes who settled in Kirkuk during the Ottoman Period are the Al - Ubaid (Arabic: آل عبيد ) and the Al - Jiburi (Arabic: آل جبور ). The Al - Ubaid came from just northwest of Mosul when they were forced out of the area by other Arab tribes of that region. They settled in the Hawija district in Kirkuk in 1805 during the Ottoman Period.
The Assyrians have an ancient history in Kirkuk, as they do throughout northern Iraq. As Arrapha it was a part of the Old Assyrian Empire (c. 1975 -- 1750 BC), and fully incorporated into Assyria proper by the 14th century BC during the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365 -- 105 BC), and remained so until the downfall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire between 615 and 599 BC. After this it was an integral part of Achaemenid Assyria (Athura), and during the Parthian Empire was centre to an independent Neo Assyrian state named Beth Garmai, before being incorporated into Assuristan by the Sassanid Empire.
The Seleucid town, like many other Upper Mesopotamian cities had a significant indigenous Assyrian population. Christianity was established among them in the 2nd century by the bishop Tuqrītā (Theocritos). During the Sasanian times the town became an important centre of the Assyrian Church of the East, with several of its bishops rising to the rank of Patriarch. Tensions among Christians and Zoroastrians led to a severe persecution of Christians during the reign of Shapur II (309 -- 379 A.D.) as recorded in the Acts of the Persian Martyrs. Persecution resumed under Yazdegerd II in 445 A.D. who massacred thousands of them. Their situation greatly improved under the Sasanians in the following two centuries after the advent of a national Persian church of free of Byzantine influence, namely Nestorianism. During the Sasanian times the town became an important centre of the Church of the East, with several of its bishops rising to the rank of Patriarch. Tensions among Christians and Zoroastrians led to a severe persecution of Christians during the reign of Shapur II (309 - 79 A.D.) as recorded in the Acts of the Persian Martyrs. Their situation greatly improved under the Sasanians in the following two centuries. During the Sasanian times the town became an important centre of the Church of the East, with several of its bishops rising to the rank of Patriarch. Persecution resumed under Yazdegerd II in 445 A.D. who massacred thousands of them. Tradition puts the death toll at 12,000 among them the patriarch Shemon Bar Sabbae. The city was known as the centre of the prosperous Ecclesiastical Province of Beth Garmai which lingered until the conquests of Timur Leng in 1400 A.D. During the Ottoman period most of Kirkuk 's Christians followed the Chaldean Catholic Church whose bishop resided in the Cathedral of the Great Martyrion which dates back to the 5th century. The Cathedral was however used as a powder storage and was blown up as the Ottomans retreated in 1918.
The discovery of oil brought more Christians to Kirkuk, however they were also affected by the Arabization policy of the Baath Party. Their numbers continued to plummet after the American invasion, and they occupy 4 % of municipal offices, a percentage thought to be representative of their numbers in the city. They number around 2,000.
The Armenians of Kirkuk established a church in the old part of the city in 1906, and the population grew afterwards with the arrival of refugees from the Armenian Genocide. During the rule of Saddam Hussein, many Armenians were killed and deported. There are currently around 500 in the city.
Jews had a long history in Kirkuk. Ottoman records show that in 1560 there were 104 Jewish homes in Kirkuk, and in 1896 there were 760 Jews in the city. After World War I, the Jewish population increased, especially after Kirkuk became a petroleum center; in 1947 there were 2,350 counted in the census. Jews were generally engaged in commerce and handicraft. Social progress was slow, and it was only in the 1940s that some Jewish students acquired secondary academic education. By 1951 almost all of the Jews had left for Israel.
Ancient architectural monuments of Kirkuk include:
The archaeological sites of Qal'at Jarmo and Yorgan Tepe are found at the outskirts of the modern city. In 1997, there were reports that the government of Saddam Hussein "demolished Kirkuk 's historic citadel with its mosques and ancient church ''.
The architectural heritage of Kirkuk sustained serious damage during World War I (when some pre-Muslim Assyrian Christian monuments were destroyed) and, more recently, during the Iraq War. Simon Jenkins reported in June 2007 that "eighteen ancient shrines have been lost, ten in Kirkuk and the south in the past month alone ''.
Kirkuk experiences a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSh) with extremely hot and dry summers and cool, rainy winters. Snow is rare but it has fallen in 22 February 2004, and from 10 to 11 January 2008.
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where does nicky go to college on blue bloods | Sami Gayle - wikipedia
Sami Gayle (born January 22, 1996) is an American actress. She co-stars as Nicky Reagan in the CBS series Blue Bloods.
Gayle was born and raised in Weston, Florida. Her mother previously owned her own business and now works as her manager. Her father is an attorney. Gayle was home - schooled and followed Advanced Placement (AP) curriculums in all subjects. She was nationally ranked in Public Forum Debate and has received two bids to compete at the Tournament of Champions, putting her among the top debaters nationwide.
Gayle began her acting career as Baby June in the off - Broadway production of Gypsy starring Patti LuPone. She reprised her role when the production transferred to Broadway a few months later. She later co-starred in the off - Broadway plays Oohrah! at the Atlantic Theatre Company and MCC Theatre 's Family Week under the direction of Jonathan Demme. Gayle was featured in the 2007 Broadway production of Dr. Seuss ' How the Grinch Stole Christmas! The Musical.
In addition to her role on Blue Bloods, Gayle guest starred on USA 's Royal Pains and had a recurring role on the CBS soap opera As the World Turns. She co-starred in Detachment, directed by Tony Kaye and released in 2012. She also appeared in Stolen and The Congress. The former was released in 2012, and the latter in 2013. She co-starred in the 2014 film adaptation of Vampire Academy, as Mia Rinaldi.
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real name of lottery in kapil sharma show | Rochelle Rao - wikipedia
Rochelle Rao (born 25 November 1988) is an Indian model and anchor. She was crowned Femina Miss India International in 2012. She was featured in Kingfisher Calendar and various TV shows. She was a contestant on Bigg Boss 9 in 2015.
Rochelle Rao was born in Chennai in 1988. She holds a BSc in Electronic Media from MOP Vaishnav College for Women, Chennai.
Rochelle Rao competed in the fifth Pantaloons Femina Miss India South pageant in January 2012 where she was first runner up. She lost the title to Shamata Anchan. She later participated at Femina Miss India and emerged as the Femina Miss India International 2012 winner. She has also won three subtitles. "Miss Glamorous Diva '', "Miss Ramp Walk '', "Miss Body Beautiful ''. She represented India at Miss International 2012 pageant held in October 2012 (Okinawa, Japan) where she ranked ninth out of 68 countries.
She won the Femina Miss India International 2012 crown. Prior to this she was a model and anchor in Chennai. Rochelle was crowned by the outgoing titleholder Ankita Shorey.
She later turned host for season six of the Indian Premier League. Currently living in Mumbai, she has anchored various events and TV shows. She has also featured in many men 's magazines.
She was featured in the February 2014 page of the Kingfisher calendar.
In August 2013, Rochelle was seen in Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa season 6 which aired on Colors as a wild card entrant. She did not get chosen for the show as she did her performance.
She was also seen in season 5 of the show Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi in 2014. She was the second contestant to be eliminated from the show that was hosted by Rohit Shetty. In late 2014 she was seen on an adventurous travel show on Fox Life called Life Mein Ek Baar along with Evelyn Sharma, Pia Trivedi and Mehak Chahal.
In 2015, Rao became a contestant on the popular Indian reality TV series, Bigg Boss 9 along with boyfriend Keith Sequeira. She was paired with Prince Narula but later changed with Rimi Sen. She was one of the strong contestants and became a finalist.
Rao is currently playing vairious roles in the popular comedy show The Kapil Sharma Show on Sony TV which started on April 2016.
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when do episodes of my hero academia air | List of My hero Academia episodes - wikipedia
My Hero Academia is a Japanese superhero manga series written and illustrated by Kōhei Horikoshi. It has been serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump since July 2014, and 12 volumes have been collected in tankōbon format. The series has been licensed for English - language release by Viz Media, and began serialization in their weekly digital manga anthology Weekly Shonen Jump on February 9, 2015. The story follows Izuku Midoriya, a boy born without superpowers in a world where they are the norm, but who still dreams of becoming a superhero himself, and is scouted by the world 's greatest hero who shares his powers with Izuku after recognizing his value and enrolls him in a high school for heroes in training. The manga was adapted into an anime television series; the first season aired from April 3 to June 26, 2016, and a second season premiered on April 1, 2017.
The first season of the anime premiered on April 3, 2016 on MBS and other Japan News Network stations in ' Nichigo ' timeslot at 5pm on Sundays in Japan. The opening theme is "The Day '', performed by Porno Graffitti and the ending theme is "Heroes '', performed by Brian the Sun. The second season premiered on April 1, 2017 on NTV and YTV, with the staff and cast from the first season returning to reprise their roles. The second season 's first opening theme is "Peace Sign '', performed by Kenshi Yonezu and the first ending theme is "Dakara, Hitori ja nai '' (だから 、 ひとり じゃ ない, lit. Therefore, I am not Alone), performed by Little Glee Monster. The second opening theme is "Sora ni Utaeba '' (空 に 歌 えば, lit. If I Sing in the Sky) performed by amazarashi and the ending theme is "Datte Atashi no Hero '' (だって アタシ の ヒーロー, lit. Still My Hero) by LiSA.
A recap of the first season.
Still recovering from the previous incident, the school is about to hold the Sports Festival, which will serve as an opportunity for the students to show off their Quirks for professional heroes looking for assistants. In the occasion, All Might confesses to Izuku that his powers are diminishing, and that the festival is an opportunity for Izuku to show his true value to the world.
Todoroki expresses to Midoriya that he will defeat him and show his true power. As the Sports Festival begins, the students from the four branches of the school - Hero, General Studies, Business and Support Courses - participate in an obstacle - course race.
The 16 remaining students advance to the final stage, with battles one on one to decide the winner. Before the fights begin, Todoroki has a private talk with Izuku, revealing the reasons for his hatred toward his father, the world 's second - best hero Endeavor.
In the first round, Izuku is struck by Hitoshi Shinso 's brainwashing ability, but breaks free in the last moment and obtains victory, while Todoroki displays his overwhelming power and easily wins his match against Hanta Sero, becoming Izuku 's opponent in the following round.
The U.A. Sports Festival continues with the completion of the other six bracket matches. Shiozaki swiftly overcomes Kaminari. Mei manipulates Iida in order to show off her tech to support companies, giving him the win by stepping out. Mina beats Aoyama by exploiting his weakness. Yaoyorozu is overwhelmed by the speed of Tokoyami 's Dark Shadow and is pushed out of the ring. Tetsutetsu and Kirishima have a homestyle brawl ending in a tie. Throughout all of this, Ochako is trying to prepare herself for the daunting task of battling Bakugo.
Izuku and Todoroki begin their match. Izuku, while still trying to win, is attempting to get Todoroki to use his left side so they can both battle at their full power. As Todoroki fights on, more of his past is revealed through his thoughts. He remembers his mother saying it was okay to use his left side because he wanted to be a hero. So Izuku fights Todoroki who is using both sides. Cementoss and Midnight attempt to stop the match before the two deal their final attacks but to no avail. Izuku is thrown out of bounds and Todoroki moves on.
Now that izuku knows how to control some of his powers he starts to train more and more with gran tarnio to perfect that power. Meanwhile truth about Nomu is revealed to All Might and hero - killer stain refuses to join the league of hero and attacks Haso city. Shigaraki also jumps in the attack. Gran tarino decids to take izuku to shibuya city. During their ride they are attack by another Nomu meanwhile Iida finds hero - killer and begins his fight.
Haso city is under attack by league of villain with their Nomu army and hero killer is about to kill his victams including Iida. izuku starts to look for Iida and save 's Iida from getting killed. izuku fights hero - killer and after some time Todoroki also joins the fight. They both start to fight hero - killer with all their might and the fight starts to begin more and more intense as hero - killer starts to take the fight seriously.
As hero - killer quirk is known both izuku and todoroki starts to take the fight more carefully and Iida also joins the fight. Endeavor and gran tarino defeats a nomu meanwhile Iida and izuku receives some serious injuries and are finally able to defeat hero - killer. Endeavor defeats the remaining nomu and controls the situation.
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buffy the vampire slayer season 1 episode 12 full episode | Prophecy Girl - wikipedia
"Prophecy Girl '' is the season finale of the WB Television Network 's first season of the drama television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, and the 12th episode of the series. It first aired on June 2, 1997. Series creator Joss Whedon wrote and directed the episode.
The narrative features vampire Slayer Buffy Summers (Sarah Michelle Gellar) working to prevent vampire the Master (Mark Metcalf) from rising to power, despite a prophecy predicting her death at his hands.
Due to the first season of the show acting as a midseason replacement for Savannah, all twelve episodes were produced before the first episode aired (and as such, the conclusion of the episode serves to wrap the series up in case it were not renewed). All following seasons ran from September to May and received twenty - two episode pick - ups.
Reading a book of prophecies that Angel gave him, Giles learns that the Master is destined to rise the next day and that Buffy will die. An earthquake is felt all over town.
The next morning, Buffy meets Giles in the library, the balcony of which has sustained significant damage from the earthquake. Buffy reports that the vampires are rising in number and getting braver.
Miss Calendar interrupts Giles ' study in the library to warn him that she sees apocalyptic portents. She tells him that Brother Luca, a monk in Cortona, is e-mailing her about the Anointed One. Giles asks her to get more information about this, promising he will explain everything later.
That evening, Buffy uses the restroom at school and finds that the faucet is running with blood. As Buffy enters the library she hears Giles telling Angel about the prophecy. Buffy, shocked, yells that she is quitting as the slayer, throwing the cross Angel gave her on the ground. She goes back home and tries to persuade her mother to go away with her for the weekend. Joyce, instead, gives her a white evening gown and tells her to go to the dance.
The next day Cordelia and Willow find the AV club slaughtered by vampires. Buffy, having heard, shows up in her evening gown at Willow 's who expresses fear of their world being taken over by the vampires. Buffy goes back to the library, where Giles has explained to Miss Calendar that Buffy is the Slayer. Buffy reinstates herself as the Slayer, knocks Giles out when he tries to stop her and goes to kill the Master. Outside of school, Collin leads her to the Master 's lair.
Willow and Xander show up at the library, where they hear that Buffy has gone off to see the Master. Xander goes to Angel 's apartment where he forces Angel to lead him to the Master 's lair. The Master tells Buffy that it is her blood which will free him. He drinks from her and leaves her to drown in a shallow pool. Willow and Miss Calendar decide that the Hellmouth is underneath the Bronze and leave to warn the students there, but are surrounded by vampires. Cordelia rescues them in her car and drives it straight into the library. Xander finds Buffy and resuscitates her with CPR.
As Cordelia, Willow, Giles and Miss Calendar fight off vampires trying to enter the library, a three - headed creature smashes through the floor, revealing that the Hellmouth is directly underneath the library itself. Buffy, now on the roof, tosses the Master down into the library, where he is impaled on broken furniture. He partly dusts, leaving only his skeleton. The world goes back to normal and everyone goes to the Bronze.
Alyson Hannigan claimed that two versions were filmed of the scene where she and Cordelia discover the room full of bodies: a tamer version for American audiences and a bloodier one to be shown in Europe. This episode is the first meeting between Buffy and the season 's main antagonist. Joss Whedon has stated that this event was deliberately saved for the season finale so that the show would not fall into a repetitive pattern of Buffy defeating The Master in every episode.
"Prophecy Girl '' was first broadcast on The WB on June 2, 1997. It received a Nielsen rating of 2.8 on its initial airing.
Noel Murray of The A.V. Club gave "Prophecy Girl '' a grade of A -, describing it as "a sterling example of how to write and direct this show ''. He particularly praised the quieter moments between the characters, and listed "the story feeling a little compressed '' as his main qualm. Todd VanDerWerff of the site listed "Prophecy Girl '' as one of the "10 episodes that show how Buffy The Vampire Slayer blew up genre TV '', writing that it gave "a sense of the series at its early best ''. DVD Talk 's Phillip Duncan described the episode as "a neat and tidy close without much fanfare '' and felt that there was "too much crammed into this episode as several plot - points are struggled to be resolved ''. On the other hand, a review from the BBC called it "a very satisfying conclusion '', highlighting the tone and the performances. Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post listed the scene where Buffy says she quits being the Slayer as one of the top five moments of Gellar as Buffy. Joss Whedon named "Prophecy Girl '' as his tenth favorite episode.
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who wrote music for singing in the rain | Singin ' in the Rain (song) - wikipedia
"Singin ' In the Rain '' is a song with lyrics by Arthur Freed and music by Nacio Herb Brown, published in 1931.
The song "Singin ' In the Rain '' is a centerpiece of the musical film of the same name, Singin ' in the Rain (1952). It is unclear exactly when the song was written; it has been claimed that the song was performed as early as 1927. The song was listed as No. 3 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs.
The song has an unusual form: the 32 - bar chorus, rather than being preceded by a verse and containing an internal bridge as was becoming standard at the time, opens the song and then is followed by a 24 - bar verse that has the feeling of a bridge before the chorus repeats.
"Singin ' in the Rain '' was first performed by Doris Eaton Travis in the 1931 revue The Hollywood Music Box Revue. The song became a hit and was recorded by a number of artists, notably Cliff Edwards, who also performed the number with the Brox Sisters in the early MGM musical The Hollywood Revue of 1929. B.A. Rolfe and his Lucky Strike Orchestra recorded the song possibly as early as 1928 but perhaps 1929. The song was performed by Annette Hanshaw in her album Volume 6, on film by Jimmy Durante in Speak Easily (1932), by Judy Garland in Little Nellie Kelly (1940), and as background music at the beginning of MGM 's The Divorcee (1930) starring Norma Shearer.
"Singin ' in the Rain '' was remixed in 2005 by Mint Royale. It was released as a single in August 2005 after being featured in an advert for the Volkswagen Golf, peaking at No. 20 on the UK Singles Chart.
Three years later in 2008, due to the exposure of the song via the performance of then - unknown dancer George Sampson on the reality TV series Britain 's Got Talent, the track went to No. 1 on the iTunes Top 100 in the UK in 2008. It re-entered the UK Singles Chart at No. 28 on 1 June 2008 and climbed to No. 1 the next week, selling 45,987 copies, knocking Rihanna 's "Take a Bow '' down to the Number 2 spot.
A 1978 disco version of Singin ' in the Rain by the French pop singer Sheila B. Devotion made No. 3 in the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles and the Netherlands Top 100, No. 4 on the Nationale Hitparade, No. 11 on the German and UK Singles Chart, No. 2 on the Swedish Singles Chart, No. 3 on the Italian Singles Chart and No. 30 on the Hot Dance Club Songs.
In 2010, Dutch pop singer Taco released a version of it as his second single from After Eight, which peaked at No. 49 in Germany, No. 46 in Canada and No. 98 in the UK.
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what was dogs name in smokey and the bandit | Smokey and the Bandit - wikipedia
Smokey and the Bandit is a 1977 American action comedy film starring Burt Reynolds, Sally Field, Jackie Gleason, Jerry Reed, Pat McCormick, Paul Williams and Mike Henry. The film was the directorial debut of stuntman Hal Needham. It inspired several other trucking films, including two sequels, Smokey and the Bandit II and Smokey and the Bandit Part 3.
There was also a series of 1994 television films (Bandit Goes Country, Bandit Bandit, Beauty and the Bandit, and Bandit 's Silver Angel) from original director / writer Hal Needham that were loosely based on the earlier version, with actor Brian Bloom playing Bandit. The three original films introduced two generations of the Pontiac Trans Am, and the Dodge Stealth in the television movie. Smokey and the Bandit was the second - highest - grossing film of 1977 behind Star Wars.
Wealthy Texan Big Enos Burdette and his son Little Enos seek a truck driver willing to bootleg Coors beer to Georgia for their refreshment. At the time, Coors was regarded as one of the finest beers in the United States, but it could not be legally sold east of the Mississippi River. Truck drivers who had taken the bet previously had been caught and arrested by "Smokey '' (CB slang for highway patrol officers, referring to the Smokey Bear -- type hats worn in some states).
The Burdettes find legendary trucker Bo "Bandit '' Darville competing in a truck rodeo at Lakewood Fairgrounds in Atlanta; they offer him $80,000 to haul 400 cases of Coors beer from Texarkana, Texas back to Atlanta in 28 hours; Big Enos has sponsored a driver running in the Southern Classic stockcar race and "when he wins I want to celebrate in style. '' Bandit accepts the bet and recruits his partner Cledus "Snowman '' Snow to drive the truck, while Bandit drives the "blocker '', a black Pontiac Trans Am bought on an advance from the Burdettes, to divert attention away from the truck and its illegal cargo.
The trip to Texas is mostly uneventful except for at least one pursuing Arkansas State Trooper whom Bandit evades with ease. They reach Texarkana an hour ahead of schedule, load their truck with the beer and head back toward Atlanta. Immediately upon starting the second leg of the run, Bandit picks up runaway bride Carrie, whom he eventually nicknames "Frog '' because she is "kinda cute like a frog, '' she is "always hoppin ' around, '' and because he "wants to jump '' her. But in so doing, Bandit makes himself a target of Texas Sheriff Buford T. Justice, a career lawman whose handsome but slow - witted son Junior was to have been Carrie 's bridegroom. Ignoring his own jurisdiction, Sheriff Justice, with Junior in tow, chases Bandit all the way to Georgia, even as various mishaps cause his cruiser to disintegrate around them.
The remainder of the film is one lengthy high - speed chase, as Bandit 's antics attract more and more attention from local and state police across Dixie while Snowman barrels on toward Atlanta with the contraband beer. Bandit and Snowman are helped along the way via CB radio by many colorful characters, including an undertaker with his hearse driver and their funeral procession, an elderly lady, a drive - in waitress and all her customers, a convoy of trucks, and even a madam who runs a brothel out of her RV. Neither Sheriff Justice nor any other police officers have any knowledge of Snowman 's illegal manifest.
The chase intensifies as Bandit and Snowman get closer to Atlanta; moments after crossing back into Georgia, Bandit comes to the rescue when Snowman is pulled over by a Georgia State Patrol motorcycle patrolman, and state and local police step up their pursuit with more cruisers, larger roadblocks, and even a police helicopter to track Bandit 's movements. Discouraged by the unexpected mounting attention, and with just four miles left to go, Bandit is about to give up, but Snowman refuses to listen and takes the lead, smashing through the police roadblock at the entrance to the fairgrounds. They arrive back at Lakewood Speedway (while the Southern Classic race is being run) with only 10 minutes to spare, but instead of taking the payoff, Frog and Bandit accept a double - or - nothing offer from Little Enos -- a challenge to run up to Boston and bring back clam chowder in 18 hours. They quickly escape in one of Big Enos ' Cadillac convertibles as Georgia State Patrol cruisers flood the racetrack to confiscate the Trans Am and truck, passing Sheriff Justice 's badly damaged police car by the side of the road. Bandit first directs Sheriff Justice to Big and Little Enos, but then in a gesture of respect, reveals his true location and invites Justice to give chase, leaving Junior behind.
Director Hal Needham originally planned the film as a low - budget B movie with a production cost of $1 million, with Jerry Reed as the Bandit. It was not until Needham 's friend Burt Reynolds read the script, and said he would star, that the film was aimed at a more mainstream release; Reed would now portray Bandit 's friend Snowman (Reed would eventually play the Bandit in Smokey and the Bandit Part 3). At that time Reynolds was the top box office star in the world. In the original script Carrie was called Kate while Big Enos and Little Enos were called Kyle and Dickey. Bandit 's car was a second generation Ford Mustang and the prize for completing the run was a new truck rather than $80,000.
Burt Reynolds revealed in his autobiography that Needham had written the first draft script on legal pads. Upon showing it to his friend, Reynolds told Needham that it was the worst script he had ever read but that he would still make the movie. Most of the dialogue was improvised on set.
Universal Studios bankrolled Smokey and the Bandit for $5.3 million, figuring it was a good risk. Just two days before production was to begin, Universal sent a "hatchet man '' to Atlanta to inform Needham that the budget was being trimmed by $1 million. With Reynolds ' salary at $1 million, Needham was left with only $3.3 million to make the film. Needham and assistant director David Hamburger spent 30 hours revising the shooting schedule.
"Buford T. Justice '' was the name of a real Florida Highway Patrolman known to Reynolds ' father, who was once Police Chief of Riviera Beach, Florida. His father was also the inspiration for the word "sumbitch '' used in the film, a variation of the phrase "son - of - a-bitch '' that, according to Reynolds, he uttered quite often.
Jackie Gleason was given free rein to ad - lib dialogue and make suggestions. It was his idea to have Junior alongside him throughout. In particular, the scene where Sheriff Justice unknowingly encounters the Bandit in the "choke and puke '' (a roadside diner) was not in the original story, but rather was Gleason 's idea.
Before Gleason was cast in the film, Richard Boone was originally considered for the role of Buford T. Justice.
Sally Field only accepted the part after her agent advised her that she needed a big movie role on her resume. Reynolds actively pushed for her casting after Universal initially resisted, claiming Field was not attractive enough. Field enjoyed making the film, but remembers that virtually the entire project was improvised.
Reportedly, Needham had great difficulty getting any studios or producers to take his project seriously, as in the film industry, he was better known as a stuntman. He managed to obtain studio attention after his friend Reynolds agreed to portray the Bandit in the film.
The movie was primarily filmed in Georgia in the cities of McDonough, Jonesboro and Lithonia. The scenes set in Texarkana were filmed in Jonesboro and the surrounding area, and many of the chase scenes were filmed in the surrounding areas on Highway 54 between Fayetteville and Jonesboro for a majority of the driving scenes, Mundy 's Mill Road, Main Street in Jonesboro, Georgia State Route 400, I - 85 (Pleasant Hill exit), and in McDonough. However, the scene where they drive through the Shell gas station was filmed in Ojai, California on the corner of Ojai and El Paseo. Much of the surrounding scene comes from that immediate vicinity. The scene featuring the racetrack was filmed at Lakewood Speedway at the old Lakewood Fairgrounds on the south side of Atlanta. The roller coaster seen in the movie was the Greyhound. It had not been used for some time and was repainted for the film. It was destroyed in Smokey and the Bandit II and a flashback scene in Part 3.
The film 's theme song, "East Bound and Down '', was written virtually overnight by Jerry Reed. He gave Needham a preview of the song, and when initially he got no reaction from the director, offered to rewrite the song. Needham, however, liked the song so much he assured Jerry not to change a word. It became one of Reed 's biggest hits and his signature song.
The area around Helen, Georgia was also used for some locations. The scene where Buford T. Justice 's car has the door knocked off by a passing semi truck was shot on Georgia State Route 75, 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Helen. The tow truck driver was a local garage owner, Berlin Wike.
The film features the custom clothing and costuming of Niver Western Wear of Fort Worth, Texas. Niver provided much of the western attire worn in the film, as well as the custom - made sheriff 's uniforms (waist size 64 inches) that Jackie Gleason wore throughout the film.
Reynolds and Sally Field began dating during the filming of Smokey and the Bandit.
While made to take advantage of the ongoing 1970s CB radio fad, the film added to the craze.
Though the film Moonrunners (1975) is the precursor to the television series The Dukes of Hazzard (1979 - 1985), from the same creator and with many identical settings and concepts, the popularity of Smokey and the Bandit and similar films helped get the Dukes series on the air. Three actors from the main cast of The Dukes of Hazzard appear in small uncredited roles in Smokey and the Bandit: Ben Jones, John Schneider and Sonny Shroyer (who played a police officer in both). In return, Reynolds portrayed the Dukes character Boss Hogg (originally portrayed by Sorrell Booke) in the film adaptation The Dukes of Hazzard (2005). Reynolds is also referenced by name in several early episodes of the series.
Needham saw an advertisement for the soon - to - be-released 1977 Pontiac Trans Am and knew right away that would be the Bandit 's car, or, as Needham referred to it, a character in the movie. He contacted Pontiac and an agreement was made that four 1977 Trans Ams and two Pontiac LeMans 4 - door sedans would be provided for the movie. The Trans Ams were actually 1976 - model cars with 1977 front ends. (From 1970 to 1976, both the Firebird / Trans Am and Chevrolet Camaro had two round headlights, and in 1977, the Firebird / Trans Am was changed to four rectangular headlights, while the Camaro remained unchanged.) The decals were also changed to 1977 - style units, as evidenced by the engine size callouts on the hood scoop being in liters rather than cubic inches, as had been the case in 1976. The hood scoop on these cars says "6.6 LITRE '', which in 1977 would have denoted an Oldsmobile 403 - equipped car or a non W - 72, 180 hp version of the 400 Pontiac engine. All four of the cars were badly damaged during production, one of which was all but destroyed during the jump over the dismantled bridge. The Trans Am used for the dismantled bridge jump was equipped with a booster rocket, the same type that was used by Evel Knievel during his failed Snake River Canyon jump. Needham served as the driver for the stunt (standing in for Reynolds) while Lada St. Edmund was in the same car (standing in for Sally Field during the jump). By the movie 's ending, the final surviving Trans Am and LeMans were both barely running and the other cars had become parts donors to keep them running. The Burdettes ' car is a 1974 Cadillac Eldorado convertible painted in a "Candy Red '' color scheme, and is seen briefly at the beginning of the movie and as Bandit, Snowman, Fred, and Frog make their escape in the final scene.
The film also made use of three Kenworth W900A short - frame semi trucks, which Jerry Reed can be seen driving, each equipped with 38 - inch sleepers. Two units were 1974 models as evidenced by standard silver Kenworth emblems on the truck grille, and one unit was a 1973 model as evidenced by the gold - painted Kenworth emblem on the truck 's grille signifying Kenworth 's 50 years in business. The paint code for each truck was coffee brown with gold trims, and the 48 - foot (15 m) mural trailer used was manufactured by Hobbs Trailers in Texas with a non-operational Thermo King Refrigeration unit. This is obvious, because there is no fuel tank on the underside of the trailer to power the refrigeration unit, and the unit is never heard running.
In 1977, Coors was unavailable for sale east of Oklahoma. A 1974 Time magazine article explains why Coors was so coveted that one would be willing to pay the Bandit such a high price to transport it. Coors Banquet Beer had a brief renaissance as certain people sought it out for its lack of stabilizers and preservatives. The article says that future Vice President Gerald Ford hid it in his luggage after a trip to Colorado in order to take it back to Washington. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had a steady supply airlifted to Washington by the Air Force. The article also mentions Frederick Amon, who smuggled it from Colorado to North Carolina and sold it for four times the retail price. The lack of additives and preservatives meant that Coors had the potential for spoiling in a week if it were not kept cold throughout its transportation and in storage at its destination. This explains the 28 - hour deadline.
The theme music, "East Bound and Down '', was sung and co-written by Reed (credited under his birth name, Jerry Hubbard) and Dick Feller. It became Reed 's signature song and is found on multiple albums, including Country Legends and his live album Jerry Reed: Live Still. In 1991 it was arranged for orchestra by Crafton Beck and recorded by Erich Kunzel and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra for their album Down on the Farm. Several other groups, such as US rock band Tonic, have also covered it. Reed also penned and performed the song for the opening credits, entitled "The Legend '', which tells of some of The Bandit 's escapades prior to the events of the film, and the ballad "The Bandit '', which features in several versions in the movie and on the soundtrack. Reed 's hit notwithstanding, Bill Justis is the first name on the credits for the soundtrack as he composed and arranged original music throughout the film. Musicians such as Beegie Adair and George Tidwell played on the soundtrack as part of long careers in music. Legendary five - string banjo player Bobby Thompson is also heard prominently towards the end of "East Bound and Down. '' The soundtrack album was released in 1977 on vinyl, cassette and 8 - track through MCA Records.
Smokey and the Bandit was a sleeper hit. The film premiered at Radio City Music Hall in New York City where it performed badly. It then opened in just the South of the United States over the Memorial Day weekend and grossed $2,689,851 in 386 theatres. By the end of June it had played in major Southern markets including Charlotte, Atlanta, Jacksonville, New Orleans, Memphis, Dallas and Oklahoma City grossing $11.9 million. It opened in other Northern states at the end of July.
With an original budget of $5.3 million (cut to $4.3 million two days before initial production), the film eventually grossed $126,737,428 in North America, making it the second - highest - grossing movie of 1977. The worldwide gross is estimated at over $300 million.
Film critic Leonard Maltin gave the film a good rating (3 stars out of a possible 4) and characterized it as "About as subtle as The Three Stooges, but a classic compared to the sequels and countless rip - offs which followed. ''
Gene Siskel, in his review in the Chicago Tribune, gave the film two stars and complained that the film failed to tell the audience when the clock started on the beer run, thus removing suspense throughout the film concerning how long remained to them. He also claimed that Bandit is never made aware of Frog 's leaving Junior at the altar, which is why the Bandit continually asks why a Texas sheriff is chasing him. However, this is inaccurate: within seconds of Bandit picking her up, Frog tells him "there is a wedding in search of a bride '', and goes on to explain her ill - advised romance with Junior, as Bandit holds up the CB mic for Snowman to hear.
The film 's editors, Walter Hannemann and Angelo Ross, were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Film Editing. It currently holds a 79 % "Fresh '' rating on review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 28 reviews.
Burt Reynolds rated the film as the one he most enjoyed and had the most fun making in his career.
Legendary film maker Alfred Hitchcock stated that the movie was one of his favorites.
Upon meeting Burt Reynolds, Billy Bob Thornton told him that the picture was not considered a "film '' in the south, so much as a documentary.
Smokey and the Bandit was released in the United Kingdom on August 28, 1977 and was a sizeable success there, garnering positive reviews.
American Film Institute Lists
After the debut of the film the Trans Am became wildly popular with sales almost doubling in two years of the film 's release, to the delight of General Motors; in fact, it outsold its Camaro counterpart for the first time ever. Reynolds was given the 1977 vehicle used during promotion of the film as a gift, though the car itself never actually appeared in the film. Because of the popularity of the movie and the sales success of the Trans Am, then President of Pontiac Alex Mair promised to supply Reynolds with a Trans Am each year. Owing to his financial difficulties, in 2014 Reynolds put his vast collection of artwork and memorabilia up for auction, including the Trans Am. High estimates for the car were up to $80,000, but that was dwarfed by the actual sale price of $450,000. Also up for auction was a go - kart replica of the car, which sold for nearly $14,000. In 2016, Trans Am Depot, a Florida - based automobile customization company, announced that it would build 77 Trans Ams that would be modeled after the car that Reynolds drove in the 1977 original, despite Pontiac having been discontinued by GM in 2009. These new models were built off the Camaro platform (the very same one that the real Firebird and Trans Am used), came with Pontiac arrowhead, flaming bird and Bandit logos, as well as instrument panels, center consoles and hood scoops emulating their 1977 counterparts, and were signed by Reynolds. Some differences included the use of a supercharged 454 - cid (7.4 - liter) Chevrolet - sourced engine that put out 840 HP, and four round headlights, which appeared on the 1967 - 69 Firebirds / Trans Ams only; the actual 1977 - 81 models had rectangular headlights.
The diablo sandwich ordered by Sheriff Justice in the Arkansas barbecue restaurant scene has entered popular culture as a minor reference to the film. While no authoritative source identifies the composition of the sandwich, there are several possibilities. A segment of the CMT program Reel Eats used a sloppy joe - style recipe consisting of seasoned ground beef, corn and sour cream. Another proposal, based more closely on images from the film and the shooting location of the scene (at an Old Hickory House restaurant in Georgia), is pulled pork and hot sauce on a hamburger bun.
First run in 2007 to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the movie, The Bandit Run was the brainchild of Dave Hall, owner of Restore A Muscle Car. A group of Trans Am owners and fans of the movie take part in an annual road trip from Texarkana to Jonesboro, Georgia, recreating the route taken by the characters in the film.
The Bandit Run quickly caught on and has become a fixture, most recently celebrating the 40th anniversary of the movie with a special screening of the film attended by Burt Reynolds and a recreation of the jump undertaken by Bandit and Frog across a river.
In 2014, petroleum company Mobil 1 produced television commercials, featuring NASCAR star Tony Stewart, closely based on the film. Called Smoke is the Bandit playing on Stewart 's nickname, the commercials featured him as the Bandit opposite Darrell Waltrip who played Snowman and Jeff Hammond as Buford T. Justice. The story replaced the Coors beer with Mobil 1 products. The adverts poked fun at the film and even featured a Pontiac Trans Am and a cover version of the song East Bound and Down. The commercials were produced after Stewart mentioned that the movie was one of his favorites.
When Smokey and the Bandit first aired on American network television in the early 1980s, censors were faced with the challenge of toning down the raw language of the original film. For this purpose, they overdubbed dialogue deemed offensive, which was (and remains, to an extent) common practice. The most noted change made for network broadcast was the replacing of Buford 's often - spoken phrase "sumbitch '' (a contraction of "son of a bitch ''; usually in reference to the Bandit) with the phrase "scum bum ''. This phrase achieved a level of popularity with children, and the 2007 Hot Wheels release of the 1970s Firebird Trans Am has "scum bum '' emblazoned on its tail. The TV prints of the first two Bandit films are still shown regularly on television, although a few TV stations aired the unedited version in recent years as some of the phraseology (i.e. "(son of a) bitch '', "ass '', etc.) became more acceptable on TV.
The original actors mostly redubbed their own lines for the television version, except for Gleason. Actor Henry Corden, who voiced Fred Flintstone after original performer Alan Reed died, was used to replace a considerable amount of Sheriff Justice 's dialogue. This is fitting, as Fred Flintstone was a parody of / homage to Gleason 's character Ralph Kramden and The Flintstones was a parody of / homage to The Honeymooners.
In the UK, the heavily dubbed version was shown for a number of years, particularly by the BBC. However, in more recent years, the original version has been shown (on ITV, a commercial channel), usually with the stronger language edited out, often quite awkwardly and noticeably.
The theatrical release itself had a few lines deleted, including a creative edit in which Sheriff Justice tells a state trooper to "fuck off. '' His expletive is obscured when a passing big rig sounds its horn. At the time, using the ' F ' word would immediately require an R rating and this clever self - censorship allowed the film to avoid this rating and reach a much larger audience. However, the scene and the obscured expletive was played for comedy value and written as such, with the passing truck being the gag of the scene more than a way to avoid the censors.
In 2006, a DVD re-release was issued of Smokey and the Bandit featuring a digitally - remastered audio track with 5.1 Dolby - compatible surround sound. It should be noted however that many of the film 's original sounds were replaced. For instance, the diesel engine start and run up sequence in the opening sequence of the film was completely dubbed over with a totally new sound. A few other examples of "sound effect replacement '' occur when Bandit takes off after managing to get a reluctant Cledus involved in the bet, and after he comes to a screeching halt on a roadway moments before picking up Carrie. Some of the original sound effects (such as Cledus ' dog Fred 's barking) and music (such as the final chase to the Southern Classic) were removed and not replaced. (Note: earlier DVD releases and the 40th Anniversary Blu - ray of the film have the original soundtrack intact.)
Major portions of the audio ' background ' have been modified with different engine sounds or tire squeals from the original film. The updated version of the film features sounds inaccurate for what would be produced by the Trans Am or the numerous other Pontiac vehicles in the film. The original film had correct sounds that were usually recorded live as the action took place.
Some TV versions also feature a longer version of the scene where Cledus wades into the pond after Fred.
A series of television movies aired in 1994. The car featured was a Dodge Stealth.
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how did the secret service get its name | United States Secret Service - wikipedia
The United States Secret Service (USSS) is a federal law enforcement agency under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Until 2003, the Service was part of the U.S. Department of the Treasury because the organization 's first mission was to fight counterfeiting of U.S. currency.
The U.S. Secret Service has two distinct areas of responsibility:
The Secret Service 's initial responsibility was to investigate counterfeiting of U.S. currency, which was rampant following the U.S. Civil War. The agency then evolved into the United States ' first domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency. Many of the agency 's missions were later taken over by subsequent agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), IRS Criminal Investigation Division (IRS), and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).
The Secret Service has two primary missions: investigation of financial crimes and physical protection of designated protectees.
Today the agency 's primary investigative mission is to safeguard the payment and financial systems of the United States from such crimes as financial institution fraud, computer and telecommunications fraud, false identification documents, access device fraud, advance fee fraud, electronic funds transfers and money laundering as it relates to the agency 's core violations.
After the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley, Congress also directed the Secret Service to protect the President of the United States. Protection remains the other key mission of the United States Secret Service.
Today, the Secret Service is authorized by law to protect:
Any of these individuals may decline Secret Service protection except the President, the Vice President (or other officer next in the order of succession to the Office of President), the President - elect, and the Vice President - elect.
When Hillary Clinton became Secretary of State in 2009, the Secret Service continued to protect her at home; however the Diplomatic Security Service protected her while she was performing her duties as the Secretary of State, including foreign travel.
The Secret Service investigates thousands of incidents each year of individuals threatening the President of the United States.
In the face of budget pressure, hiring challenges and some high - profile lapses in its protective service role in 2014, the Brookings Institution and some members of Congress are asking whether the agency 's focus should shift more to the protective mission, leaving more of its original mission to other agencies.
With a reported one third of the currency in circulation being counterfeit at the time, the Secret Service was created on July 5, 1865 in Washington, D.C., to suppress counterfeit currency. Chief William P. Wood was sworn in by Secretary of the Treasury Hugh McCulloch. It was commissioned in Washington, D.C. as the "Secret Service Division '' of the Department of the Treasury with the mission of suppressing counterfeiting. The legislation creating the agency was on Abraham Lincoln 's desk the night he was assassinated. At the time, the only other federal law enforcement agencies were the United States Park Police, the U.S. Post Office Department 's Office of Instructions and Mail Depredations (now known as the United States Postal Inspection Service), and the U.S. Marshals Service. The Marshals did not have the manpower to investigate all crime under federal jurisdiction, so the Secret Service began to investigate everything from murder to bank robbery to illegal gambling. After the assassination of President William McKinley in 1901, Congress informally requested that the Secret Service provide presidential protection. A year later, the Secret Service assumed full - time responsibility for presidential protection. In 1902, William Craig became the first Secret Service agent to die while serving, in a road accident while riding in the presidential carriage.
The Secret Service was the first U.S. domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency. Domestic intelligence collection and counterintelligence responsibilities were vested in the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) upon the FBI 's creation in 1908.
The Secret Service assisted in arresting Japanese American leaders and in the Japanese American internment during World War II. The U.S. Secret Service is not a part of the U.S. Intelligence Community.
In 1909, President William H. Taft agreed to meet with Mexican President Porfirio Díaz in El Paso, Texas and Ciudad Juárez, Mexico, the first meeting between a U.S. and a Mexican president and also the first time an American president visited Mexico. But the historic summit resulted in serious assassination threats and other security concerns for the then small Secret Service, so the Texas Rangers, 4,000 U.S. and Mexican troops, BOI agents, U.S. marshals, and an additional 250 private security detail led by Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated scout, were all called in by Chief John Wilkie to provide added security. On October 16, the day of the summit, Burnham discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route. Burnham signaled a Texas Ranger, Private C.R. Moore, and the two men captured and disarmed the assassin within only a few feet of Díaz and Taft, preventing the shooting of both Presidents.
In 1950, President Harry S. Truman was residing in Blair House while the White House, across the street, was undergoing renovations. On November 1, 1950, two Puerto Rican nationalists, Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola, approached Blair House with the intent to assassinate President Truman. Collazo and Torresola opened fire on Private Leslie Coffelt and other White House Police officers. Though mortally wounded by three shots from a 9 mm German Luger to his chest and abdomen, Private Coffelt returned fire, killing Torresola with a single shot to his head. As of 2017, Coffelt is the only member of the Secret Service killed while protecting a US president against an assassination attempt (Special Agent Tim McCarthy stepped in front of President Ronald Reagan during the assassination attempt of March 30, 1981, and took a bullet to the abdomen but made a full recovery). Collazo was also shot, but survived his injuries and served 29 years in prison before returning to Puerto Rico in late 1979.
In 1968, as a result of Robert F. Kennedy 's assassination, Congress authorized protection of major presidential and vice presidential candidates and nominees. In 1965 and 1968, Congress also authorized lifetime protection of the spouses of deceased presidents unless they remarry and of the children of former presidents until age 16.
The Secret Service Presidential Protective Division safeguards the President of the United States and his immediate family. They work with other federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies and the military to safeguard the President when he travels in Air Force One, Marine One and by limousine in motorcades.
Although the most visible role of the Secret Service today, personal protection is an anomaly in the responsibilities of an agency focused on fraud and counterfeiting.
In 1984, the US Congress passed the Comprehensive Crime Control Act, which extended the Secret Service 's jurisdiction over credit card fraud and computer fraud.
In 1990, the Secret Service initiated Operation Sundevil, which they originally intended as a sting against malicious hackers, allegedly responsible for disrupting telephone services across the entire United States. The operation, which was later described by Bruce Sterling in his book The Hacker Crackdown, affected a great number of people unrelated to hacking, and led to no convictions. The Secret Service, however, was sued and required to pay damages.
In 1994 and 1995, it ran an undercover sting called Operation Cybersnare. The Secret Service has concurrent jurisdiction with the FBI over certain violations of federal computer crime laws. They have created 24 Electronic Crimes Task Forces (ECTFs) across the United States. These task forces are partnerships between the Service, federal / state and local law enforcement, the private sector and academia aimed at combating technology - based crimes.
In 1998, President Bill Clinton signed Presidential Decision Directive 62, which established National Special Security Events (NSSE). That directive made the Secret Service responsible for security at designated events. In 1999, the United States Secret Service Memorial Building was dedicated in DC, granting the agency its first headquarters. Prior to this, the agency 's different departments were based in office space around the DC area.
The New York City Field office was located at 7 World Trade Center. Immediately after the World Trade Center was attacked as part of the September 11 attacks, Special Agents and other New York Field office employees were among the first to respond with first aid. Sixty - seven Special Agents in New York City, at and near the New York Field Office, helped to set up triage areas and evacuate the towers. One Secret Service employee, Master Special Officer Craig Miller, died during the rescue efforts. On August 20, 2002, Director Brian L. Stafford awarded the Director 's Valor Award to employees who assisted in the rescue attempts.
Effective March 1, 2003, the Secret Service transferred from the Treasury to the newly established Department of Homeland Security.
The USA Patriot Act, signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 26, 2001, mandated the U.S. Secret Service to establish a nationwide network of Electronic Crimes Task Forces (ECTFs) to investigate and prevent attacks on financial and critical infrastructures in the United States. As such, this mandate expanded on the agency 's first ECTF -- the New York Electronic Crimes Task Force, formed in 1995 -- which brought together federal, state and local law enforcement, prosecutors, private - industry companies, and academia.
The network prioritizes investigations that meet the following criteria:
The network includes ECTFs in the following 28 U.S. cities:
On July 6, 2009, the U.S. Secret Service expanded its fight on cyber-crime by creating the first European Electronic Crime Task Force, based on the successful U.S. domestic model, through a memorandum of understanding with Italian police and postal officials. Over a year later, on August 9, 2010, the agency expanded its European involvement by creating its second overseas ECTF in the United Kingdom.
Both task forces are said to concentrate on a wide range of "computer - based criminal activity, '' including:
The overseas network includes ECTFs in the following European cities:
As of 2010, the Service had over 6,500 employees: 3,200 Special Agents, 1,300 Uniformed Division Officers, and 2,000 technical and administrative employees. Special agents serve on protective details, special teams or sometimes investigate certain financial and homeland security - related crimes.
In September 2014, the United States Secret Service came under criticism following two high - profile incidents involving intruders at the White House. One such intruder entered the East Room of the White House through an unlocked door.
Another incident involved a violation of procedure in which an armed security guard for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention rode in the same elevator as President Barack Obama during a visit to that agency 's headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia, to discuss U.S. response to the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa. The guard used his phone to record a video of Obama and refused to comply with a request to stop. The guard had been arrested multiple times in the past, but had never been convicted of a crime.
Since the 1960s, Presidents John F. Kennedy (killed), Gerald Ford (twice attacked, but uninjured) and Ronald Reagan (seriously wounded) have been attacked while appearing in public. Agents on scene though not injured during attacks on Presidents include William Greer and Roy Kellerman. One of the agents was Robert DeProspero, the Special Agent In Charge (SAIC) of Reagan 's Presidential Protective Division (PPD) from January 1982 to April 1985. DeProspero was deputy to Jerry Parr, the SAIC of PPD during the Reagan assassination attempt on March 30, 1981.
The Kennedy assassination spotlighted the bravery of two Secret Service agents. First, an agent protecting Mrs. Kennedy, Clint Hill, was riding in the car directly behind the presidential limousine when the attack began. While the shooting continued, Hill leapt from the running board of the car he was riding on and jumped onto the back of the President 's moving car and guided Mrs. Kennedy from the trunk back into the rear seat of the car. He then shielded the President and the First Lady with his body until the car arrived at the hospital.
Rufus Youngblood was riding in the vice-presidential car. When the shots were fired, he vaulted over the front seat and threw his body over Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson. That evening, Johnson called Secret Service Chief James J. Rowley and cited Youngblood 's bravery. Youngblood would later recall some of this in his memoir, Twenty Years in the Secret Service.
The period following the Kennedy assassination was the most difficult in the modern history of the agency. Press reports indicated that morale among the agents was "low '' for months following the assassination. The agency overhauled its procedures in the wake of the Kennedy killing. Training, which until that time had been confined largely to "on - the - job '' efforts, was systematized and regularized.
The Reagan assassination attempt also highlighted the bravery of several Secret Service agents, particularly agent Tim McCarthy, who spread his stance to protect Reagan as six bullets were being fired by the would - be assassin, John Hinckley, Jr. McCarthy survived a. 22 - caliber round in the abdomen. For his bravery, McCarthy received the NCAA Award of Valor in 1982. Jerry Parr, the agent who pushed President Reagan into the limousine, and made the critical decision to divert the presidential motorcade to George Washington University Hospital instead of returning to the White House, was also honored with U.S. Congress commendations for his actions that day. After the near - successful assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan, it was clear that the Secret Service needed to increase its efficiency to protect the President.
Arrest and indictment of Max Ray Butler, co-founder of the Carders Market carding website. Butler was indicted by a federal grand jury in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, after his September 5, 2007 arrest, on wire fraud and identity theft charges. According to the indictment, Butler hacked over the Internet into computers at financial institutions and credit card processing centers and sold the tens of thousands of credit card numbers that he acquired in the process.
Operation Firewall: In October 2004, 28 suspects -- located across eight U.S. states and six countries -- were arrested on charges of identity theft, computer fraud, credit - card fraud, and conspiracy. Nearly 30 national and foreign field offices of the U.S. Secret Service, including the newly established national ECTFs, and countless local enforcement agencies from around the globe, were involved in this operation. Collectively, the arrested suspects trafficked in at least 1.7 million stolen credit card numbers, which amounted to $4.3 million of losses to financial institutions. However, authorities estimated that prevented loss to the industry was in the hundreds of millions of dollars. The operation, which started in July 2003 and lasted for more than a year, led investigators to identify three cyber-criminal groups: Shadowcrew, Carderplanet, and Darkprofits.
Arrest and indictment of Albert "Segvec '' Gonzalez and 11 individuals; three U.S. citizens, one from Estonia, three from Ukraine, two from the People 's Republic of China, one from Belarus, and one known only by an online alias. They were arrested on August 5, 2008, for the theft and sale of more than 40 million credit and debit card numbers from major U.S. retailers, including TJX Companies, BJ 's Wholesale Club, OfficeMax, Boston Market, Barnes & Noble, Sports Authority, Forever 21, and DSW. Gonzalez, the main organizer of the scheme, was charged with computer fraud, wire fraud, access device fraud, aggravated identity theft, and conspiracy for his leading role in the crime.
The USSS Uniformed Division is a security police similar to the U.S. Capitol Police or DHS Federal Protective Service and is in charge of protecting the physical White House grounds and foreign diplomatic missions in the Washington, D.C. area. Established in 1922 as the White House Police, this organization was fully integrated into the Secret Service in 1930. In 1970, the protection of foreign diplomatic missions was added to the force 's responsibilities, and its name was changed to the Executive Protective Service. The name United States Secret Service Uniformed Division was adopted in 1977.
At a minimum, a prospective agent must be a U.S. citizen, possess a current valid driver 's license, possess visual acuity no worse than 20 / 60 uncorrected, correctable to 20 / 20 in each eye, and be between the ages of 21 and 37 at the time of appointment. However, preference eligible veterans may apply after age 37. In 2009, the Office of Personnel Management issued implementation guidance on the Isabella v. Department of State court decision: OPM Letter.
Special agents receive basic training in two locations. The first phase, the Criminal Investigator Training Program (CITP) is conducted at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC) at Glynco, GA. The second phase, the Special Agent Training Course (SATC) is conducted at the James J. Rowley Training Center, located in Beltsville, MD.
A Secret Service agent 's career consists of three phases. In phase one, Secret Service special agents spend six to eight years on - the - job, assigned to a field office. After their field experience, agents usually transfer to a protective detail for four to seven years, during what is known as phase two or the protection phase. Following their protective assignment, many agents return to the field, transfer to a headquarters office, a training office, or other Washington, D.C. - based assignment for phase three of their career. Promotions affect the typical career path. An agent 's working hours depend upon the assignment. Generally, an agent can expect to travel a lot and do a significant amount of shift work, especially during phase two. Throughout their career, agents continue their training.
Special officers (not to be confused with Uniformed Division Officers) are federal agents who work within the Special Agent Division of the USSS and perform a wide range of security functions and support assignments as part of the protective mission for the Secret Service. Whereas special agents alternate between protection and investigative assignments, special officers are hired only to work protection details. They must have a familiarity with all phases of protective responsibilities sufficient to assist in protective movements, cover designated security posts and drive protective vehicles.
Assignments may include
Special officers are sworn law enforcement officers, and are authorized to make arrests in connection with their official duties. They are classified as federal agents but use "special officer '' as their official title much the same way as Deputy US Marshals are special agents but use the title "Deputy US Marshal ''.
Newly appointed special officers must successfully complete eight (8) weeks of intensive training at the Special Officer Basic Training Course at the Secret Service James J. Rowley Training Center just outside Washington, D.C. The training includes courses such as Criminal Law, Laws of Arrest, Search and Seizure, Control Tactics, Civil Liability, Emergency Medicine, Basic Water Safety, Firearms and Weapons Handling, Radio Communications, Emergency Driving and Physical Fitness Training.
Since the agency 's inception, a variety of weapons have been carried by its agents.
Initially the firearms were privately procured and there was little if any standardization. In the 1930s, the USSS issued the Colt M1911A1 pistol in. 45 ACP caliber. In the 1950s and 1960s, Special Agents carried the Smith & Wesson Model 36 and Colt Detective Special. 38 - Special revolvers.
Following President Kennedy 's assassination, USSS Special Agents were authorized to carry the. 357 Magnum Smith & Wesson Model 19 revolver.
Between 1981 and 1991, the Secret Service issued the Smith & Wesson Model 19 and the Smith & Wesson Model 66. 357 Magnum revolvers, with 2.5 - inch barrels all the way up to the 4 - inch - barreled models, loaded with hollow - point rounds.
By 1992, the standard issue weapon became the SIG Sauer P228 9mm pistol. This weapon stayed in service through 1999.
The Secret Service replaced the Thompson submachine gun with the Uzi submachine gun in the 1970s. Uzis that the Secret Service used have slightly shorter - than - standard barrels so they could to fit inside the standard size Samsonite briefcases that concealed them. They phased out the Uzi in the mid 1990s and replaced it with the H&K MP5. The Secret Service was the last Federal agency to use the Uzi.
The Counter-Assault Team used the M4 carbine from the early 1990s until 2006, when they replaced it with the SR - 15 carbine.
The current sidearm for USSS agents is the SIG Sauer P229 chambered in. 357 SIG, which entered service in 1999.
Agents and officers are trained on standard shoulder weapons that include the FN P90 submachine gun, the 9mm Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine gun, and the 12 - gauge Remington 870 shotgun. The agency has initiated a procurement process to ultimately replace the MP5 with a 5.56 mm rifle.
As a non-lethal option, Special Agents, Special Officers, and Uniformed Division Officers are armed with the ASP baton, and Uniformed Division officers carry pepper spray.
Units assigned to the Special Operations Division carry a variety of non-standard weapons.
The Counter Assault Team (CAT) and the Emergency Response Team (ERT) are both issued the 5.56 mm Knight 's Armament Company SR - 16 CQB assault rifle. CAT also uses 12 gauge Remington 870 MCS breaching shotguns.
Uniformed Division technicians assigned to the Counter Sniper (CS) team use custom built. 300 Winchester Magnum - chambered bolt - action rifles referred to as JARs ("Just Another Rifle ''). These rifles use Remington 700 actions in Accuracy International stocks with Schmidt & Bender optics. CS technicians also use the 7.62 mm KAC SR - 25 / Mk11 Mod 0 semi-automatic sniper rifle with a Trijicon 5.5 × ACOG optic.
The Department of Homeland Security has made numerous attempts to bring the Secret Service 's weapons procurement in line with the rest of the department. The agency has resisted these inroads and currently maintains an independent acquisition process.
The agency uses Motorola XTS and APX radios and surveillance kits in order to maintain communications. These radios are known to use DES encryption keys. When operationally required, members of the Special Operations Division use military grade radios that use Type 1 encryption algorithms.
When transporting the President in a motorcade, the Secret Service uses a fleet of custom - built armored Cadillac Parade Limousines, the newest and largest version of which is known as "The Beast ''. Armored Chevrolet Suburbans are also used when logistics require such a vehicle or when a more low profile appearance is required. For official movement the limousine is affixed with U.S. and presidential flags and the presidential seal on the rear doors. For unofficial events the vehicles are left sterile and unadorned.
Special Agents and Special Officers of the Secret Service wear attire that is appropriate for their surroundings, in order to blend in as much as possible. In most circumstances, the attire of a close protection shift is a conservative suit, but it can range from a tuxedo to casual clothing as required by the environment. Stereotypically Secret Service agents are often portrayed wearing reflective sunglasses and a communication earpiece. Often their attire is customized to conceal the wide array of equipment worn in service. Agents wear a distinctive lapel pin that identifies them to other agents.
The attire for Uniformed Division Officers includes standard police uniforms or utility uniforms and ballistic / identification vests for members of the countersniper team, Emergency Response Team (ERT), and canine officers. The shoulder patch of the Uniformed Division consists of the U.S. coat of arms on white or black, depending on the garment. Also, the shoulder patch is embroidered with "U.S. Secret Service Uniformed Division Police '' around the emblem.
The Secret Service has agents assigned to 136 field offices and the headquarters in Washington, D.C. The field offices are located in cities throughout the United States and in Brazil (Brasilia), Bulgaria (Sofia), Canada (Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto, Vancouver), Colombia (Bogota), China (Hong Kong), France (Paris, Lyon), Germany (Frankfurt), Italy (Rome), Mexico (Mexico City), Netherlands (The Hague), Romania (Bucharest), Russia (Moscow), South Africa (Pretoria), Spain (Madrid), Thailand (Bangkok), and the United Kingdom (London). The offices in Lyon and The Hague are respectively responsible for liaison with the headquarters of Interpol and Europol, located in those cities.
In April 2012, an incident involving the president 's security detail received international press attention. The incident involved 11 agents and personnel from four branches of the U.S. military; they allegedly engaged prostitutes while assigned to protect the U.S. President at the 6th Summit of the Americas in Cartagena, Colombia. As of April 24, 2012, nine employees had resigned or retired.
After the incident was publicized, the Secret Service implemented new rules for its personnel. The rules prohibit personnel from visiting "non-reputable establishments '' and from consuming alcohol less than ten hours before starting work. Additionally, they restrict who is allowed in hotel rooms.
A few weeks later, stories emerged of Secret Service agents hiring strippers and prostitutes prior to Obama 's 2011 visit to El Salvador.
In 2015, two inebriated senior service agents drove an official car into the White House complex and collided with a barrier. One of the congressmen in the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform that investigated that incident was Jason Chaffetz. In September 2015, it was revealed that 18 Secret Service employees or supervisors, including Assistant Director Ed Lowery, accessed an unsuccessful 2003 application by Chaffetz for employment with the agency and discussed leaking the information to the media in retaliation for Chaffetz ' investigations of agency misconduct. The confidential personal information was later leaked to The Daily Beast. Agency Director Joe Clancy apologized to Chaffetz and said that disciplinary action would be taken against those responsible.
In March 2017, a member of US Vice President Mike Pence 's detail was suspended after he was caught visiting a prostitute at a hotel in Maryland.
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what is a 1 4 inch trs connector | Phone connector (audio) - wikipedia
A phone connector, also known as phone jack, audio jack, headphone jack or jack plug, is a family of electrical connector typically used for analog signals. The phone connector was invented for use in telephone switchboards in the 19th century and is still widely used.
It is cylindrical in shape, with a grooved tip to retain it. In its original audio configuration. It typically has two, three, four and, occasionally, five contacts. Three - contact versions are known as TRS connectors, where T stands for "tip '', R stands for "ring '' and S stands for "sleeve ''. Ring contacts are typically the same diameter as the sleeve, the long shank. Similarly, two -, four - and five - contact versions are called TS, TRRS and TRRRS connectors respectively. The outside diameter of the "sleeve '' conductor is 1 ⁄ 4 inch (6.35 millimetres). The "mini '' connector has a diameter of 3.5 mm (0.14 in) and the "sub-mini '' connector has a diameter of 2.5 mm (0.098 in).
In the USA and UK, the "jack plug '' is called simply a "plug '', whereas in other languages, such as Czech, it might be called simply a "jack ''. In English, the mating socket is called a "jack ''.
Specific models are termed stereo plug, mini-stereo, mini jack, headphone jack and microphone jack, or are referred to by size, i.e. 3.5 mm or 6.35 mm.
In the UK, the terms jack plug and jack socket are commonly used for the respective male and female phone connectors. In the US, a stationary (more fixed) electrical connector is called a "jack ''. The terms phone plug and phone jack are sometimes used to refer to different genders of phone connectors, but are also sometimes used colloquially to refer to RJ11 and older telephone plugs and the corresponding jacks that connect wired telephones to wall outlets.
Phone plugs and jacks are not to be confused with the similar terms phono plug and phono jack (or in the UK, phono socket) which refer to RCA connectors common in consumer hi - fi and audiovisual equipment. The 3.5 mm connector is, however, sometimes -- but counter to the connector manufacturers ' nomenclature -- referred to as mini phono.
Modern phone connectors are available in three standard sizes. The original ⁄ in (6.35 mm) version dates from 1878, when it was used for manual telephone exchanges, making it the oldest electrical connector standard still in use, to this day being the most prominent plug connector on mainstream musical equipment, especially on standard electric guitars models.
The 3.5 mm or miniature and 2.5 mm or sub-miniature sizes were originally designed as two - conductor connectors for earpieces on transistor radios since the 1950s, the standard still used today. The roughly half - sized version of the original, the 3.5 mm connector, which is the most commonly used in portable application today, was popularized by the Sony EFM - 117J radio which was released in 1964. It became very popular with its application on the Walkman in 1979.
The 3.5 mm and 2.5 mm sizes are sometimes referred to as ⁄ in and ⁄ in respectively in the United States, though those dimensions are only approximations. All three sizes are now readily available in two - conductor (unbalanced mono) and three - conductor (balanced mono or unbalanced stereo) versions.
Four - and five - conductor versions of the 3.5 mm plug are used for certain applications. A four - conductor version is often used in compact camcorders and portable media players, and sometimes also in laptop computers and smartphones, providing stereo sound plus a video signal. Proprietary interfaces using both four - and five - conductor versions exist, where the extra conductors are used to supply power for accessories.
The four - conductor 3.5 mm plug is also used as a speaker - microphone connector on most mobile phones and on handheld amateur radio transceivers from Yaesu. It is also used in some ampifiers like the LH Labs Geek Out V2+ for a balanced stereo output, which requires at least two conductors per audio channel as they no longer share a common ground.
The most common arrangement remains to have the male plug on the cable and the female socket mounted in a piece of equipment: the original intention of the design. A considerable variety of line plugs and panel sockets is available, including plugs suiting various cable sizes, right - angle plugs, and both plugs and sockets in a variety of price ranges and with current capacities up to 15 amperes for certain heavy duty ⁄ in versions intended for loudspeaker connections.
The professional audio field and the telecommunication industry use tiny telephone (TT) connectors in patch bays. These are mid-size TS or TRS phone plugs with a 4.40 mm (0.173 in) diameter shaft and a slightly different geometry. In the telecommunications field this is termed a "bantam '' plug. The three - conductor (TRS for Tip - Ring - Shield) versions are capable of handling balanced line signals and are used in professional audio installations. Though unable to handle as much power, and less reliable than a 6.35 mm (0.250 in) jack, TT connectors are used for professional console and outboard patchbays in studio and live sound applications, where large numbers of patch points are needed in a limited space. The slightly different shape of bantam plugs is also less likely to cause shorting as they are plugged in.
Less commonly used sizes, both diameters and lengths, are also available from some manufacturers, and are used when it is desired to restrict the availability of matching connectors, such as 0.210 inch inside diameter jacks for fire safety communication jacks in public buildings, the same size found in discontinued Bell & Howell 16 mm projector speaker jacks.
The original application for the 6.35 mm (⁄ in) phone jack was in manual telephone exchanges. Many different configurations of these phone plugs were used, some accommodating five or more conductors, with several tip profiles. Of these many varieties, only the two - conductor version with a rounded tip profile was compatible between different manufacturers, and this was the design that was at first adopted for use with microphones, electric guitars, headphones, loudspeakers, and many other items of audio equipment.
When a three - conductor version of the 6.35 mm (⁄ in) jack was introduced for use with stereo headphones, it was given a sharper tip profile in order to make it possible to manufacture jacks (sockets) that would accept only stereo plugs, to avoid short - circuiting the right channel of the amplifier. This attempt has long been abandoned, and now the normal convention is that all plugs fit all sockets of the same size, regardless of whether they are balanced or unbalanced, mono or stereo. Most 6.35 mm (⁄ in) plugs, mono or stereo, now have the profile of the original stereo plug, although a few rounded mono plugs are also still produced. The profiles of stereo miniature and subminiature plugs have always been identical to the mono plugs of the same size.
The results of this physical compatibility are:
Due to a lack of standardization in the past regarding the dimensions (length) given to the ring conductor and the insulating portions on either side of it in 6.35 mm (⁄ in) phone connectors and the width of the conductors in different brands and generations of sockets there are occasional issues with compatibility between differing brands of plug and socket. This can result in a contact in the socket bridging (shorting) the ring and sleeve contacts on a phone connector, or where a phone plug is inserted into a two - conductor TS socket in some cases the intended ' sleeve ' contact in the socket making contact with only the ' ring ' portion of the plug.
Some common uses of phone plugs and their matching sockets are:
Personal computer sound cards, such as Creative Labs ' Sound Blaster line use a 3.5 mm phone connector as a mono microphone input, and deliver a 5 V polarizing voltage on the ring to power electret microphones. Sometimes termed phantom power, this is not a suitable power source for microphones designed for true phantom power and is better termed bias voltage. (Note that this is not a polarizing voltage for the condenser, as electrets by definition have an intrinsic voltage; it is power for a FET preamplifier built into the microphone.) Compatibility between different manufacturers is unreliable.
The Apple PlainTalk microphone jack used on some older Macintosh systems is designed to accept an extended 3.5 mm three - conductor phone connector; in this case, the tip carries power for a preamplifier inside the microphone. If a PlainTalk - compatible microphone is not available, the jack can accept a line - level sound input, though it can not accept a standard microphone without a preamp.
Normally, 3.5 mm three - conductor sockets are used in computer sound cards for stereo output. Thus, for a sound card with 5.1 output, there will be three sockets to accommodate six channels: "front left and right '', "surround left and right '', and "center + subwoofer ''. 6.1 and 7.1 channel sound cards from Creative Labs, however, use a single three - conductor socket (for the front speakers) and two 4 - conductor sockets. This is to accommodate rear - center (6.1) or rear left and right (7.1) channels without the need for additional sockets on the sound card. (Note that Creative 's documentation uses the word "pole '' instead of "conductor ''.)
Some portable computers have a combined 3.5 mm TRS - TOSLINK jack, supporting stereo audio output using a TRS connector, or TOSLINK (stereo or 5.1 Dolby Digital / DTS) digital output using a suitable optical adapter. Most iMac computers have this digital / analog combo output feature as standard, with early MacBooks having two ports, one for analog / digital audio input and other for output. Support for input was dropped on various later models
Some newer computers, such as Lenovo laptops, have 3.5 mm TRRS headset sockets, which are compatible with phone headsets and may be distinguished by a headset icon instead of the usual headphones or microphone icons. These are particularly used for Voice over IP.
Equipment requiring video with stereo audio input / output sometimes uses 3.5 mm TRRS connectors. Two incompatible variants exist, of 15 millimetres (0.59 in) and 17 mm (0.67 in) length, and using the wrong variant may either simply not work, or could cause physical damage.
Attempting to fully insert the longer (17 mm) plug into a receptacle designed for the shorter (15 mm) plug may damage the receptacle, and may damage any electronics located immediately behind the receptacle. However, partially inserting the plug will work as the tip / ring / ring distances are the same for both variants.
Using the shorter plug in a socket designed for the longer connector will result in the plug not ' locking in ', and may additionally result in wrong signal routing and / or a short circuit inside the equipment (e.g. the plug tip may cause the contacts inside the receptacle - tip / ring 1, etc. - to short together).
The shorter 15 mm TRRS variant is more common and fully physically compatible with ' standard ' 3.5 mm TRS and TS connectors.
Many small video cameras, laptops, recorders and other consumer devices use a 3.5 mm microphone connector for attaching a (mono / stereo) microphone to the system. These fall into three categories:
Plug - in power is supplied on the same line as the audio signal, using an RC filter. The DC bias voltage supplies the FET amplifier (at a low current), while the capacitor decouples the DC supply from the AC input to the recorder. Typically, V = 1.5 V, R = 1 kΩ, C = 47 μF.
If a recorder provides plug - in power, and the microphone does not need it, everything will usually work ok, although the sound quality may be lower than expected. In the converse case (recorder provides no power; microphone needs power), no sound will be recorded. Neither misconfiguration will damage consumer hardware, but providing power when none is needed could destroy a broadcast - type microphone.
Three - or four - conductor (TRS or TRRS) 2.5 mm and 3.5 mm sockets are common on cell phones, providing mono (three conductor) or stereo (four conductor) sound and a microphone input, together with signaling (e.g., push a button to answer a call). Three - conductor 2.5 mm connectors are particularly common on older phones, while four - conductor 3.5 mm connectors are more common on newer smartphones. These are used both for handsfree headsets (esp. mono audio plus mic, also stereo audio plus mic, plus signaling for call handling) and for (stereo) headphones (stereo audio, no mic). Wireless (connectorless) headsets or headphones usually use the Bluetooth protocol.
There is no recognised standard for TRRS connectors or compatibility with three conductor TRS. The four conductors of a TRRS connector are assigned to different purposes by different manufacturers. Any 3.5 mm plug can be plugged mechanically into any socket, but many combinations are electrically incompatible. For example, plugging TRRS headphones into a TRS headset socket (or the reverse), plugging TRS headphones or headsets into a TRRS socket, or plugging TRRS headphones or headsets from one manufacturer into a TRRS socket from another may not function correctly, or at all. Mono audio will usually work, but stereo audio or microphone may not work, depending on wiring. Signaling compatibility depends both on wiring compatibility and the signals sent by the hands - free / headphones controller being correctly interpreted by the phone. Adapters that are wired for headsets will not work for stereo headphones and conversely. Further, as TTY / TDDs are wired as headsets, TTY adapters can also be used to connect a 2.5 mm headset to a phone.
3.5 mm TRRS (stereo - plus - mic) sockets became particularly common on smartphones, and have been used e.g. by Nokia since 2006; they are often compatible with standard 3.5 mm stereo headphones. Two different forms are frequently found, both of which place left audio on the tip and right audio on the first ring (mirroring the configuration found on stereo connectors). Where they differ is in the placement of the microphone and return contacts. The first, which places the ground return on the second ring and the microphone on the sleeve, is used by Apple 's iPhone line (With the iPhone 7, Apple has replaced the standard 3.5 mm jack with their proprietary Lightning connector), HTC devices, latest Samsung, Nokia and Sony phones, among others. The second, which reverses these contacts, is used by older Nokia mobiles, older Samsung smartphones and some Sony Ericsson phones. There are adapters that swap the poles over to allow a device made to one standard to be used with a headset made to the other.
Some computers now include a TRRS headset socket, compatible with headsets intended for smartphones. One such pin assignment, with ground on the sleeve, is standardized in OMTP and has been accepted as a national Chinese standard YDT 1885 - 2009.
New TRRRS standard for 3.5 mm connectors was developed and recently approved by ITU - T. The new standard, called P. 382 (former P. MMIC), outlines technical requirements and test methods for a 5 pole socket and plug configuration. Compared to legacy TRRS standard TRRRS provides one extra line that can be used for connecting a second microphone or external power to / from the audio accessory. P. 382 requires compliant sockets and plugs to be backwards compatible with legacy TRRS and TRS connectors. Therefore, P. 382 compliant TRRRS connectors should allow for seamless integration when used on new products. TRRRS connectors enable following audio applications: active noise cancelling, binaural recording and others, where dual analogue microphone lines can be directly connected to a host device.
Commercial and general aviation (GA) civil airplane headset plugs are similar, but not identical. A standard ⁄ in monaural plug, type PJ - 055, is used for headphones, paired with special tip - ring - sleeve, 0.206 inch diameter plug, type PJ - 068, for the microphone. On the microphone plug the Ring is used for the microphone ' hot ' and the sleeve is common or microphone ' Lo '. The extra (tip) connection in the microphone plug is often left unconnected but is also sometimes used for various functions, most commonly an optional push - to - talk switch, but on some aircraft it carries headphone audio and on others a DC supply. On many newer GA aircraft the headphone jack is a standard ⁄ in phone connector wired in the standard unbalanced stereo configuration instead of the PJ - 055 to allow stereo music sources to be reproduced.
Military aircraft and civil helicopters have another type termed a U-174 / U. These are also termed ' NATO plugs ' or Nexus TP120 telephone plugs. They are similar to ⁄ in (6.35 mm) plug, but with a 7.10 mm (0.280 in) diameter short shaft with an extra ring, i.e. four conductors in total, allowing two for the headphones (mono), and two for the microphone. There is a confusingly similar four pole (or four conductor) British connector with a slightly smaller diameter and a different wiring configuration used for headsets in many UK Military aircraft and often also referred to as a NATO or ' UK NATO ' connector.
Panel - mounting jacks are often provided with switch contacts. Most commonly, a mono jack is provided with one normally closed (NC) contact, which is connected to the tip (live) connection when no plug is in the socket, and disconnected when a plug is inserted. Stereo sockets commonly provide two such NC contacts, one for the tip (left channel live) and one for the ring or collar (right channel live). Some designs of jack also have such a connection on the sleeve. As this contact is usually ground, it is not much use for signal switching, but could be used to indicate to electronic circuitry that the socket was in use.
Less commonly, some jacks are provided with normally open (NO) or change - over contacts, and / or the switch contacts may be isolated from the connector.
The original purpose of these contacts was for switching in telephone exchanges, for which there were many patterns. Two sets of change - over contacts, isolated from the connector contacts, were common. The more recent pattern of one NC contact for each signal path, internally attached to the connector contact, stems from their use as headphone jacks. In many amplifiers and equipment containing them, such as electronic organs, a headphone jack is provided that disconnects the loudspeakers when in use. This is done by means of these switch contacts. In other equipment, a dummy load is provided when the headphones are not connected. This is also easily provided by means of these NC contacts.
Other uses for these contacts have been found. One is to interrupt a signal path to enable other circuitry to be inserted. This is done by using one NC contact of a stereo jack to connect the tip and ring together when no plug is inserted. The tip is then made the output, and the ring the input (or vice versa), thus forming a patch point.
Another use is to provide alternative mono or stereo output facilities on some guitars and electronic organs. This is achieved by using two mono jacks, one for left channel and one for right, and wiring the NC contact on the right channel jack to the tip of the other, to connect the two connector tips together when the right channel output is not in use. This then mixes the signals so that the left channel jack doubles as a mono output.
Where a 3.5 mm or 2.5 mm jack is used as a DC power inlet connector, a switch contact may be used to disconnect an internal battery whenever an external power supply is connected, to prevent incorrect recharging of the battery.
A standard stereo jack is used on most battery - powered guitar effects pedals to eliminate the need for a separate power switch. In this configuration, the internal battery has its negative terminal wired to the sleeve contact of the jack. When the user plugs in a two - conductor (mono) guitar or microphone lead, the resulting short - circuit between sleeve and ring connects an internal battery to the unit 's circuitry, ensuring that it powers up or down automatically whenever a signal lead is inserted or removed. A drawback of this design is the risk of inadvertently discharging the battery if the lead is not removed after use, such as if the equipment is left plugged in overnight.
When a phone connector is used to make a balanced connection, the two active conductors are both used for a monaural signal. The ring, used for the right channel in stereo systems, is used instead for the inverting input. This is a common use in small audio mixing desks, where space is a premium and they offer a more compact alternative to XLR connectors. Another advantage offered by TRS phone connectors used for balanced microphone inputs is that a standard unbalanced signal lead using a TS phone jack can simply be plugged into such an input. The ring (right channel) contact then makes contact with the plug body, correctly grounding the inverting input.
A disadvantage of using phone connectors for balanced audio connections is that the ground mates last and the socket grounds the plug tip and ring when inserting or disconnecting the plug. This causes bursts of hum, cracks and pops and may stress some outputs as they will be short circuited briefly, or longer if the plug is left half in.
This problem does not occur when using the ' gauge B ' (BPO) phone connector (PO 316) which although it is of 0.25 in (6.3 mm) diameter has a smaller tip and a recessed ring so that the ground contact of the socket never touches the tip or ring of the plug. This type was designed for balanced audio use, being the original telephone ' switchboard ' connector and is still common in broadcast, telecommunications and many professional audio applications where it is vital that permanent circuits being monitored (bridged) are not interrupted by the insertion or removal of connectors. This same tapered shape used in the ' gauge B ' (BPO) plug can be seen also in aviation and military applications on various diameters of jack connector including the PJ - 068 and ' bantam ' plugs. The more common straight - sided profile used in domestic and commercial applications and discussed in most of this article is known as ' gauge A '.
XLR connectors used in much professional audio equipment mate the ground signal on pin 1 first.
Phone connectors with three conductors are also commonly used as unbalanced audio patch points (or insert points, or simply inserts), with the output on many mixers found on the tip (left channel) and the input on the ring (right channel). This is often expressed as "tip send, ring return ''. Other mixers have unbalanced insert points with "ring send, tip return ''. One advantage of this system is that the switch contact within the panel socket, originally designed for other purposes, can be used to close the circuit when the patch point is not in use. An advantage of the tip send patch point is that if it is used as an output only, a 2 - conductor mono phone plug correctly grounds the input. In the same fashion, use of a "tip return '' insert style allows a mono phone plug to bring an unbalanced signal directly into the circuit, though in this case the output must be robust enough to withstand being grounded. Combining send and return functions via single ⁄ in TRS connectors in this way is seen in very many professional and semi-professional audio mixing desks, due to the halving of space needed for insert jack fields which would otherwise need two jacks, one for send and one for return. The tradeoff is that unbalanced signals are more prone to buzz, hum and outside interference.
In some three - conductor TRS phone inserts, the concept is extended by using specially designed phone jacks that will accept a mono phone plug partly inserted to the first click and will then connect the tip to the signal path without breaking it. Most standard phone connectors can also be used in this way with varying success, but neither the switch contact nor the tip contact can be relied upon unless the internal contacts have been designed with extra strength for holding the plug tip in place. Even with stronger contacts, an accidental mechanical movement of the inserted plug can interrupt signal within the circuit. For maximum reliability, any usage involving first click or half - click positions will instead rewire the plug to short tip and ring together and then insert this modified plug all the way into the jack.
The TRS tip return, ring send unbalanced insert configuration is mostly found on older mixers. This allowed for the insert jack to serve as a standard - wired mono line input that would bypass the mic preamp. However tip send has become the generally accepted standard for mixer inserts since the early - to - mid 1990s. The TRS ring send configuration is still found on some compressor sidechain input jacks such as the dbx 166XL.
In some very compact equipment, 3.5 mm TRS phone connectors are used as patch points.
Some sound recording devices use a three - conductor phone connector as a mono microphone input, using the tip as the signal path and the ring to connect a standby switch on the microphone.
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where did the red sox get their name | Boston Red Sox - wikipedia
The Boston Red Sox are an American professional baseball team based in Boston, Massachusetts. The Red Sox compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) East division. The Red Sox have won eight World Series championships and have played in twelve. Founded in 1901 as one of the American League 's eight charter franchises, the Red Sox ' home ballpark has been Fenway Park since 1912. The "Red Sox '' name was chosen by the team owner, John I. Taylor, around 1908, following the lead of previous teams that had been known as the "Boston Red Stockings '', including the forerunner of the Atlanta Braves.
Boston was a dominant team in the new league, defeating the Pittsburgh Pirates in the first World Series in 1903 and winning four more championships by 1918. However, they then went into one of the longest championship droughts in baseball history, dubbed the "Curse of the Bambino '' after its alleged beginning with the Red Sox ' sale of Babe Ruth to the rival New York Yankees two years after their world championship in 1918, an 86 - year wait before the team 's sixth World Championship in 2004. The team 's history during that period was punctuated with some of the most memorable moments in World Series history, including Enos Slaughter 's "mad dash '' in 1946, the "Impossible Dream '' of 1967, Carlton Fisk 's home run in 1975, and Bill Buckner 's error in 1986. Following their victory in the 2013 World Series, they became the first team to win three World Series trophies in the 21st century, including championships in 2004 and 2007. Red Sox history has also been marked by the team 's intense rivalry with the Yankees, arguably the fiercest and most historic in North American professional sports.
The Boston Red Sox are owned by Fenway Sports Group, which also owns Liverpool F.C. of the Premier League in England. The Red Sox are consistently one of the top MLB teams in average road attendance, while the small capacity of Fenway Park prevents them from leading in overall attendance. From May 15, 2003 to April 10, 2013, the Red Sox sold out every home game -- a total of 820 games (794 regular season) for a major professional sports record. Neil Diamond 's "Sweet Caroline '' has become an anthem for the Red Sox.
The name Red Sox, chosen by owner John I. Taylor after the 1907 season, refers to the red hose in the team uniform beginning 1908. Sox had been previously adopted for the Chicago White Sox by newspapers needing a headline - friendly form of Stockings, as "Stockings Win! '' in large type would not fit on a page. The team name "Red Sox '' had previously been used as early as 1888 by a ' colored ' team from Norfolk, Virginia. The Spanish language media sometimes refers to the team as Medias Rojas, a translation of "red socks ''. The official Spanish site uses the variant "Los Red Sox ''.
The Red Stockings nickname was first used by a baseball team by the Cincinnati Red Stockings, who were members of the pioneering National Association of Base Ball Players. Managed by Harry Wright, Cincinnati adopted a uniform with white knickers and red stockings and earned the famous nickname, a year or two before hiring the first fully professional team in 1869. When the club folded after the 1870 season, Wright was hired by Boston businessman Ivers Whitney Adams to organize a new team in Boston, and he did, bringing three teammates and the "Red Stockings '' nickname along (Most nicknames were then only nicknames, neither club names nor registered trademarks, so the migration was informal). The Boston Red Stockings won four championships in the five seasons of the new National Association, the first professional league.
When a new Cincinnati club was formed as a charter member of the National League in 1876, the "Red Stockings '' nickname was commonly reserved for them once again, and the Boston team was referred to as the "Red Caps ''. Other names were sometimes used before Boston officially adopted the nickname "Braves '' in 1912; the club eventually left Boston for Milwaukee and is now playing in Atlanta, Georgia.
In 1901, the upstart American League established a competing club in Boston. (Originally, a team was supposed to be started in Buffalo, but league ownership at the last minute removed that city from their plans in favor of the expansion Boston franchise.) For seven seasons, the AL team wore dark blue stockings and had no official nickname. They were simply "Boston '', "Bostonians '' or "the Bostons ''; or the "Americans '' or "Boston Americans '' as in "American Leaguers '', Boston being a two - team city. Their 1901 -- 1907 jerseys, both home, and road, just read "Boston '', except for 1902 when they sported large letters "B '' and "A '' denoting "Boston '' and "American. '' Newspaper writers of the time used other nicknames for the club, including "Somersets '' (for owner Charles Somers), "Plymouth Rocks '', "Beaneaters '', the "Collinsites '' (for manager Jimmy Collins) ", and "Pilgrims. ''
For years many sources have listed "Pilgrims '' as the early Boston AL team 's official nickname, but researcher Bill Nowlin has demonstrated that the name was barely used, if at all, during the team 's early years. The origin of the nickname appears to be a poem entitled "The Pilgrims At Home '' written by Edwin Fitzwilliam that was sung at the 1907 home opener ("Rory O'More '' melody). This nickname was commonly used during that season, perhaps because the team had a new manager and several rookie players. John I. Taylor had said in December 1907 that the Pilgrims "sounded too much like homeless wanderers. ''
The National League club in Boston, though seldom called the "Red Stockings '' anymore, still wore red trim. In 1907, the National League club adopted an all - white uniform, and the American League team saw an opportunity. On December 18, 1907, Taylor announced that the club had officially adopted red as its new team color. The 1908 uniforms featured a large icon of a red stocking angling across the shirt front. For 1908, the National League club returned to wearing red trim, but the American League team finally had an official nickname, and would remain the "Red Sox '' for good.
The name is often shortened to "Bosox '' or "BoSox '', a combination of "Boston '' and "Sox '' (similar to the "ChiSox '' in Chicago or the minor league "PawSox '' of Pawtucket). Sportswriters sometimes refer to the Red Sox as the Crimson Hose and the Olde Towne Team. Recently, media have begun to call them the "Sawx '' casually, reflecting how the word is pronounced with a New England accent. However, most fans simply refer to the team as the "Sox '' when the context is understood to mean Red Sox.
The formal name of the entity which owns the team is "Boston Red Sox Baseball Club Limited Partnership ''. The name shown on the door on Yawkey Way, "Boston American League Baseball Company '', is historical, predating the formation of the limited partnership on May 26, 1978. The entrance also figures in Robert B. Parker 's Spenser - and - baseball novel Mortal Stakes.
In 1901, the minor Western League, led by Ban Johnson, declared its equality with the National League, then the only major league in baseball. Johnson changed the name of the league to the American League, leading teams in his league to be christened with the unofficial nickname "Americans ''. This was especially true in the case of the new Boston franchise, which would not adopt an official nickname until 1908.
The upstart league placed franchises in Baltimore, Maryland and Buffalo. After looking at his new league, Ban Johnson decided that he would need a team in Boston to compete with the National League team there, and so cancelled the Buffalo club 's franchise, offering one to a new club in Boston. The Boston franchise was purchased in 1903 by Milwaukee publisher, George Brumder who sold the team one year later. Playing their home games at Huntington Avenue Grounds, the Boston franchise finished second and third before capturing their first pennant in 1903 and repeating the next year. Those teams were led by manager and star third baseman Jimmy Collins, outfielders Chick Stahl, Buck Freeman, and Patsy Dougherty, and pitcher Cy Young, who in 1901 won the pitching Triple Crown with 33 wins (41.8 % of the team 's 79 games), 1.62 ERA and 158 strikeouts. His 1901 to 1904 seasons rank among the best four - year runs ever.
In 1903, Boston participated in the first modern World Series, going up against the Pittsburgh Pirates. The Pirates were heavily favored as they had won the NL pennant by 61⁄2 games. Aided by the modified chants of "Tessie '' by the Royal Rooters fan club and by its stronger pitching staff, the Americans managed to overcome the odds, and win the best - of - nine series five games to three.
The 1904 club was almost as good as the previous team, but due to the surprise emergence of the New York Highlanders, the Boston club found itself in a tight pennant race through the last games of the season. A predecessor to what would become a storied rivalry, this race featured such controversial moves as the trade of Patsy Dougherty to the Highlanders for Bob Unglaub. The climax of the season occurred on the last, dramatic doubleheader at the Highlanders ' home stadium, Hilltop Park. In order to win the pennant, the Highlanders needed to win both games. With Jack Chesbro, the Highlanders ' 41 - game winner, on the mound, and the score tied 2 -- 2 with a man on third in the top of the ninth, a spitball got away from Chesbro and Lou Criger scored the go - ahead run on one of the most famous wild pitches in history.
Unfortunately, the NL champion New York Giants declined to play any postseason series, fearing it would give their New York rivals credibility (they had expected the Highlanders to win), but a sharp public reaction led the two leagues immediately to make the World Series a permanent championship, starting in 1905. These successful times soon ended, however, as Boston lost 100 games in 1906. However, several new star players helped the newly renamed Red Sox improve almost immediately.
By 1909, legendary center fielder Tris Speaker had become a fixture in the Boston outfield, and the team worked their way to third place. However, the Red Sox would not win the pennant again until their 105 - win 1912 season, finishing with a club record. 691 winning percentage. Anchored by an outfield considered to be among the finest in the game -- Tris Speaker, Harry Hooper and Duffy Lewis -- and superstar pitcher Smoky Joe Wood, the Red Sox beat the New York Giants 4 -- 3 -- 1 in the classic 1912 World Series best known for Snodgrass 's Muff. From 1913 to 1916 the Red Sox were owned by Joseph Lannin, who signed Babe Ruth, soon the best - known and one of the best players ever. Another 101 wins in 1915 propelled the Red Sox to the 1915 World Series, where they beat the Philadelphia Phillies four games to one. Following the 1915 season, Tris Speaker was traded to the Cleveland Indians. His departure was more than compensated for, however, by the emergence of star pitcher Babe Ruth. The Red Sox went on to win the 1916 World Series, this time defeating the Brooklyn Robins. In 1918, Babe Ruth led his team to another World Series championship, this time over the Chicago Cubs.
Harry Frazee bought the Red Sox from Joseph Lannin in 1916 for about $500,000. A couple of notable trades involving Harry Frazee and the Yankees occurred before the Babe Ruth sale. On December 18, 1918, outstanding outfielder Duffy Lewis, pitcher Dutch Leonard (who had posted a modern record 0.96 ERA in 1914), and pitcher Ernie Shore were traded to the Yankees for pitcher Ray Caldwell, Slim Love, Roxy Walters, Frank Gilhooley and $15,000. As all three players were well regarded in Boston -- Lewis had been a key player on the 1910s championship teams, Shore had famously relieved Babe Ruth and retired 27 straight, and Leonard had only four years before setting a modern record for earned run average -- this trade was regarded as a poor one in Boston. Then, on July 13, 1919, submarine - style pitching star Carl Mays was traded to the Yankees for Bob McGraw, Allan Russell and $40,000. Mays would go on to have several good years for the Yankees, but had been a discipline problem for the Red Sox.
On December 26, 1919, Frazee sold Babe Ruth, who had played the previous six seasons for the Red Sox, to the rival New York Yankees (Ruth had just broken the single - season home run record, hitting 29 in 1919.) Legend has it that Frazee did so in order to finance the Broadway play No, No, Nanette. That play did not actually open on Broadway until 1925, but as Leigh Montville discovered during research for his book, The Big Bam: The Life and Times of Babe Ruth, No, No, Nanette had originated as a non-musical stage play called My Lady Friends, which opened on Broadway in December 1919. My Lady Friends had, indeed, been financed by the Ruth sale to the Yankees.
During that period, the Red Sox, Yankees and Chicago White Sox had a détente; they were called "Insurrectos '' because their actions antagonized league president Ban Johnson. Although Frazee owned the Boston Red Sox franchise, he did not own Fenway Park (it was owned by the Fenway Park Trust), making his ownership a precarious one; Johnson could move another team into the ballpark. His club was in debt, but Frazee felt the need to purchase its playing site (which he did in 1920). Further, providing the Yankees with a box office attraction would help that mediocre club, which had sided with him against Johnson and "the Loyal Five '' clubs. Finally, Ruth was considered a serious disciplinary problem, a reputation he amply confirmed while playing for the Yankees. Frazee moved Ruth to stabilize Red Sox finances and cut distractions. It was a straight sale, no players in return.
New York achieved great success after acquiring Ruth and several other very good players. The sale of Babe Ruth came to be viewed as the beginning of the Yankees -- Red Sox rivalry, considered the "Greatest Rivalry on Earth '' by American sports journalists.
After deciding to get out of baseball, Frazee began selling many of his star players. In the winter of 1920, Wally Schang, Waite Hoyt, Harry Harper and Mike McNally were traded to the Yankees for Del Pratt, Muddy Ruel, John Costello, Hank Thormahlen, Sammy Vick and cash. The following winter, iron man shortstop Everett Scott, and pitchers Bullet Joe Bush and Sad Sam Jones were traded to the Yankees for Roger Peckinpaugh (who would be immediately shipped to the Washington Senators), Jack Quinn, Rip Collins, Bill Piercy and $50,000. On July 23, 1922, Joe Dugan and Elmer Smith were traded to the Yankees for Elmer Miller, Chick Fewster, Johnny Mitchell, and Lefty O'Doul, who was at the time a mediocre pitching prospect. Acquiring Dugan helped the Yankees edge the St. Louis Browns in a tight pennant race, and the resulting uproar helped create a June 15 trading deadline that went into effect the next year. Perhaps an even more outrageous deal was the trade of Herb Pennock, occurring in early 1923. Pennock was traded by the Red Sox to the Yankees for Camp Skinner, Norm McMillan, George Murray and $50,000.
The loss of so much talent sent the Red Sox into free fall, even with the money Frazee earned from the trades. During the 1920s and early 1930s, they were fixtures in the second division, never finishing closer than 20 games out of first. The losses only mounted when Frazee sold the team to Bob Quinn in 1923. During an eight - year period from 1925 to 1932, the Red Sox averaged over 100 losses per season, bottoming out in 1932 with a record of 43 - 111, still the worst record in franchise history. One of the few bright spots on these teams was Earl Webb, who set the all - time mark for most doubles in a season in 1931 with 67. The BoSox ' fortunes began to change in 1933 when Tom Yawkey bought the team. Yawkey acquired pitcher Wes Ferrell and one of the greatest pitchers of all - time, Lefty Grove, making his team competitive once again in the late thirties. He also acquired Joe Cronin, an outstanding shortstop and manager and slugging first baseman Jimmie Foxx whose 50 home runs in 1938 would stand as a club record for 68 years. Foxx also drove in a club record 175 runs.
In 1939, the Red Sox purchased the contract of outfielder Ted Williams from the minor league San Diego Padres of the Pacific Coast League, ushering in an era of the team sometimes called the "Ted Sox. '' Williams consistently hit for both high power and high average, and is generally considered one of the greatest hitters of all time. The right - field bullpens in Fenway were built in part for Williams ' left - handed swing, and are sometimes called "Williamsburg. '' Before this addition, it was over 400 feet (120 m) to right field. He served two stints in the United States Marine Corps as a pilot and saw active duty in both World War II and the Korean War, missing at least five full seasons of baseball. His book The Science of Hitting is widely read by students of baseball. He is currently the last player to hit over. 400 for a full season, batting. 406 in 1941. Williams feuded with sports writers his whole career, calling them "The Knights of the Keyboard '', and his relationship with the fans was often rocky as he was seen spitting towards the stands on more than one occasion.
With Williams, the Red Sox reached the 1946 World Series, but lost to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games in part because of the use of the "Williams Shift '', a defensive tactic in which the shortstop would move to the right side of the infield to make it harder for the left - handed - hitting Williams to hit to that side of the field. Some have claimed that he was too proud to hit to the other side of the field, not wanting to let the Cardinals take away his game. His performance may have also been affected by a pitch he took in the elbow in an exhibition game a few days earlier. Either way, in his only World Series, Williams gathered just five singles in 25 at - bats for a. 200 average.
The Cardinals won the 1946 Series when Enos Slaughter scored the go - ahead run all the way from first base on a base hit to left field. The throw from Leon Culberson was cut off by shortstop Johnny Pesky, who relayed the ball to the plate just a hair too late. Some say Pesky hesitated or "held the ball '' before he turned to throw the ball, but this has been disputed.
Along with Williams and Pesky, the Red Sox featured several other star players during the 1940s, including second baseman Bobby Doerr and center fielder Dom DiMaggio (the younger brother of Joe DiMaggio).
The Red Sox narrowly lost the AL pennant in 1948 and 1949. In 1948, Boston finished in a tie with Cleveland, and their loss to Cleveland in a one - game playoff ended hopes of an all - Boston World Series. Curiously, manager Joseph McCarthy chose journeyman Denny Galehouse to start the playoff game when the young lefty phenom Mel Parnell was available to pitch. In 1949, the Red Sox were one game ahead of the New York Yankees, with the only two games left for both teams being against each other, and they lost both of those games.
The 1950s were viewed as a time of tribulation for the Red Sox. After Williams returned from the Korean War in 1953, many of the best players from the late 1940s had retired or been traded. The stark contrast in the team led critics to call the Red Sox ' daily lineup "Ted Williams and the Seven Dwarfs. '' Jackie Robinson was even worked out by the team at Fenway Park, however it appeared that owner Tom Yawkey did not want an African American player on his team at that time. Willie Mays also tried out for Boston and was highly praised by team scouts. In 1955, Frank Malzone debuted at third base and Ted Williams hit. 388 at the age of 38 in 1957, but there was little else for Boston fans to root for. Williams retired at the end of the 1960 season, famously hitting a home run in his final at - bat as memorialized in the John Updike story "Hub fans bid Kid adieu. '' The Red Sox finally became the last Major League team to field an African American player when they promoted infielder Pumpsie Green from their AAA farm team in 1959.
The 1960s also started poorly for the Red Sox, though 1961 saw the debut of Carl "Yaz '' Yastrzemski, Williams ' replacement in left field, who developed into one of the better hitters of a pitching - rich decade.
Red Sox fans know 1967 as the season of the "Impossible Dream. '' The slogan refers to the hit song from the popular musical play "Man of La Mancha ''. 1967 saw one of the great pennant races in baseball history with four teams in the AL pennant race until almost the last game. The BoSox had finished the 1966 season in ninth place, but they found new life with Yastrzemski as the team went to the 1967 World Series, only to lose the Series to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games. Yastrzemski won the American League Triple Crown (the most recent player to accomplish such a feat until Miguel Cabrera did so in 2012), hitting. 326 with 44 home runs and 121 RBIs. He finished one vote short of a unanimous MVP selection, as a Minnesota sportswriter placed Twins center fielder César Tovar first on his ballot. But the Red Sox lost the series -- again to the St. Louis Cardinals, in seven games. Legendary pitcher Bob Gibson stymied the Red Sox winning three games.
An 18 - year - old Bostonian rookie named Tony Conigliaro slugged 24 home runs in 1964. "Tony C '' became the youngest player in Major League Baseball to hit his 100th home run, a record that stands today. He was struck just above the left cheek bone by a fastball thrown by Jack Hamilton of the California Angels on Friday, August 18, 1967 and sat out the entire next season with headaches and blurred vision. Although he did have a productive season in 1970, he was never the same.
Although the Red Sox were competitive for much of the late 1960s and early 1970s, they never finished higher than second place in their division. The closest they came to a divisional title was 1972, when they lost by a half - game to the Detroit Tigers. The start of the season was delayed by a players ' strike, and the Red Sox had lost one more game to the strike than the Tigers had. Games lost to the strike were not made up. The Red Sox went to Detroit with a half - game lead for the final series of the season, but lost the first two of those three and were eliminated from the pennant race.
The Red Sox won the AL pennant in 1975. The 1975 Red Sox were as colorful as they were talented, with Yastrzemski and rookie outfielders Jim Rice and Fred Lynn, veteran outfielder Dwight Evans, catcher Carlton Fisk, and pitchers Luis Tiant and eccentric junkballer Bill "The Spaceman '' Lee. Fred Lynn won both the American League Rookie of the Year award and the Most Valuable Player award, a feat which had never previously been accomplished, and was not duplicated until Ichiro Suzuki did it in 2001. In the 1975 American League Championship Series, the Red Sox swept the Oakland A 's.
In the 1975 World Series, they faced the heavily favored Cincinnati Reds, also known as The Big Red Machine. Luis Tiant won games 1 and 4 of the World Series but after five games, the Red Sox trailed the series 3 games to 2. Game 6 at Fenway Park is considered among the greatest games in postseason history. Down 6 -- 3 in the bottom of the eighth inning, Red Sox pinch hitter Bernie Carbo hit a three - run homer into the center field bleachers off Reds fireman Rawly Eastwick to tie the game. In the top of the eleventh inning, right fielder Dwight Evans made a spectacular catch of a Joe Morgan line drive and doubled Ken Griffey at first base to preserve the tie. In the bottom of the twelfth inning, Carlton Fisk hit a deep fly ball which sliced towards the left field foul pole above the Green Monster. As the ball sailed into the night, Fisk waved his arms frantically towards fair territory, seemingly pleading with the ball not to go foul. The ball complied, and bedlam ensued at Fenway as Fisk rounded the bases to win the game for the Red Sox 7 -- 6.
The Red Sox lost game 7, 4 -- 3 even though they had an early 3 -- 0 lead. Starting pitcher Bill Lee threw a slow looping curve which he called a "Leephus pitch '' or "space ball '' to Reds first baseman Tony Pérez who hit the ball over the Green Monster and across the street. The Reds scored the winning run in the 9th inning. Carlton Fisk said famously about the 1975 World Series, "We won that thing 3 games to 4. ''
In 1978, the Red Sox and the Yankees were involved in a tight pennant race. The Yankees were 14 ⁄ games behind the Red Sox in July, and on September 10, after completing a 4 - game sweep of the Red Sox (known as "The Boston Massacre ''), the Yankees tied for the divisional lead.
On September 16 the Yankees held a 3 ⁄ game lead over the Red Sox, but the Sox won 11 of their next 13 games and by the final day of the season, the Yankees ' magic number to win the division was one -- with a win over Cleveland or a Boston loss to the Toronto Blue Jays clinching the division. However, New York lost 9 -- 2 and Boston won 5 -- 0, forcing a one - game playoff to be held at Fenway Park on Monday, October 2.
The most remembered moment from the game was Bucky Dent 's 7th inning three - run home run in off Mike Torrez just over the Green Monster, giving the Yankees their first lead. The dejected Boston manager, Don Zimmer, gave Mr. Dent a new middle name which lives on in Boston sports lore to this day, uttering three words as the ball sailed over the left - field wall: "Bucky F * * king Dent! '' Reggie Jackson provided a solo home run in the 8th that proved to be the difference in the Yankees ' 5 -- 4 win, which ended with Yastrzemski popping out to Graig Nettles in foul territory with Rick Burleson representing the tying run at third. Although Dent became a Red Sox demon, the Red Sox would get retribution in 1990 when the Yankees fired Dent as their manager during a series at Fenway Park.
Carl Yastrzemski retired after the 1983 season, during which the Red Sox finished sixth in the seven - team AL East, posting their worst record since 1966.
However, in 1986, it appeared that the team 's fortunes were about to change. The offense had remained strong with Jim Rice, Dwight Evans, Don Baylor and Wade Boggs. Roger Clemens led the pitching staff, going 24 -- 4 with a 2.48 ERA, and had a 20 - strikeout game to win both the American League Cy Young and Most Valuable Player awards. Clemens became the first starting pitcher to win both awards since Vida Blue in 1971. Despite spending a month and a half on the disabled list in the middle of the season, left - hander Bruce Hurst went 13 - 8, striking out 167 and pitching four shutout games. Boston sportswriters that season compared Clemens and Hurst to Don Drysdale and Sandy Koufax from the 1960s Los Angeles Dodgers.
The Red Sox won the AL East for the first time in 11 seasons, and faced the California Angels in the ALCS. The teams split the first two games in Boston, but the Angels won the next two home games, taking a 3 -- 1 lead in the series. With the Angels poised to win the series, the Red Sox trailed 5 -- 2 heading into the ninth inning of Game 5. A two - run homer by Baylor cut the lead to one. With two outs and a runner on, and one strike away from elimination, Dave Henderson homered off Donnie Moore to put Boston up 6 -- 5. Although the Angels tied the game in the bottom of the ninth, the Red Sox won in the 11th on a Henderson sacrifice fly off Moore. The Red Sox then found themselves with six - and seven - run wins at Fenway Park in Games 6 and 7 to win the American League title.
The Red Sox faced a heavily favored New York Mets team that had won 108 games in the regular season in the 1986 World Series. Boston won the first two games in Shea Stadium but lost the next two at Fenway, knotting the series at 2 games apiece. After Bruce Hurst recorded his second victory of the series in Game 5, the Red Sox returned to Shea Stadium looking to garner their first championship in 68 years. However, Game 6 would go down as one of the most devastating losses in club history. After pitching seven strong innings, Clemens was lifted from the game with a 3 -- 2 lead. Years later, Manager John McNamara said Clemens was suffering from a blister and asked to be taken out of the game, a claim Clemens denied. The Mets then scored a run off reliever and former Met Calvin Schiraldi to tie the score 3 -- 3. The game went to extra innings, where the Red Sox took a 5 -- 3 lead in the top of the 10th on a solo home run by Henderson, a double by Boggs and an RBI single by second baseman Marty Barrett.
After recording two outs in the bottom of the 10th, a graphic appeared on the NBC telecast hailing Barrett as the Player of the Game and Bruce Hurst as World Series MVP. A message even appeared briefly on the Shea Stadium scoreboard congratulating the Red Sox as world champions. After so many years of abject frustration, Red Sox fans around the world could taste victory. With the count at two balls and one strike, Mets catcher Gary Carter hit a single. It was followed by singles by Kevin Mitchell and Ray Knight. With Mookie Wilson batting, a wild pitch by Bob Stanley tied the game at 5. Wilson then hit a slow ground ball to first; the ball rolled through Bill Buckner 's legs, allowing Knight to score the winning run from second.
While Buckner was singled out as responsible for the loss, many observers -- as well as both Wilson and Buckner -- have noted that even if Buckner had fielded the ball cleanly, the speedy Wilson probably would still have been safe, leaving the game - winning run at third with two out.
Many observers questioned why Buckner was in the game at that point considering he had bad knees and that Dave Stapleton had come in as a late - inning defensive replacement in prior series games. It appeared as though McNamara was trying to reward Buckner for his long and illustrious career by leaving him in the game. After falling behind 3 -- 0, the Mets then won Game 7, concluding the devastating collapse and feeding the myth that the Red Sox were "cursed. ''
This World Series loss had a strange twist: Red Sox General Manager Lou Gorman was vice-president, player personnel, of the Mets from 1980 to 1983. Working under Mets ' GM Frank Cashen, with whom Gorman served with the Orioles, he helped lay the foundation for the Mets ' championship.
The Red Sox returned to the postseason in 1988. With the club in fourth place midway through the 1988 season at the All - Star break, manager John McNamara was fired and replaced by Walpole, Massachusetts, resident and longtime minor - league manager Joe Morgan on July 15. Immediately the club won 12 games in a row, and 19 of 20 overall, to surge to the AL East title in what would be referred to as Morgan Magic. But the magic was short - lived, as the team was swept by the Oakland Athletics in the ALCS. Ironically, the MVP of that Series was former Red Sox pitcher and Baseball Hall of Fame player Dennis Eckersley, who saved all four wins for Oakland. Two years later, in 1990, the Red Sox would again win the division and face the Athletics in the ALCS. However, the outcome was the same, with the A 's sweeping the ALCS in four straight.
In 1990, Yankees fans started to chant "1918! '' to taunt the Red Sox. The demeaning chant would echo at Yankee Stadium each time the Red Sox were there. Also, Fenway Park became the scene of Bucky Dent 's worst moment as a manager, although it was where he had his greatest triumph. In June, when the Red Sox swept the Yankees during a four - game series at Fenway Park, the Yankees fired Dent as their manager. Red Sox fans felt retribution to Dent being fired on their field, but the Yankees used him as a scapegoat. However, Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe severely criticized Yankees Owner George Steinbrenner for firing Dent -- his 18th managerial change in as many years since becoming owner -- in Boston and said he should "have waited until the Yankees got to Baltimore '' to fire Dent. He said that "if Dent had been fired in Seattle or Milwaukee, this would have been just another event in an endless line of George 's jettisons. But it happened in Boston and the nightly news had its hook. '' "The firing was only special because... it 's the first time a Yankee manager -- who was also a Red Sox demon -- was purged on the ancient Indian burial grounds of the Back Bay. ''
Tom Yawkey died in 1976, and his wife Jean R. Yawkey took control of the team until her death in 1992. Their initials are shown in two stripes on the left field wall in Morse code. Upon Jean 's death, control of the team passed to the Yawkey Trust, led by John Harrington. The trust sold the team in 2002, concluding 70 years of Yawkey ownership.
In 1994, General Manager Lou Gorman was replaced by Dan Duquette, a Massachusetts native who had worked for the Montreal Expos. Duquette revived the team 's farm system, which during his tenure produced players such as Nomar Garciaparra, Carl Pavano and David Eckstein. Duquette also spent money on free agents, notably an 8 - year, $160 million deal for Manny Ramírez after the 2000 season.
The Red Sox won the newly realigned American League East in 1995, finishing seven games ahead of the Yankees. However, they were swept in three games in the ALDS by the Cleveland Indians. Their postseason losing streak reached 13 straight games, dating back to the 1986 World Series.
Roger Clemens tied his major league record by fanning 20 Detroit Tigers on September 18, 1996 in what would prove to be one of his final appearances in a Red Sox uniform. After Clemens had turned 30 and then had four seasons, 1993 -- 96, which were by his standards mediocre at best, Duquette said the pitcher was entering "the twilight of his career ''. Clemens went on to pitch well for another ten years and win four more Cy Young Awards.
Out of contention in 1997, the team traded closer Heathcliff Slocumb to Seattle for catching prospect Jason Varitek and right - handed pitcher Derek Lowe. Prior to the start of the 1998 season, the Red Sox dealt pitchers Tony Armas, Jr. and Carl Pavano to the Montreal Expos for pitcher Pedro Martínez. Martínez became the anchor of the team 's pitching staff and turned in several outstanding seasons. In 1998, the team won the American League Wild Card, but again lost the American League Division Series to the Indians.
In 1999, Duquette called Fenway Park "economically obsolete '' and, along with Red Sox ownership, led a push for a new stadium.
On the field, the 1999 Red Sox were finally able to overturn their fortunes against the Indians. Cleveland took a 2 -- 0 series lead, but Boston won the next three games behind strong pitching by Derek Lowe, Pedro Martínez and his brother Ramón Martínez. Game 4 's 23 -- 7 win by the Red Sox was the highest - scoring playoff game in major league history. Game 5 began with the Indians taking a 5 -- 2 lead after two innings, but Pedro Martínez, nursing a shoulder injury, came on in the fourth inning and pitched six innings without allowing a hit while the team 's offense rallied for a 12 -- 8 win behind two home runs and seven RBIs from outfielder Troy O'Leary. After the ALDS victory, the Red Sox lost the American League Championship Series to the Yankees, four games to one. The one bright spot was a lopsided win for the Red Sox in the much - hyped Martinez - Clemens game.
In 2002, the Red Sox were sold by Yawkey trustee and president Harrington to New England Sports Ventures, a consortium headed by principal owner John Henry. Tom Werner served as executive chairman, Larry Lucchino served as president and CEO, and serving as vice chairman was Les Otten. Dan Duquette was fired as GM of the club on February 28, with former Angels GM Mike Port taking the helm for the 2002 season. A week later, manager Joe Kerrigan was fired and was replaced by Grady Little.
While nearly all offseason moves were made under Duquette, such as signing outfielder Johnny Damon away from the Oakland Athletics, the new ownership made additions such as outfielder Cliff Floyd and relief pitcher Alan Embree. Nomar Garciaparra, Manny Ramírez, and Floyd all hit well, while Pedro Martínez put up his usual outstanding numbers. Derek Lowe, newly converted into a starter, won 20 games -- becoming the first player to save 20 games and win 20 games in back - to - back seasons.
After failing to reach the playoffs, Port was replaced by Yale University graduate Theo Epstein. Epstein, raised in Brookline, Massachusetts, and just 28 at the time of his hiring, became the youngest general manager in MLB history.
The 2003 team was known as the "Cowboy Up '' team, a nickname derived from first baseman Kevin Millar 's challenge to his teammates to show more determination. In the 2003 American League Division Series, the Red Sox rallied from a 0 -- 2 series deficit against the Athletics to win the best - of - five series. Derek Lowe returned to his former relief pitching role to save Game 5, a 4 -- 3 victory. The team then faced the Yankees in the 2003 American League Championship Series. In Game 7, Boston led 5 -- 2 in the eighth inning, but Pedro Martínez allowed three runs to tie the game. The Red Sox could not score off Mariano Rivera over the last three innings and eventually lost the game 6 -- 5 when Yankee third baseman Aaron Boone hit a solo home run off of Tim Wakefield. Some placed the blame for the loss on manager Grady Little for failing to remove starting pitcher Martínez in the 8th inning after some observers believe he began to show signs of tiring. Others credited Little with the team 's successful season and dramatic come - from - behind victory in the ALDS. Nevertheless, Boston 's management did not renew Little 's contract, and hired former Philadelphia Phillies manager Terry Francona.
During the 2003 -- 04 offseason, the Red Sox acquired another ace pitcher, Curt Schilling, and a closer, Keith Foulke. Due to some midseason struggles with injuries, management shook up the team at the July 31 trading deadline as part of a four - team trade. The Red Sox traded the team 's popular, yet oft - injured, shortstop Nomar Garciaparra and outfielder Matt Murton to the Chicago Cubs, and received first baseman Doug Mientkiewicz from the Minnesota Twins, and shortstop Orlando Cabrera from the Montreal Expos. In a separate transaction, the Red Sox acquired center fielder Dave Roberts from the Los Angeles Dodgers. Following the trades, the club won 22 out of 25 games and qualified for the playoffs as the AL Wild Card. Players and fans affectionately referred to the players as "the Idiots '', a term coined by Damon and Millar during the playoff push to describe the team 's eclectic roster and devil - may - care attitude toward their supposed "curse. ''
Boston began the postseason by sweeping the AL West champion Anaheim Angels in the ALDS. In the third game of the series, David Ortiz hit a walk - off two - run homer in the 10th inning to win the game and the series to advance to a rematch of the previous year 's ALCS in the ALCS against the Yankees. The ALCS started very poorly for the Red Sox, as they lost the first three games (including a crushing 19 - 8 home loss in game 3). In Game 4, the Red Sox found themselves facing elimination, trailing 4 -- 3 in the ninth with Mariano Rivera in to close for the Yankees. After Rivera issued a walk to Millar, Roberts came on to pinch run and promptly stole second base. He then scored on an RBI single by Bill Mueller, sending the game into extra innings. The Red Sox went on to win the game on a two - run home run by Ortiz in the 12th inning, who also made the walk - off hit in the 14th inning of game 5. The comeback continued with a victory from an injured Schilling in game 6. Three sutures being used to stabilize the tendon in Schilling 's right ankle bled throughout the game, famously making his sock appear bloody red. The Red Sox completed their historic comeback in game 7 with a 10 -- 3 defeat of the Yankees. Ortiz, who had the game - winning RBIs in Games 4 and 5, was named ALCS Most Valuable Player. The Red Sox joined the 1942 Toronto Maple Leafs and 1975 New York Islanders as the only professional sports teams in history at the time to win a best - of - seven games series after being down three games to none. The 2009 -- 10 Philadelphia Flyers (against the Boston Bruins) and the 2013 -- 14 Los Angeles Kings (against the San Jose Sharks) would also accomplish the feat.
The Red Sox swept the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2004 World Series. The Red Sox never trailed throughout the series; Mark Bellhorn hit a game - winning home run off Pesky 's Pole in game 1, and Schilling pitched another bloodied - sock victory in game 2, followed by similarly masterful pitching performances by Martinez and Derek Lowe. It was the Red Sox ' first championship in 86 years. Manny Ramírez was named World Series MVP. To add a final, surreal touch to Boston 's championship season, on the night of Game 4 a total lunar eclipse colored the moon red over Busch Stadium. The Red Sox earned many accolades from the sports media and throughout the nation for their incredible season, such as in December, when Sports Illustrated named the Boston Red Sox the 2004 Sportsmen of the Year.
The 2005 AL East would be decided on the last weekend of the season, with the Yankees coming to Fenway Park with a one - game lead in the standings. The Red Sox won two of the three games to finish the season with the same record as the Yankees, 95 -- 67. However, a playoff was not needed, as the loser of such a playoff would still make the playoffs as a Wild Card team. As the Yankees had won the season series, they were awarded the division title, and the Red Sox competed in the playoffs as the Wild Card. Boston failed to defend their championship, and was swept in three games by the eventual 2005 World Series champion Chicago White Sox in the first round of the playoffs. In 2006 David Ortiz broke Jimmie Foxx 's single season Red Sox home run record by hitting 54 homers. However, Boston failed to make the playoffs after compiling a 9 -- 21 record in the month of August due to several injuries in club 's roster.
Theo Epstein 's first step toward restocking the team for 2007 was to pursue one of the most anticipated acquisitions in baseball history. On November 14, MLB announced that Boston had won the bid for the rights to negotiate a contract with Japanese Nippon Professional Baseball superstar pitcher Daisuke Matsuzaka. Boston placed a bid of $51.1 million to negotiate with Matsuzaka and completed a 6 - year, $52 million contract after they were announced as the winning bid.
The Red Sox moved into first place in the AL East by mid-April and never relinquished their division lead. Initially, rookie second baseman Dustin Pedroia under - performed, hitting below. 200 in April. Manager Terry Francona refused to bench him and his patience paid off as Pedroia eventually won the AL Rookie of the Year Award for his performance that season, which included 165 hits and a. 317 batting average. On the mound, Josh Beckett emerged as the ace of the staff with his first 20 - win season, as fellow starting pitchers Schilling, Matsuzaka, Wakefield and Julián Tavárez all struggled at times. Relief pitcher Hideki Okajima, another recent arrival from the NPB, posted an ERA of 0.88 through the first half and was selected for the All - Star Game. Okajima finished the season with a 2.22 ERA and 5 saves, emerging as one of baseball 's top relievers. Minor league call - up Clay Buchholz provided a spark on September 1 by pitching a no - hitter in his second career start. The Red Sox captured their first AL East title since 1995.
The Red Sox swept the Angels in the ALDS. Facing the Cleveland Indians in the ALCS, the Red Sox fell in games 2, 3, and 4 before Beckett picked up his second victory of the series in game 5, starting a comeback. The Red Sox captured their twelfth American League pennant by outscoring the Indians 30 -- 5 over the final three games. The Red Sox faced the Colorado Rockies in the 2007 World Series, and swept the Rockies in four games. In Game 4, Wakefield gave up his spot in the rotation to a recovered Jon Lester, who gave the Red Sox an impressive start, pitching 52⁄3 shutout innings. Key home runs late in the game by third baseman Mike Lowell and pinch - hitter Bobby Kielty secured the Red Sox ' second title in four years, as Lowell was named World Series MVP.
The Red Sox began their season by participating in the third opening day game in MLB history to be played in Japan, where they defeated the Oakland A 's in the Tokyo Dome. On May 19, Jon Lester threw the 18th no - hitter in team history, defeating the Kansas City Royals 7 -- 0. Down the stretch, outfielder Manny Ramirez became embroiled in controversy surrounding public incidents with fellow players and other team employees, as well as criticism of ownership and not playing, which some claimed was due to laziness and nonexistent injuries. The front office decided to move the disgrunted outfielder at the July 31 trade deadline, shipping him to the Dodgers in a three - way deal with the Pittsburgh Pirates that landed them Jason Bay to replace him in left field. With Ramirez gone, and Bay providing a new spark in the lineup, the Red Sox improved vastly and made the playoffs as the AL Wild Card. The Red Sox defeated the Angels in the 2008 ALDS three games to one. The Red Sox then took on their AL East rivals the Tampa Bay Rays in the ALCS. Down three games to one in the 5th game of the ALCS, Boston mounted a comeback from trailing 7 - 0 in the 7th inning to win 8 - 7. They tied the series at 3 games apiece with a game 6 victory before losing game 7, 3 -- 1, thus becoming the eighth team in a row since 2000 to fail to repeat as world champions.
The Red Sox returned to postseason play the following season, but were swept by the Los Angeles Angels in three games. In 2011, the Red Sox collapsed in the month of September losing 11 of 14, reminiscent of 1978 and destroying their playoff aspirations. In December 2011, Bobby Valentine was hired as a new manager. The 2012 season marked the centennial of Fenway Park, and on April 20, past and present Red Sox players and coaches assembled to celebrate the park 's anniversary. However, the collapse that they endured in September 2011 carried over into the season. The Red Sox struggled throughout the season due to injuries, inconsistent play, and off - field news. finished 69 -- 93 for their first losing season since 1997, and their worst season since 1965.
Boston, which finished last in the American League East with a 69 -- 93 record in 2012 -- 26 games behind the Yankees, became the 11th team in major league history to go from worst in the division to first the next season when it clinched the A.L. East division title on September 21, 2013. Many credit the team 's turnaround with the hiring of manager John Farrell, the former Red Sox pitching coach under Terry Francona from 2007 to 2010. As a former member of the staff, he had the respect of influential players such as Lester, Pedroia, and Ortiz. But there were other moves made in the offseason by general manager Ben Cherington who targeted "character '' players to fill the team 's needs. These acquisitions included veteran catcher David Ross, Jonny Gomes, Mike Napoli, and Shane Victorino. While some questioned these players as "re-treads '', it was clear that Cherington was trying to move past 2011 -- 2012 by bringing in "clubhouse players ''. Essential to the turnaround, however, was the pitching staff. With ace veteran John Lackey coming off Tommy John surgery and both Jon Lester and Clay Buchholz returning to their prior form, this allowed the team to rely less on their bullpen. Everything seemed in danger of collapsing, however, when both closers, Joel Hanrahan and Andrew Bailey, went down early with season - ending injuries. Farrell gave the closing job to Koji Uehara on June 21 who delivered with a 1.09 ERA and an MLB record 0.565 WHIP. On September 11, the 37 - year - old right - hander set a new Red Sox record when he retired 33 straight batters. Other reasons include the trade deadline acquisition of pitcher Jake Peavy when the Red Sox were in second place in the AL East, the depth of the bench with players such as Mike Carp and rookies Jackie Bradley, Jr. and Xander Bogaerts, and the re-emergence of players such as Will Middlebrooks and Daniel Nava. On September 28, 2013, the team secured home field advantage throughout the American League playoffs when their closest competition, the Oakland Athletics, lost. The next day, the team finished the season going 97 -- 65, the best record in the American League and tied with the St. Louis Cardinals for the best record in baseball. They proceeded to defeat the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2013 World Series, four games to two. The Red Sox became the first team since the 1991 Minnesota Twins to win the World Series a year after finishing in last place, and the second overall. The 2012 Red Sox '. 426 winning percentage was the lowest for a team in a season prior to a World Series championship.
Throughout the season, the Red Sox players and organization formed a close association with the city of Boston and its people in relation to the Boston Marathon bombings that occurred on April 15, 2013. On April 20, the day after the alleged bombers were captured, David Ortiz gave a pre-game speech following a ceremony honoring the victims and the local law enforcement, in which he stated, "This is our fucking city! And nobody is going to dictate our freedom! Stay strong! '' For the entirety of the season, the team wore an additional arm patch that exhibited the Red Sox "B '' logo and the word "Strong '' within a blue circle. The team also hung up in the dugout a custom jersey that read "Boston Strong '' with the number 617, representing the city of Boston 's area code. On many occasions during the season, victims of the attack and law enforcement involved were given the honor of throwing the ceremonial first pitch. Following their victory in the 2013 World Series, the first one clinched at home in Fenway Park since 1918, Red Sox players Jonny Gomes and Jarrod Saltalamacchia performed a ceremony during the team 's traditional duck boat victory parade, in which they placed the World Series trophy and the custom 617 jersey on the Boston Marathon finish line on Boylston Street, followed by a moment of silence and a singing of God Bless America. This ceremony helped the city "reclaim '' its spirit that was lost after the bombing. Overall, the Red Sox team and organization played a role in the healing process after the tragedy, owing to the team 's unifying effect on the city.
Following the 2013 championship, the team finished last in the AL East during 2014 with a record of 71 -- 91, and again in 2015 with a record of 78 -- 84. On September 20, 2015, David Ortiz hit his 500th career home run off Matt Moore in Tropicana Field becoming the 27th player in MLB history to achieve that prestigious milestone; in November 2015, Ortiz announced that the 2016 season would be his last.
The Red Sox had a record of 93 -- 69 and won their division in 2016, with six American League All - Stars, the AL Cy Young Award winner in Rick Porcello, and the runner - up for the AL Most Valuable Player Award, Mookie Betts. Rookie Andrew Benintendi established himself in the Red Sox ' outfield, and Steven Wright emerged as one of the year 's biggest surprises. The Red Sox grabbed the lead in the AL East early and held on to it throughout the year, which included many teams honoring Ortiz throughout the season. Despite the success, the team lost five of their last six games of the regular season and were swept in the ALDS by the eventual American League Champion Cleveland Indians.
Pitchers Starting rotation
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60 - day disabled list
7 - or 10 - day disabled list Suspended list Personal leave Roster and coaches updated September 14, 2017 Transactions Depth chart
The unofficial beginning of the spring training season for the Red Sox is Truck Day, the day a tractor - trailer filled with equipment leaves Fenway Park bound for the Sox spring training facility in Florida.
Former left fielder Mike Greenwell is from Fort Myers, Florida and was instrumental in bringing his team to the city for spring training. City of Palms Park was built in 1992 for that purpose and holds 8,000 people. It is also the home of the Red Sox Rookie team, the Gulf Coast League Red Sox, from April through June.
On October 28, 2008, the Lee County commission voted 3 -- 1 to approve an agreement with the Boston Red Sox to build a new spring - training facility for the team in south Lee County. Commissioner Brian Bigelow was the lone dissenting vote. Commissioner Bob Janes was not present for the vote, but stated that he supported it.
Dee was present in the chambers for the vote, and took the agreement back to Boston to meet with John Henry and other team officials. On November 1, 2008, the Red Sox signed an agreement with Lee County that will keep their spring training home in the Fort Myers area for 30 more years.
Wednesday, April 30, 2009, the Lee County commissioners selected the Watermen - Pinnacle site on Daniels Parkway (a little more than a mile east of Interstate 75) as the site for the new facility. The backup choice, if negotiations between county staff and the developer falter, is the University Highland site just north of Germain Arena in Estero. Jeff Mudgett, a Fort Myers architect who is volunteering his time toward the project, envisions a facility with a mini-Fenway Park that would open for Spring 2012.
On March 29, 2011, it was announced that the new field would be named JetBlue Park at Fenway South. The park was named JetBlue Park after JetBlue Airlines, which has maintained major operations at Boston 's Logan International Airport since 2004.
Many characteristics of the stadium will be taken from Fenway Park, including a 37 - foot (11 m) Green Monster wall in left field, featuring seating on top of and behind the wall. Included in the wall will be a restored version of the manual scoreboard that was housed at Fenway for almost 30 years, beginning in the 1970s. The field dimensions at JetBlue Park will be identical to those at Fenway.
The Yankees -- Red Sox rivalry is one of the oldest, most famous and fiercest rivalries in professional sports. For over 100 years, the Red Sox and New York Yankees have been rivals.
The rivalry is often a heated subject of conversation in the Northeastern United States. Since the inception of the wild card team and an added Division Series, every playoffs has featured one or both of the American League East rivals and they both have squared off in the American League Championship Series three times, with the Yankees winning twice in 1999 and 2003 and the Sox winning in 2004. In addition, the teams have twice met in the last regular - season series of a season to decide the league title, in 1904 (when the Red Sox won) and 1949 (when the Yankees won).
The teams also finished tied for first in 1978, when the Yankees won a high - profile one - game playoff for the division title. The 1978 division race is memorable for the Red Sox having held a 14 - game lead over the Yankees more than halfway through the season. Similarly, the 2004 AL Championship Series is notable for the Yankees leading 3 games to 0 and ultimately losing a best of seven series. The Red Sox comeback was the only time in baseball history that a team has come back from a 0 -- 3 deficit to win a series.
The rivalry is often termed "the best '' and "greatest rivalry in all of sports. '' Games between the two teams often generate a great deal of interest and get extensive media coverage, including being broadcast on national television.
Currently, the flagship radio station of the Red Sox is WEEI - FM / 93.7. Joe Castiglione, in his 25th year as the voice of the Red Sox, serves as the lead play - by - play announcer, along with Dave O'Brien and Jon Rish. Some of Castiglione 's predecessors include Curt Gowdy, Ken Coleman, and Ned Martin. He has also worked with play - by - play veterans Bob Starr and Jerry Trupiano. Many stations throughout New England and beyond pick up the broadcasts.
All Red Sox telecasts not shown nationally on Fox or ESPN are seen on New England Sports Network (NESN), until 2015 with Don Orsillo calling play - by - play and Jerry Remy, former Red Sox second baseman, as color analyst. At the start of the 2016 season, Dave O'Brien took over the play - by - play duties. During Remy 's recovery from cancer, former Red Sox players Dennis Eckersley and Dave Roberts have alternated doing color commentary. NESN became exclusive in 2006; before then, games were shown on such local stations as the original WHDH - TV, WNAC - TV (now the current WHDH), WBZ - TV, WSBK - TV, WLVI, WABU, and WFXT at various points in team history.
The Red Sox used to publish on their website and their annual media guides three official requirements for a player to have his number retired:
These requirements were reconsidered after the election of Carlton Fisk to the Hall of Fame in 2000; who met the first two requirements but played the second half of his career with the White Sox. As a means of meeting the criteria, then - GM Dan Duquette hired Fisk for one day as a special assistant, which allowed Fisk to technically finish his career with the Red Sox.
In 2008, the Red Sox made an "exception '' by retiring # 6 for Johnny Pesky. Pesky neither spent ten years as a player nor was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame; however, Red Sox ownership cited "... his versatility of his contributions -- on the field, off the field, (and) in the dugout... '', including as a manager, scout, and special instructor and decided that the honor had been well - earned. Pesky spent 55 years with the Red Sox organization; as a player (1942, 1946 - 1952), minor league manager (1961 - 1962, 1990), major league manager (1963 - 1964, 1980), broadcaster (1969 - 1974), major league coach (1975 - 1984), and as a special instructor and assistant general manager (1985 - 2012).
In 2015, the Red Sox chose to forgo the official criteria and retire Pedro Martínez 's # 45. Martínez only spent 7 of his 18 seasons in Boston. In justifying the number 's retirement, Red Sox principal owner John Henry stated, "To be elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame upon his first year of eligibility speaks volumes regarding Pedro 's outstanding career, and is a testament to the respect and admiration so many in baseball have for him. '' After which, the official criteria no longer appeared on the team website nor future media guides.
In 2017, less than eight months after he played the final game of his illustrious career, David Ortiz had his # 34 retired by the Red Sox. Ortiz will not be eligible for election to the Hall of Fame until 2021. Ortiz is the only Red Sox player to have won 3 World Series championships since the issuance of jersey numbers starting in 1931.
The number 42 was officially retired by Major League Baseball in 1997, but Mo Vaughn was one of a handful of players to continue wearing # 42 through a grandfather clause. He last wore it for the team in 1998. In commemoration of Jackie Robinson Day, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 for games played on April 15, Coco Crisp (CF), David Ortiz (DH), and DeMarlo Hale (Coach) did that in 2007 and again in 2008. Starting in 2009, MLB had all uniformed players for all teams wear # 42 for Jackie Robinson Day.
While not officially retired, the Red Sox have not issued several numbers since the departure of prominent figures who wore them, specifically:
There has also been debate in Boston media circles and among fans about the potential retiring of Tony Conigliaro 's number 25. Nonetheless, since Conigliaro 's last full season in Boston, 1970, the number has continued to be issued to individuals, including players Orlando Cepeda, Steve Renko, Mark Clear, Ed Romero, Don Baylor, Larry Parrish, Jack Clark, Jeff Russell, Troy O'Leary, Jeremy Giambi, Ellis Burks, Adam Hyzdu, Mike Lowell, Jackie Bradley, Jr., Kyle Kendrick and Rajai Davis; coach Dwight Evans, and manager Bobby Valentine.
Until the late 1990s, the numbers originally hung on the right - field facade in the order in which they were retired: 9 -- 4 -- 1 -- 8. It was pointed out that the numbers, when read as a date (9 / 4 / 18), marked the eve of the first game of the 1918 World Series, the last championship series that the Red Sox won before 2004. After the facade was repainted, the numbers were rearranged in numerical order. In 2012, the numbers were rearranged again in chronological order of retirement (9, 4, 1, 8, 27, 6, 14) followed by Robinson 's 42. As additional numbers are retired (e.g.: Pedro 's 45, Boggs 's 26, Papi 's 34), Robinson 's 42 is moved to the right so it remains the right-most number hanging.
Luis Aparicio Wade Boggs Lou Boudreau Jesse Burkett Orlando Cepeda Jack Chesbro Jimmy Collins
Joe Cronin Andre Dawson Bobby Doerr Dennis Eckersley Rick Ferrell * Carlton Fisk * Jimmie Foxx *
Lefty Grove * Rickey Henderson Harry Hooper Waite Hoyt Ferguson Jenkins George Kell Heinie Manush
Juan Marichal Pedro Martínez * Herb Pennock * Tony Pérez Jim Rice Red Ruffing Babe Ruth
Tom Seaver Al Simmons John Smoltz Tris Speaker Dick Williams Ted Williams Carl Yastrzemski Cy Young
Curt Gowdy
Bob Murphy
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who does jackie chan play in kung fu panda | List of Kung Fu Panda characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of characters from the DreamWorks animated film media franchise Kung Fu Panda, with their shorts and specials Secrets of the Furious Five, Kung Fu Panda Holiday, Kung Fu Panda: Secrets of the Masters, and Kung Fu Panda: Secrets of the Scroll, as well as the video games and TV show Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness.
The world of Kung Fu Panda is a fantasized version of ancient China as typically depicted in the wuxia film genre populated by anthropomorphized Asian animals where the martial arts can have magical qualities on top of extraordinary physical prowess for those sufficiently skilled.
Master Po Ping (Chinese for "Precious Peace ''), born Lotus Shan, is the titular protagonist of the Kung Fu Panda franchise. He is a fast - talking giant panda who was improbably chosen as the Dragon Warrior, champion of the Valley of Peace in the first movie. Although highly doubted as such, the giant panda proved himself worthy as a formidable warrior in unexpected ways. The adoptive son of Mr. Ping, a goose who owns a noodle restaurant, Po is one of Shifu 's students, the prophesied Dragon Warrior, the Warrior of Black and White and the True Master of Chi.
In the first film, Po is shown to be living with his adoptive father Mr. Ping and working at his noodle restaurant, dreaming of a life as a celebrated kung fu master. However, because of his excessive weight (although, for a giant panda, Po is actually at a very healthy weight) and work fueling a crippling self - loathing, he can not achieve this dream. However, to his surprise, he is chosen to be the legendary Dragon Warrior seemingly by accident: having arrived late to the Dragon Warrior 's selection ceremony, his attempts to get over the palace walls to see the event, result in him conspicuously crashing into the midst of the masters just as Master Oogway is about to make his selection, and being picked as the new Dragon Warrior. As it is, Oogway 's selection of him is doubted by all until Po defeats Tai Lung. He is capable of impressive feats when motivated by food (which Shifu uses to train him afterwards).
In the second film, Po is shown to have had a traumatic childhood, having been separated from his biological father, Li Shan, during a giant panda genocide committed by Lord Shen. This lord wanted to avert the prophecy about his tyranny being stopped by a "warrior of black and white '', and he killed Po 's mother while she was saving her son. This is why, at first, he seemed unable to achieve inner peace. However, after being told by the Soothsayer that it is n't the past that shapes the person, he realizes he has led a happy and fulfilling life, despite his tragic upbringing.
Po is often flustered and clumsy, but generally laid back and easy going. He has shown that he dislikes himself for his weight. This is shown when he splits into good and bad Po, where good Po says that he thinks he is slightly chubby. While he seems childish, overenthusiastic, and mildly dim - witted at times, he has a deep appreciation of the martial arts in all its aspects and can genuinely be a brave, intelligent panda. As a result, Po is a formidable warrior who is not only capable of teaching the discipline 's philosophical and physical elements, but is also able to learn traditional techniques quickly with the right instruction while developing powerful innovations.
In Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness, Po is shown to be defending the Valley of Peace from villains of different kind, with assistance from Shifu and the Furious Five. All the while, Po learns lessons and more about the history of Kung Fu, as well as meeting famous Kung Fu masters like him.
In the third film, Shifu leaves the role of teaching to Po, much to his shock. Po 's first lesson ends up with the Furious Five getting injured. Afterwards, he goes to the Memorial Garden, where he finds out Shifu set him up to fail.
Grand Master Oogway (Chinese for "Tortoise '') was an elderly tortoise known to have been the previous senior headmaster of the Jade Palace and the founder of Kung Fu itself.
Not much is revealed about Grand Master Oogway 's past life, although in one of the Kung Fu Panda Legends of Awesomeness episodes it is revealed that the Jade Palace was built to honor him. However, it is implied that he was probably full of questions as a youth, which led to his departure from his home in the Galápagos Islands on a journey of discovery almost a thousand years ago, traveling all around the world and visiting every country until he arrived in China. Oogway stood on a hill overlooking the land that would later become known as the Valley of Peace and knew that he had found the place he would call home for the rest of his life.
In the first film, Oogway is shown to be highly venerated for his wisdom, knowledge and experience, and considered a sage. It is also apparent that he seemed to be reckoned as a god in the art of Kung Fu, as he was greatly respected by Shifu, the Furious Five, Po, the entire Valley of Peace, and all of China. He is wise and possesses considerable physical skill. He is the only one that Tai Lung could not defeat, instantly paralyzing him. His selection of Po as the Dragon Warrior was strongly doubted by all, especially Po himself, but he stood by his decision, which proved to be the correct one. After convincing Shifu to train Po, Oogway ascended to the Spirit Realm in the midst of dozens of peach blossom petals floating away in the cold night breeze as he disappeared. Among all the proverbs he recites, his most recurring is "There are no accidents. ''
In the second film, Oogway makes a cameo taking in place of the moon boy in the DreamWorks logo, and during a flashback wherein Po recounts all the major happenings of his life, including the day he was chosen as the Dragon Warrior. In the accompanying film Secrets of the Masters, it is revealed that Oogway was responsible for uniting the masters Thundering Rhino, Storming Ox, and Croc for the first time. After observing the trio as dishonorable streetfighters and learning of the return of the evil Wu Sisters, Oogway led them on a quest to defeat the villains, leading to the trio 's reformation and their part in forming the Masters Council.
In the third film, it is revealed that 500 years ago, Oogway was once best friends and brothers - in - arms with a powerful general named Kai. When Oogway was badly wounded in an ambush, Kai carried him to a hidden Panda village where the pandas healed him through use of chi, later teaching him to use it as well. However, Kai wanted this power all to himself and tried to take the chi of the pandas, forcing Oogway to confront him. After a long and fierce battle, Oogway banished Kai to the Spirit Realm. Sometime after Oogway ascended there, Kai challenges him to a rematch, defeating him and using his chi to return to the mortal realm. The vengeful Kai then attempts to take the chi from everyone in China. After Kai is destroyed by Po in the Spirit Realm, Oogway reveals that he specifically chose Po as the Dragon Warrior due to his being a descendant of the pandas who helped him long ago in addition to being a worthy successor to carry on his legacy and alerted Li Shan (Po 's biological father) that Po was alive. Oogway then tells Po that he is now a master of chi, giving him a jade staff he wielded previously, and tells him that if he wishes he can return to the mortal realm.
More of Grand Master Oogway 's past was revealed in Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. It was shown that Grand Master Oogway broke the Valley of Peace 's citizens from Scorpion 's hypnosis, fended off his treacherous student Fenghuang, saved the valley from evil demons and their leader Ke - Pa, chose Shifu to run the Jade Palace instead of Junjie, and imprisoned Master Ding in Mugu Mountain after separating him from his Spirit Orbs. In "Ghost of Oogway, '' Junjie assumed the form of Oogway to trick Po and the Furious Five into letting their guard down. Shifu later assumed the form of the ghost of Grand Master Oogway to fool Junjie, who had also studied under Oogway in his youth. Following Junjie 's defeat, Shifu stated to Po that he knew Junjie was impersonating Grand Master Oogway because the real Grand Master Oogway never said "awesome. '' In the episode 's final scene, it was shown that the real ghost of Grand Master Oogway was watching the battle from the peach tree and stated "awesome '' before ascending back to the heavens. Oogway also battled alongside the previous incarnation of the Furious Five whose membership included Shifu and Fenghuang, an evil owl who betrayed the group and only fled because Oogway proved more than a match for her. Oogway and the five also battled such villains as Master Ding, a corrupt Kung Fu master with great mental powers. In the two part - episode "Enter the Dragon '' it was revealed that Oogway once battled a horde of demons led by the evil Ke - Pa using the Hero 's Chi, a power granted to only one Kung Fu Master per generation. Oogway managed to seal most of the demons away in a vault but was left powerless against Ke - Pa, until his powers were restored by the Sacred Peach Tree of Heavenly Wisdom. Trapping Ke - Pa in the form of an aged pig, Oogway built the Jade Palace atop the vault containing the other demons to prevent them from escaping in the future. After he passed on, the Hero 's Chi passed to Po, who would later use it to battle the demons again and destroy Ke - Pa permanently.
The Furious Five are the supporting protagonists of the franchise; with the exception of Oogway, Shifu, Po, and Tai Lung, the Furious Five are deemed the most skilled warriors in China. The Five were all trained by Shifu, and are homages to the Five Animals Southern styles of Chinese martial arts (i.e. crane, viper, monkey, mantis, and tiger). The Furious Five initially refused to believe that Po was the Dragon Warrior, but later grew to respect his courage and tenacity. When Tai Lung was defeated by Po in single combat, they were convinced enough to bow to the giant panda as a master.
Po has become fast friends with the Five and regularly fights alongside them and they have incorporated their group tactics with him to become an even more formidable fighting force. Discussing Po 's new placement with the Furious Five in Kung Fu Panda 2, Jack Black has regarded Po as the "technical leader '' of the quintet. However, because he is "still finding his way '' through his insecurities and clumsiness, the group does n't become the "Furious Six '', but rather "The Furious Five and the Dragon Warrior '' -- with Master Tigress as the "real '' leader according to Black.
In the Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness episode "Owl Be Back '', it was revealed that there had been other incarnations of the Furious Five before Tigress, Monkey, Viper, Mantis, and Crane back when Master Oogway was still alive. The preceding line - up consisted of Master Shifu, Fenghuang, Master Rooster, Master Snow Leopard, and Master Elephant.
Master Tigress is a tiger and also the founder of the Furious Five. Tigress bitterly resented Po when he was chosen to be the Dragon Warrior instead of her, and was the most vocal of the Five in her contempt for the panda even while her comrades grew to respect him. On his first night, she firmly told Po he did n't belong at the Jade Palace, sarcastically proclaiming that he was a disgrace to kung fu, and that he should leave. Though dejected, Po eventually chose to stay and they became best friends and the strongest 2 of the whole group.
After the passing of Oogway and news that Tai Lung had escaped prison, Tigress overheard Po protesting to Shifu that he would never be able to defeat Tai Lung. Tigress took it upon herself to intercept the incoming villain, along with the rest of the Five. Tigress managed to counter Tai Lung and best him, matching his prowess, blow - for - blow. However, they were all defeated by Tai Lung 's superior martial skill and nerve attack. At the order of Shifu, Tigress and the rest of the Five evacuated the Valley without question. When Po defeats Tai Lung, Tigress is the first to acknowledge him as a master of kung fu, giving him a smile and bowing to him in respect, with the rest of the Five following suit.
In Secrets of the Furious Five, Tigress was revealed to be an orphan living in the Bao Gu Orphanage where she was greatly feared by the other children and the matron due to her destructive temper and strength. Isolated in her room for the safety of the other children, she began to see herself as a monster, as everyone else did. Shifu, at the request of the orphanage, came to teach her to control herself by playing dominoes, which required discipline, grace, and precision. After months of training, Tigress learned to control both her anger and her movements. However, she was still feared by all potential parents who visited the orphanage, and Shifu soon took her in as a foster daughter, giving a small but genuine smile to her as they walked towards Tigress ' new home, the Jade Palace. However, Shifu still carried the emotional scars of previous events, and was strict and distant in her upbringing. An adult Tigress explained that Shifu loved Tai Lung like no other person before or since, including her.
In Secrets of the Scroll, It is further revealed that Shifu was very strict in her Kung Fu training, and did not approve of her natural aggression and immense strength emerging during practices. Shifu originally wanted her to become as much like him as possible; Tigress in turn aspired to have as much control and skill as he did, while at the same time believing she would never be like him, while Oogway agreed with her and believed that Tigress should be encouraged to grow into her own. When Shifu heard news of Boar, a dangerous warrior who had defeated several Kung Fu masters and was spreading terror through China, Tigress wanted to help, but he refused to let her. However, when Shifu fell ill due to a bad batch of food served by Po, Shifu sent Tigress to find four warriors to help fight Boar. However, when she dropped the scroll containing Shifu 's message, she inadvertently mixed it up with a scroll Po had thrown away; one with a list of things he could aspire to be: a cleaner, comedian, dancer, and doctor. Tigress sought out the ones fitting this description, in this way meeting Crane, Monkey, Viper, and Mantis for the first time and learning from them how to be herself. However, when Shifu saw those she had brought, Shifu told her that she had failed, and ordered the Valley of Peace evacuated. Tigress however, stayed to fight, pretending to be Shifu, and after initially being defeated, found herself aided by Crane, Mantis, Viper and Monkey, who had stayed out of loyalty to their friend. Tigress realized during the fight through their actions and Boar 's words that she was not Shifu and never would be, and unleashed her true power; together with her companions, Boar was defeated. Upon returning, Shifu (now fully recovered from his illness), admitted that he was proud of her, and despite saying her style of fighting was unfocused and undisciplined, agreed to help her and the others develop their skills, eventually leading to them becoming the Furious Five. Ironically, Tigress ' finding the other members of the future Furious Five was due in part to the actions of Po, and their defeat of Boar in turn inspired his love of Kung Fu and led to his eventual destiny as the Dragon Warrior.
In spite of her temperate, stoic, and sarcastic attitude, Tigress is probably the most loyal of the Five, extremely dedicated to the well - being of the Valley of Peace. As the leader of the group, Tigress holds an enormous sense of responsibility, and has no greater ambition than to protect the Valley and perfect her own skills.
However, through Po 's single comment in Kung Fu Panda 2 that she 's so hardcore she "ca n't feel anything '', Tigress begins to question how others perceive her. She has also become a close friend to Po, and better understands his foibles, fighting closely with the panda and using tandem combat techniques they have developed together, although she can still get easily embarrassed by him. While still direct and commanding, she is also protective of Po, as shown by her efforts to keep him from battling Shen after he freezes in front of the peacock, explaining that she "ca n't watch (her) friend be killed ''. Additionally, she later pushes him out of the way when Shen fires his canon at him a second time. Po reciprocates this closeness to her immediately after that sacrifice with him and all his comrades strewn half - conscious about in the bay; namely, he swims to her alone and holds her paw in deep concern for her well being. After Po 's single - handed defeat of the peacock, Tigress helps him out of the water before complimenting him for his astounding victory, which Po silently answers with a hug. Tigress also listened to Po about his ' daddy issues ', as Viper put it, showing that she cares how he is feeling, although she was still sarcastic to him.
Tigress also displays a caring personality towards infants. At the end of the original film, when Tai Lung is defeated, she is seen holding a rabbit child and protecting it from the blast 's shockwave. In Kung Fu Panda Holiday Special, she playfully feeds one of the village piglets during the festival.
In Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness, it is revealed that Tigress was left at the Bao Gu Orphanage by her parents. It is also shown that she was, at one point, not good with children. Tigress appears to be more stern and irritable throughout the series, and gets agitated with Po more than any of the rest of the Five. Despite this, she is still a dedicated warrior and friend. Po has wanted to be friends with her since he was five, and often tries to encourage his friendship with her. While she is distant, and often violent towards others, she shows a genuine, deep caring for Po and Shifu, expressing joy and relief when they are revealed alive in different episodes, hugging Po and spinning Shifu around, (though she quickly recovers) to the intense embarrassment of others nearby.
She also shows signs of romantic feelings for the Midnight Stranger (actually Po, who was secretly defying the kung fu ban in place at the time), being sappy and girly, in defiance of her normal surly characteristics. When she discovers that Po is the Midnight Stranger, then she is disappointed and says she is ' going to go throw up ', to the disappointment and possible offending of Po, who had been excited for her to discover his identity. She has shown deep caring for Shifu, who is her father figure. In ' Kung Fu Day Care ', she takes care of and teaches kung fu to Zan, a young boy who is actually the Emperor 's nephew, and she realises that Shifu, while being cold towards her, had actually taken some time to look after her and had played checkers with her.
Tigress shows often that she was brought up to kung fu, and not normally. For instance, when Po gives an example of a random situation involving a rooster, battle axe and banana, she knows the protocol for it (' approach from battle axe side, banana 's a decoy '). She also does n't understand the meaning of relaxation. Tigress actually left the Jade palace at one time, as Po 's antics were annoying her. She also does n't like festivals (at the Aqueduct festival she said, "do n't these people ever work ''), and through her coldness, in Legends of Awesomeness she is often believed to be a man. Whenever Po hugs her, she freezes up and looks awkward, this feeling spreading throughout the group.
In Kung Fu Panda 3, Master Tigress evades being attacked by Kai in order to warn Po that Kai is coming for the Pandas. Using what she learned from Po and about who she is, Tigress along with Li, Mr. Ping and the pandas are able to use their chi to rescue Po in order for him to defeat Kai once and for all.
Master Viper is a green tree viper with two small lotus flowers on top of her head. Although she has a serious birth defect for her species, being born with barely visible venomous fangs, she compensates with her strength, sinuous nature, beauty, and precision. In defiance of the villainous stereotype of snakes, Viper is the most charming, kind, compassionate and sweetest of the Five as demonstrated with her quickly developing empathy for Po as his indomitable tenacity became obvious and being the only one who did n't mock him in any way. She also acts as the "mother hen '' of the group, trying to defuse arguments and conflicts between her friends and their differing personalities.
In Secrets of the Furious Five, Viper was revealed to be daughter of Great Master Viper, protector of the village where she lived who relied on his venomous fangs to fell his enemies (referred to by Po, and later on by the Great Master as the awe - inspiring awesomeness of his "Poison Fang Technique ''), and his beautiful wife. The Great Master hoped she would carry on his legacy once she was born, but she was without fangs and never developed them as she grew up, much to the dismay of her father. To make her father feel better, Viper took up ribbon dancing at age six, blossoming into the best dancer in the village. During one Autumn Moon Festival, Viper was too timid to attend the festival and stayed home with her mother. But when her father fought against a gorilla bandit who attacked the village and used venom - proof armor to shatter the Great Master 's poison fangs, Viper, seeing him in trouble, mustered the courage she needed to defeat the gorilla by confusing him with her dancing skills and tying him up with her ribbon. Thus her father 's legacy was secure with his daughter becoming a mighty warrior on her own terms.
In Secrets of the Scroll, Viper was asked by Tigress to appear at the Jade Palace (where she thought she was to be asked to perform for Master Shifu and Oogway). However, Shifu, displeased with her not being a warrior, sent her and her companions, Crane, Monkey and Mantis away to safety when Boar threatened the Valley of Peace. However, when Tigress faced Boar, she and the others came to her aid, helping to defeat him. Shifu then offered to help them develop their skills into Kung Fu styles of their own, eventually creating the Furious Five.
In Kung Fu Panda Holiday, it is revealed that Viper has sisters whom she loved to cook with during the Winter Feast, but in Secrets of the Furious Five, she is shown as an only child. It may be possible that Viper is merely the firstborn in her family and her sisters could all be younger siblings, though this remains unconfirmed.
In Kung Fu Panda 2, Viper is shown to be the most transparent in her feelings and the most openly compassionate. When the group, hidden inside a Chinese dragon costume, witness the wolves ' brutal treatment of the peasants of Gongmen City, Viper 's face is shown to be openly horrified. She is also shown to be able to pick locks with her tail and in "Ladies of the Shade, '' she can swallow things for a while.
In Kung Fu Panda 3 Viper is among the members of the Jade Palace who meet Po 's father, Li Shan and fight the Jombies (jade statues possessing the chi of Kung Fu master past and present) controlled by Kai when he attacks them. Viper herself has her chi taken and is herself turned into a Jombie when Kai attacks and destroys the Jade Palace. She is returned to normal when Po destroys Kai and is later seen celebrating alongside him and the rest of the Furious Five.
Master Monkey is a Golden snub - nosed monkey with a thick Chinese accent who is the friendliest and most approachable of the Five. Monkey was the first of the five to recognize Po 's determination and was at first, the only member of the Furious Five who referred to Po by name. He also seems to harbor the strongest sense of humor within the Five as well, responding most strongly to Po 's sense of comedy. Unlike the others, Master Monkey prefers to use a weapon in combat. He uses a staff, a traditional weapon used in Kung Fu and other martial arts and strongly associated with the legendary Monkey King Sun Wukong.
Before he became a kung fu warrior, it is known in the Secrets of the Furious Five that Monkey was the village trickster when he was a teenager, often making people slip on banana peels and / or pantsing them in revenge for an incident in his youth that resulted in him becoming a laughingstock. The townspeople sent many powerful warriors, including rhinoceros guards from Chorh - Gom Prison, to force him out of town dead or alive, but Monkey humiliated each and every one of them (by swiping their belts off, resulting in their pants falling down). Monkey was finally subdued by Master Oogway, who, aside from wearing no pants, also used his shell to hide from Monkey 's attacks. Oogway taught Monkey compassion by saving him from a falling beam, sensing the pain of what caused Monkey 's actions. Instead of making him leave, Oogway convinced him to stay and use his skills for good, which led Monkey to develop into the warrior he is today.
In Kung Fu Panda 2, Monkey continues to provide much of the humor. When they break into the prison to free Master Ox and Master Croc, he offers to stand watch and make crane noises if the guards come into view -- insulting Crane, who asks indignantly when he 's ever made such noises. Monkey is also the first to try to rally the Furious Five after Po seemingly dies and the group is in chains, heading for execution. He turns to Tigress in this time, and seems to look to her for reassurance.
In the Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness episode "Monkey in the Middle, '' it is revealed that Master Monkey has a criminal older brother named Wu Kong who is the self - proclaimed "King of Thieves. '' He also had a mother who died from shock and grief after seeing her two sons fight. Despite this tragedy, Monkey is shown to be a prankster who is often having fun and joking around with Po, whom he sees as a brother.
Master Mantis is a Chinese mantis who is the smallest of the Five, but he is obviously the strongest proportional to his size. He resembles the praying mantis from Antz. He can perform such feats as throwing Po and single - handedly holding up a severed rope bridge burdened by most of his comrades and Tai Lung and still have the strength to snap the bridge when needed. He is also a skilled acupuncturist, although his success does depend on the type of body he is working with; a body like that of Po can sometimes give him problems until he familiarizes himself with the particular anatomy (one time, he accidentally tweaked Po 's facial nerve, causing the panda to pull a face, which Tigress took as an offensive gesture). Pragmatic and open minded with a dry sense of humor, Mantis was the first of the five to develop acceptance and liking of Po as a person, alongside the factor of Po 's girth, declaring size did little to define a warrior and could actually be used as an advantage no matter what style one practices. An unused line from the movie is Mantis saying, "I 've got to admit, that panda has a lot of heart. And he 's incredibly fun to watch bounce. ''
When he was a few years younger (in Secrets of the Furious Five), Mantis was extremely impatient, feeling that the world was too slow for him and he was too fast for the world. On a mission to retrieve wool coats back from the Wool Stealing Crocodile Bandits (it is unknown if he met Master Croc back then), he was captured due to his overconfidence and lack of listening skills when one of the sheep villagers tried to warn him of the bandits ' traps. Mantis was locked in a cage for days and forced to sit and wait for something to happen, and he entered a trance that allowed him to survey the world moving faster than he did. This allowed him to develop the patience needed to devise a plan of escape, playing dead to trick the crocodiles into opening his cage and defeat them.
In the sequel, Mantis ' background is further revealed. When the group interrupts Po and Tigress in an effort to give "emotional support '', Mantis says wistfully that he never got to know his father, because his mother ate his father 's head. Later, when it seems as if they are about to die, Mantis sighs that he always expected to settle down with "a nice girl who would later eat my head. ''
Mantis is also shown to be able to move at inhuman speeds and break metal with his super strength.
In Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness, Mantis has had two relationships, with a caterpillar and a female mantis named Hao Ming, and is shown to be an emotional wreck when he is dumped. This ties in with his remarks in the second film about wanting to settle down.
Master Crane is a black - necked crane who is the most patient of the Five and one of the most sarcastic. During combat situations, especially in dangerous locations where fatal falls are possible, Crane will fly around the combat zone, surveying the area as a scout for tactical advantage as well as catching any of his comrades if they do fall. If necessary, he is strong enough to carry all of the Five in the air, but this is very taxing for him. He was the first of the Five to hold a conversation with Po, albeit it being quite awkward. Nonetheless, touched by Po 's dedication and admiration of the Five led Crane to have some respect for Po.
In Secrets of the Furious Five, Crane was the janitor at the Lee Da Kung Fu Academy, where everybody looked down upon him including the strict instructor of the academy due to his particularly skinny build. However, the top student Mei Ling saw the skills which Crane used to tidy up the place every night, and convinced Crane to try out for the school. Though his nerve faltered at first, Crane accidentally wandered into the obstacle course when ordered to clean it up for the next batch of students. Demanding eligibility from prospective students and the instructor, Crane quickly found the confidence to surpass it, and passed with flying colors.
In Kung Fu Panda 2, Crane is shown to be the one responsible for carrying Po around. Unlike Tigress, Viper, Monkey, and Mantis, the panda is unable to fall from great heights and land safely on his feet, so Crane basically breaks his fall when needed. He is shown to be insulted when Po and Monkey insinuate that the noise "Caw - Caw, Kee - Kee, '' are Crane noises, asking when he 's ever made any noises like that, ironically proving he does make these noises when he performs ' Wings of Justice ' during the attempt to blockade Shen 's fleet.
When Tigress forces Po to stay behind on the basis that she "ca n't watch (her) friend be killed. '' Crane asks hopefully "Hey, uh... maybe you ca n't watch ME be killed? '' to which she tells him to stop being a wimp. In the end of the film, Crane is shocked with the rest of the Five and Masters Croc and Ox to see Po hugging Tigress, saying "Do n't ever do that again, please? '' as he hugs him with the others.
Legends of Awesomeness depicts Crane as a somewhat awkward member of the Furious Five given to telling boring stories and prone to various illnesses and allergies. He is also revealed to have a mother who was initially terrified by the idea of him being involved in Kung Fu - he thus grew up practicing it without her knowledge.
The following Kung Fu Masters were featured or mentioned in Secrets of the Furious Five, Kung Fu Panda Holiday, and any other Kung Fu Panda - related media.
The Masters ' Council are a group of renowned Kung Fu Masters who are the protectors of the metropolis of Gongmen City. They have governed the city after the parents of Lord Shen had passed on.
Master Thundering Rhino was shown to be the leader of the Masters ' Council that protects the metropolis of Gongmen City. He was strong, fast, and said to have an "impenetrable horn defense. '' He wielded a battle hammer called the Cloud Hammer and used it easily. His father was said to be the "Legendary Master Flying Rhino. '' In his early adventures, he became legendary in his own right by slaying the Ten Thousand Serpents in the Valley of Woe. When he was in Gongmen City, he trained a young Storming Ox in the art of Kung Fu. He later had an encounter with Croc (who at the time was a member of the Wool Stealing Crocodile Bandits) and the two of them fought where Master Thundering Rhino spared Croc (who ended up giving up his criminal ways and sided with Master Thundering Rhino).
In Kung Fu Panda: Secrets of the Masters, Master Thundering Rhino (alongside Master Storming Ox and Master Croc) were seen in a street fight in the city of Jinzhou. They were approached by Oogway who gave them the task of stopping the Wu Sisters at Hubei Volcano. During this time, there was a deep seated need of Thundering Rhino to win his father 's respect. Master Thundering Rhino, Master Storming Ox, and Master Croc managed to defeat the Wu Sisters. In the present, it was shown that Master Thundering Rhino used to wield an unnamed staff (which he used to liberate the village of Wen Shen) which is now on display in the Hall of Warriors.
In Kung Fu Panda 2, he was first seen training with Master Storming Ox and Master Croc when Lord Shen arrives telling them to leave. Master Thundering Rhino objected to this and he alongside Master Storming Ox and Master Croc ended up fighting Lord Shen. When Master Storming Ox and Master Croc were defeated, Lord Shen 's weapons were broken by Master Thundering Rhino whom he called a show - off. When Thundering Rhino warned him he was no match for Kung Fu, Shen agreed with him before revealing his great cannon weapon as he quoted "But THIS IS! '' The first cannonball from the cannon is what killed Master Thundering Rhino off - screen. Master Thundering Rhino 's Cloud Hammer was left mounted in the palace 's center square by Lord Shen as both a warning to anyone who opposes him and as a victory trophy. The Furious Five, Po, and Master Shifu receive word that he is dead and travel to Gongmen City to stop Lord Shen. The hammer warning would be turned into a memorial for Thundering Rhino after Shen 's death.
Master Storming Ox is one of the Masters of Gongmen City and a member of the Masters ' Council. When he was young, he was trained in the art of Kung Fu by Master Thundering Rhino who found him having snuck into the Royal Palace. It was mentioned by Po that he once fought two hundred rat bandits in the rice fields of the Wing Cho province.
In Kung Fu Panda: Secrets of the Masters, Master Storming Ox (alongside Master Thundering Rhino and Master Croc) were seen in a street fight in the city of Jinzhou. They were approached by Grand Master Oogway who gave them the task of stopping the Wu Sisters at Hubei Volcano. Master Thundering Rhino, Master Storming Ox, and Master Croc managed to defeat the Wu Sisters. In the present, it was shown that Master Storming Ox used to wield an unnamed sword (which he once used to defeat the Macau Marauders) which is now on display in the Hall of Warriors.
In Kung Fu Panda 2, he was training with Master Thundering Rhino and Master Croc. Lord Shen arrived and told them to leave. The three objected to this and ended up attacking Lord Shen only for Storming Ox and Croc to be defeated. When the Furious Five and Po travel to Gongmen City, they find him and Master Croc still alive and imprisoned in the Gongmen City Jail. However, Master Storming Ox refuses to join them saying that if he does, Lord Shen will use the Weapon on the city and kill everyone and that Kung Fu is dead. He later changes his mind and joins them for the last battle saying that "their friend (who later turns out to be Master Shifu) is very persuasive. ''
After Lord Shen 's death at the hands of Po, and with Master Thundering Rhino dead, Master Storming Ox became the new leader of the Masters ' Council, and therefore the new king of Gongmen City.
He has his own section in the KFP comic "Kung Fu Panda: Art of Balance '' chapter "One Set of Horns. ''
In the Kung Fu Panda 2 video game, Master Storming Ox is the one who tells Po about the Komodo dragons that once attacked Gongmen City when one of them is sighted in the sewers.
Master Storming Ox is an expert strategist with the ability to pinpoint an enemy 's weakspot. His horns can penetrate anything.
He did not appear in Kung Fu Panda 3 but was briefly mentioned.
Master Croc is one of the Masters of Gongmen City and member of the Master 's Council. He is a saltwater crocodile with a spiked metal ball on the tip of his tail and extreme fighting skills both in and out of water. He was once the head of the infamous Wool Stealing Crocodile Bandits of Crocodile Island (the very same bandits Mantis encountered in his youth) until he crossed paths with Master Thundering Rhino. After the fight and inspired by the master sparing him, he gave up on being a bandit and eventually came to sit at Thundering Rhino 's side as a member of the Masters ' Council. One of Master Croc 's known heroics is when he had managed to defeat the Badger Bandits.
In Kung Fu Panda: Secrets of the Masters, Master Croc (alongside Master Thundering Rhino and Master Storming Ox) were seen in a street fight in the city of Jinzhou. They were approached by Grand Master Oogway who gave them the task of stopping the Wu Sisters at Hubei Volcano. Master Thundering Rhino, Master Storming Ox, and Master Croc managed to defeat the Wu Sisters. In the present, it was shown that Master Croc used to wear a cape which is now on display in the Hall of Warriors.
In Kung Fu Panda 2, he was training with Master Thundering Rhino and Master Storming Ox. Lord Shen arrived and told them to leave. The three objected to this and ended up attacking Lord Shen only for Storming Ox and Croc to be defeated. He too gives up after being defeated by the Weapon, but unlike Master Storming Ox, who is visibly angry at Po 's insistence that they fight, Croc is more resigned. He is obviously less aggressive than Master Storming Ox, and visibly winces when Tigress rebuffs every single one of Po 's attempts to leave the jail when she tells him to stay behind. He also joins in the final fight after Shifu 's persuading.
In Kung Fu Panda 3, he was one of the masters who are turned to jombies and used against Po
Earlier years Croc 's origins are currently unknown. However, it is known that he was once the head of the infamous Wool Stealing Crocodile Bandits of Crocodile Island, a gang of criminals noted to be "unmatched in their mischief '' and known for their skill in trap - setting. One such trap successfully captured Master Mantis, though the bandits themselves were eventually fooled by his "staying - still - for - a-really - long - time '' technique. (5)
It is also known that Croc eventually crossed paths with Master Thundering Rhino, whose kung fu was proven superior in their battle on the shores of the Wa Su Li River. Beaten, Croc prepared himself for death, but the fatal blow never came. Thundering Rhino instead asked Croc to use his kung fu skills for doing good. Croc was so moved by Master Rhino 's compassion that he immediately quit his criminal ways. He then traveled across China, following Rhino 's advice to use his kung fu for good by righting wrongs and protecting the weak. Croc gained fame for his victorious deeds during this time. One such victory was his silencing of the Badger Bandits, who insulted Croc by talking about his mother.
Eventually he came to sit at Rhino 's side as a member of the Kung Fu Council.
Master Boar was a Kung Fu Master who was supposed to appear as a member of the Masters ' Council in Kung Fu Panda 2, but was scrapped.
According to modeling supervisor Jason Turner, it was a challenge to animate Master Boar since his fat tends to get in his way when he leans down not unlike the challenges the animators had to face with Po.
His design was used for an inmate in the Gongmen Palace 's dungeon with the inmate voiced by Conrad Vernon. Similar boar bandits with his design appeared in Kung Fu Panda Holiday with Conrad Vernon voicing the bandit that said "Would n't be my choice. ''
Master Boar later appeared in Kung Fu Panda: Showdown of Legendary Legends as a playable character.
Master Antelope is a Kung Fu Master who was featured in the digital comic "Legend of the Legendary Warrior. '' Not much is known about her except for the fact that she took part in a Kung Fu Tournament at the Jade Palace.
Master Bull is a Kung Fu Master who was featured in the digital comic "Legend of the Legendary Warrior. '' Not much is known about him except for the fact that he took part in a Kung Fu Tournament at the Jade Palace. In the Hall of Warriors, he is shown to have a portrait where he is holding two spiked hammer - like weapons. The caption under the portrait says that he is the "Master of the Hammering Headache '' technique.
Master Bull is also featured in Kung Fu Panda World where he rarely appears at the Sacred Peaks. When the player sits on the rocks in a certain pattern, they can click him and a mini-game will activate where the player has to protect the Valley of Peace from Tai Lung 's henchmen.
Master Frog is a Kung Fu Master who was featured in the digital comic "Legend of the Legendary Warrior. '' Not much is known about him except for the fact that he took part in a Kung Fu Tournament at the Jade Palace. In the Hall of Warriors, he has his own painting with a caption under the portrait that says "Beware his Musical Mayhem Attack. ''
Master Frog is also featured in Kung Fu Panda World where he is seen in Lily Pad Marsh sitting on the head of Master Monkey 's Statue. When clicked upon, Master Frog will flicker his tongue, jump from the hands of Master Monkey 's statue, leap into the water, and float back up to the statue. Also, in the game, he has a scroll named after himself called "Master Frog 's Leap. ''
Master Golden Takin is a Kung Fu Master. Not much is known about him except for the fact that he was credited as the builder of the 900 - year - old Training Hall and was appointed as the first martial arts instructor by Oogway.
Master Leopard is a Kung Fu Master who is briefly featured in the digital comic "Legend of the Legendary Warrior. '' Not much is known about her or if Master Leopard is her real name or not.
Master Dog is a Kung Fu Master who was briefly mentioned. Not much is known about him and it was said that he was granted a set of ninja weapons that were forged by the father of Lady Blossom when it came to rescuing her.
Dog 's weapons were seen in the Hall of Warriors as seen in Kung Fu Panda.
Master Wolf is a Kung Fu Master who was briefly seen in the digital comic "Legend of the Legendary Warrior. ''
The Grand Twin Weasels are two venerated Kung Fu Masters. Not much is known about them except that they are masters of the ring blades which can cut through stone. When their opponents see their weapons the battle is automatically decided.
Their blades are seen in the Hall of Warriors as seen in Kung Fu Panda.
Flying Rhino is a Kung Fu Master who is the father and trainer of Thundering Rhino. He once used an armor in a bloody fight against the warriors of the Guangdong Province. Although he triumphed in that battle, his armor still bears the battle scars caused by the butterfly knives used by the lizard assassins that managed to get close to him. There was also a reference that Flying Rhino has also trained Vachir and had recommended him to Oogway to be in charge of Tai Lung 's incarceration at Chorh - Gom Prison as Flying Rhino stated that Vachir was brave enough, strong enough, and ruthless enough for the job.
His armor is on display at the Jade Palace as seen in Kung Fu Panda.
Great Master Viper is a Kung Fu Master who is the father of Master Viper and the last known leader of the Viper Clan. Not much is known about Great Master Viper 's past before the birth of his daughter Viper. What is known about him according to Po is that he was the greatest known leader and warrior of the Viper Clan, as well as the sole protector of Viper 's home village, highly dependent on his "Poison Fang Technique, '' with which he used his venomous fangs to fell his enemies. Given that his venom was deadly enough to fell fifteen gorilla warriors and a mid-sized crocodile (according to Po), he quickly built up his legacy and became greatly feared by his enemies.
As is shown in Secrets of the Furious Five, Great Master Viper was shocked when Viper was born without fangs, prompting him to not pay her much attention as she grew up since he thought there was no point teaching her kung fu if she could n't use "Poison Fang ''. Consequently, Viper instead took up ribbon dancing to cheer her father up. She finally got her chance to prove herself when a ferocious gorilla bandit took the precaution of wearing armour and broke Great Master Viper 's fangs, with Viper then tying the bandit up with her ribbon and saving her father 's life.
Master Eagle is a Kung Fu Master who was referenced in Kung Fu Panda: Secrets of the Masters. Not much is known about him except for the fact that he once owned the Blade of Bao Ding which he used to defeat the Hyenas of Handan as mentioned by Po. His weapon is on display in the Hall of Warriors.
Rhino is a Kung Fu Master who was among the 29 representatives at the Jade Palace 's formal Winter Feast dinner from one of the unnamed Kung Fu schools in China to which he is the master over. Out of the twenty - nine representatives present, he and Master Sheep were the only ones named. It is unknown if he has any relations to Master Flying Rhino or Master Thundering Rhino.
Master Sheep is a Kung Fu Master who was among the 29 representatives at the Jade Palace 's formal Winter Feast dinner from one of the unnamed Kung Fu schools in China to which he is the master over. Out of the 29 representatives present, only he and Master Rhino were the only ones named.
Master Bear is a brown bear that appears in Kung Fu Panda 3. He is among the Kung Fu Masters that are rounded up by the Furious Five to fight Kai.
He appears as a playable character in Kung Fu Panda: Showdown of Legendary Legends.
Master Chicken is a chicken that appears in Kung Fu Panda 3. He is among the Kung Fu Masters that are rounded up by the Furious Five to fight Kai.
Master Dolphin is a dolphin who was referenced in Kung Fu Panda 3.
He was a renowned Kung Fu Master throughout China. His armor is on display in the Hall of Warriors.
The Master Badger Twins are twin deceased badgers that appear in Kung Fu Panda 3.
Their Chi was stolen by Kai to make his Jombies.
According to animation supervision and fight choreographer Rodolphe Guenoden, the Badger Twins wield staffs to make up for their small arms not being able to reach their opponents.
Master Gorilla is a gorilla that is featured in Kung Fu Panda 3.
Master Gorilla is a famed Kung Fu Master who Kai encountered and stole his chi to make into one of his Jombies.
Master Porcupine is a deceased porcupine that appears in Kung Fu Panda 3.
His Chi was stolen by Kai to make his Zombies.
Master Chao (Chinese for "Super '') is a desert monitor Kung Fu Master amongst the hierarchy of the Sacred Onyx Council (one of the most elite in China). He appeared in the episode "Sight for Sore Eyes '' where he and Master Junjie visited Shifu at the Jade Palace to determine his qualifications as Master of the Jade Palace. He, Shifu, and Junjie ended up doing their usual sparring with Po secretly watching under Junjie 's request where Junjie used a Golden Lotus Clap which Shifu and Chao turned away which resulted in Po being blinded. After it was revealed that Po had watched the play after he botched up a group technique, making Shifu undo the effects of the Golden Lotus Clap, Master Chao was displeased that Po disobeyed Shifu 's orders and ended up replacing Shifu with Junjie. When Chao returned to check up on Junjie, he overheard Junjie 's intentions in his talk with Po and caught Junjie in the act. Po and Chao were imprisoned in the same cell as Shifu by Junjie 's Furious Five. After Po freed Shifu and Chao and defeated Junjie, Chao gave Shifu his job back and commended Po for doing the right thing despite the risk, while Junjie and his Furious Five are remanded to Chorh - Gom Prison.
In "Kung Shoes, '' Chao is called to the Jade Palace when Po (who was wearing special shoes that enhance Kung Fu abilities) has accomplished the Three Needles move. It turns out that Shifu, the Furious Five, and Chao, knew about the shoes when they started to glow. When the shoes start to go out of control, Chao had to help Shifu and the Furious Five in order to get the shoes off of Po. After the panda got the shoes off and sliced them, the shoes multiplied and possessed everyone present. Po then uses the water to neutralize the shoe 's effects. Shifu thanks Chao for his help as Chao states that this was the first time he has seen anyone perform the Three Needles Move (even if it was done by anyone wearing sentient shoes).
Master Yao (Chinese for "Brilliant '') is a blackbuck Kung Fu Master renowned for his outstanding intellect. Shifu idolizes him and commented that Yao is known for being "the greatest Kung Fu mind this world has ever known. '' He was credited as the first person to unlock the mystery of the Secret Scroll at the age of 5. At age 6, he invented pruning and was one of the few people who know how an abacus works. But with a great mind came a great sacrifice. Yao spent a lifetime meditating alone with no contact to the outside world. He has become the keeper of the secrets of Kung Fu. In his mind, Yao holds unimaginable knowledge and the power of the universe.
Sometime later, Yao comes out of hiding to visit the Valley of Peace. After years of being cooped in constant meditation and isolated from the rest of the world, Yao was cheerful and glad to experience life again. He gets overly excited at every little thing that surrounds him because of his long cut - off from the world. Po and Shifu had to protect him when Temutai and the Qidan Clan target Yao to learn the secrets of Kung Fu. Even though his physical strengths are weak, he is able to use Kung Fu with his mind. It was with this talent that he was able to free Po and Shifu and knock the entire Qidan Clan unconscious.
Mr. Yeung is an elderly pig who was once a Kung Fu Master that was known back then as "Yeung the Musical Archer '' and was a companion to Mrs. Gow. His nickname comes from the fact that Mr. Yeung can use his musical instrument as a bow to fire arrows perfectly.
He first appeared in the episode "In With the Old '' where he and Mrs. Gow play mahjong with Mr. Ping. They end up coming to the aid of Po when Temutai and the Qidan Clan plot to steal the Helmet of the Invincible Thunder Kick.
Mrs. Gow is an elderly goat who was once a Kung Fu Master that was known back then as "Gow of the Hundred Stars '' and was a companion of Mr. Yeung. Her nickname comes from the fact she could throw razor sharp stars into her opponents perfectly.
She first appeared in the episode "In With the Old '' where she and Mr. Yeung play mahjong with Mr. Ping. When Mr. Ping suggests that she and Mr. Yeung help Po save Shifu and defend the Jade Palace, Po dismisses them because of their age, remarking that Mrs. Gow was "older than rope '' and that Mr. Yeung was even older than she was. However, they end up coming to the aid of Po when Temutai and the Qidan Clan plot to steal the Helmet of the Invincible Thunder Kick. Mrs. Gow used her dental prosthetic and not her stars, but still proved to be a very capable fighter despite her advanced years and reprimands Po by commenting that she is like "rope, you know, that thing that is very useful. ''
Master Shengqi (Chinese for "Angry '') is a water buffalo Kung Fu Master who resides in Muchang. He used to work for Duke Pingjun until his daughter Xiao Niao tripped and fell into the giant moon cake for Duke Pingjun 's guests. Shengqi intervened before Duke Bingjun could slap her. Duke Bingjun accused Shengqi of assault and had him incarcerated in Chorh - Gom Prison. Shengqi later broke out of Chorh - Gom Prison and had a bounty placed on him.
The inhabitants of Muchang are very protective of him when Po takes Constable Hu 's offer to bring him in. When Po finds Shengqi and fights him, Po fights him and does n't believe his side of the story. Po catches up to Shengqi on top of the mountain and fights him again. Po still does n't believe him until he sees half of a necklace that was on the neck of a girl (who turned out to be Xiao Niao) that attended the festival. When Po is given the reward from the Rhino Guards, he throws the reward towards the Rhino Guards and gets Shengqi away. Po takes Shengqi to the Valley of Peace where Constable Hu tries to capture Shengqi. Po tells Constable Hu the truth about what happened the day when Shengqi was imprisoned. As Shengqi is reunited with Xiao Niao, Constable Hu tells Po that he will petition the Imperial Magistrate to have Shengqi 's sentence overturned.
Master Kweng (Chinese for "Kaunda '') is a goat Kung Fu Master who is the CEO of the Kung Fu Express (a group of messengers trained in Kung Fu). He is known for saying "No unauthorized handling '' when it comes to people that want to handle the message.
In "Shoot the Messenger, '' Po accidentally signs the Dragon Warrior on a scroll Kweng was carrying that was actually a peace treaty between the Gorilla Clan led by Can - Shoo and the Gorilla Clan led by Cheen - Gwan. Po ended up getting the help from Lam and Tigress to get the peace treaty back from Kweng for fear of a war between the Gorilla Clans that can threaten all of China. The fight between Po, Tigress, and Kweng escalated at the Kung Fu Express headquarters where the other members of the Kung Fu Express end up taking part in the battle. When the treaty is finally delivered to Can - Shoo and Cheen - Gwan by Kweng, they were surprised that the Dragon Warrior 's name is on it as they are big fans of Po.
Master Mugan (Chinese for "Wood '') is a goldfish Kung Fu Master who resides at the Garnet Palace as its headmaster. She is very strict and greatly dislikes Po as she believes that he is undisciplined and was chosen by a random quirk of fate. She also secretly views her students as little more than possessions for her to do with as she will, as she stated Tigress was never allowed to leave once she joined her, which was further evidenced by the fact that the previous warrior she had trained was forced to train until he was broken physically and spiritually by her. She came to the Jade Palace in "A Tigress Tale, '' where she wanted to seek a new Kung Fu master to join her at the Garnet Palace, following the failure of her previous warrior Wu Yong. Tigress went with Mugan and showed off her Kung Fu talents and Mugan stated that she was a powerful warrior.
When Tigress went to acknowledge the compliment, Mugan stated that it was n't a compliment. She informed Tigress that her focus in Kung Fu was precision, and demonstrated so by jumping out of her fish tank and using the bowls around her Kung Fu dojo to jump and eventually cut Tigress with one of her razor - sharp fins. Tigress was impressed with Mugan 's skills and began her training, but could not seem to impress Mugan, as Mugan was never. When Tigress tried to leave, Mugan refused to let her go and instead imprisoned her and decided to break her, as she had with her previous student. When Po went to the Garnet Palace to see Tigress, Mugan lied to Po that she did not want to see him. Eventually, Po broke into the Garnet Palace and freed Tigress, only for them to be stopped by Mugan. Then Tigress informed Mugan that there was more to life than Kung Fu. Outraged, Mugan attacked Po and Tigress, but was defeated when Po and Wu Yong knocked all the pillars holding her water over, trapping her in the central tank. Afterwards, Mugan was presumably sent to Chorh - Gom Prison.
Master Lun (Chinese for "Friendship '') is a pug Kung Fu Master that appears in Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. He utilizes the chi of his instruments to use musical kung fu.
Master Elephant is an Indian elephant who appears in Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. He was a member of the original Furious Five alongside Master Shifu, Fenghuang, Master Snow Leopard, and Master Rooster.
Master Elephant appears in person in the episode "The First Five '' where Po organizes a reunion of the original Furious Five as part of a party that Po throws for Master Shifu. During a mission where Po teams up with the original five (minus Master Shifu who had refused to take part in the mission) to retrieve the Sword of Xi'an, a demon that had been beaten by the original five in the past, Master Elephant is possessed by Xi'an. He is eventually freed by both the current and past incarnations of the Furious Five and the sword is destroyed by Fenghuang.
Master Snow Leopard is a snow leopard who appears in Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. She was a member of the original Furious Five alongside Master Shifu, Fenghuang, Master Elephant, and Master Rooster.
Master Snow Leopard appears in person in the episode "The First Five '' where Po organizes a reunion of the original Furious Five as part of a party that Po throws for Master Shifu.
Master Rooster is a chicken who appears in Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. He was a member of the original Furious Five alongside Master Shifu, Fenghuang, Master Elephant, and Master Snow Leopard.
Master Rooster appears in person in the episode "The First Five '' where Po organizes a reunion of the original Furious Five as part of a party that Po throws for Master Shifu.
Tai Lung (Chinese for "Great Dragon '') was the main antagonist of Kung Fu Panda. He was a muscular snow leopard with supernatural strength.
Before the franchise, Tai Lung was the adoptive son and first devoted pupil of Master Shifu, who found him abandoned on the doorstep of the Jade Palace training ground and taught him skills in Kung Fu that he never shared with any other of his students, even the Furious Five. In fact, Tai Lung was the only one (third to Oogway and Shifu) to know the Nerve Attack, and believed that he was destined to become the Dragon Warrior, making it his aim in life. However, as Tai Lung 's fighting skills developed, his pride and thirst for power grew overwhelming due to believing that he was to become the Dragon Warrior, thus alerting Grand Master Oogway of darkness in his heart and leading him to refuse Tai Lung the title. Shocked, Tai Lung looked to Shifu for support, but the latter was too reluctant to protest. Embittered and outraged by Shifu and Oogway 's perceived betrayal, Tai Lung 's pride turned into corruption as he rampaged throughout the valley, taking out his rage against the villagers. He then fought his way back to the Jade Palace, seeking to take the Dragon Scroll, the item that was said to grant the chosen Dragon Warrior limitless power, by force. Shifu could not bring himself to harm his adoptive son, whereas Tai Lung felt no such hesitation and smashed aside his mentor and father figure without mercy. However, the leopard was no match for Oogway, who hit him with a lighting fast series of nerve attacks, paralyzing and defeating him. Following his defeat, Tai Lung was sent to Chorh - Gom Prison for his crimes against the valley and kept restrained by a body - device shaped like a turtle shell (later revealed in the second movie to be similar to the mechanism used by Lord Shen 's men to restrain Po and the Furious Five, called "Eight - point Acupressure cuffs; the more you move, the tighter they get ''). Despite Tai Lung 's imprisonment, this left a hole in Shifu 's soul due to the fact that the love he gave Tai Lung went to waste, and as a result, he started training the Furious Five with a more harsh and critical manner.
Two decades later, on the day Po was chosen the Dragon Warrior, Tai Lung escaped using a feather dropped by Zeng to pick the lock on the body - device, and slaughtered all the guards before sending Zeng ahead with a message. Desperate for the Dragon Scroll, he headed straight back to the Valley, stopping briefly to engage and defeat the Furious Five. By the time he reached the temple, Shifu battled him while Po was supposedly evacuating with the rest of the villagers and the Furious Five. Tai Lung unleashed all his rage and hatred during the battle, and gravely wounded Shifu, who he blamed for his incarceration and failure to become the Dragon Warrior, furiously demanding to know if Shifu was satisfied with turning him into the monster he had become. It was then Shifu told Tai Lung that his pride for him blinded the master to see what his adopted son was becoming, and apologized. Although Tai Lung showed some concern for him, he was still only interested in gaining the Dragon Scroll (saying "I do n't want your apology, I want my scroll! ''). When he finally saw that it was missing, he nearly killed Shifu until Po came in and stopped him. Even though Tai Lung scoffed that a fat panda could n't possibly be the Dragon Warrior, Po proved to be an unexpectedly formidable opponent. Po 's considerable cunning, skill and strength, Tai Lung thought, was only possible through the Dragon Scroll. After a protracted battle throughout the village, he finally managed to obtain the Dragon Scroll, but his impatience caused him to not understand its symbolism: the scroll was actually a blank reflective foil, meaning the power had always been buried deep within the person. Po, on the other hand, understood it very well and used the symbolism to counterattack several of Tai Lung 's moves. Tai Lung was ultimately defeated when Po utilized the Wuxi Finger Hold, which the former claimed Shifu did n't teach him. Po agreed, replying that he figured it out on his own (though Shifu had tried to threateningly use it on Po earlier), and vanquished the hateful snow leopard in a brilliant and rippling flash that shook the Valley.
In the video game Kung Fu Panda: Legendary Warriors, Tai Lung had survived his encounter with Po and plans his revenge on him by capturing the Furious Five. He is defeated once again.
Tai Lung additionally appears at the beginning of the Kung Fu Panda Holiday Special as part of Mr. Ping 's "Noodle Dream '' where he fights Po. Po states he thought Tai Lung was dead, though this statement is cut short when Tai Lung attacks him. Po ultimately defeats him once again.
In Kung Fu Panda 2, Tai Lung was only seen in Po 's flashback during his demonstration of inner peace.
In Kung Fu Panda 3, Po mentioned that the Wuxi Finger Hold sends the opponent to the Spirit Realm, which indicates that Tai Lung was sent there when he was defeated. Strangely enough, he does not appear as a "Jombie '' despite Kai saying that he stole the Chi of every master there.
At the end of the Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness episode "The Kung Fu Kid, '' the episode 's twist ending revealed that Tai Lung is the uncle of Peng who is searching for him much to Po 's shock and horror. In "Master and the Panda, '' Peng learns that Po was responsible for what happened to Tai Lung as Po tries to tell Peng that Tai Lung was evil. When Peng ended up corrupted by the Gung Lu Medallion and started attacking, Po used the Shift Stone to transform into Tai Lung in order to get Peng to remove the medallion. Upon seeing what following his uncle 's path would turn him into, Peng then retired from Kung Fu, not wanting to end up like his uncle. However, in "Kung Fu Club, '' Peng would be revealed to have returned to the path of Kung Fu, this time seeking to train common people to defend themselves.
Tai Lung is shown to be an exceptionally deadly fighter, able to single - handedly defeat a thousand guards in Chorh - Gom Prison, as well as the Furious Five. He is also shown to be very resourceful, for example using a feather to escape his shackles he picked up with his tail and using spears launched at him from crossbows to allow him to escape as well as using them for leverage to achieve upward mobility. He also has a special nerve attack taught to him by Shifu which completely paralyzes the victim. However, Po, being too fat for the strikes to reach the correct points, is resistant to the technique, finding it very ticklish when it was used.
Lord Shen (Chinese for "Divinity '') was the main antagonist of Kung Fu Panda 2. He was a leucistic peacock who was disturbed and desperate to regain happiness by conquering all of China. Shen can be described as a Hungry ghost, referring to him having ambitions that can never be satisfied or as the Soothsayer said it; "the cup (Shen) choose (s) to fill has no bottom ''.
Before the franchise, Shen was a prince of Gongmen City who became interested in the power of gunpowder, wondering if it and the technology behind fireworks (which was invented by his family to bring great joy to all China) could be used for warfare. This obsession worried his loving parents, who asked the Soothsayer what his future held. In response, she foretold that if he ever continued to go too far down this path, he would be stopped by "a warrior of black - and - white ''. Eavesdropping on this divination, Shen correctly assumed that the warrior would be a panda and decided to take action in an attempt to avert the prophecy, thus leading his wolf guards in a massacre against China 's entire panda population (in the opening, the Soothsayer says that this only sealed Shen 's fate; OR in layman 's terms the "Self - fulfilling prophecy ''). Upon becoming satisfied that he achieved his objective, he returned to his family palace filled with pride, but was confronted by his parents, who were horrified by his atrocity and immediately exiled him as punishment. Feeling profoundly wronged for this treatment, the peacock angrily vowed he would return one day to conquer China. Unknown to him, the seeds of his destruction were laid as the apparent sole survivor of his panda massacre (who turned out to be Po) was inadvertently transported in a crate of radishes to the Valley of Peace, where he became the Dragon Warrior, and Shen 's parents became so crippled by the pain of having to banish their son that they both died of broken hearts.
Over twenty years later, Shen and his wolf minions had finished building a whole arsenal of firework - smoking cannons, raiding villages to supply the refined metal required. When satisfied that he was ready for war, he marched upon Gongmen City with his wolf and gorilla armies and challenged the current regents, the Masters ' Council (which consisted of Masters Thundering Rhino, Storming Ox and Croc), to a duel. Swiftly defeating Storming Ox and Croc, and killing Thundering Rhino with a cannon shot, Shen imprisoned the demoralized remaining masters and seized control of the city, keeping only the Soothsayer in his court for her skills. Shortly afterward, Shen 's wolf army captured Po and the Furious Five trying to break into the city to stop him. Even though Shen already learned that a fat panda survived his genocide, Po seemed a simpleton whose stupidity was found mildly amusing, and did n't know about his past. However, when he tried to kill the warriors with his cannon, they broke free as arranged and destroyed the cannon, mistakenly thinking it was the only one. Taking advantage of Po 's sudden flashback upon seeing his red feather markings, Shen managed to escape to a foundry where he ordered a team of cannoneers to bring down the palace to kill the warriors, before they escaped and later tried to destroy the cannon foundry to stop production. Unfortunately, Po unintentionally interfered with the attempt when he broke in on his own to confront the peacock about his suspicions concerning his involvement with his parents. At that, Shen falsely claimed Po 's parents never loved him, abandoning him to save themselves. With Po distraught, Shen armed a large cannon and seemingly killed Po by blasting him into the river. With that, Shen eventually captured the Furious Five and planned to kill them once his fleet reached open water as a demonstration of his power. However, Po returned to confront him again, having survived the blast and being nursed back to health by the Soothsayer, gaining his inner peace. Now even more formidable, the panda freed his comrades and were joined by their fellow masters, including Storming Ox, Ferocious Croc and Shifu in a furious melee to stop the fleet 's departure. Shen 's increasing rage drove him to fire on his own troops to kill the masters. Eventually, he still managed to blast his opposition with the head cannon and exit the harbor. As it looked like all was lost, Po, using a piece of wreckage as an island, caught the cannonballs fired at him and redirected them at the fleet. Frustrated, Shen ordered that the barrage be maintained, only to find out that he enabled the Dragon Warrior to destroy his forces with his own fired ammunition. Finally, Po was able to destroy Shen 's primary cannon, severely damaging his flagship in the process. He then boarded Shen 's damaged flagship and confronted the worn - out Shen, who was flabbergasted as to how Po could attain such a controlled peace despite his atrocities against him, which he expected would merit revenge. Po told him that he rejected letting his past dominate his present and pleads with the peacock to let go of his past resentments, saying that the only thing that matters now is the path he chooses. Even though Shen agreed of choosing his own path, he refused to let go of his hatred (saying "You 're right. Then I choose THIS! ''). He attacked Po until the melee toppled the wreckage of the cannon, causing the heavy weapon to fall on and crush the psychotic peacock, presumably killing him.
Despite his reliance of cannons, Shen is also an incredibly deadly fighter with blades, several of which are of different sizes he hides in his feathers. He also wears steel gauntlets with sharpened talons over his real feet and claws which he uses as a weapon, to light fuses and as a source of traction. Shen 's fighting style shares similar qualities with "Cai Li Fo '', a Chinese martial art that uses a metal fan for defensive and distraction purposes. These qualities are represented in the movie by Shen 's use of his tail feathers and his agile, circular movements. His defeat is mentioned by a villager in the Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness episode "Enter The Dragon ''.
Shen also made a cameo appearance in Kung Fu Panda 3 during the end of a flashback scene when Li Shan lost his wife.
This Wolf Army are the servants of Lord Shen. These wolves once served as the Royal Guards of Gongmen City. But the only member of Gongman City 's royal family ever to befriend the wolves was Shen, the heir to Gongmen City 's throne. Shen fed them, played with them, and treated them like family. The pack and their leader eventually swore their allegiance to Shen.
Some remnants of Lord Shen 's Wolf Army were seen in the Kung Fu Panda 2 video game where it is being led by another wolf.
Wolf Boss was the secondary antagonist of Kung Fu Panda 2. He was Shen 's former second - in - command who leads a Wolf Army working for Shen and sees with only one eye (because in the flashback, his left eye is destroyed by Li Shan, who hits him with a hammer and is seen chasing Po 's mother down in the forest). He first spots Po, as well as the one to inform Shen that he is still alive. Later, Po and Wolf Boss are in combat several times at Gongmen City can be interpreted as comic relief. Both Po and the Wolf Boss get hit by the wooden signs while moving forward. He is shown to be rather savage as he attempts to kill him, despite him being an innocent baby at the time.
The symbol of Shen on his sleeve, distracts Po during the fight and triggers both Po 's memories of his past and his desire to find out who he is. However, they also allow Boss Wolf an advantage, and while Po is distracted he often runs away or knocks the panda down. Unlike Shen, Wolf Boss is never shown to be completely evil. Despite being a wolf, he seems to be almost puppy - like at times -- talking too much, making Lord Shen angry with his comments and whimpering when his toe is stomped. Also, despite his enmity and conflicts with Po, Wolf Boss does acknowledge him to be a true kung fu warrior, stating to Shen that Po fought ' like a demon ' during their battles in the Valley and Gongmen City. Also, Wolf Boss obviously cares for his pack a lot, sharing a code of honor towards them. During the final battle, Lord Shen orders Wolf Boss to fire the Weapon at Po, but he is hesitant as doing so would kill many of his own pack too. However, Shen does n't care and still orders Wolf Boss to fire the cannon. Outraged at his master 's callous disregard for his pack, Wolf Boss ultimately refuses. Shen responds by quickly throwing five daggers to kill Wolf Boss and fires the Weapon himself.
In the early stages of the first sequel, he was originally going to be a crow, but he was scrapped and changed into a wolf instead possibly because he looked too similar to Shen.
This Gorilla Army are the tertiary antagonists and servants of Lord Shen and serve as the brute strength of his armies.
Kai the Master of Pain (Chinese for "Victory '' or "Open '') was the main antagonist of Kung Fu Panda 3.
Before the franchise, Kai was a brother - in - arms to Grand Master Oogway, who he fought alongside as fellow general in a great army. One day, Oogway was badly wounded in an ambush made by the enemy army. Kai carried his friend for days looking for help until they reached the Secret Panda Village, where the pandas used their knowledge of chi to heal the injured master. As the pandas taught Oogway how to use chi, Kai got power - hungry and plotted to increase his powers with it. He used the pandas ' teachings to develop the power to take chi from others rather than give it. This forced Oogway to fight him off in a battle that "shook the Earth '' until finally, he banished Kai to the Spirit Realm for all eternity. But Oogway knew that Kai would one day return to the mortal world and seek to collect the chi from every kung fu master and destroy his friend 's legacy. To prevent this, Oogway foretold that only the Dragon Warrior would be sent on such path to become a true master of chi - giving, hoping that the warrior would put a stop to the chi - taking.
Five centuries later, Kai had finished collecting the chi of every Kung Fu master who ended up in the Spirit Realm, challenging each to a duel for them. When satisfied that he had enough to overpower his old friend, he challenged Oogway to a rematch and managed to add his chi to his collection. Before giving in to Kai, Oogway warned him that he had set Po on the path to defeat him. Using Oogway 's chi, Kai returned to the Mortal World to hunt down Po and the Furious Five, sending several of his Jombies to find them. When their task was completed, he began hunting down and stealing the chi of every Kung Fu Master in China. This caused Master Shifu to send Crane and Mantis to investigate. With the aid of Masters Bear, Chicken and Croc, the chosen duo confronted Kai in a shipwreck and were defeated when he had their chi. Kai then attacked the Jade Palace for the rest of the Five 's chi and destroyed it along with the Valley of Peace, but Tigress evaded getting her chi taken and escaped upon Shifu 's orders to warn Po that Kai was coming for him. By the time he arrived at the Secret Panda Village, Kai unleashed his Jombies on the pandas while Po fought with him. Since the Wuxi Finger Hold did n't work on Spirit Warriors, Po had to use the move on himself in order to get himself and Kai into the Spirit Realm, where the hateful yak was overloaded with chi, triggering a spiritual explosion and freeing the Kung Fu Masters whose chi he took.
The Jombies are the name given to Kai 's jade minions in Kung Fu Panda 3.
The Jombies are created by from the Chi of the Kung Fu Masters whether they are dead or alive. Kai made the Jombies out of the Chis of Master Porcupine, the Badger Twins, Master Gorilla, Master Boars, Master Croc, Master Bear, Master Chicken, Master Shifu, and most of the Furious Five.
A trio of villainous leopard sisters who work together to terrorize China, steal, and defeat their enemies. In Kung Fu Panda: Secrets of the Masters, the trio were at one point imprisoned but managed to escape and set out to unite the various crime families of China in order to conquer the country. This prompted Oogway to form an alliance with unlikely future Kung fu masters Thundering Rhino, Storming Ox, and Croc in order to defeat them. They also appeared in two video games: in Kung Fu Panda: The Game as an enemy team and in Legendary Warriors as minions of Tai Lung. The trio also appear in the series from Titan Comics; in one story they infiltrate the Jade Palace but are defeated by Po and Tigress.
The leader of the Wu Sisters, distinguished from her sisters by the lack of a head wrap and mismatched eyes (one gold and the other cyan, possibly blind).
Boar was an enormous anthropomorphic wild boar that appeared in Kung Fu Panda: Secrets of the Scroll and starred as its main antagonist.
Boar was a terrifying Kung Fu warrior that terrorized a vast swathe of China. He attacked many villages and defeated many powerful Kung Fu masters, to the point where he was deemed unstoppable and invincible. When word spread that he intended to defeat Shifu and attack the Valley of Peace, Shifu intended to stop him, but was thwarted from this due to accidentally being poisoned by the food Po had made for him. Tigress faced Boar in his place, masquerading as Shifu. Boar initially gained the upper hand in their fight, as her mimicry of Shifu 's style was no match for Boar, but when Mantis, Crane, Viper and Monkey intervened and came to her aid, Tigress gave up Shifu 's style of Kung Fu to use her own, and the five quickly gained the upper hand against Boar, swiftly defeating him and putting an end to his rampage. Boar was also the catalyst for the formation of the Furious Five, and their defeat of the villain in turn inspired Po 's love of Kung Fu, leading to his eventual destiny as the Dragon Warrior.
Kuo (Chinese for "Vast '') is the main antagonist of the Kung Fu Panda comic "Art of Balance '' by Ape Entertainment.
In the comic, Po first meets Kuo while heading for Mr. Ping 's restaurant, where Kuo then claims to be a big fan of Mr. Ping as well as expressing interest in working in his restaurant. Po and Mr. Ping hire Kuo where he shows great skill with cooking knives. He then ask what the secret is to his recipes, only to be stone - walled by the goose chef. Kuo later on searches through Mr. Ping 's recipes, but is then caught by Mr. Ping himself. Kuo then threatens him with his knives and holds him hostage. When Po returns later that night, he finds his father tied up on the front counter. Po asks Kuo what he 's doing and why, the deranged antelope says that he once owned a restaurant himself but was driven out of business because customers always went to Mr. Ping 's instead of his own; he then says that he has debts owed to criminals. He blames Mr. Ping for making him a failure, but Po tells him that he is n't a failure but instead lost his balance. Yet instead of regaining his balance, he let his imbalance control his life. Engraged, Kuo then throws numerous knives at Po, but the panda (remembering his lessons from Master Shifu) leaps on top of the knives and kicks Kuo in the chest. While Po checks on his father, Kuo tries to flee the scene only to be intercepted by Master Shifu and is knocked out. He is presumably sent to Chorh - Gom Prison afterwards.
Qinchu (Chinese for "Clear '') is the main antagonist of the Kung Fu Panda comic "Special Delivery. '' Qinchu was presumably the self - elected official of Mount Penglai.
In the comic, he confronted Po after the panda stowed away in a mail cart carried by Qinchu 's crow minions. Po found himself in a palace surrounded by similar carts full of undelivered mail, and upon discovering him, Qinchu told the panda he was trespassing. Though Po tried to explain his reasons for being there, the fox would hear none of it, declaring that he had worked hard to create order in the city by keeping outsiders out and residents in. With that, he ordered his crows to throw the panda out, and Po was tossed down Mount Penglai. When he awoke from the painful fall, Po met the former official and his son who had similarly been thrown down Mount Penglai. Po learned about Qinchu 's takeover of the city as well as his goal to find the key to Mount Penglai, which was the reason for the hijacking of so many mail carts, as the key was always passed from one location to another so none could ever know its exact whereabouts. In his quest for a ' paradise ' of order and organization, Qinchu aimed to use the key to lock the gates and isolate the city. After hearing this, Po took action and crashed through the roof of the palace. He faced Qinchu in a showy display, and the fox stood before him unimpressed. After some back - and - forth banter, the two engaged in combat. This resulted in Po kicking Qinchu and throwing him down, where he then trapped the fox in a roll of carpet. He then told Qinchu it was about time he meet his ' public ', with the palace door opening to reveal many angry citizens of Mount Penglai including the former - official and his son. They took Qinchu and carried him away, resolving to have him thrown down the mountain.
The Five Elements Imposters are the main antagonists of the Kung Fu Panda comic "It 's Elemental. '' It was foretold that the Five Elements would one day take physical forms and become the ultimate protectors of the world. Five warriors masqueraded as the physical forms of Earth, Fire, Water, Metal, and Wood while using concealed weapons that corresponded with each element. When the charade was discovered by Po, the Furious Five joined Po in fighting these imposters until only Earth was left standing. With the imposters tied up, Po and the Furious Five uncovered how the group had made their "powers '' using sesame oil and hidden containers.
The warrior that masqueraded as Earth is the leader of the Five Elements Imposters. He was defeated by Master Mantis. With the imposters tied up, Shifu mentioned that the real Earth was the brains of the group as Earth is considered the ultimate element according to the Wu Xing philosophy.
The warrior that masqueraded as Fire is a member of the Five Elements Imposters. He fought with concealed flammable sesame oil.
The warrior that masqueraded as Water is a member of the Five Elements Imposters. He fought with concealed water blasters.
The warrior that masqueraded as Metal is a member of the Five Elements Imposters. He fought with a giant metal sword.
The warrior that masqueraded as Wood is a member of the Five Elements Imposters. He shot out wooden spikes in battle.
Chairman Qing (Chinese for "Request '') is a villainous politician who employed the outlaw Kung Fu Master Lei Kung in his plan to isolate the Valley of Peace from the rest of China. Combat abilities were not seen.
Lei Kung the Thunderer (Chinese for "Retribution God '') is an outlaw Kung Fu master who enhanced his abilities with magic derived from elemental forces, allowing him to unleash lightning, thunder, and earthquake - based attacks.
A force of Crocodile villains who operated out of the Swamp of Disillusionment and attempted to put the entire Valley of Peace to sleep using the mystical Mist of Morpheus.
General Rong (Chinese for "Glory '') is the axe - wielding general of the Crocodile Army, who fought Po and Furious Five when they opposed his army.
Scorpion is a villain in Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness.
Long before the franchise, Scorpion was once the Valley of Peace 's best healer, skilled with the expertise of using medical herbs and experimental flowers that grew in the Valley 's rich soil as cures for various sicknesses, such as the use of sun orchards as the cure for river - fever. One day, she stumbled upon a hypnosis potion and injected herself with it, poisoning her body and mind. She had the villagers under her spell until it was broken by Grand Master Oogway. Scorpion was exiled from the Valley of Peace, but stole the last sun orchid (which can be made into a tea as a cure for river fever). Many years later, Scorpion discovers Po and Monkey in her lair looking for the sun orchid in order to cure Tigress ' river fever. She manages to capture Monkey and sting him with her hypnosis potion and then sent him to destroy Po. Upon making it into Scorpion 's lair, Po tries to get in as Scorpion ends up throwing Monkey a sword. Po soon discovers that Monkey is under Scorpion 's control. When Monkey comes into Scorpion 's lair with an apparently defeated Po, Scorpion discovers that Po faked his death and broke her control over Monkey. Scorpion ends up attacking them and tries to sting Monkey until Po grabs her tail. Po and Monkey managed to send Scorpion into the wall tail first, trap Scorpion with their trick sneezes, and claim the sun orchid.
In "Love Stings, '' Scorpion gets Mr. Ping to fall in love with her because it is revealed that she also can cook. However, this is only as part of her revenge on Po and the Valley of Peace. She was using Mr. Ping because he is the person who is responsible for the Moon cakes for the Moon Cake Festival where all the members of the Valley of Peace will eat Moon cakes. Therefore, Scorpion with the help of Mr. Ping who loves her bakes the Moon cakes but she adds poison into them that renders the whole population into a dizzy - like state. However Po (who practiced with Monkey his own form of dizzy Kung Fu) is able to battle her and defeat her. After Mr. Ping finds out about the treachery, they split.
In "The Most Dangerous Po, '' Scorpion is among the villains that were hunted by General Tsin and subjected to stiffening Zu Chao Powder. She is later rescued by Po, but escapes upon being repelled by Po.
The Croc Bandits are a group of crocodiles who are the recurring but rather ineffectual antagonists in Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. Although their group was never referred to by an official name by its members, Po, Master Shifu, and the Furious Five often referred to them as Croc Bandits.
Fung is the leader of an unnamed group of Crocodile Bandits as seen in Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. Fung most often relies on weapons to fight his opponents, but has shown he knows some Kung Fu techniques, mostly in cases of defense. His family apparently makes terracotta warriors as it was once mentioned by Fung that he accidentally got a terracotta soldier glued onto his father 's face with its removal leaving his father with what 's left of his mustache on one side. His signature saying "Darnit '' is often muttered when he finds himself defeated.
In "Good Croc, Bad Croc, '' Fung saves Po from a pitfall (which his fellow bandits dug up) and required a favor from Po later on. When it came to the favor, Po had to meet with Fung alone where Fung mentions that Jong Sung Jai Kai Chow had captured his brother. Po and Fung had to infiltrate Jong 's castle with Po having to pull off a diversion. When Po runs into Fung, he states that he has his brother in a box as both of them flee. When Po returned to the Jade Palace, Master Shifu was waiting with two of Jong 's guards. When Master Shifu hears from Po that he was only helping Fung rescue his brother from Jong, Master Shifu states that Fung does n't have a brother and that the person he helped him abduct was Jong 's son. Fung later meets up with the other bandits where he learns that Po had been apprehended by Jong 's guards. Fung feels remorse for what had happened to Po and decides to return the box containing Jong 's son. Upon Fung entering Jong 's torture room disguised as a water buffalo guard, Fung freed Po and gave Jong his son back. Yet Po and Fung had to escape from Jong 's palace when even Jong 's son wants them severely dealt with.
In "Kung Fu Day Care, '' it was revealed that Fung had a younger but larger cousin named Lidong who assisted him in the Croc Bandit 's plot to capture Prince Zan and steal him back when Prince Zan ends up in the protective custody of Po and Tigress. In "The Most Dangerous Po, '' Fung is among the villains that were hunted by General Tsin and subjected to stiffening Zu Chao Powder. He is later rescued by Po, but escapes upon being repelled by Po. In "Enter the Dragon, '' he and his bandits were conscripted into serving the demon Ke - Pa, but not long after were captured by the Furious Five again upon his defeat at the hands of Po. "Terror Cotta '' would see Fung temporarily give up being a bandit after yet another defeat at Po 's hands and rejoin his father in the craft of making terra cotta warriors. Upon discovering his father 's lost formula for bringing them to life, Fung returned to his bandit path briefly before being bullied by his father into creating an army so that they could conquer China. In the course of the ensuing battle with Po and Fung 's old gang, who were serving as a backup Furious Five, it came out that Fung 's father had lost the formula when he had spent years blaming it on an assistant who never really existed. After his father admitted that his own failures had led to his mistreatment of Fung, Fung realized that he had projected similar frustration on his gang members, who forgave and rejoined him - even though it meant going to prison.
In "Huge, '' Fung and his gang would return and seek to gain greater power through a magical growth potion, only to be halted by a jealous Lidong who was intent on retaining his size advantage over everyone. "The Break Up '' saw Gah - ri temporarily resign from Fung 's gang due to Fung 's mistreatment of him, but Fung and Po teamed up to try to get Gah - ri back and Gah - ri later realized that he preferred being a bandit - though he wanted Fung to work on his temper. In "Croc You Like a Hurricane, '' Fung and his bandits had gained such a reputation for ineptitude that even the townspeople did n't take them seriously anymore. They were then approached by the legendary Kung Fu Master Jia - in reality a disguised Shifu - and trained in the art of Kung Fu, which they ended up using to help people out. As part of an effort to get the Furious Five and Po to take training more seriously, the Croc Bandits were revealed to have been trained as the heroes ' replacements. Unfortunately, Fung and his cohorts turned to using their position for their own benefit, and like Po and most of the real five became complacent about keeping up their training to stay in shape. They were thus defeated in a battle with the heroes, and Shifu then revealed the truth behind his ruse. In "Apocalypse Yao, '' Fung and Gah - ri were part of a group of villains who gathered to bid on Kung Fu secrets stolen from Master Yao by Taotie, but were defeated despite gaining two of the secrets for their own use.
Although he and his bandits are crocodiles, it is not made clear which breed they are specifically. They may be mugger crocodiles, because they were once situated in Indo - China (and the use of "mugger '' may be a tongue - in - cheek joke due to the fact they are bandits).
Gah - ri is the member of the unnamed group of Crocodile Bandits from Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. Fung frequently calls him "Gary, '' which Gah - ri gently corrects. Gah - ri is shown to be clumsy, apologetic, and often says that he has to go to the bathroom. In combat, Gah - ri is shown to be skilled in wielding various weapons including an axe.
In "The Most Dangerous Po, '' Gah - ri is among the villains that were hunted by General Tsin and subjected to stiffening Zu Chao Powder. He is later rescued by Po, but escapes upon being repelled by Po. Most other episodes feature him in a rather minor role, often frustrating Fung with his good grammar and manners. In "The Break Up, '' the two get into a fight after Fung once again demonstrates his incompetence as a bandit leader and Gah - ri irritates Fung with his manners, intelligence, and interests unlikely for a bandit. This leads to Gah - ri leaving the Croc Bandits and working at Mr. Ping 's Noodle Shop, where he proves such an asset that Mr. Ping wants to adopt him. Fung and Po then join forces to get him fired - Fung wanting Gah - ri back as his right - hand man and Po wanting the crocodile out of his life - but Gah - ri ends up leaving of his own accord after tricking Constable Hu into thinking that Po and Fung had n't committed an actual crime.
His name may possibly be an intentional reference to the crocodile subspecies gharial.
Irwin is the member of the unnamed group of Crocodile Bandits from Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness.
Wall Eye is a member of the unnamed group of Crocodile Bandits from Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. He is known for his wall - eye condition, and like the other bandits - besides Fung and Gah - ri - is rather unintelligent.
Lidong is Fung 's younger cousin. He helped his cousin Fung and his Croc Bandits to capture Prince Zan from Po and the Furious Five for a share they would get from the ransom. He is a giant crocodile and is skilled in Kung Fu where he used his strength in combat against Tigress (who protected Prince Zan). Lidong eventually betrayed Fung and his Croc Bandits because he viewed his cousin and his group as losers. He was defeated by Tigress at the end of the episode.
In "The Midnight Stranger, '' the pig criminals that manipulated Constable Hu into banning Kung Fu enlisted Lidong to fight the Midnight Stranger. When it was discovered that Po was masquerading as the Midnight Stranger, Lidong attacked Po. Lidong and the pig criminals were defeated by Po and Constable Hu.
The episode "Huge '' revealed that Lidong was a runt of a crocodile in his youth and was thus teased and tormented by others until hitting his fairly impressive growth spurt. As such, he is immensely proud of his size, and the idea of anyone surpassing him in this area is enough to enrage him and turn him against the other Croc Bandits. He attacked Mantis after the latter used a magic motion to grow even larger than him, and refused to allow Fung and the other crocodiles to partake of the potion. He instead drank some himself, attacking the village and later battling Mantis after the master consumed even more potion to try and match Lidong in a battle of giants. However, Mantis recognized his folly and drank an antidote that restored him to normal size, and then went down Lidong 's throat to attack him from the inside. He also dumped out the rest of the antidote inside Lidong 's stomach, causing Lidong to shrink down to a fraction of his original size.
The Qidan Clan are a group of water buffalo warriors that have fought Po and the Furious Five on different occasions. They were also known to have fought against the Emperor 's army in the past.
Temutai is the Warrior - King of the Qidan Clan. He has claimed to have beaten every Kung Fu Master in the land. Master Tigress mentioned that his Kung Fu was strong enough to rip his opponents in half without even touching them. He has a habit of yelling the last word in each of his sentences.
He first appeared in "The Princess and the Po '' where Po, Master Tigress, and Master Mantis had to bring Princess Mei Li to him in order to achieve peace between the Qidan Clan and Princess Mei Li 's kingdom. Once a princess is given to Temutai, she ends up becoming his servant. When Po did n't want Temutai to get Princess Mei Li, he offered to challenge him to a fight to determine the fate of Princess Mei Li. When none of Po 's moves can faze Temutai, Po gets an idea from Princess Mei Li and uses the same moves that she used on him to take down Temutai. Temutai admitted defeat and ensured peace between Mei Li 's people and the Qidan. As a last act, he had rice balls prepared for Po and the others when they left as per their request.
In "Owl Be Back, '' Po found Temutai and his warriors fighting the Furious Five in the Jade Palace. This time, Po was fast enough to evade Temutai 's attacks. Po manages to use the Thundering Wind Hammer (previously used by Fenghuang) to send Temutai flying into the mountainside. Temutai shouted to Po to declare that fight a draw.
In "The Kung Fu Kid, '' Temutai and his Qidan Clan are invited to a Peace Jubilee. Temutai enters his nephew Jing Mei into the children Kung Fu competition where he fights a Kung Fu prodigy named Peng. Temutai was not pleased that his nephew was defeated by Peng. Temutai wants to have Peng to train with the Qidan Clan opposed to Po wanting Peng to train at the Jade Palace. Po 's argument with Temutai ends up disrupting the Peace Jubilee causing Master Shifu to break it up. Temutai gets angered at the fact that Peng wants to train with Po. After Po tells Peng that he is no longer needed, Peng decides to prove himself by destroying Temutai. Peng ends up fighting Temutai until Po arrived where their fight ends up causing the crowd to get out of control. Po manages to break up the fight upon telling Peng the truth. Po then does the ceremonial Tai Chi with Peng and Temutai.
In "My Favorite Yao, '' Temutai and his Qidan troops set out to capture Master Yao to interrogate him for his secrets. The abduction proved easier than anticipated owing to Yao, being impulsively released from his box by Shifu, began to run amok through the village with childish delight at all the sensations he denied himself for 65 years. However, the goat refused to cooperate and found even death threats an entertaining novelty. Eventually, Shifu and Po managed to rescue him with his help of his magic to stun Temutai and his troops into stillness.
In the episode "In With the Old, '' Temutai and his Qidan troops took advantage of the Furious Five 's absence for a training session to invade the Jade Palace and capture Shifu in an inescapable death trap in order to force him to surrender the Helmet of the Invincible Thunder Kick. Shifu refused and Temutai searched the Palace himself. Meanwhile, Po liberated the Palace with the help of Mr. Ping and the elderly but still formidable masters Mrs. Gow and Mr. Yeung. Eventually, Po found Temutai, but was unable to stop him from entering the storage room which had a wide variety of magic helmets. The warriors raced to search for the desired helmet, but Temutai was the one who eventually gained it. However, Po managed to defeat Temutai by tossing the Helmet of Your Own Worst Enemy on top of the Helmet of the Invincible Thunder Kick and Temutai was magically compelled to kick himself out of the Palace and out of the area in defeat.
In "The Most Dangerous Po, '' Temutai is pursued and chased by the minions of General Tsin. Temutai is then subjected to stiffening Zu Chao Powder. He is later rescued by Po, but escapes upon being repelled by Po.
In "Master and the Panda, '' Temutai and the Qidan Clan unearth the Gong Lu Medallion (which enhances the wearer 's abilities and the person 's dark side) which grants him more power as he plots to conquer China and the Moon. Temutai then attacks the Jade Palace and takes out Master Shifu and the Furious Five. Po even tries to fight Temutai only to be sent flying out of the Jade Palace. Po returns and fights Temutai in order to get the Gong Lu Medallion off him. Peng joins the fight and removes the Gong Lu Medallion from Temutai. Po and Peng then send Temutai flying out of the Jade Palace.
In "Invitation Only, '' Po fights Temutai and makes him get away upon hearing the gong for lunch. Temutai later plans to crash the banquet of Upper Head District Chief Superior Superintendent Chang. Temutai is told by his Qidan warriors that he was n't invited to the banquet. Temutai learns that Po was n't also invited and plans to crash the banquet. Temutai has his soldiers surround the building where the banquet is being held. Temutai then begins his attack on the banquet and immobilizes the Furious Five and Master Shifu with the bolos thrown by the Qidan warriors. When Po sneaks into the party, he runs into Temutai and attacks the Qidan warriors with Kung Fu, good manners, and etiquette. Po managed to defeat Temutai which impressed Superintendent Chang enough to invite Po to the banquet.
In "Mouth Off, '' Temutai comes to the Valley of Peace and demands that Po apologize to him, but Po is unable to do so on account of paralyzing his own vocal chords. When he finally regains the power of speech and apologies, Temutai is still furious, but is defeated by a new move Po has mastered through his experience with silence. He accepts Po 's apologies and leaves.
Jing Mei is Temutai 's nephew. In "The Kung Fu Kid, '' Jing Mei was with his uncle and the Qidan Clan when they are invited to a Peace Jubilee. Temutai enters his nephew Jing Mei into the children Kung Fu competition where he fights a Kung Fu prodigy named Peng. Temutai fought Peng and was defeated by him; this frustrated Temutai, who commented that he should have brought Jing Mei 's sister instead.
In "The Most Dangerous Po, '' Jing Mei is among the villains that were hunted by General Tsin and subjected to stiffening Zu Chao Powder. He is later rescued by Po, but escapes upon being repelled by Po. He shouts a lot, too much.
Bataar is a water buffalo who is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness.
Bataar is the son of Temutai, the brother of Chunlun, and the cousin of Jing Mei.
Chunlun is a water buffalo who is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness.
Chunlun is the son of Temutai, the brother of Bataar, and the cousin of Jing Mei.
Taotie (Chinese for "Glutton '') is a warthog exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. He is a mechanic who built the training hall in which the Furious Five train. Taotie and Master Shifu trained in combat together when they were younger up to the point where Master Shifu broke the tip of his left tusk during combat. Shifu, who was a friend of Taotie 's back then, is shown helping him up. After building the training hall (that did not help him improve in kung fu like he thought it would) he built a huge machine which included flame - throwers and throwing stars. He had a disagreement with Master Shifu and Grand Master Oogway about having machines surpass Kung Fu. Taotie left and vowed to get revenge on Master Shifu one day. Many years later in the episode "Sticky Situation, '' Po ended up seeking out Taotie in order to repair the training hall that he accidentally broke. Behind Po 's back, Taotie reassembled the parts of the training hall into a machine that he uses in his revenge plot on Master Shifu. After the Furious Five were defeated, only Master Shifu was left and Po saved him by clogging the gears of Taotie 's machine enough for it to break. Taotie managed to get away.
In "Fluttering Finger Mindslip, '' Taotie discovers that the Furious Five have lost their memory after being exposed to Po 's move. While Po and Master Shifu are away, Taotie took the opportunity to use this to his advantage by having them attack Master Shifu and Po upon their return. When the Furious Five regain their memory, they attacked Taotie though allowing him to get away again.
In "Big Bro Po, '' Taotie uses his new Iron Claws of Doom harness to attack Po and the Furious Five. Taotie 's Iron Claws of Doom fails when Bian Zao fails to lubricate the claws. Taotie is defeated and is taken away to Chorh - Gom Prison leaving Bian Zao alone. Taotie is later visited by Po and Bian Zao who states that his father 's plans take up most of the time together. Taotie convinces Bian Zao to make a bunch of cakes that would help him break out of Chorh - Gom Prison. When Bian Zao is unable to make the visit to Chorh - Gom Prison, Po ends up making the deliveriy to Taotie 's cell not knowing that the final component of the Iron Claws of Doom is in it. With the Iron Claws of Doom rebuilt and lubricated, Taotie escapes from Chorh - Gom Prison. Taotie ends up attacking the Jade Palace stating to Bian Zao that they will do a sporting activity afterwards. After firing the chains at the Furious Five and Master Shifu, Taotie ends up fighting Po. When it came to a stalemate between Po and Taotie, Bian Zao ends up using a flying contraption to pick up Taotie and ends up knocking off the lubrication hose. Both of them managed to get away again as Po claims that he brought Taotie and Bian Zao 's family back together. In "The Most Dangerous Po, '' Taotie is among the villains that were hunted by General Tsin and subjected to stiffening Zu Chao Powder. He is later rescued by Po, but escapes upon being repelled by Po.
In "Bosom Enemies, '' Taotie uses a knife stand machine to attack Po which ends up failed. Taotie ends up in a nervous breakdown following his defeat and Po accidentally ripping off his pants. Bian Zao later turns to Po to get Taotie back to normal. Taotie ends up seeing the light and Po plans to make Taotie a good guy by having him make crime - fighting gadgets while having some special nunchucks made for Po. When the Furious Five arrive, Taotie ends up showing off the special nunchucks as Po states that Taotie has changed. Taotie commented that his old friend Goatie, his parents, and the Cart Wash Manager turned against him. When the Furious Five leave vowing to come after Taotie if he has n't changed, Po states to Taotie that he can have Taotie make weapons for the Furious Five with Po secretly taking measurements of the Furious Five. Po comments that Taotie can make the best crime - fighting assistant to the Furious Five. After Po leaves upon handing him the measurements of the Furious Five for the weapons needed to fit the Furious Five 's talents, Taotie ends up snapping out of his good side as the measurements to make a machine. The next day, Taotie attacks Po and the Furious Five with the Adapto - Bot (which can copy the movies of Po, Master Tigress 's claws, Master Monkey 's tail, Master Mantis ' pointed claws, Master Crane 's Flight, and Master Viper 's constructions) stating that Taotie plays assistant to nobody. Taotie 's Adapto - Bot receives a magnifying glass from Po through Bian Zao and ends up using it to distract the Adapto - Bot while Po uses his nunchucks to throw the Adapto - Bot off balance and then destroys it. Po thanks Taotie for helping him out as he quotes "What are Friends For. '' Yet Taotie and Bian Zao end up returned to Chorh - Gom Prison as Taotie works on the designs of his next invention to use on Po.
In "The Maltese Mantis, '' Taotie and Bian Zao were attending the Festival of Figurines where they are unpacking the figurines of Taotie 's inventions. Though Bian Zao was very doubtful that people would buy figurines of his father, Taotie was confident that he would make a fortune once the fans saw the power of his figurines (demonstrated when one of them punched a hole through the table). Bian Zao eventually asked his father for some money so he could go and buy something that was n't "lame. '' Bian Zao would eventually discover the paralyzed Mantis (who was accidentally paralyzed by Po using the Paralyzing Touch Point) and became intrigued when he spotted the "figure 's '' eyes moving (the only part of Mantis 's body not paralyzed). Po and Master Shifu learned from Bian Zao about where they can find Taotie. Po and Master Shifu confronted Taotie who refused to give Mantis up... especially after Po unwisely revealed that Mantis would become permanently paralyzed in a matter of minutes. Taotie then attempts to make a break for it only for the skirmish between him, Po, and Master Shifu to make it onto the nearest stage. With help from the festival attendees, Po and Master Shifu cornered Taotie who ended up being beaten up by the attendees while Bian Zao gives Master Mantis back to Po and Master Shifu. While Master Shifu undoes the paralysis on Master Mantis, Bian Zao carried his beaten - up father away.
Taotie returned in "A Thousand and Twenty Questions, '' in which he approached Master Yao - albeit grudgingly - after failing time and again to make his Sphere of Unerringly Accurate Acu - Pressure function properly. After doing so, he used the sphere to force Po, Shifu, and all the members of the Furious Five except Tigress act like puppets, but was defeated after Tigress approached Yao for a means of destroying the weapon. In "Apocalypse Yao, '' he created a machine capable of extracting information from the minds of others and turning it into cookies which, upon consumption, would grant that knowledge to the eater. He and Bian Zao used this to steal Master Yao 's five greatest Kung Fu secrets, which they then endeavored to sell to the highest bidder. Taotie briefly employed one of the secrets himself, but later became repulsed with himself for employing Kung Fu when he had dedicated his life to proving the superiority of technology.
Bian Zao (Chinese for "Invent '') is the 13 - year - old son of Taotie, who would reluctantly help his father in his revenge plots on Master Shifu.
In "Big Bro Po, '' Bian Zao ends up staying at the Jade Palace when his father is in Chorh - Gom Prison. Master Shifu ends up appointing Po to watch of Bian Zao despite the suspicions of Bian Zao. Po tries to find common ground with Bian Zao until it came to Po baking with Mr. Ping. Bian Zao stated that he had wished that his father would do something with him that does n't involve destroying the Jade Palace. Bian Zao and Po end up visiting Taotie at Chorh - Gom Prison. Taotie convinces Bian Zao to make a bunch of cakes that would help him break out of Chorh - Gom Prison. Bian Zao secretly goes through with his father 's plans by sneaking the parts of the Iron Claws of Doom into every cake he made. Despite his father 's claims, Bian Zao thinks that his father would not go by his word not to do any other than attack the Jade Palace. Bian Zao ends up confessing to Po about Taotie 's plot. When it came to a stalemate between Po and Taotie, Bian Zao ends up using a flying contraption to pick up Taotie and ends up knocking off the lubrication hose. Both of them managed to get away as Po claims that he brought Taotie and Bian Zao 's family back together.
In "Bosom Enemies, '' Bian Zao assists Taotie into using a knife stand machine to attack Po which ends up failing. Taotie ends up in a nervous breakdown following his defeat and Po accidentally ripping off his pants. Bian Zao later turns to Po to get Taotie back to normal. In "Apocalypse Yao, '' Bian Zao actually became intrigued by one of his father 's schemes after Taotie invented a machine to steal Master Yao 's secrets and sell them to the highest bidder. Taotie was defeated and most of the secrets returned, but Bian Zao managed to hang onto a move that allowed its user to create lightning.
Jong Sung Jai Kai Chow is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. He is the ruler of a portion of land in China in which trespassers are severely dealt with where they "have their heads boiled with cabbage and their ear lobes stretched around their heads '' as described by one of his warning signs. He has an unnamed son and is served by his guards which are made up of Javan rhinos and water buffalos. Fung tricked Po into helping him break into Jong 's castle so that he can abduct Jong 's son with Fung claiming that he was breaking out his brother. The two of them ran by Jong while on their way out. When Po returned to the Jade Palace, two representatives of Jong 's guards were seen telling Master Shifu that Po had assisted Fung into breaking into Jong 's castle. When Po states that he was just helping Fung save his brother, Master Shifu states that Fung does n't have a brother and the person that he helped Fung abduct was Jong 's son. Master Shifu had to reluctantly let Jong 's Javan rhino guard and water buffalo guard arrest Po and bring him before Jong to face his crimes. At Jong 's palace, Jong was preparing the trespassers penalty while Po is chained to the wall. In the nick of time, Fung in his water buffalo guard disguise returned and gave Jong his son back. Yet even Jong 's son wanted Po and Fung dealt with as Jong has his guards seize them. Po and Fung managed to escape from Jong 's castle.
In "Hall of Lame '', Po (who was looking for a trophy for the upcoming Warriors Festival at the time) comes to the aid of kid named Han when Jong 's men led by Grim have been targeting Han 's doll. When it came to rescuing the doll, Po manages to get the doll despite Han giving him away to the guards. When it came to crossing the bridge, Jong arrived and demanded the doll. Jong had a guard reveal that Han 's father Han Sr. is in a cage that is hanging over the gorge the bridge is over. Jong tries to negotiate with Po for him to hand over the doll in exchange for Han Sr. 's freedom. Jong manages to claim the doll which actually contained a legendary dagger. Po ends up fighting Jong who activates the dagger 's power to attack Po, Han, and Han Sr. with the resulting battle slowly collapsing the bridge. Po claimed the dagger and knocked out Jong with his men getting Jong away from Po.
Jong 's son is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. As his name suggests, he is the son of Jong yet his real name is n't revealed. Fung tricked Po into thinking that Fung 's brother was captured by Jong so that he can abduct Jong 's son. Po learned this too late when two of Jong 's guards came to arrest Po. When Fung met up with his fellow bandits and learned what happened to Po, he felt remorse and decided to return Jong 's son. Just as Jong was about to invoke the trespassers penalty on Po, Fung arrived in his water buffalo guard disguise and released Jong 's son to him. Despite this Jong 's son still held it against Po and Fung and wanted them dead, only for Po and Fung to escape from Jong 's castle.
Grim is a water buffalo who is exclusive to the TV series. He is one of Jong 's henchmen.
In "Hall of Lame, '' Grim was ordered by Jong to obtain a doll that Han has in his possession as the doll contained a mystical dagger. After Po knocked out Jong, Grim helped the rest of Jong 's men get Jong away from Po.
Tong Fo (Chinese for "Pain Buddha '') is a loris crime lord exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. His voice appears to have been based on the actor Christopher Walken. He was known for once wielding the Sacred Hammer of Lei Lang and caused mass destruction with it. Tong Fo ended up defeated and was imprisoned in Chorh - Gom Prison. Before Tong Fo was incarcerated, he made a replica of the hammer and hid the real one in Camelback Mountain keeping its whereabouts a secret with the fake copy eventually finding its way at the Jade Palace. Po used the Shift Stone to assume the form of a goat criminal named Sheng in order to infiltrate Chorh - Gom Prison. Po got information from Tong Fo on where the real Sacred Hammer of Lei Lang was located. Tong Fo planned to break out of prison with the help of Fung and his Croc Bandits. Tong Fo learned that Sheng was actually Po in disguise and managed to trap Po in a cell and steal his Shift Stone which he used to disguise himself as a Chorh - Gom Guard and walk out of Chorh - Gom Prison. Arriving at Camelback Mountain, Tong Fo ran into Po as Master Tigress and Master Monkey arrived unaware that Sheng is actually Po in disguise. Tong Fo managed to obtain the Sacred Hammer of Lei Lang as the Croc Bandits arrived. In the ensuing conflict, the Sacred Hammer of Lei Lang was taken by a Croc Bandit that was actually Master Shifu in disguise. Tong Fo and the Croc Bandits were defeated.
In "Father Crime, '' Tong Fo enlisted Fung and his Croc Bandits in a plot to capture Master Shifu. This plot was thwarted by Po, Master Shifu, and Master Shifu 's dad Shirong; the latter originally worked with Tong Fo to help him capture Po so that Tong Fo would forgive his debt, but later had a change of heart after his own son was taken captive. He would eventually return in "Mind Over Manners, '' which would expand on his family history: his grandfather Tong Lo once ruled China with the magical ability to read minds, but was driven insane by this talent. Tong Fo attempted to gain the same powers by capturing a lightning bolt with a magical sapphire, only for the sapphire to be destroyed and for Po to gain the powers instead. Tong Fo then attempted to steal the power from Po, but was thwarted and taken to prison. In "The Goosefather '' Tong Fo learns that many of his minions have left his side to form a new gang under Po 's father, whom Tong Fo initially perceives as a rival, and then a potential partner. Eventually he learns that Po 's father is in fact a simple noodle - shop owner, but is defeated and sent back to prison. He would subsequently return in "Kung Fu Club, '' where he captured Peng 's girlfriend Lian in order to force Peng to kill Po for him. However, Lian managed to escape, and the Kung Fu Club members teamed up with Po and Shifu to defeat Tong Fo and his minions, with Peng and Po defeating Tong Fo.
Fenghuang (Chinese for "Phoenix '') is a Eurasian eagle - owl exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. She was a member of the original Furious Five alongside Master Shifu, Master Snow Leopard, Master Rooster, and Master Elephant. Fenghuang became the strongest member of the Furious Five through a lot of training and even invented the Thundering Wind Hammer. As a result of being the strongest, she became power - hungry and evil. One day, Fenghuang decided she deserved to rule the Jade Palace instead of Grand Master Oogway, believing herself to be more powerful than him. She challenged Oogway to a fight for the Palace; Oogway anticipated this and had an owl - shaped cage built for this occasion. After a long and fierce fight, Fenghuang knew that she could not defeat Oogway and fled before she could be captured, taking refuge in the Northern Mountains.
Many years later, in "Owl Be Back, '' Po ended up in the Northern Mountains and ended up caught by Fenghuang when he was falling. When Fenghuang learns that Grand Master Oogway is dead, she flies off to the Jade Palace. Master Shifu and the Furious Five face her, but she easily defeats them. When Po returns, she convinces him to turn evil and orders him to kill Shifu. Po uses a trick knife to fool Fenghuang into thinking that he had actually killed Master Shifu and then placed Fenghuang into the owl - shaped cage. As Fenghuang 's cage is being towed away to Chorh - Gom Prison, she vows to escape and have her revenge on Po.
In "Crane on a Wire, '' Fenghuang crashes Po 's Furious Five auction where she attacks Po and the Furious Five which resulted in Master Crane getting stuck in the wall. When Po discovered that Fenghuang 's talons ca n't shred iron, Po and the other Furious Five were able to use the iron objects to break Fenghuang 's talons. Fenghuang retreated with a broken wing. Upon news that Fenghuang is at the nearby mountains, Po and the Furious Five had to go confront her without Master Crane. Po and four of the Furious Five had a hard time fighting Fenghuang. After some encouragement from Zeng, Master Crane caught up with Po and helped to fight Fenghuang. Master Crane fought with Fenghuang in the sky over the village which ended with Master Crane and Po causing Fenghuang to crash to the ground in defeat.
In "A Stitch in Time, '' Fenghuang finds out about the Shuyong seeds that Po had found and steals some of them in order to learn some time - based moves. Upon managing to steal them and grow her own Shuyong seeds, Fenghuang started going back in time to prevent the birth of Master Shifu and the Furious Five. When she planned to go back in time to prevent Po 's birth, Po grabbed onto Fenghuang with the resulting battle causing the Shuyong seeds to fall and send both of them back to the beginning of time where they find themselves before the Shuyong Tree. Upon the Shuyong Tree judging Po and Fenghuang even after they bested the Shuyong Tree 's guardians, the Shuyong Tree deemed Po worthy of using its fruit and the Shuyong Tree used its powers to send Fenghuang into oblivion. Afterwards, Po restored time to the way it was and burned the Shuyong seeds except for one that he did n't notice.
Fenghuag later returned in "The First Five '' when her former teammates came together for a reunion at Po 's invitation. It is revealed that prior to her departure from the group they defeated the demon Xi'an, but Shifu dropped the demon 's mighty sword into the volcano before they could claim it. When the sword reappears years later, Fenghuang is released from prison - though manacled - by her former teammates to help them recover it in exchange for her freedom. Fenghuang later destroys the sword, and is freed after Po convinces the former Five to honor their agreement.
Fenghuang also appears as an enemy in the Tales of Po game and made a cameo in the Titan Comics series.
Fenghuang is also the name of a mythical composite Chinese bird creature of the same name that has beautiful singing talents and a varying description.
Master Junjie (Chinese for "Elite '') is a red fox Kung Fu Master exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. He is a member of the Sacred Onyx Council alongside Master Chao. He first appeared in "Sight for Sore Eyes, '' where he and Chao traveled to the Valley of Peace to evaluate Master Shifu 's skills as the master of the Jade Palace. He held a grudge against Shifu when Grand Master Oogway chose Shifu to run the Jade Palace. He also holds a hatred towards Po, believing him to be unworthy of taking the title of Dragon Warrior, despite Po 's success as the Dragon Warrior. Junjie plotted and succeeded into removing Master Shifu from his position by tricking Po into watching him and Shifu spar and use the Golden Lotus Clap, a move that renders the target blind. Junjie then fired the Furious Five and replaced them with a team of snow leopards. Because of this, the Furious Five turned their backs on Po. It was later revealed that Junjie had imprisoned Shifu and later did the same thing to Chao. While his Furious Five fought the actual Furious Five, Master Junjie fought against Master Po and was defeated. Master Shifu and the Furious Five were rehired while Junjie and his henchmen were apprehended to Chorh - Gom - Prison. It can also be implied that Junjie was also ousted from the Sacred Onyx Council for his actions.
In "Ghost of Oogway, '' Master Junjie posed as the ghost of Master Oogway in order to fool Master Po into letting his guard down by doing nothing in combat training and turn him and Shifu against each other. Once Po and Shifu were out of the palace, Junjie used his disguise to enter the Jade Palace and subdued the Furious Five. When Po returned, he found the Furious Five tied up as Junjie sheds his disguise. Junjie then unleashes his henchmen on Po. Things were n't looking good for the panda, but in the nick of time, Master Shifu arrived and fooled Junjie by assuming the form of Grand Master Oogway. While the Furious Five fought Master Junjie 's henchmen, Master Po managed to successfully use the Tae Bow Chow to knock out Master Junjie. Junjie later returned in "Bride of Po, '' kidnapping the brother of a young goat maiden to force her into a marriage with Po intended to bring an end to Po 's status as the Dragon Warrior so that Junjie could take over the Jade Palace. This plan was thwarted, however, and Po saved both siblings from Junjie and defeated him.
In "Crazy Little Ling Called Love, '' it was revealed that Shifu 's ex-girlfriend Mei Ling attempted to steal from Junjie but was captured, and Junjie threatened to kill her and Shifu unless she stole the Crown of Heaven for him. This was later discovered by Po, who convinced Mei Ling to go along with the plan. After Junjie and his forces were defeated, he and Mei Ling were both sent to prison, the latter to pay her debt to society so that she could eventually be reunited with Shifu.
Junjie 's Furious Five were a bunch of snow leopards that are trained in Kung Fu by Master Junjie. They serve as Master Junjie 's students and henchmen when he succeeded in removing Master Shifu and the Furious Five from the Jade Palace. It was often speculated that one of its members is a female, but all the leopards appear identical.
Even though Junjie 's Furious Five do n't normally speak, the one that does have dialogue in the first appearance was voiced by Toby Huss.
Hundun is a Javan rhinoceros who is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. He started out as a member of the Anvil of Heaven at Chorh - Gom Prison and was among the Anvil of Heaven members that tried to prevent Tai Lung from escaping Chorh - Gom Prison. When Po had defeated Tai Lung, Chorh - Gom Prison was closed down, leaving Hundun without a job. He lost his home and his wife leading Hundun to pin the blame of this on the Dragon Warrior. When he arrived in the Valley of Peace, he unknowingly befriended Po and learned some Kung Fu moves from him. When he finally learned that Po was the Dragon Warrior, he ended up attacking Po after easily taking down the Furious Five (Po unknowingly told Hundun of their weaknesses). Po manages to fight Hundun in front of everyone and managed to defeat Hundun when the Statue of Po fell on him. Hundun was returned to Chorh - Gom Prison as a prisoner as Hundun vows to have his revenge on Po.
In "Challenge Day, '' Hundun returns having replaced his broken horn with a hollow one containing knock - out arrows and a concealed blade. He takes the opportunity to take part in the Dragon Warrior Challenge where he manages to defeat Master Po (who was still weakened from rescuing a child from a collapsing chimney). After using the knock - out arrows on Shifu (who stated that he made up the Dragon Warrior Challenge), Hundun ended up going on a rampage in the village until Po recovered and defeated him.
In "Royal Pain, '' Meng Tao freed Hundun from Chorh - Gom Prison to help him make Lu Kang fail in exchange for his freedom. Although Hundun managed to incapacitate Po, he and Meng Tao were defeated by Lu Kang and were returned to Chorh - Gom Prison.
In "The Most Dangerous Po, '' Hundun approaches General Tsin 's property looking for a bakery (which General Tsin lured him here). It is also revealed that Hundun likes plum pie. General Tsin mentions to Po that he was hunting Hundun after luring him with a coupon for a bakery sale. Po fights Hundun (who thinks that Po is after his pie) while trying to secretly warn Hundun that General Tsin is hunting him. General Tsin then enters the battle and defeats him. Hundun is then subjected to the stiffening Zu Chao powder like the rest of the villains he had hunted. He is later rescued by Po, but escapes upon being repelled by Po. Hundun tells Po that this is n't over ("... because it will continue '').
In "War of the Noodles, '' Po finds Hundun where he mistook him for setting a building on fire where he has set up fireworks. Hundun reveals that he has opened up a new noodle shop where Po had demonstrated some of the recipes in Po 's last visit to Chorh - Gom Prison. He has enlisted a gorilla, a pig, and a rabbit to assist in his business. Mr. Ping was suspicious of Hundun 's activity. Mr. Ping remembers that the property of Hundun 's restaurant is above the tunnels leading to the Jade Palace and suspects that Hundun and his accomplices are going to attack the Jade Palace. Po investigates and is spotted by Hundun 's accomplices as Hundun suspects that Po is burglaring him. Hundun states that he does n't know what he is talking about and Po found that there is no tunnel as the previous owner filled it in. Po apologized to Hundun who tearfully walked away as Po leaves. As Mr. Ping and Hundun 's rivalry intenses, Po brings Hundun a fruit basket as an apology. Hundun agrees to forgive Po if he can get his restaurant off the ground. After Mr. Ping found Po also helping Hundun, he went to Hundun to beg for a job and finds that Hundun and his accomplices unfilling the tunnel and gets caught by Hundun who captures Mr. Ping. Hundun revealed to Mr. Ping that he tricked Po and that he will invade the Jade Palace and blow it up with his fireworks. Po arrives and fights Hundun and his accomplices while working to put out the fuse. Hundun manages to trap Po as he and his acommplices start to leave. Po puts out the fuse. Using a rocket, Po rides it through the tunnels as he collides it with Hundun and his accomplices. With Hundun 's noodle shop destroyed, he and his accomplices are arrested.
Bao is a pig who is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. Bao first appeared in "Master Ping '' where he and his accomplices Lao and Tsao attacked Mr. Ping 's noodle shop only to be defeated by Po. When Bao decides that he, Lao, and Tsao want to learn Kung Fu, they decide to abduct Master Shifu and force him to teach them Kung Fu. Unfortunately, they mistook Mr. Ping as Master Shifu as Mr. Ping only knew of the Chao Wa Punch Kick move which causes immobilization on whoever is hit by it. Bao and his followers decide to use it on Po when he comes to rescue Mr. Ping. With help from Po, Mr. Ping manages to use the Chao Wa Punch Kick on Bao and his followers.
In "The Most Dangerous Po, '' Bao is among the villains that were hunted by General Tsin and subjected to stiffening Zu Chao Powder. He is later rescued by Po, but escapes upon being repelled by Po.
In "Shifu 's Back, '' Bao, Lao, and Tsao captured Superintendent Woo after his inspection of the Jade Palace. When Po, Master Shifu, and Constable Hu arrived, Superintendent Woo had to reinstate Constable Hu and reopen the Jade Palace in order to get them to rescue him from Bao, Lao, and Tsao. Po, Master Shifu, and Constable Hu were able to rescue Superintendent Woo and fend off Bao, Lao, and Tsao.
Lao is one of Bao 's accomplices.
Tsao is one of Bao 's accomplices.
Su is a snow leopard that is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness.
Su is the leader of the Ladies of the Shade, a group of traveling females that work as entertainers as a cover - up to the fact that they are actually a group of thieves. Su assigned Song to get close to Po and get him to enable the Ladies of the Shade to enter the Jade Palace so that they can steal the Dragon Chalice. Su eventually convinces Po to let the Ladies of the Shade perform at the Jade Palace where they claimed that they used to dance for a harsh Crocodile Warlord before they left which Po agreed to. The Ladies of the Shade did a private dance for Po and the Furious Five at the Jade Palace. As they danced however, one of them grabbed the Dragon Chalice which Tigress noticed and she leaped in to attack. The Furious Five fought the Ladies of the Shade with Po feeling dismayed and hurt from Song 's betrayal. The fight ended when the Ladies of the Shade made an escape taking the Chalice with them. Upon finding the Ladies of the Shade 's hideout, Po, Master Crane, and Master Viper had to disguise themselves with Po as a female, Master Crane as Po 's dress, and Master Viper as a parasol so that they can get the Dragon Chalice back from Su. Su saw threw their disguise and summoned the Ladies of the Shade to her aid. Song eventually turned against Su and assisted Po into fighting Su and the Ladies of the Shade. Su was defeated by Po while the rest of the Ladies of the Shade were blown away by the gust of the Canyon of the Shrieking Winds. Su was left tied up until a transport to Chorh - Gom Prison arrived while Song left to lead the Ladies of the Shade down the good path.
Wu Kong is a Gee 's golden langur exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. He is the older brother of Monkey and is skilled in thievery and some monkey - style Kung Fu techniques. His first and so far only appearance was in the episode "Monkey in the Middle '', where he came to the Valley of Peace and went on a crime spree across the village 's market. Even though he was defeated by Po and Master Monkey, Wu Kong ended up getting away.
His name is a homage to Sun Wukong, the Monkey King.
Meng Tao is the diplomat of the Emperor of China. He accompanied the Emperor 's grandson Lu Kang to the Kung Fu camp where Master Shifu and the Furious Five were counseling. Meng Tao left Lu Kang to Master Shifu and the Furious Five in order to learn Kung Fu. When Po, the Dragon Warrior and master in charge of Lu Kang 's training, rashly makes a vow to fully train Lu Kang, Meng Tao informs him that breaking that vow would result in beheading for every master of the Jade Palace. Meng Tao then left the horrified masters to continue with training. Unknown to all, Meng Tao actually wanted Lu Kang to fail as failure would bring great disgrace to the Emperor forcing him to give Meng Tao the throne. When Meng Tao learned that Po had successfully trained Lu Kang, Meng Tao went to Chorh - Gom Prison and made a deal with Hundun where he offered Hundun his freedom in exchange for helping Lu Kang to fail. While Hundun incapacitated Po at the Pool of Sacred Tears, Meng Tao drew a pair of blades and attempted to murder Lu Kang squashing Lu Kang 's bean pod in the process. At first, Lu Kang fell into despair. But when Po revealed that the bean pod he gave him was not magical and that Lu Kang had in fact done all his skills himself, Lu Kang regained the confidence to utilize the unorthodox techniques he had developed while training to ultimately defeat both Meng Tao and Hundun in combat. Meng Tao and Hundun were then remanded to Chorh - Gom Prison.
General Tsin is a character that is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. Once a well - known war hero throughout all of China, Tsin was forced into retirement after eliminating all of the country 's villainous threats and became one of the Jade Palace 's benefactors. The transition of all the threats eventually took its toll on his mind throughout the years.
As a result, he began a new hobby of "hunting and collecting '' villains (somewhat similar to the motives of Zaroff from The Most Dangerous Game) around the Valley of Peace where he subjected his victims to stiffening Zu Chao Powder. Some of his targets include Scorpion, Temutai, Fung, Gah - ri, Jing Mei, Taotie, and Bao.
When Po is invited to General Tsin 's palace, he ends up taking part in a villain - stopping expedition, with Po unaware of Tsin 's motives. This involved Tsin hunting his latest target Hundun. Po fought with Hundun while trying to warn him only for Tsin to defeat Hundun and add him to his collection, in which Po believes this to be wrong. When Po started to question Tsin 's motives and mentality, Tsin ended up hunting Po. Po managed to evade Tsin, but doubled back following a vision revolving around Hundun speaking to him. During the fight with Po in his collection room, Tsin trapped Po in the Zu Chao Powder chamber where it was discovered that Po had reversed the powder 's effects freeing the villains who then vowed to have General Tsin pay for what he did to them and they begin attacking him. Tsin fought the villains and proves to be more of a match to them until they start to win and are then repelled by Po. Although Tsin is sent to Chorh - Gom Prison, Shifu was n't pleased that one of the Jade Palace 's benefactors ended up incarcerated because of his actions. Po then states that now they can go after the villains that escaped from Tsin 's palace.
In "Qilin Time, '' Tsin was released from jail to start a new life and recover from his insanity. Po and Mr. Ping encounter Tsin, who is hunting the Qilin. At the end of the episode, Po and Mr. Ping were able to convince him that there was no Qilin and he was still crazy.
In "See No Weevil '' Tsin returns, insane to a greater extent, having apparently married a pair of slippers. Tsin attacks a rice farm because evil Alien Rice Weevils were using it to take over minds and conquer the Earth. The Furious Five defeated Tsin, and planned to use the Zu Chao Powder on him. Po freed him after he found out the Weevils were real, and infected the Five and Shifu. However, the entire town except Mr. Ping was infected, and Tsin quickly joined the ranks of the infected. Po defeated the weevils, and the experience restored Tsin 's sanity, who left for Korea.
The Undertaker is the property caretaker of the Valley of Peace 's cemetery.
He appeared in "The Po Who Cried Ghost '' where it is shown that the Undertaker has been using a mystical staff to raise an army of Jiangshi in a plot to take over all of China. It is shown that Master Shifu has been converted into a Jiang Shi as the Undertaker unleashes the Jiangshi on Po, Master Tigress, and Master Monkey. Upon the three of them being pinned down by the Jiangshi, Po snatches the mystical staff from the Undertaker and orders the Jiangshi to return to the Earth to be at peace forever. Before they do so, Po orders the Jiang Shi to drop the Undertaker off at Chorh - Gom Prison.
Ke - Pa is a dangerous dragon demon who first appeared in the Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness special "Enter the Dragon. ''
Ke - Pa was the ruler of all the demons from the Underworld. They ravaged all of China until Grand Master Oogway defeated the demons and sealed them away. Then Grand Master Oogway fought against Ke - Pa. When all hope seemed lost, the power of the Peach Tree ended up giving Grand Master Oogway the power to fend off Ke - Pa, known as "Hero 's Chi ''.
In present day, Ke - Pa is in his mortal guise of an old pig retelling his tale to some crocodile and water buffalo criminals in a bar who ended up laughing at his tale. When some of the Peach Tree started to fall off, Ke - Pa began to regain his powers and beat up the criminals. Ke - Pa then headed to the Valley of Peace. Po pridefully tries to stop him, but Ke - Pa has proven himself more than a match for him. When the tree dies, Ke - Pa regains his full powers and because he learned that Po was the Dragon Warrior, Ke - Pa decides the most appropriate to take to defeat him would be an actual beast and assumes his true form of a huge, colorful Dragon. Ke - Pa tells Po and Shifu that if they do n't surrender the Hero 's Chi so he can release the demons, he will devour the villagers. Shifu tells him that he has the Hero 's Chi and he harshly sends Po off for letting his selfishness get the best of him and forgetting to warn the villagers. However, Ke - Pa later finds out that Shifu is not the host of the Hero 's Chi, but Po is. Ke - Pa crushes Po close to death, extracting the Hero 's Chi and breaking the seal, thus releasing the demons. Po 's Life Force and Chi are restored by the Peach Tree sapling that Shifu planted in the Kung Fu Panda first movie. Po managed to defeat the demons and reseal the remaining ones. Po then fights Ke - Pa and uses the Chi he has left to defeat the demon.
NOTE: Because dragons are considered beneficent deities in both real oriental culture and the Kung Fu Panda Universe that mirrors it, it is made clear that Ke - Pa was not a true dragon, but a maniacal demon that could change his shape to any creature, including a monster. Demons in their true form, as seen in this episode are black, amorphus spirit - devils. No actual oriental beings have appeared in the Kung Fu Panda world, and may not, since they are more of a deity than an actual animal.
Master Ding is a Kung Fu master who had committed some mental attacks on innocent victims with his Spirit Orbs. It took Oogway and the Furious Five members at the time to defeat Ding and imprisoned him for life in a prison castle on Mugu Mountain while the Spirit Orbs were confiscated.
Many years later, Po and Tigress accidentally released Ding 's Spirit Orbs which then left to Master Ding 's prison. Once Po and Tigress arrive, they ended up having to deal with Ding 's ghost, who gives Po and Tigress a hard time. When Ding manages to possess Po in order to exit his prison, Tigress gained control of the Spirit Orbs as Ding can no longer control them since Po is n't good at focusing, which puts him at a disadvantage. Tigress uses the Spirit Orbs to enter Po 's mind where she and Po fought against Ding. Po and Tigress were able to exorcise Ding 's ghost from Po 's body and return the Spirit Orbs to the Jade Palace.
The Lin Kuei (also spelled Lin Quay) are a group of Tibetan wolves that are exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. The Lin Kuei are expert assassins and thieves who were trained from birth to steal priceful and powerful artifacts from Kung Fu Masters.
Heilang is the leader of the Lin Kuei who is blind in one eye.
He first appeared in "The Secret Museum of Kung Fu '' where he led the Lin Kuei into going after the Phantom Orb (an artifact that can make anyone intangible) which was located in the Secret Museum of Kung Fu. Heilang and the Lin Kuei were repelled by Po, Master Shifu, and the Furious Five.
In "Mama Told Me Not to Kung Fu, '' Heilang and the Lin Kuei go after the Shadow Crown which would enable it 's wearer to become invisible. At that time, Master Crane 's mother Yan Fan thought that Heilang and the Lin Kuei were employees at the Jade Palace. When Heilang and the Lin Kuei gain the Phantom Crowns, the Furious Five had a hard time until Master Crane used one of his mother 's items to make the Lin Kuei visible after they threatened Yan Fan. Heilang and the Lin Kuei were defeated by Master Crane.
Pai Mei is a rogue Kung Fu Master who is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness.
Pai Mei was a Kung Fu Master who was the most evil and abusive of all time. He was defeated by Master Shifu and exiled after attempting to overpower the Emperor.
He first appeared in "Five is Enough '' where he destroyed two guards and took down Master Chao. He then took a flag and ended up engaging Po, Master Shifu, and the Furious Five. He was defeated by them and fell off a cliff. His fate after that was unknown.
Not to be confused with the female snow leopard of the same name, Mei Ling is a female fox (vixen) and an antagonist exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. A rogue Kung Fu master with skills that rival Shifu 's, Mei Ling was also Shifu 's love interest for an unspecified amount of time (much to Po 's disbelief when she tells him). Falling in love after their first confrontation, they quickly entered a relationship. However, Shifu broke off the relationship after Mei Ling refused to stop using her Kung Fu to steal.
In "Shifu 's Ex '', she returns to the Jade Palace, much to Shifu 's dismay, causing him to panic hysterically and resort to hiding in a closet. Mei Ling though is wise to these avoidance tricks and easily finds him. She later uses the Zhou Deng Soul Gem to swap bodies with him during a kiss in order to manipulate Po and the Furious Five to rob an imperial convoy of precious jewels. However, this failed when Shifu (still in Mei Ling 's body) revealed the deception and used the Soul Gem to swap back their respective bodies while they embraced in another kiss. After she was defeated by Po and the Furious Five, Mei Ling was arrested and sent to Chorh - Gom Prison, only to escape while being escorted there. Her escape delighted Shifu to no end revealing that even after the events she put him through, he still is in love with Mei Ling.
She reappears in "Crazy little ling called love '' but this time as a redeemed villain. She starts the episode tricking Shifu into revealing the day when the Crown of Heaven was being transported to the Imperial Museum so that Master Jungjie could steal it along the way but she was only helping Jungjie because years ago he caught her stealing a silver sword from him and said that he would free her if someday she would help him complete a task or he would kill her and Shifu. This task is revealed to be the theft of the Crown of Heaven and when Shifu intends to steal the crown from the museum in order to protect Mei Ling from Jungjie, she sets a plan with Po and the Furious Five in order to apprehend Jungjie and save Shifu 's honor, however Mei Ling turns herself to the Imperial Guards as Jungjie 's conspirator in order to avoid Jungjie 's revenge against her and Shifu. Upon seeing the sacrifice Mei Ling has done for him, Shifu realizes that she really loves him and they rekindle their romance and have a picnic in Mei Ling 's cell in Chorh - Gom Prison.
Kira Kozu is a clam who is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness.
Kira Kozu is a samurai that was a former comrade of Yijiro until the day that he betrayed the Ishida Clan and became a Rōnin with plans to take over Japan.
Some time later, Kira Kozu and his followers arrived in the Valley of Peace. Yijiro teamed up with the Furious Five where the samurai methods that Yijiro taught Po was enough to defeat Kira.
Fu - Xi is a cobra who is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness.
Fu - Xi was once a famous hero that was descended from the Dragon Gods who fought nobly to defend China from evildoers. Fu - Xi later went rogue after he was betrayed by the "two - leggers '' that he fought alongside of where the "two - leggers '' feared his power and slew his family.
Later on in his life, Fu - Xi appeared in the Valley of Peace where he had saved Master Viper from some paranoid villagers. He addressed Master Viper as "Great Master Viper of the Jade Palace '' and saw her to be a potential ally / apprentice in his goals. He tries to get Master Viper to not fight alongside the "two - leggers '' and that she should fight alongside the snakes, in which she agrees to help him, much to Po 's dismay. It is later revealed that Viper was pretending the whole time. With help from Po, Master Viper was able to defeat Fu - Xi where his plan to convert Master Viper to his side proved to be his downfall.
NOTE: Fu - Xi was named after the Chinese deity of the same name.
Sanzu is a Chinese pangolin who is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness.
Sanzu is the greedy caretaker of a bunch of orphans. He organized them into stealing money and various things for him from the Valley of Peace 's citizens. Eventually, Po caught onto Sanzu 's plans where he was able to free the orphans from his control. Po then defeated Sanzu who is then brought to Chorh - Gom Prison. The orphans were then placed in the care of Mrs. Yoon.
The Lao Shu are a band of renegade rats that number in the hundreds, possibly the thousands.
Ju - Long is a rat who is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness.
Ju - Long is the leader of the Lao Shu. Ju - Long is described by Master Shifu as "deadly and unbalanced ''. He is crazy, and likes to inflict suffering and chaos simply for fun. Ju - Long 's small size lets him easily evade larger opponents. He also has help from his hundreds of brothers and sisters who help to make up the Lao Shu. He used Po 's hunger against him, offering him food and then attacking him while his guard was down. He uses a conveniently - sized mallet for a weapon, and likes to use explosives.
In "The Hunger Game, '' Ju - Long collaborated with Madame Zhou in a plot to steal food from the Valley of Peace and sell it to different markets. Visiting Madame Zhou where he ended up discovering that Madame Zhou was a silent partner to the Lao Shu. She then traps Po and Lao Shu in an underground room while she works to sell the stolen food to other markets. Po and Lao Shu got out where Madame Zhou wielded an iron whip in battle (she considers herself as the "Master of the Iron Whip ''). After the explosions from Madame Zhou 's bombs released all the stolen food onto the Valley of Peace, Po then used the Iron Whip to wrap up Madame Zhou and Ju - Long where he left them for the authorities.
Madame Zhou is a gazelle who is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness.
Madame Zhou is a rich gazelle who owns a mansion outside of the Valley of Peace. The Furious Five once visited her place to get rice and had to defend it from the Lao Shu. After the Lao Shu were fended off, Madame Zhou had tempted Po into visiting her if he ever needed food. Po gave into this every night until Master Shifu and the Furious Five caught on to this. After a stern talking to from Master Shifu, Po visited Madame Zhou where he ended up discovering that Madame Zhou was a silent partner to the Lao Shu. She then traps Po and Lao Shu in an underground room while she works to sell the stolen food to other markets. Po and Lao Shu got out where Madame Zhou wielded an iron whip in battle (she considers herself as the "Master of the Iron Whip ''). After the explosions from Madame Zhou 's bombs released all the stolen food onto the Valley of Peace, Po then used the Iron Whip to wrap up Madame Zhou and Ju - Long where he left them for the authorities.
The Alien Rice Weevils were a group of evil alien weevil conquerors, all named Hong that go into ears and take over their victim 's mind. General Tsin discovered them, and tried to destroy them. The Furious Five defeated Tsin, but Po was suspicious and discovered they existed. Po, Tsin, and Mr. Ping armed themselves with the weevil 's only weakness, copper bowls. The weevils took over the Valley of Peace and infected Tsin. Po and Mr. Ping freed everyone, and all the weevils were subjected to the Zhu Chao Powder. The frozen weevils were then sent to Chorh - Gom Prison.
Supervisor Hong is a character exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness. He is the leader of the Alien Rice Weevils.
Mr. Ping is Po 's adoptive father, who runs the most popular noodle shop in the Valley. He considers his work deeply fulfilling, and hopes that his son will continue to operate the shop, wishing to share with him the family 's secret recipe to great noodles (which was passed down to Mr. Ping from his own father who took it from Mr. Ping 's paternal grandfather, who won it from a friend in a game of mahjong). When he believes his son is ready, he informs him that there is actually no secret ingredient, and that things are special if someone believes them to be. This piece of advice leads Po to understand the cryptic message of the Dragon Scroll, which makes him the Dragon Warrior and allows him to fulfill his destiny.
Po and his father share a deep mutual love and respect. This shows in how Po can not bear to disappoint his father about his differing ambitions while Mr. Ping respects his son 's decisions enough to neither protest nor interfere after the panda is dubbed the Dragon Warrior. At Po 's triumph over Tai Lung, all of Mr. Ping 's doubts of his son 's destiny vanish as he proclaims his pride in Po to the world as they embrace.
Furthermore, the end credit graphics indicate that Po keeps closely in touch with his father such as continuing to work at the restaurant. In addition, Ping establishes a friendship with the panda 's other father figure and master, Shifu. He is extremely skilled at Chinese chess as shown when he outwits Shifu in a match.
However, the Kung Fu Panda Holiday shows that Mr. Ping harbors a deep - seated anxiety of Po leaving him in his nightmares. In addition, Ping finds the conflict of his priorities with his son 's responsibilities as the Dragon Warrior deeply upsetting, especially since Master Shifu is prone to imperiously draw Po away on these matters at will. This comes to a head when Po is tasked to host the Winter Festival banquet for the Masters, which takes place at the same night as their traditional dinner at the restaurant. Although Po offers to give his father the high honor of cooking for the formal banquet, Ping stubbornly insists that he can not close the restaurant for that night and forsake the lonely (and profitable) clientele who have nowhere else to celebrate the holiday. As a result, both father and son struggle in their separate culinary tasks, until Po decides he should be with his father and leaves the banquet early. In turn, Mr. Ping, who was struggling with his own preparations at this time, confesses that he was unfair to Po and concedes his larger duties with his martial arts calling. Regardless, the reunited family creates a successful event at the restaurant that not only pleases their usual customers, but also the visiting kung fu masters, who decide to come themselves out of admiration of Po 's loyalty and the relaxed atmosphere. As the second feature film indicates, he was then able to accept his son 's subsequent departure to follow his calling with some peace, though like any parent, he still worries for his son 's safety.
In Kung Fu Panda 2, it was revealed that one day, while gathering the new shipments of vegetables he ordered, Mr. Ping found a baby panda in one of the shipment 's radish crates (with the shipment of radishes being eaten). Surprised, he looked around and waited for someone to come find the infant. When no one came, he decided to keep the child until someone came looking for him. Quickly finding out that the infant was too big and heavy to carry in, he led him inside with a trail of vegetables. He bathed him, fed him, and nurtured him until one day, he came to realize that no one was coming for the child. He then made two life - altering decisions: He would never use radishes for noodle soup, and he would keep the child as his own son. It is assumed that around this point, Mr. Ping named the baby panda Po.
Mr. Ping is also shown to be a shrewd, if a bit opportunistic, businessman, despite seeming silly other times. For instance, he has renamed his restaurant as "Mr. Ping 's Dragon Warrior Noodles and Tofu '' (ironically, in the first film Mr. Ping mentioned he once dreamt of running away to make tofu, though he dismissed it as a "stupid dream '') with Po 's belongings put on display. When Po comes to visit, he cries, "In honor of my son, free tofu dessert for everybody, '' only to add "with purchases, '' which causes his customers to groan and when Po returns from Gongmen City, Mr. Ping also shows him the posters he made advertising "My Son Saved China -- You Too Can Save (Money)! Buy 1 Dumpling, Get 1 Free ''. In the Holiday special, he tells Po that he owes him 17 yuan for the bedroom door, which Po had charged through believing his father was in trouble (Mr. Ping had awoken from a "noodle dream '' that turned bad) and also appreciates hosting a feast for Winter Festival not only for giving comfort to the lonely, but also being able to charge a premium doing so ("And lonely people pay extra ''). Furthermore, at the end, when the Furious Five visit, Mr. Ping mentions to Po that Mantis, despite his size, must pay full price for his soup ("The little one pays full price, but eats like a child '').
From a behind - the - scenes featurette on the first Kung Fu Panda movie DVD, the filmmakers reveal that (when hearing about James Hong 's father having a noodle shop) they brought this to his character Mr. Ping. James Hong is the only voice actor to reprise his role as Mr. Ping in the films, TV series, and video games.
Li Shan is the biological father of Po. He was a happy farmer who cared about his family when Po saw him in his visions.
In Kung Fu Panda 2, Li was separated from a baby Po when Lord Shen 's Wolf Army attacked their village. By the end of the film, it is revealed that Li and the surviving pandas have taken refuge in a secret paradise and senses that his son is alive.
In Kung Fu Panda 3, Li was reunited with Po where it is shown that they both have the same personality.
Mei Mei is a giant panda and aspiring ribbon dancer who appears in Kung Fu Panda 3.
NOTE: Rebel Wilson was originally cast as Mei Mei. Due to an extended production schedule, Wilson dropped out and the role was recast to Kate Hudson.
Dim is a giant panda that appears in Kung Fu Panda 3.
Dim is the twin brother of Sum, the nephew of Li Shan, and the cousin of Po. He and his brother 's name are a nod to Dim sum, a style of Chinese cuisine.
Sum is a giant panda that appears in Kung Fu Panda 3.
Sum is the twin brother of Dim, the nephew of Li Shan, and the cousin of Po. He and his brother 's name are a nod to Dim sum, a style of Chinese cuisine.
Bao is a young giant panda that appears in Kung Fu Panda 3.
Lei Lei is a young female giant panda that appears in Kung Fu Panda 3. She is frequently shown around Tigress.
Grandma Panda is an elderly giant panda that appears in Kung Fu Panda 3.
Shirong is the father of Master Shifu, and is a con Man by trade. When Shifu was young Shirong left him at the Jade Palace. He appears in the episode "Father Crime ''. Years later he was supposedly rescued by Po and Tigress, but actually it was a plan set up by Tong Fo to capture Po and hold him for ransom. It ends up though that Shirong pretends to be kidnapped and Shifu goes to rescue him even though they have been estranged for a long time. Shifu acutely gets captured by Tong Fo in a trap that was meant for Po. Po and Tigress also went to rescue Shirong but they end up rescuing Shifu instead. Shirong comes back to help Shifu escape and he and his son and Po and Tigress defeat Tong Fo. After Tong Fo is defeated he leaves on good terms with his son, but he stole his son 's money pouch.
He later told his son years later that he left Shifu at the Palace because he himself was a jerk. He also leaves on pretty good terms with his son. He also seems to feel the need to steal anything valuable in sight including a Gold Sword.
Zeng is a palace goose, who acts in the first movie as Master Shifu 's messenger and is specifically given the mission to try to double the amount of guards at Chorh - Gom Prison where Tai Lung is held captive, under the orders of Shifu, based on Oogway 's vision that Tai Lung will escape. The irony is that, while visiting the prison, one of Zeng 's feathers falls near Tai Lung, who uses it to pick the lock on his restraints and escape, echoing one of Oogway 's statements that "one often meets his destiny on the road he takes to avoid it ''. In the resulting carnage, Zeng is spared and forced to return to the valley and herald Tai Lung 's escape. He is extremely nervous and pessimistic, but is nonetheless willing to fulfill the assignment given to him. During the credits, a picture shows Zeng gluing the Urn of Whispering Warriors, which Po had broken earlier, back together.
He makes a small, non-speaking, cameo appearance in Kung Fu Panda 2.
In Kung Fu Panda Holiday, Zeng helps Po into picking out a chef to cook the meals at the Jade Palace 's formal Winter Feast dinner. He even knows the meanings of different gestures a host makes, interpreting Po 's wave to Monkey as the "Hun Shu wave of dismissal ''.
It is revealed in the episode "Challenge Day '' that Zeng knows all 1200 bamboo types.
Commander Vachir is the chief of security at Chorh - Gom Prison, and the leader of the Anvil of Heaven, a one thousand - strong army of elite battle rhinos. He was placed in charge of the prison at the recommendation of Master Flying Rhino. Vachir has a ruby horn - shaped cap in place of his nose horn, as a decorative prosthetic. Before Tai Lung 's incarceration, the Anvil of Heaven opposed tyranny and injustice throughout China, and were notorious for their fearlessness and terrifying fighting skills. Vachir was charged with the construction of Chorh - Gom Prison, and he oversaw Tai Lung 's imprisonment for twenty years. Overconfident of the prison 's security, Vachir greatly underestimated Tai Lung 's potential and failed to stop him from escaping and was caught in an explosion along with many of his troops and is seen falling off a cliff. Although his horn - shaped cap was seen amongst the ruins, it is unknown if Commander Vachir survived or not.
In issue one of the "Kung Fu Panda '' comics (which took place some time after Tai Lung 's escape), Chorh - Gom Prison was rebuilt with a variety of new traps. Po and the Furious Five volunteered to test the prison 's new security system and were given a tour by the new warden and Vachir 's successor (who appeared to be just as overconfident as his predecessor).
Mei Ling, a Chinese mountain cat, is the star student at the Lee Da Kung Fu Academy where Crane worked as a janitor. Upon seeing Crane 's graceful movement, she urged him to attempt to enroll into the school as a student. Inspired by her faith in him, Crane agreed to make the attempt and she made sure his application was recognized at the induction challenge. Although Mei Ling felt she unnecessarily exposed Crane to public humiliation when his attempt was mocked, Crane stumbled into the obstacle course challenge for prospective students and performed well in it, leading to his enrollment at the academy.
Wo Hop is a renowned chef who was among the first to audition for the honor to cook for the Kung Fu Masters Winter Festival banquet, which was hosted that year by Po. Unfortunately, Po was unfamiliar with the intricate customs of the selection process and inadvertently disgraced Hop while waving to Monkey. Although Po attempted to immediately undo the error, custom allowed for no flexibility on the matter and the disgrace stood.
Desperate to redeem himself with his death, Wo Hop later attempted to assault Po in the kitchen in hopes that the Dragon Warrior would kill him in self - defense. Not wanting to harm the rabbit, Po was able to easily confine him to a flour pot, but he later escaped and harassed the panda as part of the overwhelming complications for the banquet preparations. However, Wo Hop 's casual observation about the limits of Kung Fu inspired Po to enlist the aid of the Furious Five while offering to kill the rabbit after he helped with the cooking. Wo Hop agreed, but Po still had to continually stop a number of his suicide attempts in the process. Regardless, the meal was successfully prepared with the rabbit 's help.
After Po left to work with his father at the restaurant for their own Winter Festival occasion, Wo Hop made one last attempt to attack Po. However, Po then presented Wo Hop with the Golden Ladle, the intended honor for the official cook of the Master 's formal feast, which restored his honor in his eyes. Furthermore, Po also included the rabbit in the one approved commemorative portrait with all his family and friends as an additional honor.
The Soothsayer is an elderly goat who once was Shen 's nanny who foretold Shen 's doom. The Soothsayer has a strange relationship with the peacock.
She also knows what Lord Shen did to Po 's village and helps him to stop fighting his memories and achieve inner peace. Her extraordinary gift of second sight gives her insight in the true nature of any and all that she encounters. She is also shown to be an extremely skilled healer. She openly antagonizes Shen and bites / eats his robes several times, but obviously cares for him. As Lord Shen gradually sinks into madness, she continuously tries to get him to change and reform, telling him that his parents loved him and that they died from grief when he left, while he declares that they wronged him and hated him.
The Soothsayer was present upon Lord Shen 's return where he used his cannon to kill Master Thundering Rhino, had Master Storming Ox and Master Croc imprisoned, and even took the Soothsayer with him as his prisoner.
He seems to want her to admit that she was wrong, but does not harm her in any way. When he sets out to conquer China, he tells his guards to release her, not kill her.
The Soothsayer later saves Po 's life with acupuncture when she finds him in the river. When he refuses to drink her herbal mixture, she presses his pressure points and forces him to open his mouth and swallow.
After Lord Shen and his armies are defeated, the Soothsayer is last seen enjoying the fireworks with the Gongmen City residents.
She was originally going to appear in Kung Fu Panda 3, but was cut.
Peng is the nephew of Tai Lung, who left his life as an assistant potter and took to traveling as a self - taught prodigy in the martial arts.
He first appeared in "The Kung Fu Kid '', where he visited the Valley of Peace during its Peace Jubilee and was forced into a confrontation with Temutai 's nephew, Jing Mei. When the leopard quickly defeated the young water buffalo, the deeply impressed Po persuaded Master Shifu to consider taking him in as a student. Unfortunately, the combination of the cub 's likably humble character and his considerable skill drew him so much favor with Jade Palace 's residents that Po grew threatened and a little jealous, especially when the cub mused of becoming the Dragon Warrior himself. In response, Po falsely claimed to Peng that Shifu rejected him. Unfortunately, Peng in a rage decided to prove himself by killing Temutai and immediately attacked the water buffalo in his tent. Po, alarmed at his mistake and the cub 's murderous overreaction, attempted to intervene, but the fight drifted into the festivities and provoked a riot. Eventually, Po is finally able to confess his deception and apologize to Peng, who immediately calmed down and similarly apologized for losing his temper, allowing the unwitting rivals to reconcile along with Temutai in the spirit of the occasion. After the Jubilee, Peng decides to leave to continue the quest for his family that he tells Po about... to find his uncle, whose name leaves the panda with a shock of terror.
In "Master and the Panda '', Peng is first seen selling pottery in the markets of the Valley of Peace during the crafts fair. Two crocodile bandits harass and try to rob him, but Peng quickly defeats them, denying Po, Crane, and Monkey the opportunity. Po flees the scene during Peng 's battle, shortly after he tells Monkey and Crane of Peng 's relation to Tai Lung. When Monkey and Crane brought Peng back to the Jade Palace, the other masters were overjoyed to see him. Po attempted to hide by disguising himself as Zeng via a shift - stone, and was revealed by Shifu. Po was forced to reveal that he had vanquished Tai Lung to Peng in private and also trying to show that Tai Lung is evil, and Peng attacked and defeated Po in a rage as an attempt to avenge his uncle, sending him fleeing. The incident frightened Po where he stayed up all night until Peng ambushed him, bringing with him, Tai Lung 's sword. Peng admitted that Po was right about Tai Lung and that vengeance was not the answer, but decided to quit kung fu, out of fear that he would become as evil as his uncle had. However, this changed when Po came after him, begging for his help in order to defeat Temutai, whom had empowered himself with the Gong Lu Medallion, an amulet that enhanced his strength and his darkest crazed emotions. Together Po and Peng defeated Temutai, but upon stealing away the medallion, Peng was ensnared by its evil, declaring that he was not afraid of power and should instead embrace it while still trying to avenge his uncle. Peng then fought Po in an eerily similar battle to the one he fought against Tai Lung. During the battle, the crazed Peng also blamed Po for corrupting Tai Lung and taking the title and power of the Dragon Warrior from him. Upon wishing that Tai Lung was there to watch him defeat Po, Peng was shocked to see Tai Lung himself appear, who explained that the medallion brought him back to life. Tai Lung then agreed to help him destroy Po and his nephew 's enemies, but then horrified him with the idea of destroying everyone and finally learning of his evil. Peng then finally came to his senses, defeating Tai Lung and denouncing him as a villain and a disgrace, and refusing to kill him. Tai Lung then reveals himself to be Po, who used a shift - stone to trick Peng and bring him to his senses. Po explains and reassures that Peng and Tai Lung are nothing alike, as Peng has the heart and spirit of a true warrior. After safely disposing of the medallion, Peng is offered the chance to train at the Jade Palace and is offered his uncle 's sword, but Peng turns down the offer, and smashes the sword, saying it can no longer hurt anyone and neither can he. Peng decides to stop trying to avenge his uncle and states that kung fu is over for him and leaves out of fear of the darkness inside him and his fear of not being able to control or defeat it, leaving Shifu, the Furious Five, and especially Po greatly saddened.
In "Kung Fu Fight Club, '' Peng returns where he starts a Kung Fu Fight Club as a way for the defenseless to defend themselves. He even befriends Lian who helps him. Po ended up learning about this and had to keep this info private from Master Shifu. The antics of Peng 's students ended up thwarting the robberies of criminals who were working for Tong Fo. Upon finding the location of the Kung Fu Fight Club, Tong Fo raided the place where his gorillas held Lian hostage so that Tong Fo can get Peng to do as he says. The next day, Po spars against Peng as Tong Fo 's gang blended in with the crowd alongside a disguised Master Shifu. After figuring out that Tong Fo is secretly running the fights, Po helps Peng free Lian as the Kung Fu Fight Club members join in the fight against Tong Fo 's gang with the help of Master Shifu. After Tong Fo and his gang are defeated, Master Shifu allows the Kung Fu Fight Club to remain.
Song is a young snow leopard who is a member of The Ladies of the Shade, a group of snow leopard bandits who steals from others while entertaining them with parasol dancing.
She visited the Valley of Peace with Su, the leader. They are introduced performers who steal from their audience. When they met Po, who stopped a thief from stealing their luggage, and learn that he lives in the Jade Palace, Su decides to make a plan to steal the Dragon Chalice. Su puts Song up to the task to charm Po into allowing them to enter the Jade Palace, so Song asks Po to "show her around the village ''. They spend the time touring the town but with Po 's childlike behavior makes it hard for Song to charm Po and instead she finds herself beginning to like Po due to his kindness and humor. Afterwards, Po declares Song the first girl he has ever been best friends with. Song wanted to tell Po that she was a bandit, but Su comes in and tells Po that they are homeless. Feeling sorry, Po offers the ladies to spend a night in the Jade Palace. As a token of their gratitude, the ladies performed a dance for Po and the Furious Five. While dancing, they steal the dragon chalice, revealing the ladies as thieves leaving Po feeling betrayed by Song.
When Po enters the campsite of The Ladies of the Shade, he runs into Song. Song feels guilty for what she did to Po and tries to apologize but he refused to accept it. Eventually Po is discovered as an intruder but instead of turning on him, Song helps to defend Po from Su and the Ladies of the Shade. In the end Po accepts Song 's apology and she thanks him with a kiss on the cheek before she leaves with her group, becoming the new leader of The Ladies of the Shade.
Constable Hu is an Indian elephant that is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness.
He first appears in "Present Tense '' where he offers up a bounty for the capture of Shengqi. Po takes up Constable Hu 's offer. When Po learns the truth about Shengqi and brings him to the Valley of Peace to be reunited with his daughter Xiao Niao, Constable Hu tried to stop them and apprehend Shengqi only for Po to tell Constable Hu the truth about what happened the day when Shengqi was incarcerated at Chorh - Gom Prison. Constable Hu tells Po that he 'll petition the Imperial Magistrate to have Shengqi 's sentence overturned. During this episode, it was mentioned that Constable Hu had a daughter who ran off with a street magician and has n't seen her in years.
In "Invitation Only, '' Constable Hu appears before the Furious Five and tells him that he is holding an invitation to Upper Head District Chief Superior Superintendent Chang. When Po arrives at Constable Hu 's house to ask about why his invitation has n't arrived yet. Constable Hu tells Po that he was n't invited and admitted that Po does n't have good table manners. When Po begs to Constable Hu to let him come, Constable Hu says "no. '' When it comes time for the banquet, Constable Hu is nervous at what Superintendent Chang will think of the banquet. When Superintendent Chang gets bored, Constable Hu has Master Shifu and the Furious Five perform something that Superintendent Chang has n't seen until the banquet was crashed by Temutai. After Po defeated Temutai, Constable Hu told Po to skedaddle until Superintendent Chang invited Po to sit by him. Superintendent Chang tells Constable Hu that the banquet was boring until Po arrived. When Master Shifu hoped that Superintendent Chang would promote Constable Hu and reassign him, Superintendent Chang instead renews Constable Hu 's position for another 10 years.
In "Shifu 's Back '', Po and the others are left waiting for a very long time when it is decided that they need a licence to use their kung fu. Constable Hu finally delivers it to the Jade Palace and, although he admits that criminals are running riot without the Dragon Warrior and the Furious Five to stop them, he does n't seem happy about giving them their licence.
In "The Midnight Stranger, '' Constable Hu outlaws Kung Fu due to the overdoing of Kung Fu and tells Po and the Furious Five if they do any Kung Fu, he will have them remanded to Chor - Gom Prison. When Po has been masquerading as the Midnight Stranger to defend the Valley of Peace, Constable Hu was surprised that he found some criminals in his cell after they were defeated by the Midnight Stranger. Constable Hu finds the Midnight Stranger saving a villager from a criminal causing Constable Hu to pursue him after stopping various criminals. Constable Hu later visits Po offering him the opportunity to do a little Kung Fu on the Midnight Stranger during the stakeout. When Mr. Ping masquerades as the Midnight Stranger and stops a robbery at an apple cart, Constable Hu mistakes him as the Midnight Stranger that he was stalking and arrests him. Po ends up becoming the Midnight Stranger and confesses that he was masquerading as him, admitting that he was doing what was right as Constable Hu arrests him. When the pig criminals arrive and admit they manipulated Constable Hu into outlawing Kung Fu, Constable Hu was surprised at this as the pig criminals bring Lidong to help them. Constable Hu helps Po fend off Lidong and the pig criminals. Constable Hu then lifts the ban on Kung Fu as he plans to have Lidong and the pig criminals remanded to Chor - Gom Prison.
Yijiro is a prawn who is exclusive to Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness.
Yijiro is a master samurai that is associated with the Ishida Clan. He is loyal to the bushido code and will protect the weak. He was a former comrade of Kira until the day when Kira betrayed the Ishida Clan and formed his own army. Yijiro has been after him since.
Some time later, Yijiro traced Kira and his allies to the Valley of Peace where he allied with Po and the Furious Five to fight Kira. Yijiro trained Po in the code of bushido which did come in handy with helping Yijiro defeat Kira.
The following characters had appeared in the video games:
The Blackhoof Boar Clan is a group of boars who are exclusive to the Kung Fu Panda video game. They were one of the bandit groups that join Tai Lung after he escapes from Chor - Gom Prison. The Blackhoof Boar Clan come in different types:
Three unnamed Vultures appear as enemies in the Kung Fu Panda video game. They try to catch and eat Zeng (who was on his way back from Chorh - Gom Prison) only for the Vultures to be defeated by Master Crane.
Two of the Vultures are voiced by Steven Blum and Andrew Kishino.
The Imperial Golden Croc Gang is a group of crocodiles who are exclusive to the Kung Fu Panda video game. It consists of well - armored crocodiles who work for the Queen Crocodile and the Crocodile Sergeant. They were recruited by Tai Lung to serve him after he had escaped from Chor - Gom Prison. Po and Master Crane fight them when they attack the Tortoise Village in the Lake of Tears where the Imperial Golden Croc Gang ends up tormenting the Tortoises and stealing their eggs. The Imperial Golden Croc Gang shortly returns when Po and Shifu are steering a boat to try and escape; the minions slow them down by throwing bombs at them.
The Queen Crocodile is the leader of the Imperial Golden Croc Gang. When Po and Master Crane accidentally awaken her when saving the last tortoise egg, she sends the Crocodile Sergeant after them.
The Crocodile Sergeant is a member of the Imperial Golden Croc Gang and servant of the Queen Crocodile. He leads the soldiers of the Imperial Golden Croc Gang into stealing eggs from the Tortoises. When Po is spotted by the Crocodile Sergeant, he sends his soldiers to attack Po. When Po and Master Crane accidentally awakened the Queen Crocodile when saving the last tortoise egg, she sends the Crocodile Sergeant after them. Po and Master Crane managed to evade the Crocodile Sergeant who ends up falling off the large waterfall.
The Great Gorilla is a villain who is exclusive to the Kung Fu Panda video game. He and his gorilla minions are hired by Tai Lung to destroy the Dragon Warrior. When Po is fighting the gorillas, Great Gorilla threw boulders at Po. When preventing the gorillas from destroying a temple, Master Shifu ends up having to protect the relics as well. Great Gorilla is ultimately defeated by Po. Of course the remnants of Great Gorilla 's minions were later seen as members of the Lang Shadow Army.
The Lang Shadow Army is an army that is led by Tai Lung in the Kung Fu Panda video game. It consists of a group of Tibetan Wolves that were later joined the remnants of the Great Gorilla 's gang and two Ox Bandits. The Lang Shadow Army went into hiding after Tai Lung was imprisoned, but came out of hiding when Tai Lung escaped from Chor - Gom Prison. The Wolf Soldiers of the Lang Shadow Army come in different types:
The Lang Shadow Army was originally planned in the early development of Kung Fu Panda, but was eventually scrapped. However, they do appear as an Easter egg on the surface of the Urn of Whispering Warrior.
The Wu Sisters are a trio of anthropomorphic snow leopards who appear primarily in the franchise 's video game productions. They consist of:
Their first film appearance is in Kung Fu Panda: Secrets of the Masters in Master Thundering Rhino, Master Storming Ox, and Master Croc 's youth. They were considered notorious criminals whose schemes seriously threatened China as a whole. Master Storming Ox mentioned that the Wu Sisters once challenged the Jackal nation and defeated them with just a pair of chopsticks. When Wing Wu and Wan Wu sprung Su Wu from her prison, they worked to unite all of China 's criminal gangs which caused Grand Master Oogway to enlist Master Thundering Rhino, Master Storming Ox, and Master Croc to help him. They were defeated by Master Thundering Rhino, Master Storming Ox, and Master Croc while Grand Master Oogway defeated the gangs they assembled. According to Po, their favored method of attack was for them to have their tails grip each other and then spin at tremendous speed. The device that Su Wu was once locked away in is now on display in the Hall of Warriors with Po accidentally getting himself locked in it at the end.
In the Kung Fu Panda video game, Po ends up stumbling onto the Wu Sisters ' base camp when fleeing with the Dragon Scroll. When he asks them for directions, they mistake him as an enemy spy and attack him. Po managed to defeat them and claim a map that leads him back to the Jade Palace.
In Kung Fu Panda: Legendary Warriors, the Wu Sisters return amongst the villains that Tai Lung assembles and attack the good guys while Tai Lung was targeting Master Crane. This time, the Wu Sisters have snow leopard minions to aid them in their fight against Po and the Furious Five. They end up defeated again.
The Wu Sisters also appear in the online virtual game Kung Fu Panda World as statues. If clicked upon, the statue will bring up a mini-game called "Legend of the Wu Sisters '' where the player must climb up treacherous buildings in order to collect enough keys to release and save one of the captured Wu Sisters from Tai Lung.
The Rat Boss is a villain who is exclusive to the video game Kung Fu Panda: Legendary Warriors. He is among the villains who are assembled by Tai Lung and is the leader of the Black Moon Scavenger Clan. He and the Black Moon Scavenger Clan attacked the Jade Palace 's arena only to be defeated by the player 's character.
Great General Ox is a villain who is exclusive to the video game Kung Fu Panda: Legendary Warriors. He is among the villains who are assembled by Tai Lung and is the leader of the Hoof Clan. Great General Ox has the ability to absorb heat and flames and shoot them out. He and the Hoof Clan abducted some villagers and held them captive in the Wu Dang Mountains only to end up defeated by the player 's character.
Yak is a villain who is exclusive to the video game Kung Fu Panda: Legendary Warriors and a member of the Hoof Clan.
The Baboon Boss is a villain who is exclusive to the video game Kung Fu Panda: Legendary Warriors. He is among the villains who are assembled by Tai Lung and is the leader of a group of baboons. Baboon Boss and his servants had captured Master Mantis and had taken him to the Old Temple Grounds. He is defeated by the player 's character.
The Gorilla Boss is a villain who is exclusive to the video game Kung Fu Panda: Legendary Warriors. He is among the villains who are assembled by Tai Lung and is the leader of a group of gorillas. Gorilla Boss and his servants had captured Master Viper and had held her captive in the ruins of Chor - Gom Prison. He is defeated by the player 's character.
Zhou Dan is a villain who is exclusive to the Kung Fu Panda 2 video game. He is the leader of a group of Komodo dragons.
Following the defeat of Lord Shen, Zhou Dan and the Komodo dragons resurface and plot to take over Gongmen City upon taking advantage of the chaos caused by the remnants of Lord Shen 's Wolf Army and Gorilla Army. He is defeated by Po in the Under - City and the remaining Komodo dragons run away in fear.
Cheen - Gwan
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let that be a lesson to the lot of ya | Vitas Gerulaitis - wikipedia
Vytautas Kevin Gerulaitis (July 26, 1954 -- September 17, 1994) was an American professional tennis player. In 1975, Gerulaitis won the men 's doubles title at Wimbledon, partnering with Sandy Mayer. He won the men 's singles title at one of the two Australian Open tournaments held in 1977 (Gerulaitis won the tournament that was held in December, while Roscoe Tanner won the earlier January tournament). Gerulaitis also won two Italian Open titles, in 1977 and 1979, and the WCT Finals in Dallas, in 1978.
Gerulaitis, a Lithuanian American, was born on July 26, 1954, in Brooklyn, New York, to Lithuanian immigrant parents, and grew up in Howard Beach, Queens. He attended Archbishop Molloy High School in Queens, graduating in 1971. He attended Columbia College of Columbia University for one year before dropping out to pursue tennis full - time. Gerulaitis was nicknamed "The Lithuanian Lion ''.
Gerulaitis led the Pittsburgh Triangles to the World TeamTennis championship title at Pittsburgh 's Civic Arena in 1975. Gerulaitis played for the Triangles from 1974 until 1976. He also played for the league 's Indiana Loves franchise in 1977.
Gerulaitis was coached by Fred Stolle from 1977 until 1983.
He also won the men 's doubles title at Wimbledon in 1975. He was a singles semi-finalist at Wimbledon in both 1977 and 1978. In 1977 he lost a Wimbledon semifinal to his close friend and practice partner, Björn Borg, 6 -- 4, 3 -- 6, 6 -- 3, 3 -- 6, 8 -- 6, a match later considered one of the greatest of the decade.
In 1977 Gerulaitis won the most significant title of his career at the Australian Open, when he defeated John Lloyd in the men 's singles final in five sets.
In 1978 Gerulaitis won the year - end championship WCT Finals for the World Championship Tennis tour, beating Eddie Dibbs 6 -- 3, 6 -- 2, 6 -- 1. By 1978 he was the third - ranked men 's singles player in the world.
In 1979 Gerulaitis lost in the men 's singles finals at the US Open to fellow New Yorker, John McEnroe, in straight sets. He was a member of the United States team which won the Davis Cup in 1979. He won two singles "rubbers '' in the final, as the US beat Italy 5 -- 0.
Gerulaitis reached his third Grand Slam singles final in 1980, when he lost in the final of the French Open to Björn Borg in straight sets.
In February 1981 Gerulaitis won a star - laden invitational tournament in Toronto, defeating John McEnroe in the final after having defeated Jimmy Connors in the semifinal.
During his career Gerulaitis won 25 top - level singles titles and 8 doubles titles. His career - high singles ranking was World No. 3 which he reached on February 27, 1978.
Gerulaitis was known for his exceptionally quick hands at the net and his outstanding court coverage. In 1985 Gerulaitis teamed with Bobby Riggs to launch a challenge to female players after the famous Battle of the Sexes. The stunt, however, was short - lived when Gerulaitis and Riggs lost a doubles match against Martina Navratilova and Pam Shriver.
He retired from the professional tour in 1986. He was a regular tennis commentator on the USA network between 1988 and 1994.
Gerulaitis coached Pete Sampras during the 1994 Italian Open in Rome, when Sampras ' coach, Tim Gullikson, was on a family vacation. Sampras won the title by defeating Boris Becker in the final in straight sets.
Gerulaitis is the subject of a Half Man Half Biscuit song from the McIntyre, Treadmore and Davitt album, "Outbreak of Vitas Gerulaitis ''.
Gerulaitis died on September 17, 1994, at the age of 40. While he was visiting a friend 's home in Southampton, Long Island, an improperly installed pool heater caused carbon monoxide gas to seep into the guesthouse where Gerulaitis was sleeping, causing his death by carbon monoxide poisoning. Gerulaitis failed to show up for a dinner at 7 p.m. that evening and his body was found the following day by a maid who went to the guesthouse. Gerulaitis ' remains were interred in Saint Charles Cemetery in Farmingdale, Long Island, New York.
The Vitas Gerulaitis Memorial Tennis Centre was opened in Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania. Also, a street in Vilnius is named after him.
"And let that be a lesson to you all. Nobody beats Vitas Gerulaitis 17 times in a row. ''
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a new plant forms from a stem that broke off of the parent plant. this is an example of | Fragmentation (reproduction) - wikipedia
Fragmentation or clonal fragmentation in multi cellular or colonial organisms is a form of asexual reproduction or cloning in which an organism is split into fragments. Each of these fragments develop into mature, fully grown individuals that are clones of the original organism.
The splitting may or may not be intentional -- it may or may not occur due to man - made or natural damage by the environment or predators. This kind of organism may develop specific organs or zones that may be shed or easily broken off. If the splitting occurs without the prior preparation of the organism, both fragments must be able to regenerate the complete organism for it to function as reproduction.
Fragmentation, also known as splitting, as a method of reproduction is seen in many organisms such as filamentous cyanobacteria, molds, lichens, many plants, and animals such as sponges, acoel flatworms, some annelid worms and sea stars.
Moulds, yeasts and mushrooms, all of which are part of the Fungi kingdom, produce tiny filaments called hyphae. These hyphae obtain food and nutrients from the body of other organisms to grow and fertilize. Then a piece of hyphae breaks off and grows into a new individual and the cycle continues.
Many lichens produce specialized structures that can easily break away and disperse. These structures contain both the hyphae of the mycobiont and the algae (phycobiont) (see soredia and isidia. Larger fragments of the thallus may break away when the lichen dries or due to mechanical disturbances (see the section on reproduction in lichens).
Fragmentation is a very common type of vegetative reproduction in plants. Many trees, shrubs, nonwoody perennials, and ferns form clonal colonies by producing new rooted shoots by rhizomes or stolons, which increases the diameter of the colony. If a rooted shoot becomes detached from the colony, then fragmentation has occurred. There are several other mechanisms of natural fragmentation in plants.
People use fragmentation to artificially propagate many plants via division, layering, cuttings, grafting, micropropagation and storage organs, such as bulbs, corms, tubers and rhizomes.
Animals like sponges and coral colonies naturally fragment and reproduce. Many species of annelids and flat worms reproduce by this method.
When the splitting occurs due to specific developmental changes, the terms architomy, paratomy and budding are used. In architomy the animal splits at a particular point and the two fragments regenerate the missing organs and tissues. The splitting is not preceded by the development of the tissues to be lost. Prior to splitting, the animal may develop furrows at the zone of splitting. The headless fragment has to regenerate a complete head.
In paratomy, the split occurs perpendicular to the antero - posterior axis and the split is preceded by the "pregeneration '' of the anterior structures in the posterior portion. The two organisms have their body axis aligned i.e. they develop in a head to tail fashion. Budding can be considered to be similar to paratomy except that the body axes need not be aligned: the new head may grow toward the side or even point backward (e.g. Convolutriloba retrogemma an acoel flat worm).
Many types of coral colonies can increase in number by fragmentation that occurs naturally or artificially. Within the reef aquarium hobby, enthusiasts regularly fragment corals for a multitude of purposes including shape control; selling to, trading with, or sharing with others; regrowth experiments; and minimizing damage to natural coral reefs. Both hard and soft corals can be fragmented. Genera that have shown to be highly tolerant of fragmentation include Acropora, Montipora, Pocillopora, Euphyllia, and Caulastraea among many others.
In echinoderms, the process is usually known as fissiparity (a term also used infrequently for fission in general). Some species can intentionally reproduce in this manner through autotomy. This method is more common during the larval stages.
As this process is a form of asexual reproduction, it does not produce genetic diversity in the offspring. Therefore, these are more vulnerable to changing environments.
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the three types that broad social norms indicate when helping is appropriate | Social norms approach - wikipedia
The social norms approach, or social norms marketing, is an environmental strategy gaining ground in health campaigns. While conducting research in the mid-1980s, two researchers, H.W. Perkins and A.D. Berkowitz, reported that students at a small U.S. college held exaggerated beliefs about the normal frequency and consumption habits of other students with regard to alcohol. These inflated perceptions have been found in many educational institutions, with varying populations and locations. Despite the fact that college drinking is at elevated levels, the perceived amount almost always exceeds actual behavior. The social norms approach has shown signs of countering misperceptions, however research on changes in behavior resulting from changed perceptions varies between mixed to conclusively nonexistent.
The social norms approach is founded upon a set of assumptions that individuals incorrectly perceive that the attitudes or behaviors of others are different from their own, when in reality they are similar. This phenomenon is known as pluralistic ignorance. It is largely because individuals assume the most memorable and salient, often extreme, behavior is representative of the behavior of the majority. This may lead individuals to adjust their behavior to that of the presumed majority by adhering to the pseudo-norms created by observing such memorable behavior. These exaggerated perceptions, or rather misperceptions, of peer behavior will continue to influence the habits of the majority, if they are unchallenged. This means that individuals may be more likely to enact problem behaviors and suppress healthier practices, making support for healthy behaviors much less visible at an aggregate level. This effect has been documented for alcohol, illegal drug use, smoking, other health behaviors, and attitudes, such as prejudice.
A phenomenon known as false consensus is closely related to the idea of pluralistic ignorance, and refers to the incorrect belief that others are similar, when in reality they are not. For example, heavy drinkers will think that most others consume as much as they do, and will use this belief to justify their behavior. Berkowitz, an independent consultant who works full - time to promote these ideas, describes false consensus and pluralistic ignorance as "mutually reinforcing and self - perpetuating... the majority is silent because it thinks it is a minority, and the minority is vocal because it believes that it represents the majority '' (p. 194).
These phenomena both have the potential to be addressed by a social norms intervention. Berkowitz describes this possibility in relation to reducing alcohol use:
... social norms interventions have been found to be effective in changing the behavior of the moderate or occasional - drinking majority (pluralistic ignorance) as well as confronting and changing the behavior of the heavy drinking minority (false consensus) (p. 9)
Thus, the social norms approach predicts that an intervention which aims to correct misperceptions by exposing actual norms will benefit society as well as individuals, because it will lead people to reduce problem behaviors or increase participation in healthy behaviors. There have been multiple studies which have indeed shown that social norms campaigns can have such positive effects on target populations. One study in particular, which utilized 18 different colleges over a three - year period, found that social norms campaigns were associated with lower perceptions of student drinking and lower consumption levels. Oddly, when the results of this same study were reported at a conference of alcohol educators, DeJong reported that alcohol consumption increased ' among both control participants and among the experimental group (those who got the social norms marketing treatment). This discrepancy in reported findings between a conference paper and published journal paper is difficult to reconcile.
Another intervention designed to reduce drinking amongst student athletes had similar results, reducing misperceptions of alcohol consumption. Also, within the time period of the intervention, there were declines in personal consumption, high risk drinking, and alcohol - related consequences. When critiquing this study, one should ask how many dependent variables were assessed, as this group of researchers often assesses as many as 20 or more outcome variables and finds change in 2 or 3 and calls the program successful.
A recent trial of a live, interactive, normative feedback program in which students used keypads to input information had positive effects in terms of reducing misperceptions and drinking behavior. There are many other examples of successful social norms campaigns, which cover various topics, population sizes, and media through which normative messages are conveyed.
Two types of norms are relevant to a social norms approach: descriptive norms and injunctive norms. Injunctive norms involve perceptions of which behaviors are typically approved or disapproved. They assist an individual in determining what is acceptable and unacceptable social behavior. This would be the morals of your interpersonal networks and surrounding community. Descriptive norms involve perceptions of which behaviors are typically performed. They normally refer to the perception of others ' behavior. These norms are based on observations of those around you. Cialdini 2003.
"both kinds of norms motivate human action; people tend to do what is socially approved as well as what is popular. (105) When put together, these norms have a counterproductive effect. For example a campaign that focuses individuals on the frequent occurrences of an offense against the environment has the potential to increase the occurrence of that offense. '' Cialdani 2003 These two norms are constructed from three sources: observable behavior, direct / indirect communication and self - knowledge. Miller and Prentice 1996
Borsari and Carey 's meta - analysis of studies showed that people misperceive injunctive norms more than they do descriptive norms, and that injunctive norms are more likely to predict drinking behavior and negative consequences of drinking. However, the use of both in social norms campaigns has shown that it is unclear which type of norm is more likely to change behavior.
There are seven assumptions of the social norms approach:
Since the 1986 study in which Berkowitz and Perkins reported the misperceptions about alcohol consumption amongst college students, the use and study of the social norms approach has grown. It has been used as a prevention technique for a variety of levels of prevention: universal, with large populations like entire college campuses; selective, with targeted subpopulations, and indicated, with individuals.
The first social norms intervention was implemented in 1989 by Michael Haines at Northern Illinois University, which targeted a universal campus population and over the years has shown significant success in terms of increasing healthy behaviors. This research at Northern Illinois University was done with a $64,000 grant from the U.S. Department of Education Fund for the Improvement of Post Secondary Education (FIPSE). Many other universities have since followed suit and have had similar success in the reduction of high - risk drinking behaviors, such as Hobart and William Smith Colleges, the University of Arizona, and University of North Carolina, to name a few.
Since these achievements have become well - known, the social norms approach has been used successfully to reduce smoking, drinking and driving, and HIV risk behaviors, and to increase seat belt use.
It has also gained widespread use targeting adolescents and high school students, and has been used in an attempt to reduce drinking and smoking behaviors amongst those populations. Recently, interventions have been tested to reduce sexual assault, and the results were reported to be "promising ''.
The social norms approach is not accepted by all scholars as an effective campaign method. Some criticize the approach by saying that the underlying assumptions are false. One study found that the perceived degree of alcohol use was not predictive of alcohol abuse if other normative influences were considered, and another study found that misperceptions of drinking problems were unrelated to personal alcohol consumption. The findings of both of those studies present opposition to the first assumption of the social norms approach: Actions are often based on misinformation about or misperceptions of others ' attitudes and / or behavior.
Other scholars challenge the legitimacy of social norms interventions deemed successful. They say that many of these interventions had methodological problems which could influence the validity of their effectiveness (e.g., they did not control for other variables, did not have comparison groups, etc.). Another common criticism is that they are simply ineffective: a nationwide study, which compared colleges with social norms interventions to those that did not have them, found that schools with interventions showed no decreases in measures of alcohol use, and actually found increased measures in terms of alcohol consumed monthly and total amount consumed. There are also a handful of studies that document failed social norms campaigns at specific colleges.
A social norms approach determines the exaggerated and actual norms of a population through formative research, and then informs the population of the actual norms through a message campaign. The next step is determining the effectiveness of the messages through a summative evaluation. Finally, the results from the evaluative research can also be used to craft new messages to revise the message campaign, and thus the campaign is cyclical. The following provides a more in - depth description of the steps involved in a social norms campaign.
Formative evaluation is the first step in a social norms campaign and consists of surveying the population, as well as message creation based on the survey results. The formative evaluation phase is the time when information regarding perceived norms and actual behaviors is garnered from the audience. In order for a social norms approach to be the appropriate means for intervention, two conditions must first be satisfied:
The most effective way to establish the baseline levels of behavior and perceptions is through the use of surveys. Internet surveys, for example, are an often - used method of generating a substantial response rate. They are especially suited for college students because of their familiarity with the technology, the containment of the population (i.e., all are part of a specific community), and the ability of the students to take the survey at their own pace and during the time that works best for them. Not only are web surveys ideal for students, but they are also highly advantageous for researchers. They provide quick turnaround for data analysis, higher response rates, less missing data, and they eliminate interviewer effects. Other possible methods of administering a survey are pencil and paper surveys, phone surveys, or personal interviews.
The following describes a typical and thorough process used to survey a population:
After completing data collection, researchers then analyze the data and search for patterns, looking for inconsistencies between actual behavior, attitudes, and perceived norms. When these differences are consistent with the campaign and the majority of students adhere to the beneficial idea, they are then used in the next round of message creation. For example, the data could show that college students report they consumed 0 -- 4 drinks the last time they partied, but they believe that the average student consumed 5 or more drinks. After discovering this statistic, a researcher may craft a message like, "Most students drink 0 -- 4 drinks when they party '', to correct the misperceived descriptive norm.
The most important descriptive researchers look for in the data is the 51 % or greater statistic, or items where "most '' (i.e., over 50 %) of the population adheres to the beneficial behavior. These statistics could occur in injunctive norms (i.e., "Most students believe passing out from drinking too much is wrong. ''), protective / healthy behaviors (i.e., "Most students use a designated driver, even when only having one or two drinks. ''), or other numerous behaviors.
There are different message components that can be varied, which are experimented with during pre-testing. For example, researchers test different vocabulary (e.g., "66 % '' vs. "Most '' vs. "Majority), using different behaviors to find out which ones are the easiest and most acceptable to perform (e.g., "eating while drinking '' vs. "keeping track while drinking ''), and using varying degrees of citations (e.g., large citations vs. small citations of data source). These preliminary messages are pretested on small groups in order to refine them before they are presented to the entire population. Other aspects examined in pretesting include which messages are most socially acceptable, which are believed to be the most effective, and which messages have the highest believability.
Believability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for an effective campaign. If believability of messages is low, change will probably not occur because the persuasive messages are falling into the audience 's latitude of rejection. In other words, the audience will reject the message without even considering it. It is also important to note, however, that if believability is extremely high (e.g., over 90 %), change is also unlikely to occur because the message is not challenging enough. In other words, it serves only as a reinforcement rather than an element of change. Thus, while there are no specific guidelines, it is ideal to aim for believability above 50 %.
In an assessment of the believability of a social norms campaign, Polonec, Major, and Atwood found that students ' own drinking experiences and the experiences of their friends contributed to disbelief in the message "Most students on campus choose to have 0 to 4 drinks when they party. '' Another study found that disbelief may be due to preconceived notions about drinking that students develop even before they arrive on campus.
After implementing a campaign, researchers then perform a summative evaluation which measures the success of the campaign. This step consists of examining and evaluating the progress made by an intervention through assessing the outcome and impact, cost and benefits, and cost effectiveness of a program. It is typical for researchers to use surveys similar to those used in formative evaluation. The following are questions that a summative evaluation can answer:
An especially important part of summative evaluation is the assessment of market saturation and reach. Clearly, if a social norms campaign does not reach very much of its intended audience, then its potential effectiveness decreases. If researchers can demonstrate that their campaign had high reach, then that strengthens the connection of the intervention to positive outcomes. It also lets researchers know what methods are effective for distributing the campaign. It is necessary for an audience to be exposed to campaign messages frequently to change misperceptions. However, overexposure is possible, leading to a loss of credibility and habituation. Thus, it is important to determine the proper dosage of the campaign in order to achieve maximum effectiveness. Silk et al. provide a comprehensive evaluation of a socials norms campaign related to mental health among college students, revealing positive outcomes for students who were exposed to the social norms campaign (e.g., greater likelihood to visit the university 's counseling center).
Once the evaluation is complete, it has the potential to help the intervention. Summative evaluation not only tells whether a program is working, but it can also feed new messages and new campaigns by providing new, updated data.
The following are key terms discussed in this article that are relevant to the Social Norms Approach:
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who is the judge on americas got talent | America 's Got Talent - Wikipedia
America 's Got Talent (often abbreviated as AGT) is a televised American talent show competition, broadcast on the NBC television network. It is part of the global Got Talent franchise created by Simon Cowell, and is produced by FremantleMedia North America and SYCOtv, with distribution done by Freemantle. Since its premiere in June 2006, each season is run during the network 's summer schedule, with the show having featured various hosts - it is currently hosted by Tyra Banks, since 2017. It is the first global edition of the franchise, after plans for a British edition in 2005 were suspended, following a dispute between Paul O'Grady, the planned host, and the British broadcaster ITV; production of this edition later resumed in 2007.
The show attracts a variety of participants, from across the United States and abroad, to take part and who possess some form of talents, with acts ranging from singing, dancing, comedy, magic, stunts, variety, and other genres. Each participant who auditions attempts to secure a place in the live episodes of a season by impressing a panel of judges - the current line - up consists of Cowell, Howie Mandel, Mel B, and Heidi Klum. Those that make it into the live episodes compete against each other for both the judges ' and public 's vote in order to reach the live final, where the winner receives a large cash prize, paid over a period of time, and, since the third season, a chance to headline a show on the Las Vegas Strip.
Since its premiere, America 's Got Talent has helped to unearth new talent and kickstart / boost the careers of various performers who took part in the competition, while the show itself has been a rating success for NBC, drawing in on average around 10 million viewers per season. In 2013, a book was entitled Inside AGT: The Untold Stories of America 's Got Talent, was released, providing a description of the seasons, contestants, judges, and production techniques of the show, along with detailed interviews with contestants from all seasons, up to the date of the book 's of publication. At present, the show is currently airing its thirteenth season, which premiered on May 29, 2018. A winter - spin off edition is currently being planned, entitled America 's Got Talent: The Champions, featuring acts from previous seasons, as well as acts from international Got Talent shows.
The general selection process of each season is begun by the production team with open auditions held in various cities across the United States. Dubbed "Producers ' Auditions '', they are held months before the main stage of auditions are held. Those that make it through the initial stage, become participants in the "Judges ' Auditions '', which are held in select cities across the country, and attended by the judges. Each participant is held offstage and awaits their turn to perform before the judges, whereupon they are given 90 seconds to demonstrate their act, with a live audience present for all performances. At the end of a performance, the judges give constructive criticism and feedback about what they saw, whereupon they each give a vote - a participant who receives a majority vote approving their performance, moves on to the next stage, otherwise they are eliminated from the programme at that stage. Each judge is given a buzzer, and may use it during a performance if they are unimpressed, hate what is being performed, or feel the act is a waste of their time; if a participant is buzzed by all judges, their performance is automatically over and they are eliminated without being given a vote. Many acts that move on may be cut by producers and may forfeit due to the limited slots available for the second performance. Filming for each season always takes place when the Judges ' Auditions are taking place, with the show 's presenter standing in the wings of each venue 's stage to interview and give personal commentary on a participant 's performance.
Between the fifth and seventh season, acts who did not attend live auditions could instead submit a taped audition online via YouTube. Acts from the online auditions were then selected to compete in front of the judges and a live audience during the "live shows '' part of the season, prior to the semi-finals. Before the inclusion of this round, the show had a separate audition episode in Seasons 3 and 4 (2008 -- 2009) for contestants who posted videos on MySpace.
In the ninth season, the show added a new format to the auditions in the form of the "Golden Buzzer '', which began to make appearances within the Got Talent franchise, since it was first introduced on Germany 's Got Talent. During auditions, each judge is allowed to use the Golden Buzzer to send an act automatically into the live shows, regardless of the opinion of the other judges; when it was initially used, the buzzer simply saved an act from elimination. The only rule to the buzzer was that a judge could use it only once per season; the host was later allowed to use the Golden Buzzer for an act from the eleventh season.
Following auditions, successful entries take part in a second stage of the talent competition, in which they are separated out into a number of groups. Over the course of several weeks, each group performs per week, at a fixed venue, in which that group 's participants each attempt to secure a place in the live show by performing a new variation of their act for the judges. Of these acts, the judges chose around 10 from each group to perform in the live shows; in some seasons, participants eliminated at this stage were given a chance to still appear in the live shows by being selected as a "wildcard '' act. The judges have access to their buzzers and if an act is buzzed by all of them, they are immediately eliminated from the competition. Until the second season, acts did not have to perform a second time, instead moving on into the live shows, with the judges given a list of the acts who would appear in each live episode. From the second season to the eighth, this stage was dubbed as the "Las Vegas '' due to the fixed venue being situated upon the Las Vegas Strip, while in the ninth series, acts performed in New York, with the stage dubbed "Judgement Week ''.
From the tenth season, the stage 's format was changed and renamed as "Judge Cuts ''. In each round, the judging panel were joined by a guest judge who helped with making decisions on which act could move on to the live shows. Like the auditions, the guest judge could use a Golden Buzzer for an act, but once used, it could not be used again. Unlike previous seasons, the Judge Cuts featured twenty acts per round, with seven acts advancing into the live shows, including the one chosen by the guest 's golden buzzer. Unlike the previous format for the stage, the venue used varied, but included the CBS Studio Center and the NBC Universal Back Lot.
During the live shows, the final selection of participants, which has ranged from between 20 to 60 acts and include those that were chosen as Wildcards by the judges or received the Golden Buzzer, are divided into groups and compete against each other for viewers ' and judges ' votes. The general structure of the live episodes focuses first on four quarterfinals, and then two semi-finals, aimed at finding that season 's finalists. Additional rounds are conducted when required (such as a "Top 8 '' or a "Top 10 '', depending on the season). Live episodes are broadcast weekly, and featured performances by guest stars, including previous winners of America 's Got Talent. During these stages, the judges still provide feedback on an act 's performance when it is over, and can use buzzers to prematurely end an performance before it is over; in the first season, the judges could not end a performance before it was over. Acts which do n't secure a sufficient amount of votes by the public and / or the judges, are eliminated from the competition.
Those that make it into the season 's final compete against each other to secure the most votes from the public, with the number of finalists varying between seasons. The act which does is declared the winner for that season, in which they secure the programme 's cash prize of $1 million, and, since Season 3 (2008), a chance to headline a show on the Las Vegas Strip. Between the fifth and eighth season, the winner was also made the headline act of a national tour with runners up following the final show, stopping in 25 cities. For season nine, however (2014), there was no tour; two shows were held in Las Vegas for the winner and some of the runner - up acts. (See # America 's Got Talent Live, below.)
In its first season, the judging panel consisted originally of David Hasselhoff, Brandy Norwood, and Piers Morgan, with the program hosted by Regis Philbin. Prior to the start of the second season, Norwood was forced to step down due to a legal matter she was caught up in, leading to her being replaced by Sharon Osbourne, while Philbin was replaced by Jerry Springer as the show 's host. Further changes were made to the panel and show 's host, as a direct result of each respective member having a need to focus on other TV commitments - Springer was forced to leave after the third season, and was replaced by Nick Cannon for the fourth season; Hasselhoff left the show after the fourth season, and so was replaced by Howie Mandel for the fifth season as a direct result; Morgan left after the sixth season, leading to him being replaced by Howard Stern for the seventh season.
In August 2012, Osbourne left the program following a dispute with NBC. While the network replaced her with former Spice Girls member Mel B in February 2013, the production staff decided to expand the number of judges in the panel to four - such a format change had already been occurring in other international versions of the competition, such as on Britain 's Got Talent two years prior. In March 2013, supermodel Heidi Klum was announced as joining the panel for the eighth season, confirming reports that the show would include a fourth judge into its format. In October 2015, Stern was replaced by Simon Cowell for the eleventh season. After his eighth year hosting America 's Got Talent, Cannon announced plans to retire from the show due to comments he made about the network; despite being under contract to continue his hosting duties, NBC eventually replaced him with Tyra Banks for the twelfth season.
In May 2006, NBC announced the new show. The audition tour took place in June. Auditions were held in the following locations: Los Angeles, New York, and Chicago. Some early ads for the show implied that the winning act would also headline a show at a casino, possibly in Las Vegas; however, this was replaced with a million dollars due to concerns of minors playing in Las Vegas, should one become a champion. More than 12 million viewers watched the series premiere (which is more than American Idol got during its premiere in 2002). The two - hour broadcast was the night 's most - watched program on U.S. television and the highest - rated among viewers aged 18 to 49 (the prime - time audience that matters most to advertisers), Nielsen Media Research reported.
On the season finale, there was an unaired segment that was scheduled to appear after Aly & AJ. The segment featured Tom Green dressing in a parrot costume and squawking with a live parrot to communicate telepathically. Green then proceeded to fly up above the audience, shooting confetti streamers out of his costume onto the crowd below.
In season one, the show was hosted by Regis Philbin and judged by actor David Hasselhoff, singer Brandy Norwood, and journalist Piers Morgan.
The winner of the season was 11 - year - old singer Bianca Ryan, and the runners - up were clogging group All That and musical group The Millers.
After initially announcing in June 2006 that season two would premiere in January 2007 and would air at 8 pm on Sunday nights, with no separate results show, the network changed that, pushing the show back to the summer, where the first season had enjoyed great success. This move kept the show out of direct competition with American Idol, which had a similar premise and was more popular.
In AGT 's place, another reality - based talent show, Grease: You 're The One That I Want, began airing on Sunday nights in the same time slot on NBC beginning in January. In March, NBC announced that Philbin would not return as host of the show, and that Jerry Springer would succeed him as host, with Sharon Osbourne (formerly a judge on Cowell 's UK show The X Factor) succeeding Brandy Norwood as a judge.
The season finale was shown Tuesday, August 21, with the winner being Terry Fator, a singing impressionist ventriloquist. The runner - up was singer Cas Haley.
Season three premiered on June 17, 2008. Auditions took place in Charlotte, Nashville, Orlando, New York, Dallas, Los Angeles, Atlanta, and Chicago from January to April. A televised MySpace audition also took place.
Season three differed from the previous two in many ways. Auditions were held in well - known theaters across the nation, and a new title card was introduced, featuring the American flag as background. The X 's matched the ones on Britain 's Got Talent as did the judges ' table. Like the previous season, the Las Vegas callbacks continued, but there were forty acts selected to compete in the live rounds, instead of twenty. This season also contained several results episodes, but not on a regular basis. The show took a hiatus for two - and - a-half weeks for the 2008 Summer Olympics, but returned with the live rounds on August 26.
Neal E. Boyd, an opera singer, was named the winner on October 1. Eli Mattson, a singer and pianist, was runner - up.
Season four premiered on Tuesday, June 23, 2009. It was the first to be broadcast in high definition. Auditions for this season were held in more than nine major cities including New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Atlanta, Miami, Tacoma, Boston, and Houston. Los Angeles auditions kicked off the January 29 -- 31 tour at the Los Angeles Convention Center, followed by the February 7 -- 8 Atlanta auditions. New York and Miami auditions were held during March. Tacoma auditions were held April 25 and 26. In addition to live auditions and the ability to send in a home audition tape, season four offered the opportunity for acts to upload their video direct to NBC.com/agt with their registration. This year 's host was Nick Cannon. Jerry Springer said that he could not return as host due to other commitments.
The audition process in season four was the same as the previous season, but the ' Las Vegas Callbacks ' was renamed ' Vegas Verdicts '. This was the first season since season one where results episodes lasted one hour on a regular basis. The title card this year featured bands of the American flag and stars waving around the America 's Got Talent logo.
On September 16, country music singer Kevin Skinner was named the season 's winner. The grand prize was $1 million and a 10 - week headline show at the Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip. The runner - up was Bárbara Padilla, an opera singer.
For season five, the network had considered moving the show to the fall, after rival series So You Think You Can Dance transferred from the summer to fall season in 2009. NBC ultimately decided to keep Talent a summer show.
Open auditions were held in the winter to early spring of 2010 in Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, New York, Orlando, and Portland (Oregon). Non-televised producers ' auditions were also held in Atlanta and Philadelphia. For the first time, online auditions were also held via YouTube.
David Hasselhoff left to host a new television show and was replaced by comedian and game show host Howie Mandel. This made Piers Morgan the only original judge left in the show. The show premiered Tuesday, June 1, 2010, at 8 pm ET. Afterward, Talent resumed the same time slot as the previous season.
On September 15, singer Michael Grimm was named the winner. He won a $1 million prize and a chance to perform at the Caesars Palace Casino and Resort on the Las Vegas Strip, as well as headline the 25 - city America 's Got Talent Live Tour along with runner - up Jackie Evancho, Fighting Gravity, Prince Poppycock, and the other top ten finalists.
Season six premiered on Tuesday, May 31, 2011, with a two - hour special. Piers Morgan and Sharon Osbourne continued as judges after taking jobs on Piers Morgan Tonight and The Talk, respectively. On The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on July 27, 2010, Morgan officially stated that he had signed a three - year contract to stay on Talent.
The show held televised auditions in Los Angeles, New York, Minneapolis, Atlanta, Seattle, and Houston. Non-televised producers ' auditions were also held in Denver and Chicago. Previews of auditions were shown during NBC 's The Voice premiere on April 26. Online auditions via YouTube were also held for the second time in the show 's run, beginning on May 4. Finalists for this audition circuit competed live on August 9.
On Wednesday, September 14, Landau Eugene Murphy, Jr., a Frank Sinatra - style singer, was named the winner. Dance group Silhouettes was runner - up.
Season seven premiered on May 14, 2012. The first round of auditions, which are judged by producers, were held in New York, Washington, D.C., Tampa, Charlotte, Austin, Anaheim, St. Louis, and San Francisco from October 2011 to February 2012. The show began its live theater performances at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark on February 27.
Piers Morgan did not return as a judge for season seven, due to his work hosting CNN 's Piers Morgan Tonight, and he was replaced by Howard Stern. Since Stern hosts his SiriusXM radio show in New York City, the live rounds of the show were moved to nearby Newark, New Jersey. In December 2011, Simon Cowell, the show 's executive producer, announced that the show would be receiving a "top - to - bottom makeover '', confirming that there would be new graphics, lighting, theme music, show intro, logo, and a larger live audience at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark. On July 2, at the first live performance show of the season, their new location and stage were unveiled in a two - and - a-half - hour live special. A new set was also unveiled with a revised judges ' desk and a refreshed design of the "X ''.
On August 6, Sharon Osbourne announced that she would leave America 's Got Talent after the current season, in response to allegations that her son Jack Osbourne was discriminated against by the producers of the upcoming NBC program Stars Earn Stripes.
On September 13, Olate Dogs were announced the winner of the season, becoming the show 's first completely non-singing act to win the competition and also the first non-solo act to win. Comedian Tom Cotter finished as the runner - up.
Season eight of AGT premiered on Tuesday, June 4, 2013. The new season was announced in a promotional video shown during a commercial break for season seven 's second live show. Sharon Osbourne initially stated that she would not return for the season, but later said that she was staying with the show "for now. '' Osbourne confirmed that she would be leaving the show after a feud with NBC on August 6, 2012.
On February 20, 2013, it was announced that one of the Spice Girls members, Mel B (Melanie Brown), would be joining the show as the new fourth judge. Entertainment Weekly also reported at the same time that NBC was looking at a possible fourth judge to be added. On March 3, it was announced that supermodel Heidi Klum would replace Sharon Osbourne as the third judge.
An Audition Cities poll for the season was announced on July 11, 2012. The first batch of Audition Cities were announced as Los Angeles, Seattle, Portland (Oregon), New Orleans, Birmingham, Memphis, Nashville, Savannah, Raleigh, Norfolk, San Antonio, New York, Columbus (Ohio), and Chicago. This season, the auditions traveled to more cities than ever before. America 's Got Talent moved its live shows to Radio City Music Hall in New York for season eight. Auditions in front of the judges and an audience began taping on March 4. The show traveled to New Orleans, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Antonio.
On September 18, 2013, martial arts dancer / mime Kenichi Ebina was announced the winner of the season, the first dance act to win the competition. Stand - up comedian Taylor Williamson was the runner - up.
Season nine premiered on Tuesday, May 27, 2014, at 8 pm ET. The producers ' auditions began on October 26, 2013, in Miami. Other audition sites included Atlanta, Baltimore, Denver, Houston, Indianapolis, Los Angeles, and New York. Contestants could also submit a video of their audition online. Auditions in front of the judges were held February 20 -- 22 at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark, which also hosted the live shows during season seven. Judges ' auditions were held in New York City at Madison Square Garden from April 3 to 6 and in Los Angeles at the Dolby Theatre from April 21 to 26.
The live shows return to Radio City Music Hall on July 29. There was also a new twist in the show, where "Judgment Week '' was held in New York City instead of Las Vegas. Judgment Week was originally intended to be held in front of a live studio audience, but after three acts performed, the producers scrapped the live audience concept. This season also came with the addition of a "Golden Buzzer, '' which was unveiled on that same year 's Britain 's Got Talent. Each judge can press the buzzer only once each season that can save an act, typically used when there is a tie.
For this season, contestants were invited to submit a video of their performance to The Today Show website throughout June, and the top three entrants performed their acts on The Today Show on July 23, 2014. The performer with the most votes, Cornell Bhangra, filled the 48th spot in the quarterfinals.
On September 17, magician Mat Franco was announced the winner of the season, the first magic act to win the competition. Singer Emily West was the runner - up.
Season ten premiered on May 26, 2015. Producer auditions began on November 2, 2014, in Tampa. Other audition sites included Nashville, Richmond (Virginia), New York, Chicago, St. Louis, San Antonio, Albuquerque, San Francisco, Seattle, Boise, Las Vegas, and Los Angeles. Online submissions were also accepted.
Howard Stern rumored on his radio show on October 1, 2014, that he might not return, but announced on December 8 that he would return for the upcoming season. Nick Cannon returned for his seventh season as host. On February 9, 2015, Howie Mandel said he would return for season ten and Mel B announced the next day that she would be returning as well. It was revealed on February 11 that Heidi Klum would also be returning.
It was announced on December 4, 2014, that Cris Judd would be named as a dance scout. He previously worked on the show as a choreographer behind the scenes, and on the New Zealand version of Got Talent as a judge.
Auditions in front of the judges began on March 2, 2015, at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center. They continued at the Manhattan Center in New York City and the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles. A special "extreme '' audition session was held outside at the Fairplex in Pomona, California, where danger acts performed outside for the judges, who were seated at an outdoor stage.
During NBC 's summer press tour, it was announced that America 's Got Talent would be making their "Golden Buzzer '' more like Britain 's Got Talent where the contestant that gets the buzzer will be sent directly to the live shows. An official trailer for the season was released, which showed that Dunkin Donuts was the show 's official sponsor for the season, with their cups prominently placed on the judges ' desk. Dunkin replaced Snapple, which sponsored the show since season seven.
On June 24, Howard Stern announced on The Howard Stern Show that season ten would be his last season as judge. Stern said, "In all seriousness, I 've told you, I 'm just too f * cking busy... something 's got to give... NBC 's already asked me what my intentions are for next year, whether or not I 'd come back, I kind of have told them I think this is my last season. Not I think, this is my last season ''.
On September 16, Paul Zerdin was announced the winner of the season, making him the second ventriloquist to win. Comedian Drew Lynch was runner - up, and magician mentalist Oz Pearlman was in Third Place.
America 's Got Talent was renewed for an eleventh season on September 1, 2015. The season will have preliminary open call auditions in Detroit, New York, Phoenix, Salt Lake City, Las Vegas, San Jose, San Diego, Kansas City, Los Angeles, Atlanta, Orlando, and Dallas. As in years past, hopeful contestants may also submit auditions online.
On October 22, 2015, it was announced that creator Simon Cowell would replace Howard Stern as a judge for season 11. Mel B, Heidi Klum and Howie Mandel all returned as judges, with Nick Cannon returning as host. The live shows moved from New York back to Los Angeles, due to Stern 's departure, at the Dolby Theatre.
Auditions in front of the judges began on March 3, 2016 at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Pasadena, California. The season premiered on May 31, 2016.
On September 14, 12 - year - old singer - songwriter and ukulele player Grace VanderWaal was announced as the second female and second child to win America 's Got Talent (Bianca Ryan, age 11, was first). Magician mentalists The Clairvoyants were runners - up, and magician Jon Dorenbos placed third.
On August 2, 2016, it was announced that host Nick Cannon and all four judges would be returning for season 12. Later that year, on October 4, Simon Cowell signed a contract to remain as a judge through to 2019 (Season 14).
On February 13, 2017, Cannon announced he would not return as host for the twelfth season, citing creative differences between him and executives at NBC. The resignation came in the wake of news that the network considered firing Cannon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his Showtime comedy special Stand Up, Do n't Shoot. NBC selected Tyra Banks as the new host for season 12, which premiered on Tuesday, May 30, 2017.
On September 20, Darci Lynne Farmer won the twelfth season, becoming the third ventriloquist, third child act and the third female act to win the competition (second year in a row after VanderWaal 's win in 2016). Child singer Angelica Hale was announced as the runner - up, and Ukrainian dance act Light Balance finished in third place. Deaf musician Mandy Harvey and dog act Sara & Hero rounded out the top five.
On February 21, 2018, it was announced that judges Simon Cowell, Mel B, Heidi Klum and Howie Mandel along with Tyra Banks would all be returning. The season premiered on May 29, 2018.
America 's Got Talent Live is a show on the Las Vegas Strip that features the winner of each season of America 's Got Talent as the main performance.
In 2009, America 's Got Talent Live appeared on the Las Vegas Strip appearing Wednesday through Sunday at the Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino in Las Vegas, in a limited ten - week run from October through January featuring winner Kevin Skinner, runner - up Barbara Padilla and fourth - place finisher The Texas Tenors. It featured the final ten acts which made it to the season four (2009) finale. Jerry Springer emceed, commuting weekly between Stamford, Connecticut, tapings of his self - named show and Las Vegas.
In 2010, on the first live show of season five, the winner headlined America 's Got Talent Live from Caesars Palace Casino and Resort on the Las Vegas Strip, which was part of a 25 - city tour that featured the season 's finalists. Jerry Springer returned as both host of the tour and the headliner of the show.
In 2012, the tour returned, featuring winners Olate Dogs, Spencer Horsman, Joe Castillo, Lightwire Theater, David Garibaldi and his CMYK 's, Jarrett and Raja, Tom Cotter, and other fan favorites.
In 2013, after the success of the 2012 tour, another tour was scheduled, featuring season eight 's winner, Kenichi Ebina, and finalists Collins Key, Jimmy Rose, Taylor Williamson, Cami Bradley, The KriStef Brothers, and Tone the Chiefrocca. Tone hosted the tour.
In 2014, America 's Got Talent Live announced that performances in Las Vegas on September 26 and 27 would feature Taylor Williamson, the season eight (2013) runner - up, and the top finalists for season nine: Mat Franco, Emily West, Quintavious Johnson, AcroArmy, Emil and Dariel, Miguel Dakota, and Sons of Serendip.
In 2015, no tour was held. Instead, three shows were given at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas featuring winner Paul Zerdin, runner - up Drew Lynch, and fan favorite Piff the Magic Dragon.
In 2016, four shows were given at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas. They featured the top two finalists for season 11, Grace VanderWaal and The Clairvoyants, as well as finalist Tape Face.
In 2017, four shows were given at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas. They featured winner Darci Lynne, runner - up Angelica Hale, third - placed Light Balance, and finalist Preacher Lawson.
NBC broadcast the two - hour America 's Got Talent Holiday Spectacular on December 19, 2016, hosted by Cannon with performances by Grace VanderWaal, Jackie Evancho, Andra Day, Penn & Teller, Pentatonix, Terry Fator, Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, Olate Dogs, Professor Splash, Jon Dorenbos and others, and featuring the Season 11 judges, including Klum, who sang a duet with Season 11 finalist Sal Valentinetti. The special drew 9.5 million viewers.
Since the show began, its ratings have been very high, ranging from 9 million viewers to as many as 16 million viewers, generally averaging around 11 million viewers. The show has also ranked high in the 18 -- 49 demographic, usually rating anywhere from as low as 1.6 to as high as 4.6 throughout its run. Audition shows and performance shows rate higher on average than results shows.
Although the show 's ratings have been high, the network usually keeps the show 's run limited to before the official start of the next television season in the third week of September with some reductions or expansions depending on Olympic years, where finale ratings are usually lower due to returning programming on other networks.
The highest rated season in overall viewers to date is season four (2009). The most - watched episode has been the finale of season five (2010), with 16.41 million viewers. The series premiere and an episode featuring the first part of Las Vegas Week in season six (2011) have each tied for highest rating among adults 18 -- 49, both having a 4.6 rating.
Sales numbers and rankings are U.S. sales only.
Many acts which have competed on America 's Got Talent but were ultimately eliminated before the final round have either previously competed on or went on to compete in a number of other reality shows, most notably American Idol and America 's Best Dance Crew.
The following America 's Got Talent (AGT) contestants also appeared on American Idol (AI):
The following America 's Got Talent (AGT) contestants also appeared on America 's Best Dance Crew (ABDC):
The following America 's Got Talent (AGT) contestants also appeared on these other shows:
In Indonesia, the eleventh season has currently been broadcast by NET. since October 22, 2016 every Saturday and Sunday at 10 pm WIB. But, since Monday, October 31, in addition to the weekend slot, the show has also been broadcast every Monday to Friday at 5 pm WIB as the replacement of the currently concluded TV drama, the second season of Kesempurnaan Cinta, which was concluded on Friday, October 28, 2016.
In the United Kingdom, TruTV, along with simulcasts on the Local Television Limited network, show America 's Got Talent, with TruTV showing it from the tenth season.
The thirteenth season of the show will air on AXN Asia, together with the twelfth series of Britain 's Got Talent.
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who is the guy who does 73 questions | Joe Sabia - Wikipedia
Joe Sabia is a New York City - based digital remix artist, 2011 TED Speaker, and international pun champion.
While a student at Boston College, Sabia started his digital career in 2005 as the creator of the web show The BC, a nationally recognized spoof of The OC which featured cameos from Tim Russert, Doug Flutie, and Jared Dudley. The show landed him a job as one of the founders of HBO Lab, an experimental interactive arm of HBO in Los Angeles. Sabia 's most notable creation was Seven Minute Sopranos, a viral video recap of all the seasons of The Sopranos. Facing potential repercussions from HBO lawyers, his role with the video was not public until The New York Times revealed it in a follow - up story.
In 2007, Sabia won the International Pun Championship in Austin, Texas. In 2009, he was a participant in the Mongol Rally.
As interviewer, he created the "73 Questions '' series for Vogue in 2014 and is also the co-founder of YouTube music collective Cdza.
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who sings in the background of jocelyn flores | Jocelyn Flores - wikipedia
"Jocelyn Flores '' is a song written and performed by American rapper XXXTentacion from his album 17 (2017). The song was produced by Potsu. It was sent to rhythmic radio on October 31, 2017, as the album 's second single. The song is dedicated to Jocelyn Flores.
The song 's title and subject matter are a tribute to Jocelyn Flores, a model and a very close friend of XXXTentacion, who suffered from severe depression, anxiety, and committed suicide in Florida for a photo shoot. He previously dedicated the song "Revenge '' to Jocelyn shortly after she died.
The song runs for a length of one minute and 59 seconds and is built around a sample of producer Potsu 's song "I 'm Closing My Eyes '' which includes vocals from Shiloh Dynasty. Structurally, the song begins with a looping vocal sample and acoustic instrumentation, followed by a chorus and a verse.
"Jocelyn Flores '' entered at 31 on the US Billboard Hot 100, making it X 's highest charting song to date. It debuted at number 56 on the UK Singles Chart, selling 5,998 units including sales and streams. The song also entered at number 14 on the UK R&B Chart, and number four on the UK Independent Chart.
sales figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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sleepy eye mn little house on the prairie | Sleepy Eye, Minnesota - wikipedia
Sleepy Eye is a city in Brown County, Minnesota, United States. The population was 3,599 at the 2010 census.
Sleepy Eye took its name from Sleepy Eye Lake, and that was named after Chief Sleepy Eye who was known as a compassionate person with droopy eyelids (or maybe just one). The Chief was one of four Sioux Native Americans (four Ojibwe also attended) chosen to meet President James Monroe in 1824 in the nation 's capital. Later, Sleepy Eye was an integral player in the 1851 signing of the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux, which gave all of the land but a 10 - mile swath on each side of the upper Minnesota River to the U.S. government. His recommendations to traders led to the successful settlement of Mankato, away from flood areas, and the Chief eventually settled his people near the lake now known as Sleepy Eye Lake.
Sleepy Eye was platted in 1872, and incorporated as a city in 1903.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 2.02 square miles (5.23 km), of which 1.75 square miles (4.53 km) is land and 0.27 square miles (0.70 km) is water.
As of the census of 2010, there were 3,599 people, 1,475 households, and 931 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,056.6 inhabitants per square mile (794.1 / km). There were 1,605 housing units at an average density of 917.1 per square mile (354.1 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 94.3 % White, 0.1 % Native American, 0.9 % Asian, 4.1 % from other races, and 0.7 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13.0 % of the population.
There were 1,475 households of which 30.1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.4 % were married couples living together, 8.3 % had a female householder with no husband present, 3.4 % had a male householder with no wife present, and 36.9 % were non-families. 33.4 % of all households were made up of individuals and 17.8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 3.04.
The median age in the city was 42.2 years. 25.6 % of residents were under the age of 18; 6.5 % were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.1 % were from 25 to 44; 27.3 % were from 45 to 64; and 19.4 % were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.4 % male and 52.6 % female.
As of the census of 2000, there were 3,515 people, 1,479 households, and 942 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,099.9 people per square mile (812.7 / km2). There were 1,591 housing units at an average density of 950.5 per square mile (367.8 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 94.03 % White, 0.23 % African American, 0.06 % Native American, 0.34 % Asian, 3.90 % from other races, and 1.45 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.80 % of the population.
There were 1,479 households out of which 31.8 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.3 % were married couples living together, 7.3 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.3 % were non-families. 34.5 % of all households were made up of individuals and 19.8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 3.08.
In the city, the population was spread out with 28.0 % under the age of 18, 6.8 % from 18 to 24, 26.0 % from 25 to 44, 19.9 % from 45 to 64, and 19.3 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 92.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.3 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $37,123, and the median income for a family was $48,500. Males had a median income of $31,612 versus $22,907 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,175. About 4.7 % of families and 8.1 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.7 % of those under age 18 and 10.2 % of those age 65 or over.
Residents of Sleepy Eye made national headlines in the early 1990s for trying to ban MTV in the town.
On the television series Little House on the Prairie, Charles Ingalls sometimes made deliveries to Sleepy Eye, which was portrayed as the nearest larger town to Walnut Grove, Minnesota, where the Ingalls resided. It was also the (fictional) home of the blind school that Mary Ingalls and her TV - husband, Adam Kendall, ran later in the series.
U.S. Route 14 and Minnesota State Highways 4, and 68 are three of the main arterial routes in the city.
1901 W.W. Smith House (NRHP), 2010.
1901 -- 20 Sleepy Eye Milling Company (NRHP), 2011.
1902 Chicago and North Western Depot (NRHP), 2010.
1887 Winona and St. Peter Freight Depot (NRHP), 2012.
Postmark from City of Sleepy Eye
Coordinates: 44 ° 17 ′ 50 '' N 94 ° 43 ′ 27 '' W / 44.29722 ° N 94.72417 ° W / 44.29722; - 94.72417
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who plays john abbott on young and the restless | Jerry Douglas (actor) - wikipedia
Jerry Douglas (born November 12, 1932) is an American television and film actor. For 25 years Jerry Douglas reigned in fictional Genoa City as patriarch John Abbott on the daytime television serial The Young and the Restless. In 2006, his character was killed off, however, he has made special appearances since then.
Douglas was born as Gerald Rubenstein in Chelsea, Massachusetts to Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe. He was raised in Chelsea, Massachusetts, Douglas went to Brandeis University to earn a degree in economics. Eight months into law school in Manhattan, he gave up the books and started auditioning. However, his lack of training frustrated him, and he eventually moved then - wife, actress Arlene Martel, and their daughter Avra Douglas to California.
Settling in the San Fernando Valley, Douglas sold insurance by day and took acting classes at night. Although he still struggled, he received encouragement after appearing in the play, John Brown 's Body. A critic said he was terrific, which inspired him to hire an agent.
For several years, Douglas appeared on TV shows like Mission: Impossible and The Feather and Father Gang, often playing the villain. At the same time, his wife decided to move herself and their children -- including son Jodaman Douglas (aka journalist and designer, Jod Kaftan) -- up to Carmel.
In an attempt to save his marriage to Arlene, Douglas quit acting and followed her. Despite this, the couple eventually divorced and Douglas returned to Los Angeles to continue his career.
Soon after, he found himself embroiled in a custody battle for his son Jod, which he won.
Today, Douglas is remarried, to Kymberly Bankier, whom he met at a Muscular Dystrophy Association event. Although she is over twenty - six years younger than he is, they have been married since April 6, 1985 and have a young son, Hunter, together.
In March 2006, after 25 years on the show, Douglas departed The Young and The Restless in a storyline - dictated exit revolving around his character 's involvement in the Tom Fisher murder case. Jerry Douglas claims that former headwriter of The Young and The Restless, Lynn Marie Latham, killed his character because she could not understand why a man would run a cosmetics company. (1) To viewers ' surprise, he continued to recur on the show for the next few months and was put back on contract with the show in June to play his now deceased character 's ghost. He left the show for good on August 18, but continues to make appearances once in a while. In March 2008 he began appearing as a new character Alistair Wallingford, a drunken hack actor involved in a gaslighting plot, but was written out a few months later.
In 2007, Douglas released a CD, The Best Is Yet to Come, a collection of jazz standards, and is performing around the United States and Canada.
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what is st daniel the stylite the patron saint of | Daniel the Stylite - wikipedia
Eastern Orthodoxy
Eastern Catholic Church
Saint Daniel the Stylite (c. 409 -- 493) is a Saint and stylite of the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Eastern Catholic Churches. He is commemorated on 11 December according to the liturgical calendars of these churches.
St. Daniel was born in Maratha, a village in upper Mesopotamia near Samosata in present - day Iraq. He entered a monastery at the age of 12 and lived there until he was thirty - eight. During a voyage he made with his abbot to Antioch, he passed by the city of Telanissos (today Deir Semaan) and received the benediction and encouragement of St. Simeon the Stylite. Then he visited various holy places, stayed in various convents, and retired in 451 A.D. into the ruins of a pagan temple.
St. Daniel established his pillar north of Constantinople. The owner of the land where he placed his pillars had not been consulted, hence he appealed to the Byzantine emperor and patriarch Gennadius of Constantinople. Gennadius proposed to dislodge him, but was deterred through unknown means. Gennadius ordained Daniel as a priest. When the ceremony was over, the patriarch administered the Eucharist by means of a ladder, which Daniel had ordered to be brought. Gennadius then received the Eucharist from Daniel.
Daniel lived on the pillar for 33 years. Due to continuous standing, his feet were reportedly covered with sores, cuts and ulcers, and the winds of Thrace sometimes stripped him of his scanty clothing.
He was visited by both Emperor Leo I the Thracian and Emperor Zeno. As a theologian, he came out against monophysitism.
The following is his prayer before he began his life on the pillar:
I yield Thee glory, Jesus Christ my God, for all the blessings which Thou hast heaped upon me, and for the grace which Thou hast given me that I should embrace this manner of life. But Thou knowest that in ascending this pillar, I lean on Thee alone, and that to Thee alone I look for the happy issue of mine undertaking. Accept, then, my object: strengthen me that I finish this painful course: give me grace to end it in holiness.
The following is the advice he gave to his disciples just before his death:
Hold fast humility, practice obedience, exercise hospitality, keep the fasts, observe the vigils, love poverty, and above all maintain charity, which is the first and great commandment; keep closely bound to all that regards piety, avoid the tares of the heretics. Separate never from the Church your Mother; if you do these things your righteousness shall be perfect.
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when did china give hong kong to britain | Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong - Wikipedia
The transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to China, referred to as "the Handover '' or "the Return '' internationally, took place on 1 July 1997. The landmark event marked the end of British administration in Hong Kong, and is often regarded as marking the end of the British Empire.
Hong Kong 's territory was acquired from three separate treaties: the Treaty of Nanking in 1842, the Convention of Peking in 1860, and The Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory in 1898, which gave the UK the control of Hong Kong Island, Kowloon (area south of Boundary Street), and the New Territories (area north of Boundary Street and south of the Sham Chun River, and outlying islands), respectively.
Although Hong Kong Island and Kowloon had been ceded to the United Kingdom in perpetuity, the control on the New Territories was a 99 - year lease. The finite nature of the 99 - year lease did not hinder Hong Kong 's development as the New Territories were combined as a part of Hong Kong.
However, by 1997, it was impractical to separate the three territories and only return the New Territories. In addition, with the scarcity of land and natural resources in Hong Kong Island and Kowloon, the New Territories were being developed with large - scale infrastructures and other developments, with the break - even day lying well past 30 June 1997. Thus, the status of the New Territories after the expiry of the 99 - year lease became important for Hong Kong 's economic development.
When the People 's Republic of China obtained its seat in the United Nations as a result of the UN General Assembly Resolution 2758 in 1971, it began to act diplomatically on the sovereignty issues of Hong Kong and Macau. In March 1972, the Chinese UN representative, Huang Hua, wrote to the United Nations Decolonization Committee to state the position of the Chinese government:
The same year, on 8 November, the United Nations General Assembly passed the resolution on removing Hong Kong and Macau from the official list of colonies.
In March 1979 the Governor of Hong Kong, Murray MacLehose, paid his first official visit to the People 's Republic of China (PRC), taking the initiative to raise the question of Hong Kong 's sovereignty with Deng Xiaoping. Without clarifying and establishing the official position of the PRC government, the arranging of real estate leases and loans agreements in Hong Kong within the next 18 years would become difficult.
In response to concerns over land leases in the New Territories, MacLehose proposed that British administration of the whole of Hong Kong, as opposed to sovereignty, be allowed to continue after 1997. He also proposed that contracts include the phrase "for so long as the Crown administers the territory ''.
In fact, as early as the mid-1970s, Hong Kong had faced additional risks raising loans for large - scale infrastructure projects such as its Mass Transit Railway (MTR) system and a new airport. Caught unprepared, Deng asserted the necessity of Hong Kong 's return to China, upon which Hong Kong would be given special status by the PRC government.
MacLehose 's visit to the PRC raised the curtain on the issue of Hong Kong 's sovereignty: Britain was made aware of the PRC 's aspiration to resume sovereignty over Hong Kong and began to make arrangements accordingly to ensure the sustenance of her interests within the territory, as well as initiating the creation of a withdrawal plan in case of emergency.
Three years later, Deng received the former British Prime Minister Edward Heath, who had been dispatched as the special envoy of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher to establish an understanding of the PRC 's view with regards to the question of Hong Kong; during their meeting, Deng outlined his plans to make the territory a special economic zone, which would retain its capitalist system under Chinese sovereignty.
In the same year, Edward Youde, who succeeded MacLehose as the 26th Governor of Hong Kong, led a delegation of five Executive Councillors to London, including Chung Sze - yuen, Lydia Dunn, and Roger Lobo. Chung presented their position on the sovereignty of Hong Kong to Thatcher, encouraging her to take into consideration the interests of the native Hong Kong population in her upcoming visit to China.
In light of the increasing openness of the PRC government and economic reforms on the mainland, the then British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher sought the PRC 's agreement to a continued British presence in the territory.
However, the PRC took a contrary position: not only did the PRC wish for the New Territories, on lease until 1997, to be placed under the PRC 's jurisdiction, it also refused to recognize the "unfair and unequal treaties '' under which Hong Kong Island and Kowloon had been ceded to Britain in perpetuity. Consequently, the PRC recognized only the British administration in Hong Kong, but not British sovereignty.
In the wake of Governor MacLehose 's visit, Britain and the PRC established initial diplomatic contact for further discussions of the Hong Kong question, paving the way for Thatcher 's first visit to the PRC in September 1982.
Margaret Thatcher, in discussion with Deng Xiaoping, reiterated the validity of an extension of the lease of Hong Kong territory, particularly in light of binding treaties, including the Treaty of Nanking in 1842, the Convention of Peking in 1856, and the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory signed in 1890.
In response, Deng Xiaoping cited clearly the lack of room for compromise on the question of sovereignty over Hong Kong; the PRC, as the successor of Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China on the mainland, would recover the entirety of the New Territories, Kowloon and Hong Kong Island. China considered treaties about Hong Kong as unequal and ultimately refused to accept any outcome that would indicate permanent loss of sovereignty over Hong Kong 's area, whatever wording the former treaties had.
During talks with Thatcher, China planned to invade and seize Hong Kong if the negotiations set off unrest in the colony. Thatcher later said that Deng told her bluntly that China could easily take Hong Kong by force, stating that "I could walk in and take the whole lot this afternoon '', to which she replied that "there is nothing I could do to stop you, but the eyes of the world would now know what China is like ''.
After her visit with Deng in Beijing, Thatcher was received in Hong Kong as the first British Prime Minister to set foot on the territory whilst in office. At a press conference, Thatcher re-emphasised the validity of the three treaties, asserting the need for countries to respect treaties on universal terms: "There are three treaties in existence; we stick by our treaties unless we decide on something else. At the moment, we stick by our treaties. ''.
At the same time, at the 5th session of the 5th National People 's Congress, the constitution was amended to include a new Article 31 which stated that the country might establish Special Administrative Regions (SARs) when necessary.
The additional Article would hold tremendous significance in settling the question of Hong Kong and later Macau, putting into social consciousness the concept of "One country, two systems ''. The concept would prove useful to deploy until the territories were secured and conditions were ripe for its gradual abrogation.
A few months after Thatcher 's visit to Beijing, the PRC government had yet to open negotiations with the British government regarding the sovereignty of Hong Kong.
Shortly before the initiation of sovereignty talks, Governor Youde declared his intention to represent the population of Hong Kong at the negotiations. This statement sparked a strong response from the PRC, prompting Deng Xiaoping to denounce talk of "the so - called ' three - legged stool ' '', which implied that Hong Kong was a party to talks on its future, alongside Beijing and London.
At the preliminary stage of the talks, the British government proposed an exchange of sovereignty for administration and the implementation of a British administration post-handover.
The PRC government refused, contending that the notions of sovereignty and administration were inseparable, and although it recognised Macau as a "Chinese territory under Portuguese administration '', this was only temporary.
In fact, during informal exchanges between 1979 and 1981, the PRC had proposed a "Macau solution '' in Hong Kong, under which it would remain under British administration at China 's discretion.
However, this had previously been rejected following the 1967 Leftist riots, with the then Governor, David Trench, claiming the leftists ' aim was to leave the UK without effective control, or "to Macau us ''.
The conflict that arose at that point of the negotiations ended the possibility of further negotiation. During the reception of former British Prime Minister Edward Heath during his sixth visit to the PRC, Deng Xiaoping commented quite clearly on the impossibility of exchanging sovereignty for administration, declaring an ultimatum: the British government must modify or give up its position or the PRC will announce its resolution of the issue of Hong Kong sovereignty unilaterally.
In 1983, Typhoon Ellen ravaged Hong Kong, causing great amounts of damage to both life and property. The Hong Kong dollar plummeted on Black Saturday, and the Financial Secretary John Bremridge publicly associated the economic uncertainty with the instability of the political climate. In response, the PRC government condemned Britain through the press for "playing the economic card '' in order to achieve their ends: to intimidate the PRC into conceding to British demands.
Governor Youde with nine members of the Hong Kong Executive Council travelled to London to discuss with Prime Minister Thatcher the crisis of confidence -- the problem with morale among the people of Hong Kong arising from the ruination of the Sino - British talks. The session concluded with Thatcher 's writing of a letter addressed to the PRC Premier Zhao Ziyang.
In the letter, she expressed Britain 's willingness to explore arrangements optimising the future prospects of Hong Kong while utilising the PRC 's proposals as a foundation. Furthermore, and perhaps most significantly, she expressed Britain 's concession on its position of a continued British presence in the form of an administration post-handover.
Two rounds of negotiations were held in October and November. On the sixth round of talks in November, Britain formally conceded its intentions of either maintaining a British administration in Hong Kong or seeking some form of co-administration with the PRC, and showed its sincerity in discussing PRC 's proposal on the 1997 issue. Obstacles were cleared.
Simon Keswick, chairman of Jardine Matheson & Co., said they were not pulling out of Hong Kong, but a new holding company would be established in Bermuda instead. The PRC took this as yet another plot by the British. The Hong Kong government explained that it had been informed about the move only a few days before the announcement. The government would not and could not stop the company from making a business decision.
Just as the atmosphere of the talks was becoming cordial, members of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong felt impatient at the long - running secrecy over the progress of Sino - British talks on the Hong Kong issue. A motion, tabled by legislator Roger Lobo, declared "This Council deems it essential that any proposals for the future of Hong Kong should be debated in this Council before agreement is reached '', was passed unanimously.
The PRC attacked the motion furiously, referring to it as "somebody 's attempt to play the three - legged stool trick again ''. At length, the PRC and Britain initiated the Joint Declaration on the question of Hong Kong 's future in Beijing. Zhou Nan, the then PRC Deputy Foreign Minister and leader of the negotiation team, and Sir Richard Evans, British Ambassador to Beijing and leader of the team, signed respectively on behalf of the two governments.
The Sino - British Joint Declaration was signed by the Prime Ministers of the People 's Republic of China and the United Kingdom governments on 19 December 1984 in Beijing. The Declaration entered into force with the exchange of instruments of ratification on 27 May 1985 and was registered by the People 's Republic of China and United Kingdom governments at the United Nations on 12 June 1985.
In the Joint Declaration, the People 's Republic of China Government stated that it had decided to resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong (including Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and the New Territories) with effect from 1 July 1997 and the United Kingdom Government declared that it would restore Hong Kong to the PRC with effect from 1 July 1997. In the document, the People 's Republic of China Government also declared its basic policies regarding Hong Kong.
In accordance with the "One Country, Two Systems '' principle agreed between the United Kingdom and the People 's Republic of China, the socialist system of the People 's Republic of China would not be practised in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR), and Hong Kong 's previous capitalist system and its way of life would remain unchanged for a period of 50 years. This would have left Hong Kong unchanged until 2047.
The Joint Declaration provided that these basic policies should be stipulated in the Hong Kong Basic Law. The ceremony of the signing of the Sino - British Joint Declaration took place at 18: 00, 19 December 1984 at the Western Main Chamber of the Great Hall of the People. The Hong Kong and Macao Affairs Office at first proposed a list of 60 - 80 Hong Kong people to attend the ceremony. The number was finally extended to 101.
The list included Hong Kong government officials, members of the Legislative and Executive Councils, chairmen of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and Standard Chartered Bank, prominent businessmen such as Li Ka - shing, Pao Yue - kong and Fok Ying - tung, and also Martin Lee Chu - ming and Szeto Wah.
The Basic Law was drafted by a Drafting Committee composed of members from both Hong Kong and mainland China. A Basic Law Consultative Committee formed purely by Hong Kong people was established in 1985 to canvas views in Hong Kong on the drafts.
The first draft was published in April 1988, followed by a five - month public consultation exercise. The second draft was published in February 1989, and the subsequent consultation period ended in October 1989.
The Basic Law was formally promulgated on 4 April 1990 by the NPC, together with the designs for the flag and emblem of the HKSAR. Some members of the Basic Law drafting committee were ousted by Beijing following the 4 June 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, after voicing views supporting the students.
The Basic Law was said to be a mini-constitution drafted with the participation of Hong Kong people. The political system had been the most controversial issue in the drafting of the Basic Law. The special issue sub-group adopted the political model put forward by Louis Cha. This "mainstream '' proposal was criticised for being too conservative.
According to Clauses 158 and 159 of the Basic Law, powers of interpretation and amendment of the Basic Law are vested in the Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress and the National People 's Congress, respectively. Hong Kong 's people have limited influence.
After the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, the Executive Councillors and the Legislative Councillors unexpectedly held an urgent meeting, in which they agreed unanimously that the British Government should give the people of Hong Kong the right of abode in the United Kingdom.
More than 10,000 Hong Kong residents rushed to Central in order to get an application form for residency in the United Kingdom. On the eve of the deadline, over 100,000 lined up overnight for a BN (O) application form. While mass migration did begin well before 1989, the event did lead to the peak migration year in 1992 with 66,000 leaving.
Many citizens were pessimistic towards the future of Hong Kong and the transfer of the region 's sovereignty. A tide of emigration, which was to last for no less than five years, broke out. At its peak, citizenship of small countries, such as Tonga, was also in great demand.
Singapore, which also had a predominantly Chinese population, was another popular destination, with the country 's Commission (now Consulate - General) being besieged by anxious Hong Kong residents. By September 1989, 6000 applications for residency in Singapore had been approved by the Commission.
Some consul staff were suspended or arrested for their corrupt behaviour in granting immigration visas. In April 1997, the acting immigration officer at the US Consulate - General, James DeBates, was suspended after his wife was arrested for smuggling of Chinese migrants into the United States. The previous year, his predecessor, Jerry Stuchiner, had been arrested for smuggling forged Honduran passports into the territory before being sentenced to 40 months in prison.
Canada (Vancouver and Toronto), United Kingdom (London, Glasgow, and Manchester), Australia (Sydney and Melbourne), and the United States (San Francisco and New York) were, by and large, the most popular destinations. The United Kingdom devised the British Nationality Selection Scheme, granting 50,000 families British citizenship under the British Nationality Act (Hong Kong) 1990.
Vancouver was among the most popular destinations, earning the nickname of "Hongcouver ''. Richmond, a suburb of Vancouver, was nicknamed "Little Hong Kong ''. Other popular settlements are found in Auckland, New Zealand and Dublin, Ireland. All in all, from the start of the settlement of the negotiation in 1984 to 1997, nearly 1 million people emigrated; consequently, Hong Kong suffered serious loss of capital.
Chris Patten became the last governor of Hong Kong. This was regarded as a turning point in Hong Kong 's history. Unlike his predecessors, Patten was not a diplomat, but a career politician and former Member of Parliament. He introduced democratic reforms which pushed PRC -- British relations to a standstill and affected the negotiations for a smooth handover.
Patten introduced a package of electoral reforms in the Legislative Council. These reforms proposed to enlarge the electorate, thus making voting in the Legislative Council more democratic. This move posed significant changes because Hong Kong citizens would have the power to make decisions regarding their future.
The handover ceremony was held at the new wing of the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre in Wan Chai on the night of 30 June 1997.
The principal British guest was Prince Charles, who read a farewell speech on behalf of the Queen. The newly elected Prime Minister, Tony Blair, the Foreign Secretary Robin Cook, the departing Governor Chris Patten and General Sir Charles Guthrie, Chief of the Defence Staff, also attended.
Representing the People 's Republic of China were the President, Jiang Zemin, the Premier, Li Peng, and the first Chief Executive Tung Chee - hwa. The event was broadcast around the world.
After the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, the Hong Kong government proposed a grand "Rose Garden Project '' to restore faith and solidarity among the residents. As the construction of the new Hong Kong International Airport would extend well after the handover, Governor Wilson met PRC Premier Li Peng in Beijing to ease the mind of the PRC government.
The communist press published stories that the project was an evil plan to bleed Hong Kong dry before the handover, leaving the territory in serious debt. After three years of negotiations, Britain and the PRC finally reached an agreement over the construction of the new airport, and signed a Memorandum of Understanding. Removing hills and reclaiming land, it took only a few years to construct the new airport.
The Walled City was originally a single fort built in the mid-19th century on the site of an earlier 17th century watch post on the Kowloon Peninsula of Hong Kong. After the ceding of Hong Kong Island to Britain in 1842 (Treaty of Nanjing), Manchu Qing Dynasty authorities of China felt it necessary for them to establish a military and administrative post to rule the area and to check further British influence in the area.
The 1898 Convention which handed additional parts of Hong Kong (the New Territories) to Britain for 99 years excluded the Walled City, with a population of roughly 700. It stated that China could continue to keep troops there, so long as they did not interfere with Britain 's temporary rule.
Britain quickly went back on this unofficial part of the agreement, attacking Kowloon Walled City in 1899, only to find it deserted. They did nothing with it, or the outpost, and thus posed the question of Kowloon Walled City 's ownership squarely up in the air. The outpost consisted of a yamen, as well as buildings which grew into low - lying, densely packed neighbourhoods from the 1890s to 1940s.
The enclave remained part of Chinese territory despite the turbulent events of the early 20th century that saw the fall of the Qing government, the establishment of the Republic of China and later, a Communist Chinese government (PRC).
Squatters began to occupy the Walled City, resisting several attempts by Britain in 1948 to drive them out. The Walled City became a haven for criminals and drug addicts, as the Hong Kong Police had no right to enter the City and China refused maintainability. The 1949 foundation of the People 's Republic of China added thousands of refugees to the population, many from Guangdong; by this time, Britain had had enough, and simply adopted a "hands - off '' policy.
A murder that occurred in Kowloon Walled City in 1959 set off a small diplomatic crisis, as the two nations each tried to get the other to accept responsibility for a vast tract of land now virtually ruled by anti-Manchurian Triads.
After the Joint Declaration in 1984, the PRC allowed British authorities to demolish the City and resettle its inhabitants. The mutual decision to tear down the walled city was made in 1987. The government spent up to HK $ 3 billion to resettle the residents and shops.
Some residents were not satisfied with the compensation, and some even obstructed the demolition in every possible way. Ultimately, everything was settled, and the Walled City became a park.
Rennie 's Mill got its name from a Canadian businessman named Alfred Herbert Rennie, who established a flour mill at Junk Bay. The business failed, and Rennie hanged himself there in 1908. The incident gave the Chinese name for the site Tiu Keng Leng (吊 頸 嶺), meaning "Hanging (neck) Ridge ''. The name was later formally changed to similar - sounding Tiu King Leng (調 景 嶺) because it was regarded as inauspicious.
In the 1950s the (British) Government of Hong Kong settled a considerable number of refugees from China -- former Nationalist soldiers and other Kuomintang supporters -- at Rennie 's Mill, following the Chinese civil war. For many years the area was a Kuomintang enclave known as "Little Taiwan '', with the flag of the Republic of China flying, its own school system and practically off - limits to the Royal Hong Kong Police Force.
In 1996 the Hong Kong government finally forcibly evicted Rennie 's Mill 's residents, ostensibly to make room for new town developments, as part of the Tseung Kwan O New Town, but widely understood to be a move to please the Communist Chinese government before Hong Kong reverted to Communist Chinese rule in 1997.
Before the eviction, Rennie 's Mill could be reached by the winding, hilly and narrow Po Lam Road South. At that time, Rennie 's Mill 's only means of public transport were the routes 90 and 290 of Kowloon Motor Bus, which were operated by minibuses, and by water transport.
The Republic of China on Taiwan promulgated the Laws and Regulations Regarding Hong Kong & Macao Affairs on 2 April 1997 by Presidential Order, and the Executive Yuan on 19 June 1997 ordered the provisions pertaining to Hong Kong to take effect on 1 July 1997.
The United States -- Hong Kong Policy Act or more commonly known as the Hong Kong Policy Act (P.L no. 102 - 383m 106 Stat. 1448) is a 1992 act enacted by the United States Congress. It allows the United States to continue to treat Hong Kong separately from China for matters concerning trade export and economics control after the handover.
The United States was represented by then Secretary of State Madeleine Albright at the Hong Kong handover ceremony. However, she partially boycotted it in protest of China 's dissolution of the democratically elected Hong Kong legislature.
Scholars have begun to study the complexities of the transfer as shown in the popular media, such as films, television and video and online games. For example, Hong Kong director Fruit Chan made a sci - fi thriller The Midnight After (2014) that stressed the sense of loss and alienation represented by survivors in an apocalyptic Hong Kong. Chan infuses a political agenda in the film by playing on Hong Kongers ' collective anxiety towards communist China. Yiman Wang has argued that America has viewed China through the prisms of films from Shanghai and Hong Kong, with a recent emphasis on futuristic disaster films set in Hong Kong after the transfer goes awry.
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when is the next step season six coming out | List of the Next Step episodes - Wikipedia
The Next Step is a Canadian teen drama series created by Frank van Keeken and produced by Temple Street Productions. Shot in a dramatic mockumentary style, the series focuses on a group of dancers who attend The Next Step Dance Studio. They have won Regionals, Nationals and Internationals.
The series has been renewed for a sixth season of 26 episodes which will premiere in Canada in September 2018, and in the UK on July 16, 2018.
Giselle does not make it into A-Troupe. Giselle is later removed from the E-girls for not being in A-Troupe, as the rules are that all E-girls must be in A-Troupe. Emily promises to get Giselle back in A-troupe, and kick Michelle out. Chloe later becomes part of the E-Girls. Stephanie tells Michelle before their first dance rehearsal is in Studio B but, Giselle, who is on her way to B - Troupe tells her that A-Troupe is always in Studio A. Stephanie tells us in a confessional she did this so Michelle would be late, and get a bad reputation in A-Troupe. It is said by people in A-Troupe and as well in a confession done by James was that James has dated many girls before, including Beth who is now in B - Troupe, and Amanda, who was at Elite which is a rival studio which always wins regionals
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pokemon diamond and pearl dawn's first contest | List of Pokémon: Diamond and Pearl episodes - wikipedia
This is a list of episodes in Pokémon: Diamond and Pearl, aired in Japan as Pocket Monsters Diamond & Pearl (ポケットモンスター ダイヤモンド & パール, Poketto Monsutā Daiyamondo & Pāru), the tenth season of the Pokémon animated series, covering the continuing adventures of series protagonist Ash Ketchum and his best friend Brock. May and Max have departed, and Ash and Brock meet a new coordinator named Dawn, who travels with them through Sinnoh and enters the Super Contests.
The Japanese opening theme song is "Together '' by Fumie Akiyoshi. The Japanese ending theme song is "Kimi no Soba de (Hikari no Theme) '' (君 の そば で 〜 ヒカリ の テーマ 〜, By Your Side ~ Hikari 's Theme ~) by Grin. The English opening theme song is "Diamond and Pearl '' by "Breeze '' Barczynski.
The division between seasons of Pokémon is based on the English version openings of each episode, and may not reflect the actual production season. The English episode numbers are based on their first airing in the United States either in syndication on Cartoon Network, or in Canada on the YTV Television Network. Other English - speaking nations largely followed either this order or the Japanese order. Subsequent airings of the English version follow the original Japanese order, except in the case of episodes which are no longer shown in English. This series uses game music from Pokémon Yellow and Pokémon Gold and Silver. The series began regularly airing in the United States on June 4, 2007 and ended with the fifty - first and final episode of season ten, "Smells Like Team Spirit '', first aired on Cartoon Network on February 1, 2008. This is the final season of Pokémon dubbed in association with TAJ Productions.
The series began airing first - run episodes in Japan on September 28, 2006 and ended on October 25, 2007. The first three episodes of the tenth season were broadcast in the United States as a special on April 20, 2007 back - to - back in the same format as the original Japanese airing.
It was also first aired in the United Kingdom on Cartoon Network Too on February 4, 2008, on July 1, 2008 Pokémon: Diamond and Pearl started airing double bills on CITV in the morning, and Pokémon: Diamond and Pearl Battle Dimension aired on Jetix from September 6, 2007, airing a new episode every day at 6pm. The show also began airing in Canada on August 16, 2008 on YTV.
The series was released on six volume DVDs and three box sets by Viz Media in North America.
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long distance communication between two point on earth is achieved by | Line - of - sight propagation - wikipedia
Line - of - sight propagation is a characteristic of electromagnetic radiation or acoustic wave propagation which means waves travel in a direct path from the source to the receiver. Electromagnetic transmission includes light emissions traveling in a straight line. The rays or waves may be diffracted, refracted, reflected, or absorbed by the atmosphere and obstructions with material and generally can not travel over the horizon or behind obstacles.
In contrast to line - of - sight propagation, at low frequency (below approximately 3 MHz) due to diffraction radio waves can travel as ground waves, which follow the contour of the Earth. This enables AM radio stations to transmit beyond the horizon. Additionally, frequencies in the shortwave bands between approximately 1 and 30 MHz, can be reflected back to Earth by the ionosphere, called skywave or "skip '' propagation, thus giving radio transmissions in this range a potentially global reach.
However, at frequencies above 30 MHz (VHF and higher) and in lower levels of the atmosphere, neither of these effects are significant. Thus, any obstruction between the transmitting antenna (transmitter) and the receiving antenna (receiver) will block the signal, just like the light that the eye may sense. Therefore, since the ability to visually see a transmitting antenna (disregarding the limitations of the eye 's resolution) roughly corresponds to the ability to receive a radio signal from it, the propagation characteristic at these frequencies is called "line - of - sight ''. The farthest possible point of propagation is referred to as the "radio horizon ''.
In practice, the propagation characteristics of these radio waves vary substantially depending on the exact frequency and the strength of the transmitted signal (a function of both the transmitter and the antenna characteristics). Broadcast FM radio, at comparatively low frequencies of around 100 MHz, are less affected by the presence of buildings and forests.
Low - powered microwave transmitters can be foiled by tree branches, or even heavy rain or snow. The presence of objects not in the direct line - of - sight can cause diffraction effects that disrupt radio transmissions. For the best propagation, a volume known as the first Fresnel zone should be free of obstructions.
Reflected radiation from the surface of the surrounding ground or salt water can also either cancel out or enhance the direct signal. This effect can be reduced by raising either or both antennas further from the ground: The reduction in loss achieved is known as height gain.
It is important to take into account the curvature of the Earth for calculation of line - of - sight paths from maps, when a direct visual fix can not be made. Designs for microwave formerly used ⁄ earth radius to compute clearances along the path.
Although the frequencies used by mobile phones (cell phones) are in the line - of - sight range, they still function in cities. This is made possible by a combination of the following effects:
The combination of all these effects makes the mobile phone propagation environment highly complex, with multipath effects and extensive Rayleigh fading. For mobile phone services, these problems are tackled using:
A Faraday cage is composed of a conductor that completely surrounds an area on all sides, top, and bottom. Electromagnetic radiation is blocked where the wavelength is longer than any gaps. For example, mobile telephone signals are blocked in windowless metal enclosures that approximate a Faraday cage, such as elevator cabins, and parts of trains, cars, and ships. The same problem can affect signals in buildings with extensive steel reinforcement.
The radio horizon is the locus of points at which direct rays from an antenna are tangential to the surface of the Earth. If the Earth were a perfect sphere without an atmosphere, the radio horizon would be a circle.
The radio horizon of the transmitting and receiving antennas can be added together to increase the effective communication range.
Radio wave propagation is affected by atmospheric conditions, ionospheric absorption, and the presence of obstructions, for example mountains or trees. Simple formulas that include the effect of the atmosphere give the range as:
The simple formulas give a best - case approximation of the maximum propagation distance, but are not sufficient to estimate the quality of service at any location.
Earth bulge is a term used in telecommunications. It refers to the circular segment of earth profile that blocks off long distance communications. Since the geometric line of sight passes at varying heights over the Earth, the propagating radio wave encounters slightly different propagation conditions over the path. The usual effect of the declining pressure of the atmosphere with height is to bend radio waves down towards the surface of the Earth, effectively increasing the Earth 's radius, and the distance to the radio horizon, by a factor around ⁄. This k - factor can change from its average value depending on weather.
Assuming a perfect sphere with no terrain irregularity, the distance to the horizon from a high altitude transmitter (i.e., line of sight) can readily be calculated.
Let R be the radius of the Earth and h be the altitude of a telecommunication station. The line of sight distance d of this station is given by the Pythagorean theorem;
Since the altitude of the station is much less than the radius of the Earth,
If the height is given in metres, and distance in kilometres,
If the height is given in feet, and the distance in miles,
The above analysis does not consider the effect of atmosphere on the propagation path of RF signals. In fact, RF signals do n't propagate in straight lines: Because of the refractive effects of atmospheric layers, the propagation paths are somewhat curved. Thus, the maximum service range of the station is not equal to the line of sight (geometric) distance. Usually, a factor k is used in the equation above, modified to be
k > 1 means geometrically reduced bulge and a longer service range. On the other hand, k < 1 means a shorter service range.
Under normal weather conditions, k is usually chosen to be ⁄. That means that the maximum service range increases by 15 %.
for h in metres and d in kilometres; or
for h in feet and d in miles.
But in stormy weather, k may decrease to cause fading in transmission. (In extreme cases k can be less than 1.) That is equivalent to a hypothetical decrease in Earth radius and an increase of Earth bulge.
In normal weather conditions, the service range of a station at an altitude of 1500 m with respect to receivers at sea level can be found as,
This article incorporates public domain material from the General Services Administration document "Federal Standard 1037C '' (in support of MIL - STD - 188).
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who does the voice of joe on family guy | Patrick Warburton - wikipedia
Patrick John Warburton (born November 14, 1964) is an American actor and voice artist. In television, he is known for playing David Puddy on Seinfeld, the title role on The Tick, Jeb Denton on Less Than Perfect, Jeff Bingham on Rules of Engagement, and Lemony Snicket on A Series of Unfortunate Events. His voice roles include Kronk in The Emperor 's New Groove and its sequels, paraplegic police officer Joe Swanson on Family Guy, Brock Samson on The Venture Bros, Lok in the Tak and the Power of Juju video game series and in the television series, and Flynn in the Skylanders video games. In advertising he has played a "control enthusiast '' in a series of commercials for National Car Rental.
Warburton was born in Paterson, New Jersey, the son of orthopedic surgeon John Charles Warburton Jr. and Barbara Jeanne Gratz (an actress credited as Barbara Lord). He and his three sisters, Mary, Lara, and Megan, were raised in a "very religious '' and "conservative '' Catholic family in Huntington Beach, California, where he attended Saints Simon and Jude Catholic School. He later attended Servite High School (in Anaheim, California), and later transferred to Newport Harbor High School (in Newport Beach, California). He studied marine biology at Orange Coast College in Costa Mesa, California, but dropped out to pursue modeling and acting.
Warburton 's acting roles often rely on his deep, booming voice and large physique. In the 1990s, he was known for his recurring role as David Puddy on Seinfeld, the on - again, off - again boyfriend of Elaine Benes. He had a small role in the 2002 film Men in Black II as J 's new partner, T.
Warburton starred in FOX 's short - lived series The Tick, in which he held the title role. He has repeatedly criticized FOX 's mismanagement of the series after its cancellation, stating that the network "apparently did n't have a clue. ''
He played Nick Sharp in 8 Simple Rules and joined the cast of Less Than Perfect in 2003, as anchorman Jeb Denton. He also played Jeff Bingham in Rules of Engagement, and Rip Riley in the FX series Archer.
Warburton has put his voice to use for several animated films and TV programs, including a lead character in Game Over, Buzz Lightyear and the Little Green Men in Buzz Lightyear of Star Command, and Kronk in The Emperor 's New Groove, with David Spade and John Goodman; Spade and Warburton would reunite for the CBS sitcom Rules of Engagement, which aired from 2007 to 2013, and Joe Dirt 2: Beautiful Loser in 2015. Warburton reprised his role as Kronk for the direct - to - video sequel, Kronk 's New Groove, and the subsequent TV series The Emperor 's New School. He voices Steve Barkin in the Disney Channel show Kim Possible.
Warburton was also cast in The Venture Bros., in which he voices Brock Samson. He voices Joe Swanson on Fox 's Family Guy and Detective Cash in The Batman. He lent his voice talent to the computer - animated feature films Hoodwinked, Chicken Little, Bee Movie, Open Season, and Tak (all three games), Tak and the Power of Juju. He was also the voice of Commander Blaine H. Tate on the Comedy Central animated series Moonbeam City in October 2015.
Warburton appeared on GSN 's Poker Royale Celebrities vs. the Pros tournament in 2005, winning the tournament and the $50,000 grand prize. On November 8, 2009, Warburton appeared as the wild west character Cal Johnson on Seth & Alex 's (Almost Live) Comedy Show, hosted by Seth MacFarlane and Alex Borstein, on Fox. He was also cast as the sheriff in the Cartoon Network series Scooby - Doo! Mystery Incorporated. He appeared as Bowser in a video by CollegeHumor entitled "The Roast of Mario ''.
He appeared on the American version of Top Gear on February 21, 2012. He set the "Big Star, Small Car '' lap record, beating previous record - holder Arlene Tur.
Warburton starred in the 2016 NBC sitcom Crowded, in which he played alongside Carrie Preston as parents who are about to enjoy their empty nest years only to find their daughters and his parents are all moving back in to live with them. The show ran for one season of 13 episodes.
He is featured in the "preboarding '' video shown to guests at Soarin ' Around the World in Disney California Adventure in Anaheim, California and Epcot at the Walt Disney World Resort, in Orlando, Florida where he explains the ride 's requirements. He lent his voice to the droid G2 - 4T in the queue of Star Tours: The Adventures Continue at Disney 's Hollywood Studios in Orlando, Florida and Disneyland in Anaheim, California.
He currently plays Lemony Snicket in the series A Series of Unfortunate Events.
He appeared at a New Jersey Devils playoff hockey game on April 18, 2018 with his face (and chest) painted similar to that of his Devils crazed role in an episode of "Seinfeld '', exhorting the crowd in a manner alike to that of his "Puddy '' character.
In the commercial and advertising world, Warburton is the voice in the Carrier Corporation commercials for their air - conditioning and HVAC units, and was the voice of Superman in The Adventures of Seinfeld and Superman for American Express. He is the voice of "Lewis '' in the "Clark & Lewis Expedition '' radio commercials for Horizon Air. In August 2009, Warburton played a high - end PC in a "Get a Mac '' ad for Apple Inc. Warburton became the spokesman for Japanese automaker Honda 's "Good Reasons '' advertising campaign in September 2011. He is the voice in NAPA 's "Can of Know How '' commercial. In 2015, Warburton became the star of National Car Rental commercials "Be the Boss of You ''. And he became the voice in the current "Discover Fresh '' radio ad campaign by Souplantation, a California - based buffet - style restaurant chain (the restaurant is known as "Sweet Tomatoes '' in other markets).
Warburton is also the voice of Ranger, a forest ranger, in a series of radio spots for the national Smokey Bear campaign sponsored by the U.S. Forest Service and the Ad Council.
Warburton married Cathy Jennings in 1991, and they have four children.
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what are the points of a fork called | Fork - wikipedia
A fork, in cutlery or kitchenware, is a tool consisting of a handle with several narrow tines on one end. The usually metal utensil is used to lift food to the mouth or to hold ingredients in place while they are being cut by a knife. Food can be lifted either by spearing it on the tines or by holding it on top of the tines, which are often curved slightly.
The word fork comes from the Latin furca, meaning "pitchfork ''. Some of the earliest known uses of forks with food occurred in Ancient Egypt, where large forks were used as cooking utensils.
Bone forks had been found in archaeological sites of the Bronze Age Qijia culture (2400 -- 1900 BC), the Shang dynasty (c. 1600 -- c. 1050 BC), as well as later Chinese dynasties. A stone carving from an Eastern Han tomb (in Ta - kua - liang, Suide County, Shaanxi) depicts three hanging two - pronged forks in a dining scene. Conversely, similar forks has also been depicted on top of a stove in a scene at another Eastern Han tomb (in Suide County, Shaanxi).
In the Roman Empire, bronze and silver forks were used, and indeed many examples are displayed in museums around Europe. The use varied according to local customs, social class and the nature of food, but forks of the earlier periods were mostly used as cooking and serving utensils. The personal table fork was most likely invented in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, where they were in common use by the 4th century (its origin may even go back to Ancient Greece, before the Roman period). Records show that by the 9th century a similar utensil known as a barjyn was in limited use in Persia within some elite circles. By the 10th century, the table fork was in common use throughout the Middle East.
The first recorded introduction of the fork to Europe, as recorded by the theologian and cardinal Peter Damian, was by Theophano Sklereina the Byzantine wife of Holy Roman Emperor Otto II, who nonchalantly wielded one at an Imperial banquet in 972, astonishing her Western hosts. By the 11th century, the table fork had become increasingly prevalent in the Italian peninsula. It gained a following in Italy before any other European region because of historical ties with Byzantium, and continued to gain popularity due to the increasing presence of pasta in the Italian diet. At first, pasta was consumed using a long wooden spike, but this eventually evolved into three spikes, a design better suited to gathering the noodles. In Italy, it became commonplace by the 14th century and was almost universally used by the merchant and upper classes by 1600. It was proper for a guest to arrive with his own fork and spoon enclosed in a box called a cadena; this usage was introduced to the French court with Catherine de ' Medici 's entourage. In Portugal, forks were first used at the time of Infanta Beatrice, Duchess of Viseu, King Manuel I of Portugal 's mother around 1450. However, forks were not commonly used in Southern Europe until the 16th century when they became part of Italian etiquette. The utensil had also gained some currency in Spain by this time, Its use gradually spread to France. Nevertheless, most of Europe did not adopt use of the fork until the 18th century.
Polish deputy minister has said in 2016, that Poland "taught the French how to use a fork ''. However the truth is less easy, Henri III was the one to actually introduce proper usage of the fork after a travel to Poland, however on the way home he apparently went to Venice to visit his mother homeland and that 's where he supposedly discovered the little pitchfork.
Long after the personal table fork had become commonplace in France, at the supper celebrating the marriage of the duc de Chartres to Louis XIV 's natural daughter in 1692, the seating was described in the court memoirs of Saint - Simon: "King James having his Queen on his right hand and the King on his left, and each with their cadenas. '' In Perrault 's contemporaneous fairy tale of La Belle au bois dormant (1697), each of the fairies invited for the christening is presented with a splendid "fork holder ''.
The fork 's adoption in northern Europe was slower. Its use was first described in English by Thomas Coryat in a volume of writings on his Italian travels (1611), but for many years it was viewed as an unmanly Italian affectation. Some writers of the Roman Catholic Church expressly disapproved of its use, St. Peter Damian seeing it as "excessive delicacy '': It was not until the 18th century that the fork became commonly used in Great Britain, although some sources say that forks were common in France, England and Sweden already by the early 17th century.
The fork did not become popular in North America until near the time of the American Revolution. The curved fork used in most parts of the world today was developed in Germany in the mid 18th century while the standard four - tine design became current in the early 19th century. The fork was important in Germany because they believed that eating with the fingers was rude and disrespectful. The fork led to family dinners and sit - down meals, which are important features of German culture.
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who focused on government and education in ancient greece | Ancient Greece - wikipedia
Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th -- 9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (c. 600 AD). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Roughly three centuries after the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece, Greek urban poleis began to form in the 8th century BC, ushering in the period of Archaic Greece and colonization of the Mediterranean Basin. This was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco - Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. The Hellenistic period came to an end with the conquests and annexations of the eastern Mediterranean world by the Roman Republic, which established the Roman province of Macedonia in Roman Greece, and later the province of Achaea during the Roman Empire.
Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on ancient Rome, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean Basin and Europe. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization.
Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is commonly considered to have begun in the 8th century BC (around the time of the earliest recorded poetry of Homer) and ended in the 6th century AD.
Classical Antiquity in Greece was preceded by the Greek Dark Ages (c. 1200 -- c. 800 BC), archaeologically characterised by the protogeometric and geometric styles of designs on pottery. Following the Dark Ages was the Archaic Period, beginning around the 8th century BC. The Archaic Period saw early developments in Greek culture and society which formed the basis for the Classical Period. After the Archaic Period, the Classical Period in Greece is conventionally considered to have lasted from the Persian invasion of Greece in 480 until the death of Alexander the Great in 323. The period is characterized by a style which was considered by later observers to be exemplary, i.e., "classical '', as shown in the Parthenon, for instance. Politically, the Classical Period was dominated by Athens and the Delian League during the 5th century, but displaced by Spartan hegemony during the early 4th century BC, before power shifted to Thebes and the Boeotian League and finally to the League of Corinth led by Macedon. This period saw the Greco - Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon.
Following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period (323 -- 146 BC), during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest. Roman Greece is usually considered to be the period between Roman victory over the Corinthians at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC and the establishment of Byzantium by Constantine as the capital of the Roman Empire in AD 330. Finally, Late Antiquity refers to the period of Christianization during the later 4th to early 6th centuries AD, sometimes taken to be complete with the closure of the Academy of Athens by Justinian I in 529.
The historical period of ancient Greece is unique in world history as the first period attested directly in proper historiography, while earlier ancient history or proto - history is known by much more circumstantial evidence, such as annals or king lists, and pragmatic epigraphy.
Herodotus is widely known as the "father of history '': his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Written between the 450s and 420s BC, Herodotus ' work reaches about a century into the past, discussing 6th century historical figures such as Darius I of Persia, Cambyses II and Psamtik III, and alluding to some 8th century ones such as Candaules.
Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato and Aristotle. Most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is further limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic and social history.
In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization. Literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. Objects with Phoenician writing on them may have been available in Greece from the 9th century BC, but the earliest evidence of Greek writing comes from graffiti on Greek pottery from the mid-8th century. Greece was divided into many small self - governing communities, a pattern largely dictated by Greek geography: every island, valley and plain is cut off from its neighbors by the sea or mountain ranges.
The Lelantine War (c. 710 -- c. 650 BC) is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period. It was fought between the important poleis (city - states) of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, though Chalcis was the nominal victor.
A mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC. This seems to have introduced tension to many city - states. The aristocratic regimes which generally governed the poleis were threatened by the new - found wealth of merchants, who in turn desired political power. From 650 BC onwards, the aristocracies had to fight not to be overthrown and replaced by populist tyrants. This word derives from the non-pejorative Greek τύραννος tyrannos, meaning ' illegitimate ruler ', and was applicable to both good and bad leaders alike.
A growing population and a shortage of land also seem to have created internal strife between the poor and the rich in many city - states. In Sparta, the Messenian Wars resulted in the conquest of Messenia and enserfment of the Messenians, beginning in the latter half of the 8th century BC, an act without precedent in ancient Greece. This practice allowed a social revolution to occur. The subjugated population, thenceforth known as helots, farmed and labored for Sparta, whilst every Spartan male citizen became a soldier of the Spartan Army in a permanently militarized state. Even the elite were obliged to live and train as soldiers; this commonality between rich and poor citizens served to defuse the social conflict. These reforms, attributed to Lycurgus of Sparta, were probably complete by 650 BC.
Athens suffered a land and agrarian crisis in the late 7th century BC, again resulting in civil strife. The Archon (chief magistrate) Draco made severe reforms to the law code in 621 BC (hence "draconian ''), but these failed to quell the conflict. Eventually the moderate reforms of Solon (594 BC), improving the lot of the poor but firmly entrenching the aristocracy in power, gave Athens some stability.
By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes. Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control, and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well.
Rapidly increasing population in the 8th and 7th centuries BC had resulted in emigration of many Greeks to form colonies in Magna Graecia (Southern Italy and Sicily), Asia Minor and further afield. The emigration effectively ceased in the 6th century BC by which time the Greek world had, culturally and linguistically, become much larger than the area of present - day Greece. Greek colonies were not politically controlled by their founding cities, although they often retained religious and commercial links with them.
The emigration process also determined a long series of conflicts between the Greek cities of Sicily, especially Syracuse, and the Carthaginians. These conflicts lasted from 600 BC to 265 BC when the Roman Republic entered into an alliance with the Mamertines to fend off the hostilities by the new tyrant of Syracuse, Hiero II and then the Carthaginians. This way Rome became the new dominant power against the fading strength of the Sicilian Greek cities and the Carthaginian supremacy in the region. One year later the First Punic War erupted.
In this period, there was huge economic development in Greece, and also in its overseas colonies which experienced a growth in commerce and manufacturing. There was a great improvement in the living standards of the population. Some studies estimate that the average size of the Greek household, in the period from 800 BC to 300 BC, increased five times, which indicates a large increase in the average income of the population.
In the second half of the 6th century BC, Athens fell under the tyranny of Peisistratos and then of his sons Hippias and Hipparchos. However, in 510 BC, at the instigation of the Athenian aristocrat Cleisthenes, the Spartan king Cleomenes I helped the Athenians overthrow the tyranny. Afterwards, Sparta and Athens promptly turned on each other, at which point Cleomenes I installed Isagoras as a pro-Spartan archon. Eager to prevent Athens from becoming a Spartan puppet, Cleisthenes responded by proposing to his fellow citizens that Athens undergo a revolution: that all citizens share in political power, regardless of status: that Athens become a "democracy ''. So enthusiastically did the Athenians take to this idea that, having overthrown Isagoras and implemented Cleisthenes 's reforms, they were easily able to repel a Spartan - led three - pronged invasion aimed at restoring Isagoras. The advent of the democracy cured many of the ills of Athens and led to a ' golden age ' for the Athenians.
In 499 BC, the Ionian city states under Persian rule rebelled against the Persian - supported tyrants that ruled them. Supported by troops sent from Athens and Eretria, they advanced as far as Sardis and burnt the city down, before being driven back by a Persian counterattack. The revolt continued until 494, when the rebelling Ionians were defeated. Darius did not forget that the Athenians had assisted the Ionian revolt, however, and in 490 he assembled an armada to conquer Athens. Despite being heavily outnumbered, the Athenians -- supported by their Plataean allies -- defeated the Persian forces at the Battle of Marathon, and the Persian fleet withdrew.
Ten years later, a second invasion was launched by Darius ' son Xerxes. The city - states of northern and central Greece submitted to the Persian forces without resistance, but a coalition of 31 Greek city states, including Athens and Sparta, determined to resist the Persian invaders. At the same time, Greek Sicily was invaded by a Carthaginian force. In 480 BC, the first major battle of the invasion was fought at Thermopylae, where a small force of Greeks, led by three hundred Spartans, held a crucial pass into the heart of Greece for several days; at the same time Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, defeated the Carthaginian invasion at the Battle of Himera.
The Persians were defeated by a primarily Athenian naval force at the Battle of Salamis, and in 479 defeated on land at the Battle of Plataea. The alliance against Persia continued, initially led by the Spartan Pausanias but from 477 by Athens, and by 460 Persia had been driven out of the Aegean. During this period of campaigning, the Delian league gradually transformed from a defensive alliance of Greek states into an Athenian empire, as Athens ' growing naval power enabled it to compel other league states to comply with its policies. Athens ended its campaigns against Persia in 450 BC, after a disastrous defeat in Egypt in 454 BC, and the death of Cimon in action against the Persians on Cyprus in 450.
While Athenian activity against the Persian empire was ending, however, conflict between Sparta and Athens was increasing. Sparta was suspicious of the increasing Athenian power funded by the Delian League, and tensions rose when Sparta offered aid to reluctant members of the League to rebel against Athenian domination. These tensions were exacerbated in 462, when Athens sent a force to aid Sparta in overcoming a helot revolt, but their aid was rejected by the Spartans. In the 450s, Athens took control of Boeotia, and won victories over Aegina and Corinth. However, Athens failed to win a decisive victory, and in 447 lost Boeotia again. Athens and Sparta signed the Thirty Years ' Peace in the winter of 446 / 5, ending the conflict.
Despite the peace of 446 / 5, Athenian relations with Sparta declined again in the 430s, and in 431 war broke out once again. The first phase of the war is traditionally seen as a series of annual invasions of Attica by Sparta, which made little progress, while Athens were successful against the Corinthian empire in the north - west of Greece, and in defending their own empire, despite suffering from plague and Spartan invasion. The turning point of this phase of the war usually seen as the Athenian victories at Pylos and Sphakteria. Sparta sued for peace, but the Athenians rejected the proposal. The Athenian failure to regain control at Boeotia at Delium and Brasidas ' successes in the north of Greece in 424, improved Sparta 's position after Sphakteria. After the deaths of Cleon and Brasidas, the strongest objectors to peace on the Athenian and Spartan sides respectively, a peace treaty was agreed in 421.
The peace did not last, however. In 418 an alliance between Athens and Argos was defeated by Sparta at Mantinea. In 415 Athens launched a naval expedition against Sicily; the expedition ended in disaster with almost the entire army killed. Soon after the Athenian defeat in Syracuse, Athens ' Ionian allies began to rebel against the Delian league, while at the same time Persia began to once again involve itself in Greek affairs on the Spartan side. Initially the Athenian position continued to be relatively strong, winning important battles such as those at Cyzicus in 410 and Arginusae in 406. However, in 405 the Spartans defeated Athens in the Battle of Aegospotami, and began to blockade Athens ' harbour; with no grain supply and in danger of starvation, Athens sued for peace, agreeing to surrender their fleet and join the Spartan - led Peloponnesian League.
Greece thus entered the 4th century BC under a Spartan hegemony, but it was clear from the start that this was weak. A demographic crisis meant Sparta was overstretched, and by 395 BC Athens, Argos, Thebes, and Corinth felt able to challenge Spartan dominance, resulting in the Corinthian War (395 -- 387 BC). Another war of stalemates, it ended with the status quo restored, after the threat of Persian intervention on behalf of the Spartans.
The Spartan hegemony lasted another 16 years, until, when attempting to impose their will on the Thebans, the Spartans were defeated at Leuctra in 371 BC. The Theban general Epaminondas then led Theban troops into the Peloponnese, whereupon other city - states defected from the Spartan cause. The Thebans were thus able to march into Messenia and free the population.
Deprived of land and its serfs, Sparta declined to a second - rank power. The Theban hegemony thus established was short - lived; at the Battle of Mantinea in 362 BC, Thebes lost its key leader, Epaminondas, and much of its manpower, even though they were victorious in battle. In fact such were the losses to all the great city - states at Mantinea that none could establish dominance in the aftermath.
The weakened state of the heartland of Greece coincided with the Rise of Macedon, led by Philip II. In twenty years, Philip had unified his kingdom, expanded it north and west at the expense of Illyrian tribes, and then conquered Thessaly and Thrace. His success stemmed from his innovative reforms to the Macedonian army. Phillip intervened repeatedly in the affairs of the southern city - states, culminating in his invasion of 338 BC.
Decisively defeating an allied army of Thebes and Athens at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), he became de facto hegemon of all of Greece, except Sparta. He compelled the majority of the city - states to join the League of Corinth, allying them to him, and preventing them from warring with each other. Philip then entered into war against the Achaemenid Empire but was assassinated by Pausanias of Orestis early on in the conflict.
Alexander the Great, son and successor of Philip, continued the war. Alexander defeated Darius III of Persia and completely destroyed the Achaemenid Empire, annexing it to Macedon and earning himself the epithet ' the Great '. When Alexander died in 323 BC, Greek power and influence was at its zenith. However, there had been a fundamental shift away from the fierce independence and classical culture of the poleis -- and instead towards the developing Hellenistic culture.
The Hellenistic period lasted from 323 BC, which marked the end of the wars of Alexander the Great, to the annexation of Greece by the Roman Republic in 146 BC. Although the establishment of Roman rule did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture, which remained essentially unchanged until the advent of Christianity, it did mark the end of Greek political independence.
During the Hellenistic period, the importance of "Greece proper '' (that is, the territory of modern Greece) within the Greek - speaking world declined sharply. The great centers of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria and Antioch, capitals of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria respectively.
The conquests of Alexander had numerous consequences for the Greek city - states. It greatly widened the horizons of the Greeks and led to a steady emigration, particularly of the young and ambitious, to the new Greek empires in the east. Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch and the many other new Hellenistic cities founded in Alexander 's wake, as far away as what are now Afghanistan and Pakistan, where the Greco - Bactrian Kingdom and the Indo - Greek Kingdom survived until the end of the 1st century BC.
After the death of Alexander his empire was, after quite some conflict, divided among his generals, resulting in the Ptolemaic Kingdom (based upon Egypt), the Seleucid Empire (based on the Levant, Mesopotamia and Persia) and the Antigonid dynasty based in Macedon. In the intervening period, the poleis of Greece were able to wrest back some of their freedom, although still nominally subject to the Macedonian Kingdom.
The city - states within Greece formed themselves into two leagues; the Achaean League (including Thebes, Corinth and Argos) and the Aetolian League (including Sparta and Athens). For much of the period until the Roman conquest, these leagues were usually at war with each other, and / or allied to different sides in the conflicts between the Diadochi (the successor states to Alexander 's empire).
The Antigonid Kingdom became involved in a war with the Roman Republic in the late 3rd century. Although the First Macedonian War was inconclusive, the Romans, in typical fashion, continued to make war on Macedon until it was completely absorbed into the Roman Republic (by 149 BC). In the east the unwieldy Seleucid Empire gradually disintegrated, although a rump survived until 64 BC, whilst the Ptolemaic Kingdom continued in Egypt until 30 BC, when it too was conquered by the Romans. The Aetolian league grew wary of Roman involvement in Greece, and sided with the Seleucids in the Roman - Syrian War; when the Romans were victorious, the league was effectively absorbed into the Republic. Although the Achaean league outlasted both the Aetolian league and Macedon, it was also soon defeated and absorbed by the Romans in 146 BC, bringing an end to the independence of all of Greece.
The Greek peninsula came under Roman rule during the 146 BC conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. Macedonia became a Roman province while southern Greece came under the surveillance of Macedonia 's prefect; however, some Greek poleis managed to maintain a partial independence and avoid taxation. The Aegean islands were added to this territory in 133 BC. Athens and other Greek cities revolted in 88 BC, and the peninsula was crushed by the Roman general Sulla. The Roman civil wars devastated the land even further, until Augustus organized the peninsula as the province of Achaea in 27 BC.
Greece was a key eastern province of the Roman Empire, as the Roman culture had long been in fact Greco - Roman. The Greek language served as a lingua franca in the East and in Italy, and many Greek intellectuals such as Galen would perform most of their work in Rome.
The territory of Greece is mountainous, and as a result, ancient Greece consisted of many smaller regions each with its own dialect, cultural peculiarities, and identity. Regionalism and regional conflicts were a prominent feature of ancient Greece. Cities tended to be located in valleys between mountains, or on coastal plains, and dominated a certain area around them.
In the south lay the Peloponnese, itself consisting of the regions of Laconia (southeast), Messenia (southwest), Elis (west), Achaia (north), Korinthia (northeast), Argolis (east), and Arcadia (center). These names survive to the present day as regional units of modern Greece, though with somewhat different boundaries. Mainland Greece to the north, nowadays known as Central Greece, consisted of Aetolia and Acarnania in the west, Locris, Doris, and Phocis in the center, while in the east lay Boeotia, Attica, and Megaris. Northeast lay Thessaly, while Epirus lay to the northwest. Epirus stretched from the Ambracian Gulf in the south to the Ceraunian mountains and the Aoos river in the north, and consisted of Chaonia (north), Molossia (center), and Thesprotia (south). In the northeast corner was Macedonia, originally consisting Lower Macedonia and its regions, such as Elimeia, Pieria, and Orestis. Around the time of Alexander I of Macedon, the Argead kings of Macedon started to expand into Upper Macedonia, lands inhabited by independent Macedonian tribes like the Lyncestae and the Elmiotae and to the West, beyond the Axius river, into Eordaia, Bottiaea, Mygdonia, and Almopia, regions settled by Thracian tribes. To the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the Paeonians due north, the Thracians to the northeast, and the Illyrians, with whom the Macedonians were frequently in conflict, to the northwest. Chalcidice was settled early on by southern Greek colonists and was considered part of the Greek world, while from the late 2nd millennium BC substantial Greek settlement also occurred on the eastern shores of the Aegean, in Anatolia.
During the Archaic period, the population of Greece grew beyond the capacity of its limited arable land (according to one estimate, the population of ancient Greece increased by a factor larger than ten during the period from 800 BC to 400 BC, increasing from a population of 800,000 to a total estimated population of 10 to 13 million).
From about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion, settling colonies in all directions. To the east, the Aegean coast of Asia Minor was colonized first, followed by Cyprus and the coasts of Thrace, the Sea of Marmara and south coast of the Black Sea.
Eventually Greek colonization reached as far northeast as present day Ukraine and Russia (Taganrog). To the west the coasts of Illyria, Sicily and Southern Italy were settled, followed by Southern France, Corsica, and even northeastern Spain. Greek colonies were also founded in Egypt and Libya.
Modern Syracuse, Naples, Marseille and Istanbul had their beginnings as the Greek colonies Syracusae (Συρακούσαι), Neapolis (Νεάπολις), Massalia (Μασσαλία) and Byzantion (Βυζάντιον). These colonies played an important role in the spread of Greek influence throughout Europe and also aided in the establishment of long - distance trading networks between the Greek city - states, boosting the economy of ancient Greece.
Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred relatively independent city - states (poleis). This was a situation unlike that in most other contemporary societies, which were either tribal or kingdoms ruling over relatively large territories. Undoubtedly the geography of Greece -- divided and sub-divided by hills, mountains, and rivers -- contributed to the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece. On the one hand, the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were "one people ''; they had the same religion, same basic culture, and same language. Furthermore, the Greeks were very aware of their tribal origins; Herodotus was able to extensively categorise the city - states by tribe. Yet, although these higher - level relationships existed, they seem to have rarely had a major role in Greek politics. The independence of the poleis was fiercely defended; unification was something rarely contemplated by the ancient Greeks. Even when, during the second Persian invasion of Greece, a group of city - states allied themselves to defend Greece, the vast majority of poleis remained neutral, and after the Persian defeat, the allies quickly returned to infighting.
Thus, the major peculiarities of the ancient Greek political system were firstly, its fragmentary nature, and that this does not particularly seem to have tribal origin, and secondly, the particular focus on urban centers within otherwise tiny states. The peculiarities of the Greek system are further evidenced by the colonies that they set up throughout the Mediterranean Sea, which, though they might count a certain Greek polis as their ' mother ' (and remain sympathetic to her), were completely independent of the founding city.
Inevitably smaller poleis might be dominated by larger neighbors, but conquest or direct rule by another city - state appears to have been quite rare. Instead the poleis grouped themselves into leagues, membership of which was in a constant state of flux. Later in the Classical period, the leagues would become fewer and larger, be dominated by one city (particularly Athens, Sparta and Thebes); and often poleis would be compelled to join under threat of war (or as part of a peace treaty). Even after Philip II of Macedon "conquered '' the heartlands of ancient Greece, he did not attempt to annex the territory, or unify it into a new province, but simply compelled most of the poleis to join his own Corinthian League.
Initially many Greek city - states seem to have been petty kingdoms; there was often a city official carrying some residual, ceremonial functions of the king (basileus), e.g., the archon basileus in Athens. However, by the Archaic period and the first historical consciousness, most had already become aristocratic oligarchies. It is unclear exactly how this change occurred. For instance, in Athens, the kingship had been reduced to a hereditary, lifelong chief magistracy (archon) by c. 1050 BC; by 753 BC this had become a decennial, elected archonship; and finally by 683 BC an annually elected archonship. Through each stage more power would have been transferred to the aristocracy as a whole, and away from a single individual.
Inevitably, the domination of politics and concomitant aggregation of wealth by small groups of families was apt to cause social unrest in many poleis. In many cities a tyrant (not in the modern sense of repressive autocracies), would at some point seize control and govern according to their own will; often a populist agenda would help sustain them in power. In a system wracked with class conflict, government by a ' strongman ' was often the best solution.
Athens fell under a tyranny in the second half of the 6th century. When this tyranny was ended, the Athenians founded the world 's first democracy as a radical solution to prevent the aristocracy regaining power. A citizens ' assembly (the Ecclesia), for the discussion of city policy, had existed since the reforms of Draco in 621 BC; all citizens were permitted to attend after the reforms of Solon (early 6th century), but the poorest citizens could not address the assembly or run for office. With the establishment of the democracy, the assembly became the de jure mechanism of government; all citizens had equal privileges in the assembly. However, non-citizens, such as metics (foreigners living in Athens) or slaves, had no political rights at all.
After the rise of the democracy in Athens, other city - states founded democracies. However, many retained more traditional forms of government. As so often in other matters, Sparta was a notable exception to the rest of Greece, ruled through the whole period by not one, but two hereditary monarchs. This was a form of diarchy. The Kings of Sparta belonged to the Agiads and the Eurypontids, descendants respectively of Eurysthenes and Procles. Both dynasties ' founders were believed to be twin sons of Aristodemus, a Heraclid ruler. However, the powers of these kings were held in check by both a council of elders (the Gerousia) and magistrates specifically appointed to watch over the kings (the Ephors).
Only free, land owning, native - born men could be citizens entitled to the full protection of the law in a city - state. In most city - states, unlike the situation in Rome, social prominence did not allow special rights. Sometimes families controlled public religious functions, but this ordinarily did not give any extra power in the government. In Athens, the population was divided into four social classes based on wealth. People could change classes if they made more money. In Sparta, all male citizens were called homoioi, meaning "peers ''. However, Spartan kings, who served as the city - state 's dual military and religious leaders, came from two families.
Slaves had no power or status. They had the right to have a family and own property, subject to their master 's goodwill and permission, but they had no political rights. By 600 BC chattel slavery had spread in Greece. By the 5th century BC slaves made up one - third of the total population in some city - states. Between forty and eighty per cent of the population of Classical Athens were slaves. Slaves outside of Sparta almost never revolted because they were made up of too many nationalities and were too scattered to organize. However, unlike Western culture, the Ancient Greeks did not think in terms of race.
Most families owned slaves as household servants and laborers, and even poor families might have owned a few slaves. Owners were not allowed to beat or kill their slaves. Owners often promised to free slaves in the future to encourage slaves to work hard. Unlike in Rome, freedmen did not become citizens. Instead, they were mixed into the population of metics, which included people from foreign countries or other city - states who were officially allowed to live in the state.
City - states legally owned slaves. These public slaves had a larger measure of independence than slaves owned by families, living on their own and performing specialized tasks. In Athens, public slaves were trained to look out for counterfeit coinage, while temple slaves acted as servants of the temple 's deity and Scythian slaves were employed in Athens as a police force corralling citizens to political functions.
Sparta had a special type of slaves called helots. Helots were Messenians enslaved during the Messenian Wars by the state and assigned to families where they were forced to stay. Helots raised food and did household chores so that women could concentrate on raising strong children while men could devote their time to training as hoplites. Their masters treated them harshly (every Spartiate male had to kill a helot as a rite of passage), and helots often resorted to slave rebellions.
For most of Greek history, education was private, except in Sparta. During the Hellenistic period, some city - states established public schools. Only wealthy families could afford a teacher. Boys learned how to read, write and quote literature. They also learned to sing and play one musical instrument and were trained as athletes for military service. They studied not for a job but to become an effective citizen. Girls also learned to read, write and do simple arithmetic so they could manage the household. They almost never received education after childhood.
Boys went to school at the age of seven, or went to the barracks, if they lived in Sparta. The three types of teachings were: grammatistes for arithmetic, kitharistes for music and dancing, and Paedotribae for sports.
Boys from wealthy families attending the private school lessons were taken care of by a paidagogos, a household slave selected for this task who accompanied the boy during the day. Classes were held in teachers ' private houses and included reading, writing, mathematics, singing, and playing the lyre and flute. When the boy became 12 years old the schooling started to include sports such as wrestling, running, and throwing discus and javelin. In Athens some older youths attended academy for the finer disciplines such as culture, sciences, music, and the arts. The schooling ended at age 18, followed by military training in the army usually for one or two years.
A small number of boys continued their education after childhood, as in the Spartan agoge. A crucial part of a wealthy teenager 's education was a mentorship with an elder, which in a few places and times may have included pederastic love. The teenager learned by watching his mentor talking about politics in the agora, helping him perform his public duties, exercising with him in the gymnasium and attending symposia with him. The richest students continued their education by studying with famous teachers. Some of Athens ' greatest such schools included the Lyceum (the so - called Peripatetic school founded by Aristotle of Stageira) and the Platonic Academy (founded by Plato of Athens). The education system of the wealthy ancient Greeks is also called Paideia.
At its economic height, in the 5th and 4th centuries BC, ancient Greece was the most advanced economy in the world. According to some economic historians, it was one of the most advanced preindustrial economies. This is demonstrated by the average daily wage of the Greek worker which was, in terms of wheat, about 12 kg. This was more than 3 times the average daily wage of an Egyptian worker during the Roman period, about 3.75 kg.
At least in the Archaic Period, the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece, with many competing city - states, increased the frequency of conflict but conversely limited the scale of warfare. Unable to maintain professional armies, the city - states relied on their own citizens to fight. This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns, as citizens would need to return to their own professions (especially in the case of, for example, farmers). Campaigns would therefore often be restricted to summer. When battles occurred, they were usually set piece and intended to be decisive. Casualties were slight compared to later battles, rarely amounting to more than 5 % of the losing side, but the slain often included the most prominent citizens and generals who led from the front.
The scale and scope of warfare in ancient Greece changed dramatically as a result of the Greco - Persian Wars. To fight the enormous armies of the Achaemenid Empire was effectively beyond the capabilities of a single city - state. The eventual triumph of the Greeks was achieved by alliances of city - states (the exact composition changing over time), allowing the pooling of resources and division of labor. Although alliances between city - states occurred before this time, nothing on this scale had been seen before. The rise of Athens and Sparta as pre-eminent powers during this conflict led directly to the Peloponnesian War, which saw further development of the nature of warfare, strategy and tactics. Fought between leagues of cities dominated by Athens and Sparta, the increased manpower and financial resources increased the scale, and allowed the diversification of warfare. Set - piece battles during the Peloponnesian war proved indecisive and instead there was increased reliance on attritionary strategies, naval battle and blockades and sieges. These changes greatly increased the number of casualties and the disruption of Greek society. Athens owned one of the largest war fleets in ancient Greece. It had over 200 triremes each powered by 170 oarsmen who were seated in 3 rows on each side of the ship. The city could afford such a large fleet -- it had over 34,000 oars men -- because it owned a lot of silver mines that were worked by slaves.
Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry. In many ways, it had an important influence on modern philosophy, as well as modern science. Clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim philosophers and Islamic scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day.
Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Greeks. Defining the difference between the Greek quest for knowledge and the quests of the elder civilizations, such as the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians, has long been a topic of study by theorists of civilization.
Some of the well - known philosophers of ancient Greece were Plato and Socrates, among others. They have aided in information about ancient Greek society through writings such as The Republic, by Plato.
The earliest Greek literature was poetry, and was composed for performance rather than private consumption. The earliest Greek poet known is Homer, although he was certainly part of an existing tradition of oral poetry. Homer 's poetry, though it was developed around the same time that the Greeks developed writing, would have been composed orally; the first poet to certainly compose their work in writing was Archilochus, a lyric poet from the mid-seventh century BC. tragedy developed, around the end of the archaic period, taking elements from across the pre-existing genres of late archaic poetry. Towards the beginning of the classical period, comedy began to develop -- the earliest date associated with the genre is 486 BC, when a competition for comedy became an official event at the City Dionysia in Athens, though the first preserved ancient comedy is Aristophanes ' Acharnians, produced in 425.
Like poetry, Greek prose had its origins in the archaic period, and the earliest writers of Greek philosophy, history, and medical literature all date to the sixth century BC. Prose first emerged as the writing style adopted by the presocratic philosophers Anaximander and Anaximenes -- though Thales of Miletus, considered the first Greek philosopher, apparently wrote nothing. Prose as a genre reached maturity in the classical era, and the major Greek prose genres -- philosophy, history, rhetoric, and dialogue -- developed in this period.
The Hellenistic period saw the literary epicentre of the Greek world move from Athens, where it had been in the classical period, to Alexandria. At the same time, other Hellenistic kings such as the Antigonids and the Attalids were patrons of scholarship and literature, turning Pella and Pergamon respectively into cultural centres. It was thanks to this cultural patronage by Hellenistic kings, and especially the Museum at Alexandria, which ensured that so much ancient Greek literature has survived. The Library of Alexandria, part of the Museum, had the previously - unenvisaged aim of collecting together copies of all known authors in Greek. Almost all of the surviving non-technical Hellenistic literature is poetry, and Hellenistic poetry tended to be highly intellectual, blending different genres and traditions, and avoiding linear narratives. The Hellenistic period also saw a shift in the ways literature was consumed -- while in the archaic and classical periods literature had typically been experienced in public performance, in the Hellenistic period it was more commonly read privately. At the same time, Hellenistic poets began to write for private, rather than public, consumption.
With Octavian 's victory at Actium in 31 BC, Rome began to become a major centre of Greek literature, as important Greek authors such as Strabo and Dionysius of Halicarnassus came to Rome. The period of greatest innovation in Greek literature under Rome was the "long second century '' from approximately 80 AD to around 230 AD. This innovation was especially marked in prose, with the development of the novel and a revival of prominence for display oratory both dating to this period.
Music was present almost universally in Greek society, from marriages and funerals to religious ceremonies, theatre, folk music and the ballad - like reciting of epic poetry. There are significant fragments of actual Greek musical notation as well as many literary references to ancient Greek music. Greek art depicts musical instruments and dance. The word music derives from the name of the Muses, the daughters of Zeus who were patron goddesses of the arts.
Ancient Greek mathematics contributed many important developments to the field of mathematics, including the basic rules of geometry, the idea of formal mathematical proof, and discoveries in number theory, mathematical analysis, applied mathematics, and approached close to establishing integral calculus. The discoveries of several Greek mathematicians, including Pythagoras, Euclid, and Archimedes, are still used in mathematical teaching today.
The Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three - dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus. Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis. In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system. Archimedes in his treatise The Sand Reckoner revives Aristarchus ' hypothesis that "the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, while the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle ''. Otherwise, only fragmentary descriptions of Aristarchus ' idea survive. Eratosthenes, using the angles of shadows created at widely separated regions, estimated the circumference of the Earth with great accuracy. In the 2nd century BC Hipparchus of Nicea made a number of contributions, including the first measurement of precession and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed the modern system of apparent magnitudes.
The Antikythera mechanism, a device for calculating the movements of planets, dates from about 80 BC, and was the first ancestor of the astronomical computer. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete. The device became famous for its use of a differential gear, previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, accompanied by a replica.
The ancient Greeks also made important discoveries in the medical field. Hippocrates was a physician of the Classical period, and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the "father of medicine '' in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic school of medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized medicine in ancient Greece, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with (notably theurgy and philosophy), thus making medicine a profession.
The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times to the present day, particularly in the areas of sculpture and architecture. In the West, the art of the Roman Empire was largely derived from Greek models. In the East, Alexander the Great 's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and Indian cultures, resulting in Greco - Buddhist art, with ramifications as far as Japan. Following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists. Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece dominated the art of the western world.
Greek mythology consists of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world and the origins and significance of their religious practices. The main Greek gods were the twelve Olympians, Zeus, his wife Hera, Poseidon, Ares, Hermes, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Demeter, and Dionysus. Other important deities included Hebe, Hades, Helios, Hestia, Persephone and Heracles. Zeus 's parents were Cronus and Rhea who also were the parents of Poseidon, Hades, Hera, Hestia, and Demeter.
The civilization of ancient Greece has been immensely influential on language, politics, educational systems, philosophy, science, and the arts. It became the Leitkultur of the Roman Empire to the point of marginalizing native Italic traditions. As Horace put it,
Via the Roman Empire, Greek culture came to be foundational to Western culture in general. The Byzantine Empire inherited Classical Greek culture directly, without Latin intermediation, and the preservation of classical Greek learning in medieval Byzantine tradition further exerted strong influence on the Slavs and later on the Islamic Golden Age and the Western European Renaissance. A modern revival of Classical Greek learning took place in the Neoclassicism movement in 18th - and 19th - century Europe and the Americas.
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when do most specialists conclude that language as we know it appeared | Origin of speech - wikipedia
The origin of speech in Homo sapien sapiens is a widely debated and controversial topic. The problems relate to humans ' unprecedented use of the tongue, lips and vocal organs as instruments of communication. Other animals vocalise, but do not use the tongue to modulate sounds.
Although related to the more general problem of the origin of language, the evolution of distinctively human speech capacities has become a distinct and in many ways separate area of scientific research. The topic is a separate one because language is not necessarily spoken: it can equally be written or signed. Speech is in this sense optional, although it is the default modality for language.
Uncontroversially, monkeys, apes and humans, like many other animals, have evolved specialised mechanisms for producing sound for purposes of social communication. On the other hand, no monkey or ape uses its tongue for such purposes. Our species ' unprecedented use of the tongue, lips and other moveable parts seems to place speech in a quite separate category, making its evolutionary emergence an intriguing theoretical challenge in the eyes of many scholars.
The term modality means the chosen representational format for encoding and transmitting information. A striking feature of language is that it is modality - independent. Should an impaired child be prevented from hearing or producing sound, its innate capacity to master a language may equally find expression in signing. Sign languages of the deaf are independently invented and have all the major properties of spoken language except for the modality of transmission. From this it appears that the language centres of the human brain must have evolved to function optimally irrespective of the selected modality.
"The detachment from modality - specific inputs may represent a substantial change in neural organization, one that affects not only imitation but also communication; only humans can lose one modality (e.g. hearing) and make up for this deficit by communicating with complete competence in a different modality (i.e. signing). ''
This feature is extraordinary. Animal communication systems routinely combine visible with audible properties and effects, but not one is modality - independent. No vocally impaired whale, dolphin or songbird, for example, could express its song repertoire equally in visual display. Indeed, in the case of animal communication, message and modality are not capable of being disentangled. Whatever message is being conveyed stems from intrinsic properties of the signal.
Modality independence should not be confused with the ordinary phenomenon of multimodality. Monkeys and apes rely on a repertoire of species - specific "gesture - calls '' -- emotionally expressive vocalisations inseparable from the visual displays which accompany them. Humans also have species - specific gesture - calls -- laughs, cries, sobs and so forth -- together with involuntary gestures accompanying speech. Many animal displays are polymodal in that each appears designed to exploit multiple channels simultaneously.
The human linguistic property of "modality independence '' is conceptually distinct from this. It allows the speaker to encode the informational content of a message in a single channel, while switching between channels as necessary. Modern city - dwellers switch effortlessly between the spoken word and writing in its various forms -- handwriting, typing, e-mail and so forth. Whichever modality is chosen, it can reliably transmit the full message content without external assistance of any kind. When talking on the telephone, for example, any accompanying facial or manual gestures, however natural to the speaker, are not strictly necessary. When typing or manually signing, conversely, there 's no need to add sounds. In many Australian Aboriginal cultures, a section of the population -- perhaps women observing a ritual taboo -- traditionally restrict themselves for extended periods to a silent (manually signed) version of their language. Then, when released from the taboo, these same individuals resume narrating stories by the fireside or in the dark, switching to pure sound without sacrifice of informational content.
Speaking is the default modality for language in all cultures. Humans ' first recourse is to encode our thoughts in sound -- a method which depends on sophisticated capacities for controlling the lips, tongue and other components of the vocal apparatus.
The speech organs, everyone agrees, evolved in the first instance not for speech but for more basic bodily functions such as feeding and breathing. Nonhuman primates have broadly similar organs, but with different neural controls. Apes use their highly flexible, maneuverable tongues for eating but not for vocalizing. When an ape is not eating, fine motor control over its tongue is deactivated. Either it is performing gymnastics with its tongue or it is vocalising; it can not perform both activities simultaneously. Since this applies to mammals in general, Homo sapiens is exceptional in harnessing mechanisms designed for respiration and ingestion to the radically different requirements of articulate speech.
The word "language '' derives from the Latin lingua, "tongue ''. Phoneticians agree that the tongue is the most important speech articulator, followed by the lips. A natural language can be viewed as a particular way of using the tongue to express thought.
The human tongue has an unusual shape. In most mammals, it 's a long, flat structure contained largely within the mouth. It is attached at the rear to the hyoid bone, situated below oral level in the pharynx. In humans, the tongue has an almost circular sagittal (midline) contour, much of it lying vertically down an extended pharynx, where it is attached to a hyoid bone in a lowered position. Partly as a result of this, the horizontal (inside - the - mouth) and vertical (down - the - throat) tubes forming the supralaryngeal vocal tract (SVT) are almost equal in length (whereas in other species, the vertical section is shorter). As we move our jaws up and down, the tongue can vary the cross-sectional area of each tube independently by about 10: 1, altering formant frequencies accordingly. That the tubes are joined at a right angle permits pronunciation of the vowels (i), (u) and (a), which nonhuman primates can not do. Even when not performed particularly accurately, in humans the articulatory gymnastics needed to distinguish these vowels yield consistent, distinctive acoustic results, illustrating the quantal nature of human speech sounds. It may not be coincidental that (i), (u) and (a) are the most common vowels in the world 's languages.
In humans, the lips are important for the production of stops and fricatives, in addition to vowels. Nothing, however, suggests that the lips evolved for those reasons. During primate evolution, a shift from nocturnal to diurnal activity in tarsiers, monkeys and apes (the haplorhines) brought with it an increased reliance on vision at the expense of olfaction. As a result, the snout became reduced and the rhinarium or "wet nose '' was lost. The muscles of the face and lips consequently became less constrained, enabling their co-option to serve purposes of facial expression. The lips also became thicker. "Hence '', according to one major authority, "the evolution of mobile, muscular lips, so important to human speech, was the exaptive result of the evolution of diurnality and visual communication in the common ancestor of haplorhines ''. It is unclear whether our lips have undergone more recent adaptation to the specific requirements of speech.
Compared with nonhuman primates, humans have significantly enhanced control of breathing, enabling exhalations to be extended and inhalations shortened as we speak. While we are speaking, intercostal and interior abdominal muscles are recruited to expand the thorax and draw air into the lungs, and subsequently to control the release of air as the lungs deflate. The muscles concerned are markedly more innervated in humans than in nonhuman primates. Evidence from fossil hominins suggests that the necessary enlargement of the verterbral canal, and therefore spinal cord dimensions, may not have occurred in Australopithecus or Homo erectus but was present in the Neanderthals and early modern humans.
The larynx or voice box is an organ in the neck housing the vocal folds, which are responsible for phonation. In humans, the larynx is descended. Our species is not unique in this respect: goats, dogs, pigs and tamarins lower the larynx temporarily, to emit loud calls. Several deer species have a permanently lowered larynx, which may be lowered still further by males during their roaring displays. Lions, jaguars, cheetahs and domestic cats also do this. However, laryngeal descent in nonhumans (according to Philip Lieberman) is not accompanied by descent of the hyoid; hence the tongue remains horizontal in the oral cavity, preventing it from acting as a pharyngeal articulator.
Despite all this, scholars remain divided as to how "special '' the human vocal tract really is. It has been shown that the larynx does descend to some extent during development in chimpanzees, followed by hyoidal descent. As against this, Philip Lieberman points out that only humans have evolved permanent and substantial laryngeal descent in association with hyoidal descent, resulting in a curved tongue and two - tube vocal tract with 1: 1 proportions. Uniquely in the human case, simple contact between the epiglottis and velum is no longer possible, disrupting the normal mammalian separation of the respiratory and digestive tracts during swallowing. Since this entails substantial costs -- increasing the risk of choking while swallowing food -- we are forced to ask what benefits might have outweighed those costs. The obvious benefit -- so it is claimed -- must have been speech. But this idea has been vigorously contested. One objection is that humans are in fact not seriously at risk of choking on food: medical statistics indicate that accidents of this kind are extremely rare. Another objection is that in the view of most scholars, speech as we know it emerged relatively late in human evolution, roughly contemporaneously with the emergence of Homo sapiens. A development as complex as the reconfiguration of the human vocal tract would have required much more time, implying an early date of origin. This discrepancy in timescales undermines the idea that human vocal flexibility was initially driven by selection pressures for speech.
At least one orangutan has demonstrated the ability to control the voice box.
To lower the larynx is to increase the length of the vocal tract, in turn lowering formant frequencies so that the voice sounds "deeper '' -- giving an impression of greater size. John Ohala argues that the function of the lowered larynx in humans, especially males, is probably to enhance threat displays rather than speech itself. Ohala points out that if the lowered larynx were an adaptation for speech, we would expect adult human males to be better adapted in this respect than adult females, whose larynx is considerably less low. In fact, females invariably outperform males in verbal tests, falsifying this whole line of reasoning. W. Tecumseh Fitch likewise argues that this was the original selective advantage of laryngeal lowering in our species. Although (according to Fitch) the initial lowering of the larynx in humans had nothing to do with speech, the increased range of possible formant patterns was subsequently co-opted for speech. Size exaggeration remains the sole function of the extreme laryngeal descent observed in male deer. Consistent with the size exaggeration hypothesis, a second descent of the larynx occurs at puberty in humans, although only in males. In response to the objection that the larynx is descended in human females, Fitch suggests that mothers vocalising to protect their infants would also have benefited from this ability.
Most specialists credit the Neanderthals with speech abilities not radically different from those of modern Homo sapiens. An indirect line of argument is that their tool - making and hunting tactics would have been difficult to learn or execute without some kind of speech. A recent extraction of DNA from Neanderthal bones indicates that Neanderthals had the same version of the FOXP2 gene as modern humans. This gene, once mistakenly described as the "grammar gene '', plays a role in controlling the orofacial movements which (in modern humans) are involved in speech.
During the 1970s, it was widely believed that the Neanderthals lacked modern speech capacities. It was claimed that they possessed a hyoid bone so high up in the vocal tract as to preclude the possibility of producing certain vowel sounds.
The hyoid bone is present in many mammals. It allows a wide range of tongue, pharyngeal and laryngeal movements by bracing these structures alongside each other in order to produce variation. It is now realised that its lowered position is not unique to Homo sapiens, while its relevance to vocal flexibility may have been overstated: although men have a lower larynx, they do not produce a wider range of sounds than women or two - year - old babies. There is no evidence that the larynx position of the Neanderthals impeded the range of vowel sounds they could produce. The discovery of a modern - looking hyoid bone of a Neanderthal man in the Kebara Cave in Israel led its discoverers to argue that the Neanderthals had a descended larynx, and thus human - like speech capabilities. However, other researchers have claimed that the morphology of the hyoid is not indicative of the larynx 's position. It is necessary to take into consideration the skull base, the mandible and the cervical vertebrae and a cranial reference plane.
The morphology of the outer and middle ear of Middle Pleistocene hominins from Atapuerca SH in Spain, believed to be proto - Neanderthal, suggests they had an auditory sensitivity similar to modern humans and very different from chimpanzees. They were probably able to differentiate between many different speech sounds.
The hypoglossal nerve plays an important role in controlling movements of the tongue. In 1998, one research team used the size of the hypoglossal canal in the base of fossil skulls in an attempt to estimate the relative number of nerve fibres, claiming on this basis that Middle Pleistocene hominins and Neanderthals had more fine - tuned tongue control than either australopithecines or apes. Subsequently, however, it was demonstrated that hypoglossal canal size and nerve sizes are not correlated, and it is now accepted that such evidence is uninformative about the timing of human speech evolution.
Paired vowels are: unrounded rounded
According to one influential school, the human vocal apparatus is intrinsically digital on the model of a keyboard or digital computer. If so, this is remarkable: nothing about a chimpanzee 's vocal apparatus suggests a digital keyboard, notwithstanding the anatomical and physiological similarities. This poses the question as to when and how, during and the course of human evolution, the transition from analog to digital structure and function occurred.
The human supralaryngeal tract is said to be digital in the sense that it is an arrangement of moveable toggles or switches, each of which, at any one time, must be in one state or another. The vocal cords, for example, are either vibrating (producing a sound) or not vibrating (in silent mode). By virtue of simple physics, the corresponding distinctive feature -- in this case, "voicing '' -- can not be somewhere in between. The options are limited to "off '' and "on ''. Equally digital is the feature known as "nasalisation ''. At any given moment the soft palate or velum either allows or does n't allow sound to resonate in the nasal chamber. In the case of lip and tongue positions, more than two digital states may be allowed. (To experiment with this, click on Interactive Saggital Section).
The theory that speech sounds are composite entities constituted by complexes of binary phonetic features was first advanced in 1938 by the Russian linguist Roman Jakobson. A prominent early supporter of this approach was Noam Chomsky, who went on to extend it from phonology to language more generally, in particular to the study of syntax and semantics. In his 1965 book, Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, Chomsky treated semantic concepts as combinations of binary - digital atomic elements explicitly on the model of distinctive features theory. The lexical item "bachelor '', on this basis, would be expressed as (+ Human), (+ Male), (- Married).
Supporters of this approach view the vowels and consonants recognised by speakers of a particular language or dialect at a particular time as cultural entities of little scientific interest. From a natural science standpoint, the units which matter are those common to Homo sapiens by virtue of our biological nature. By combining the atomic elements or "features '' with which all humans are innately equipped, anyone may in principle generate the entire range of vowels and consonants to be found in any of the world 's languages, whether past, present or future. The distinctive features are in this sense atomic components of a universal language.
Criticism. In recent years, the notion of an innate "universal grammar '' underlying phonological variation has been called into question. The most comprehensive monograph ever written about speech sounds, Sounds of the World 's Languages, by Peter Ladefoged and Ian Maddieson, found virtually no basis for the postulation of some small number of fixed, discrete, universal phonetic features. Examining 305 languages, for example, they encountered vowels that were positioned basically everywhere along the articulatory and acoustic continuum. Ladefoged concludes that phonological features are not determined by human nature: "Phonological features are best regarded as artifacts that linguists have devised in order to describe linguistic systems. '' The controversy remains unresolved.
Self - organization characterizes systems where macroscopic structures are spontaneously formed out of local interactions between the many components of the system. In self - organized systems, global organizational properties are not to be found at the local level. In colloquial terms, self - organisation is roughly captured by the idea of "bottom - up '' (as opposed to "top - down '') organisation. Examples of self - organized systems range from ice crystals to galaxy spirals in the inorganic world, and from spots on the leopard skins to the architecture of termite nests or shape of a flock of starlings.
According to many phoneticians, the sounds of language arrange and re-arrange themselves through self - organization Speech sounds have both perceptual ("how you hear them '') and articulatory ("how you produce them '') properties, all with continuous values. Speakers tend to minimise effort, favouring ease of articulation over clarity. Listeners do the opposite, favouring sounds which are easy to distinguish even if difficult to pronounce. Since speakers and listeners are constantly switching roles, the syllable systems actually found in the world 's languages turn out to be a compromise between acoustic distinctiveness on the one hand, and articulatory ease on the other.
How, precisely, do systems of vowels, consonants and syllables arise? Agent - based computer models take the perspective of self - organisation at the level of the speech community or population. The two main paradigms here are (1) the iterated learning model and (2) the language game model. Iterated learning focuses on transmission from generation to generation, typically with just one agent in each generation. In the language game model, a whole population of agents simultaneously produce, perceive and learn language, inventing novel forms when the need arises.
Several models have shown how relatively simple peer - to - peer vocal interactions, such as imitation, can spontaneously self - organize a system of sounds shared by the whole population, and different in different populations. For example, models elaborated by Berrah et al., as well as de Boer, and recently reformulated using Bayesian theory, showed how a group of individuals playing imitation games can self - organize repertoires of vowel sounds which share substantial properties with human vowel systems. For example, in de Boer 's model, initially vowels are generated randomly, but agents learn from each other as they interact repeatedly over time. Agent A chooses a vowel from its repertoire and produces it, inevitably with some noise. Agent B hears this vowel and chooses the closest equivalent from its own repertoire. To check whether this truly matches the original, B produces the vowel it thinks it has heard, whereupon A refers once again to its own repertoire to find the closest equivalent. If this matches the one it initially selected, the game is successful, otherwise it has failed. "Through repeated interactions, '' according to de Boer, "vowel systems emerge that are very much like the ones found in human languages. ''
In a different model, the phonetician Björn Lindblom was able to predict, on self - organizational grounds, the favoured choices of vowel systems ranging from three to nine vowels on the basis of a principle of optimal perceptual differentiation.
Further models studied the role of self - organization in the origins of phonemic coding and combinatoriality, that is the existence of phonemes and their systematic reuse to build structured syllables. Pierre - Yves Oudeyer developed models which showed that basic neural equipment for adaptive holistic vocal imitation, coupling directly motor and perceptual representations in the brain, can generate spontaneously shared combinatorial systems of vocalizations, including phonotactic patterns, in a society of babbling individuals. These models also characterized how morphological and physiological innate constraints can interact with these self - organized mechanisms to account for both the formation of statistical regularities and diversity in vocalization systems.
The gestural theory states that speech was a relatively late development, evolving by degrees from a system that was originally gestural.
Two types of evidence support this theory:
Research has found strong support for the idea that spoken language and signing depend on similar neural structures. Patients who used sign language, and who suffered from a left - hemisphere lesion, showed the same disorders with their sign language as vocal patients did with their oral language. Other researchers found that the same left - hemisphere brain regions were active during sign language as during the use of vocal or written language.
Humans spontaneously use hand and facial gestures when formulating ideas to be conveyed in speech. There are also, of course, many sign languages in existence, commonly associated with deaf communities; as noted above, these are equal in complexity, sophistication, and expressive power, to any oral language. The main difference is that the "phonemes '' are produced on the outside of the body, articulated with hands, body, and facial expression, rather than inside the body articulated with tongue, teeth, lips, and breathing.
Critics note that for mammals in general, sound turns out to be the best medium in which to encode information for transmission over distances at speed. Given the probability that this applied also to early humans, it 's hard to see why they should have abandoned this efficient method in favour of more costly and cumbersome systems of visual gesturing -- only to return to sound at a later stage.
By way of explanation, it has been proposed that at a relatively late stage in human evolution, our ancestors ' hands became so much in demand for making and using tools that the competing demands of manual gesturing became a hindrance. The transition to spoken language is said to have occurred only at that point. Since humans throughout evolution have been making and using tools, however, most scholars remain unconvinced by this argument. (For a different approach to this puzzle -- one setting out from considerations of signal reliability and trust -- see "from pantomime to speech '' below).
We know little about the timing of language 's emergence in our species. Unlike writing, speech leaves no material trace, making it archaeologically invisible. Lacking direct linguistic evidence, specialists in human origins have resorted to the study of anatomical features and genes arguably associated with speech production. While such studies may tell us whether pre-modern Homo species had speech capacities, we still do n't know whether they actually spoke. While no one doubts that they communicated vocally, the anatomical and genetic data lack the resolution necessary to differentiate proto - language from speech.
Using statistical methods to estimate the time required to achieve the current spread and diversity in modern languages today, Johanna Nichols -- a linguist at the University of California, Berkeley -- argued in 1998 that vocal languages must have begun diversifying in our species at least 100,000 years ago.
More recently -- in 2012 -- anthropologists Charles Perreault and Sarah Mathew used phonemic diversity to suggest a date consistent with this. "Phonemic diversity '' denotes the number of perceptually distinct units of sound -- consonants, vowels and tones -- in a language. The current worldwide pattern of phonemic diversity potentially contains the statistical signal of the expansion of modern Homo sapiens out of Africa, beginning around 60 - 70 thousand years ago. Some scholars argue that phonemic diversity evolves slowly and can be used as a clock to calculate how long the oldest African languages would have to have been around in order to accumulate the number of phonemes they possess today. As human populations left Africa and expanded into the rest of the world, they underwent a series of bottlenecks -- points at which only a very small population survived to colonise a new continent or region. Allegedly such population crash led to a corresponding reduction in genetic, phenotypic and phonemic diversity. African languages today have some of the largest phonemic inventories in the world, while the smallest inventories are found in South America and Oceania, some of the last regions of the globe to be colonized. For example, Rotokas, a language of New Guinea, and Pirahã, spoken in South America, both have just 11 phonemes, while! Xun, a language spoken in Southern Africa has 141 phonemes. The authors use a natural experiment -- the colonization of mainland Southeast Asia on the one hand, the long - isolated Andaman Islands on the other -- to estimate the rate at which phonemic diversity increases through time. Using this rate, they estimate that the world 's languages date back to the Middle Stone Age in Africa, sometime between 350 thousand and 150 thousand years ago. This corresponds to the speciation event which gave rise to Homo sapiens.
These and similar studies have however been criticized by linguists who argue that they are based on a flawed analogy between genes and phonemes, since phonemes are frequently transferred laterally between languages unlike genes, and on a flawed sampling of the world 's languages, since both Oceania and the Americas also contain languages with very high numbers of phonemes, and Africa contains languages with very few. They argue that the actual distribution of phonemic diversity in the world reflects recent language contact and not deep language history - since it is well demonstrated that languages can lose or gain many phonemes over very short periods. In other words, there is no valid linguistic reason to expect genetic founder effects to influence phonemic diversity.
"I can not doubt that language owes its origin to the imitation and modification, aided by signs and gestures, of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals, and man 's own instinctive cries. ''
In 1861, historical linguist Max Müller published a list of speculative theories concerning the origins of spoken language:
Most scholars today consider all such theories not so much wrong -- they occasionally offer peripheral insights -- as comically naïve and irrelevant. The problem with these theories is that they are so narrowly mechanistic. They assume that once our ancestors had stumbled upon the appropriate ingenious mechanism for linking sounds with meanings, language automatically evolved and changed.
From the perspective of modern science, the main obstacle to the evolution of speech - like communication in nature is not a mechanistic one. Rather, it is that symbols -- arbitrary associations of sounds with corresponding meanings -- are unreliable and may well be false. As the saying goes, "words are cheap ''. The problem of reliability was not recognised at all by Darwin, Müller or the other early evolutionist theorists.
Animal vocal signals are for the most part intrinsically reliable. When a cat purrs, the signal constitutes direct evidence of the animal 's contented state. One can "trust '' the signal not because the cat is inclined to be honest, but because it just ca n't fake that sound. Primate vocal calls may be slightly more manipulable, but they remain reliable for the same reason -- because they are hard to fake. Primate social intelligence is Machiavellian -- self - serving and unconstrained by moral scruples. Monkeys and apes often attempt to deceive one another, while at the same time constantly on guard against falling victim to deception themselves. Paradoxically, it is precisely primates ' resistance to deception that blocks the evolution of their vocal communication systems along language - like lines. Language is ruled out because the best way to guard against being deceived is to ignore all signals except those that are instantly verifiable. Words automatically fail this test.
Words are easy to fake. Should they turn out to be lies, listeners will adapt by ignoring them in favour of hard - to - fake indices or cues. For language to work, then, listeners must be confident that those with whom they are on speaking terms are generally likely to be honest. A peculiar feature of language is "displaced reference '', which means reference to topics outside the currently perceptible situation. This property prevents utterances from being corroborated in the immediate "here '' and "now ''. For this reason, language presupposes relatively high levels of mutual trust in order to become established over time as an evolutionarily stable strategy. A theory of the origins of language must therefore explain why humans could begin trusting cheap signals in ways that other animals apparently can not (see signalling theory).
The "mother tongues '' hypothesis was proposed in 2004 as a possible solution to this problem. W. Tecumseh Fitch suggested that the Darwinian principle of "kin selection '' -- the convergence of genetic interests between relatives -- might be part of the answer. Fitch suggests that spoken languages were originally "mother tongues ''. If speech evolved initially for communication between mothers and their own biological offspring, extending later to include adult relatives as well, the interests of speakers and listeners would have tended to coincide. Fitch argues that shared genetic interests would have led to sufficient trust and cooperation for intrinsically unreliable vocal signals -- spoken words -- to become accepted as trustworthy and so begin evolving for the first time.
Critics of this theory point out that kin selection is not unique to humans. Ape mothers also share genes with their offspring, as do all animals, so why is it only humans who speak? Furthermore, it is difficult to believe that early humans restricted linguistic communication to genetic kin: the incest taboo must have forced men and women to interact and communicate with non-kin. So even if we accept Fitch 's initial premises, the extension of the posited "mother tongue '' networks from relatives to non-relatives remains unexplained.
Ib Ulbæk invokes another standard Darwinian principle -- "reciprocal altruism '' -- to explain the unusually high levels of intentional honesty necessary for language to evolve. ' Reciprocal altruism ' can be expressed as the principle that if you scratch my back, I 'll scratch yours. In linguistic terms, it would mean that if you speak truthfully to me, I 'll speak truthfully to you. Ordinary Darwinian reciprocal altruism, Ulbæk points out, is a relationship established between frequently interacting individuals. For language to prevail across an entire community, however, the necessary reciprocity would have needed to be enforced universally instead of being left to individual choice. Ulbæk concludes that for language to evolve, early society as a whole must have been subject to moral regulation.
Critics point out that this theory fails to explain when, how, why or by whom "obligatory reciprocal altruism '' could possibly have been enforced. Various proposals have been offered to remedy this defect. A further criticism is that language does n't work on the basis of reciprocal altruism anyway. Humans in conversational groups do n't withhold information to all except listeners likely to offer valuable information in return. On the contrary, they seem to want to advertise to the world their access to socially relevant information, broadcasting it to anyone who will listen without thought of return.
Gossip, according to Robin Dunbar, does for group - living humans what manual grooming does for other primates -- it allows individuals to service their relationships and so maintain their alliances. As humans began living in larger and larger social groups, the task of manually grooming all one 's friends and acquaintances became so time - consuming as to be unaffordable. In response to this problem, humans invented "a cheap and ultra-efficient form of grooming '' -- vocal grooming. To keep your allies happy, you now needed only to "groom '' them with low - cost vocal sounds, servicing multiple allies simultaneously while keeping both hands free for other tasks. Vocal grooming (the production of pleasing sounds lacking syntax or combinatorial semantics) then evolved somehow into syntactical speech.
Critics of this theory point out that the very efficiency of "vocal grooming '' -- that words are so cheap -- would have undermined its capacity to signal commitment of the kind conveyed by time - consuming and costly manual grooming. A further criticism is that the theory does nothing to explain the crucial transition from vocal grooming -- the production of pleasing but meaningless sounds -- to the cognitive complexities of syntactical speech.
According to another school of thought, language evolved from mimesis -- the "acting out '' of scenarios using vocal and gestural pantomime. For as long as utterances needed to be emotionally expressive and convincing, it was not possible to complete the transition to purely conventional signs. On this assumption, pre-linguistic gestures and vocalisations would have been required not just to disambiguate intended meanings, but also to inspire confidence in their intrinsic reliability. If contractual commitments were necessary in order to inspire community - wide trust in communicative intentions, it would follow that these had to be in place before humans could shift at last to an ultra-efficient, high - speed -- digital as opposed to analog -- signalling format. Vocal distinctive features (sound contrasts) are ideal for this purpose. It is therefore suggested that the establishment of contractual understandings enabled the decisive transition from mimetic gesture to fully conventionalised, digitally encoded speech.
The ritual / speech coevolution theory was originally proposed by the distinguished social anthropologist Roy Rappaport before being elaborated by anthropologists such as Chris Knight, Jerome Lewis, Nick Enfield, Camilla Power and Ian Watts. Cognitive scientist and robotics engineer Luc Steels is another prominent supporter of this general approach, as is biological anthropologist / neuroscientist Terrence Deacon.
These scholars argue that there can be no such thing as a "theory of the origins of language ''. This is because language is not a separate adaptation but an internal aspect of something much wider -- namely, human symbolic culture as a whole. Attempts to explain language independently of this wider context have spectacularly failed, say these scientists, because they are addressing a problem with no solution. Can we imagine a historian attempting to explain the emergence of credit cards independently of the wider system of which they are a part? Using a credit card makes sense only if you have a bank account institutionally recognised within a certain kind of advanced capitalist society -- one where communications technology has already been invented and fraud can be detected and prevented. In much the same way, language would not work outside a specific array of social mechanisms and institutions. For example, it would not work for an ape communicating with other apes in the wild. Not even the cleverest ape could make language work under such conditions.
"Lie and alternative, inherent in language,... pose problems to any society whose structure is founded on language, which is to say all human societies. I have therefore argued that if there are to be words at all it is necessary to establish The Word, and that The Word is established by the invariance of liturgy. ''
Advocates of this school of thought point out that words are cheap. As digital hallucinations, they are intrinsically unreliable. Should an especially clever ape, or even a group of articulate apes, try to use words in the wild, they would carry no conviction. The primate vocalisations that do carry conviction -- those they actually use -- are unlike words, in that they are emotionally expressive, intrinsically meaningful and reliable because they are relatively costly and hard to fake.
Speech consists of digital contrasts whose cost is essentially zero. As pure social conventions, signals of this kind can not evolve in a Darwinian social world -- they are a theoretical impossibility. Being intrinsically unreliable, language works only if you can build up a reputation for trustworthiness within a certain kind of society -- namely, one where symbolic cultural facts (sometimes called "institutional facts '') can be established and maintained through collective social endorsement. In any hunter - gatherer society, the basic mechanism for establishing trust in symbolic cultural facts is collective ritual. Therefore, the task facing researchers into the origins of language is more multidisciplinary than is usually supposed. It involves addressing the evolutionary emergence of human symbolic culture as a whole, with language an important but subsidiary component.
Critics of the theory include Noam Chomsky, who terms it the "non-existence '' hypothesis -- a denial of the very existence of language as an object of study for natural science. Chomsky 's own theory is that language emerged in an instant and in perfect form, prompting his critics in turn to retort that only something that does n't exist -- a theoretical construct or convenient scientific fiction -- could possibly emerge in such a miraculous way. The controversy remains unresolved.
The essay "The festal origin of human speech '', though published in the late nineteenth century, made little impact until the American philosopher Susanne Langer re-discovered and publicised it in 1941.
"In the early history of articulate sounds they could make no meaning themselves, but they preserved and got intimately associated with the peculiar feelings and perceptions that came most prominently into the minds of the festal players during their excitement. ''
The theory sets out from the observation that primate vocal sounds are above all emotionally expressive. The emotions aroused are socially contagious. Because of this, an extended bout of screams, hoots or barks will tend to express not just the feelings of this or that individual but the mutually contagious ups and downs of everyone within earshot.
Turning to the ancestors of Homo sapiens, the "festal origin '' theory suggests that in the "play - excitement '' preceding or following a communal hunt or other group activity, everyone might have combined their voices in a comparable way, emphasising their mood of togetherness with such noises as rhythmic drumming and hand - clapping. Variably pitched voices would have formed conventional patterns, such that choral singing became an integral part of communal celebration.
Although this was not yet speech, according to Langer, it developed the vocal capacities from which speech would later derive. There would be conventional modes of ululating, clapping or dancing appropriate to different festive occasions, each so intimately associated with that kind of occasion that it would tend to collectively uphold and embody the concept of it. Anyone hearing a snatch of sound from such a song would recall the associated occasion and mood. A melodic, rhythmic sequence of syllables conventionally associated with a certain type of celebration would become, in effect, its vocal mark. On that basis, certain familiar sound sequences would become "symbolic ''.
In support of all this, Langer cites ethnographic reports of tribal songs consisting entirely of "rhythmic nonsense syllables ''. She concedes that an English equivalent such as "hey - nonny - nonny '', although perhaps suggestive of certain feelings or ideas, is neither noun, verb, adjective, nor any other syntactical part of speech. So long as articulate sound served only in the capacity of "hey nonny - nonny '', "hallelujah '' or "alack - a-day '', it can not yet have been speech. For that to arise, according to Langer, it was necessary for such sequences to be emitted increasingly out of context -- outside the total situation that gave rise to them. Extending a set of associations from one cognitive context to another, completely different one, is the secret of metaphor. Langer invokes an early version of what is nowadays termed "grammaticalisation '' theory to show how, from, such a point of departure, syntactically complex speech might progressively have arisen.
Langer acknowledges Emile Durkheim as having proposed a strikingly similar theory back in 1912. For recent thinking along broadly similar lines, see Steven Brown on "musilanguage '', Chris Knight on "ritual '' and "play '', Jerome Lewis on "mimicry '', Steven Mithen on "Hmmmmm '' Bruce Richman on "nonsense syllables '' and Alison Wray on "holistic protolanguage ''.
The term "musilanguage '' (or "hmmmmm '') refers to a pre-linguistic system of vocal communication from which (according to some scholars) both music and language later derived. The idea is that rhythmic, melodic, emotionally expressive vocal ritual helped bond coalitions and, over time, set up selection pressures for enhanced volitional control over the speech articulators. Patterns of synchronised choral chanting are imagined to have varied according to the occasion. For example, "we 're setting off to find honey '' might sound qualitatively different from "we 're setting off to hunt '' or "we 're grieving over our relative 's death ''. If social standing depended on maintaining a regular beat and harmonising one 's own voice with that of everyone else, group members would have come under pressure to demonstrate their choral skills.
Archaeologist Steven Mithen speculates that the Neanderthals possessed some such system, expressing themselves in a "language '' known as "Hmmmmm '', standing for Holistic, manipulative, multi-modal, musical and mimetic. In Bruce Richman 's earlier version of essentially the same idea, frequent repetition of the same few songs by many voices made it easy for people to remember those sequences as whole units. Activities that a group of people were doing while they were vocalising together -- activities that were important or striking or richly emotional -- came to be associated with particular sound sequences, so that each time a fragment was heard, it evoked highly specific memories. The idea is that the earliest lexical items (words) started out as abbreviated fragments of what were originally communal songs.
"Whenever people sang or chanted a particular sound sequence they would remember the concrete particulars of the situation most strongly associated with it: ah, yes! we sing this during this particular ritual admitting new members to the group; or, we chant this during a long journey in the forest; or, when a clearing is finished for a new camp, this is what we chant; or these are the keenings we sing during ceremonies over dead members of our group. ''
As group members accumulated an expanding repertoire of songs for different occasions, interpersonal call - and - response patterns evolved along one trajectory to assume linguistic form. Meanwhile, along a divergent trajectory, polyphonic singing and other kinds of music became increasingly specialised and sophisticated.
To explain the establishment of syntactical speech, Richman cites English "I wan na go home ''. He imagines this to have been learned in the first instance not as a combinatorial sequence of free - standing words, but as a single stuck - together combination -- the melodic sound people make to express "feeling homesick ''. Someone might sing "I wan na go home '', prompting other voices to chime in with "I need to go home '', "I 'd love to go home '', "Let 's go home '' and so forth. Note that one part of the song remains constant, while another is permitted to vary. If this theory is accepted, syntactically complex speech began evolving as each chanted mantra allowed for variation at a certain point, allowing for the insertion of an element from some other song. For example, while mourning during a funeral rite, someone might want to recall a memory of collecting honey with the deceased, signalling this at an appropriate moment with a fragment of the "we 're collecting honey '' song. Imagine that such practices became common. Meaning - laden utterances would now have become subject to a distinctively linguistic creative principle -- that of recursive embedding.
Many scholars associate the evolutionary emergence of speech with profound social, sexual, political and cultural developments. One view is that primate - style dominance needed to give way to a more cooperative and egalitarian lifestyle of the kind characteristic of modern hunter - gatherers.
According to Michael Tomasello, the key cognitive capacity distinguishing Homo sapiens from our ape cousins is "intersubjectivity ''. This entails turn - taking and role - reversal: your partner strives to read your mind, you simultaneously strive to read theirs, and each of you makes a conscious effort to assist the other in the process. The outcome is that each partner forms a representation of the other 's mind in which their own can be discerned by reflection.
Tomasello argues that this kind of bi-directional cognition is central to the very possibility of linguistic communication. Drawing on his research with both children and chimpanzees, he reports that human infants, from one year old onwards, begin viewing their own mind as if from the standpoint of others. He describes this as a cognitive revolution. Chimpanzees, as they grow up, never undergo such a revolution. The explanation, according to Tomasello, is that their evolved psychology is adapted to a deeply competitive way of life. Wild - living chimpanzees form despotic social hierarchies, most interactions involving calculations of dominance and submission. An adult chimp will strive to outwit its rivals by guessing at their intentions while blocking them from reciprocating. Since bi-directional intersubjective communication is impossible under such conditions, the cognitive capacities necessary for language do n't evolve.
In the scenario favoured by David Erdal and Andrew Whiten, primate - style dominance provoked equal and opposite coalitionary resistance -- counter-dominance. During the course of human evolution, increasingly effective strategies of rebellion against dominant individuals led to a compromise. While abandoning any attempt to dominate others, group members vigorously asserted their personal autonomy, maintaining their alliances to make potentially dominant individuals think twice. Within increasingly stable coalitions, according to this perspective, status began to be earned in novel ways, social rewards accruing to those perceived by their peers as especially cooperative and self - aware.
While counter-dominance, according to this evolutionary narrative, culminates in a stalemate, anthropologist Christopher Boehm extends the logic a step further. Counter-dominance tips over at last into full - scale "reverse dominance ''. The rebellious coalition decisively overthrows the figure of the primate alpha - male. No dominance is allowed except that of the self - organised community as a whole.
As a result of this social and political change, hunter - gatherer egalitarianism is established. As children grow up, they are motivated by those around them to reverse perspective, engaging with other minds on the model of their own. Selection pressures favour such psychological innovations as imaginative empathy, joint attention, moral judgment, project - oriented collaboration and the ability to evaluate one 's own behaviour from the standpoint of others. Underpinning enhanced probabilities of cultural transmission and cumulative cultural evolution, these developments culminate in the establishment of hunter - gatherer - style egalitarianism in association with intersubjective communication and cognition. It is in this social and political context that language evolves.
According to Dean Falk 's "putting the baby down '' theory, vocal interactions between early hominin mothers and infants sparked a sequence of events that led, eventually, to our ancestors ' earliest words. The basic idea is that evolving human mothers, unlike their monkey and ape counterparts, could n't move around and forage with their infants clinging onto their backs. Loss of fur in the human case left infants with no means of clinging on. Frequently, therefore, mothers had to put their babies down. As a result, these babies needed reassurance that they were not being abandoned. Mothers responded by developing "motherese '' -- an infant - directed communicative system embracing facial expressions, body language, touching, patting, caressing, laughter, tickling and emotionally expressive contact calls. The argument is that language somehow developed out of all this.
While this theory may explain a certain kind of infant - directed "protolanguage '' -- known today as "motherese '' -- it does little to solve the really difficult problem, which is the emergence among adults of syntactical speech.
Evolutionary anthropologist Sarah Hrdy observes that only human mothers among great apes are willing to let another individual take hold of their own babies; further, we are routinely willing to let others babysit. She identifies lack of trust as the major factor preventing chimp, bonobo or gorilla mothers from doing the same: "If ape mothers insist on carrying their babies everywhere... it is because the available alternatives are not safe enough. '' The fundamental problem is that ape mothers (unlike monkey mothers who may often babysit) do not have female relatives nearby. The strong implication is that, in the course of Homo evolution, allocare could develop because Homo mothers did have female kin close by -- in the first place, most reliably, their own mothers. Extending the Grandmother hypothesis, Hrdy argues that evolving Homo erectus females necessarily relied on female kin initially; this novel situation in ape evolution of mother, infant and mother 's mother as allocarer provided the evolutionary ground for the emergence of intersubjectivity. She relates this onset of "cooperative breeding in an ape '' to shifts in life history and slower child development, linked to the change in brain and body size from the 2 million year mark.
Primatologist Klaus Zuberbühler uses these ideas to help explain the emergence of vocal flexibility in the human species. Co-operative breeding would have compelled infants to struggle actively to gain the attention of caregivers, not all of whom would have been directly related. A basic primate repertoire of vocal signals may have been insufficient for this social challenge. Natural selection, according to this view, would have favoured babies with advanced vocal skills, beginning with babbling (which triggers positive responses in care - givers) and paving the way for the elaborate and unique speech abilities of modern humans.
These ideas might be linked to those of the renowned structural linguist Roman Jakobson, who claimed that "the sucking activities of the child are accompanied by a slight nasal murmur, the only phonation to be produced when the lips are pressed to the mother 's breast... and the mouth is full ''. He proposed that later in the infant 's development, "this phonatory reaction to nursing is reproduced as an anticipatory signal at the mere sight of food and finally as a manifestation of a desire to eat, or more generally, as an expression of discontent and impatient longing for missing food or absent nurser, and any ungranted wish. '' So, the action of opening and shutting the mouth, combined with the production of a nasal sound when the lips are closed, yielded the sound sequence "Mama '', which may therefore count as the very first word. Peter MacNeilage sympathetically discusses this theory in his major book, The Origin of Speech, linking it with Dean Falk 's "putting the baby down '' theory (see above). Needless to say, other scholars have suggested completely different candidates for Homo sapiens ' very first word.
While the biological language faculty is genetically inherited, actual languages or dialects are culturally transmitted, as are social norms, technological traditions and so forth. Biologists expect a robust co-evolutionary trajectory linking human genetic evolution with the evolution of culture. Individuals capable of rudimentary forms of protolanguage would have enjoyed enhanced access to cultural understandings, while these, conveyed in ways that young brains could readily learn, would in turn have become transmitted with increasing efficiency.
In some ways like beavers as they construct their dams, humans have always engaged in niche construction, creating novel environments to which they subsequently become adapted. Selection pressures associated with prior niches tend to become relaxed as humans depend increasingly on novel environments created continuously by their own productive activities. According to Steven Pinker, language is an adaptation to "the cognitive niche ''. Variations on the theme of ritual / speech co-evolution -- according to which speech evolved for purposes of internal communication within a ritually constructed domain -- have attempted to specify more precisely when, why and how this special niche was created by human collaborative activity.
"Consider a knight in chess. Is the piece by itself an element of the game? Certainly not. For as a material object, separated from its square on the board and the other conditions of play, it is of no significance for the player. It becomes a real, concrete element only when it takes on or becomes identified with its value in the game. Suppose that during a game this piece gets destroyed or lost. Can it be replaced? Of course it can. Not only by some other knight, but even by an object of quite a different shape, which can be counted as a knight, provided it is assigned the same value as the missing piece. ''
The Swiss scholar Ferdinand de Saussure founded linguistics as a twentieth - century professional discipline. Saussure regarded a language as a rule - governed system, much like a board game such as chess. In order to understand chess, he insisted, we must ignore such external factors as the weather prevailing during a particular session or the material composition of this or that piece. The game is autonomous with respect to its material embodiments. In the same way, when studying language, it 's essential to focus on its internal structure as a social institution. External matters (e.g., the shape of the human tongue) are irrelevant from this standpoint. Saussure regarded ' speaking ' (parole) as individual, ancillary and more or less accidental by comparison with "language '' (langue), which he viewed as collective, systematic and essential.
Saussure showed little interest in Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection. Nor did he consider it worthwhile to speculate about how language might originally have evolved. Saussure 's assumptions in fact cast doubt on the validity of narrowly conceived origins scenarios. His structuralist paradigm, when accepted in its original form, turns scholarly attention to a wider problem: how our species acquired the capacity to establish social institutions in general.
"The basic processes and relations which give verbal behaviour its special characteristics are now fairly well understood. Much of the experimental work responsible for this advance has been carried out on other species, but the results have proved to be surprisingly free of species restrictions. Recent work has shown that the methods can be extended to human behaviour without serious modification. ''
In the United States, prior to and immediately following World War II, the dominant psychological paradigm was behaviourism. Within this conceptual framework, language was seen as a certain kind of behaviour -- namely, verbal behaviour, to be studied much like any other kind of behaviour in the animal world. Rather as a laboratory rat learns how to find its way through an artificial maze, so a human child learns the verbal behaviour of the society into which it is born. The phonological, grammatical and other complexities of speech are in this sense "external '' phenomena, inscribed into an initially unstructured brain. Language 's emergence in Homo sapiens, from this perspective, presents no special theoretical challenge. Human behaviour, whether verbal or otherwise, illustrates the malleable nature of the mammalian -- and especially the human -- brain.
Nativism is the theory that humans are born with certain specialised cognitive modules enabling us to acquire highly complex bodies of knowledge such as the grammar of a language.
"There is a long history of study of origin of language, asking how it arose from calls of apes and so forth. That investigation in my view is a complete waste of time, because language is based on an entirely different principle than any animal communication system. ''
From the mid-1950s onwards, Noam Chomsky, Jerry Fodor and others mounted what they conceptualised as a ' revolution ' against behaviourism. Retrospectively, this became labelled ' the cognitive revolution '. Whereas behaviourism had denied the scientific validity of the concept of "mind '', Chomsky replied that, in fact, the concept of "body '' is more problematic. Behaviourists tended to view the child 's brain as a tabula rasa, initially lacking structure or cognitive content. According to B.F. Skinner, for example, richness of behavioural detail (whether verbal or non-verbal) emanated from the environment. Chomsky turned this idea on its head. The linguistic environment encountered by a young child, according to Chomsky 's version of psychological nativism, is in fact hopelessly inadequate. No child could possibly acquire the complexities of grammar from such an impoverished source. Far from viewing language as wholly external, Chomsky re-conceptualised it as wholly internal. To explain how a child so rapidly and effortlessly acquires its natal language, he insisted, we must conclude that it comes into the world with the essentials of grammar already pre-installed. No other species, according to Chomsky, is genetically equipped with a language faculty -- or indeed with anything remotely like one. The emergence of such a faculty in Homo sapiens, from this standpoint, presents biological science with a major theoretical challenge.
One way to explain biological complexity is by reference to its inferred function. According to the influential philosopher John Austin, speech 's primary function is action in the social world.
Speech acts, according to this body of theory, can be analysed on three different levels: locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary. An act is locutionary when viewed as the production of certain linguistic sounds -- for example, practicing correct pronunciation in a foreign language. An act is illocutionary insofar as it constitutes an intervention in the world as jointly perceived or understood. Promising, marrying, divorcing, declaring, stating, authorising, announcing and so forth are all speech acts in this illocutionary sense. An act is perlocutionary when viewed in terms of its direct psychological effect on an audience. Frightening a baby by saying ' Boo! ' would be an example of a "perlocutionary '' act.
For Austin, "doing things '' with words means, first and foremost, deploying illocutionary force. The secret of this is community participation or collusion. There must be a ' correct ' (conventionally agreed) procedure, and all those concerned must accept that it has been properly followed.
"One of our examples was, for instance, the utterance ' I do ' (take this woman to be my lawful wedded wife), as uttered in the course of a marriage ceremony. Here we should say that in saying these words we are doing something -- namely, marrying, rather than reporting something, namely that we are marrying. ''
In the case of a priest declaring a couple to be man and wife, his words will have illocutionary force only if he is properly authorised and only if the ceremony is properly conducted, using words deemed appropriate to the occasion. Austin points out that should anyone attempt to baptize a penguin, the act would be null and void. For reasons which have nothing to do with physics, chemistry or biology, baptism is inappropriate to be applied to penguins, irrespective of the verbal formulation used.
This body of theory may have implications for speculative scenarios concerning the origins of speech. "Doing things with words '' presupposes shared understandings and agreements pertaining not just to language but to social conduct more generally. Apes might produce sequences of structured sound, influencing one another in that way. To deploy illocutionary force, however, they would need to have entered a non-physical and non-biological realm -- one of shared contractual and other intangibles. This novel cognitive domain consists of what philosophers term "institutional facts '' -- objective facts whose existence, paradoxically, depends on communal faith or belief. Few primatologists, evolutionary psychologists or anthropologists consider that nonhuman primates are capable of the necessary levels of joint attention, sustained commitment or collaboration in pursuit of future goals.
"the deciphering of the genetic code has revealed our possession of a language much older than hieroglyphics, a language as old as life itself, a language that is the most living language of all -- even if its letters are invisible and its words are buried in the cells of our bodies. ''
Biosemiotics is a relatively new discipline, inspired in large part by the discovery of the genetic code in the early 1960s. Its basic assumption is that Homo sapiens is not alone in its reliance on codes and signs. Language and symbolic culture must have biological roots, hence semiotic principles must apply also in the animal world.
The discovery of the molecular structure of DNA apparently contradicted the idea that life could be explained, ultimately, in terms of the fundamental laws of physics. The letters of the genetic alphabet seemed to have "meaning '', yet meaning is not a concept which has any place in physics. The natural science community initially solved this difficulty by invoking the concept of "information '', treating information as independent of meaning. But a different solution to the puzzle was to recall that the laws of physics in themselves are never sufficient to explain natural phenomena. To explain, say, the unique physical and chemical characteristics of the planets in our solar system, scientists must work out how the laws of physics became constrained by particular sequences of events following the formation of the Sun.
According to Howard Pattee -- a pioneering figure in biosemiotics -- the same principle applies to the evolution of life on earth, a process in which certain "frozen accidents '' or "natural constraints '' have from time to time drastically reduced the number of possible evolutionary outcomes. Codes, when they prove to be stable over evolutionary time, are constraints of this kind. The most fundamental such "frozen accident '' was the emergence of DNA as a self - replicating molecule, but the history of life on earth has been characterised by a succession of comparably dramatic events, each of which can be conceptualised as the emergence of a new code. From this perspective, the evolutionary emergence of spoken language was one more event of essentially the same kind.
In 1975, the Israeli theoretical biologist Amotz Zahavi proposed a novel theory which, although controversial, has come to dominate Darwinian thinking on how signals evolve. Zahavi 's "handicap principle '' states that to be effective, signals must be reliable; to be reliable, the bodily investment in them must be so high as to make cheating unprofitable.
Paradoxically, if this logic is accepted, signals in nature evolve not to be efficient but, on the contrary, to be elaborate and wasteful of time and energy. A peacock 's tail is the classic illustration. Zahavi 's theory is that since peahens are on the look - out for male braggarts and cheats, they insist on a display of quality so costly that only a genuinely fit peacock could afford to pay. Needless to say, not all signals in the animal world are quite as elaborate as a peacock 's tail. But if Zahavi is correct, all require some bodily investment -- an expenditure of time and energy which "handicaps '' the signaller in some way.
Animal vocalisations (according to Zahavi) are reliable because they are faithful reflections of the state of the signaller 's body. To switch from an honest to a deceitful call, the animal would have to adopt a different bodily posture. Since every bodily action has its own optimal starting position, changing that position to produce a false message would interfere with the task of carrying out the action really intended. The gains made by cheating would not make up for the losses incurred by assuming an improper posture -- and so the phony message turns out to be not worth its price. This may explain, in particular, why ape and monkey vocal signals have evolved to be so strikingly inflexible when compared with the varied speech sounds produced by the human tongue. The apparent inflexibility of chimpanzee vocalisations may strike the human observer as surprising until we realise that being inflexible is necessarily bound up with being perceptibly honest in the sense of "hard - to - fake ''.
If we accept this theory, the emergence of speech becomes theoretically impossible. Communication of this kind just can not evolve. The problem is that words are cheap. Nothing about their acoustic features can reassure listeners that they are genuine and not fakes. Any strategy of reliance on someone else 's tongue -- perhaps the most flexible organ in the body -- presupposes unprecedented levels of honesty and trust. To date, Darwinian thinkers have found it difficult to explain the requisite levels of community - wide cooperation and trust.
An influential standard textbook is Animal Signals, by John Maynard Smith and David Harper. These authors divide the costs of communication into two components, (1) the investment necessary to ensure transmission of a discernible signal; (2) the investment necessary to guarantee that each signal is reliable and not a fake. The authors point out that although costs in the second category may be relatively low, they are not zero. Even in relatively relaxed, cooperative social contexts -- for example, when communication is occurring between genetic kin -- some investment must be made to guarantee reliability. In short, the notion of super-efficient communication -- eliminating all costs except those necessary for successful transmission -- is biologically unrealistic. Yet speech comes precisely into this category.
Cognitive linguistics views linguistic structure as arising continuously out of usage. Speakers are forever discovering new ways to convey meanings by producing sounds, and in some cases these novel strategies become conventionalised. Between phonological structure and semantic structure there is no causal relationship. Instead, each novel pairing of sound and meaning involves an imaginative leap.
In their book, Metaphors We Live By, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson helped pioneer this approach, claiming that metaphor is what makes human thought special. All language, they argued, is permeated with metaphor, whose use in fact constitutes distinctively human -- that is, distinctively abstract -- thought. To conceptualise things which can not be directly perceived -- intangibles such as time, life, reason, mind, society or justice -- we have no choice but to set out from more concrete and directly perceptible phenomena such as motion, location, distance, size and so forth. In all cultures across the world, according to Lakoff and Johnson, people resort to such familiar metaphors as ideas are locations, thinking is moving and mind is body. For example, we might express the idea of "arriving at a crucial point in our argument '' by proceeding as if literally travelling from one physical location to the next.
Metaphors, by definition, are not literally true. Strictly speaking, they are fictions -- from a pedantic standpoint, even falsehoods. But if we could n't resort to metaphorical fictions, it 's doubtful whether we could even form conceptual representations of such nebulous phenomena as "ideas '', thoughts ", "minds '', and so forth.
The bearing of these ideas on current thinking on speech origins remains unclear. One suggestion is that ape communication tends to resist metaphor for social reasons. Since they inhabit a Darwinian (as opposed to morally regulated) social world, these animals are under strong competitive pressure not to accept patent fictions as valid communicative currency. Ape vocal communication tends to be inflexible, marginalising the ultra-flexible tongue, precisely because listeners treat with suspicion any signal which might prove to be a fake. Such insistence on perceptible veracity is clearly incompatible with metaphoric usage. An implication is that neither articulate speech nor distinctively human abstract thought could have begun evolving until our ancestors had become more cooperative and trusting of one another 's communicative intentions.
When people converse with one another, according to the American philosopher John Searle, they 're making moves, not in the real world which other species inhabit, but in a shared virtual realm peculiar to ourselves. Unlike the deployment of muscular effort to move a physical object, the deployment of illocutionary force requires no physical effort (except movement of the tongue / mouth to produce speech) and produces no effect which any measuring device could detect. Instead, our action takes place on a quite different level -- that of social reality. This kind of reality is in one sense hallucinatory, being a product of collective intentionality. It consists, not of "brute facts '' -- facts which exist anyway, irrespective of anyone 's belief -- but of "institutional facts '', which "exist '' only if you believe in them. Government, marriage, citizenship and money are examples of "institutional facts ''. One can distinguish between "brute '' facts and "institutional '' ones by applying a simple test. Suppose no one believed in the fact -- would it still be true? If the answer is "yes '', it 's "brute ''. If the answer is "no '', it 's "institutional ''.
"Imagine a group of primitive creatures, more or less like ourselves... Now imagine that, acting as a group, they build a barrier, a wall around the place where they live... The wall is designed to keep intruders out and keep members of the group in... Let us suppose that the wall gradually decays. It slowly deteriorates until all that is left is a line of stones. But let us suppose that the inhabitants continue to treat the line of stones as if it could perform the function of the wall. Let us suppose that, as a matter of fact, they treat the line of stones just as if they understood that it was not to be crossed... This shift is the decisive move in the creation of institutional reality. It is nothing less than the decisive move in the creation of what we think of as distinctive in human, as opposed to animal, societies. ''
The facts of language in general and of speech in particular are, from this perspective, "institutional '' rather than "brute ''. The semantic meaning of a word, for example, is whatever its users imagine it to be. To "do things with words '' is to operate in a virtual world which seems real because we share it in common. In this incorporeal world, the laws of physics, chemistry and biology do not apply. That explains why illocutionary force can be deployed without exerting muscular effort. Apes and monkeys inhabit the "brute '' world. To make an impact, they must scream, bark, threaten, seduce or in other ways invest bodily effort. If they were invited to play chess, they would be unable to resist throwing their pieces at one another. Speech is not like that. A few movements of the tongue, under appropriate conditions, can be sufficient to open parliament, annul a marriage, confer a knighthood or declare war. To explain, on a Darwinian basis, how such apparent magic first began to work, we must ask how, when and why Homo sapiens succeeded in establishing the wider domain of institutional facts.
"Brute facts '', in the terminology of speech act philosopher John Searle, are facts which are true anyway, regardless of human belief. Suppose you do n't believe in gravity: jump over a cliff and you 'll still fall. Natural science is the study of facts of this kind. "Institutional facts '' are fictions accorded factual status within human social institutions. Monetary and commercial facts are fictions of this kind. The complexities of today 's global currency system are facts only while we believe in them: suspend the belief and the facts correspondingly dissolve. Yet although institutional facts rest on human belief, that does n't make them mere distortions or hallucinations. Take my confidence that these two five - pound banknotes in my pocket are worth ten pounds. That 's not merely my subjective belief: it 's an objective, indisputable fact. But now imagine a collapse of public confidence in the currency system. Suddenly, the realities in my pocket dissolve.
Scholars who doubt the scientific validity of the notion of "institutional facts '' include Noam Chomsky, for whom language is not social. In Chomsky 's view, language is a natural object (a component of the individual brain) and its study, therefore, a branch of natural science. In explaining the origin of language, scholars in this intellectual camp invoke non-social developments -- in Chomsky 's case, a random genetic mutation. Chomsky argues that language might exist inside the brain of a single mutant gorilla even if no one else believed in it, even if no one else existed apart from the mutant -- and even if the gorilla in question remained unaware of its existence, never actually speaking. In the opposite philosophical camp are those who, in the tradition of Ferdinand de Saussure, argue that if no one believed in words or rules, they simply would not exist. These scholars, correspondingly, regard language as essentially institutional, concluding that linguistics should be considered a topic within social science. In explaining the evolutionary emergence of language, scholars in this intellectual camp tend to invoke profound changes in social relationships.
Criticism. Darwinian scientists today see little value in the traditional distinction between "natural '' and "social '' science. Darwinism in its modern form is the study of cooperation and competition in nature -- a topic which is intrinsically social. Against this background, there is an increasing awareness among evolutionary linguists and Darwinian anthropologists that traditional inter-disciplinary barriers can have damaging consequences for investigations into the origins of speech.
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when was the last episode of being mary jane | Being Mary Jane - wikipedia
Being Mary Jane is an American drama television series created by Mara Brock Akil and starring Gabrielle Union, that debuted January 7, 2014 on BET. The 90 - minute - pilot for the series aired on July 2, 2013. The series follows professional and personal life of successful TV news anchor Mary Jane Paul, who lives in Atlanta, Georgia.
Being Mary Jane has received positive reviews from critics, and the series premiere on BET had more than 4 million viewers. The second and third seasons received critical acclaim, specifically praising Gabrielle Union 's leading performance, Mara Brock Akil 's writing, and directing work by Regina King. On January 6, 2016, the series was renewed for a fourth season, which premiered on January 10, 2017. Set in New York, season 4 reaches a milestone and a record as it is made with 20 episodes. It was announced on October 11, 2017 that the series would conclude in 2018 with a two - hour movie finale.
At the 45th NAACP Image Awards, the pilot movie won award for Outstanding Television Movie, Mini-Series or Dramatic Special, and Union for Outstanding Actress in a Television Movie, Mini-Series or Dramatic Special. The series later received another nine NAACP Image Awards nominations, include two for Outstanding Drama Series.
The show was originally to be called Single Black Female. The series centers on successful broadcast journalist Mary Jane Paul (played by Gabrielle Union) and her professional and private family life while searching for "Mr. Right '':
Mary Jane Paul has it all: she 's a successful TV news anchor, entirely self - sufficient -- an all - around powerhouse who remains devoted to a family that does n't share her motivation. As Mary Jane juggles her life, her work and her commitment to her family, we find out how far she 's willing to go to find the puzzle pieces that she, and society, insist are missing from her life as a single Black female.
Omari Hardwick plays a potential Mr. Right. Other cast members include Latarsha Rose, Lisa Vidal, Aaron D. Spears, Richard Roundtree, Margaret Avery, Richard Brooks, Tika Sumpter, Raven Goodwin, B.J. Britt, and Robinne Lee.
The series is produced by Mara Brock Akil, who produced BET 's most successful series ever, The Game, and the romantic comedy film Jumping the Broom. The pilot episode was filmed in April 2012 at 780 N. Highland Ave. in the Virginia Highland neighborhood of Atlanta.
On September 12, 2013, BET renewed Being Mary Jane for a second season, before the first season premiered. The second season premiered on February 3, 2015, and on February 5 the series was renewed for a third season, which premiered October 20, 2015.
In 2016, Gabrielle Union sued BET for allegedly depriving her of agreed upon compensation.
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alicia keys youtube you don't know my name | You Do n't Know My Name - wikipedia
"You Do n't Know My Name '' is a song by American recording artist Alicia Keys from her second studio album, The Diary of Alicia Keys. Written by Keys, Kanye West and Harold Lilly, and produced by Keys and West, the track was released as the album 's lead single in November 2003, and contains a sample from the 1975 song "Let Me Prove My Love to You '', written by J.R. Bailey, Mel Kent, and Ken Williams and performed by The Main Ingredient.
The song became Keys ' third top ten hit in the United States, peaking at number three on the Billboard Hot 100, as well as topping the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs for eight consecutive weeks, her first Top 10 single in both charts since 2002 's "A Woman 's Worth ''. Additionally, the song won a Grammy Award for Best R&B Song in 2005 and a Soul Train Music Award for Best R&B / Soul Single, Female in 2004. "You Do n't Know My Name '' was sampled on Lil Wayne 's 2008 song "Comfortable '' featuring Babyface, also produced by West. Blender magazine placed the song at number thirty - seven on its list of "The 100 Best Songs of 2004 ''.
Directed by Chris Robinson, the music video follows Keys working as a waitress at a café. One day, Keys meets a man (played by Mos Def) in the restaurant, and she falls in love with him. Later on, Keys is at a house party where she runs into that same man (Mos Def) when a fight is about to break out, and the scene resembles the house party scene in the movie Cooley High. Later in the video, Keys imagines getting the courage to call him and to tell him about her feelings. However, at the end of the movie, she remembers his order but there is no other recognition and the scene ends with his card still being in the bowl and Keys staring out the window since she will never be able to reveal her true feelings for the man.
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the corpora cavernosa and the corpus spongiosum are anatomic structures of the | Corpus cavernosum penis - wikipedia
A corpus cavernosum penis (singular) (cavernous body of the penis) is one of a pair of sponge - like regions of erectile tissue, the corpora cavernosa (plural) (cavernous bodies), which contain most of the blood in the penis during an erection. Such a corpus is homologous to the corpus cavernosum clitoridis in the female; the body of the clitoris contains erectile tissue in a pair of corpora cavernosa (literally "cave - like bodies '') with a recognisably similar structure.
The two corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum (also known as the corpus cavernosum urethrae in older texts and in the adjacent diagram) are three expandable erectile tissues along the length of the penis, which fill with blood during penile erection. The two corpora cavernosa lie along the penis shaft, from the pubic bones to the head of the penis, where they join. These formations are made of a sponge - like tissue containing trabeculae, irregular blood - filled spaces lined by endothelium and separated by connective tissue septa.
The male anatomy has no vestibular bulbs, but instead a corpus spongiosum, a smaller region along the bottom of the penis, which contains the urethra and forms the glans penis.
In some circumstances, release of nitric oxide precedes relaxation of muscles in the corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum, in a process similar to female arousal. The spongy tissue fills with blood, from arteries down the length of the penis. A little blood enters the corpus spongiosum; the remainder engorges the corpora cavernosa, which expand to hold 90 % of the blood involved in an erection, increasing both in length and in diameter. The function of the corpus spongiosum is to prevent compression of the urethra during erection.
Blood can leave the erectile tissue only through a drainage system of veins around the outside wall of the corpus cavernosum. The expanding spongy tissue presses against a surrounding dense tissue (tunica albuginea) constricting these veins, preventing blood from leaving. The penis becomes rigid as a result. The glans penis, the expanded cap of the corpus spongiosum, remains more malleable during erection because its tunica albuginea is much thinner than elsewhere in the penis.
Structure of the penis
The deeper branches of the internal pudendal artery.
The penis in transverse section, showing the bloodvessels.
Male pelvic organs seen from right side.
Diagram of the arteries of the penis.
Cross section of penis.
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when was the taming of the shrew written | The Taming of the Shrew - wikipedia
The Taming of the Shrew is a comedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1590 and 1592.
The play begins with a framing device, often referred to as the induction, in which a mischievous nobleman tricks a drunken tinker named Christopher Sly into believing he is actually a nobleman himself. The nobleman then has the play performed for Sly 's diversion.
The main plot depicts the courtship of Petruchio and Katherina, the headstrong, obdurate shrew. Initially, Katherina is an unwilling participant in the relationship; however, Petruchio "tames '' her with various psychological torments, such as keeping her from eating and drinking, until she becomes a desirable, compliant, and obedient bride. The subplot features a competition between the suitors of Katherina 's younger sister, Bianca, who is seen as the "ideal '' woman. The question of whether the play is misogynistic or not has become the subject of considerable controversy, particularly among modern scholars, audiences, and readers.
The Taming of the Shrew has been adapted numerous times for stage, screen, opera, ballet, and musical theatre; perhaps the most famous adaptations being Cole Porter 's Kiss Me, Kate and the 1967 film of the play, starring Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton. The 1999 high school comedy film 10 Things I Hate About You is also loosely based on the play.
Characters appearing in the Induction:
Prior to the first act, an induction frames the play as a "kind of history '' played in front of a befuddled drunkard named Christopher Sly who is tricked into believing that he is a lord. The play is performed in order to distract Sly from his "wife, '' who is actually Bartholomew, a servant, dressed as a woman.
In the play performed for Sly, the "shrew '' is Katherina, the eldest daughter of Baptista Minola, a lord in Padua. Numerous men, including Gremio and Tranio, deem Katherina an unworthy option for marriage because of her notorious assertiveness and willfulness. On the other hand, men such as Hortensio and Gremio are eager to marry her younger sister Bianca. However, Baptista has sworn Bianca is not allowed to marry until Katherina is wed; this motivates Bianca 's suitors to work together to find Katherina a husband so that they may compete for Bianca. The plot thickens when Lucentio, who has recently come to Padua to attend university, falls in love with Bianca. Overhearing Baptista say that he is on the lookout for tutors for his daughters, Lucentio devises a plan in which he disguises himself as a Latin tutor named Cambio in order to woo Bianca behind Baptista 's back and meanwhile has his servant Tranio pretend to be him.
In the meantime, Petruchio, accompanied by his servant Grumio, arrives in Padua from Verona. He explains to Hortensio, an old friend of his, that since his father 's death he has set out to enjoy life and wed. Hearing this, Hortensio recruits Petruchio as a suitor for Katherina. He also has Petruchio present Baptista a music tutor named Litio (Hortensio in disguise). Thus, Lucentio and Hortensio, attempt to woo Bianca while pretending to be the tutors Cambio and Litio.
To counter Katherina 's shrewish nature, Petruchio pretends that any harsh things she says or does are actually kind and gentle. Katherina agrees to marry Petruchio after seeing that he is the only man willing to counter her quick remarks; however, at the ceremony Petruchio makes an embarrassing scene when he strikes the priest and drinks the communion wine. After the wedding, Petruchio takes Katherina to his home against her will. Once they are gone, Gremio and Tranio (disguised as Lucentio) formally bid for Bianca, with Tranio easily outbidding Gremio. However, in his zeal to win, he promises much more than Lucentio actually possesses. When Baptista determines that once Lucentio 's father confirms the dowry, Bianca and Tranio (i.e. Lucentio) can marry, Tranio decides that they will need someone to pretend to be Vincentio, Lucentio 's father. Meanwhile, Tranio persuades Hortensio that Bianca is not worthy of his attentions, thus removing Lucentio 's remaining rival.
In Verona, Petruchio begins the "taming '' of his new wife. She is refused food and clothing because nothing -- according to Petruchio -- is good enough for her; he claims that perfectly cooked meat is overcooked, a beautiful dress does n't fit right, and a stylish hat is not fashionable. He also disagrees with everything that she says, forcing her to agree with everything that he says, no matter how absurd; on their way back to Padua to attend Bianca 's wedding, she agrees with Petruchio that the sun is the moon, and proclaims "if you please to call it a rush - candle, / Henceforth I vow it shall be so for me '' (4.5. 14 -- 15). Along the way, they meet Vincentio, who is also on his way to Padua, and Katherina agrees with Petruchio when he declares that Vincentio is a woman and then apologises to Vincentio when Petruchio tells her that he is a man.
Back in Padua, Lucentio and Tranio convince a passing pedant to pretend to be Vincentio and confirm the dowry for Bianca. The man does so, and Baptista is happy for Bianca to wed Lucentio (still Tranio in disguise). Bianca, aware of the deception, then secretly elopes with the real Lucentio to get married. However, when Vincentio reaches Padua, he encounters the pedant, who claims to be Lucentio 's father. Tranio (still disguised as Lucentio) appears, and the pedant acknowledges him to be his son Lucentio. In all the confusion, the real Vincentio is set to be arrested, when the real Lucentio appears with his newly betrothed Bianca, revealing all to a bewildered Baptista and Vincentio. Lucentio explains everything, and all is forgiven by the two fathers.
Meanwhile, Hortensio has married a rich widow. In the final scene of the play there are three newly married couples; Bianca and Lucentio, the widow and Hortensio, and Katherina and Petruchio. Because of the general opinion that Petruchio is married to a shrew, a good - natured quarrel breaks out amongst the three men about whose wife is the most obedient. Petruchio proposes a wager whereby each will send a servant to call for their wives, and whichever comes most obediently will have won the wager for her husband. Katherina is the only one of the three who comes, winning the wager for Petruchio. She then hauls the other two wives into the room, giving a speech on why wives should always obey their husbands. The play ends with Baptista, Hortensio and Lucentio marvelling at how successfully Petruchio has tamed the shrew.
Although there is no direct literary source for the induction, the tale of a tinker being duped into believing he is a lord is one found in many literary traditions. Such a story is recorded in Arabian Nights where Harun al - Rashid plays the same trick on a man he finds sleeping in an alley. Another is found in De Rebus Burgundicis by the Dutch historian Pontus de Huyter, where Philip, Duke of Burgundy, after attending his sister 's wedding in Portugal, finds a drunken "artisan '' whom he entertains with a "pleasant Comedie. '' Arabian Nights was not translated into English until the mid 18th century, although Shakespeare may have known it by word of mouth. He could also have known the Duke of Burgundy story as, although De Rebus was n't translated into French until 1600, and into English until 1607, there is evidence the story existed in English in a jest book (now lost) by Richard Edwardes, written in 1570.
Regarding the Petruchio / Katherina story, there are a variety of possible influences, but no one specific source. The basic elements of the narrative are present in tale 44 of the fourteenth - century Spanish book Libro de los ejemplos del conde Lucanor y de Patronio by Don Juan Manuel, which tells of a young man who marries a "very strong and fiery woman. '' The text had been translated into English by the sixteenth century, but there is no evidence that Shakespeare drew on it. The story of a headstrong woman tamed by a man was well known, and found in numerous traditions. For example, according to The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, Noah 's wife was such a woman (' "Hastow nought herd, '' quod Nicholas, "also / The sorwe of Noë with his felaschippe / That he had or he gat his wyf to schipe '' '; The Miller 's Tale, l. 352 -- 354), and it was common for her to be depicted in this manner in mystery plays. Historically, another such woman was Xanthippe, Socrates ' wife, who is mentioned by Petruchio himself (1.2. 70). Such characters also occur throughout medieval literature, in popular farces both before and during Shakespeare 's lifetime, and in folklore.
In 1890, Alfred Tolman conjectured a possible literary source for the wager scene may have been William Caxton 's 1484 translation of Geoffroy IV de la Tour Landry 's Livre pour l'enseignement de ses filles du Chevalier de La Tour Landry (1372). Written for his daughters as a guide on how to behave appropriately, de la Tour Landry includes "a treatise on the domestic education of women '' which features an anecdote in which three merchants make a wager as to which of their wives will prove the most obedient when called upon to jump into a basin of water. The episode sees the first two wives refuse to obey (as in the play), it ends at a banquet (as does the play) and it features a speech regarding the ' correct ' way for a husband to discipline his wife. In 1959, John W. Shroeder conjectured that Chevalier de La Tour Landry 's depiction of the Queen Vastis story may also have been an influence on Shakespeare.
In 1964, Richard Hosley suggested the main source for the play may have been the anonymous ballad "A merry jeste of a shrewde and curst Wyfe, lapped in Morrelles Skin, for her good behauyour ''. The ballad tells the story of a marriage in which the husband must tame his headstrong wife. Like Shrew, the story features a family with two sisters, the younger of whom is seen as mild and desirable. However, in "Merry Jest '', the older sister is obdurate not because it is simply her nature, but because she has been raised by her shrewish mother to seek mastery over men. Ultimately, the couple return to the family house, where the now tamed woman lectures her sister on the merits of being an obedient wife. The taming in this version is much more physical than in Shakespeare; the shrew is beaten with birch rods until she bleeds, and is then wrapped in the salted flesh of a plough horse (the Morrelle of the title). "Merry Jest '' was not unknown to earlier editors of the play, and had been dismissed as a source by A.R. Frey, W.C. Hazlitt, R. Warwick Bond and Frederick S. Boas. Modern editors also express doubt as to Hosley 's argument.
In 1966, Jan Harold Brunvand argued that the main source for the play was not literary, but the oral folktale tradition. He argued the Petruchio / Katherina story represents an example of Type 901 (' Shrew - taming Complex ') in the Aarne -- Thompson classification system. Brunvand discovered 383 oral examples of Type 901 spread over thirty European countries, but he could find only 35 literary examples, leading him to conclude "Shakespeare 's taming plot, which has not been traced successfully in its entirety to any known printed version, must have come ultimately from oral tradition. '' Most contemporary critics accept Brunvand 's findings.
A source for Shakespeare 's sub-plot was first identified by Alfred Tolman in 1890 as Ludovico Ariosto 's I Suppositi, which was published in 1551. George Gascoigne 's English prose translation Supposes was performed in 1566 and printed in 1573. In I Suppositi, Erostrato (the equivalent of Lucentio) falls in love with Polynesta (Bianca), daughter of Damon (Baptista). Erostrato disguises himself as Dulipo (Tranio), a servant, whilst the real Dulipo pretends to be Erostrato. Having done this, Erostrato is hired as a tutor for Polynesta. Meanwhile, Dulipo pretends to formally woo Polynesta so as to frustrate the wooing of the aged Cleander (Gremio). Dulipo outbids Cleander, but he promises far more than he can deliver, so he and Erostrato dupe a travelling gentleman from Siena into pretending to be Erostrato 's father, Philogano (Vincentio). However, when Polynesta is found to be pregnant, Damon has Dulipo imprisoned (the real father is Erostrato). Soon thereafter, the real Philogano arrives, and all comes to a head. Erostrato reveals himself, and begs clemency for Dulipo. Damon realises that Polynesta is truly in love with Erostrato, and so forgives the subterfuge. Having been released from jail, Dulipo then discovers he is Cleander 's son. An additional minor source is Mostellaria by Plautus, from which Shakespeare probably took the names of Tranio and Grumio.
Efforts to establish the play 's date of composition are complicated by its uncertain relationship with another Elizabethan play with an almost identical plot but different wording and character names, A Pleasant Conceited Historie, called the taming of a Shrew. The Shrew 's exact relationship with A Shrew is unknown. Different theories suggest A Shrew could be a reported text of a performance of The Shrew, a source for The Shrew, an early draft (possibly reported) of The Shrew, or an adaptation of The Shrew. A Shrew was entered in the Stationers ' Register on 2 May 1594, suggesting that whatever the relationship between the two plays, The Shrew was most likely written somewhere between 1590 (roughly when Shakespeare arrived in London) and 1594 (registration of A Shrew).
However, it is possible to narrow the date further. A terminus ante quem for A Shrew seems to be August 1592, as a stage direction at 3.21 mentions "Simon, '' which probably refers to the actor Simon Jewell, who was buried on 21 August 1592. Furthermore, The Shrew must have been written earlier than 1593, as Anthony Chute 's Beauty Dishonoured, written under the title of Shore 's wife (published in June 1593) contains the line "He calls his Kate, and she must come and kiss him. '' This must refer to The Shrew, as there is no corresponding "kissing scene '' in A Shrew. There are also verbal similarities between both Shrew plays and the anonymous play A Knack to Know a Knave (first performed at The Rose on 10 June 1592). Knack features several passages common to both A Shrew and The Shrew, but it also borrows several passages unique to The Shrew. This suggests The Shrew was on stage prior to June 1592.
In his 1982 edition of the play for The Oxford Shakespeare, H.J. Oliver suggests the play was composed no later than 1592. He bases this on the title page of A Shrew, which mentions the play had been performed "sundry times '' by Pembroke 's Men. When the London theatres were closed on 23 June 1592 due to an outbreak of plague, Pembroke 's Men went on a regional tour to Bath and Ludlow. The tour was a financial failure, and the company returned to London on 28 September, financially ruined. Over the course of the next three years, four plays with their name on the title page were published; Christopher Marlowe 's Edward II (published in quarto in July 1593), and Shakespeare 's Titus Andronicus (published in quarto in 1594), The True Tragedy of Richard Duke of York (published in octavo in 1595) and The Taming of a Shrew (published in quarto in May 1594). Oliver says it is a "natural assumption '' that these publications were sold by members of Pembroke 's Men who were broke after the failed tour. Oliver assumes that A Shrew is a reported version of The Shrew, which means The Shrew must have been in their possession when they began their tour in June, as they did n't perform it upon returning to London in September, nor would they have taken possession of any new material at that time.
Ann Thompson considers A Shrew to be a reported text in her 1984 and 2003 editions of the play for the New Cambridge Shakespeare. She focuses on the closure of the theatres on 23 June 1592, arguing that the play must have been written prior to June 1592 for it to have given rise to A Shrew. She cites the reference to "Simon '' in A Shrew, Anthony Chute 's allusion to The Shrew in Beauty Dishonoured and the verbal similarities between The Shrew and A Knack to Know a Knave as supporting a date of composition prior to June 1592. Stephen Roy Miller, in his 1998 edition of A Shrew for the New Cambridge Shakespeare, agrees with the date of late 1591 / early 1592, as he believes The Shrew preceded A Shrew (although he rejects the reported text theory in favour of an adaptation / rewrite theory).
Keir Elam, however, has argued for a terminus post quem of 1591 for The Shrew, based on Shakespeare 's probable use of two sources published that year; Abraham Ortelius ' map of Italy in the fourth edition of Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, and John Florio 's Second Fruits. Firstly, Shakespeare errs in putting Padua in Lombardy instead of Veneto, probably because he used Ortelius ' map of Italy as a source, which has "Lombardy '' written across the entirety of northern Italy. Secondly, Elam suggests that Shakespeare derived his Italian idioms and some of the dialogue from Florio 's Second Fruits, a bilingual introduction to Italian language and culture. Elam argues that Lucentio 's opening dialogue,
Tranio, since for the great desire I had To see fair Padua, nursery of arts, I am arrived for fruitful Lombardy, The pleasant garden of great Italy. (1.1. 1 -- 4)
is an example of Shakespeare 's borrowing from Florio 's dialogue between Peter and Stephan, who have just arrived in the north:
PETER I purpose to stay a while, to view the fair Cities of Lombardy. STEPHAN Lombardy is the garden of the world.
Elam 's arguments suggest The Shrew must have been written by 1591, which places the date of composition around 1590 -- 1591.
The 1594 quarto of A Shrew was printed by Peter Short for Cuthbert Burbie. It was republished in 1596 (again by Short for Burbie), and 1607 by Valentine Simmes for Nicholas Ling. The Shrew was not published until the First Folio in 1623. The only quarto version of The Shrew was printed by William Stansby for John Smethwick in 1631 as A Wittie and Pleasant comedie called The Taming of the Shrew, based on the 1623 folio text. W.W. Greg has demonstrated that A Shrew and The Shrew were treated as the same text for the purposes of copyright, i.e. ownership of one constituted ownership of the other, and when Smethwick purchased the rights from Ling in 1609 to print the play in the First Folio, Ling actually transferred the rights for A Shrew, not The Shrew.
One of the most fundamental critical debates surrounding The Shrew is its relationship with A Shrew. There are five main theories as to the nature of this relationship:
The exact relationship between The Shrew and A Shrew is uncertain, but many scholars consider The Shrew the original, with A Shrew derived from it; as H.J. Oliver suggests, there are "passages in (A Shrew) (...) that make sense only if one knows the (Follio) version from which they must have been derived. ''
The debate regarding the relationship between the two plays began in 1725, when Alexander Pope incorporated extracts from A Shrew into The Shrew in his edition of Shakespeare 's works. In The Shrew, the Christopher Sly framework is only featured twice; at the opening of the play, and at the end of Act 1, Scene 1. However, in A Shrew, the Sly framework reappears a further five times, including a scene which comes after the final scene of the Petruchio / Katherina story. Pope added most of the Sly framework to The Shrew, even though he acknowledged in his preface that he did not believe Shakespeare had written A Shrew. Subsequent editors followed suit, adding some or all of the Sly framework to their versions of The Shrew; Lewis Theobald (1733), Thomas Hanmer (1744), William Warburton (1747), Samuel Johnson and George Steevens (1765) and Edward Capell (1768). In his 1790 edition of The Plays and Poems of William Shakespeare, however, Edmond Malone removed all A Shrew extracts and returned the text to the 1623 First Folio version. By the end of the eighteenth century, the predominant theory had come to be that A Shrew was a non-Shakespearean source for The Shrew, and hence to include extracts from it was to graft non-authorial material onto the play.
This theory prevailed until 1850, when Samuel Hickson compared the texts of The Shrew and A Shrew, concluding The Shrew was the original, and A Shrew was derived from it. By comparing seven passages which are similar in both plays, he concluded "the original conception is invariably to be found '' in The Shrew. His explanation was that A Shrew was written by Christopher Marlowe, with The Shrew as his template. He reached this conclusion primarily because A Shrew features numerous lines almost identical to lines in Marlowe 's Tamburlaine and Dr. Faustus.
In 1926, building on Hickson 's research, Peter Alexander first suggested the bad quarto theory. Alexander agreed with Hickson that A Shrew was derived from The Shrew, but he did not agree that Marlowe wrote A Shrew. Instead he labelled A Shrew a bad quarto. His main argument was that, primarily in the subplot of A Shrew, characters act without motivation, whereas such motivation is present in The Shrew. Alexander believed this represents an example of a "reporter '' forgetting details and becoming confused, which also explains why lines from other plays are used from time to time; to cover gaps which the reporter knows have been left. He also argued the subplot in The Shrew was closer to the plot of I Suppositi / Supposes than the subplot in A Shrew, which he felt indicated the subplot in The Shrew must have been based directly on the source, whereas the subplot in A Shrew was a step removed. In their 1928 edition of the play for the New Shakespeare, Arthur Quiller - Couch and John Dover Wilson supported Alexander 's argument. However, there has always been critical resistance to the theory.
An early scholar to find fault with Alexander 's reasoning was E.K. Chambers, who reasserted the source theory. Chambers, who supported Alexander 's bad quarto theory regarding The First part of the Contention betwixt the two famous Houses of Yorke and Lancaster and The True Tragedy of Richard Duke of Yorke, argued A Shrew did not fit the pattern of a bad quarto; "I am quite unable to believe that A Shrew had any such origin. Its textual relation to The Shrew does not bear any analogy to that of other ' bad Quartos ' to the legitimate texts from which they were memorised. The nomenclature, which at least a memoriser can recall, is entirely different. The verbal parallels are limited to stray phrases, most frequent in the main plot, for which I believe Shakespeare picked them up from A Shrew. '' He explained the relationship between I Suppositi / Supposes and the subplots by arguing the subplot in The Shrew was based upon both the subplot in A Shrew and the original version of the story in Ariosto / Gascoigne.
In 1938, Leo Kirschbaum made a similar argument. In an article listing over twenty examples of bad quartos, Kirschbaum did not include A Shrew, which he felt was too different from The Shrew to come under the bad quarto banner; "despite protestations to the contrary, The Taming of a Shrew does not stand in relation to The Shrew as The True Tragedie, for example, stands in relation to 3 Henry VI. '' Writing in 1998, Stephen Roy Miller offers much the same opinion; "the relation of the early quarto to the Folio text is unlike other early quartos because the texts vary much more in plotting and dialogue (...) the differences between the texts are substantial and coherent enough to establish that there was deliberate revision in producing one text out of the other; hence A Shrew is not merely a poor report (or ' bad quarto ') of The Shrew. '' Character names are changed, basic plot points are altered (Kate has two sisters for example, not one), the play is set in Athens instead of Padua, the Sly framework forms a complete narrative, and entire speeches are completely different, all of which suggests to Miller that the author of A Shrew thought they were working on something different from Shakespeare 's play, not attempting to transcribe it for resale; "underpinning the notion of a ' Shakespearean bad quarto ' is the assumption that the motive of whoever compiled that text was to produce, differentially, a verbal replica of what appeared on stage. '' Miller believes that Chambers and Kirschbaum successfully illustrate A Shrew does not fulfil this rubric.
Alexander 's theory continued to be challenged as the years went on. In 1942, R.A. Houk developed what came to be dubbed the Ur - Shrew theory; both A Shrew and The Shrew were based upon a third play, now lost. In 1943, G.I. Duthie refined Houk 's suggestion by arguing A Shrew was a memorial reconstruction of Ur - Shrew, a now lost early draft of The Shrew; "A Shrew is substantially a memorially constructed text and is dependent upon an early Shrew play, now lost. The Shrew is a reworking of this lost play. '' Hickson, who believed Marlowe to have written A Shrew, had hinted at this theory in 1850; "though I do not believe Shakspeare 's play to contain a line of any other writer, I think it extremely probable that we have it only in a revised form, and that, consequently, the play which Marlowe imitated might not necessarily have been that fund of life and humour that we find it now. '' Hickson is here arguing that Marlowe 's A Shrew is not based upon the version of The Shrew found in the First Folio, but on another version of the play. Duthie argues this other version was a Shakespearean early draft of The Shrew; A Shrew constitutes a reported text of a now lost early draft.
Alexander returned to the debate in 1969, re-presenting his bad quarto theory. In particular, he concentrated on the various complications and inconsistencies in the subplot of A Shrew, which had been used by Houk and Duthie as evidence for an Ur - Shrew, to argue that the reporter of A Shrew attempted to recreate the complex subplot from The Shrew but got confused; "the compiler of A Shrew while trying to follow the subplot of The Shrew gave it up as too complicated to reproduce, and fell back on love scenes in which he substituted for the maneuvers of the disguised Lucentio and Hortensio extracts from Tamburlaine and Faustus, with which the lovers woo their ladies. ''
After little further discussion of the issue in the 1970s, the 1980s saw the publication of three scholarly editions of The Shrew, all of which re-addressed the question of the relationship between the two plays; Brian Morris ' 1981 edition for the second series of the Arden Shakespeare, H.J. Oliver 's 1982 edition for the Oxford Shakespeare and Ann Thompson 's 1984 edition for the New Cambridge Shakespeare. Morris summarised the scholarly position in 1981 as one in which no clear - cut answers could be found; "unless new, external evidence comes to light, the relationship between The Shrew and A Shrew can never be decided beyond a peradventure. It will always be a balance of probabilities, shifting as new arguments and opinions are added to the scales. Nevertheless, in the present century, the movement has unquestionably been towards an acceptance of the Bad Quarto theory, and this can now be accepted as at least the current orthodoxy. '' Morris himself, and Thompson, supported the bad quarto theory, with Oliver tentatively arguing for Duthie 's bad quarto / early draft / Ur - Shrew theory.
Perhaps the most extensive examination of the question came in 1998 in Stephen Roy Miller 's edition of A Shrew for the New Cambridge Shakespeare: The Early Quartos series. Miller agrees with most modern scholars that A Shrew is derived from The Shrew, but he does not believes it to be a bad quarto. Instead, he argues it is an adaptation by someone other than Shakespeare. Miller believes Alexander 's suggestion in 1969 that the reporter became confused is unlikely, and instead suggests an adapter at work; "the most economic explanation of indebtedness is that whoever compiled A Shrew borrowed the lines from Shakespeare 's The Shrew, or a version of it, and adapted them. '' Part of Miller 's evidence relates to Gremio, who has no counterpart in A Shrew. In The Shrew, after the wedding, Gremio expresses doubts as to whether or not Petruchio will be able to tame Katherina. In A Shrew, these lines are extended and split between Polidor (the equivalent of Hortensio) and Phylema (Bianca). As Gremio does have a counterpart in I Suppositi, Miller concludes that "to argue the priority of A Shrew in this case would mean arguing that Shakespeare took the negative hints from the speeches of Polidor and Phylema and gave them to a character he resurrected from Supposes. This is a less economical argument than to suggest that the compiler of A Shrew, dismissing Gremio, simply shared his doubts among the characters available. '' He argues there is even evidence in the play that the compiler knew he was working within a specific literary tradition; "as with his partial change of character names, the compiler seems to wish to produce dialogue much like his models, but not the same. For him, adaptation includes exact quotation, imitation and incorporation of his own additions. This seems to define his personal style, and his aim seems to be to produce his own version, presumably intended that it should be tuned more towards the popular era than The Shrew. ''
As had Alexander, Houk and Duthie, Miller believes the key to the debate is to be found in the subplot, as it is here where the two plays differ most. He points out that the subplot in The Shrew is based on "the classical style of Latin comedy with an intricate plot involving deception, often kept in motion by a comic servant. '' The subplot in A Shrew, however, which features an extra sister and addresses the issue of marrying above and below one 's class, "has many elements more associated with the romantic style of comedy popular in London in the 1590s. '' Miller cites plays such as Robert Greene 's Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay and Fair Em as evidence of the popularity of such plays. He points to the fact that in The Shrew, there is only eleven lines of romance between Lucentio and Bianca, but in A Shrew, there is an entire scene between Kate 's two sisters and their lovers. This, he argues, is evidence of an adaptation rather than a faulty report;
while it is difficult to know the motivation of the adapter, we can reckon that from his point of view an early staging of The Shrew might have revealed an overly wrought play from a writer trying to establish himself but challenging too far the current ideas of popular comedy. The Shrew is long and complicated. It has three plots, the subplots being in the swift Latin or Italianate style with several disguises. Its language is at first stuffed with difficult Italian quotations, but its dialogue must often sound plain when compared to Marlowe 's thunder or Greene 's romance, the mouth - filling lines and images that on other afternoons were drawing crowds. An adapter might well have seen his role as that of a ' play doctor ' improving The Shrew -- while cutting it -- by stuffing it with the sort of material currently in demand in popular romantic comedies.
Miller believes the compiler "appears to have wished to make the play shorter, more of a romantic comedy full of wooing and glamorous rhetoric, and to add more obvious, broad comedy. ''
H.J. Oliver argues the version of the play in the 1623 First Folio was likely copied not from a prompt book or transcript, but from the author 's own foul papers, which he believes showed signs of revision by Shakespeare. These revisions, Oliver says, relate primarily to the character of Hortensio, and suggest that in an original version of the play, now lost, Hortensio was not a suitor to Bianca, but simply an old friend of Petruchio. When Shakespeare rewrote the play so that Hortensio became a suitor in disguise (Litio), many of his lines were either omitted or given to Tranio (disguised as Lucentio).
Oliver cites several scenes in the play where Hortensio (or his absence) causes problems. For example, in Act 2, Scene 1, Tranio (as Lucentio) and Gremio bid for Bianca, but Hortensio, who everyone is aware is also a suitor, is never mentioned. In Act 3, Scene 1, Lucentio (as Cambio) tells Bianca "we might beguile the old Pantalowne '' (l. 36), yet says nothing of Hortensio 's attempts to woo her, instead implying his only rival is Gremio. In Act 3, Scene 2, Tranio suddenly becomes an old friend of Petruchio, knowing his mannerisms and explaining his tardiness prior to the wedding. However, up to this point, Petruchio 's only acquaintance in Padua has been Hortensio. In Act 4, Scene 3, Hortensio tells Vincentio that Lucentio has married Bianca. However, as far as Hortensio should be concerned, Lucentio has denounced Bianca, because in Act 4, Scene 2, Tranio (disguised as Lucentio) agreed with Hortensio that neither of them would pursue Bianca, and as such, his knowledge of the marriage of who he supposes to be Lucentio and Bianca makes no sense. From this, Oliver concludes that an original version of the play existed in which Hortensio was simply a friend of Petruchio 's, and had no involvement in the Bianca subplot, but wishing to complicate things, Shakespeare rewrote the play, introducing the Litio disguise, and giving some of Hortensio 's discarded lines to Tranio, but not fully correcting everything to fit the presence of a new suitor.
This is important in Duthie 's theory of an Ur - Shrew insofar as he argues it is the original version of The Shrew upon which A Shrew is based, not the version which appears in the 1623 First Folio. As Oliver argues, "A Shrew is a report of an earlier, Shakespearian, form of The Shrew in which Hortensio was not disguised as Litio. '' Oliver suggests that when Pembroke 's Men left London in June 1592, they had in their possession a now lost early draft of the play. Upon returning to London, they published A Shrew in 1594, some time after which Shakespeare rewrote his original play into the form seen in the First Folio.
Duthie 's arguments were never fully accepted at the time, as critics tended to look on the relationship between the two plays as an either - or situation; A Shrew is either a reported text or an early draft. In more recent scholarship, however, the possibility that a text could be both has been shown to be critically viable. For example, in his 2003 Oxford Shakespeare edition of 2 Henry VI, Roger Warren makes the same argument for The First Part of the Contention. Randall Martin reaches the same conclusion regarding The True Tragedy of Richard Duke of Yorke in his 2001 Oxford Shakespeare edition of 3 Henry VI. This lends support to the theory that A Shrew could be both a reported text and an early draft.
The Taming of the Shrew has been the subject of critical controversy. Dana Aspinall writes "Since its first appearance, some time between 1588 and 1594, Shrew has elicited a panoply of heartily supportive, ethically uneasy, or altogether disgusted responses to its rough - and - tumble treatment of the ' taming ' of the ' curst shrew ' Katherina, and obviously, of all potentially unruly wives. '' Phyllis Rackin argues that "seen in the context of current anxieties, desires and beliefs, Shakespeare 's play seems to prefigure the most oppressive modern assumptions about women and to validate those assumptions as timeless truths. '' Stevie Davies says that responses to Shrew have been "dominated by feelings of unease and embarrassment, accompanied by the desire to prove that Shakespeare can not have meant what he seems to be saying; and that therefore he can not really be saying it. '' Philippa Kelly asks:
Do we simply add our voices to those of critical disapproval, seeing Shrew as at best an ' early Shakespeare ', the socially provocative effort of a dramatist who was learning to flex his muscles? Or as an item of social archaeology that we have long ago abandoned? Or do we ' rescue ' it from offensive male smugness? Or make an appeal to the slippery category of ' irony '?
Some scholars argue that even in Shakespeare 's day the play must have been controversial, due to the changing nature of gender politics. Marjorie Garber, for example, suggests Shakespeare created the Induction so the audience would n't react badly to the misogyny in the Petruchio / Katherina story; he was, in effect, defending himself against charges of sexism. G.R. Hibbard argues that during the period in which the play was written, arranged marriages were beginning to give way to newer, more romantically informed unions, and thus people 's views on women 's position in society, and their relationships with men, were in a state of flux. As such, audiences may not have been as predisposed to tolerate the harsh treatment of Katherina as is often thought.
Evidence of at least some initial societal discomfort with The Shrew is, perhaps, to be found in the fact that John Fletcher, Shakespeare 's successor as house playwright for the King 's Men, wrote The Woman 's Prize, or The Tamer Tamed as a sequel to Shakespeare 's play. Written c. 1611, the play tells the story of Petruchio 's remarriage after Katherina 's death. In a mirror of the original, his new wife attempts (successfully) to tame him -- thus the tamer becomes the tamed. Although Fletcher 's sequel is often downplayed as merely a farce, some critics acknowledge the more serious implications of such a reaction. Lynda Boose, for example, writes, "Fletcher 's response may in itself reflect the kind of discomfort that Shrew has characteristically provoked in men and why its many revisions since 1594 have repeatedly contrived ways of softening the edges. ''
With the rise of the feminist movement in the twentieth century, reactions to the play have tended to become more divergent. For some critics, "Kate 's taming was no longer as funny as it had been (...) her domination became, in George Bernard Shaw 's words ' altogether disgusting to modern sensibility '. '' Addressing the relationship between A Shrew and The Shrew from a political perspective, for example, Leah S. Marcus very much believes the play to be what it seems. She argues A Shrew is an earlier version of The Shrew, but acknowledges that most scholars reject the idea that A Shrew was written by Shakespeare. She believes one of the reasons for this is because A Shrew "hedges the play 's patriarchal message with numerous qualifiers that do not exist in '' The Shrew. She calls A Shrew a more "progressive '' text than The Shrew, and argues that scholars tend to dismiss the idea that A Shrew is Shakespearean because "the women are not as satisfactorily tamed as they are in The Shrew. '' She also points out that if A Shrew is an early draft, it suggests Shakespeare "may have increased rather than decreased the patriarchal violence of his materials '', something which, she believes, scholars find difficult to accept.
However, others see the play as an example of a pre-feminist condemnation of patriarchal domination and an argument for modern - day "women 's lib ''. For example, director Conall Morrison, wrote in 2008:
I find it gobsmacking that some people see the play as misogynistic. I believe that it is a moral tale. I believe that it is saying -- "do not be like this '' and "do not do this. '' "These people are objectionable. '' By the time you get to the last scene all of the men -- including her father are saying -- it 's amazing how you crushed that person. It 's amazing how you lobotomised her. And they 're betting on the women as though they are dogs in a race or horses. It 's reduced to that. And it 's all about money and the level of power. Have you managed to crush Katharina or for Hortensio and Lucentio, will you be able to control Bianca and the widow? Will you similarly be able to control your proto - shrews? It is so self - evidently repellent that I do n't believe for a second that Shakespeare is espousing this. And I do n't believe for a second that the man who would be interested in Benedict and Cleopatra and Romeo and Juliet and all these strong lovers would have some misogynist aberration. It 's very obviously a satire on this male behaviour and a cautionary tale (...) That 's not how he views women and relationships, as demonstrated by the rest of the plays. This is him investigating misogyny, exploring it and animating it and obviously damning it because none of the men come out smelling of roses. When the chips are down they all default to power positions and self - protection and status and the one woman who was a challenge to them, with all with her wit and intellect, they are all gleeful and relieved to see crushed.
Philippa Kelly makes this point:
Petruchio 's ' taming ' of Kate, harsh though it may be, is a far cry from the fiercely repressive measures going on outside the theatre, and presumably endorsed by much of its audience. Some critics argue that in mitigating the violence both of folktales and of actual practices, Shakespeare sets up Petruchio as a ruffian and a bully, but only as a disguise -- and a disguise that implicitly criticises the brutal arrogance of conventional male attitudes.
Elizabeth Kantor argues the following:
Whatever the "gender studies '' folks may think, Shakespeare is n't trying to "domesticate women ''; he 's not making any kind of case for how they ought to be treated or what sort of rights they ought to have. He 's just noticing what men and women are really like, and creating fascinating and delightful drama out of it. Shakespeare 's celebration of the limits that define us -- of our natures as men and women -- upsets only those folks who find human nature itself upsetting.
Jonathan Miller, director of the 1980 BBC Television Shakespeare adaptation, and several theatrical productions, argues that although the play is not misogynistic, neither is it a feminist treatise:
I think it 's an irresponsible and silly thing to make that play into a feminist tract: to use it as a way of proving that women have been dishonoured and hammered flat by male chauvinism. There 's another, more complex way of reading it than that: which sees it as being their particular view of how society ought to be organised in order to restore order in a fallen world. Now, we do n't happen to think that we are inheritors of the sin of Adam and that orderliness can only be preserved by deputing power to magistrates and sovereigns, fathers and husbands. But the fact that they did think like that is absolutely undeniable, so productions which really do try to deny that, and try to hijack the work to make it address current problems about women 's place in society, become boring, thin and tractarian.
An element in the debate regarding the play 's misogyny, or lack thereof, is the Induction, and how it relates to the Katherina / Petruchio story. According to H.J. Oliver, "it has become orthodoxy to claim to find in the Induction the same ' theme ' as is to be found in both the Bianca and the Katherine - Petruchio plots of the main play, and to take it for granted that identity of theme is a merit and ' justifies ' the introduction of Sly. '' For example, Geoffrey Bullough argues the three plots "are all linked in idea because all contain discussion of the relations of the sexes in marriage. '' Richard Hosley suggests the three plots form a unified whole insofar as they all deal with "assumptions about identity and assumptions about personality. '' Oliver, however, argues that "the Sly Induction does not so much announce the theme of the enclosed stories as establish their tone. ''
This is important in terms of determining the seriousness of Katherina 's final speech. Marjorie Garber writes of the Induction, "the frame performs the important task of distancing the later action, and of insuring a lightness of tone -- significant in light of the real abuse to which Kate is subjected by Petruchio. '' Oliver argues the Induction is used to remove the audience from the world of the enclosed plot -- to place the Sly story on the same level of reality as the audience, and the Katherina / Petruchio story on a different level of reality. This, he argues, is done to ensure the audience does not take the play literally, that it sees the Katherina / Petruchio story as a farce:
the phenomenon of theatrical illusion is itself being laughed at; and the play within the play makes Sly drowsy and probably soon sends him to sleep. Are we to let that play preach morality to us or look in it for social or intellectual substance? The drunken tinker may be believed in as one believes in any realistically presented character; but we can not ' believe ' in something that is not even mildly interesting to him. The play within the play has been presented only after all the preliminaries have encouraged us to take it as a farce.
Oliver argues that "the main purpose of the Induction was to set the tone for the play within the play -- in particular, to present the story of Kate and her sister as none - too - serious comedy put on to divert a drunken tinker ''. He suggests that if the Induction is removed from a production of the play (as it very often is), a fundamental part of the structure has been lost. Speaking of Jonathan Miller 's BBC Television Shakespeare adaptation of 1980, which omitted the Induction, Stanley Wells wrote "to omit the Christopher Sly episodes is to suppress one of Shakespeare 's most volatile lesser characters, to jettison most of the play 's best poetry, and to strip it of an entire dramatic dimension. ''
Regarding the importance of the Induction, Jonathan Bate and Eric Rasmussen argue "the Sly framework establishes a self - referential theatricality in which the status of the shrew - play as a play is enforced. '' Graham Holderness argues "the play in its received entirety does not propose any simple or unitary view of sexual politics: it contains a crudely reactionary dogma of masculine supremacy, but it also works on that ideology to force its expression into self - contradiction. The means by which this self - interrogation is accomplished is that complex theatrical device of the Sly - framework (...) without the metadramatic potentialities of the Sly - framework, any production of Shrew is thrown much more passively at the mercy of the director 's artistic and political ideology. '' Coppélia Kahn suggests "the transformation of Christopher Sly from drunken lout to noble lord, a transformation only temporary and skin - deep, suggests that Kate 's switch from independence may also be deceptive and prepares us for the irony of the dénouement. '' The Induction serves to undercut charges of misogyny -- the play within the play is a farce, it is not supposed to be taken seriously by the audience, as it is not taken seriously by Sly. As such, questions of the seriousness of what happens within it are rendered irrelevant.
Language itself is a major theme in the play, especially in the taming process, where mastery of language becomes paramount. Katherina is initially described as a shrew because of her harsh language to those around her. Brown University Professor Karen Newman points out, "from the outset of the play, Katherine 's threat to male authority is posed through language: it is perceived by others as such and is linked to a claim larger than shrewishness -- witchcraft -- through the constant allusions to Katherine 's kinship with the devil. '' For example, after Katherina rebukes Hortensio and Gremio in Act 1, Scene 1, Hortensio replies with "From all such devils, good Lord deliver us! '' (l. 66). Even Katherina 's own father refers to her as "thou hilding of a devilish spirit '' (2.1. 26). Petruchio, however, attempts to tame her -- and thus her language -- with rhetoric that specifically undermines her tempestuous nature;
Say that she rail, why then I 'll tell her plain She sings as sweetly as a nightingale. Say that she frown, I 'll say that she looks as clear As morning roses newly washed with dew. Say she be mute and will not speak a word, Then I 'll commend her volubility And say she uttereth piercing eloquence. If she do bid me pack, I 'll give her thanks, As though she bid me stay by her a week. If she deny to wed, I 'll crave the day When I shall ask the banns, and when be marrièd. (2.1. 169 -- 179)
Here Petruchio is specifically attacking the very function of Katherina 's language, vowing that no matter what she says, he will purposely misinterpret it, thus undermining the basis of the linguistic sign, and disrupting the relationship between signifier and signified. In this sense, Margaret Jane Kidnie argues this scene demonstrates the "slipperiness of language. ''
Apart from undermining her language, Petruchio also uses language to objectify her. For example, in Act 3, Scene 2, Petruchio explains to all present that Katherina is now literally his property:
She is my goods, my chattels, she is my house, My household stuff, my field, my barn, My horse, my ox, my ass, my any thing. (ll. 232 -- 234)
In discussing Petruchio 's objectification of Katherina, Tita French Baumlin focuses on his puns on her name. By referring to her as a "cake '' and a "cat '' (2.1. 185 -- 195), he objectifies her in a more subtle manner than saying she belongs to him. A further aspect of Petruchio 's taming rhetoric is the repeated comparison of Katherina to animals. In particular, he is prone to comparing her to a hawk (2.1. 8 and 4.1. 177 -- 183), often employing an overarching hunting metaphor; "My falcon now is sharp and passing empty, / And till she stoop she must not be full - gorged '' (4.1. 177 -- 178). Katherina, however, appropriates this method herself, leading to a trading of insults rife with animal imagery in Act 2, Scene 1 (ll. 207 -- 232), where she compares Petruchio to a turtle and a crab.
Language itself has thus become a battleground. However, it is Petruchio who seemingly emerges as the victor. In his house, after Petruchio has dismissed the haberdasher, Katherina exclaims
Why sir, I trust I may have leave to speak, And speak I will. I am no child, no babe; Your betters have endured me say my mind, And if you can not, best you stop your ears. My tongue will tell the anger of my heart, Or else my heart concealing it will break, And rather than it shall, I will be free Even to the uttermost, as I please, in words. (4.3. 74 -- 80)
Katherina is here declaring her independence of language; no matter what Petruchio may do, she will always be free to speak her mind. However, only one - hundred lines later, the following exchange occurs;
PETRUCHIO Let 's see, I think ' tis now some seven o'clock. And well we may come there by dinner - time. KATHERINA I dare assure you, sir, ' tis almost two, And ' twill be supper - time ere you come there. PETRUCHIO It shall be seven ere I go to horse. Look what I speak, or do, or think to do, You are still crossing it. Sirs, let 't alone, I will not go today; and ere I do, It shall be what o'clock I say it is. (4.3. 184 -- 192)
Kidnie says of this scene, "the language game has suddenly changed and the stakes have been raised. Whereas before he seemed to mishear or misunderstand her words, Petruchio now overtly tests his wife 's subjection by demanding that she concede to his views even when they are demonstrably unreasonable. The lesson is that Petruchio has the absolute authority to rename their world. '' Katherina is free to say whatever she wishes, as long she agrees with Petruchio. His apparent victory in the ' language game ' is seen in Act 4, Scene 5, when Katherina is made to switch the words "moon '' and "sun '', and she concedes that she will agree with whatever Petruchio says, no matter how absurd:
And be it the moon, or sun, or what you please; And if you please to call it a rush - candle, Henceforth I vow it shall be so for me... But sun it is not, when you say it is not, And the moon changes even as your mind: What you will have it named, even that it is, And so it shall be so for Katherine. (ll. 12 -- 15; ll. 19 -- 22)
Of this scene, Kidnie argues "what he ' says ' must take priority over what Katherina ' knows '. '' From this point, Katherina 's language changes from her earlier vernacular; instead of defying Petruchio and his words, she has apparently succumbed to his rhetoric and accepted that she will use his language instead of her own -- both Katherina and her language have, seemingly, been tamed.
The important role of language, however, is not confined to the taming plot. For example, in a psychoanalytic reading of the play, Joel Fineman suggests there is a distinction made between male and female language, further subcategorising the latter into good and bad, epitomised by Bianca and Katherina respectively. Language is also important in relation to the Induction. Here, Sly speaks in prose until he begins to accept his new role as lord, at which point he switches to blank verse and adopts the royal we. Language is also important in relation to Tranio and Lucentio, who appear on stage speaking a highly artificial style of blank verse full of classical and mythological allusions and elaborate metaphors and similes, thus immediately setting them aside from the more straightforward language of the Induction, and alerting the audience to the fact that they are now in an entirely different milieu.
In productions of the play, it is often the interpretation of Katherina 's final speech (the longest speech in the play) that defines the tone of the entire production, such is the importance of this speech and what it says, or seems to say, about female submission:
Fie, fie! unknit that threatening unkind brow, And dart not scornful glances from those eyes To wound thy lord, thy king, thy governor. It blots thy beauty, as frosts do bite the meads, Confounds thy fame, as whirlwinds shake fair buds, And in no sense is meet or amiable. A woman moved is like a fountain troubled, Muddy, ill - seeming, thick, bereft of beauty, And while it is so, none so dry or thirsty Will deign to sip or touch one drop of it. Thy husband is thy lord, thy life, thy keeper, Thy head, thy sovereign: one that cares for thee, And for thy maintenance; commits his body To painful labour both by sea and land, To watch the night in storms, the day in cold, Whilst thou liest warm at home, secure and safe, And craves no other tribute at thy hands But love, fair looks, and true obedience -- Too little payment for so great a debt. Such duty as the subject owes the prince, Even such a woman oweth to her husband; And when she is froward, peevish, sullen, sour, And not obedient to his honest will, What is she but a foul contending rebel And graceless traitor to her loving lord? I am ashamed that women are so simple To offer war where they should kneel for peace; Or seek for rule, supremacy, and sway, When they are bound to serve, love, and obey. Why are our bodies soft, and weak, and smooth, Unapt to toil and trouble in the world, But that our soft conditions, and our hearts, Should well agree with our external parts? Come, come, you froward and unable worms! My mind hath been as big as one of yours, My heart as great, my reason haply more, To bandy word for word and frown for frown; But now I see our lances are but straws, Our strength as weak, our weakness past compare, That seeming to be most which we indeed least are. Then vail your stomachs, for it is no boot, And place your hands below your husband 's foot; In token of which duty, if he please, My hand is ready, may it do him ease. (5.2. 136 -- 179)
Traditionally, many critics have taken the speech literally. Writing in 1943, for example, G.I. Duthie argued "what Shakespeare emphasises here is the foolishness of trying to destroy order. '' However, in a modern western society, holding relatively egalitarian views on gender, such an interpretation presents a dilemma, as according to said interpretation the play seemingly celebrates female subjugation.
Critically, four main theories have emerged in response to Katherina 's speech;
George Bernard Shaw wrote in 1897 that "no man with any decency of feeling can sit it out in the company of a woman without being extremely ashamed of the lord - of - creation moral implied in the wager and the speech put into the woman 's own mouth. '' Katherina is seen as having been successfully tamed, and having come to accept her newly submissive role to such an extent that she advocates that role for others, the final speech rationalises, according to Duthie, in both a political and sociological sense, the submission of wives to husbands.
Actress Meryl Streep, who played Katherina in 1978 at the Shakespeare in the Park festival, says of the play, "really what matters is that they have an incredible passion and love; it 's not something that Katherina admits to right away, but it does provide the source of her change. '' Similarly, John C. Bean sees the speech as the final stage in the process of Katherina 's change of heart towards Petruchio; "if we can appreciate the liberal element in Kate 's last speech -- the speech that strikes modern sensibilities as advocating male tyranny -- we can perhaps see that Kate is tamed not in the automatic manner of behavioural psychology but in the spontaneous manner of the later romantic comedies where characters lose themselves and emerge, as if from a dream, liberated into the bonds of love. ''
Perhaps the most common interpretation in the modern era is that the speech is ironic; Katherina has not been tamed at all, she has merely duped Petruchio into thinking she has. Two especially well known examples of this interpretation are seen in the two major feature film adaptations of the play; Sam Taylor 's 1929 version and Franco Zeffirelli 's 1967 version. In Taylor 's film, Katherina, played by Mary Pickford, winks at Bianca during the speech, indicating she does not mean a word of what she is saying. In Zeffirelli 's film, Katherina, played by Elizabeth Taylor, delivers the speech as though it were her own idea, and the submission aspect is reversed by her ending the speech and leaving the room, causing Petruchio to have to run after her. Phyllis Rackin is an example of a scholar who reads the speech ironically, especially in how it deals with gender. She points out that several lines in the speech focus on the woman 's body, but in the Elizabethan theatre, the role would have been played by a young boy, thus rendering any evocation of the female form as ironic. Reading the play as a satire of gender roles, she sees the speech as the culmination of this process. Along similar lines, Philippa Kelly says "the body of the boy actor in Shakespeare 's time would have created a sexual indeterminacy that would have undermined the patriarchal narrative, so that the taming is only apparently so. And in declaring women 's passivity so extensively and performing it centre - stage, Kate might be seen to take on a kind of agency that rebukes the feminine codes of silence and obedience which she so expressly advocates. '' Similarly, Coppélia Kahn argues the speech is really about how little Katherina has been tamed; "she steals the scene from her husband, who has held the stage throughout the play, and reveals that he has failed to tame her in the sense he set out to. He has gained her outward compliance in the form of a public display, while her spirit remains mischievously free. ''
In relation to this interpretation, William Empson suggests that Katherina was originally performed by an adult male actor rather than a young boy. He argues that the play indicates on several occasions that Katherina is physically strong, and even capable of over-powering Petruchio. For example, this is demonstrated off - stage when the horse falls on her as she is riding to Petruchio 's home, and she is able to lift it off herself, and later when she throws Petruchio off a servant he is beating. Empson argues that the point is not that Katherina is, as a woman, weak, but that she is not well cast in the role in life which she finds herself having to play. The end of the play then offers blatant irony when a strong male actor, dressed as a woman, lectures women on how to play their parts.
The fourth school of thought is that the play is a farce, and hence the speech should not be read seriously or ironically. For example, Robert B. Heilman argues that "the whole wager scene falls essentially within the realm of farce: the responses are largely mechanical, as is their symmetry. Kate 's final long speech on the obligations and fitting style of wives we can think of as a more or less automatic statement -- that is, the kind appropriate to farce -- of a generally held doctrine. '' He further makes his case by positing:
there are two arguments against (an ironic interpretation). One is that a careful reading of the lines will show that most of them have to be taken literally; only the last seven or eight lines can be read with ironic overtones (...) The second is that some forty lines of straight irony would be too much to be borne; it would be inconsistent with the straightforwardness of most of the play, and it would really turn Kate back into a hidden shrew whose new technique was sarcastic indirection, sidemouthing at the audience, while her not very intelligent husband, bamboozled, cheered her on.
Another way in which to read the speech (and the play) as farcical is to focus on the Induction. H.J. Oliver, for example, emphasising the importance of the Induction, writes "the play within the play has been presented only after all the preliminaries have encouraged us to take it as a farce. We have been warned. '' Of Katherina 's speech, he argues:
this lecture by Kate on the wife 's duty to submit is the only fitting climax to the farce -- and for that very reason it can not logically be taken seriously, orthodox though the views expressed may be (...) attempting to take the last scene as a continuation of the realistic portrayal of character leads some modern producers to have it played as a kind of private joke between Petruchio and Kate -- or even have Petruchio imply that by now he is thoroughly ashamed of himself. It does not, can not, work. The play has changed key: it has modulated back from something like realistic social comedy to the other, ' broader ' kind of entertainment that was foretold by the Induction.
The issue of gender politics is an important theme in The Taming of the Shrew. In a letter to the Pall Mall Gazette, George Bernard Shaw famously called the play "one vile insult to womanhood and manhood from the first word to the last. '' A contemporary critic, Emily Detmer, points out that in the late 16th and early 17th century, laws curtailing husbands ' use of violence in disciplining their wives were becoming more commonplace; "the same culture that still "felt good '' about dunking scolds, whipping whores, or burning witches was becoming increasingly sensitive about husbands beating their wives. '' Detmer argues:
the vigor of public discourse on wife - beating exemplifies a culture at work reformulating permissible and impermissible means for husbands to maintain control over the politics of the family, without, however, questioning that goal. This new boundary was built on notions of class and civil behaviour. Shakespeare 's The Taming of the Shrew acts as a comedic roadmap for reconfiguring these emergent modes of "skillful '' and civilised dominance for gentlemen, that is, for subordinating a wife without resorting to the "common '' man 's brute strength.
Petruchio 's answer is to psychologically tame Katherina, a method not frowned upon by society; "the play signals a shift towards a "modern '' way of managing the subordination of wives by legitimatising domination as long as it is not physical. '' Detmer argues "Shakespeare 's "shrew '' is tamed in a manner that would have made the wife - beating reformers proud; Petruchio 's taming "policy '' dramatises how abstention from physical violence works better. The play encourages its audience not only to pay close attention to Petruchio 's method but also to judge and enjoy the method 's permissibility because of the absence of blows and the harmonious outcome. ''
However, Detmer is critical of scholars who defend Shakespeare for depicting male dominance in a less brutal fashion than many of his contemporaries. For example, although not specifically mentioned by Detmer, Michael West writes "the play 's attitude was characteristically Elizabethan and was expressed more humanly by Shakespeare than by some of his sources. '' Detmer goes on to read the play in light of modern psychological theories regarding women 's responses to domestic violence, and argues that Katherina develops Stockholm syndrome:
a model of domestic violence that includes tactics other than physical violence gives readers a way in which to understand Kate 's romanticised surrender at the end of the play as something other than consensual, as, in fact, a typical response to abuse (...) Like a victim of the Stockholm syndrome, she denies her own feelings in order to bond with her abuser. Her surrender and obedience signify her emotional bondage as a survival strategy; she aims to please because her life depends upon it. Knowing how the Stockholm syndrome works can help us to see that whatever "subjectivity '' might be achieved is created out of domination and a coercive bonding.
In a Marxist reading of the play, Natasha Korda argues that, although Petruchio is not characterised as a violent man, he still embodies sixteenth century notions regarding the subjugation and objectification of women. Shrew taming stories existed prior to Shakespeare 's play, and in such stories, "the object of the tale was simply to put the shrew to work, to restore her (frequently through some gruesome form of punishment) to her proper productive place within the household economy. '' Petruchio does not do this, but Korda argues he still works to curtail the activities of the woman; "Kate (is) not a reluctant producer, but rather an avid and sophisticated consumer of market goods (...) Petruchio 's taming strategy is accordingly aimed not at his wife 's productive capacity -- not once does he ask Kate to brew, bake, wash, card, or spin -- but at her consumption. He seeks to educate her in her role as a consumer. '' She believes that even though Petruchio does not use force to tame Katherina, his actions are still an endorsement of patriarchy; he makes her his property and tames her into accepting a patriarchal economic worldview. Vital in this reading is Katherina 's final speech, which Korda argues "inaugurates a new gendered division of labour, according to which husbands "labour both by sea and land '' while their wives luxuriate at home (...) In erasing the status of housework as work, separate - sphere ideology renders the housewife perpetually indebted to her husband (...) The Taming of the Shrew marks the emergence of the ideological separation of feminine and masculine spheres of labour. ''
In a different reading of how gender politics are handled in the play, David Beauregard reads the relationship between Katherina and Petruchio in traditional Aristotelian terms. Petruchio, as the architect of virtue (Politics, 1.13), brings Kate into harmony with her nature by developing her "new - built virtue and obedience '', (5.2. 118), and she, in turn, brings to Petruchio in her person all the Aristotelian components of happiness -- wealth and good fortune, virtue, friendship and love, the promise of domestic peace and quiet (Nicomachean Ethics, 1.7 -- 8). The virtue of obedience at the center of Kate 's final speech is not what Aristotle describes as the despotic rule of master over slave, but rather the statesman 's rule over a free and equal person (Politics, 1.3, 12 -- 13). Recognising the evil of despotic domination, the play holds up in inverse form Kate 's shrewishness, the feminine form of the will to dominance, as an evil that obstructs natural fulfillment and destroys marital happiness.
Another theme in the play is cruelty. Alexander Leggatt states:
the taming of Katherina is not just a lesson, but a game -- a test of skill and a source of pleasure. The roughness is, at bottom, part of the fun: such is the peculiar psychology of sport that one is willing to endure aching muscles and risk the occasional broken limb for the sake of the challenge. The sports most often recalled throughout the play are blood sports, hunting and hawking, thus invoking in the audience the state of mind in which cruelty and violence are acceptable, even exciting, because their scope is limited by tacit agreement and they are made the occasion for a display of skill.
Ann Thompson argues that "the fact that in the folktale versions the shrew - taming story always comes to its climax when the husbands wager on their wives ' obedience must have been partly responsible for the large number of references to sporting, gaming and gambling throughout the play. These metaphors can help to make Petruchio 's cruelty acceptable by making it seem limited and conventionalised. '' Marvin Bennet Krims argues that "the play leans heavily on representations of cruelty for its comedic effect. '' He believes cruelty permeates the entire play, including the Induction, arguing the Sly frame, with the Lord 's spiteful practical joke, prepares the audience for a play willing to treat cruelty as a comedic matter. He suggests that cruelty is a more important theme than gender, arguing that "the aggression represented in Taming can be read as having less to do with gender and more to do with hate, with the text thereby becoming a comic representation of the general problem of human cruelty and victimisation. ''
Director Michael Bogdanov, who directed the play in 1978, considers that "Shakespeare was a feminist '':
Shakespeare shows women totally abused -- like animals -- bartered to the highest bidder. He shows women used as commodities, not allowed to choose for themselves. In The Taming of the Shrew you get that extraordinary scene between Baptista, Grumio, and Tranio, where they are vying with each other to see who can offer most for Bianca, who is described as ' the prize '. It is a toss of the coin to see which way she will go: to the old man with a certain amount of money, or to the young man, who is boasting that he 's got so many ships. She could end up with the old impotent fool, or the young ' eligible ' man: what sort of life is that to look forward to? There is no question of it, (Shakespeare 's) sympathy is with the women, and his purpose, to expose the cruelty of a society that allows these things to happen.
The motivation of money is another theme. When speaking of whether or not someone may ever want to marry Katherina, Hortensio says "Though it pass your patience and mine to endure her loud alarums, why man, there be good fellows in the world, and a man could light on them, would take her with all faults and money enough '' (1.1. 125 -- 128). In the scene that follows Petruchio says:
If thou know One rich enough to be Petruchio 's wife - As wealth is burden of my wooing dance - Be she as foul as was Florentius ' love, As old as Sibyl, and as curst and shrewd As Socrates ' Xanthippe, or a worse, She moves me not. (1.2. 65 -- 71)
A few lines later Grumio says, "Why give him gold enough and marry him to a puppet or an aglet - baby, or an old trot with ne 're a tooth in her head, though she have as many diseases as two and fifty horses. Why, nothing comes amiss, so money comes withal '' (1.2. 77 -- 80). Furthermore, Petruchio is encouraged to woo Katherina by Gremio, Tranio (as Lucentio), and Hortensio, who vow to pay him if he wins her, on top of Baptista 's dowry ("After my death, the one half of my lands, and in possession, twenty thousand crowns ''). Later, Petruchio does not agree with Baptista on the subject of love in this exchange:
BAPTISTA When the special thing is well obtained, That is, her love; for that is all in all. PETRUCHIO Why that is nothing. (2.1. 27 -- 29)
Gremio and Tranio literally bid for Bianca. As Baptista says, "' Tis deeds must win the prize, and he of both / That can assure my daughter greatest dower / Shall have my Bianca 's love '' (2.1. 344 -- 346).
The first opera based on the play was Ferdinando Bertoni 's opera buffa Il duca di Atene (1780), with libretto by Carlo Francesco Badini.
Frederic Reynolds ' Catherine and Petruchio (1828) is an adaptation of Garrick, with an overture taken from Gioachino Rossini, songs derived from numerous Shakespeare plays and sonnets, and music by John Braham and Thomas Simpson Cooke. Starring Fanny Ayton and James William Wallack, the opera premiered at Drury Lane, but it was not successful, and closed after only a few performances. Hermann Goetz ' Der Widerspänstigen Zähmung (1874), with libretto by Joseph Viktor Widmann, is a comic opera, which focuses on the Bianca subplot, and cuts back the taming story. It was first performed at the original National Theatre Mannheim. John Kendrick Bangs ' Katherine: A Travesty (1888) is a Gilbert and Sullivan - style parody operetta which premiered in the Metropolitan Opera. Spyridon Samaras ' La furia domata: commedia musicale in tre atti (1895) is a now lost lyric comedy with libretto by Enrico Annibale Butti and Giulio Macchi, which premiered at the Teatro Lirico. Ruperto Chapí 's Las bravías (1896), with a libretto by José López Silva and Carlos Fernández Shaw, is a one - act género chico zarzuela clearly based on the story, but with names changed and the location altered to Madrid: it was a major success in Spain, with over 200 performances in 1896 alone, and continues to be performed regularly.
Johan Wagenaar 's De getemde feeks (1909) is the second of three overtures Wagenaar wrote based on Shakespeare, the others being Koning Jan (1891) and Driekoningenavond (1928). Another overture inspired by the play is Alfred Reynolds ' The Taming of the Shrew Overture (1927). Ermanno Wolf - Ferrari 's verismo opera Sly, ovvero la leggenda del dormiente risvegliato (1927) focuses on the Induction, with libretto by Giovacchino Forzano. A tragedy, the opera depicts Sly as a hard - drinking and debt - ridden poet who sings in a London pub. When he is tricked into believing that he is a lord, his life improves, but upon learning it is a ruse, he mistakenly concludes the woman he loves (Dolly) only told him she loved him as part of the ruse. In despair, he kills himself by cutting his wrists, with Dolly arriving too late to save him. Starring Aureliano Pertile and Mercedes Llopart, it was first performed at La Scala in Milan. Rudolf Karel 's The Taming of the Shrew is an unfinished opera upon which he worked between 1942 and 1944. Philip Greeley Clapp 's The Taming of the Shrew (1948) was first performed at the Metropolitan Opera. Vittorio Giannini 's The Taming of the Shrew (1953) is an opera buffa, with libretto by Giannini and Dorothy Fee. It was first performed at the Cincinnati Music Hall, starring Dorothy Short and Robert Kircher. Vissarion Shebalin 's Ukroshchenye stroptivoy (1957), with libretto by Abram Akimovich Gozenpud, was Shebalin 's last opera and was immediately hailed as a masterpiece throughout Russia. Dominick Argento 's Christopher Sly (1962), with libretto by John Manlove, is a comic opera in two scenes and an interlude, first performed in the University of Minnesota. Sly is duped by a Lord into believing that he himself is a lord. However, he soon becomes aware of the ruse, and when left alone, he flees with the Lord 's valuables and his two mistresses.
The earliest known musical adaptation of the play was a ballad opera based on Charles Johnson 's Cobler of Preston. Called The Cobler of Preston 's Opera, the piece was anonymously written, although William Dunkin is thought by some scholars as a likely candidate. Rehearsals for the premier began in Smock Alley in October 1731, but sometime in November or December, the show was cancelled. It was instead performed by a group of children (including an eleven - year - old Peg Woffington) in January 1732 at Signora Violante 's New Booth in Dame Street. It was subsequently published in March.
James Worsdale 's A Cure for a Scold is also a ballad opera. First performed at Drury Lane in 1735, starring Kitty Clive and Charles Macklin, A Cure for a Scold was an adaptation of Lacy 's Sauny the Scot rather than Shakespeare 's original Taming of the Shrew. Petruchio was renamed Manly, and Katherina was renamed Margaret (nicknamed Peg). At the end, there is no wager. Instead, Peg pretends she is dying, and as Petruchio runs for a doctor, she reveals she is fine, and declares "you have taught me what ' tis to be a Wife, and I shall make it my Study to be obliging and obedient, '' to which Manly replies "My best Peg, we will exchange Kindness, and be each others Servants. '' After the play has finished, the actress playing Peg steps forward and speaks directly to the audience as herself; "Well, I must own, it wounds me to the Heart / To play, unwomanly, so mean a Part. / What -- to submit, so tamely -- so contented, / Thank Heav'n! I 'm not the Thing I represented. ''
Cole Porter 's musical Kiss Me, Kate is an adaptation of Taming of the Shrew. The music and lyrics are by Porter and the book is by Samuel and Bella Spewack. It is at least partially based on the 1935 / 1936 Theatre Guild production of Taming of the Shrew, which starred husband and wife Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne, whose backstage fights became legendary. The musical tells the story of a husband and wife acting duo (Fred and Lilli) attempting to stage The Taming of the Shrew, but whose backstage fights keep getting in the way. The musical opened on Broadway at the New Century Theatre in 1948, running for a total of 1,077 performances. Directed by John C. Wilson with choreography by Hanya Holm, it starred Patricia Morison and Alfred Drake. The production moved to the West End in 1951, directed by Samuel Spewack with choreography again by Holm, and starring Patricia Morrison and Bill Johnson. It ran for 501 performances. As well as being a box office hit, the musical was also a critical success, winning five Tony Awards; Best Authors (Musical), Best Original Score, Best Costume Design, Best Musical and Best Producers (Musical). The play has since been revived numerous times in various countries. Its 1999 revival at the Martin Beck Theatre, directed by Michael Blakemore and starring Marin Mazzie and Brian Stokes Mitchell, was especially successful, winning another five Tonys; Best Actor (Musical), Best Costume Design, Best Director (Musical), Best Orchestrations, and Best Revival (Musical).
The first ballet version of the play was Maurice Béjart 's La mégère apprivoisée. Using the music of Alessandro Scarlatti, it was originally performed by the Ballet de l'Opéra de Paris in 1954. The best known ballet adaptation is John Cranko 's The Taming of the Shrew, first performed by the Stuttgart Ballet at the Staatsoper Stuttgart in 1969. Another ballet adaptation is Louis Falco 's Kate 's Rag, first performed by the Louis Falco Dance Company at the Akademie der Künste in 1980. In 1988, Aleksandre Machavariani composed a ballet suite, but it was not performed until 2009, when his son, conductor Vakhtang Machavariani, gave a concert at the Georgian National Music Center featuring music by Modest Mussorgsky, Sergei Prokofiev and some of his father 's pieces.
In 1924, extracts from the play were broadcast on BBC Radio, performed by the Cardiff Station Repertory Company as the eight episode of a series of programs showcasing Shakespeare 's plays, entitled Shakespeare Night. Extracts were also broadcast in 1925 as part of Shakespeare: Scene and Story, with Edna Godfrey - Turner and William Charles Macready, and in 1926 as part of Shakespeare 's Heroines, with Madge Titheradge and Edmund Willard. In 1927, a forty - three - minute truncation of the play was broadcast on BBC National Programme, with Barbara Couper and Ian Fleming. In 1932, National Programme aired another truncated version, this one running eighty - five minutes, and again starring Couper, with Francis James as Petruchio. In 1935, Peter Creswell directed a broadcast of the relatively complete text (only the Bianca subplot was trimmed) on National Programme, starring Mary Hinton and Godfrey Tearle. This was the first non-theatrical version of the play to feature Sly, who was played by Stuart Robertson. In 1941, Creswell directed another adaptation for BBC Home Service, again starring Tearle, with Fay Compton as Katherina. In 1947, BBC Light Programme aired extracts for their Theatre Programme from John Burrell 's Edinburgh Festival production, with Patricia Burke and Trevor Howard. In 1954, the full - length play aired on BBC Home Service, directed by Peter Watts, starring Mary Wimbush and Joseph O'Conor, with Norman Shelley as Sly. BBC Radio 4 aired another full - length broadcast (without the Induction) in 1973 as part of their Monday Night Theatre series, directed by Ian Cotterell, starring Fenella Fielding and Paul Daneman. In 1989, BBC Radio 3 aired the full play, directed by Jeremy Mortimer, starring Cheryl Campbell and Bob Peck, with William Simons as Sly. In 2000, BBC Radio 3 aired another full - length production (without the Induction) as part of their Shakespeare for the New Millennium series, directed by Melanie Harris, and starring Ruth Mitchell and Gerard McSorley.
In the United States, the first major radio production was in July 1937 on NBC Blue Network, when John Barrymore adapted the play into a forty - five - minute piece, starring Elaine Barrie and Barrymore himself. In August of the same year, CBS Radio aired a sixty - minute adaptation directed by Brewster Mason, starring Frieda Inescort and Edward G. Robinson. The adaptation was written by Gilbert Seldes, who employed a narrator (Godfrey Tearle) to fill in gaps in the story, tell the audience about the clothes worn by the characters and offer opinions as to the direction of the plot. For example, Act 4, Scene 5 ends with the narrator musing "We know that Katherina obeys her husband, but has her spirit been really tamed I wonder? '' In 1940, a thirty - minute musical version of the play written by Joseph Gottlieb and Irvin Graham aired on CBS as part of their Columbia Workshop series, starring Nan Sunderland and Carleton Young. In 1941, NBC Blue Network aired a sixty - minute adaptation as part of their Great Plays series, written by Ranald MacDougall, directed by Charles Warburton, and starring Grace Coppin and Herbert Rudley. In 1949, ABC Radio aired an adaptation directed by Homer Fickett, starring Joyce Redman and Burgess Meredith. In 1953, NBC broadcast William Dawkins ' production live from the Oregon Shakespeare Festival. The cast list for this production has been lost, but it is known to have featured George Peppard. In 1960, NBC aired a sixty - minute version adapted by Carl Ritchie from Robert Loper 's stage production for the Oregon Shakespeare Festival, starring Ann Hackney and Gerard Larson.
All references to The Taming of the Shrew, unless otherwise specified, are taken from the Oxford Shakespeare (Oliver, 1982), which is based on the 1623 First Folio. Under this referencing system, 1.2. 51 means Act 1, Scene 2, line 51.
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who are america's got talent judges 2017 | America 's Got Talent (Season 12) - wikipedia
Season twelve of the reality competition series America 's Got Talent was ordered on August 2, 2016 and premiered on NBC on Tuesday, May 30, 2017. Howie Mandel, Mel B, Heidi Klum and Simon Cowell returned as judges for their respective eighth, fifth, fifth and second seasons. Supermodel and businesswoman Tyra Banks replaced Nick Cannon, who hosted the show for eight seasons, making her the first female host of the show. The live shows returned to the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles beginning August 15, 2017.
The format of the show was the same as in season eleven, and Dunkin Donuts sponsors the show for a third consecutive season. A guest judge joined the panel for each episode of the Judge Cuts round: Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox and Seal.
Darci Lynne Farmer was named the winner on the season finale, September 20, 2017. She was the third ventriloquist, third child and third female to win a season of America 's Got Talent. 10 - year - old singer Angelica Hale placed second, and glow light dance troupe Light Balance came in third. Farmer won the show 's prize of $1 million and a headlining performance in Las Vegas.
On October 4, 2016, Simon Cowell signed a contract to remain as a judge through 2019.
Long - time host Nick Cannon announced, on February 13, 2017, that he would not return as host for the twelfth season, soon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his 2017 Showtime comedy special, Stand Up, Do n't Shoot. Cannon was still under contract to host, and NBC executives did not initially accept his resignation, but they ultimately searched for a new host.
On March 12, 2017, NBC announced supermodel and host Tyra Banks as the host for Season 12.
The season had preliminary open call auditions in Chicago, Austin, Cleveland, Jacksonville, Philadelphia, Las Vegas, San Diego, New York City, Charleston, Memphis, and Los Angeles. As in years past, prospective contestants could also submit online auditions.
Judges ' auditions were taped in March at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Los Angeles. The premiere aired May 30, 2017.
The Golden Buzzer returned for its fourth consecutive season. Any act that received a golden buzzer during the preliminary auditions was sent directly to the live shows and did not compete in the Judge Cuts round. In the first episode of preliminary auditions, Mel B pressed the golden buzzer for 12 - year - old singing ventriloquist Darci Lynne Farmer. In subsequent episodes, Simon Cowell pressed it for 29 - year - old deaf singer Mandy Harvey, Howie Mandel chose 16 - year - old former blind singer Christian Guardino, Tyra Banks pressed it for Light Balance dance crew, and Heidi Klum chose 13 - year - old singer Angelina Green.
Each Judge Cuts act that received a golden buzzer advanced to the live shows without any voting by the judges. During the Judge Cuts round, guest judges Chris Hardwick pressed his golden buzzer for 9 - year old singer Angelica Hale, DJ Khaled pressed it for 21 - year old singer - songwriter and guitarist Chase Goehring, Laverne Cox pressed it for 9 - year old singer Celine Tam, and Seal pressed it for soul singer Johnny Manuel.
On June 11, 2017, contestant Brandon Rogers died in an automobile accident. Rogers was an American physician who specialized in family medicine. Earlier in 2017, after seeing YouTube videos of Rogers singing, Boyz II Men invited him to sing with them as a guest in three of their Las Vegas shows. His successful AGT audition aired on July 11, 2017, in his memory. He competed in the Judge Cuts round, but his performance in that round was not televised.
The Judge Cuts round began on Tuesday, July 18, 2017. Like the previous season, one guest judge joined the judges ' panel each show and was given one golden buzzer opportunity to send an act straight to the live shows. Twenty acts were shown each week and seven advanced, including the guest judge 's golden buzzer choice. Guest judges were not given a red buzzer to use. Any act that received all four red buzzers was immediately eliminated from the competition. The four guest judges were Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox, and Seal.
After the Judge Cuts, three wildcards were chosen from eliminated acts to perform in the live shows: Final Draft, Bello Nock and Oskar and Gaspar (who did not perform in the Judge Cuts round). All three of these acts were eliminated in the Quarterfinals.
Guest judge: Chris Hardwick
Date: July 18, 2017
Guest judge: DJ Khaled
Date: July 25, 2017
As of 2017, this is the only Judge Cuts episode in the show 's history in which an act with at least one "X '' buzzer was nevertheless promoted to the live shows. This was also the only Judge Cuts episode of the season in which an act received 4 red buzzers.
Guest judge: Laverne Cox
Date: August 1, 2017
This was the first Judge Cuts episode in which no acts received a red buzzer from any of the judges.
Guest judge: Seal
Date: August 8, 2017
The quarterfinals were broadcast live from the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles starting on August 15, 2017. They featured the nine golden buzzer acts, the 24 other acts promoted during the Judge Cuts round, and three wildcard acts chosen by the producers and judges. Twelve acts performed each week, with results announced the on following nights; each week seven acts were sent through to the semifinals. Puddles Pity Party and Mirror Image received an "X '' in the Quarterfinals. Demian Aditya received "X 's '' by Brown and Cowell in the second Quarterfinals.
Guests: Grace VanderWaal, August 16
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Yoli Mayor was announced to have received more of America 's votes than Just Jerk, and she advanced to the semi-finals.
Guests: Circus 1903, August 23
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Eric Jones was announced to have received more of America 's votes than The Masqueraders, and he advanced to the semi-finals.
^ 2 Due to a technical issue, Light Balance 's performance was based on their dress rehearsal.
^ 3 Another technical issue occurred when the sealed box Aditya was in did n't fall as planned.
Guests: Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, and Jon Dorenbos, August 30
^ 1 Sara added another dog named Loki in her act. Loki performed throughout the rest of the competition.
The live semifinals started on September 5, 2017. They featured the 21 acts voted to the semifinals, plus the judges ' semifinal wildcard pick. Each week, eleven acts performed; five went through to the finals, and six were eliminated. No acts were buzzed.
Guests: The Clairvoyants
^ 1 Chase Goehring, DaNell Daymon & Greater Works, and Mike Yung were not initially announced as performing on week one of semifinals.
^ 1 Merrick Hanna and Mandy Harvey were switched to perform on Week 2 although they were on the Week 1 promo.
^ 2 Klum 's voting intention was not revealed.
The final performances took place on September 19, followed by the final results show on September 20, 2017. No acts were buzzed.
Guest performers in the finale included Kelly Clarkson, Shania Twain, James Arthur, Derek Hough and Terry Fator. Other celebrity appearances included Marlee Matlin.
The following chart describes the acts, appearances and segments presented during the finale.
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how many species of dodo birds were there | Dodo - wikipedia
The dodo (Raphus cucullatus) is an extinct flightless bird that was endemic to the island of Mauritius, east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. The dodo 's closest genetic relative was the also extinct Rodrigues solitaire, the two forming the subfamily Raphinae of the family of pigeons and doves. The closest living relative of the dodo is the Nicobar pigeon. A white dodo was once thought to have existed on the nearby island of Réunion, but this is now thought to have been confusion based on the Réunion ibis and paintings of white dodos.
Subfossil remains show the dodo was about 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) tall and may have weighed 10.6 -- 17.5 kg (23 -- 39 lb) in the wild. The dodo 's appearance in life is evidenced only by drawings, paintings, and written accounts from the 17th century. Because these vary considerably, and because only some illustrations are known to have been drawn from live specimens, its exact appearance in life remains unresolved, and little is known about its behaviour. Though the dodo has historically been considered fat and clumsy, it is now thought to have been well - adapted for its ecosystem. It has been depicted with brownish - grey plumage, yellow feet, a tuft of tail feathers, a grey, naked head, and a black, yellow, and green beak. It used gizzard stones to help digest its food, which is thought to have included fruits, and its main habitat is believed to have been the woods in the drier coastal areas of Mauritius. One account states its clutch consisted of a single egg. It is presumed that the dodo became flightless because of the ready availability of abundant food sources and a relative absence of predators on Mauritius.
The first recorded mention of the dodo was by Dutch sailors in 1598. In the following years, the bird was hunted by sailors and invasive species, while its habitat was being destroyed. The last widely accepted sighting of a dodo was in 1662. Its extinction was not immediately noticed, and some considered it to be a mythical creature. In the 19th century, research was conducted on a small quantity of remains of four specimens that had been brought to Europe in the early 17th century. Among these is a dried head, the only soft tissue of the dodo that remains today. Since then, a large amount of subfossil material has been collected on Mauritius, mostly from the Mare aux Songes swamp. The extinction of the dodo within less than a century of its discovery called attention to the previously unrecognised problem of human involvement in the disappearance of entire species. The dodo achieved widespread recognition from its role in the story of Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland, and it has since become a fixture in popular culture, often as a symbol of extinction and obsolescence.
The dodo was variously declared a small ostrich, a rail, an albatross, or a vulture, by early scientists. In 1842, Danish zoologist Johannes Theodor Reinhardt proposed that dodos were ground pigeons, based on studies of a dodo skull he had discovered in the collection of the Natural History Museum of Denmark. This view was met with ridicule, but was later supported by English naturalists Hugh Edwin Strickland and Alexander Gordon Melville in their 1848 monograph The Dodo and Its Kindred, which attempted to separate myth from reality. After dissecting the preserved head and foot of the specimen at the Oxford University Museum and comparing it with the few remains then available of the extinct Rodrigues solitaire (Pezophaps solitaria) they concluded that the two were closely related. Strickland stated that although not identical, these birds shared many distinguishing features of the leg bones, otherwise known only in pigeons.
Strickland and Melville established that the dodo was anatomically similar to pigeons in many features. They pointed to the very short keratinous portion of the beak, with its long, slender, naked basal part. Other pigeons also have bare skin around their eyes, almost reaching their beak, as in dodos. The forehead was high in relation to the beak, and the nostril was located low on the middle of the beak and surrounded by skin, a combination of features shared only with pigeons. The legs of the dodo were generally more similar to those of terrestrial pigeons than of other birds, both in their scales and in their skeletal features. Depictions of the large crop hinted at a relationship with pigeons, in which this feature is more developed than in other birds. Pigeons generally have very small clutches, and the dodo is said to have laid a single egg. Like pigeons, the dodo lacked the vomer and septum of the nostrils, and it shared details in the mandible, the zygomatic bone, the palate, and the hallux. The dodo differed from other pigeons mainly in the small size of the wings and the large size of the beak in proportion to the rest of the cranium.
Throughout the 19th century, several species were classified as congeneric with the dodo, including the Rodrigues solitaire and the Réunion solitaire, as Didus solitarius and Raphus solitarius, respectively (Didus and Raphus being names for the dodo genus used by different authors of the time). An atypical 17th - century description of a dodo and bones found on Rodrigues, now known to have belonged to the Rodrigues solitaire, led Abraham Dee Bartlett to name a new species, Didus nazarenus, in 1852. Based on solitaire remains, it is now a synonym of that species. Crude drawings of the red rail of Mauritius were also misinterpreted as dodo species; Didus broeckii and Didus herberti.
For many years the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire were placed in a family of their own, the Raphidae (formerly Dididae), because their exact relationships with other pigeons were unresolved. Each was also placed in its own monotypic family (Raphidae and Pezophapidae, respectively), as it was thought that they had evolved their similarities independently. Osteological and DNA analysis has since led to the dissolution of the family Raphidae, and the dodo and solitaire are now placed in their own subfamily, Raphinae, within the family Columbidae.
In 2002, American geneticist Beth Shapiro and colleagues analysed the DNA of the dodo for the first time. Comparison of mitochondrial cytochrome b and 12S rRNA sequences isolated from a tarsal of the Oxford specimen and a femur of a Rodrigues solitaire confirmed their close relationship and their placement within the Columbidae. The genetic evidence was interpreted as showing the Southeast Asian Nicobar pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica) to be their closest living relative, followed by the crowned pigeons (Goura) of New Guinea, and the superficially dodo - like tooth - billed pigeon (Didunculus strigirostris) from Samoa (its scientific name refers to its dodo - like beak). This clade consists of generally ground - dwelling island endemic pigeons. The following cladogram shows the dodo 's closest relationships within the Columbidae, based on Shapiro et al., 2002:
Goura victoria (Victoria crowned pigeon)
Caloenas nicobarica (Nicobar pigeon)
Pezophaps solitaria (Rodrigues solitaire)
Raphus cucullatus (dodo)
Didunculus strigirostris (tooth - billed pigeon)
A similar cladogram was published in 2007, inverting the placement of Goura and Dicunculus and including the pheasant pigeon (Otidiphaps nobilis) and the thick - billed ground pigeon (Trugon terrestris) at the base of the clade. The DNA used in these studies was obtained from the Oxford specimen, and since this material is degraded, and no usable DNA has been extracted from subfossil remains, these findings still need to be independently verified. Based on behavioural and morphological evidence, Jolyon C. Parish proposed that the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire should be placed in the subfamily Gourinae along with the Groura pigeons and others, in agreement with the genetic evidence. In 2014, DNA of the only known specimen of the recently extinct spotted green pigeon (Caloenas maculata) was analysed, and it was found to be a close relative of the Nicobar pigeon, and thus also the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire.
The 2002 study indicated that the ancestors of the dodo and the solitaire diverged around the Paleogene - Neogene boundary. The Mascarene Islands (Mauritius, Réunion, and Rodrigues), are of volcanic origin and are less than 10 million years old. Therefore, the ancestors of both birds probably remained capable of flight for a considerable time after the separation of their lineage. The Nicobar and spotted green pigeon were placed at the base of a lineage leading to the Raphinae, which indicates the flightless raphines had ancestors that were able to fly, were semi-terrestrial, and inhabited islands. This in turn supports the hypothesis that the ancestors of those birds reached the Mascarene islands by island hopping from South Asia. The lack of mammalian herbivores competing for resources on these islands allowed the solitaire and the dodo to attain very large sizes and flightlessness. Despite its divergent skull morphology and adaptations for larger size, many features of its skeleton remained similar to those of smaller, flying pigeons. Another large, flightless pigeon, the Viti Levu giant pigeon (Natunaornis gigoura), was described in 2001 from subfossil material from Fiji. It was only slightly smaller than the dodo and the solitaire, and it too is thought to have been related to the crowned pigeons.
One of the original names for the dodo was the Dutch "Walghvogel '', first used in the journal of Vice Admiral Wybrand van Warwijck, who visited Mauritius during the Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia in 1598. Walghe means "tasteless '', "insipid '', or "sickly '', and vogel means "bird ''. The name was translated into German as Walchstök or Walchvögel, by Jakob Friedlib. The original Dutch report titled Waarachtige Beschryving was lost, but the English translation survived:
On their left hand was a little island which they named Heemskirk Island, and the bay it selve they called Warwick Bay... Here they taried 12. daies to refresh themselues, finding in this place great quantity of foules twice as bigge as swans, which they call Walghstocks or Wallowbirdes being very good meat. But finding an abundance of pigeons & popinnayes (parrots), they disdained any more to eat those great foules calling them Wallowbirds, that is to say lothsome or fulsome birdes.
Another account from that voyage, perhaps the first to mention the dodo, states that the Portuguese referred to them as penguins. The meaning may not have been derived from penguin (the Portuguese referred to them as "fotilicaios '' at the time), but from pinion, a reference to the small wings. The crew of the Dutch ship Gelderland referred to the bird as "Dronte '' (meaning "swollen '') in 1602, a name that is still used in some languages. This crew also called them "griff - eendt '' and "kermisgans '', in reference to fowl fattened for the Kermesse festival in Amsterdam, which was held the day after they anchored on Mauritius.
The etymology of the word dodo is unclear. Some ascribe it to the Dutch word dodoor for "sluggard '', but it is more probably related to Dodaars, which means either "fat - arse '' or "knot - arse '', referring to the knot of feathers on the hind end. The first record of the word Dodaars is in Captain Willem Van West - Zanen 's journal in 1602. The English writer Sir Thomas Herbert was the first to use the word dodo in print in his 1634 travelogue, claiming it was referred to as such by the Portuguese, who had visited Mauritius in 1507. Another Englishman, Emmanuel Altham, had used the word in a 1628 letter, in which he also claimed the origin was Portuguese. The name "dodar '' was introduced into English at the same time as dodo, but was only used until the 18th century. As far as is known, the Portuguese never mentioned the bird. Nevertheless, some sources still state that the word dodo derives from the Portuguese word doudo (currently doido), meaning "fool '' or "crazy ''. It has also been suggested that dodo was an onomatopoeic approximation of the bird 's call, a two - note pigeon - like sound resembling "doo - doo ''.
The Latin name cucullatus ("hooded '') was first used by Juan Eusebio Nieremberg in 1635 as Cygnus cucullatus, in reference to Carolus Clusius 's 1605 depiction of a dodo. In his 18th - century classic work Systema Naturae, Carl Linnaeus used cucullatus as the specific name, but combined it with the genus name Struthio (ostrich). Mathurin Jacques Brisson coined the genus name Raphus (referring to the bustards) in 1760, resulting in the current name Raphus cucullatus. In 1766, Linnaeus coined the new binomial Didus ineptus (meaning "inept dodo ''). This has become a synonym of the earlier name because of nomenclatural priority.
As no complete dodo specimens exist, its external appearance, such as plumage and colouration, is hard to determine. Illustrations and written accounts of encounters with the dodo between its discovery and its extinction (1598 -- 1662) are the primary evidence for its external appearance. According to most representations, the dodo had greyish or brownish plumage, with lighter primary feathers and a tuft of curly light feathers high on its rear end. The head was grey and naked, the beak green, black and yellow, and the legs were stout and yellowish, with black claws. A study of the few remaining feathers on the Oxford specimen head showed that they were pennaceous rather than plumaceous (downy) and most similar to those of other pigeons.
Subfossil remains and remnants of the birds that were brought to Europe in the 17th century show that dodos were very large birds, up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) tall. The bird was sexually dimorphic; males were larger and had proportionally longer beaks. Weight estimates have varied from study to study. In 1993, Bradley C. Livezey proposed that males would have weighed 21 kilograms (46 lb) and females 17 kilograms (37 lb). Also in 1993, Andrew C. Kitchener attributed a high contemporary weight estimate and the roundness of dodos depicted in Europe to these birds having been overfed in captivity; weights in the wild were estimated to have been in the range of 10.6 -- 17.5 kg (23 -- 39 lb), and fattened birds could have weighed 21.7 -- 27.8 kg (48 -- 61 lb). A 2011 estimate by Angst and colleagues gave an average weight as low as 10.2 kg (22 lb). This has also been questioned, and there is still controversy over weight estimates. A 2016 study estimated the weight at 10.6 to 14.3 kg (23 to 32 lb), based on CT scans of composite skeletons. It has also been suggested that the weight depended on the season, and that individuals were fat during cool seasons, but less so during hot.
The skull of the dodo differed much from those of other pigeons, especially in being more robust, the bill having a hooked tip, and in having a short cranium compared to the jaws. The upper bill was nearly twice as long as the cranium, which was short compared to those of its closest pigeon relatives. The openings of the bony nostrils were elongated along the length of the beak, and they contained no bony septum. The cranium (excluding the beak) was wider than it was long, and the frontal bone formed a dome - shape, with the highest point above the hind part of the eye sockets. The skull sloped downwards at the back. The eye sockets occupied much of the hind part of the skull. The sclerotic rings inside the eye were formed by eleven ossicles (small bones), similar to the amount in other pigeons. The mandible was slightly curved, and each half had a single fenestra (opening), as in other pigeons.
The dodo had about nineteen presynsacral vertebrae (those of the neck and thorax, including three fused into a notarium), sixteen synsacral vertebrae (those of the lumbar region and sacrum), six free tail (caudal) vertebrae, and a pygostyle. The neck had well - developed areas for muscle and ligament attachment, probably to support the heavy skull and beak. On each side, it had six ribs, four of which articulated with the sternum through sternal ribs. The sternum was large, but small in relation to the body compared to those of much smaller pigeons that are able to fly. The sternum was highly pneumatic, broad, and relatively thick in cross-section. The bones of the pectoral girdle, shoulder blades, and wing bones were reduced in size compared to those of flighted pigeon, and were more gracile compared to those of the Rodrigues solitaire, but none of the individual skeletal components had disappeared. The carpometacarpus of the dodo was more robust than that of the solitaire, however. The pelvis was wider than that of the solitaire and other relatives, yet was comparable to the proportions in some smaller, flighted pigeons. Most of the leg bones were more robust than those of extant pigeons and the solitaire, but the length proportions were little different.
Many of the skeletal features that distinguish the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire, its closest relative, from pigeons have been attributed to their flightlessness. The pelvic elements were thicker than those of flighted pigeons to support the higher weight, and the pectoral region and the small wings were paedomorphic, meaning that they were underdeveloped and retained juvenile features. The skull, trunk and pelvic limbs were peramorphic, meaning that they changed considerably with age. The dodo shared several other traits with the Rodrigues solitaire, such as features of the skull, pelvis, and sternum, as well as their large size. It differed in other aspects, such as being more robust and shorter than the solitaire, having a larger skull and beak, a rounded skull roof, and smaller orbits. The dodo 's neck and legs were proportionally shorter, and it did not possess an equivalent to the knob present on the solitaire 's wrists.
Most contemporary descriptions of the dodo are found in ship 's logs and journals of the Dutch East India Company vessels that docked in Mauritius when the Dutch Empire ruled the island. These records were used as guides for future voyages. Few contemporary accounts are reliable, as many seem to be based on earlier accounts, and none were written by scientists. One of the earliest accounts, from van Warwijck 's 1598 journal, describes the bird as follows:
Blue parrots are very numerous there, as well as other birds; among which are a kind, conspicuous for their size, larger than our swans, with huge heads only half covered with skin as if clothed with a hood. These birds lack wings, in the place of which 3 or 4 blackish feathers protrude. The tail consists of a few soft incurved feathers, which are ash coloured. These we used to call ' Walghvogel ', for the reason that the longer and oftener they were cooked, the less soft and more insipid eating they became. Nevertheless their belly and breast were of a pleasant flavour and easily masticated.
One of the most detailed descriptions is by Sir Thomas Herbert in A Relation of Some Yeares Travaille into Afrique and the Greater Asia from 1634:
First here only and in Dygarrois (Rodrigues) is generated the Dodo, which for shape and rareness may antagonize the Phoenix of Arabia: her body is round and fat, few weigh less than fifty pound. It is reputed more for wonder than for food, greasie stomackes may seeke after them, but to the delicate they are offensive and of no nourishment. Her visage darts forth melancholy, as sensible of Nature 's injurie in framing so great a body to be guided with complementall wings, so small and impotent, that they serve only to prove her bird. The halfe of her head is naked seeming couered with a fine vaile, her bill is crooked downwards, in midst is the thrill (nostril), from which part to the end tis a light green, mixed with pale yellow tincture; her eyes are small and like to Diamonds, round and rowling; her clothing downy feathers, her train three small plumes, short and inproportionable, her legs suiting her body, her pounces sharpe, her appetite strong and greedy. Stones and iron are digested, which description will better be conceived in her representation.
The travel journal of the Dutch ship Gelderland (1601 -- 1603), rediscovered in the 1860s, contains the only known sketches of living or recently killed specimens drawn on Mauritius. They have been attributed to the professional artist Joris Joostensz Laerle, who also drew other now - extinct Mauritian birds, and to a second, less refined artist. Apart from these sketches, it is unknown how many of the twenty or so 17th - century illustrations of the dodos were drawn from life or from stuffed specimens, which affects their reliability.
All post-1638 depictions appear to be based on earlier images, around the time reports mentioning dodos became rarer. Differences in the depictions led authors such as Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans and Masauji Hachisuka to speculate about sexual dimorphism, ontogenic traits, seasonal variation, and even the existence of different species, but these theories are not accepted today. Because details such as markings of the beak, the form of the tail feathers, and colouration vary from account to account, it is impossible to determine the exact morphology of these features, whether they signal age or sex, or if they even reflect reality. Dodo specialist Julian Hume argued that the nostrils of the living dodo would have been slits, as seen in the Gelderland, Cornelis Saftleven, Crocker Art Gallery, and Ustad Mansur images. According to this claim, the gaping nostrils often seen in paintings indicate that taxidermy specimens were used as models. Most depictions show that the wings were held in an extended position, unlike flighted pigeons, but similar to ratites such as the ostrich and kiwi.
The traditional image of the dodo is of a very fat and clumsy bird, but this view may be exaggerated. The general opinion of scientists today is that many old European depictions were based on overfed captive birds or crudely stuffed specimens. It has also been suggested that the images might show dodos with puffed feathers, as part of display behaviour. The Dutch painter Roelant Savery was the most prolific and influential illustrator of the dodo, having made at least ten depictions, often showing it in the lower corners. A famous painting of his from 1626, now called Edwards 's Dodo as it was once owned by the ornithologist George Edwards, has since become the standard image of a dodo. It is housed in the Natural History Museum, London. The image shows a particularly fat bird and is the source for many other dodo illustrations.
An Indian Mughal painting rediscovered in St. Petersburg in the 1950s shows a dodo along with native Indian birds. It depicts a slimmer, brownish bird, and its discoverer A. Iwanow and dodo specialist Julian Hume regard it as one of the most accurate depictions of the living dodo; the surrounding birds are clearly identifiable and depicted with appropriate colouring. It is believed to be from the 17th century and has been attributed to artist Ustad Mansur. The bird depicted probably lived in the menagerie of Mughal Emperor Jahangir, located in Surat, where English traveller Peter Mundy also claimed to have seen two dodos sometime between 1628 and 1633. In 2014, another Indian illustration of a dodo was reported, but it was found to be derivative of an 1836 German illustration.
Little is known of the behaviour of the dodo, as most contemporary descriptions are very brief. Based on weight estimates, it has been suggested the male could reach the age of 21, and the female 17. Studies of the cantilever strength of its leg bones indicate that it could run quite fast. The legs were robust and strong to support the bulk of the bird, and also made it agile and manoeuvrable in the dense, pre-human landscape. Though the wings were small, well - developed muscle scars on the bones show that they were not completely vestigial, and may have been used for display behaviour and balance; extant pigeons also use their wings for such purposes. Unlike the Rodrigues solitaire, there is no evidence that the dodo used its wings in intraspecific combat. Though some dodo bones have been found with healed fractures, it had weak pectoral muscles and more reduced wings in comparison. The dodo may instead have used its large, hooked beak in territorial disputes. Since Mauritius receives more rainfall and has less seasonal variation than Rodrigues, which would have affected the availability of resources on the island, the dodo would have less reason to evolve aggressive territorial behaviour. The Rodrigues solitaire was therefore probably the more aggressive of the two.
The preferred habitat of the dodo is unknown, but old descriptions suggest that it inhabited the woods on the drier coastal areas of south and west Mauritius. This view is supported by the fact that the Mare aux Songes swamp, where most dodo remains have been excavated, is close to the sea in south - eastern Mauritius. Such a limited distribution across the island could well have contributed to its extinction. A 1601 map from the Gelderland journal shows a small island off the coast of Mauritius where dodos were caught. Julian Hume has suggested this island was l'île aux Benitiers in Tamarin Bay, on the west coast of Mauritius. Subfossil bones have also been found inside caves in highland areas, indicating that it once occurred on mountains. Work at the Mare aux Songes swamp has shown that its habitat was dominated by tambalacoque and Pandanus trees and endemic palms. The near - coastal placement and wetness of the Mare aux Songes led to a high diversity of plant species, whereas the surrounding areas were drier.
Many endemic species of Mauritius became extinct after the arrival of humans, so the ecosystem of the island is badly damaged and hard to reconstruct. Before humans arrived, Mauritius was entirely covered in forests, but very little remains of them today, because of deforestation. The surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened. The dodo lived alongside other recently extinct Mauritian birds such as the flightless red rail, the broad - billed parrot, the Mascarene grey parakeet, the Mauritius blue pigeon, the Mauritius owl, the Mascarene coot, the Mauritian shelduck, the Mauritian duck, and the Mauritius night heron. Extinct Mauritian reptiles include the saddle - backed Mauritius giant tortoise, the domed Mauritius giant tortoise, the Mauritian giant skink, and the Round Island burrowing boa. The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Mauritius and Réunion, but vanished from both islands. Some plants, such as Casearia tinifolia and the palm orchid, have also become extinct.
A 1631 Dutch letter (long thought lost, but rediscovered in 2017) is the only account of the dodo 's diet, and also mentions that it used its beak for defence. The document uses word - play to refer to the animals described, with dodos presumably being an allegory for wealthy mayors:
The mayors are superb and proud. They presented themselves with an unyielding, stern face and wide open mouth, very jaunty and audacious of gait. They did not want to budge before us; their war weapon was the mouth, with which they could bite fiercely. Their food was raw fruit; they were not dressed very well, but were rich and fat, therefore we brought many of them on board, to the contentment of us all.
In addition to fallen fruits, the dodo probably subsisted on nuts, seeds, bulbs, and roots. It has also been suggested that the dodo might have eaten crabs and shellfish, like their relatives the crowned pigeons. Its feeding habits must have been versatile, since captive specimens were probably given a wide range of food on the long sea journeys. Oudemans suggested that as Mauritius has marked dry and wet seasons, the dodo probably fattened itself on ripe fruits at the end of the wet season to survive the dry season, when food was scarce; contemporary reports describe the bird 's "greedy '' appetite. France Staub suggested that they mainly fed on palm fruits, and he attempted to correlate the fat - cycle of the dodo with the fruiting regime of the palms.
Skeletal elements of the upper jaw appear to have been rhynchokinetic (movable in relation to each other), which must have affected its feeding behaviour. In extant birds, such as frugivorous (fruit - eating) pigeons, kinetic premaxillae help with consuming large food items. The beak also appears to have been able to withstand high force loads, which indicates a diet of hard food. In 2016, the first 3D endocast was made from the brain of the dodo; examination found that though the brain was similar to that of other pigeons in most respects, the dodo had a comparatively large olfactory bulb. This gave the dodo a good sense of smell, which may have aided in locating fruit and small prey.
Several contemporary sources state that the dodo used Gastroliths (gizzard stones) to aid digestion. The English writer Sir Hamon L'Estrange witnessed a live bird in London and described it as follows:
About 1638, as I walked London streets, I saw the picture of a strange looking fowle hung out upon a clothe and myselfe with one or two more in company went in to see it. It was kept in a chamber, and was a great fowle somewhat bigger than the largest Turkey cock, and so legged and footed, but stouter and thicker and of more erect shape, coloured before like the breast of a young cock fesan, and on the back of a dunn or dearc colour. The keeper called it a Dodo, and in the ende of a chymney in the chamber there lay a heape of large pebble stones, whereof hee gave it many in our sight, some as big as nutmegs, and the keeper told us that she eats them (conducing to digestion), and though I remember not how far the keeper was questioned therein, yet I am confident that afterwards she cast them all again.
It is not known how the young were fed, but related pigeons provide crop milk. Contemporary depictions show a large crop, which was probably used to add space for food storage and to produce crop milk. It has been suggested that the maximum size attained by the dodo and the solitaire was limited by the amount of crop milk they could produce for their young during early growth.
In 1973, the tambalacoque, also known as the dodo tree, was thought to be dying out on Mauritius, to which it is endemic. There were supposedly only 13 specimens left, all estimated to be about 300 years old. Stanley Temple hypothesised that it depended on the dodo for its propagation, and that its seeds would germinate only after passing through the bird 's digestive tract. He claimed that the tambalacoque was now nearly coextinct because of the disappearance of the dodo. Temple overlooked reports from the 1940s that found that tambalacoque seeds germinated, albeit very rarely, without being abraded during digestion. Others have contested his hypothesis and suggested that the decline of the tree was exaggerated, or seeds were also distributed by other extinct animals such as Cylindraspis tortoises, fruit bats or the broad - billed parrot. According to Wendy Strahm and Anthony Cheke, two experts in the ecology of the Mascarene Islands, the tree, while rare, has germinated since the demise of the dodo and numbers several hundred, not 13 as claimed by Temple, hence discrediting Temple 's view as to the dodo and the tree 's sole survival relationship.
It has been suggested that the broad - billed parrot may have depended on dodos and Cylindraspis tortoises to eat palm fruits and excrete their seeds, which became food for the parrots. Anodorhynchus macaws depended on now - extinct South American megafauna in the same way, but now rely on domesticated cattle for this service.
As it was flightless and terrestrial and there were no mammalian predators or other kinds of natural enemy on Mauritius, the dodo probably nested on the ground. The account by François Cauche from 1651 is the only description of the egg and the call:
I have seen in Mauritius birds bigger than a Swan, without feathers on the body, which is covered with a black down; the hinder part is round, the rump adorned with curled feathers as many in number as the bird is years old. In place of wings they have feathers like these last, black and curved, without webs. They have no tongues, the beak is large, curving a little downwards; their legs are long, scaly, with only three toes on each foot. It has a cry like a gosling, and is by no means so savoury to eat as the Flamingos and Ducks of which we have just spoken. They only lay one egg which is white, the size of a halfpenny roll, by the side of which they place a white stone the size of a hen 's egg. They lay on grass which they collect, and make their nests in the forests; if one kills the young one, a grey stone is found in the gizzard. We call them Oiseaux de Nazaret. The fat is excellent to give ease to the muscles and nerves.
Cauche 's account is problematic, since it also mentions that the bird he was describing had three toes and no tongue, unlike dodos. This led some to believe that Cauche was describing a new species of dodo ("Didus nazarenus ''). The description was most probably mingled with that of a cassowary, and Cauche 's writings have other inconsistencies. A mention of a "young ostrich '' taken on board a ship in 1617 is the only other reference to a possible juvenile dodo. An egg claimed to be that of a dodo is stored in the museum of East London, South Africa. It was donated by Marjorie Courtenay - Latimer, whose great aunt had received it from a captain who claimed to have found it in a swamp on Mauritius. In 2010, the curator of the museum proposed using genetic studies to determine its authenticity. It may instead be an aberrant ostrich egg.
Because of the possible single - egg clutch and the bird 's large size, it has been proposed that the dodo was K - selected, meaning that it produced a low number of altricial offspring, which required parental care until they matured. Some evidence, including the large size and the fact that tropical and frugivorous birds have slower growth rates, indicates that the bird may have had a protracted development period. The fact that no juvenile dodos have been found in the Mare aux Songes swamp may indicate that they produced little offspring, that they matured rapidly, that the breeding grounds were far away from the swamp, or that the risk of miring was seasonal.
A 2017 study examined the histology of thin - sectioned dodo bones, modern Mauritian birds, local ecology, and contemporary accounts, to recover information about the life history of the dodo. The study suggested that dodos bred around August, after having potentially fattened themselves, corresponding with the fat and thin cycles of many vertebrates of Mauritius. The chicks grew rapidly, reaching robust, almost adult, sizes, and sexual maturity before Austral summer or the cyclone season. Adult dodos which had just bred moulted after Austral summer, around March. The feathers of the wings and tail were replaced first, and the moulting would have completed at the end of July, in time for the next breeding season. Different stages of moulting may also account for inconsistencies in contemporary descriptions of dodo plumage.
Mauritius had previously been visited by Arab vessels in the Middle Ages and Portuguese ships between 1507 and 1513, but was settled by neither. No records of dodos by these are known, although the Portuguese name for Mauritius, "Cerne (swan) Island '', may have been a reference to dodos. The Dutch Empire acquired Mauritius in 1598, renaming it after Maurice of Nassau, and it was used for the provisioning of trade vessels of the Dutch East India Company henceforward. The earliest known accounts of the dodo were provided by Dutch travelers during the Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia, led by admiral Jacob van Neck in 1598. They appear in reports published in 1601, which also contain the first published illustration of the bird. Since the first sailors to visit Mauritius had been at sea for a long time, their interest in these large birds was mainly culinary. The 1602 journal by Willem Van West - Zanen of the ship Bruin - Vis mentions that 24 -- 25 dodos were hunted for food, which were so large that two could scarcely be consumed at mealtime, their remains being preserved by salting. An illustration made for the 1648 published version of this journal, showing the killing of dodos, a dugong, and possibly Mascarene grey parakeets, was captioned with a Dutch poem, here in Hugh Strickland 's 1848 translation:
For food the seamen hunt the flesh of feathered fowl, They tap the palms, and round - rumped dodos they destroy, The parrot 's life they spare that he may peep and howl, And thus his fellows to imprisonment decoy.
Some early travellers found dodo meat unsavoury, and preferred to eat parrots and pigeons; others described it as tough but good. Some hunted dodos only for their gizzards, as this was considered the most delicious part of the bird. Dodos were easy to catch, but hunters had to be careful not to be bitten by their powerful beaks.
The appearance of the dodo and the red rail led Peter Mundy to speculate, 230 years before Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution:
Of these 2 sorts off fowl afforementionede, For oughtt wee yett know, Not any to bee Found out of this Iland, which lyeth aboutt 100 leagues From St. Lawrence. A question may bee demaunded how they should bee here and Not elcewhere, beeing soe Farer From other land and can Neither fly or swymme; whither by Mixture off kindes producing straunge and Monstrous formes, or the Nature of the Climate, ayer and earth in alltring the First shapes in long tyme, or how.
The dodo was found interesting enough that living specimens were sent to Europe and the East. The number of transported dodos that reached their destinations alive is uncertain, and it is unknown how they relate to contemporary depictions and the few non-fossil remains in European museums. Based on a combination of contemporary accounts, paintings, and specimens, Julian Hume has inferred that at least eleven transported dodos reached their destinations alive.
Hamon L'Estrange's description of a dodo that he saw in London in 1638 is the only account that specifically mentions a live specimen in Europe. In 1626 Adriaen van de Venne drew a dodo that he claimed to have seen in Amsterdam, but he did not mention if it were alive, and his depiction is reminiscent of Savery 's Edwards 's Dodo. Two live specimens were seen by Peter Mundy in Surat, India, between 1628 and 1634, one of which may have been the individual painted by Ustad Mansur around 1625. In 1628, Emmanuel Altham visited Mauritius and sent a letter to his brother in England:
Right wo and lovinge brother, we were ordered by ye said councell to go to an island called Mauritius, lying in 20d. of south latt., where we arrived ye 28th of May; this island having many goates, hogs and cowes upon it, and very strange fowles, called by ye portingalls Dodo, which for the rareness of the same, the like being not in ye world but here, I have sent you one by Mr. Perce, who did arrive with the ship William at this island ye 10th of June. (In the margin of the letter) Of Mr. Perce you shall receive a jarr of ginger for my sister, some beades for my cousins your daughters, and a bird called a Dodo, if it live.
Whether the dodo survived the journey is unknown, and the letter was destroyed by fire in the 19th century. The earliest known picture of a dodo specimen in Europe is from a c. 1610 collection of paintings depicting animals in the royal menagerie of Emperor Rudolph II in Prague. This collection includes paintings of other Mauritian animals as well, including a red rail. The dodo, which may be a juvenile, seems to have been dried or embalmed, and had probably lived in the emperor 's zoo for a while together with the other animals. That whole stuffed dodos were present in Europe indicates they had been brought alive and died there; it is unlikely that taxidermists were on board the visiting ships, and spirits were not yet used to preserve biological specimens. Most tropical specimens were preserved as dried heads and feet.
One dodo was reportedly sent as far as Nagasaki, Japan in 1647, but it was long unknown whether it arrived. Contemporary documents first published in 2014 proved the story, and showed that it had arrived alive. It was meant as a gift, and, despite its rarity, was considered of equal value to a white deer and a bezoar stone. It is the last recorded live dodo in captivity.
Like many animals that evolved in isolation from significant predators, the dodo was entirely fearless of humans. This fearlessness and its inability to fly made the dodo easy prey for sailors. Although some scattered reports describe mass killings of dodos for ships ' provisions, archaeological investigations have found scant evidence of human predation. Bones of at least two dodos were found in caves at Baie du Cap that sheltered fugitive slaves and convicts in the 17th century, which would not have been easily accessible to dodos because of the high, broken terrain. The human population on Mauritius (an area of 1,860 km or 720 sq mi) never exceeded 50 people in the 17th century, but they introduced other animals, including dogs, pigs, cats, rats, and crab - eating macaques, which plundered dodo nests and competed for the limited food resources. At the same time, humans destroyed the forest habitat of the dodos. The impact of the introduced animals on the dodo population, especially the pigs and macaques, is today considered more severe than that of hunting. Rats were perhaps not much of a threat to the nests, since dodos would have been used to dealing with local land crabs.
It has been suggested that the dodo may already have been rare or localised before the arrival of humans on Mauritius, since it would have been unlikely to become extinct so rapidly if it had occupied all the remote areas of the island. A 2005 expedition found subfossil remains of dodos and other animals killed by a flash flood. Such mass mortalities would have further jeopardised a species already in danger of becoming extinct. Yet the fact that the dodo survived hundreds of years of volcanic activity and climactic changes shows the bird was resilient within its ecosystem.
Some controversy surrounds the date of their extinction. The last widely accepted record of a dodo sighting is the 1662 report by shipwrecked mariner Volkert Evertsz of the Dutch ship Arnhem, who described birds caught on a small islet off Mauritius, now suggested to be Amber Island:
These animals on our coming up to them stared at us and remained quiet where they stand, not knowing whether they had wings to fly away or legs to run off, and suffering us to approach them as close as we pleased. Amongst these birds were those which in India they call Dod - aersen (being a kind of very big goose); these birds are unable to fly, and instead of wings, they merely have a few small pins, yet they can run very swiftly. We drove them together into one place in such a manner that we could catch them with our hands, and when we held one of them by its leg, and that upon this it made a great noise, the others all on a sudden came running as fast as they could to its assistance, and by which they were caught and made prisoners also.
The dodos on this islet may not necessarily have been the last members of the species. The last claimed sighting of a dodo was reported in the hunting records of Isaac Johannes Lamotius in 1688. Statistical analysis of these records by Roberts and Solow gives a new estimated extinction date of 1693, with a 95 % confidence interval of 1688 -- 1715. The authors also pointed out that because the last sighting before 1662 was in 1638, the dodo was probably already quite rare by the 1660s, and thus a disputed report from 1674 by an escaped slave can not be dismissed out of hand.
Cheke pointed out that some descriptions after 1662 use the names "Dodo '' and "Dodaers '' when referring to the red rail, indicating that they had been transferred to it after the disappearance of the dodo itself. Cheke therefore points to the 1662 description as the last credible observation. A 1668 account by English traveller John Marshall, who used the names "Dodo '' and "Red Hen '' interchangeably for the red rail, mentioned that the meat was "hard '', which echoes the description of the meat in the 1681 account. Even the 1662 account has been questioned by the writer Errol Fuller, as the reaction to distress cries matches what was described for the red rail. Until this explanation was proposed, a description of "dodos '' from 1681 was thought to be the last account, and that date still has proponents. Recently accessible Dutch manuscripts indicate that no dodos were seen by settlers in 1664 -- 1674. It is unlikely the issue will ever be resolved, unless late reports mentioning the name alongside a physical description are rediscovered. The IUCN Red List accepts Cheke 's rationale for choosing the 1662 date, taking all subsequent reports to refer to red rails. In any case, the dodo was probably extinct by 1700, about a century after its discovery in 1598. The Dutch left Mauritius in 1710, but by then the dodo and most of the large terrestrial vertebrates there had become extinct.
Even though the rareness of the dodo was reported already in the 17th century, its extinction was not recognised until the 19th century. This was partly because, for religious reasons, extinction was not believed possible until later proved so by Georges Cuvier, and partly because many scientists doubted that the dodo had ever existed. It seemed altogether too strange a creature, and many believed it a myth. The bird was first used as an example of human - induced extinction in Penny Magazine in 1833, and have since been referred to as an "icon '' of extinction.
The only extant remains of dodos taken to Europe in the 17th century are a dried head and foot in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History, a foot once housed in the British Museum but now lost, a skull in the University of Copenhagen Zoological Museum, and an upper jaw and leg bones in the National Museum, Prague. The last two were rediscovered and identified as dodo remains in the mid-19th century. Several stuffed dodos were also mentioned in old museum inventories, but none are known to have survived. Apart from these remains, a dried foot, which belonged to the Dutch professor Pieter Pauw, was mentioned by Carolus Clusius in 1605. Its provenance is unknown, and it is now lost, but it may have been collected during the Van Neck voyage.
The only known soft tissue remains, the Oxford head (specimen OUM 11605) and foot, belonged to the last known stuffed dodo, which was first mentioned as part of the Tradescant collection in 1656 and was moved to the Ashmolean Museum in 1659. It has been suggested that this might be the remains of the bird that Hamon L'Estrange saw in London, the bird sent by Emanuel Altham, or a donation by Thomas Herbert. Since the remains do not show signs of having been mounted, the specimen might instead have been preserved as a study skin. In 2018, it was reported that scans of the Oxford dodo 's head showed that its skin and bone contained lead shot, pellets which were used to hunt birds in the 17th century. This indicates that the Oxford dodo was shot either before being transported to Britain, or some time after arriving. The circumstances of its killing are unknown, and the pellets are to be examined to identify where the lead was mined from.
Many sources state that the Ashmolean Museum burned the stuffed dodo around 1755 because of severe decay, saving only the head and leg. Statute 8 of the museum states "That as any particular grows old and perishing the keeper may remove it into one of the closets or other repository; and some other to be substituted. '' The deliberate destruction of the specimen is now believed to be a myth; it was removed from exhibition to preserve what remained of it. This remaining soft tissue has since degraded further; the head was dissected by Strickland and Melville, separating the skin from the skull in two halves. The foot is in a skeletal state, with only scraps of skin and tendons. Very few feathers remain on the head. It is probably a female, as the foot is 11 % smaller and more gracile than the London foot, yet appears to be fully grown. The specimen was exhibited at the Oxford museum from at least the 1860s and until 1998, where - after it was mainly kept in storage to prevent damage. Casts of the head can today be found in many museums worldwide.
The dried London foot, first mentioned in 1665, and transferred to the British Museum in the 18th century, was displayed next to Savery 's Edwards 's Dodo painting until the 1840s, and it too was dissected by Strickland and Melville. It was not posed in a standing posture, which suggests that it was severed from a fresh specimen, not a mounted one. By 1896 it was mentioned as being without its integuments, and only the bones are believed to remain today, though its present whereabouts are unknown.
The Copenhagen skull (specimen ZMUC 90 - 806) is known to have been part of the collection of Bernardus Paludanus in Enkhuizen until 1651, when it was moved to the museum in Gottorf Castle, Schleswig. After the castle was occupied by Danish forces in 1702, the museum collection was assimilated into the Royal Danish collection. The skull was rediscovered by J.T. Reinhardt in 1840. Based on its history, it may be the oldest known surviving remains of a dodo brought to Europe in the 17th century. It is 13 mm (0.51 in) shorter than the Oxford skull, and may have belonged to a female. It was mummified, but the skin has perished.
The front part of a skull (specimen NMP P6V - 004389, a syntype of this species) in the National Museum of Prague was found in 1850 among the remains of the Böhmisches Museum. Other elements supposedly belonging to this specimen have been listed in the literature, but it appears only the partial skull was ever present. It may be what remains of one of the stuffed dodos known to have been at the menagerie of Emperor Rudolph II, possibly the specimen painted by Hoefnagel or Savery there.
Until 1860, the only known dodo remains were the four incomplete 17th - century specimens. Philip Burnard Ayres found the first subfossil bones in 1860, which were sent to Richard Owen at the British Museum, who did not publish the findings. In 1863, Owen requested the Mauritian Bishop Vincent Ryan to spread word that he should be informed if any dodo bones were found. In 1865, George Clark, the government schoolmaster at Mahébourg, finally found an abundance of subfossil dodo bones in the swamp of Mare aux Songes in Southern Mauritius, after a 30 - year search inspired by Strickland and Melville 's monograph. In 1866, Clark explained his procedure to The Ibis, an ornithology journal: he had sent his coolies to wade through the centre of the swamp, feeling for bones with their feet. At first they found few bones, until they cut away herbage that covered the deepest part of the swamp, where they found many fossils. The swamp yielded the remains of over 300 dodos, but very few skull and wing bones, possibly because the upper bodies were washed away or scavenged while the lower body was trapped. The situation is similar to many finds of moa remains in New Zealand marshes. Most dodo remains from the Mare aux Songes have a medium to dark brown colouration.
Clark 's reports about the finds rekindled interest in the bird. Sir Richard Owen and Alfred Newton both wanted to be first to describe the post-cranial anatomy of the dodo, and Owen bought a shipment of dodo bones originally meant for Newton, which led to rivalry between the two. Owen described the bones in Memoir on the Dodo in October 1866, but erroneously based his reconstruction on the Edwards 's Dodo painting by Savery, making it too squat and obese. In 1869 he received more bones and corrected its stance, making it more upright. Newton moved his focus to the Réunion solitaire instead. The remaining bones not sold to Owen or Newton were auctioned off or donated to museums. In 1889, Théodor Sauzier was commissioned to explore the "historical souvenirs '' of Mauritius and find more dodo remains in the Mare aux Songes. He was successful, and also found remains of other extinct species.
In 2005, after a hundred years of neglect, a part of the Mare aux Songes swamp was excavated by an international team of researchers (International Dodo Research Project). To prevent malaria, the British had covered the swamp with hard core during their rule over Mauritius, which had to be removed. Many remains were found, including bones of at least 17 dodos in various stages of maturity (though no juveniles), and several bones obviously from the skeleton of one individual bird, which have been preserved in their natural position. These findings were made public in December 2005 in the Naturalis museum in Leiden. 63 % of the fossils found in the swamp belonged to turtles of the extinct genus Cylindraspis, and 7.1 % belonged to dodos, which had been deposited within several centuries, 4,000 years ago. Subsequent excavations suggested that dodos and other animals became mired in the Mare aux Songes while trying to reach water during a long period of severe drought about 4,200 years ago. Furthermore, cyanobacteria thrived in the conditions created by the excrements of animals gathered around the swamp, which died of intoxication, dehydration, trampling, and miring. Though many small skeletal elements were found during the recent excavations of the swamp, few were found during the 19th century, probably owing to the employment of less refined methods when collecting.
Louis Etienne Thirioux, an amateur naturalist at Port Louis, also found many dodo remains around 1900 from several locations. They included the first articulated specimen, which is the first subfossil dodo skeleton found outside the Mare aux Songes, and the only remains of a juvenile specimen, a now lost tarsometatarsus. The former specimen was found in 1904 in a cave near Le Pouce mountain, and is the only known complete skeleton of an individual dodo. Thirioux donated the specimen to the Museum Desjardins (now Natural History Museum at Mauritius Institute). Thrioux 's heirs sold a second mounted composite skeleton (composed of at least two skeletons, with a mainly reconstructed skull) to the Durban Museum of Natural Science in South Africa in 1918. Together, these two skeletons represent the most completely known dodo remains, including bone elements previously unrecorded (such as knee - caps and various wing bones). Though some contemporary writers noted the importance of Thrioux 's specimens, they were not scientifically studied, and were largely forgotten until 2011, when sought out by a group of researchers. The mounted skeletons were laser scanned, from which 3 - D models were reconstructed, which became the basis of a 2016 monograph about the osteology of the dodo. In 2006, explorers discovered a complete skeleton of a dodo in a lava cave in Mauritius. This was only the second associated skeleton of an individual specimen everfound, and the only one in recent times.
Worldwide, 26 museums have significant holdings of dodo material, almost all found in the Mare aux Songes. The Natural History Museum, American Museum of Natural History, Cambridge University Museum of Zoology, the Senckenberg Museum, and others have almost complete skeletons, assembled from the dissociated subfossil remains of several individuals. In 2011, a wooden box containing dodo bones from the Edwardian era was rediscovered at the Grant Museum at University College London during preparations for a move. They had been stored with crocodile bones until then.
The supposed "white dodo '' (or "solitaire '') of Réunion is now considered an erroneous conjecture based on contemporary reports of the Réunion ibis and 17th - century paintings of white, dodo - like birds by Pieter Withoos and Pieter Holsteyn that surfaced in the 19th century. The confusion began when Willem Ysbrandtszoon Bontekoe, who visited Réunion around 1619, mentioned fat, flightless birds that he referred to as "Dod - eersen '' in his journal, though without mentioning their colouration. When the journal was published in 1646, it was accompanied by an engraving of a dodo from Savery 's "Crocker Art Gallery sketch ''. A white, stocky, and flightless bird was first mentioned as part of the Réunion fauna by Chief Officer J. Tatton in 1625. Sporadic mentions were subsequently made by Sieur Dubois and other contemporary writers.
Baron Edmond de Sélys Longchamps coined the name Raphus solitarius for these birds in 1848, as he believed the accounts referred to a species of dodo. When 17th - century paintings of white dodos were discovered by 19th - century naturalists, it was assumed they depicted these birds. Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans suggested that the discrepancy between the paintings and the old descriptions was that the paintings showed females, and that the species was therefore sexually dimorphic. Some authors also believed the birds described were of a species similar to the Rodrigues solitaire, as it was referred to by the same name, or even that there were white species of both dodo and solitaire on the island.
The Pieter Withoos painting, which was discovered first, appears to be based on an earlier painting by Pieter Holsteyn, three versions of which are known to have existed. According to Hume, Cheke, and Valledor de Lozoya, it appears that all depictions of white dodos were based on Roelant Savery 's 1611 painting Landscape with Orpheus and the animals, or on copies of it. The painting shows a whitish specimen and was apparently based on a stuffed specimen then in Prague; a walghvogel described as having a "dirty off - white colouring '' was mentioned in an inventory of specimens in the Prague collection of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, to whom Savery was contracted at the time (1607 -- 1611). Savery 's several later images all show greyish birds, possibly because he had by then seen another specimen. Cheke and Hume believe the painted specimen was white, owing to albinism. Valledor de Lozoya has instead suggested that the light plumage was a juvenile trait, a result of bleaching of old taxidermy specimens, or simply artistic license.
In 1987, scientists described fossils of a recently extinct species of ibis from Réunion with a relatively short beak, Borbonibis latipes, before a connection to the solitaire reports had been made. Cheke suggested to one of the authors, Francois Moutou, that the fossils may have been of the Réunion solitaire, and this suggestion was published in 1995. The ibis was reassigned to the genus Threskiornis, now combined with the specific epithet solitarius from the binomial R. solitarius. Birds of this genus are also white and black with slender beaks, fitting the old descriptions of the Réunion solitaire. No fossil remains of dodo - like birds have ever been found on the island.
The dodo 's significance as one of the best - known extinct animals and its singular appearance led to its use in literature and popular culture as a symbol of an outdated concept or object, as in the expression "dead as a dodo, '' which has come to mean unquestionably dead or obsolete. Similarly, the phrase "to go the way of the dodo '' means to become extinct or obsolete, to fall out of common usage or practice, or to become a thing of the past. "Dodo '' is also a slang term for a stupid, dull - witted person, as it was supposedly stupid and easily caught.
The dodo appears frequently in works of popular fiction, and even before its extinction, it was featured in European literature, as symbol for exotic lands, and of gluttony, due to its apparent fatness. In 1865, the same year that George Clark started to publish reports about excavated dodo fossils, the newly vindicated bird was featured as a character in Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland. It is thought that he included the dodo because he identified with it and had adopted the name as a nickname for himself because of his stammer, which made him accidentally introduce himself as "Do - do - dodgson '', his legal surname. Carroll and the girl who served as inspiration for Alice, Alice Liddell, had enjoyed visiting the Oxford museum to see the dodo remains there. The book 's popularity made the dodo a well - known icon of extinction.
The dodo is used as a mascot for many kinds of products, especially in Mauritius. It appears as a supporter on the coat of arms of Mauritius, on Mauritius coins, is used as a watermark on all Mauritian rupee banknotes, and features as the background of the Mauritian immigration form. A smiling dodo is the symbol of the Brasseries de Bourbon, a popular brewer on Réunion, whose emblem displays the white species once thought to have lived there.
The dodo is used to promote the protection of endangered species by environmental organisations, such as the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and the Durrell Wildlife Park. The Center for Biological Diversity gives an annual ' Rubber Dodo Award ', to "those who have done the most to destroy wild places, species and biological diversity ''. In 2011, the nephiline spider Nephilengys dodo, which inhabits the same woods as the dodo once did, was named after the bird to raise awareness of the urgent need for protection of the Mauritius biota. Two species of ant from Mauritius have been named after the dodo: Pseudolasius dodo in 1946 and Pheidole dodo in 2013. A species of isopod from a coral reef off Réunion was named Hansenium dodo in 1991. The name dodo has been used by scientists naming genetic elements, honoring the dodo 's flightless nature. A fruitfly gene within a region of a chromosome required for flying ability was named "dodo ''. In addition, a defective transposable element family from Phytophthora infestans was named DodoPi as it contained mutations that eliminated the element 's ability to jump to new locations in a chromosome.
In 2009, a previously unpublished 17th - century Dutch illustration of a dodo went for sale at Christie 's and was expected to sell for £ 6,000. It is unknown whether the illustration was based on a specimen or on a previous image. It sold for £ 44,450.
The poet Hilaire Belloc included the following poem about the dodo in his Bad Child 's Book of Beasts from 1896:
The Dodo used to walk around, And take the sun and air. The sun yet warms his native ground -- The Dodo is not there!
The voice which used to squawk and squeak Is now for ever dumb -- Yet may you see his bones and beak All in the Mu - se - um.
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haryana 40 percent revenue come from which city | Haryana - Wikipedia
^ † Joint Capital with Punjab Common for Punjab, Haryana and Chandigarh.
Haryana (IPA: (ɦərɪˈjaːɳaː)), carved out of the former state of East Punjab on 1 November 1966 on linguistic basis, is one of the 29 states in India. Situated in North India with less than 1.4 % (44,212 km (17,070 sq mi)) of India 's land area, it is ranked 21st in terms of area. Chandigarh is the capital, Faridabad in National Capital Region is the most populous city of the state and the Gurugram is the financial hub of NCR with major Fortune 500 companies located in it. Haryana has 6 administrative divisions, 22 districts, 72 sub-divisions, 93 revenue tehsils, 50 sub-tehsils, 140 community development blocks, 154 cities and towns, 6,841 villages and 6212 villages panchayats.
As the largest recipient of investment per capita since 2000 in India, and among one of the wealthiest and most economically developed regions in South Asia, Haryana has the sixth highest per capita income among Indian states and union territories at ₹ 180,174 (US $2,600) against the national average of ₹ 112,432 (US $1,600) for year 2016 -- 17. Haryana 's 2017 - 18 estimated state GSDP of US $95 billion (52 % services, 30 % industries and 18 % agriculture) is growing at 12.96 % 2012 - 17 CAGR and placed on the 14th position behind only much bigger states, is also boosted by 30 SEZs (mainly along DMIC, ADKIC and DWPE in NCR), 7 % national agricultural exports, 60 % of national Basmati rice export, 67 % cars, 60 % motorbikes, 50 % tractors and 50 % refrigerators produced in India. Faridabad has been described as eighth fastest growing city in the world and third most in India by City Mayors Foundation survey. In services, Gurugram ranks number 1 in India in IT growth rate and existing technology infrastructure, and number 2 in startup ecosystem, innovation and livability (Nov 2016).
Among the world 's oldest and largest ancient civilizations, the Indus Valley Civilization sites at Rakhigarhi village in Hisar district and Bhirrana in Fatehabad district are 9,000 years old. Rich in history, monuments, heritage, flora and fauna, human resources and tourism with well developed economy, national highways and state roads, it is bordered by Himachal Pradesh to the north - east, by river Yamuna along its eastern border with Uttar Pradesh, by Rajasthan to the west and south, and Ghaggar - Hakra River flows along its northern border with Punjab. Since Haryana surrounds the country 's capital Delhi on three sides (north, west and south), consequently a large area of Haryana is included in the economically - important National Capital Region for the purposes of planning and development.
The name Haryana is found in the works of the 12th - century AD Apabhramsha writer Vibudh Shridhar (VS 1189 -- 1230). The name Haryana has been derived from the Sanskrit words Hari (the Hindu god Vishnu) and ayana (home), meaning "the Abode of God ''. However, scholars such as Muni Lal, Murli Chand Sharma, HA Phadke and Sukhdev Singh Chib believe that the name comes from a compound of the words Hari (Sanskrit Harit, "green '') and Aranya (forest).
The Vedic state of Brahmavarta is claimed to be located in south Haryana, where the initial Vedic scriptures were composed after the great floods some 10,000 years ago.
Rakhigarhi village in Hisar district and Bhirrana in Fatehabad district are home to the largest and one of the world 's oldest ancient Indus Valley Civilization sites, dated at over 9,000 years old. Evidence of paved roads, a drainage system, a large - scale rainwater collection storage system, terracotta brick and statue production, and skilled metal working (in both bronze and precious metals) have been uncovered. According to archaeologists, Rakhigarhi may be the origin of Harappan civilisation, which arose in the Ghaggar basin in Haryana and gradually and slowly moved to the Indus valley.
Ancient bronze and stone idols of Jain Tirthankara were found in archaeological expeditions in Badli, Bhiwani (Ranila, Charkhi Dadri, Badhara village), Dadri, Gurgaon (Ferozpur Jhirka), Hansi, Hisar (Agroha), Kasan, Nahad, Narnaul, Pehowa, Rewari, Rohad, Rohtak (Asthal - Bohar) and Sonepat in Haryana.
After the sack of Bhatner fort during the Timurid conquests of India in 1398, Timur attacked and sacked the cities of Sirsa, Fatehabad, Sunam, Kaithal and Panipat. When he reached the town of Sarsuti, the residents, who were mostly non-Muslims, fled and were chased by a detachment of Timur 's troops, with thousands of them being killed and looted by the troops. From there he travelled to Fatehabad, whose residents fled and a large number of those remaining in the town were massacred. The Ahirs resisted him at Ahruni but were defeated, with thousands being killed and many being taken prisoners while the town was burnt to ashes. From there he travelled to Tohana, whose Jat inhabitants were stated to be robbers according to Sharaf ad - Din Ali Yazdi. They tried to resist but were defeated and fled. Timur 's army pursued and killed 200 Jats, while taking many more as prisoners. He then sent a detachment to chase the fleeing Jats and killed 2,000 of them while their wives and children were enslaved and their property plundered. From there he proceeded to Kaithal whose residents were massacred and plundered, destroying all villages along the way. On the next day, he came to Assandh whose residents were "fire - worshippers '' according to Yazdi, and had fled to Delhi. Next he travelled to and subdued Tughlaqpur fort and Salwan before reaching Panipat whose residents had already fled. He then marched on to Loni fort.
The area that is now Haryana has been ruled by some of the major empires of India. Panipat is known for three seminal battles in the history of India. In the First Battle of Panipat (1526), Babur defeated the Lodis. In the Second Battle of Panipat (1556), Akbar defeated the local Haryanvi Hindu Emperor of Delhi, who belonged to Rewari. Hem Chandra Vikramaditya had earlier won 22 battles across India from Punjab to Bengal, defeating Mughals and Afghans. Hemu had defeated Akbar 's forces twice at Agra and the Battle of Delhi in 1556 to become the last Hindu Emperor of India with a formal coronation at Purana Quila in Delhi on 7 October 1556. In the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), the Afghan king Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas.
Haryana as a state came into existence on 1 November 1966 the Punjab Reorganisation Act (1966). The Indian government set up the Shah Commission under the chairmanship of Justice JC Shah on 23 April 1966 to divide the existing state of Punjab and determine the boundaries of the new state of Haryana after consideration of the languages spoken by the people. The commission delivered its report on 31 May 1966 whereby the then - districts of Hisar, Mahendragarh, Gurgaon, Rohtak and Karnal were to be a part of the new state of Haryana. Further, the tehsils of Jind and Narwana in the Sangrur district -- along with Naraingarh, Ambala and Jagadhri -- were to be included.
The commission recommended that the tehsil of Kharad, which includes Chandigarh, the state capital of Punjab, should be a part of Haryana. However, only a small portion of Kharad was given to Haryana. The city of Chandigarh was made a union territory, serving as the capital of both Punjab and Haryana.
Bhagwat Dayal Sharma became the first Chief Minister of Haryana.
Religion in Haryana (2011)
According to the 2011 census, of total 25,350,000 population of Haryana, Hindus (87.46 %) constitute the majority of the state 's population with Muslims (7.03 %) (mainly Meos) and Sikhs (4.91 %) being the largest minorities.
The Jats are the dominant caste in Haryana, and form nearly 17 % of the state 's electorate. The rest of the electorate includes OBC (24 %, including Ahirs / Yadavs); upper - caste (30 %, including Brahmins, Baniyas and Punjabis); and Dalits (21 %). gurjars are 13 percent in haryana
Muslims are mainly found in the Mewat and Nuh districts. Haryana has the second largest Sikh population in India after Punjab, and they mostly live in the districts adjoining Punjab, such as Hisar, Sirsa, Jind, Fatehabad, Kaithal, Kurukshetra, Ambala, Narnaul and Panchkula karnal.
Languages of Haryana (2001)
Hindi was the sole official language of Haryana till 2010 and it is spoken by the majority of the population (87.31 %). Haryana has 70 % rural population who primarily speak Haryanvi dialect of Hindi, as well as other related dialects, such as Bagri and Mewati.
Haryana has its own unique traditional folk music, folk dances, saang (folk theater), cinema, belief system such as Jathera (ancestral worship), and arts such as Phulkari and Shisha embroidery.
Folk music and dances of Haryana are based on satisfying cultural needs of primarily agrarian and martial natures of Haryanavi tribes.
Haryanvi musical folk theater main types are Saang, Rasa lila and Ragini. The Saang and Ragini form of theater was popularised by Lakhmi Chand.
Haryanvi folk dances and music have fast energetic movements. Three popular categories of dance are: festive - seasonal, devotional, and ceremonial - recreational. The festive - seasonal dances and songs are Gogaji / Gugga, Holi, Phaag, Sawan, Teej. The devotional dances and songs are Chaupaiya, Holi, Manjira, Ras Leela, Raginis). The ceremonial - recreational dances and songs are of following types: legendary bravery (Kissa and Ragini of male warriors and female Satis), love and romance (Been and its variant Nāginī dance, and Ragini), ceremonial (Dhamal Dance, Ghoomar, Jhoomar (male), Khoria, Loor, and Ragini).
Haryanvi folk music are based on day to day themes and injecting earthy humor enlivens the feel of the songs. Haryanvi music takes two main forms: "Classical folk music '' and "Desi Folk music '' (Country Music of Haryana), and sung in the form of ballads and love, valor and bravery, harvest, happiness and pangs of parting of lovers.
Classical Haryanvi folk music is based on Indian classical music. Hindustani classical ragas, learnt in gharana parampara of guru -- shishya tradition, are used to sing songs of heroic bravery (such as Alha - Khand (1663 - 1202 CE) about bravery of Alha and Udal, Jaimal Fatta of Maharana Udai Singh II), Brahmas worship and festive seasonal songs (such as Teej, Holi and Phaag songs of Phalgun month near Holi). Kissa legendary folklores of bravery and love such as Nihalde Sultan, Sati Manorama, Jai Singh ki Mrityu, Saran de, etc. are some of the most popular folklores. Bravery songs are sung in high pitch.
Desi Haryanvi folk music (Haryanvi country folk music) The country - side or desi (native) form of Haryanvi music is based on Raag Bhairvi, Raag Bhairav, Raag Kafi, Raag Jaijaivanti, Raag Jhinjhoti and Raag Pahadi and used for celebrating community bonhomie to sing seasonal songs, ballads, ceremonial songs (wedding, etc.) and related religious legendary tales such as Puran Bhagat. Relationship and songs celebrating love and life are sung in medium pitch. Ceremonial and religious songs are sung in low pitch. Young girls and women usually sing entertaining and fast seasonal, love, relationship and friendship related songs such as Phagan (song for eponymous season / month), Katak (songs for the eponymous season / month), Samman (songs for the eponymous season / month), bande - bandi (male - female duet songs), sathne (songs of sharing heartfelt feelings among female friends). Older women usually sing devotional Mangal Geet (auspicious songs) and ceremonial songs such as Bhajan, Bhat (wedding gift to the mother of bride or groom by her brother), Sagai, Ban (Hindu wedding ritual where pre-wedding festivities starts), Kuan - Poojan (a custom that is performed to welcome the birth of male child by worshiping the well or source of drinking water), Sanjhi and Holi festival.
Music and dance for Haryanvi people is a great way of demolishing societal differences as folk singers are highly esteemed and they are sought after and invited for the events, ceremonies and special occasions regardless of their caste or status. These inter-caste songs are fluid in nature, and never personalized for any specific caste, and they are sung collectively by women from different strata, castes, dialects. These songs do transform fluidly in dialect, style, words, etc. This adoptive style can be seen from the adoption of tunes of Bollywood movie songs into Haryanvi songs. Despite this continuous fluid transforming nature, Haryanvi songs have a distinct style of their own as explained above.
81 % people of Haryana are vegetarian, and cuisine of Haryana is based on fresh, earthy and wholesome ethos of its agrarian culture, where staples are roti, saag, vegetarian sabzi and abundance of milk products such as homemade nooni or tindi ghee, ghee (clarified butter), milk, lassi, kheer.
Haryana is a landlocked state in northern India. It is between 27 ° 39 ' to 30 ° 35 ' N latitude and between 74 ° 28 ' and 77 ° 36 ' E longitude. The total geographical area of the state is 4.42 m ha, which is 1.4 % of the geographical area of the country. The altitude of Haryana varies between 700 and 3600 ft (200 metres to 1200 metres) above sea level. Haryana has only 4 % (compared to national 21.85 %) area under forests.
Haryana has four main geographical features.
The Yamuna, tributary of Ganges, flows along the state 's eastern boundary.
Northern Haryana has several north - east to south - west flowing rivers originating from the Sivalik Hills of Himalayas, such as Ghaggar - Hakra (palaeochannel of vedic Sarasvati river), Chautang (paleochannel of vedic Drishadvati river, tributary of Ghagghar), Tangri river (tributary of Ghagghar), Kaushalya river (tributary of Ghagghar), Markanda River (tributary of Ghagghar), Sarsuti, Dangri, Somb river. Haryana 's main seasonal river, the Ghaggar - Hakra, known as Ghaggar before the Ottu barrage and as the Hakra downstream of the barrage, rises in the outer Himalayas, between the Yamuna and the Satluj and enters the state near Pinjore in the Panchkula district, passes through Ambala and Sirsa, it reaches Bikaner in Rajasthan and runs for 460 km (290 mi) before disappearing into the deserts of Rajasthan. The seasonal Markanda River, known as the Aruna in ancient times, originates from the lower Shivalik Hills and enters Haryana west of Ambala, and swells into a raging torrent during monsoon is notorious for its devastating power, carries its surplus water on to the Sanisa Lake where the Markanda joins the Sarasuti and later the Ghaggar.
Southern Haryana has several south - east to north - west flowing seasonal rivulets originating from the Aravalli Range in and around the hills in Mewat region, including Sahibi River (called Najafgarh drain in Delhi), Dohan river (tributary of Sahibi, originates at Mandoli village near Neem Ka Thana in Jhunjhunu district of Rajasthan and then disappears in Mahendragarh district), Krishnavati river (former tributary of Sahibi river, originates near Dariba and disappears in Mahendragarh district much before reaching Sahibi river) and Indori river (longest tributary of Sahibi River, originates in Sikar district of Rajasthan and flows to Rewari district of Haryana), these once were tributaries of the Drishadwati / Saraswati river.
Major canals are Western Yamuna Canal, Sutlej Yamuna link canal (from Sutlej river tributary of Indus), and Indira Gandhi Canal.
Major dams are Kaushalya Dam in Panchkula district, Hathnikund Barrage and Tajewala Barrage on Yamuna in Yamunanagar district, Pathrala barrage on Somb river in Yamunanagar district, ancient Anagpur Dam near Surajkund in Faridabad district, and Ottu barrage on Ghaggar - Hakra River in Sirsa district.
Major lakes are Dighal Wetland, Basai Wetland, Badkhal Lake in Faridabad, holy Brahma Sarovar and Sannihit Sarovar in Kurukshetra, Blue Bird Lake in Hisar, Damdama Lake at Sohna in Gurgram district, Hathni Kund in Yamunanagar district, Karna Lake at Karnal, ancient Surajkund in Faridabad, and Tilyar Lake in Rohtak.
The Haryana State Waterbody Management Board is responsible for rejuvenation of 14,000 Johads of Haryana and up to 60 lakes in National Capital Region falling within the Haryana state.
Only hot spring of Haryana is the Sohna Sulphur Hot Spring at Sohna in Gurugram district. Tosham Hill range has several sacred sulphur pond of religious significance that are revered for the healing impact of sulfur, such as Pandu Teerth Kund, Surya Kund, Kukkar Kund, Gyarasia Kund or Vyas Kund.
Seasonal waterfalls include Tikkar Taal twin lakes at Morni hiills, Dhosi Hill in Mahendragarh district and Pali village on outskirts of Faridabad.
Haryana is extremely hot in summer at around 45 ° C (113 ° F) and mild in winter. The hottest months are May and June and the coldest December and January. The climate is arid to semi-arid with average rainfall of 354.5 mm. Around 29 % of rainfall is received during the months from July to September, and the remaining rainfall is received during the period from December to February.
Forest Cover in the state in 2013 was 3.59 % (1586 km) and the Tree Cover in the state was 2.90 % (1282 km), giving a total forest and tree Cover of 6.49 %. In 2016 - 17, 18,412 hectares were brought under tree cover by planting 14.1 million seedlings. Thorny, dry, deciduous forest and thorny shrubs can be found all over the state. During the monsoon, a carpet of grass covers the hills. Mulberry, eucalyptus, pine, kikar, shisham and babul are some of the trees found here. The species of fauna found in the state of Haryana include black buck, nilgai, panther, fox, mongoose, jackal and wild dog. More than 450 species of birds are found here.
Haryana has two national parks, eight wildlife sanctuaries, two wildlife conservation areas, four animal and bird breeding centers, one deer park and three zoos, all of which are managed by the Haryana Forest Department of the Government of Haryana.
Haryana Environment Protection Council is the advisory committee and Department of Environment, Haryana)) is the department responsible for administration of environment. Areas of Haryana surrounding Delhi NCR are most polluted. During smog of November 2017, Air quality index of Gurugram and Faridabad showed that the density of Fine particulates (2.5 PM diameter) was an average of 400 PM and monthly average of Haryana was 60 PM. Other sources of pollution are exhaust gases from old vehicles, stone crushers and brick kiln. Haryana has 75 lakh (7,500,000) old vehicles, of which 40 % are old more polluting vehicles, besides 500,000 new vehicles are added every year. Other majorly polluted cities are Bhiwani, Bahadurgarh, Dharuhera, Hisar and Yamunanagar.
The state is divided into divided into 6 revenue divisions, 5 Police Ranges and 3 Police Commissionerates (c. January 2017). Six revenue divisions are: Ambala, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Hisar, Karnal and Faridabad. Haryana has 10 municipal corporations (Gurigram, Faridabad, Ambala, Panchkula, Yamunanagar, Rohtak, Hisar, Panipat, Karnal and Sonepat), 18 municipal councils and 52 municipalities (c. Jan 2018).
Within these there are 22 districts, 72 sub-divisions, 93 tehsils, 50 sub-tehsils, 140 blocks, 154 cities and towns, 6,841 villages, 6212 villages panchayats and numerous smaller dhanis.
Haryana Police force is the law enforcement agency of Haryana. Five Police Ranges are Ambala, Hissar, Karnal, Rewari and Rohtak. Three Police Commissionerates are Faridabad, Gurgaon and Panchkula. Cybercrime investigation cell is based in Gurgaon 's Sector 51.
The highest judicial authority in the state is the Punjab and Haryana High Court, with next higher right of appeal to Supreme Court of India. Haryana uses e-filing facility.
The Common Service Centres (CSCs) have been upgraded in all districts to offer hundreds of e-services to citizens, including application of new water connection, sewer connection, electricity bill collection, ration card member registration, result of HBSE, admit cards for board examinations, online admission form for government colleges, long route booking of buses, admission forms for Kurukshetra University and HUDA plots status inquiry. Haryana has become the first state to implement Aadhaar - enabled birth registration in all the districts. Thousands of all traditional offline state and central government services are also available 24 / 7 online through single unified UMANG app and portal as part of Digital India initiative.
Haryana 's 14th placed 12.96 % 2012 - 17 CAGR estimated 2017 - 18 GSDP of US $95 billion is split in to 52 % services, 30 % industries and 18 % agriculture.
Services sector is split across 45 % in real estate and financial & professional services, 26 % trade and hospitality, 15 % state and central govt employees, and 14 % transport and logistics & warehousing. In IT services, Gurugram ranks number 1 in India in growth rate and existing technology infrastructure, and number 2 in startup ecosystem, innovation and livability (Nov 2016).
Industries sector is split across 69 % manufacturing, 28 % construction, 2 % utilities and 1 % mining. In industrial manufacturing, Haryana produces India 's 67 % of passenger cars, 60 % of motorcycles, 50 % of tractors and 50 % of the refrigerators.
Services and industrial sectors are boosted by 7 operational SEZs and additional 23 formally approved SEZs (20 already notified and 3 in - principal approval) that are mostly spread along the Delhi -- Mumbai Industrial Corridor, Amritsar Delhi Kolkata Industrial Corridor and Delhi Western Peripheral Expressway in NCR).
Agriculture sector is split across 93 % crops and livestock, 4 % commercial forestry and logging, and 2 % fisheries. Agriculture sector of Haryana, with only less than 1.4 % area of India, contributes 15 % food grains to the central food security public distribution system, and 7 % of total national agricultural exports including 60 % of total national Basmati rice export.
Haryana is traditionally an agrarian society of zamindars (owner - cultivator farmers). The Green Revolution in Haryana of 1960s combined with completion of Bhakra Dam in 1963 and Western Yamuna Command Network canal system in 1970s resulted in the significantly increased food grain production.
In 2015 - 2016, Haryana produced the following principal crops: 13,352,000 tonne wheat, 4,145,000 tonne rice, 7,169,000 tonne sugarcane, 993,000 tonne cotton and 855,000 tonne oilseeds (mustard seed, sunflower, etc.).
Vegetable production was: Potato 853,806 tonnes, Onion 705,795 tonnes, Tomato 675,384 tonnes, Cauliflower 578,953 tonnes, Leafy Vegetables 370,646 tonnes, Brinjal 331,169 tonnes, guard 307,793 tonnes, Peas 111,081 tonnes and others 269,993 tonnes.
Fruits production was: Citrus 301,764 tonnes, Guava 152,184 tonnes, Mango 89,965 tonnes, Chikoo 16,022 tonnes, Aonla 12,056 tonnes and other fruits 25,848 tonnes.
Spices production was: Garlic 40,497 tonnes, Fenugreek 9,348 tonnes, Ginger 4,304 tonnes and others 840 tonnes.
Cut flowers production was: Marigold 61,830 tonnes, Gladiolus 24,486,200 lakh, Rose 18,611,600 lakh and other 6,913,000 lakh.
Medicinal plants production was: Aloe vera 1403 tonnes and Stevia 13 tonnes.
Haryana is well known for its high - yield Murrah buffalo. Other breeds of cattle native to Haryana are Haryanvi, Mewati, Sahiwal and Nili - Ravi.
To support its agrarian economy, both central government (Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, Central Sheep Breeding Farm, National Research Centre on Equines, Central Institute of Fisheries, National Dairy Research Institute, Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research and National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources) and state government (CCS HAU, LUVAS, Government Livestock Farm, Regional Fodder Station and Northern Region Farm Machinery Training and Testing Institute) have opened several institutes for research and education.
Haryana State has always given high priority to the expansion of electricity infrastructure, as it is one of the most important inputs for the development of the state. Haryana was the first state in the country to achieve 100 % rural electrification in 1970 as well as the first in the country to link all villages with all - weather roads and provide safe drinking water facilities throughout the state.
Power in the state are:
Haryana has a total road length of 26,062 kilometres (16,194 mi), including 2,482 kilometres (1,542 mi) 29 national highways, 1,801 kilometres (1,119 mi) state highways, 1,395 kilometres (867 mi) Major District Roads (MDR) and 20,344 kilometres (12,641 mi) Other District Roads (ODR) (c. December 2017). A fleet of 3,864 Haryana Roadways buses covers a distance of 1.15 million km per day, and it was the first state in the country to introduce luxury video coaches.
Ancient Delhi Multan Road and Grand Trunk Road, South Asia 's oldest and longest major roads, pass through Haryana. GT Road passes through the districts of Sonipat, Panipat, Karnal, Kurukshetra and Ambala in north Haryana where it enters Delhi and subsequently the industrial town of Faridabad on its way. The 135.6 kilometres (84.3 mi) Kundli - Manesar - Palwal Expressway (KMP) will provide a high - speed link to northern Haryana with its southern districts such as Sonepat, Gurgaon, Jhajjar and Faridabad.
The Delhi - Agra Expressway (NH - 2) that passes through Faridabad is being widened to six lanes from current four lanes. It will further boost Faridabad 's connectivity with Delhi.
Rail network in Haryana is covered by 5 rail divisions under 3 rail zones. Diamond Quadrilateral High - speed rail network, Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor (72 km) and Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (177 km) pass through Haryana.
Bikaner railway division of North Western Railway zone manages rail network in western and southern Haryana covering Bhatinda - Dabwali - Hanumangarh line, Rewari - Bhiwani - Hisar - Bathinda line, Hisar - Sadulpur line and Rewari - Loharu - Sadulpur line. Jaipur railway division of North Western Railway zone manages rail network in south - west Haryana covering Rewari - Reengas - Jaipur line, Delhi - Alwar - Jaipur line and Loharu - Sikar line.
Delhi railway division of Northern Railway zone manages rail network in north and east and central Haryana covering Delhi - Ambala line, Delhi - Rohtak - Tohana line, Rewari -- Rohtak line, Jind - Sonepat line and Delhi - Rewari line. Agra railway division of North Central Railway zone manages another very small part of network in south - east Haryana covering Palwal - Mathura line only.
Ambala railway division of Northern Railway zone manages small part of rail network in north - east Haryana covering Ambala - Yamunanagar line, Ambala - Kurukshetra line and UNESCO World Heritage Kalka -- Shimla Railway.
Delhi Metro connects the national capital Delhi with NCR cities such as Faridabad, Gurugram and Bahadurgarh. Faridabad has the longest metro network in the NCR Region consisting of 9 stations and track length being 14 km.
The Haryana and Delhi governments have constructed the 4.5 - kilometre (2.8 mi) international standard Delhi Faridabad Skyway, the first of its kind in North India, to connect Delhi and Faridabad.
Haryana has a statewide network of telecommunication facilities. Haryana Government has its own statewide area network by which all government offices of 22 districts and 126 blocks across the state are connected with each other thus making it the first SWAN of the country. Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited and most of the leading private sector players (such as Reliance Infocom, Tata Teleservices, Bharti Telecom, Idea Vodafone Essar, Aircel, Uninor and Videocon) have operations in the state. Important areas around Delhi are an integral part of the local Delhi Mobile Telecommunication System. This network system would easily cover major towns like Faridabad and Gurgaon.
Electronic media channels include, MTV, 9XM, Star Group, SET Max, News Time, NDTV 24x7 and Zee Group. The radio stations include All India Radio and other FM stations.
The major newspapers of Haryana include Dainik Bhaskar, Punjab Kesari, Jag Bani, Dainik Jagran, The Tribune, Amar Ujala, Hindustan Times, Dainik Tribune, The Times of India and Hari - Bhumi.
The Total Fertility Rate of Haryana is 2.3. The Infant Mortality Rate is 41 (SRS 2013) and Maternal Mortality Ratio is 146 (SRS 2010 -- 2012).
Literacy rate in Haryana has seen an upward trend and is 76.64 percent as per 2011 population census. Male literacy stands at 85.38 percent, while female literacy is at 66.67 percent. In 2001, the literacy rate in Haryana stood at 67.91 percent of which male and female were 78.49 percent and 55.73 percent literate respectively. As of 2013, Gurgaon city had the highest literacy rate in Haryana at 86.30 % followed by Panchkula at 81.9 per cent and Ambala at 81.7 percent. In terms of districts, as of 2012 Rewari had the highest literacy rate in Haryana at 74 %, higher than the national average of 59.5 %: male literacy was 79 %, and female 67 %.
Haryana Board of School Education, established in September 1969 and shifted to Bhiwani in 1981, conducts public examinations at middle, matriculation, and senior secondary levels twice a year. Over seven lakh candidates attend annual examinations in February and March; 150,000 attend supplementary examinations each November. The Board also conducts examinations for Haryana Open School at senior and senior secondary levels twice a year. The Haryana government provides free education to women up to the bachelor 's degree level.
In 2015 - 2016, there were nearly 20,000 schools, including 10,100 state government schools (36 Aarohi Schools, 11 Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas, 21 Model Sanskriti Schools, 8744 government primary school, 3386 government middle school, 1284 government high school and 1967 government senior secondary schools), 7,635 private schools (200 aided, 6612 recognized unaided, and 821 unrecognied unaided private schools.) and several hundred other central government and private schools such as Kendriya Vidyalaya, Indian Army Public Schools, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya and DAV schools affiliated to central government 's CBSE and ICSE school boards.
Haryana has 29 universities and 299 colleges, including 115 government colleges, 88 govt - aided colleges and 96 self - finance colleges (c. Jan 2018). Hisar has three universities: Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University - Asia 's largest agricultural university, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences); several national agricultural and veterinary research centres (National Research Centre on Equines), Central Sheep Breeding Farm, National Institute on Pig Breeding and Research, Northern Region Farm Machinery Training and Testing Institute and Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB); and more than 20 colleges including Maharaja Agrasen Medical College, Agroha.
Union Minister Ravi Shankar Prasad announced on 27 February 2016 that National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology (NIELIT) would be set up in Kurukshetra to provide computer training to youth and a Software Technology Park of India (STPI) would be set up in Panchkula 's existing HSIIDC IT Park in Sector 23. Hindi and English are compulsory languages in schools whereas Punjabi, Sanskrit and Urdu are chosen as optional languages.
In the 2010 Commonwealth Games at Delhi, 22 out of 38 gold medals that India won came from Haryana. During the 33rd National Games held in Assam in 2007, Haryana stood first in the nation with a medal tally of 80, including 30 gold, 22 silver and 28 bronze medals.
The 1983 World - Cup - winning captain Kapil Dev is from Haryana. Nahar Singh Stadium was built in Faridabad in the year 1981 for international cricket. This ground has the capacity to hold around 25,000 people as spectators. Tejli Sports Complex is an Ultra-Modern sports complex in Yamuna Nagar. Tau Devi Lal Stadium in Gurgaon is a multi-sport complex.
Chief Minister of Haryana Manohar Lal Khattar announced the "Haryana Sports and Physical Fitness Policy '', a policy to support 26 Olympic sports, on 12 January 2015 with the words "We will develop Haryana as the sports hub of the country. ''
Haryana is home to Haryana Gold, one of India 's eight professional basketball teams which compete in the country 's UBA Pro Basketball League.
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dance in the dark from the movie home | Dancing in the Dark (Rihanna song) - wikipedia
"Dancing in the Dark '' is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for the soundtrack to the 2015 film Home. It was written by Ester Dean, Maureen Anne McDonald and Rihanna together with its producers Stargate.
In June 2012, it was revealed that Rihanna would star as the lead role in the film Happy Smekday!, alongside American actor Jim Parsons. In September 2012, 20th Century Fox and DreamWorks Animation announced that the movie will be released for November 26, 2014. In June 2013, the film was retitled from Happy Smekday! to Home. In 2014, Variety magazine reported that, in addition to her voice role, Rihanna created a concept album for the film was released on March 23, 2015. It was later revealed that the film 's soundtrack would also include songs recorded by Charli XCX, Kiesza and Jennifer Lopez. "Dancing in the Dark '' was written by Tor Erik Hermansen, Mikkel Storleer Eriksen, Ester Dean, Maureen Anne McDonald and Rihanna. The production was done by Hermansen and Eriksen under their production name Stargate. Dean has previously co-penned a number of songs for Rihanna including, "S&M '' (2011) and "Rude Boy '' (2010), both of which were produced by Stargate. The vocals were recorded by Marcos Tovar and Kuk Harrell, while the later also did their production. Phil Tan mixed the song at the Ninja Beat Club in Atlanta, Georgia while Daniela Rivera served as the track 's engineer.
"Dancing in the Dark '' is a R&B song with a length of three minutes and forty - three seconds. The track is an up - tempo "poppy - number '' that features "enough backdrop of saccharine synths and snap beats ''. According to James Grebey of Spin magazine it 's also "upbeat and a little funkier -- if a tad repetitive. '' Rolling Stone 's Jon Blistein linked "Dancing in the Dark '' 's chorus to the one of Whitney Houston 's 1987 single "I Wanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me) ''. He also wrote that the song has a "wubby bass groove '' that could feature American actress Courtney Cox dancing to it in its potential music video, a reference to her appearance in the video for Bruce Springsteen 's 1984 single with the same name.
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Home.
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the dutch colony of new netherlands split to become | New Netherland - wikipedia
New Netherland (Dutch: Nieuw Nederland; Latin: Nova Belgica or Novum Belgium) was a 17th - century colony of the Dutch Republic that was located on the east coast of North America. The claimed territories extended from the Delmarva Peninsula to extreme southwestern Cape Cod, while the more limited settled areas are now part of New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Connecticut, with small outposts in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island. The colony was conceived by the Dutch West India Company (WIC) in 1621 to capitalize on the North American fur trade. It was settled slowly at first because of policy mismanagement by the WIC and conflicts with American Indians. The settlement of New Sweden by the Swedish South Company encroached on its southern flank, while its northern border was redrawn to accommodate an expanding New England Confederation.
The colony experienced dramatic growth during the 1650s and became a major port for trade in the north Atlantic Ocean. The surrender of Fort Amsterdam to England in 1664 was formalized in 1667, contributing to the Second Anglo - Dutch War. In 1673, the Dutch retook the area but relinquished it under the Treaty of Westminster (1674), ending the Third Anglo - Dutch War the next year.
The inhabitants of New Netherland were European colonists, American Indians, and Africans imported as slave laborers. The colony had an estimated population between 7,000 and 8,000 at the time of transfer to England in 1664, half of whom were not of Dutch descent.
During the 17th century, Europe was undergoing expansive social, cultural, and economic growth, known as the Dutch Golden Age in the Netherlands. Nations vied for domination of lucrative trade routes around the globe, particularly those to Asia. Simultaneously, philosophical and theological conflicts were manifested in military battles across the European continent. The Republic of the Seven United Netherlands had become a home to many intellectuals, international businessmen, and religious refugees. In the Americas, the English had a settlement at Jamestown, Virginia, the French had small settlements at Port Royal and Quebec, and the Spanish were developing colonies to exploit trade in South America and the Caribbean.
In 1609, English sea captain and explorer Henry Hudson was hired by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) located in Amsterdam to find a Northeast Passage to Asia, sailing around Scandinavia and Russia. He was turned back by the ice of the Arctic in his second attempt, so he sailed west to seek a Northwest Passage rather than return home. He ended up exploring the waters off the east coast of North America aboard the Flyboat Halve Maen. His first landfall was at Newfoundland and the second at Cape Cod.
Hudson believed that the passage to the Pacific Ocean was between the St. Lawrence River and Chesapeake Bay, so he sailed south to the Bay then turned northward, traveling close along the shore. He first discovered Delaware Bay and began to sail upriver looking for the passage. This effort was foiled by sandy shoals, and the Halve Maen continued north. After passing Sandy Hook, Hudson and his crew entered the Narrows into the Upper New York Bay. (The Narrows was actually discovered in 1524 by explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano, and the modern bridge spanning them is named after him.) Hudson believed that he had found the continental water route, so he sailed up the major river that now bears his name. He found the water too shallow to proceed several days later, at the site of Troy, New York.
Upon returning to the Netherlands, Hudson reported that he had found a fertile land and an amicable people willing to engage his crew in small - scale bartering of furs, trinkets, clothes, and small manufactured goods. His report was first published in 1611 by Emanuel Van Meteren, the Dutch Consul at London. This stimulated interest in exploiting this new trade resource, and it was the catalyst for Dutch merchant - traders to fund more expeditions. Merchants such as Arnout Vogels sent the first follow - up voyages to exploit this discovery as early as July 1610.
In 1611 -- 12, the Admiralty of Amsterdam sent two covert expeditions to find a passage to China with the yachts Craen and Vos, captained by Jan Cornelisz Mey and Symon Willemsz Cat respectively. In four voyages made between 1611 and 1614, the area between Maryland and Massachusetts was explored, surveyed, and charted by Adriaen Block, Hendrick Christiaensen, and Cornelius Jacobsen Mey. These surveys and charts were consolidated in Block 's map, which used the name New Netherland for the first time; it was also called Nova Belgica on maps. During this period, there was some trading with the Indian population.
Fur trader Juan (Jan) Rodriguez was born in Santo Domingo of Portuguese and African descent. He arrived in Manhattan during the winter of 1613 -- 14, trapping for pelts and trading with the Indians as a representative of the Dutch. He was the first recorded non-native inhabitant of New York City.
The immediate and intense competition among Dutch trading companies in the newly charted areas (especially in New York Bay and along the Hudson River) led to disputes in Amsterdam and calls for regulation. The States General was the governing body of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, and it proclaimed on March 17, 1614 that it would grant an exclusive patent for trade between the 40th and 45th parallels. This monopoly would be valid for four voyages, all of which had to be undertaken within three years after it was awarded. Block 's map and the report that accompanied it were used by the New Netherland Company (a newly formed alliance of trading companies) to win its patent, which expired on January 1, 1618.
The New Netherland Company also ordered a survey of the Delaware Valley. This was undertaken by Cornelis Hendricksz of Monnickendam who explored the Zuyd Rivier (literally "South River, '' today known as the Delaware River) in 1616 from its bay to its northernmost navigable reaches. His observations were preserved in a map drawn in 1616. Hendricksz 's voyages were made aboard the IJseren Vercken (Iron Hog), a vessel built in America. Despite the survey, the company was unable to secure an exclusive patent from the States General for the area between the 38th and 40th parallels.
The States General issued patents in 1614 for the development of New Netherland as a private, commercial venture. Soon thereafter, traders built Fort Nassau on Castle Island in the area of present - day Albany up Hudson 's river. The fort was to defend river traffic against interlopers and to conduct fur trading operations with the natives. The location of the fort proved to be impractical, however, due to repeated flooding of the island in the summers; it was abandoned in 1618, which coincided with the patent 's expiration.
The Dutch West India Company (WIC) (Geoctroyeerde Westindische Compagnie) was granted a charter by the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands on June 3, 1621. It was given the exclusive right to operate in West Africa (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Cape of Good Hope) and the Americas. In New Netherland, profit was originally to be made from the North American fur trade.
Among the founders of the WIC was Willem Usselincx. Between 1600 and 1606, he had promoted the concept that a main goal of the company should be establishing colonies in the New World. In 1620, Usselincx made a last appeal to the States General, which rejected his principal vision as a primary goal. The legislators preferred the formula of trading posts with small populations and a military presence to protect them, which was working in the East Indies, over encouraging mass immigration and establishing large colonies. The company did not focus on colonization in North America until 1654, when it was forced to surrender Dutch Brazil and forfeit the richest sugar - producing area in the world.
The first trading partners of the New Netherlanders were the Algonquian who lived in the area. The Dutch depended on the indigenous population to capture, skin, and deliver pelts to them, especially beaver. It is likely that Hudson 's peaceful contact with the local Mahicans encouraged them to establish Fort Nassau in 1614, the first of many garrisoned trading stations to be built. In 1628, the Mohawks (members of the Iroquois Confederacy) conquered the Mahicans, who retreated to Connecticut. The Mohawks gained a near - monopoly in the fur trade with the Dutch, as they controlled the upstate Adirondacks and Mohawk Valley through the center of New York.
The Algonquian Lenape population around New York Bay and along the Lower Hudson were seasonally migrational people. The Dutch called the numerous tribes collectively the River Indians, known by their exonyms as the Wecquaesgeek, Hackensack, Raritan, Canarsee, and Tappan. These groups had the most frequent contact with the New Netherlanders. The Munsee inhabited the Highlands, Hudson Valley, and northern New Jersey, while Minquas (called the Susquehannocks by the English) lived west of the Zuyd Rivier along and beyond the Susquehanna River, which the Dutch regarded as their boundary with Virginia.
Company policy required land to be purchased from the indigenous peoples. The WIC would offer a land patent, the recipient of which would be responsible for negotiating a deal with representatives of the local population, usually the sachem or high chief. The Dutch (referred to by the natives as Swannekins, or salt water people) and the Wilden (as the Dutch called the natives) had vastly different conceptions of ownership and use of land -- so much so that they did not understand each other at all. The Dutch thought that their proffer of gifts in the form of sewant or manufactured goods was a trade agreement and defense alliance, which gave them exclusive rights to farming, hunting, and fishing. Often, the Indians did not vacate the property, or reappeared seasonally, according to their migration patterns. They were willing to share the land with the Europeans, but the Indians did not intend to leave or give up access. This misunderstanding and other differences led to violent conflict later. At the same time, such differences marked the beginnings of a multicultural society.
Like the French in the north, the Dutch focused their interest on the fur trade. To that end, they cultivated contingent relations with the Five Nations of the Iroquois to procure greater access to key central regions from which the skins came.
The Dutch encouraged a kind of feudal aristocracy over time, to attract settlers to the region of the Hudson River, in what became known as the system of the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions. Further south, a Swedish trading company that had ties with the Dutch tried to establish its first settlement along the Delaware River three years later. Without resources to consolidate its position, New Sweden was gradually absorbed by New Holland and later in Pennsylvania and Delaware.
The earliest Dutch settlement was built around 1613, and consisted of a number of small huts built by the crew of the "Tijger '' (Tiger), a Dutch ship under the command of Captain Adriaen Block, which had caught fire while sailing on the Hudson. Soon after, the first of two Fort Nassaus was built, and small factorijen or trading posts went up, where commerce could be conducted with Algonquian and Iroquois population, possibly at Schenectady, Esopus, Quinnipiac, Communipaw, and elsewhere.
In 1617, Dutch colonists built a fort at the confluence of the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers where Albany now stands. In 1624, New Netherland became a province of the Dutch Republic, which had lowered the northern border of its North American dominion to 42 degrees latitude in acknowledgment of the claim by the English north of Cape Cod. The Dutch named the three main rivers of the province the Zuyd Rivier (South River), the Noort Rivier (North River), and the Versche Rivier (Fresh River). Discovery, charting, and permanent settlement were needed to maintain a territorial claim. To this end in May 1624, the WIC landed 30 families at Fort Orange and Noten Eylant (today 's Governors Island) at the mouth of the North River. They disembarked from the ship New Netherland, under the command of Cornelis Jacobsz May, the first Director of the New Netherland. He was replaced the following year by Willem Verhulst.
In June 1625, 45 additional colonists disembarked on Noten Eylant from three ships named Horse, Cow, and Sheep, which also delivered 103 horses, steers, cows, pigs, and sheep. Most settlers were dispersed to the various garrisons built across the territory: upstream to Fort Orange, to Kievits Hoek on the Fresh River, and Fort Wilhelmus on the South River. Many of the settlers were not Dutch but Walloons, French Huguenots, or Africans (most as enslaved labor, some later gaining "half - free '' status).
Peter Minuit became Director of the New Netherland in 1626 and made a decision that greatly affected the new colony. Originally, the capital of the province was to be located on the South River, but it was soon realized that the location was susceptible to mosquito infestation in the summer and the freezing of its waterways in the winter. He chose instead the island of Manhattan at the mouth of the river explored by Hudson, at that time called the North River.
Minuit traded some goods with the local population, in one of the most legendary real estate deals ever made, and reported that he had purchased it from the natives, as was company policy. He ordered the construction of Fort Amsterdam at its southern tip, around which grew the heart of the province called The Manhattoes in the vernacular of the day, rather than New Netherland.
The port city of New Amsterdam outside the walls of the fort became a major hub for trade between North America, the Caribbean, and Europe, and the place where raw materials were loaded, such as pelts, lumber, and tobacco. Sanctioned privateering contributed to its growth. It was given its municipal charter in 1653, by which time the Commonality of New Amsterdam included the isle of Manhattan, Staaten Eylandt, Pavonia, and the Lange Eylandt towns.
In the hope of encouraging immigration, the Dutch West India Company established the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions in 1629, which gave it the power to offer vast land grants and the title of patroon to some of its invested members. The vast tracts were called patroonships, and the title came with powerful manorial rights and privileges, such as the creation of civil and criminal courts and the appointing of local officials. In return, a patroon was required by the Company to establish a settlement of at least 50 families within four years who would live as tenant farmers. Of the original five patents given, the largest and only truly successful endeavour was Rensselaerswyck, at the highest navigable point on the North River, which became the main thoroughfare of the province. Beverwijck grew from a trading post to a bustling, independent town in the midst of Rensselaerwyck, as did Wiltwyck, south of the patroonship in Esopus country.
Willem Kieft was Director of New Netherland from 1638 until 1647. The colony had grown somewhat before his arrival but it did not flourish, and Kieft was under pressure to cut costs. At this time, a large number of Indian tribes which had signed mutual defense treaties with the Dutch were gathering near the colony due to widespread warfare and dislocation among the tribes to the north. At first, he suggested collecting tribute from the Indians, as was common among the various dominant tribes, but his demands were simply ignored by the Tappan and Wecquaesgeek. Subsequently, a colonist was murdered in an act of revenge for some killings that had taken place years earlier and the Indians refused to turn over the perpetrator. Kieft suggested that they be taught a lesson by ransacking their villages. In an attempt to gain public support, he created the citizens commission the Council of Twelve Men.
The Council did not rubber - stamp his ideas, as he had expected them to, but took the opportunity to mention grievances that they had with the company 's mismanagement and its unresponsiveness to their suggestions. Kieft thanked and disbanded them and, against their advice, ordered that groups of Tappan and Wecquaesgeekbe be attacked at Pavonia and Corlear 's Hook, even though they had sought refuge from their more powerful Mahican enemies per their treaty understandings with the Dutch. The massacre left 130 dead. Within days, the surrounding tribes united and rampaged the countryside, in a unique move, forcing settlers who escaped to find safety at Fort Amsterdam. For two years, a series of raids and reprisals raged across the province, until 1645 when Kieft 's War ended with a treaty, in a large part brokered by the Hackensack sagamore Oratam.
The colonists were disenchanted with Keift, his ignorance of indigenous peoples, and the unresponsiveness of the WIC to their rights and requests, and they submitted the Remonstrance of New Netherland to the States General. This document was written by Leiden - educated New Netherland lawyer Adriaen van der Donck, condemning the WIC for mismanagement and demanding full rights as citizens of the province of the Netherlands.
Peter Stuyvesant arrived in New Amsterdam in 1647, the only governor of the colony to be called Director - General. Some years earlier land ownership policy was liberalized and trading was somewhat deregulated, and many New Netherlanders considered themselves entrepreneurs in a free market.
During the period of his governorship, the province experienced exponential growth. Demands were made upon Stuyvesant from all sides: the West India Company, the States General, and the New Netherlanders. Dutch territory was being nibbled at by the English to the north and the Swedes to the south, while in the heart of the province the Esopus were trying to contain further Dutch expansion. Discontent in New Amsterdam led locals to dispatch Adriaen van der Donck back to the United Provinces to seek redress. After nearly three years of legal and political wrangling, the Dutch Government came down against the WIC, granting the colony a measure of self - government and recalling Stuyvesant in April 1652. However, the orders were rescinded with the outbreak of the First Anglo - Dutch War a month later. Military battles were occurring in the Caribbean and along the South Atlantic coast. In 1654, the Netherlands lost New Holland in Brazil to the Portuguese, encouraging some of its residents to emigrate north and making the North American colonies more appealing to some investors. The Esopus Wars are so named for the branch of Lenape that lived around Wiltwijck, today 's Kingston, which was the Dutch settlement on the west bank of Hudson River between Beverwyk and New Amsterdam. These conflicts were generally over settlement of land by New Netherlanders for which contracts had not been clarified, and were seen by the natives as an unwanted incursion into their territory. Previously, the Esopus, a clan of the Munsee Lenape, had much less contact with the River Indians and the Mohawks.
New Netherlanders were not necessarily Dutch, and New Netherland was never a homogeneous society. An early governor, Peter Minuit, was a Walloon born in modern Germany who spoke English and worked for a Dutch company. The term New Netherland Dutch generally includes all the Europeans who came to live there, but may also refer to Africans, Indo - Caribbeans, South Americans and even the Native Americans who were integral to the society. Though Dutch was the official language, and likely the lingua franca of the province, it was but one of many spoken there. There were various Algonquian languages; Walloons and Huguenots tended to speak French, and Scandinavians brought their own tongues, as did the Germans. It is likely that the about 100 Africans (including both free men and slaves) on Manhattan spoke their mother tongues, but were taught Dutch from 1638 by Adam Roelantsz van Dokkum. The arrival of refugees from New Holland in Brazil may have brought speakers of Portuguese, Spanish, and Ladino (with Hebrew as a liturgical language). Commercial activity in the harbor could have been transacted simultaneously in any of a number of tongues.
The Dutch West India Company introduced slavery in 1625 with the importation of eleven black slaves who worked as farmers, fur traders, and builders. Although enslaved, the Africans had a few basic rights and families were usually kept intact. Admitted to the Dutch Reformed Church and married by its ministers, their children could be baptized. Slaves could testify in court, sign legal documents, and bring civil actions against whites. Some were permitted to work after hours earning wages equal to those paid to white workers. When the colony fell, the company freed the first slaves and some others, establishing early on a nucleus of free negros.
The Union of Utrecht, the founding document of the Dutch Republic, signed in 1579, stated "that everyone shall remain free in religion and that no one may be persecuted or investigated because of religion ''. The Dutch West India Company, however, established the Reformed Church as the official religious institution of New Netherland. Its successor church, the Reformed Church in America still exists today. The colonists had to attract, "through attitude and by example '', the natives and nonbelievers to God 's word "without, on the other hand, to persecute someone by reason of his religion, and to leave everyone the freedom of his conscience. '' In addition, the laws and ordinances of the states of Holland were incorporated by reference in those first instructions to the Governors Island settlers in 1624. There were two test cases during Stuyvesant 's governorship in which the rule prevailed: the official granting of full residency for both Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews in New Amsterdam in 1655, and the Flushing Remonstrance, involving Quakers, in 1657. During the 1640s, two religious leaders, both women, took refuge in New Netherland: Anne Hutchinson and the Anabaptist Lady Deborah Moody.
Apart from the second Fort Nassau, and the small community that supported it, settlement along the Zuyd Rivier was limited. An attempt by patroons of Zwaanendael, Samuel Blommaert and Samuel Godijn was destroyed by the local population soon after its founding in 1631 during the absence of their agent, David Pietersen de Vries.
Peter Minuit, who had construed a deed for Manhattan (and was soon after dismissed as director), knew that the Dutch would be unable to defend the southern flank of their North American territory and had not signed treaties with or purchased land from the Minquas. After gaining the support from the Queen of Sweden, he chose the southern banks of the Delaware Bay to establish a colony there, which he did in 1638, calling it Fort Christina, New Sweden. As expected, the government at New Amsterdam took no other action than to protest. Other settlements sprang up as colony grew, mostly populated by Swedes, Finns, Germans, and Dutch. In 1651, Fort Nassau was dismantled and relocated in an attempt to disrupt trade and reassert control, receiving the name Fort Casimir. Fort Beversreede was built in the same year, but was short - lived. In 1655, Stuyvesant led a military expedition and regained control of the region, calling its main town "New Amstel '' (Nieuw - Amstel). During this expedition, some villages and plantations at the Manhattans (Pavonia and Staten Island) were attacked in an incident that is known as the Peach Tree War. These raids are sometimes considered revenge for the murder of an Indian girl attempting to pluck a peach, though it was likely that they were a retaliation for the attacks at New Sweden. A new experimental settlement was begun in 1673, just before the British takeover in 1674. Franciscus van den Enden had drawn up charter for a utopian society that included equal education of all classes, joint ownership of property, and a democratically elected government. Pieter Corneliszoon Plockhoy attempted such a settlement near the site of Zwaanendael, but it soon expired under English rule.
Few Dutch settlers to New Netherland made their home at Fort Goede Hoop on the Fresh River. As early as 1637, English settlers from the Massachusetts Bay Colony began to settle along its banks and on Lange Eylandt, some with permission from the colonial government and others with complete disregard for it. The English colonies grew more rapidly than New Netherland as they were motivated by a desire to establish communities with religious roots, rather than for trade purposes. The wal or rampart was originally built at Wall Street due to fear of an invasion by the English.
Initially, there was limited contact between New Englanders and New Netherlanders, but the two provinces engaged in direct diplomatic relations with a swelling English population and territorial disputes. The New England Confederation was formed in 1643 as a political and military alliance of the English colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. Connecticut and New Haven were actually on land claimed by the United Provinces, but the Dutch were unable to populate or militarily defend their territorial claim and therefore could do nothing but protest the growing flood of English settlers. With the 1650 Treaty of Hartford, Stuyvesant provisionally ceded the Connecticut River region to New England, drawing New Netherland 's eastern border 50 Dutch miles (approximately 250 km) west of the Connecticut 's mouth on the mainland and just west of Oyster Bay on Long Island. The Dutch West India Company refused to recognize the treaty, but it failed to reach any other agreement with the English, so the Hartford Treaty set the de facto border. Connecticut mostly assimilated into New England.
In March 1664, Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland resolved to annex New Netherland and "bring all his Kingdoms under one form of government, both in church and state, and to install the Anglican government as in old England. '' The directors of the Dutch West India Company concluded that the religious freedom, which they offered in New Netherland, would dissuade English colonists from working toward their removal. They wrote to Director - General Peter Stuyvesant:
... we are in hopes that as the English at the north (in New Netherland) have removed mostly from old England for the causes aforesaid, they will not give us henceforth so much trouble, but prefer to live free under us at peace with their consciences than to risk getting rid of our authority and then falling again under a government from which they had formerly fled.
On August 27, 1664, four English frigates led by Richard Nicolls sailed into New Amsterdam 's harbor and demanded New Netherland 's surrender. They met no resistance because numerous citizens ' requests had gone unheeded for protection by a suitable Dutch garrison against "the deplorable and tragic massacres '' by the natives. That lack of adequate fortification, ammunition, and manpower made New Amsterdam defenseless, as well as the indifference from the West India Company to previous pleas for reinforcement of men and ships against "the continual troubles, threats, encroachments and invasions of the English neighbors. '' Stuyvesant negotiated successfully for good terms from his "too powerful enemies ''. In the Articles of Transfer, he and his council secured the principle of religious tolerance in Article VIII, which assured that New Netherlanders "shall keep and enjoy the liberty of their consciences in religion '' under English rule. The Articles were largely observed in New Amsterdam and the Hudson River Valley, but they were immediately violated by the English along the Delaware River, where pillaging, looting, and arson were undertaken under the orders of English officer Sir Robert Carr, Kt. who had been dispatched to secure the valley. Many Dutch settlers were sold into slavery in Virginia on Carr 's orders, and an entire Mennonite settlement led by Pieter Corneliszoon Plockhoy, was wiped out, near modern Lewes, Delaware. The 1667 Treaty of Breda ended the Second Anglo - Dutch War; the Dutch did not press their claims on New Netherland, and the status quo was maintained, with the Dutch occupying Suriname and the nutmeg island of Run.
Within six years, the nations were again at war. The Dutch recaptured New Netherland in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships led by Vice Admiral Cornelius Evertsen and Commodore Jacob Binckes, then the largest ever seen in North America. They chose Anthony Colve as governor and renamed the city "New Orange, '' reflecting the installation of William of Orange as Lord - Lieutenant (stadtholder) of Holland in 1672, who became King William III of England in 1689. Nevertheless, the Dutch Republic was bankrupt after the conclusion of the Third Anglo - Dutch War in 1672 -- 1674, the historic "disaster years '' in which the republic was simultaneously attacked by the French under Louis XIV, the English, and the Bishops of Munster and Cologne. The States of Zeeland had tried to convince the States of Holland to take on the responsibility for the New Netherland province, but to no avail. In November 1674, the Treaty of Westminster concluded the war and ceded New Netherland to the English.
New Netherland grew into the largest metropolis in the United States, and it left an enduring legacy on American cultural and political life, "a secular broadmindedness and mercantile pragmatism '' greatly influenced by the social and political climate in the Dutch Republic at the time, as well as by the character of those who immigrated to it. It was during the early British colonial period that the New Netherlanders actually developed the land and society that had an enduring impact on the Capital District, the Hudson Valley, North Jersey, western Long Island, New York City, and ultimately the United States.
The concept of tolerance was the mainstay of the province 's Dutch mother country. The Dutch Republic was a haven for many religious and intellectual refugees fleeing oppression, as well as home to the world 's major ports in the newly developing global economy. Concepts of religious freedom and free - trade (including a stock market) were Netherlands imports. In 1682, visiting Virginian William Byrd commented about New Amsterdam that "they have as many sects of religion there as at Amsterdam ''.
The Dutch Republic was one of the first nation - states of Europe where citizenship and civil liberties were extended to large segments of the population. The framers of the U.S. Constitution were influenced by the Constitution of the Republic of the United Provinces, though that influence was more as an example of things to avoid than of things to imitate. In addition, the Act of Abjuration, essentially the declaration of independence of the United Provinces from the Spanish throne, is strikingly similar to the later American Declaration of Independence, though there is no concrete evidence that one influenced the other. John Adams went so far as to say that "the origins of the two Republics are so much alike that the history of one seems but a transcript from that of the other. '' The Articles of Capitulation (outlining the terms of transfer to the English) in 1664 provided for the right to worship as one wished, and were incorporated into subsequent city, state, and national constitutions in the United States, and are the legal and cultural code that lies at the root of the New York Tri-State traditions.
Many prominent U.S. citizens are Dutch American directly descended from the Dutch families of New Netherland. The Roosevelt family produced two Presidents and are descended from Claes van Roosevelt, who emigrated around 1650. The Van Buren family of President Martin Van Buren also originated in New Netherland. The Bush family descendants from Flora Sheldon are descendants from the Schuyler family.
The blue, white and orange colors of the flag of New York City, of Albany and of Nassau County are those of the Prinsenvlag ("Prince 's Flag ''), introduced in the 17th century as the Statenvlag ("States Flag ''), the naval flag of the States - General of the Dutch Republic.
They are also seen in materials from New York 's two World 's Fairs and the uniforms of the New York Knicks basketball club, the New York Mets baseball club, and the New York Islanders hockey club.
The seven arrows in the lion 's left claw in the Republic 's coat of arms, representing the seven provinces, was a precedent for the thirteen arrows in the eagle 's left claw in the Great Seal of the United States.
Any review of the legacy of New Netherland is complicated by the enormous impact of Washington Irving 's satirical A History of New York and its famous fictional author Diedrich Knickerbocker. Irving 's romantic vision of an enlightened, languid Dutch yeomanry dominated the popular imagination about the colony since its publication in 1809. To this day, many mistakenly believe that Irving 's two most famous short stories, "Rip Van Winkle '' and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow '', are based on actual folk tales of Dutch peasants in the Hudson Valley.
The tradition of Santa Claus is thought to have developed from a gift - giving celebration of the feast of Saint Nicholas on December 6 each year by the settlers of New Netherland. The Dutch Sinterklaas was Americanized into "Santa Claus '', a name first used in the American press in 1773, when, in the early days of the revolt, Nicholas was used as a symbol of New York 's non-British past. However, many of the "traditions '' of Santa Claus may have simply been invented by Irving in his 1809 Knickerbocker 's History of New York from The Beginning of the World To the End of The Dutch Dynasty.
Pinkster, the Dutch celebration of Spring is still celebrated in the Hudson Valley.
Dutch continued to be spoken in the region for some time. President Martin Van Buren grew up in Kinderhook, New York speaking only Dutch, later becoming the only president not to have spoken English as a first language. Pidgin Delaware developed early in the province as a vehicular language to expedite trade. A dialect known as Jersey Dutch was spoken in and around rural Bergen and Passaic counties in New Jersey until the early 20th century. Mohawk Dutch, spoken around Albany, is also now extinct.
Many Dutch words borrowed into English are evident in today 's American vernacular and emanate directly from the legacy of New Netherland. For example, the quintessential American word Yankee may be a corruption of a Dutch name, Jan Kees. Knickerbocker, originally a surname, has been used to describe a number of things, including breeches, glasses, and a basketball team. Cookie is from the Dutch word koekje or (informally) koekie. Boss, from baas, evolved in New Netherland to the usage known today.
Early settlers and their descendents gave many placenames still in use throughout the region that was New Netherland. Using Dutch, and the Latin alphabet, they also "Batavianized '' names of Native American geographical locations such as Manhattan, Hackensack, Sing - Sing, and Canarsie. Peekskill, Catskill, and Cresskill all refer to the streams, or kils, around which they grew. Schuylkill River is somewhat redundant, since kil is already built into it. Among those that use hoek, meaning corner, are: Red Hook, Sandy Hook, Constable Hook, and Kinderhook. Nearly pure Dutch forms name the bodies of water Spuyten Duyvil, Kill van Kull, and Hell Gate. Countless towns, streets, and parks bear names derived from Dutch places or from the surnames of the early Dutch settlers. Hudson and the House of Orange - Nassau lend their names to numerous places in the Northeast.
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where are the districts located in the hunger games | Fictional world of the Hunger Games - Wikipedia
The Hunger Games universe is a fictional world appearing in The Hunger Games trilogy written by Suzanne Collins. It consists primarily of the fictional nation of Panem, its Capitol where the totalitarian government resides, and the outlying districts, numbered 1 to 12, each with a different economy. In addition, there is the secretive District 13, where a rebel force is building strength. The Hunger Games themselves are an annual event in which citizens from the districts, selected through a process called "reaping '', are forced to participate in a battle to the death. The universe also contains fictional flora and fauna, such as the Mockingjay, a bird whose mimicry is used as a plot device, and after whom the third book in the series is named.
The series takes place in the fictional nation of Panem, which has replaced the 21st century North American nations at an unspecified future time after a series of ecological disasters and a great war. The name Panem comes from the Latin word for bread. Panem consists of a Capitol city located in the Rocky Mountains, surrounded by thirteen outlying Districts. The government is a totalitarian dictatorship similar to ancient Rome, a police state in which the Districts are subservient to the Capitol, expected to provide economic goods in exchange for protection provided by "Peacekeepers ''.
Seventy - four years before the start of the story, a civil war was waged against the Capitol, led by District 13 which was a center of military -- industrial production. The Capitol put down the rebellion and razed District 13 to the ground, ostensibly wiping out its residents. The government refers to this war as "the Dark Days '', and to punish the rebellious districts and remind all generations of the Capitol 's power, instituted an annual pageant known as the "Hunger Games '' for which each district is compelled to provide one male and one female "tribute '' between the ages of 12 and 18, chosen by lottery. The twenty - four tributes are sent to an arena and forced to fight to the death, until a single victor remains.
Panem has been led for more than 25 years by President Coriolanus Snow. In Mockingjay, it is revealed that District 13 's population was not wiped out, but retreated underground and is currently led by Snow 's political rival, President Alma Coin. After the 75th and final Hunger Games, Coin leads a second rebellion against the Capitol, which is successful. She is then assassinated by Katniss Everdeen and is succeeded by Commander Paylor, who presides over a reestablished democratic republic.
The Capitol is populated by citizens who, like the ancient Romans as observed by the satirical poet Juvenal circa A.D. 100, have sold their civic responsibility and capacity for self - government in return for panem et circenses ("bread and circuses '').
Removed from the deprivation and oppression of the districts, the pampered and hedonistic civilians are generally preoccupied with extravagant fashion, parties, and mass entertainment like the Hunger Games. Compared to the Districts, the Capitol is extremely wealthy and derives most of the benefits of advanced technologies such as computers, hover planes, and high - speed trains. Visiting tributes who have grown up with the constant threat of starvation and poverty, are shocked by what they consider wasteful decadence in the Capitol. For example, the selection of dishes served at parties is commonly far greater than one person could sample, so it is usual to provide emetic beverages, allowing guests to continue eating. Due to this extravagant lifestyle, it is rare for Capitol citizens to join the Peacekeepers, as it requires its soldiers to avoid marriage for twenty years and is often considered a punishment to avoid spending time in jail. In addition, residents of other districts who are considered criminals or traitors may be forced into servitude in the Capitol and converted into Avoxes, a brutal form of punishment in which offenders have their tongue surgically removed.
Citizens of the Capitol are culturally distinct from those of the Districts, speaking with a characteristic accent and choosing first names of ancient Greco - Roman derivation, with the city itself having a modernized version of ancient Roman architecture. In the books, the Capitol buildings are described as "candy - colored '', rising in a rainbow of hues. The fashions of the Capitol are exotic and ostentatious, with citizens dyeing their skin and hair with vivid colors, adopting tattoos, and undergoing extensive surgical alteration in the name of style. The Capitol accent is distinctive, said to sound "silly '' and effete to people from the districts; the accent is described as being "high - pitched with clipped tones and odd vowels ''. The letter s is a hiss and the tone rises at the end of every sentence, as if the speaker is asking a question.
Residents of the Capitol can not be chosen as tributes for the Hunger Games, as the Games were instituted as a punishment for the twelve remaining districts of Panem for their failed rebellion. Once there were thirteen districts, but District 13 was supposedly destroyed by the Capitol as a result of the rebellion. The Games are an annual cause for celebration in the Capitol; citizens gamble on the tributes and sponsor their favorites in the arena, providing water, food, weapons, and other necessary provisions. Past victors are often able to cultivate celebrity status in the Capitol. Despite the bloodthirsty nature of the Games, the people of the Capitol are shown to be vulnerable to sentimentality and melodrama, becoming emotionally invested in the tributes, a fact ultimately manipulated by Katniss and Peeta.
An Avox is a person who has been punished for being a rebel against the Capitol; a traitor or a deserter. Most Avoxes will have been hunted and caught by the Peacekeepers of their respective Districts. Avoxes have had their tongues cut out, rendering them mute. They are used as domestic servants and waiters upon tributes and Capitol citizens. It is also suggested that Avoxes are charged with the day - to - day maintenance of the Capitol and work shifts in the Transfer network under the city.
People do not speak to Avoxes unless giving them an order. They spend their lives serving the Capitol at the lowest class; they are slaves.
Peacekeepers are the military, internal security and law enforcement in Panem. They wear black - trimmed white uniforms consisting of a "police helmet '' (which resembles a police motorcycle helmet in the first film and full - face motorcycle helmets in later films), a standing collar, waist - length tunic, and trousers tucked into high black boots. In the Capitol they wear what seems to be a dress version. This uniform is of the same basic design with a black sash and beret with gold capital seal. In The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, their appearance is different from the first film; they wear a full helmet, darker visor, and heavier - looking armor, and carry automatic rifles.
Peacekeepers maintain order and suppress dissidence through coercion and brutality. The Peacekeeper force in each district is led by a Head Peacekeeper of the district. The Peacekeepers ensure that the laws of the Capitol are obeyed and publicly punish those who break them. The most frequent punishment consists of floggings, but can include the pillory and hanging for the most serious crimes. Peacekeepers are usually equipped with sub-machine guns to further discourage social disobedience among the Districts. As the Capitol traditionally considers District 12 a minimal threat, the Peacekeepers stationed there have tended to be less brutal, and easily bribed with sex and black market goods such as poached animals. But in Catching Fire, after Katniss Everdeen 's and Peeta Mellark 's defiance of the Capitol in the 74th Hunger Games, the Head Peacekeeper is replaced by a much stricter and brutal one who can not be bribed, and destroys the Hob, which houses the black market.
Panem uses genetic engineering to create animals which figure into the Hunger Games or otherwise serve its political purposes.
Jabberjays are small, crested black birds created by the Capitol during the Dark Days. They possess the capability to remember and precisely mimic human speech, allowing their use to spy on rebels. The rebels figured out the birds ' purpose, and defeated it by giving the birds disinformation. When the Capitol discovered this, the birds were abandoned in the wilderness, expected to die because they were exclusively male. However, they bred with female mockingbirds and created a new hybrid species, the mockingjay.
During the third Quarter Quell in Catching Fire, the Capitol uses jabberjays in the arena to demoralize the tributes by repeating faked screams of their loved ones. Finnick hears his lover Annie, and Katniss hears her sister Prim, her mother, Gale, and Gale 's family. She attempts to shoot all the screaming birds, but eventually gives up.
Mockingjays are black and white birds created accidentally by the mating of engineered jabberjays with female mockingbirds, after rebels discovered and defeated the jabberjays ' purpose. After the emergence of mockingjays, their jabberjay progenitors became, as Katniss states in Catching Fire, "as rare and tough as rocks ''. The Mockingjay does not have the ability to enunciate words, but can perfectly copy the melody of human singing in a whistling tone. District 11 is known to have an especially large mockingjay population, and they are used there to signal the end of the work day.
The mockingjay is a source of embarrassment to the Capitol because of its accidental creation, and because of this, has become a symbol of anti-Capitol resistance and eventually the whole rebellion itself. At the beginning of The Hunger Games, Katniss wears a mockingjay pin given to her by Madge Undersee. In Catching Fire, Plutarch Heavanesbee shows Katniss that his pocket watch displays a holographic mockingjay. In Mockingjay, Katniss is given the identity of "the Mockingjay '', as an inspirational character to the rebels, wearing a mockingjay - inspired costume.
Tracker jackers are wasps engineered to be extremely aggressive, tracking their victims and stinging with extremely painful, hallucinogenic, and potentially fatal venom, which can cause extreme illusions, and even death. Katniss drops a tracker jacker nest on several tributes during her first Hunger Games, killing two of them. Katniss and several other tributes are stung and hallucinate. The Capitol uses the venom in a process of torture and brainwashing known as "hijacking ''. The venom targets the part of the brain that controls fear and confusion, and is used to distort the victim 's memories. The technique is used on Peeta in Mockingjay, in an attempt to turn him into an assassin against Katniss.
The groosling is an edible wild bird the size of a wild turkey. Katniss hunts it in the first book of the series. Rue states that it is commonly found in District 11. They are spotted and hunted frequently in the 74th Hunger Games.
Wolf "muttations '' or "mutts '' appeared at the end of the 74th Hunger Games to draw Katniss, Peeta, and Cato into a final fight. The wolf - like creatures mimicked the deceased tributes, particularly in fur and eye color, but also with collars which match the tributes ' district numbers. One wolf Katniss identifies as Rue, and others as Glimmer, Foxface, the boy from District 9, and Thresh. They were created by the Gamemakers to draw the three remaining tributes together for the finale. Peeta later creates a painting of the wolf mutt supposed to be Glimmer. It took him three days to find the right shade for sunlight on white fur. He "kept thinking it was just yellow, but it was so much more than that. '' When he is shot in the hand with an arrow, Cato falls off the Cornucopia; Cato 's fight for survival against the mutts goes on for several hours before Katniss shoots him in the skull with an arrow out of pity. He would not have survived for so long without his suit of body armor and a hidden sword or knife. In the film adaptation, the mutts resemble Rottweiler dogs.
These creatures are seen in Mockingjay in the underground tunnels of the Capitol, supposedly created especially to hunt Katniss down as their voices hissed her name. They are human - sized and described as having tight, white skin, long sharp claws and teeth. They also smell of roses, thought to be so because Katniss hates the smell of the Capitol 's altered roses, due to their association with President Snow. They can jump extremely far and are capable of decapitating their victims with a single bite. Katniss kills the mutts with a Holo device that she throws into the underground tunnel. These mutts are responsible for the deaths of Finnick Odair, Jackson, Castor, and Homes by beheading them on the wild chase.
The 75th Games included "muttation '' monkeys, with razor - sharp claws, wickedly sharp teeth, and orange fur, that would attack during the 4th hour of the "clock ''. They attacked the tributes in packs when Peeta glanced up at them, but the woman victor from 6, or ' female morphling ', as Katniss calls her, jumps in front of Peeta to save his life, as she was part of the alliance formed to defend Katniss and Peeta with their lives. On the clock, the monkeys are the 3: 00 -- 4: 00 section.
During the 50th Games, Haymitch struck a temporary alliance with a female tribute from his district named Maysilee Donner. After they break off this alliance, Haymitch hears her screams and runs to her. He sees a flock of candy - pink birds attacking Maysilee, and they spear her throat with their razor - sharp beaks as he arrives. He stays with her as she dies, just as Katniss stays with Rue.
Nightlock is a wild bush with extremely toxic berries. The berry will kill almost as soon as it is ingested, and it becomes a major plot device in The Hunger Games, first gathered by Peeta, who thinks they are edible. Katniss identifies them immediately, luckily before Peeta has eaten any. One of the remaining tributes (Foxface) steals them and eats them. When Katniss and Peeta are the last two survivors, the improvised rule allowing two winners from the same District is revoked. Katniss suggests that they kill themselves by eating the berries, hoping that the Gamemaker will relent rather than have a Game with no victor. This plan works.
The nightlock name is likely a hybrid of the real plants nightshade and hemlock, both of which are deadly poisons. It has been suggested the names may go with Collins ' allusions to Romeo and Juliet in the use of the phrase "star - crossed lovers '' and the suicidal nature of Romeo and Juliet 's death.
In Mockingjay, District 13 makes a suicide pill out of the nightlock toxin and gives one to Katniss and each member of the "Star Squad '' in the final Capitol attack, in case they are captured. The word "nightlock '' repeated three times is used as the self - destruct code for the Holo, a holographic map device used by the rebels in Mockingjay to display the location of the Capitol 's defense pods.
In the 74th Hunger Games, Rue uses an unnamed plant 's leaves to treat Katniss ' tracker jacker stings. Katniss recognizes the leaves as something that her mother used, but by a different method. While Rue utilizes the leaves by chewing them into a pulp then applying them directly to the tracker jacker stings, Katniss ' mother stewed the leaves to make an infusion which the patient then drinks. Also in the 74th Hunger Games, Katniss applies the leaves of the same plant to Peeta 's leg wound (inflicted by Cato) in the hope of warding off infection. The application causes pus to run out of his leg and the swelling to go down temporarily.
The Capitol controls all TV broadcasts within Panem. Sometimes there are emergency announcements that make the TV start itself, like the Hunger Games, news bulletins or warnings.
High speed trains run throughout the districts. The trains are known for their speed and comfort. They are the trains that carry the tributes.
Electromagnetic force fields are used by the Capitol as barriers, mainly in the arenas, where the fields are camouflaged to match the arena 's terrain. In the Second Quarter Quell, Haymitch used the force field as a weapon against a District 1 tribute. In the Third Quarter Quell, Peeta accidentally hits the force field while walking through the tropical arena. Blight, the male district 7 tribute is killed when stumbling upon the force field during the blood rain in that sector. Katniss also shoots an arrow at the force field to destroy it in the same Quarter Quell.
In Panem, Districts 1 - 12 wore clothing that was generic, and similar to modern day fashions, but citizens of the Capitol typically wore extravagant designer clothes that were very colorful and peculiar. In District 13, all citizens outfits consisted of just simple grey jumpsuits. In the Games, special uniforms were designed specifically to help the tributes have a chance against harsh conditions. An example of the specially designed uniforms are the ones worn in "Catching Fire ''. In the books, these uniforms included flotation devices (due to the fact that most tributes could not swim). In the films, the uniforms did not have flotation devices, but in both versions, the uniforms were designed to help survive in tropical temperatures. Technological advances also had an impact on Panem fashions. During both tribute parades, and interviews in the Hunger Games trilogy, Katniss Everdeen (and Peeta Mellark in the parades) showcased outfits that seemingly caught fire, just like the coal from their District (District 12), while in reality the flames were purely special effects.
Hovercraft are used by the capitol to transport Peacekeepers, and secure district borders. They are implied to be extremely fast and silent. In Mockingjay it is revealed that district 13 had an entire fleet of hovercraft, but had never used them due to the fear that the Capitol would retaliate with even more firepower. Hovercraft are also used in The Hunger Games to transport the tributes to the arena.
In Mockingjay the Capitol uses them as bombers to attack District Eight and used them in the same manner in their destruction of District Twelve. The rebels also used them in this manner while attacking the Nut in District 2 and the bombing of the Capitol.
To counter the aircraft, both the Capitol and District 13 operate air defense networks to intercept and shoot them down.
A Holo Map, more commonly referred to as a Holo, is a piece of technology with the purpose of projecting a holographic map of a location. In Mockingjay Part Two, it is used by the Star Squad as both an interactive, three - dimensional map of the Capitol and as a tool to locate dangerous defense pods hidden in the streets of the city. It doubles as an explosive device that detonates if a squad member is to flick a switch on the object and repeat the word ' nightlock ' three consecutive times. If set off, it blasts everything within a five - yard radius. It caused the death of the Mutts in Mockingjay.
Nuclear weapons are held by both the Capitol and District 13. Prior to the Dark Days, District 13 was responsible for the Capitol 's nuclear weapons development, though publicly it was responsible for graphite mining (a material needed in the enrichment process). It is implied that the weapons are only delivered via missiles. Little information is given on the original source of the weapons development, though it is possible it originated from what remained of the United States military prior to the formation of Panem.
Due to the uncertain nature of the location of the Districts, besides that District 13 was approximately a week on foot from the edge of District 12, it can be assumed that it was located around southern Pennsylvania.
It is unclear how many weapons each side holds. However, it is enough that, according to both the Capitol and District 13, there would be no winners.
District 1 specializes in producing luxury items such as jewelry. Children living there take pride in representing District 1 in the Games, and are often among the group of tributes nicknamed "Careers '', who illegally train for the Games from a young age so when they volunteer they have a higher chance of winning. Katniss refers to them as "the Capitol 's lap dogs '' in the first book. Once the Games begin, the tributes from the Career - heavy districts (typically Districts 1, 2, and 4 in the book, just 1 & 2 in the film) tend to form an alliance until they are forced to fight among themselves to determine the winner. Along with District 2, District 1 is heavily favored by the Capitol and is fairly wealthy compared to the rest of the districts. It is also noted that people from this district give their children names after expensive material, such as Cashmere, and Katniss states in the first book she thinks it 's "ridiculous. ''
In The Hunger Games, during the 74th Hunger Games, both tributes from District 1 (Marvel and Glimmer) join the "Career '' pack. Glimmer is eventually killed by tracker jackers (mutant wasps), which were dropped on the Careers by Katniss. Marvel is killed by Katniss after he kills Rue. In Catching Fire, the tributes from District 1 are siblings Cashmere and Gloss, who are killed by Johanna Mason and Katniss, respectively.
District 2 is in charge of stone cutting, fighting, and weapons manufacturing, though it was revealed in Mockingjay that it is also a center of training for the Capitol 's army of Peacekeepers. District 2 is a large district in the mountains, not far from the Capitol itself. Its citizens have better living conditions than most other districts; support for Capitol control is stronger here than in any other district. Some citizens of District 2 give their children names of Ancient Roman or Greek style, like those common in the Capitol. District 2 tributes often volunteer for the Games even when not selected in the drawing (this is said to make the Reapings very difficult). As such, their tributes are among those referred to as "careers ''. Like Districts 1 and 4 (in the film like District 1) these tributes train for the games. This is illegal but because of the support District 2 gives for the Capitol, they are let off, along with District 1 (and District 4 in the book), the other richer district (s). It is also mentioned that the number of victors is heavily skewed on District 2 due to their eagerness to compete in the game.
During the Seventy - fourth Hunger Games, Cato and Clove, the tributes from District 2, were formidable opponents. Clove came the closest of anyone to killing Katniss, but she was interrupted and killed by Thresh, after having said loudly that the Careers killed Rue, the female tribute from Thresh 's district. Thresh avenged her death. Cato was the final tribute to be killed when Katniss shot him with her bow out of pity after he was shredded beyond repair by wolf - like muttations. In the Seventy - fifth Hunger Games, District 2 's tributes were Brutus and Enobaria. Brutus was killed by Peeta in the arena; Enobaria survived the Games and the rebellion to be one of the few victors left after the war. Another victor, Commander Lyme, was the leader of the rebellion 's District 2 forces during the takeover of The Nut.
District 2 is made up of many small villages, each based around a mine. In the midst of District 2 is a central mountain (referred to as "The Nut '' by Katniss) which contains the command and control center for the Capitol 's defenses. During the Dark Days, District 2 was the Capitol 's staunchest ally and received preferential treatment from the Capitol after the rebellion, along with District 1. Katniss states that many of the other Districts loathe District 2, referring to them as "the Capitol 's lap dogs. '' In the third book, during the second rebellion, District 2 is the last to fall to the rebels as District 2 had the strongest Capitol influence and had many Peacekeepers. The rebels were losing in the district until the fall (takeover in the book; destruction in the movie) of The Nut, and Katniss ' speech (in both) to the people of District 2.
District 3 specializes in the production of electronics. Most of its inhabitants work in factories and are very adept in skills such as engineering, which its tributes have used to their advantage in the Games. In the Seventy - fourth Hunger Games, the male tribute from District 3 manages to reactivate the land mines surrounding the Cornucopia so they can be used to protect the supplies of the Careers. One of the previous victors to come from District 3, Beetee, won his Games by setting a trap that electrocuted six tributes at once, crowning him the victor. He also used his skills after being chosen to compete in the Seventy - fifth Hunger Games in Catching Fire. The other victor chosen to compete in the Seventy - fifth Hunger Games is a woman named Wiress, who discovered that the arena operated like a clock and told Katniss how to detect force fields, after she pointed (or at least started to point) out the force field put up between the Gamemakers and the victors. Wiress died during the Seventy - fifth Hunger Games, while Beetee joins the technological division for the Second Rebellion 's war effort and becomes the only surviving Victor from District 3. After the war 's end Beetee make a special bow and arrows for Katniss and the arrows include explosive arrows and also regular arrows. Although District 3 seems to have technological advantages over other districts, it is actually the poorest of the wealthy districts and typically does not do well in the Games.
District 4 is a coastal district that specializes in fishing. It is another wealthy district in which children often train to become Careers (tributes from this district are not considered Careers in the film). It is said that District 4 has the most "decent - looking '' people. The most popular bread baked in this District is a salty, fish - shaped loaf tinted green by seaweed.
In the first book, the male tribute from District 4 is one of the eleven to die in the initial bloodbath at the Cornucopia; in the film he is depicted as having his throat slit by Cato after an attempt to flee. In the book, the female tribute is shown as a Career and killed by the tracker jackers alongside Glimmer; however, in the film she rarely makes an appearance. She is seen as picking up one of the backpacks at the cornucopia bloodbath and running away. It is believed that she is the tribute that Katniss saw before falling down the hill. The district 4 female may have been the last to die in the bloodbath. In Catching Fire, Katniss finds important allies in Mags and Finnick Odair, the victors from District 4 chosen for the Quarter Quell. Mags is an elderly victor who mentored Finnick in his first Games and could make a fishing hook "out of anything. '' She volunteered for the Quarter Quell, taking the place of Annie Cresta, an unstable past victor who won her games by being able to swim the longest after the arena was flooded. During the third Quarter Quell, Mags is killed by a mysterious blister agent in the form of a fog. As for Finnick, Katniss describes him as "beautiful '' and mentions that he won his Games at the young age of fourteen. In Mockingjay, Katniss and Finnick turn out to become great friends and eventually Finnick is killed by part - lizard, part - human mutations during the second rebellion, so that he could save Katniss 's life. This results in Annie being the only surviving Victor from District 4 left after the war.
District 5 specializes in electrical power, which Caesar Flickerman referred as the "Power Plant Workers '' in the first film. The third book reveals that the district is dotted by dams providing the Capitol with electricity; this fact is exploited by the rebels, who destroy the dams, briefly cutting off electricity within the Capitol and allowing District 13 to rescue the captured Victors. This is only mentioned in the book but is shown fully in the third film.
In the first book, Katniss nicknamed the female tribute from District 5 "Foxface '' because she looked similar to a fox, with a slim face and sleek red hair. She was one of the last to die, due to her cleverness, avoiding any form of contact with other tributes. She also steals a small portion of food from the Careers ' supplies, dodging the bombs set up by the Careers, shortly before her death. She dies by eating poisonous berries known as nightlock after watching Peeta harvest them. No name or description is given to the male tribute from District 5, except that he is one of the eleven who die in the bloodbath on the first day. In the Seventy - fifth Hunger Games, Finnick kills the male tribute with his trident at the Cornucopia on the first day. In the film, the female tribute is killed by the 10 o'clock wave that propels itself through the jungle.
District 6 specializes in transportation, serving as a hub for the transport network. During the Seventy - fourth Hunger Games, both tributes were killed in the bloodbath on the first day. In the film the male was targeted by Cato, who accused him of taking his knife during a pre-Games training exercise (though it was in fact stolen by Rue). During the Seventy - fifth Hunger Games, both tributes are nicknamed the "Morphlings '' due to their addiction to morphling, a psychoactive drug similar to that of morphine. The male tribute is killed in the bloodbath, while the female tribute dies when a monkey muttation bites her in the chest and ruptures her internal organs as she blocks it from Peeta, who was its initial target. Peeta allows her to paint flowers on his face with her blood, and describes the many colors in the sky to her as she dies.
District 7 specializes in lumber and paper. Its two tributes in the 74th Hunger Games die in the initial bloodbath. In the 75th Hunger Games, the tributes selected are Blight, who protests his inclusion, and Johanna Mason, a sarcastic woman who has no qualms over killing with her axe, a signature weapon from her district, who in the film, also protests her inclusion in an expletive ridden tirade with Cesar Flickerman, and is the one mentioned Victor closest to Katniss and Peeta in age, having won the very recent 71st Hunger Games.
District 8 specializes in textiles (including at least one factory in which Peacekeeper uniforms are made). Along with Districts 7 and 11, It was among the first districts to rebel, as Katniss saw on Mayor Undersee 's television (On a monitor on the Victory Tour train in the film, showing all three; 7, 8, and 11). Two people from District 8, Bonnie and Twill, escaped during one of the uprisings and informed Katniss of the theory that District 13 still existed. It is implied that security is strict in District 8 following the uprising, and the citizens are desperate for hope. In Mockingjay, Katniss visits a hospital in District 8, which is later bombed by the Capitol. It is thus the second-most targeted of the districts during the Second Rebellion, after District 12 (which is outright destroyed). The leader of District 8 and another of its Victors, Paylor, is able to command fierce loyalty from her soldiers who follow her orders in preference to those of Alma Coin, the president of District 13. Paylor later becomes President of Panem after Katniss assassinates Coin.
In the 74th Hunger Games, the male tribute from District 8 died at the Cornucopia at the hands of Marvel; the female tribute was attacked by the Careers on the first night and "finished off '' by Peeta when her death did not occur immediately, as indicated by cannon blast. In the 75th Hunger Games, both tributes from District 8, Woof and Cecelia, died in the initial battle at the Cornucopia. Woof was an elderly, senile tribute in his 70 's. Cecelia was a young mother of 3, and was noted to be about 30 years of age. It is later revealed that Cecelia was to be an original member of the arranged alliance to save Katniss and Peeta from the second arena; however, she did not survive the initial bloodbath. Woof also had knowledge of the plot.
District 9 specializes in producing grain. It is the least mentioned district in the series; no named character from the district has appeared in the series. The only mention of note from the district is the male tribute in the 74th Hunger Games who tackles Katniss for a supply bag until Clove puts a knife in his back. District 9 is the only district to lose both of its tributes in the bloodbath of both the 74th and 75th Hunger Games, and the only one to have no named characters in the trilogy.
District 10 specializes in livestock. At least one job is mentioned throughout the book: keeping embryos of cattle to keep enough livestock to send to the Capitol. Katniss does not note any major tributes from District 10, except one boy with a crippled leg who is mentioned several times. In Mockingjay, Katniss meets Dalton, a District 10 refugee who explains to her a bit about District 13 's history. At the 75th Hunger Games, Katniss notes that the District 10 tributes, who are dressed as cows, have flaming belts on as if they are broiling themselves, a poor imitation of Cinna and Portia 's techniques to showcase Katniss and Peeta at the 74th Hunger Games.
District 11 specializes in agriculture. It is located somewhere in the South and is very large, possibly occupying nearly all of the Deep South. The people are housed in small shacks and there is a harsh force of Peacekeepers. Common traits are dark skin and brown eyes. According to Rue, many tracker jacker nests were left there, leading the workers to keep medicinal leaves on hand. In the orchards, small children were sent into the branches to pick the highest fruit. Sometimes during the height of the harvest they were given night - vision goggles to allow them to work after dark. The district also contained fields of vegetables. Electric fences are set up 24 hours a day, in contrast to District 12. The inhabitants apparently have extensive knowledge of herbs. Overall, the condition of the district is worse than District 12, because, as the food - producing district, security is enforced greatly and harsh measures, including summary execution, are implemented to keep people from stealing anything meant for the Capitol.
In the 74th Hunger Games, the tributes from District 11 are Thresh, the tallest and most imposing of all tributes whom the others try to avoid as much as possible, and Rue, a 12 - year - old petite girl who can climb and jump between trees and becomes Katniss ' steadfast ally until her death. In the 75th Hunger Games, the victors selected as tributes are Chaff, Haymitch 's drinking comrade who refused a prosthetic arm, and Seeder, an elderly but healthy tribute who reminds Katniss of Rue. District 11 was also the first District to rebel, its rebellion erupting during the events of the 74th Hunger Games in response to the way in which Rue was killed and Katniss ' tribute to her, with 7 and 8 rebelling shortly soon after.
District 12 specializes in coal mining, replaced by medicine after the Second Rebellion, and is the farthest from the Capitol. Katniss, Peeta, and other major characters come from District 12. It is located in the Appalachian Mountains, and the district itself is split into two distinct housing areas and social classes. "The Seam '' is a slum where those who work in the coal mines live, whereas the mercantile class lives in the town, centered around the "Square ''. Both classes are easy to distinguish physically and generally socialize amongst themselves. Those from the Seam generally have dark hair, grey eyes, and olive skin, and those from merchant families typically have blond hair, blue eyes, and fair skin. Katniss and Gale are from The Seam, whereas Peeta is a baker 's son from town; however, Katniss ' sister, Prim, despite coming from the Seam, has characteristics typical of the town residents because she resembles her mother, who was one of the few town residents willing to move to the Seam to marry Katniss and Prim 's father. It is unclear if this class divide exists in other Districts or is unique to District 12. On the victory tour in Catching Fire Katniss mentions that she can not see where the well - to - do live in District 11, as it surely is not the square where their speech is being held. She also notes that many members of the crowd during the Victory Tour seem even poorer than the Seam inhabitants in 12.
District 12 is the poorest out of the 12 districts and starvation is a major issue for the citizens. Due to the lack of food, the local Capitol authority figures -- the Mayor and Peacekeepers -- often bend the extremely strict Panem laws. The electric fence surrounding the district to prevent access to the woods is usually turned off, and Katniss and her friend Gale often hunt there for food for their families or to raise money by selling their catches on the local black market. The black market, located at an old coal warehouse named the Hob, was where many of the citizens made their money. The Hob was destroyed by the Peacekeepers (whose local commander was replaced) in Catching Fire. This was followed by the bombing of the entire district after the escape of the tributes during the 75th Hunger Games. However, Gale managed to evacuate about 10 % of the population -- "a little under 900 people '' -- to District 13.
District 12 's geography is dominated by forests and meadows. The meadow, which is located just outside the community, ends at a long electric fence constructed to keep the wild animals from escaping the forest outside. It has many holes and, as mentioned above, is usually turned off, giving Katniss and Gale chance to hunt; however, the fence is fully electrified after Romulus Thread replaces Cray as Head Peacekeeper. The forest has a lake, is vast, and contains a large amount of wildlife enough to support more than 800 residents of the district stranded after the bombings in Catching Fire. Many do not know where it leads to; as revealed in Catching Fire, the forest eventually ends at District 13, located a week away from District 12 on foot. Another feature of the district is a small hill, which is where the Victor 's Village is located. It contains twelve big villas facing each other in two rows. It is very quiet for most of its history since District 12 has few Victors, though more people begin to settle there after the war. After the Capitol bombs District 12 at the end of Catching Fire, most of the residency is destroyed with its meadow turned into a mass grave of the residents unable to escape and with only the Victor 's Village left unharmed. After the Second Rebellion, though, the District 12 refugees begin to return to their home, including Katniss, who states in the epilogue that the mass grave is returning into the meadow again.
District 12 is notorious for having only two Victors in the history of the Hunger Games before the 74th, one of them having died due to natural causes. Because of this, it is a laughingstock among the other districts; volunteering for the Hunger Games in District 12 is seen as suicide, since the tributes of the district often perish early in the game.
Before the Dark Days war, District 13 specialized in nuclear technology, mining graphite, and the development of emerging technologies for use by Panem 's military. It was also the Capitol 's primary military -- industrial complex and weapons manufacturer until the rebellion. During the Dark Days, they were one of the major forces of the rebellion. Near the end of the Dark Days they managed to take control of the nuclear arsenal. District 13 was supposedly bombed and destroyed before the first annual Hunger Games at the end of the Dark Days war, but it was hinted in Catching Fire that they had survived, and in Mockingjay it is confirmed that District 13 had become, literally, an underground district when the population retreated to bunkers. After the Capitol and District 13 agreed to leave each other alone under the doctrine of mutually assured destruction, the Capitol spread the story that District 13 had been destroyed; District 13 had control of the primary nuclear weapons stockpile and the Capitol did not want a nuclear war. This underground district maintains concealed livestock and vegetable farms in order to survive after the Capitol destroyed everything above ground, so as not to arouse the suspicion of the other districts. This was a risk that, according to Katniss, the Capitol had underestimated. District 13 is a week away from District 12 on foot.
In Mockingjay, District 13 is the center of the new rebellion. It is led by President Alma Coin, who aspires to succeed Snow as President of Panem and has orchestrated the events in books two and three to circumvent District 13 's truce with the Capitol. The lifestyle in District 13 is very strict because of their circumstances. When a citizen wakes up, they are given a temporary tattoo of their personalized schedule for the day, though Katniss usually ignores it, wandering around and sleeping. They are very thrifty and ration food carefully -- even a small thing wasted is heavily frowned upon and minor theft is punished by detention; everyone wears the same grey uniform and sleeps in identical living quarters. Everyone over the age of 14 is addressed as "Soldier '' because almost everyone in District 13 is being trained for a military rebellion against the Capitol. On the other hand, free education is provided, and all refugees are allowed to become citizens. This is, in part, due to the eagerness of the district to add more genetic diversity in the population due to a deadly virus hitting the district years before which made many infertile. Weddings are usually not celebrated since marriages are done through simple paper - signing, though the wedding of Finnick Odair and Annie Cresta in Mockingjay deviates from this.
Every year since the Dark Days, which occurred 75 years before the events of Mockingjay, the Capitol hosts an event called the Hunger Games. The Games consist of a gladiatorial combat fought amongst twenty - four teenagers (tributes) aged 12 -- 18, with one boy and one girl chosen by lottery from each district (except for District 13). The game is held to remind the citizens of the districts of their failed rebellion and the absolute power of the Capitol while simultaneously providing entertainment for the Capitol citizens. The game is discontinued after the second rebellion, following the fall of President Snow and the ascendancy of Commander Paylor. Thus, there are a total of 1800 district citizens who were reaped as tributes from the start to the end of the games (the 50th Hunger Games had double the number, while the 75th reaped the victors from the previous games).
When a citizen turns 12 years old, his or her name is automatically entered in the "reaping, '' a lottery system that chooses the tributes. On the day of the reaping, spokespersons from the Capitol, known to the Districts as "escorts, '' visit their respective districts (District 12 's is Effie Trinket, and Katniss describes that she has been the escort for a number of years before the events of The Hunger Games) and choose at random one name from each of the two reaping balls, one for male tributes and the other for females, selecting the two tributes who are to compete. However, any other citizen of the same sex aged 12 to 18 can volunteer to become a tribute, taking the place of the child originally reaped (as Katniss did for Prim in The Hunger Games). In Districts 1 and 2 (and 4 in the book), some children spend years training specifically for the Games and then volunteer to compete.
For every year until they turn 18, the eligible tributes ' names are entered an additional time. All of the names are written on slips of paper and placed in a glass bowl, from which the tributes are drawn by the announcer. Since many families live in poverty, one may be able to receive additional tesserae (one person 's meagre supply of grain and oil for a year) in exchange for extra entries in the reaping. Therefore, for each tessera, one extra entry is placed in the reaping ball. For example, if a family has three members, a 12 - year - old child could opt to take three extra tesserae: two for their family members and one for themselves; thus their name would be entered four times (one is the required entry, and the extra three are for each tessera). Since all entries are cumulative, if the citizen keeps taking the extra tesserae yearly, they would have their names entered 20 times by the age of 16, 24 by the age of 17, and finally 28 times by the time they are 18.
Following the reaping, the tributes are taken immediately to the Capitol, where they are given a makeover by a team of stylists in order to look appealing for a TV audience. Female tributes are usually waxed to remove all their body hair. One of the stylists on the team focuses on designing a costume for them to wear in the tribute parade, which reflects the resource their District provides for the Capitol. Each District 's tributes are then put in horse - drawn chariots and attempt to impress Capitol citizens while they ride down the Avenue of the Tributes. Afterwards, they learn strategy with mentors drawn from their District 's pool of past victors (for Katniss and Peeta, Haymitch, who is the only living victor from District Twelve) and train in combat and survival skills with the other tributes. On the last day of training, they demonstrate their skills before a team of judges, including the Gamemakers, who then score them on a scale of 1 to 12 according to their performance and skill. These scores are made public to show who has the best chances of surviving, which can attract Sponsors and influence the betting; tributes awarded the highest scores are often targeted first in the arena because they are considered to be the largest threats. Time in the Capitol is also spent courting the cameras; on the eve of the Games, each tribute dresses formally and appears on television for an interview, where they attempt to attract Sponsors by being charismatic.
On the morning of the Games, the tributes have a tracker chip inserted in their skin so the Gamemakers can track them. The tributes are then flown to a dedicated location, called the Arena. A new Arena is built every year, while past arenas become popular tourist attractions for Capitol citizens. Each tribute is given special clothing to wear, depending on the environment, and then confined to an underground room, referred to in the Capitol as the "Launch Room '', until game time. The tributes are lifted into the arena by glass tubes, emerging via tubes surrounding a giant, supply - filled horn made of solid gold, called the Cornucopia. A sixty - second countdown to the start of the Games begins, during which any tribute who steps off his or her plate will be killed immediately by land mines planted in the ground around the plates. The power of the landmines is immense, according to Katniss, when she mentions that one year, a girl from District 3 dropped her token, a little wooden ball, and "they literally had to scrape bits of her off the ground. ''
The Games begin with the sound of a loud gong. Most tributes make for the Cornucopia to find food, water, weapons, tools, or other useful items; the most valuable and useful items, including weapons, are often placed closest to the Cornucopia itself. The initial competition for supplies usually results in intense fighting, with a significant number of tributes killed in the first few minutes or hours of the Games. In most Games, a well - stocked, often well - trained group of tributes band together to hunt down other individuals, until they are the only ones left to fight each other. The alliance is generally agreed upon before the Games begin. These tributes are dubbed "Careers '' because of the fact that they are often trained for an extensive portion of their childhood in combat and other survival skills. The "Careers '' usually come from Districts 1, 2 and 4 (Only 1 & 2 in the films), and are generally disliked, even despised by some, and considered brutally aggressive by many of the other Districts.
If one or more tributes does not move fast enough, avoids conflict for too long, or is too close to the edge of the Arena, the Gamemakers will sometimes create hazards to make for more entertaining programming or to steer the remaining tributes toward each other. Another common occurrence is a "feast '', where a boon of extra supplies or food is granted to the tributes at a particular place and time (usually the Cornucopia), though whether it is a lavish feast, carefully regulated supplies, or a single loaf of stale bread for the tributes to fight over is up to the Gamemakers. In the first novel, the Gamemakers told the tributes that the feast would provide them with something they direly needed.
It is implied that there are no official rules for the Games except for not stepping off the plate until the conclusion of the sixty - second countdown. In the first novel, Katniss mentions that there is an unspoken rule against cannibalism in the Games. This rule came to be after the 71st Hunger Games, when a District 6 tribute named Titus resorted to cannibalism to survive in the arena. He was subsequently killed by an avalanche created by the gamemakers. There is some speculation that it was created specifically to kill him, to ensure that the victor was not a mad cannibal. During the 74th Hunger Games, the rules are altered during the Games to allow two tributes from the same district to win. However, when Katniss Everdeen and Peeta Mellark, both tributes from District 12, are the only two tributes remaining, the rule is revoked in an attempt to have them fight one another to the death. This ultimately fails when they attempt to poison themselves in unison, and at the last moment the rule is reinstated, allowing both of them to become victors. Though described as an act of love for one another in the publicity after the Games, the establishment in the Capitol saw it as an act of defiance. By refusing to respect the prescribed rules, the District 12 tributes were believed to have manipulated and outwitted the Capitol, and encouraged an uprising in the Districts in the process.
The meaning of the word ' quell ' is ' suppress ', this gives meaning to the special name ' Quarter Quell '. The Quarter Quell is an especially brutal edition of the Hunger Games that occurs every 25 years. Each Quarter Quell includes a different twist to the rules, to serve as a reminder to the districts of some aspect of the rebellion. Officially, many Quells were prescribed by the original creators of the Hunger Games at the end of the Dark Days. Each quarter, the current President selects the rule change from a box of numbered, sealed envelopes and reads it aloud on live television.
In the first Quell (year 25), the Districts were forced to choose their tributes by election instead of the usual random lottery, to remind them that they chose to rebel.
In the second Quell (year 50), twice the usual number of tributes were reaped from each District, to remind them that two rebels died for each Capitol citizen during the rebellion. Coriolanus Snow was President that year. The victor was Haymitch Abernathy, who won by discovering the properties of the force field surrounding the arena and using them to his advantage during the final battle with a girl from District 1, causing his attacker 's thrown axe to fly back and hit her in the head. Humiliated by Haymitch 's actions, Snow retaliated by ordering Haymitch 's family and girlfriend killed shortly after.
In the third Quell (year 75), portrayed in Catching Fire, the rule change requires the tributes to be chosen from the surviving victors, as a reminder that not even the strongest can hope to defy the Capitol. At this time, 59 victors are still alive, including the only living female victor from District 12, Katniss Everdeen. In the book, Katniss suspects President Snow actually made up the rule for this Quell, which conveniently serves the purpose of his vendetta against her. In the film, it is implied that Snow makes the rule under counsel of his new Head Gamemaker Plutarch Heavensbee, in order to exterminate the living victors. This Quell has no winner, and is the last Hunger Game. Katniss destroys the force field surrounding the arena, and becomes one of six survivors. Heavensbee is revealed as the leader of an underground Capitol rebel group, working for Alma Coin, who presides over District 13 and uses the collapse of the Quell to launch a second civil war.
The location of the arena varies from year to year. Past arenas have included volcanoes, avalanche zones, and dams; the terrain has included woods, meadows, scrubland, deserts, and frozen tundra. One of the previous Games took place in the ruins of an abandoned city. Upon the conclusion of the Games, the arena is preserved as a tourist attraction for Capitol citizens.
The arena for the 74th Hunger Games is a largely forested area with a central meadow where the Cornucopia is located, a lake, and a wheat field. Katniss notes that it resembles the forests of District 12, which gives her a slight advantage in navigating and surviving in the game.
The arenas devised for the Quarter Quells appear to be especially spectacular. The second Quarter Quell took place in a beautiful meadow with flowers and a fruit - bearing forest and mountains. However, everything was designed by the Gamemakers to be either dangerous or poisonous, including all of the food and water, as well as the wildlife and vegetation. In the third Quarter Quell, the Cornucopia was placed on an island in a saltwater lake, with the surrounding shore divided into 12 segments that resembled a clock, with every hour featuring its own deadly attack, limited only to that slice of the arena during that time of day. The only area where there was no attack was the Cornucopia and the saltwater lake. This proved to be an important location for Katniss ' allies.
The Gamemakers have complete control of the arena environment and can create any hazard they wish. In The Hunger Games, they set the forest on fire and switched between day and night at will. In the 75th Hunger Games, the Gamemakers divided the arena into twelve segments, each containing a different terror which only activated at a certain hour. For example, at noon and midnight, an hour - long electrical storm would take place in the first segment. Other dangers encountered by the tributes included blood rain, carnivorous monkeys, insects, a tidal wave, a fog - like gas that caused chemical burns to the skin and nerve damage, and a section of the jungle in which tributes were trapped with jabberjays that imitated the screams of their loved ones. The center of the island could also rotate, disorienting those attempting to master the clock strategy.
After the rebellion, the arenas were destroyed and replaced by memorials.
The last living tribute of the Hunger Games is the victor. After the Games, the victor receives extreme medical treatment in the Capitol to recover from all the injuries during the Games, followed by a final celebration during which they are interviewed and crowned victor by the President of Panem. Once the festivities are over, the victor returns to live in his or her District in an area called the "Victor 's Village '', where houses are well - furnished and equipped with luxuries such as hot water and telephones. All families in the victor 's District receive additional parcels of food and other goods for a year. About six months after the Games, the victor participates in the Victory Tour. In every District, the victor is given a celebration and ceremony, usually accompanied by a victory rally and dinner with senior district officials. In the victory tour, the victor speaks publicly in each district, even if they are disliked or even hated by certain districts, especially if the victor was responsible for their tribute 's death.
However, the victors ' involvement with the games and the Capitol does not end there. Their lives are under constant surveillance by the Capitol to prevent them from organizing an insurgency or rebellion within the districts. If they do not behave "properly '' within the games or outside of it, the Capitol will not punish them directly to prevent them from becoming "martyrs '', but instead they will punish their loved ones. This is exemplified with Haymitch, who lost his family and girlfriend due to his unorthodox way of winning his game, while Johanna is implied to have lost her family due to her disobedience. Victors who are particularly attractive will be sold by the Capitol as prostitutes to the highest bidder. One example of this is Finnick, who served as prostitute to the Capitol citizens, both men and women, under the threat of having his girlfriend, the fellow victor Annie, tortured. Johanna 's family is said to have been killed because she refused to be a subject of such cruelty. The victors also have to mentor the incoming tributes for the next games. This is particularly cruel to Haymitch; with his being the only living victor of District 12 prior to the 74th Hunger Games, he has to personally mentor all of the following District 12 tributes only to watch them die in the games. Furthermore, the victors are able to be reaped again to serve the interests of the Capitol. As Haymitch puts it, "Nobody ever wins the games. There are survivors. There 's no winners. '' As a result of both their own experiences and having to mentor tributes who ultimately die, most, if not all of the Victors frequently resorted to some kind or even multiple kinds of substance abuse as a coping mechanism, usually becoming intoxicated with alcohol, like Haymitch or Chaff, or becoming addicted to morphling like the District 6 Victors, Katniss, or Johanna, sometimes both.
The victors of the Hunger Games usually form friendships with each other, having shared the experiences of brutality. In Finnick and Annie 's case, their attraction turns into love. While this is a factor for the increased pressure for the 75th Hunger Games, this means that the victors can relay information about rebel planning that is revealed in Catching Fire. In the book, it is revealed that half of the tributes of the game are part of a conspiracy to break Katniss from the arena and transport her to District 13 to become the face of the rebellion.
Before the start of the 75th Hunger Games, there are a total of 59 out of 75 victors who are still alive, the rest having died of natural causes. A total of 18 of 24 victors die during the events of Catching Fire. Furthermore, due to the conspiracy of the 75th Hunger Games, Mockingjay reveals that the Capitol has conducted the "Victor 's Purge '' to capture, torture, and execute all remaining victors. At the end of the series, there are only 8 victors remaining: Enobaria from District 2, Beetee from District 3, Annie from District 4, Johanna from District 7, Paylor from District 8 (elected the new President of Panem as she has become "the voice of reason ''), and Katniss, Peeta, and Haymitch from District 12, with uncertainty about the fate of a ninth; Lyme from District 2, as to whether she survived the assault on The Nut, or whether she survived, or was even involved, in the assault on The Capitol.
The Victory Tour is a trip across all of the districts of Panem to honor the victor of each Hunger Games. The tour is usually held six months after the games to keep the horror of the games fresh in the minds of those living in the districts. The Victory Tour usually starts at District 12 and then goes in descending district order to District 1. The victor 's district is skipped and saved for the very last. In Catching Fire the tour starts in District 11 because the victors live in District 12. After attending celebrations in the Capitol, the victors return to their home district for celebrations paid for by The Capitol. In Catching Fire Katniss looks forward to the feast in District 12 during which everyone could eat their fill. Before the tour, the victor 's prep team and stylist prepare the victor to show off for the crowds of people just as when they appeared in the Capitol before the games. During the Victory Tour Katniss and Peeta try unsuccessfully to convince President Coriolanus Snow of their love.
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when does season 13 of bones come out | Bones (season 12) - wikipedia
The twelfth and final season of the American television series Bones premiered on January 3, 2017, on Fox and concluded on March 28, 2017. The final season consists of 12 episodes and aired Tuesdays at 9: 00 pm ET.
Fox renewed Bones for a 12 - episode final season on February 25, 2016. The season was initially announced to debut in the fall, but Fox delayed the premiere until January 2017. Former series regular Eric Millegan, who returned in the season 11 finale, continues his role as Zack Addy in the final season. The season features the return of former recurring characters, including Eddie McClintock as Tim "Sully '' Sullivan, who recurred during season two, and Stephen Fry as Gordon Wyatt, who made guest appearances in seasons two, four and five. Betty White reprises her season 11 role as Dr. Beth Mayer in the tenth episode, while veteran actors Ed Asner and Hal Holbrook guest star in the third episode. Filming of the season, and of the entire series, wrapped up on December 15, 2016.
The twelfth and final season of Bones was released on DVD (subtitled "The Final Chapter '') in region 1 on June 13, 2017. The set includes all 12 episodes of season twelve and special features include a gag reel and a featurette "Back to the Lab: A Bones Retrospective ''.
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how long can red belly piranhas go without food | Red - bellied piranha - wikipedia
Serrasalmus nattereri (non Günther, 1864)
The red - bellied piranha, also known as the red piranha (Pygocentrus nattereri), is a species of piranha native to South America, found in the Amazon, Paraguay, Paraná and Essequibo basins, as well as coastal rivers of northeastern Brazil. This fish is locally abundant in its freshwater habitat. They are omnivorous foragers and feed on insects, worms, crustaceans and fish. They are not a migratory species, but do travel to seek out conditions conducive to breeding and spawning during periods of increased rainfall. Red - bellied piranhas often travel in shoals as a predatory defense, but rarely exhibit group hunting behavior. Acoustic communication is common, and is sometimes exhibited along with aggressive behaviors. Through media influence, the red - bellied piranha has developed a reputation as a ferocious predator, though this is not actually the case. They are a popular aquarium fish.
The red - bellied piranha belongs to the family Serrasalmidae, which is a group of medium to large - sized characids and includes other closely related omnivores such as pacus. They are characterized by deep, lateral compressed bodies and long dorsal fins. Within the family, red - bellied piranhas are classified in the genus Pygocentrus, which is distinguished by the unusual dentition and differing head width dimensions. The red - bellied piranha is considered to be highly carnivorous, while most other fish that are not piranhas in the family are primarily herbivorous. However, the red - bellied piranha is actually omnivorous.
The red - bellied piranha is distributed widely throughout the South American continent and is found in the Neotropical rivers of Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela. They live in the warm freshwater drainages of several major rivers including the Amazon, Paraguay, Paraná and Essequibo, as well as numerous smaller systems. They can live in waters that are between 15 and 35 ° C (59 -- 95 ° F), but are able to survive temperatures as low as 10 ° C (50 ° F) for a period. They are mainly found in whitewater, but have also been recorded in blackwater and clearwater. The red - bellied piranha live in major rivers, streams, lakes (such as oxbows and artificial lakes formed by dams), floodplains, and flooded forests.
The red - bellied piranha has a popular reputation as a ferocious predator, despite being primarily a scavenger. As their name suggests, red - bellied piranhas have a reddish tinge to the belly when fully grown, although juveniles are a silver color with darker spots. The species can reach up to 3.9 kg (8.6 lb) in weight and 50 cm (20 in) in standard length, but rarely surpass 35 cm (14 in). The rest of the body is often grey with silver - flecked scales. Sometimes, blackish spots appear behind the gills and the anal fin is usually black at the base. The pectoral and pelvic fins may vary from red to orange. Females can be distinguished from males by the slightly deeper red color of their bellies.
The red - bellied piranha is typically found in white water rivers, such as the Amazon River Basin, and in some streams and lakes. Sometimes, they may inhabit flooded forests such as those found in the Brazilian Amazon. They live in shoals but do not group hunt, although they may occasionally enter into feeding frenzies. In the case of a feeding frenzy, schools of piranha will converge on one large prey individual, and eat it within minutes. These attacks are usually extremely rare and are due to provocation or starvation. Breeding occurs over a two - month period during the rainy season, but that can vary by area. Females will lay around 5,000 eggs on newly submerged vegetation in nests that are built by the males.
Pygocentrus nattereri encompasses a larger geographic area than any other piranha species, covering much of the Neotropical region. When red - bellied piranhas are introduced to other parts of the American continent, there are usually negative consequences for the local fish fauna, partially due to its generally aggressive behavior. This aggressive behavior is sometimes marked by the acoustic sounds they produce.
The red - bellied piranha is not a migratory species, but does search for conditions conducive to reproduction during seasons of increased rainfall. Red - bellied piranhas are omnivores and primarily foragers. They feed on insects, fish, plants, and organic debris.
The typical diet of red - bellied piranhas includes insects, worms, crustaceans, and fish. In packs up to hundreds, piranhas have been known to feed on animals as large as egrets or capybara. Despite the piranha 's reputation as a dangerous carnivore, it is actually primarily a scavenger and forager, and will mainly eat plants and insects during the rainy season when food is abundant. They also tend to only feed on weak, injured, dying, or dead animals in the wild. Red - bellied piranhas do not stay in groups in order to pack - hunt for larger animals, but instead group for protection against predators.
Foraging methods vary throughout the different stages of a piranha 's life. Smaller fish will search for food during the day, while larger fish will forage at dawn, in the late afternoon, and in the early evening. Throughout the day, the fish lurk in dark areas and ambush their prey. The piranha may also catch prey by hunting and chasing, where it will lie hidden in the vegetation until its prey swims by. The piranha will then capture its prey. When scavenging, the piranha will eat a wide variety of food, ranging from pieces of debris, insects, snails, fish fins and scales, and plants.
The breeding habits of piranhas in nature are mostly unknown, with most spawning research being done in aquaria. Piranhas are usually able to breed by the time they are one year old. Female piranhas will lay several thousand eggs near water plants, onto which the eggs stick. The males then fertilize the eggs. After just two to three days the eggs will hatch, and the juvenile piranhas will hide in the plants until they are large enough to defend themselves, at which point hiding from predators becomes lurking for prey.
Research on red - bellied piranha breeding behavior in nature has revealed certain behavioral patterns around nesting sites. Adult piranhas will swim side - by - side in small circles, sometimes with two individuals swimming in opposite directions while keeping their ventral surfaces close to one another. Although this may appear to be a courtship display, a closer look reveals that the adults are actually defending nesting sites. The nests are about 4 to 5 cm deep, and are dug amongst water grasses, with the eggs attached to the grasses and plant stems.
This formation of mating pairs, nuptial swimming displays, and guarding of the nests shows that red - bellied piranhas exhibit parental care for the nest and the young. When left unattended, other fish, such as characids, may prey upon the eggs. Despite the defensive practice of circling the nests, red - bellied piranhas are often passive towards other fish that approach the nest. It is possible that the mere presence of the piranha, a natural predator, provides enough of a threat to prevent potential predators from approaching the nest.
Piranhas have two annual reproductive seasons; these seasons are tied to water level fluctuations, the flooding pulse, temperature, and other hydrological conditions. When individuals are ready to become sexually active, they will lose their red coloration and select habitats that are conducive to spawning, such as flooded marginal grasses and vegetation within lakes. This habitat selection is a clear distinction from non-reproductive individuals that prefer open water and under floating meadows.
Red - bellied piranhas often travel in shoals as a predatory defense. In studies that tested the piranhas ' reactions to a simulated predator attack, resting opercular rates returned to normal more quickly amongst piranhas that were in shoals of eight rather than in shoals of two. Although it has been presumed that piranhas engage in pack - hunting behavior, no investigation shows that shoaling behavior among piranhas is used for cooperative hunting.
Most likely, this shoaling behavior is a defense against predation from larger animals such as dolphins, large piscivorous fish, caimans, and aquatic birds. Piranhas will travel to their nesting sites in shoals in order to reduce the likelihood that any single individual will be attacked by a predator. Shoals of red - bellied piranha use the margins of flooded areas to build their nests.
Acoustic communication among red - bellied piranhas is exhibited along with aggressive behaviors, such as biting, chasing, conspecific confrontation, and fighting. The sounds created by piranhas are generated through rapid contractions of the sonic muscles and is associated with the swimbladder. The swimbladder may play an important role in sound production as a resonator. all of the observations made on sound production by red - bellied pirhana have been when specimens were held by hand. When taken out of the water, the red - bellied piranha will emit a drumming - like sound, consisting of a low - frequency harmonic sound. However, research has shown the presence of three types of acoustic emissions that are associated with specific behaviors. Type one calls are made up of harmonic sounds, last approximately 140 milliseconds at 120 Hz, and are associated with frontal display behavior between two fish. Type two sounds last approximately 36 milliseconds at 40 Hz, and are associated with circling and fighting behavior related to food competition. Type three sounds are made up of a single pulse lasting just 3 milliseconds at 1740 Hz, and are highly associated with chasing behavior toward a conspecific individual. This same sound is also produced when an individual snaps its jaws to bite another individual.
Nearly all sounds produced by red - bellied piranhas are produced in the context of social interactions between individuals. The low, drumming sounds are typically produced during moderate attacks, while loud, threatened sounds are produced during more vigorous attacks.
The red - bellied piranha is widespread and locally abundant. In some parts of its range, it is among the most common fish species. The collection and trade of the species to aquariums may locally present a low risk to the red - bellied piranha.
Many myths surround this species. The 1978 film Piranha by Joe Dante shows these fish in a similar light to Jaws. Piranha was followed by a sequel, Piranha II: The Spawning, in 1981, and two remakes, one in 1995, and one in 2010. Films such as these, and stories of large schools of red - bellies attacking humans, fuel their exaggerated and erroneous reputation as being one of the most ferocious freshwater fish. In reality, they are generally timid scavengers, fulfilling a role similar to vultures on land. In the 2010 film Piranha 3D, a previously unknown piranha is discovered. Christopher Lloyd 's character misidentifies a specimen of this monstrous new species as the familiar Pygocentrus nattereri.
Red - bellied piranhas are sometimes kept as aquarium fish. They may be fed live, fresh, or frozen food types, but they will not eat rotten meats. Their natural diet consists of live prey and dead animals or fish. Live feedings to captive piranhas can introduce diseases, and goldfish contain a growth - inhibiting hormone which in turn will affect piranhas. Red - bellied piranhas, particularly when juvenile, will sometimes bite one another in the aquarium, normally on the fins, in behaviour called ' fin nipping '. Fish that have had their fins nipped will grow them back surprisingly rapidly. In order to maintain a piranha aquarium, it is important to keep the water quality up, as they are messy eaters, and this will dirty the water in the tank. Also they need places to hide and keep a dim light. Because piranhas in the wild may not eat every day, piranhas in captivity do not need to be fed daily. But when hungry they can eat each other wherein the smaller and weak ones will be the prey.
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who has the highest corporate tax in the world | List of countries by tax rates - wikipedia
A comparison of tax rates by countries is difficult and somewhat subjective, as tax laws in most countries are extremely complex and the tax burden falls differently on different groups in each country and sub-national unit. The list focuses on the main indicative types of taxes: corporate tax, individual income tax, and sales tax, including VAT and GST.
Some other taxes (for instance property tax, substantial in many countries, such as the United States) and payroll tax are not shown here. The table is not exhaustive in representing the true tax burden to either the corporation or the individual in the listed country. The tax rates displayed are marginal and do not account for deductions, exemptions or rebates. The effective rate is usually much lower than the marginal rate, but sometimes much higher. The tax rates given for federations (such as the United States and Canada) are averages and vary depending on the state or province. Territories that have different rates to their respective nation are in italics.
(7.71 % social security, no national or municipal taxes for income no more than 2 930 €)
Annual profit > 10B ILS: 6 %. Annual profit < 10B ILS: 7.5 % - 24 %.
25 % on € 250,001 + profit
40 %
Madeira, Açores: 15 %, 9 %, 4 %
2.9 % -- social security charges (1.8 % -- for non-citizens), 5.1 % -- medicare;
totaling: 34 % + 13 % = 47 %)
(reduced rates are for certain goods)
(plus personal allowance of £ 11,000 for people earning less than £ 100,000 -- tapered down to zero by £ 123,000)
50 % -- 500 %
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who won the north and south civil war | American Civil War - Wikipedia
Union victory
Abraham Lincoln Ulysses S. Grant William T. Sherman David Farragut George B. McClellan Henry Halleck George Meade
Jefferson Davis Robert E. Lee J.E. Johnston G.T. Beauregard A.S. Johnston † Braxton Bragg
2,200,000:
750,000 -- 1,000,000:
110,000 + killed in action / died of wounds 230,000 + accident / disease deaths 25,000 -- 30,000 died in Confederate prisons
365,000 + total dead 282,000 + wounded 181,193 captured
94,000 + killed in action / died of wounds 26,000 -- 31,000 died in Union prisons
290,000 + total dead 137,000 + wounded 436,658 captured
The American Civil War (also known by other names) was fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. As a result of the long - standing controversy over slavery, war broke out in April 1861, when Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina, shortly after U.S. President Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated. The nationalists of the Union proclaimed loyalty to the U.S. Constitution. They faced secessionists of the Confederate States, who advocated for states ' rights to expand slavery.
Among the 34 U.S. states in February 1861, seven Southern slave states individually declared their secession from the U.S. to form the Confederate States of America, or the South. The Confederacy grew to include eleven slave states. The Confederacy was never diplomatically recognized by the United States government, nor was it recognized by any foreign country (although the United Kingdom and France granted it belligerent status). The states that remained loyal to the U.S. (including the border states where slavery was legal) were known as the Union or the North.
The Union and Confederacy quickly raised volunteer and conscription armies that fought mostly in the South over four years. The Union finally won the war when General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at the Battle of Appomattox Court House, followed by a series of surrenders by Confederate generals throughout the southern states. Four years of intense combat left 620,000 to 750,000 people dead, more than the number of U.S. military deaths in all other wars combined (at least until approximately the Vietnam War). Much of the South 's infrastructure was destroyed, especially the transportation systems, railroads, mills, and houses. The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and 4 million slaves were freed. The Reconstruction Era (1863 -- 1877) overlapped and followed the war, with the process of restoring national unity, strengthening the national government, and granting civil rights to freed slaves throughout the country. The Civil War is the most studied and written about episode in U.S. history.
In the 1860 presidential election, Republicans, led by Abraham Lincoln, supported banning slavery in all the U.S. territories. The Southern states viewed this as a violation of their constitutional rights and as the first step in a grander Republican plan to eventually abolish slavery. The three pro-Union candidates together received an overwhelming 82 % majority of the votes cast nationally: Republican Lincoln 's votes centered in the north, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas ' votes were distributed nationally and Constitutional Unionist John Bell 's votes centered in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. The Republican Party, dominant in the North, secured a plurality of the popular votes and a majority of the electoral votes nationally, so Lincoln was constitutionally elected president. He was the first Republican Party candidate to win the presidency. However, before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton - based economies declared secession and formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, a total of 49 percent. The first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51 % and Louisiana with 55 %. Alabama had voted 46 % for those unionists, Mississippi with 40 %, Florida with 38 %, Texas with 25 %, and South Carolina cast Electoral College votes without a popular vote for president. Of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession.
Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession. Outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincoln 's March 4, 1861, inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war. Speaking directly to the "Southern States '', he attempted to calm their fears of any threats to slavery, reaffirming, "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. '' After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed and both sides prepared for war. The Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on "King Cotton '' that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America.
Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter. While in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive from 1861 -- 1862. Later, in 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, and seized New Orleans. The 1863 Union Siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lee 's Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg. Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grant 's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever - tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled the resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions, leading to the fall of Atlanta to William T. Sherman and his march to the sea. The last significant battles raged around the Siege of Petersburg. Lee 's escape attempt ended with his surrender at Appomattox Court House, on April 9, 1865. While the military war was coming to an end, the political reintegration of the nation was to take another 12 years, known as the Reconstruction Era.
The American Civil War was one of the earliest true industrial wars. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships and iron - clad ships, and mass - produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I, World War II and subsequent conflicts. It remains the deadliest war in American history. From 1861 to 1865, it is estimated that 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers died, along with an undetermined number of civilians. By one estimate, the war claimed the lives of 10 percent of all Northern males 20 -- 45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18 -- 40.
The causes of secession were complex and have been controversial since the war began, but most academic scholars identify slavery as a central cause of the war. James C. Bradford wrote that the issue has been further complicated by historical revisionists, who have tried to offer a variety of reasons for the war. Slavery was the central source of escalating political tension in the 1850s. The Republican Party was determined to prevent any spread of slavery, and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate, Lincoln, won the 1860 election. After Lincoln won, many Southern leaders felt that disunion was their only option, fearing that the loss of representation would hamper their ability to promote pro-slavery acts and policies.
Slavery was a major cause of disunion. Although there were opposing views even in the Union States, most northern soldiers were largely indifferent on the subject of slavery, while Confederates fought the war largely to protect a southern society of which slavery was an integral part. From the anti-slavery perspective, the issue was primarily about whether the system of slavery was an anachronistic evil that was incompatible with republicanism. The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was containment -- to stop the expansion and thus put slavery on a path to gradual extinction. The slave - holding interests in the South denounced this strategy as infringing upon their Constitutional rights. Southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the South 's economy, due to the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the ex-slave black population. In particular, southerners feared a repeat of "the horrors of Santo Domingo '', in which nearly all white people -- including men, women, children, and even many sympathetic to abolition -- were killed after the successful slave revolt in Haiti. Historian Thomas Fleming points to the historical phrase "a disease in the public mind '' used by critics of this idea, and proposes it contributed to the segregation in the Jim Crow era following emancipation. These fears were exacerbated by the recent attempts of John Brown to instigate an armed slave rebellion in the South.
Slavery was illegal in much of the North, having been outlawed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was also fading in the border states and in Southern cities, but it was expanding in the highly profitable cotton districts of the rural South and Southwest. Subsequent writers on the American Civil War looked to several factors explaining the geographic divide.
Sectionalism refers to the different economies, social structure, customs and political values of the North and South. Regional tensions came to a head during the War of 1812, resulting in the Hartford Convention which manifested Northern dissastisfaction with a foreign trade embargo that affected the industrial North disproportionately, the Three - Fifths Compromise, dilution of Northern power by new states, and a succession of Southern Presidents. Sectionalism increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized, and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor, together with subsistence farming for poor freedmen. In the 1840s and 50s, the issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave - owning bishops and missionaries) split the nation 's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations.
Historians have debated whether economic differences between the industrial Northeast and the agricultural South helped cause the war. Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian Charles A. Beard in the 1920s and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary. While socially different, the sections economically benefited each other.
Slave owners preferred low - cost manual labor with no mechanization. Northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while southern planters demanded free trade, The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816. The Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election. The increases were only enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress. The tariff issue was a Northern grievance. However, neo-Confederate writers have claimed it as a Southern grievance. In 1860 -- 61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff issue. Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff.
The South argued that each state had the right to secede -- leave the Union -- at any time, that the Constitution was a "compact '' or agreement among the states. Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a perpetual union. Historian James McPherson writes concerning states ' rights and other non-slavery explanations:
While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of Confederate Veterans and other Southern heritage groups, few professional historians now subscribe to them. Of all these interpretations, the states ' - rights argument is perhaps the weakest. It fails to ask the question, states ' rights for what purpose? States ' rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle.
Between 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase, negotiation, and conquest. At first, the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states. It was over territories west of the Mississippi that the proslavery and antislavery forces collided.
With the conquest of northern Mexico west to California in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well. Northern "free soil '' interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory. The Compromise of 1850 over California balanced a free - soil state with stronger fugitive slave laws for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s. But the states admitted following California were all free: Minnesota (1858), Oregon (1859) and Kansas (1861). In the southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive. Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion: "The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself. ''
By 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories, and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly. The first of these "conservative '' theories, represented by the Constitutional Union Party, argued that the Missouri Compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a Constitutional mandate. The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view.
The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence, championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance -- that slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was done in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 at the discretion of Congress, thus Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it. The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846.
Senator Stephen A. Douglas proclaimed the doctrine of territorial or "popular '' sovereignty -- which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery as a purely local matter. The Kansas -- Nebraska Act of 1854 legislated this doctrine. In Kansas Territory, years of pro and anti-slavery violence and political conflict erupted; the congressional House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in early 1860, but its admission in the Senate was delayed until January 1861, after the 1860 elections when southern senators began to leave.
The fourth theory was advocated by Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis, one of state sovereignty ("states ' rights ''), also known as the "Calhoun doctrine '', named after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman John C. Calhoun. Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self - government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the federal union under the U.S. Constitution. "States ' rights '' was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority. As historian Thomas L. Krannawitter points out, the "Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power. '' These four doctrines comprised the major ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories and the U.S. Constitution prior to the 1860 presidential election.
Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen such as Andrew Jackson and Daniel Webster. While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States (called "unionists '') and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the Confederacy. C. Vann Woodward said of the latter group,
A great slave society... had grown up and miraculously flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical republic. It had renounced its bourgeois origins and elaborated and painfully rationalized its institutional, legal, metaphysical, and religious defenses... When the crisis came it chose to fight. It proved to be the death struggle of a society, which went down in ruins.
Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of Uncle Tom 's Cabin (1852) and the actions of abolitionist John Brown in trying to incite a slave rebellion in 1859.
While the South moved towards a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded, and they rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded disunion as treason and would not tolerate it: "We denounce those threats of disunion... as denying the vital principles of a free government, and as an avowal of contemplated treason, which it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever silence. '' The South ignored the warnings: Southerners did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together.
The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession. Efforts at compromise, including the "Corwin Amendment '' and the "Crittenden Compromise '', failed. Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction. The slave states, which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North. Before Lincoln took office in March 1861, seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy.
According to Lincoln, the people had shown that they can be successful in establishing and administering a republic, but a third challenge faced the nation, maintaining a republic based on the people 's vote against an attempt to overthrow it.
The election of Lincoln caused the legislature of South Carolina to call a state convention to consider secession. Prior to the war, South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws, and even to secede from the United States. The convention summoned unanimously voted to secede on December 20, 1860, and adopted the "Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union ''. It argued for states ' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about states ' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution. The "cotton states '' of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861.
Among the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states, those of three -- Texas, Alabama, and Virginia -- specifically mentioned the plight of the "slaveholding states '' at the hands of northern abolitionists. The rest make no mention of the slavery issue, and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of ties by the legislatures. However, at least four states -- South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Texas -- also passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their causes for secession, all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movement 's influence over the politics of the northern states. The southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the Fugitive slave clause of the Constitution.
These states agreed to form a new federal government, the Confederate States of America, on February 4, 1861. They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing President James Buchanan, whose term ended on March 4, 1861. Buchanan said that the Dred Scott decision was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that the Union "was intended to be perpetual '', but that "The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union '' was not among the "enumerated powers granted to Congress ''. One quarter of the U.S. Army -- the entire garrison in Texas -- was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general, David E. Twiggs, who then joined the Confederacy.
As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war, including the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morrill Act), a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railway Acts), the National Banking Act and the authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862. The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war.
On December 18, 1860, the Crittenden Compromise was proposed to re-establish the Missouri Compromise line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while guaranteeing it to the south. The adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of every southern state apart from South Carolina, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it. It was then proposed to hold a national referendum on the compromise. The Republicans again rejected the idea, although a majority of both Northerners and Southerners would have voted in favor of it. A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington, proposing a solution similar to that of the Crittenden compromise, it was rejected by Congress. The Republicans proposed an alternative compromise to not interfere with slavery where it existed but the South regarded it as insufficient. Nonetheless, the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy following a two - to - one no - vote in Virginia 's First Secessionist Convention on April 4, 1861.
On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession "legally void ''. He had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but said that he would use force to maintain possession of Federal property. The government would make no move to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines. Where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of Federal law, U.S. marshals and judges would be withdrawn. No mention was made of bullion lost from U.S. mints in Louisiana, Georgia, and North Carolina. He stated that it would be U.S. policy to only collect import duties at its ports; there could be no serious injury to the South to justify armed revolution during his administration. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on "the mystic chords of memory '' binding the two regions.
The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. Secretary of State William Seward, who at the time saw himself as the real governor or "prime minister '' behind the throne of the inexperienced Lincoln, engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed. President Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union - occupied forts in the Confederacy, Fort Monroe in Virginia, in Florida, Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson, Fort Taylor and Fort Sumter, located at the cockpit of secession in Charleston, South Carolina.
Fort Sumter was located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Its garrison recently moved there to avoid incidents with local militias in the streets of the city. Lincoln told Maj. Anderson to hold on until fired upon. Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort. Anderson gave a conditional reply that the Confederate government rejected, and Davis ordered General P.G.T. Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive. He bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12 -- 13, forcing its capitulation.
The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism. Historian Allan Nevins said:
Union leaders incorrectly assumed that only a minority of Southerners were actually in favor of secession and that there were large numbers of southern Unionists that could be counted on. Had Northerners realized that most Southerners really did favor secession, they might have hesitated at attempting the enormous task of conquering a united South.
Lincoln called on all the states to send forces to recapture the fort and other federal properties. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for only 75,000 volunteers for 90 days. The governor of Massachusetts had state regiments on trains headed south the next day. In western Missouri, local secessionists seized Liberty Arsenal. On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for a period of three years.
Four states in the middle and upper South had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, but now Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond.
Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky were slave states that were opposed to both secession and coercing the South. West Virginia then joined them as an additional border state after it separated from Virginia and became a state of the Union in 1863.
Maryland 's territory surrounded the United States ' capital of Washington, DC and could cut it off from the North. It had numerous anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army rioting in Baltimore and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South. Maryland 's legislature voted overwhelmingly (53 -- 13) to stay in the Union, but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland 's rail lines to prevent them from being used for war. Lincoln responded by establishing martial law and unilaterally suspending habeas corpus in Maryland, along with sending in militia units from the North. Lincoln rapidly took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia by seizing many prominent figures, including arresting 1 / 3 of the members of the Maryland General Assembly on the day it reconvened. All were held without trial, ignoring a ruling by the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Roger Taney, a Maryland native, that only Congress (and not the president) could suspend habeas corpus (Ex parte Merryman). Indeed, federal troops imprisoned a prominent Baltimore newspaper editor, Frank Key Howard, Francis Scott Key 's grandson, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring the Supreme Court Chief Justice 's ruling.
In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon, who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state (see also: Missouri secession). In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri.
Kentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status, while trying to maintain slavery. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. The rebel government soon went into exile and never controlled Kentucky.
After Virginia 's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill (96 percent approving). The inclusion of 24 secessionist counties in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 Federal troops for much of the war. Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginia provided about 20,000 -- 22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union.
A Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union. They were held without trial.
The Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, as were many more minor actions and skirmishes, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. In his book The American Civil War, John Keegan writes that "The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought ''. Without geographic objectives, the only target for each side was the enemy 's soldier.
As the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery, the entire U.S. army numbered 16,000. However, Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias. The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 men under arms for one year or the duration, and that was answered in kind by the U.S. Congress.
In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough. Both sides used a draft law -- conscription -- as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were actually drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt. The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland.
When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states, and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The great draft riot in New York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city 's Democratic political machine, not realizing it made them liable for the draft. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted.
In both the North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war. At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, or about 10 percent. In the South, many men deserted temporarily to take care of their distressed families, then returned to their units. In the North, "bounty jumpers '' enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.
From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the "largest and most efficient armies in the world '' within a few years. European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional, but British historian John Keegan 's assessment is that each outmatched the French, Prussian and Russian armies of the time, and but for the Atlantic, would have threatened any of them with defeat.
Perman and Taylor (2010) say that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:
Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one 's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that no matter what a soldier thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes altered his reasons for continuing the fight.
At the start of the civil war, a system of paroles operated. Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their own army where they were paid but not allowed to perform any military duties. The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict 's fatalities.
The small U.S. Navy of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 men in 1865, with 671 vessels, having a tonnage of 510,396. Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, take control of the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British Royal Navy. Meanwhile, the main riverine war was fought in the West, where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland, if the U.S. Navy could take control. In the East, the Navy supplied and moved army forces about, and occasionally shelled Confederate installations.
By early 1861, General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. Scott argued that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy. Lincoln adopted parts of the plan, but he overruled Scott 's caution about 90 - day volunteers. Public opinion, however, demanded an immediate attack by the army to capture Richmond.
In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended. The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake, it was too late. "King Cotton '' was dead, as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton, especially New Orleans, Mobile, and Charleston. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service.
The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution and subsequently many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the ironclad warship. It began when the Confederacy, knowing they had to meet or match the Union 's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty - six ironclads and floating batteries. Only half of these saw active service. Many were equipped with ram bows, creating "ram fever '' among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union 's own ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful.
The Confederacy experimented with a submarine, which did not work well, and with building an ironclad ship, the CSS Virginia, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, the Merrimack. On its first foray on March 8, 1862, the Virginia inflicted significant damage to the Union 's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, the USS Monitor, arrived to challenge it in the Chesapeake Bay. The resulting three hour battle between the Ironclads was a draw, but it marked the worldwide transition to ironclad warships. Not long after the battle the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the Virginia to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the Monitor. Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain.
British investors built small, fast, steam - driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high - priced cotton. Many of the ships were designed for speed and were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out. When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a Prize of war and sold, with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released. The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies. Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy; however, Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply.
Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of few lives in combat. Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although it was sold to Union traders), costing the Confederacy its main source of income. Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well. The measure of the blockade 's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade; they simply stopped calling at Confederate ports.
To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain, converted them to warships, and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested. After the war, the U.S. demanded that Britain pay for the damage done, and Britain paid the U.S. $15 million in 1871.
The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes:
Ulysses Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote 's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy 's "Gibraltar of the West '' at Columbus, Kentucky. Though rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their own gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky and opened Tennessee in March 1862, taking control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers
In addition to ocean - going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action. They took control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers after victories at Fort Henry (February 6, 1862) and Fort Donelson (February 11 to 16, 1862), and supplied Grant 's forces as he moved into Tennessee. At Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), in Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory -- the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over. Memphis fell to Union forces on June 6, 1862, and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River. On April 24, 1862, U.S. Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South.
Naval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex Vicksburg Campaign that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at Vicksburg, Mississippi in July 1863, and in the Union fully controlling the Mississippi River soon after.
In one of the first highly visible battles, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces near Washington was repulsed.
Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general - in - chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan 's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign, Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat. The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South. McClellan resisted General - in - Chief Halleck 's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope 's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee 's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.
Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North. General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope 's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history. Lee 's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee 's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.
When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13, 1862, when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye 's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.
Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee 's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863. Gen. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the arm by accidental friendly fire during the battle and subsequently died of complications. Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee 's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1 to 3, 1863). This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been called the war 's turning point. Pickett 's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high - water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee 's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade 's 23,000). However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee 's retreat, and after Meade 's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.
While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge. Leonidas Polk 's invasion of Columbus ended Kentucky 's policy of neutrality and turned it against the Confederacy. Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.
The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans, which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.
General Braxton Bragg 's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville, although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state. Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee.
The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet 's corps (from Lee 's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas. Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged.
The Union 's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh; and the Battle of Vicksburg, which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga, driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.
Extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans - Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control. Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill 's Raiders terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements. The "Sons of Liberty '' and "Order of the American Knights '' attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged.
By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union, Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election.
Numerous small - scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy, and smaller numbers for the Union. The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie, the last Confederate general to surrender.
After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual "independent fiefdom '' in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union in turn did not directly engage him. Its 1864 Red River Campaign to take Shreveport, Louisiana was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war.
At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war. This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said "would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end. '' Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama.
Grant 's army set out on the Overland Campaign with the goal of drawing Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army. The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor. These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides, and forced Lee 's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored what they had suffered under prior generals, though unlike those prior generals, Grant fought on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months.
Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy 's last major victory of the war. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.
Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president. Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman 's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin - Nashville Campaign. Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood 's army.
Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman 's army marched with an unknown destination, laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his "March to the Sea ''. He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia in December 1864. Sherman 's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee 's army.
Lee 's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant 's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive Battle of Five Forks (sometimes called "the Waterloo of the Confederacy '') on April 1. This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond - Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing that the capital was now lost, Lee decided to evacuate his army. The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at Sayler 's Creek.
Initially, Lee did not intend to surrender, but planned to regroup at the village of Appomattox Court House, where supplies were to be waiting, and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him, so that when Lee 's army reached Appomattox Court House, they were surrounded. After an initial battle, Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House. In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant 's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, Traveller.
On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning, and Andrew Johnson became the president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee 's surrender reached them. On April 26, 1865, General Joseph E. Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the Army of Tennessee to Major General William T. Sherman at the Bennett Place near present - day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces, effectively bringing the war to an end. President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9, 1865; President Jefferson Davis was captured the following day. On June 2, Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans - Mississippi Department. On June 23, Cherokee leader Stand Watie became the last Confederate General to surrender his forces.
Though the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators. The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton, but this did not work. Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South 's recovery after the war.
Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860 -- 62 crop failures in Europe made the North 's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. It was said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton '', as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half. When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons.
Lincoln 's foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to European public opinion. Diplomats had to explain that United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, but instead they repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate spokesmen, on the other hand, were much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy. In addition, the European aristocracy (the dominant factor in every major country) was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic. ''
U.S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to boldly challenge the blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain (CSS Alabama, CSS Shenandoah, CSS Tennessee, CSS Tallahassee, CSS Florida, and some others). The most famous, the CSS Alabama, did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for politicians in Britain, where the antislavery movement was powerful.
War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent affair, involving the U.S. Navy 's boarding of the British ship Trent and seizure of two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. In 1862, the British considered mediation between North and South -- though even such an offer would have risked war with the U.S. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom 's Cabin three times when deciding on this.
The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France 's own seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would remain neutral.
The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today. The North and West grew rich while the once - rich South became poor for a century. The national political power of the slaveowners and rich southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty.
Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, including James McPherson, argue that Confederate victory was at least possible. McPherson argues that the North 's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.
Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win. Lincoln was not a military dictator, and could continue to fight the war only as long as the American public supported a continuation of the war. The Confederacy sought to win independence by out - lasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, the border states, emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated the Copperheads and their peace platform.
Many scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long - term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat. Civil War historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: "I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I do n't think the South ever had a chance to win that War. ''
A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as E. Merton Coulter put it, "people did not will hard enough and long enough to win. '' Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees, pointing to a class conflict in the Confederate army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners. He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery, and fought less enthusiastically. He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict. However, most historians reject the argument. James M. McPherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, found strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864 -- 65, he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard. Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented, "The devils seem to have a determination that can not but be admired. '' Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, "yet I see no sign of let up -- some few deserters -- plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out. ''
Also important were Lincoln 's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President 's war powers. The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly Britain and France. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities. Lincoln 's naval blockade was 95 percent effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain 's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with Lincoln 's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war.
Historian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on the course of world history. The Union victory energized popular democratic forces. A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery, not freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues that:
The North 's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government. Confederate independence, on the other hand, would have established an American model for reactionary politics and race - based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the twentieth century and perhaps beyond. ''
Scholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the South. The prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the South. However, a 2017 study challenges this, noting that while some Southern elites retained their economic status, the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the South than in the North.
The war resulted in at least 1,030,000 casualties (3 percent of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths -- two - thirds by disease, and 50,000 civilians. Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000. The war accounted for more American deaths than in all other U.S. wars combined.
Based on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South. About 56,000 soldiers died in prison camps during the War. An estimated 60,000 men lost limbs in the war.
Union army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served, was broken down as follows:
In addition there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle).
Black troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll, they amounted to 15 percent of disease deaths but less than 3 percent of those killed in battle. Losses among African Americans were high, in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War. Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers:
(We) find, according to the revised official data, that of the slightly over two millions troops in the United States Volunteers, over 316,000 died (from all causes), or 15.2 percent. Of the 67,000 Regular Army (white) troops, 8.6 percent, or not quite 6,000, died. Of the approximately 180,000 United States Colored Troops, however, over 36,000 died, or 20.5 percent. In other words, the mortality "rate '' amongst the United States Colored Troops in the Civil War was thirty - five percent greater than that among other troops, notwithstanding the fact that the former were not enrolled until some eighteen months after the fighting began.
Confederate records compiled by historian William F. Fox list 74,524 killed and died of wounds and 59,292 died of disease. Including Confederate estimates of battle losses where no records exist would bring the Confederate death toll to 94,000 killed and died of wounds. Fox complained, however, that records were incomplete, especially during the last year of the war, and that battlefield reports likely under - counted deaths (many men counted as wounded in battlefield reports subsequently died of their wounds). Thomas L. Livermore, using Fox 's data, put the number of Confederate non-combat deaths at 166,000, using the official estimate of Union deaths from disease and accidents and a comparison of Union and Confederate enlistment records, for a total of 260,000 deaths. However, this excludes the 30,000 deaths of Confederate troops in prisons, which would raise the minimum number of deaths to 290,000.
The United States National Park Service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses:
Union: 853,838
Confederate: 914,660
While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete. In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service, and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged. This often happened only a few days or weeks later. Francis Amasa Walker, Superintendent of the 1870 Census, used census and Surgeon General data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, for a total death toll of 850,000 soldiers. While Walker 's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 Census 's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5 %, and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate.
Analyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000, but most likely 761,000 soldiers, died in the war. This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths, going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses.
Deaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data at the time, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in an area where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them. University of Connecticut Professor James Downs states that tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, exposure, or execution at the hands of the Confederates, and that if these deaths are counted in the war 's total, the death toll would exceed 1 million.
Losses were far higher than during the recent defeat of Mexico, which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848. One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the century, such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined much of World War I.
The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy 's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment.
The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the U.S. federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century. The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction.
While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee 's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal. Lincoln 's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats ("Copperheads '') and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans. By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans ' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.
The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African - Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.
During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided. In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game. '' Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union.
At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected. But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln 's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat ''. Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in abolitionist Horace Greeley 's newspaper.
In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors ' Conference added support for the proclamation. Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me. ''
Lincoln 's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union. The Union - controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union - controlled regions around New Orleans, Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware.
Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President 's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union 's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union 's definition of liberty. The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy 's hope of getting aid from Britain or France. By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent.
In Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1869) the United States Supreme Court ruled that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States; the court further held that the Constitution did not permit states to unilaterally secede from the United States, and that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were "absolutely null '', under the constitution.
Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, and it continued until 1877. It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war 's aftermath, the most important of which were the three "Reconstruction Amendments '' to the Constitution, which remain in effect to the present time: the 13th (1865), the 14th (1868) and the 15th (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a "republican form of government for the ex-Confederate states; and to permanently end slavery -- and prevent semi-slavery status.
President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. Radical Republicans demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson 's work. In 1872 the "Liberal Republicans '' argued that the war goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end. They ran a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction. The Compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus that the Civil War had finally ended. With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature; the Jim Crow period of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was about to begin.
The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war 's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war. The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "Empire of Liberty '' influencing the world.
Professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war, than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academe, leading to a proliferation of solid studies by non-scholars who are thoroughly familiar with the primary sources, pay close attention to battles and campaigns, and write for the large public readership, rather than the small scholarly community. Bruce Catton and Shelby Foote are among the best - known writers. Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study. Deeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering. Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and black Baptist preachers after the War. Southern white preachers said:
God had chastised them and given them a special mission -- to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations. Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God 's favor.
In sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as:
God 's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions. These institutions offered self - help and racial uplift, and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. As a result, black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him; God would be their rock in a stormy land.
Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause '', shaping regional identity and race relations for generations. Alan T. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly "a rationalization, a cover - up to vindicate the name and fame '' of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful. Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the "virulent racism '' of the 19th century, sacrificing African - American progress to a white man 's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause "a caricature of the truth. This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter '' in every instance.
The economic and political - power determinism forcefully presented by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard in The Rise of American Civilization (1927) was highly influential among historians and the general public until the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. They ignored constitutional issues of states ' rights and even ignored American nationalism as the force that finally led to victory in the war. Indeed, the ferocious combat itself was passed over as merely an ephemeral event. Much more important was the calculus of class conflict. The Beards announced that the Civil War was really:
(A) social cataclysm in which the capitalists, laborers, and farmers of the North and West drove from power in the national government the planting aristocracy of the South.
The Beards themselves abandoned their interpretation by the 1940s and it became defunct among historians in the 1950s, when scholars shifted to an emphasis on slavery. However, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers.
The first efforts at Civil War battlefield preservation and memorialization came during the war itself with the establishment of National Cemeteries at Gettysburg, Mill Springs and Chattanooga. Soldiers began erecting markers on battlefields beginning with the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861, but the oldest surviving monument is the Hazen monument, erected at Stones River near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, in the summer of 1863 by soldiers in Union Col. William B. Hazen 's brigade to mark the spot where they buried their dead in the Battle of Stones River. In the 1890s, the United States government established five Civil War battlefield parks under the jurisdiction of the War Department, beginning with the creation of the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park in Tennessee and the Antietam National Battlefield in Maryland in 1890. The Shiloh National Military Park was established in 1894, followed by the Gettysburg National Military Park in 1895 and Vicksburg National Military Park in 1899. In 1933, these five parks and other national monuments were transferred to the jurisdiction of the National Park Service.
The modern Civil War battlefield preservation movement began in 1987 with the founding of the Association for the Preservation of Civil War Sites (APCWS), a grassroots organization created by Civil War historians and others to preserve battlefield land by acquiring it. In 1991, the original Civil War Trust was created in the mold of the Statue of Liberty / Ellis Island Foundation, but failed to attract corporate donors and soon helped manage the disbursement of U.S. Mint Civil War commemorative coin revenues designated for battlefield preservation. Although the two non-profit organizations joined forces on a number of battlefield acquisitions, ongoing conflicts prompted the boards of both organizations to facilitate a merger, which happened in 1999 with the creation of the Civil War Preservation Trust. In 2011, the organization was renamed, again becoming the Civil War Trust. After expanding its mission in 2014 to include battlefields of the Revolutionary War and War of 1812, the non-profit became the American Battlefield Trust in May 2018, operating with two divisions, the Civil War Trust and the Revolutionary War Trust. From 1987 through May 2018, the Trust and its predecessor organizations, along with their partners, preserved 49,893 acres of battlefield land through acquisition of property or conservation easements at more than 130 battlefields in 24 states.
The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles, to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary. Hollywood 's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as seen in such film classics as Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and more recently Lincoln (2012). Ken Burns produced a notable PBS series on television titled The Civil War (1990). It was digitally remastered and re-released in 2015.
There were numerous technological innovations during the Civil War that had a great impact on 19th century science. The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an "industrial war '', in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war. New inventions, such as the train and telegraph, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel. It was also in this war when countries first used aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance balloons, to a significant effect. It saw the first action involving steam - powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history. Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, Colt revolving rifle, Triplett & Scott carbine and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle - loading and single - shot firearms in warfare, as well as the first appearances of rapid - firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and the Gatling gun.
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who played lucy in did you hear about the morgans | Did You Hear About the Morgans? - Wikipedia
Did You Hear About the Morgans? is a 2009 American romantic comedy film directed and written by Marc Lawrence. Golden Globe winners Hugh Grant and Sarah Jessica Parker portray the film 's protagonists, Paul and Meryl Morgan, a recently separated New York power couple on the verge of divorce until they witness the murder of Meryl 's client. They are forced to enter into temporary witness protection, given new identities, and relocated to a small Wyoming town (the fictional Ray, Wyoming, 45 minutes out of Cody). Supporting roles are played by Sam Elliott, Academy Award winner Mary Steenburgen, Elisabeth Moss, and Wilford Brimley. It is the second collaboration of Grant and Parker, following the 1996 film Extreme Measures.
The film premiered in New York on December 14, 2009 and in London the following day. It was released to the United States on December 18 and to most of Europe in January 2010. It received mostly negative reviews from critics. Compiled ratings from the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an average rating of 3.5 out of 10. The film grossed $6,616,571 in its opening weekend and earned $85 million worldwide. Did You Hear About the Morgans? was the 70th most successful film worldwide for 2009.
A successful Manhattan couple, lawyer Paul Michael Morgan (Hugh Grant) and estate agent Meryl Judith Morgan (Sarah Jessica Parker), are separated due to Paul 's infidelity. After dinner one night, Meryl and Paul witness the murder of one of Meryl 's real estate clients. As a result, they become targets of contract killer Vincent (Michael Kelly) and must enter the Witness Protection Program.
Paul and Meryl are relocated to the small town of Ray, Wyoming and placed temporarily under the protection of husband and wife / sheriff and deputy, Clay and Emma Wheeler (Sam Elliott and Mary Steenburgen). For their own safety, they are permitted no outside contact via telephone or e-mail. They have trouble adjusting to small - town life, but after a perilous encounter with a bear and awkward attempts at shooting rifles, chopping wood, and horseback riding, they eventually adjust and begin assisting the local citizens professionally. Meanwhile, neither of their assistants back in New York City know their whereabouts. Vincent plants a bug at Meryl 's office and in her assistant Jackie 's purse, hoping to gain information, which is eventually successful.
Jackie attempts to call Meryl but Paul 's assistant Adam stops her by kissing her, which she responds to by tasering him. Paul and Meryl go on a "date '' in town and begin to reconcile, but then Paul is heartbroken when he learns that Meryl had a one - night stand with one of their acquaintances during their separation. The next day, with Vincent in town unbeknownst to them, the Morgans anticipate leaving Ray for a permanent hiding place. The Wheelers invite them to a rodeo, but the Morgans are at loggerheads, so they decline. Leaving the Morgans without any form of security, the Wheelers leave for the rodeo. Vincent tries to attack the house but is accosted by a bear, which gives the Morgans time to escape. They flee on horseback to the rodeo to seek help. Vincent follows them to the rodeo, they spot him and hide in a bull suit. However, they end up in the ring with a bull, which then charges them, injuring Meryl. Meryl, unable to walk, stays hidden from Vincent while Paul impulsively confronts him with a canister of bear repellent spray. Paul accidentally sprays himself in the face, alerting Vincent who then holds Paul at gun - point. The Morgans are rescued by the Wheelers and their new friends from the town.
Six months later, Jackie and Adam are in a committed relationship while Paul and Meryl have repaired their marriage. They have an adopted baby girl from China, named Rae in honor of the Wyoming town, and Meryl is pregnant with their biological child living happily together in New York.
Filming for Did You Hear About the Morgans took place over 25 days in May and June in 2009. The film was shot in New York City, Santa Fe, New Mexico, and Roy, New Mexico.
The film has received generally negative reviews. Metacritic described reviews as "generally unfavorable '', with an average score of 26 based on 25 reviews. As of December 20, 2009, 12 % of 120 critics listed by review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes had given the film a positive review, with an average rating of 3.4 / 10. Sarah Jessica Parker was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award as Worst Actress for her performance, but lost to Sandra Bullock for All About Steve.
In its first opening weekend, the film opened at # 4 in the United States box office raking in $6,616,571. With a budget of $58 million, Did You Hear About the Morgans? grossed only $29.5 million domestically at the box office. It did a little better overseas, earning an additional $56 million, for a total of $85 million worldwide.
Did You Hear About the Morgans? was released on DVD and Blu - ray on March 16, 2010.
The DVD features:
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can you ride a bike without a helmet in california | Bicycle law in California - wikipedia
Bicycle law in California is the parts of the California Vehicle Code that set out the law for persons cycling in California, and a subset of bicycle law in the United States.
CVC 21200 states that the rules of the road, set out in Division 11 of the California Vehicle Code, that do not specifically apply only to motor vehicles are applicable to cyclists. Police officers riding bicycles are exempt from the provisions when they are responding to an emergency call, engaged in rescue operations, or in immediate pursuit of a suspect.
Laws Applicable to Bicycle Use
21200. (a) Every person riding a bicycle upon a highway has all the rights and is subject to all the provisions applicable to the driver of a vehicle by this division... except those provisions which by their very nature can have no application.
CVC 21650 sets the on - road position for all vehicles, including bicycles.
Right Side of Roadway
21650. Upon all highways, a vehicle shall be driven upon the right half of the roadway...
Cyclists are allowed but never required to ride on the shoulder. CVC 530 defines the "roadway '' as "that portion of a highway improved, designed, or ordinarily used for vehicular travel ''. The on - road position of cyclists is narrowed by CVC 21202, which requires riding "as close as practicable to the right - hand curb or edge of the roadway '' except in certain circumstances.
Operation on Roadway
21202. A. Any person operating a bicycle upon a roadway at a speed less than the normal speed of traffic moving in the same direction at that time shall ride as close as practicable to the right - hand curb or edge of the roadway except under any of the following situations:
The wording shall ride as close as practicable to the right is sometimes misunderstood by police officers as well as cyclists.
CVC 21650.1 clarifies that cyclists, unlike drivers of vehicles, are generally not prohibited from riding on the shoulder of the road.
Bicycle Operated on Roadway or Highway Shoulder
21650.1. A bicycle operated on a roadway, or the shoulder of a highway, shall be operated in the same direction as vehicles are required to be driven upon the roadway.
CVC Section 21960 authorizes local authorities to prohibit or restrict the use of bicycles on freeways.
Freeways and Expressways Use Restrictions
21960. (a) The Department of Transportation and local authorities, by order, ordinance, or resolution, with respect to freeways, expressways, or designated portions thereof under their respective jurisdictions, to which vehicle access is completely or partially controlled, may prohibit or restrict the use of the freeways, expressways, or any portion thereof by pedestrians, bicycles or other nonmotorized traffic or by any person operating a motor - driven cycle, motorized bicycle, or motorized scooter.
Where bike lanes exist on roadways, CVC 21208 requires cyclists to use them, except under certain conditions. There is no requirement to ride in a bike lane or path that is not on the roadway.
Permitted Movements from Bicycle Lanes
21208. (a) Whenever a bicycle lane has been established on a roadway pursuant to Section 21207, any person operating a bicycle upon the roadway at a speed less than the normal speed of traffic moving in the same direction at that time shall ride within the bicycle lane, except that the person may move out of the lane under any of the following situations:
(b) No person operating a bicycle shall leave a bicycle lane until the movement can be made with reasonable safety and then only after giving an appropriate signal in the manner provided in Chapter 6 (commencing with Section 22100) in the event that any vehicle may be affected by the movement.
There is no requirement in the California but side - by - side riding may be regulated by local ordinance.
CVC 21100 sets out that "Local authorities may adopt rules and regulations... regarding the... Operation of bicycles, and, as specified in Section 21114.5, electric carts by physically disabled persons, or persons 50 years of age or older, on the public sidewalks. '' Under this provision, many California cities have banned sidewalk cycling in business districts.
CVC 22107 requires cyclists to yield and signal before moving left or right.
Turning Movements and Required Signals
22107. No person shall turn a vehicle from a direct course or move right or left upon a roadway until such movement can be made with reasonable safety and then only after the giving of an appropriate signal in the manner provided in this chapter in the event any other vehicle may be affected by the movement.
CVC 21656 specifies that slow - moving vehicles causing a queue of five or more vehicles behind them must turn off the roadway in order to allow the vehicles behind to pass them. Section 21202 explicitly states that cyclists are "subject to the provisions of Section 21656 ''.
Turning Out of Slow - Moving Vehicles
21656. On a two - lane highway where passing is unsafe because of traffic in the opposite direction or other conditions, a slow - moving vehicle, including a passenger vehicle, behind which five or more vehicles are formed in line, shall turn off the roadway at the nearest place designated as a turnout by signs erected by the authority having jurisdiction over the highway, or wherever sufficient area for a safe turnout exists, in order to permit the vehicles following it to proceed. As used in this section a slow - moving vehicle is one which is proceeding at a rate of speed less than the normal flow of traffic at the particular time and place.
CVC 21760 requires motor vehicles to leave a 3 - foot margin while passing a cyclist if possible.
Three Feet for Safety Act
21760. (a) This section shall be known and may be cited as the Three Feet for Safety Act. (b) The driver of a motor vehicle overtaking and passing a bicycle that is proceeding in the same direction on a highway shall pass in compliance with the requirements of this article applicable to overtaking and passing a vehicle, and shall do so at a safe distance that does not interfere with the safe operation of the overtaken bicycle, having due regard for the size and speed of the motor vehicle and the bicycle, traffic conditions, weather, visibility, and the surface and width of the highway. (c) A driver of a motor vehicle shall not overtake or pass a bicycle proceeding in the same direction on a highway at a distance of less than three feet between any part of the motor vehicle and any part of the bicycle or its operator. (d) If the driver of a motor vehicle is unable to comply with subdivision (c), due to traffic or roadway conditions, the driver shall slow to a speed that is reasonable and prudent, and may pass only when doing so would not endanger the safety of the operator of the bicycle, taking into account the size and speed of the motor vehicle and bicycle, traffic conditions, weather, visibility, and surface and width of the highway. (e) (1) A violation of subdivision (b), (c), or (d) is an infraction punishable by a fine of thirty - five dollars ($35). (2) If a collision occurs between a motor vehicle and a bicycle causing bodily injury to the operator of the bicycle, and the driver of the motor vehicle is found to be in violation of subdivision (b), (c), or (d), a two - hundred - twenty - dollar ($220) fine shall be imposed on that driver. (f) This section shall become operative on September 16, 2014.
It is arguably legal for cyclists to race each other on open public roads in California if that is safe at the time under the circumstances. In traffic, or where visibility is limited (rain, fog, wooded areas, curvy roads), racing would be arguably negligent and unlawful. CVC 21200 (a), provides: "Every person riding a bicycle upon a highway... is subject to all the provisions applicable to the driver of a vehicle by this division... except those provisions which by their very nature can have no application. '' Under the common law in California, all vehicle operators (including bike operators) have a general duty to use reasonable care to avoid collisions with other cyclists, cars, runners and pedestrians, since it is not the case that runners and pedestrians (for example) are always prohibited by the CVC from sharing a bike lane.
A bicycle ridden on public roads must have a brake on at least one wheel which can make the wheel skid on dry pavement.
CVC 21201 (d) A bicycle operated during darkness upon a highway, a sidewalk where bicycle operation is not prohibited by the local jurisdiction, or a bikeway... shall be equipped with all of the following
CVC 21212 requires cyclists under the age of 18 to wear helmets.
Youth Bicycle Helmets: Minors
21212 (a) A person under 18 years of age shall not operate a bicycle, a nonmotorized scooter, or a skateboard, nor shall they wear in - line or roller skates, nor ride upon a bicycle, a nonmotorized scooter, or a skateboard as a passenger, upon a street, bikeway, as defined in Section 890.4 of the Streets and Highways Code, or any other public bicycle path or trail unless that person is wearing a properly fitted and fastened bicycle helmet that meets the standards of either the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) or the United States Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), or standards subsequently established by those entities.
Under CVC 21100 (a) local authorities may adopt ordinances for the purpose of "Regulating or prohibiting processions or assemblages on the highways. ''
CVC 39002 allows local authorities to implement mandatory licensing for bicycles and prohibit unlicensed riding.
39002. (a) A city or county, which adopts a bicycle licensing ordinance or resolution, may provide in the ordinance or resolution that no resident shall operate any bicycle, as specified in the ordinance, on any street, road, highway, or other public property within the jurisdiction of the city or county, as the case may be, unless the bicycle is licensed in accordance with this division.
(b) It is unlawful for any person to tamper with, destroy, mutilate, or alter any license indicia or registration form, or to remove, alter, or mutilate the serial number, or the identifying marks of a licensing agency 's identifying symbol, on any bicycle frame licensed under this division.
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where are the merocrine glands located in the body | Merocrine - wikipedia
Merocrine (or eccrine) is a term used to classify exocrine glands and their secretions in the study of histology. A cell is classified as merocrine if the secretions of that cell are excreted via exocytosis from secretory cells into an epithelial - walled duct or ducts and thence onto a bodily surface or into the lumen.
Merocrine is the most common manner of secretion. The gland releases its product and no part of the gland is lost or damaged (compare holocrine and apocrine).
The term eccrine is specifically used to designate merocrine secretions from sweat glands (eccrine sweat glands).
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define modernization and analyze the process of modernization in india | Modernization theory - wikipedia
Modernization theory is used to explain the process of modernization within societies. Modernization refers to a model of a progressive transition from a ' pre-modern ' or ' traditional ' to a ' modern ' society. Modernization theory originated from the ideas of German sociologist Max Weber (1864 -- 1920), which provided the basis for the modernization paradigm developed by Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons (1902 -- 1979). The theory looks at the internal factors of a country while assuming that with assistance, "traditional '' countries can be brought to development in the same manner more developed countries have been. Modernization theory was a dominant paradigm in the social sciences in the 1950s and 1960s, then went into a deep eclipse. It made a comeback after 1990 but remains a controversial model.
Modernization theory both attempts to identify the social variables that contribute to social progress and development of societies and seeks to explain the process of social evolution. Modernization theory is subject to criticism originating among socialist and free - market ideologies, world - systems theorists, globalization theorists and dependency theorists among others. Modernization theory stresses not only the process of change but also the responses to that change. It also looks at internal dynamics while referring to social and cultural structures and the adaptation of new technologies. Modernization theory maintains that traditional societies will develop as they adopt more modern practices. Proponents of modernization theory claim that modern states are wealthier and more powerful and that their citizens are freer to enjoy a higher standard of living. Developments such as new data technology and the need to update traditional methods in transport, communication and production, it is argued, make modernization necessary or at least preferable to the status quo. That view makes critique of modernization difficult since it implies that such developments control the limits of human interaction, not vice versa. It also implies that human agency controls the speed and severity of modernization. Supposedly, instead of being dominated by tradition, societies undergoing the process of modernization typically arrive at forms of governance dictated by abstract principles. Traditional religious beliefs and cultural traits, according to the theory, usually become less important as modernization takes hold.
Historians link modernization to the processes of urbanization and industrialization and the spread of education. As Kendall (2007) notes, "Urbanization accompanied modernization and the rapid process of industrialization. '' In sociological critical theory, modernization is linked to an overarching process of rationalisation. When modernization increases within a society, the individual becomes increasingly important, eventually replacing the family or community as the fundamental unit of society.
Sociological theories of the late 19th century such as Social Darwinism provided a basis for asking what were the laws of evolution of human society. The current modernization theory originated with the ideas of German sociologist Max Weber (1864 -- 1920) regarding the role of rationality and irrationality in the transition from traditional to modern society. Weber 's approach provided the basis for the modernization paradigm as popularized by Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons (1902 -- 1979), who translated Weber 's works into English in the 1930s and provided his own interpretation.
After 1945 the Parsonian version became widely used in sociology and other social sciences. By the late 1960s opposition developed because the theory was too general and did not fit all societies in quite the same way.
Globalization can be defined as the integration of economic, political and social cultures. It is argued that globalization is related to the spreading of modernization across borders.
Global trade has grown continuously since the European discovery of new continents in the Early modern period; it increased particularly as a result of the Industrial Revolution and the mid-20th century adoption of the shipping container.
Annual trans - border tourist arrivals rose to 456 million by 1990 and almost tripled since, reaching a total of over 1.2 billion in 2016 Communication is another major area that has grown due to modernization. Communication industries have enabled capitalism to spread throughout the world. Telephony, television broadcasts, news services and online service providers have played a crucial part in globalization. Former U.S president Lyndon B. Johnson was a supporter of the modernization theory and believed that television had potential to provide educational tools in development.
With the many apparent positive attributes to globalization there are also negative consequences. The dominant, neoliberal model of globalization often increases disparities between a society 's rich and its poor. In major cities of developing countries there exist pockets where technologies of the modernised world, computers, cell phones and satellite television, exist alongside stark poverty. Globalists are globalization modernization theorists and argue that globalization is positive for everyone, as its benefits must eventually extend to all members of society, including vulnerable groups such as women and children.
The relationship between modernization and democracy is one of the most researched studies in comparative politics. There is academic debate over the drivers of democracy because there are theories that support economic growth as both a cause and effect of the institution of democracy. "Lipset 's observation that democracy is related to economic development, first advanced in 1959, has generated the largest body of research on any topic in comparative politics, '' (Przeworski and Limongi, 1997).
Larry Diamond and Juan Linz, who worked with Lipset in the book, Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America, argue that economic performance affects the development of democracy in at least three ways. First, they argue that economic growth is more important for democracy than given levels of socioeconomic development. Second, socioeconomic development generates social changes that can potentially facilitate democratization. Third, socioeconomic development promotes other changes, like organization of the middle class, which is conducive to democracy.
As Seymour Martin Lipset put it, "All the various aspects of economic development -- industrialization, urbanization, wealth and education -- are so closely interrelated as to form one major factor which has the political correlate of democracy ''. The argument also appears in Walt W. Rostow, Politics and the Stages of Growth (1971); A.F.K. Organski, The Stages of Political Development (1965); and David Apter, The Politics of Modernization (1965). In the 1960s, some critics argued that the link between modernization and democracy was based too much on the example of European history and neglected the Third World. Recent demonstrations of the emergence of democracy in South Korea, Taiwan and South Africa have been cited as support for Lipset 's thesis.
One historical problem with that argument has always been Germany whose economic modernization in the 19th century came long before the democratization after 1918. Berman, however, concludes that a process of democratization was underway in Imperial Germany, for "during these years Germans developed many of the habits and mores that are now thought by political scientists to augur healthy political development ''.
Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel (2009) contend that the realization of democracy is not based solely on an expressed desire for that form of government, but democracies are born as a result of the admixture of certain social and cultural factors. They argue the ideal social and cultural conditions for the foundation of a democracy are born of significant modernization and economic development that result in mass political participation.
Peerenboom (2008) explores the relationships among democracy, the rule of law and their relationship to wealth by pointing to examples of Asian countries, such as Taiwan and South Korea, which have successfully democratized only after economic growth reached relatively high levels and to examples of countries such as the Philippines, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia and India, which sought to democratize at lower levels of wealth but have not done as well.
Adam Przeworski and others have challenged Lipset 's argument. They say political regimes do not transition to democracy as per capita incomes rise. Rather, democratic transitions occur randomly, but once there, countries with higher levels of gross domestic product per capita remain democratic. Epstein et al. (2006) retest the modernization hypothesis using new data, new techniques, and a three - way, rather than dichotomous, classification of regimes. Contrary to Przeworski, this study finds that the modernization hypothesis stands up well. Partial democracies emerge as among the most important and least understood regime types.
Highly contentious is the idea that modernization implies more human rights, with China in the 21st century being a major test case.
New technology is a major source of social change. (Social change refers to any significant alteration over time in behavior patterns and cultural values and norms.) Since modernization entails the social transformation from agrarian societies to industrial ones, it is important to look at the technological viewpoint; however, new technologies do not change societies by itself. Rather, it is the response to technology that causes change. Frequently, technology is recognized but not put to use for a very long time such as the ability to extract metal from rock. Although that initially went unused, it later had profound implications for the developmental course of societies. Technology makes it possible for a more innovated society and broad social change. That dramatic change through the centuries that has evolved socially, industrially, and economically, can be summed up by the term modernization. Cell phones, for example, have changed the lives of millions throughout the world. That is especially true in Africa and other parts of the Middle East, where there is a low cost communication infrastructure. With cell phone technology, widely dispersed populations are connected, which facilitates business - to - business communication and provides internet access to remoter areas, with a consequential rise in literacy.
Development, like modernization, has become the orienting principle of modern times. Countries that are seen as modern are also seen as developed, which means that they are generally more respected by institutions such as the United Nations and even as possible trade partners for other countries. The extent to which a country has modernized or developed dictates its power and importance on the international level.
Modernization of the health sector of developing nations recognizes that transitioning from ' traditional ' to ' modern ' is not merely the advancement in technology and the introduction of Western practices; implementing modern healthcare requires the reorganization of political agenda and, in turn, an increase in funding by feeders and resources towards public health. However, rather than replicating the stages of developed nations, whose roots of modernization are found with the context of industrialization or colonialism, underdeveloped nations should apply proximal interventions to target rural communities and focus on prevention strategies rather than curative solutions. That has been successfully exhibited by the Christian Medical Commission and in China through ' barefoot doctors '. Additionally, a strong advocate of the DE-emphasis of medical institutions was Halfdan T. Mahler, the WHO General Director from 1973 to 1988. Related ideas have been proposed at international conferences such as Alma - Ats and the "Health and Population in Development '' conference, sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation in Italy in 1979, and selective primary healthcare and GOBI were discussed (although they have both been strongly criticized by supporters of comprehensive healthcare). Overall, however, this is not to say that the nations of the Global South can function independently from Western states; significant funding is received from well - intention programs, foundations, and charities that target epidemics such as HIV / AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis that have substantially improved the lives of millions of people and impeded future development.
Modernization theorists often saw traditions as obstacles to economic growth. According to Seymour Martin Lipset, economic conditions are heavily determined by the cultural, social values present in that given society. Furthermore, while modernization might deliver violent, radical change for traditional societies, it was thought worth the price. Critics insist that traditional societies were often destroyed without ever gaining the promised advantages if, among other things, the economic gap between advanced societies and such societies actually increased. The net effect of modernization for some societies was therefore the replacement of traditional poverty by a more modern form of misery, according to these critics. Others point to improvements in living standards, physical infrastructure, education and economic opportunity to refute such criticisms.
From the 1960s, modernization theory has been criticized by numerous scholars, including Andre Gunder Frank (1929 -- 2005) and Immanuel Wallerstein (born 1930). In this model, the modernization of a society required the destruction of the indigenous culture and its replacement by a more Westernized one. By one definition, modern simply refers to the present, and any society still in existence is therefore modern. Proponents of modernization typically view only Western society as being truly modern and argue that others are primitive or unevolved by comparison. That view sees unmodernized societies as inferior even if they have the same standard of living as western societies. Opponents argue that modernity is independent of culture and can be adapted to any society. Japan is cited as an example by both sides. Some see it as proof that a thoroughly modern way of life can exist in a non western society. Others argue that Japan has become distinctly more western as a result of its modernization.
As Tipps has argued, by conflating modernization with other processes, with which theorists use interchangeably (democratization, liberalization, development), the term becomes imprecise and therefore difficult to disprove.
The theory has also been criticised empirically, as modernization theorists ignore external sources of change in societies. The binary between traditional and modern is unhelpful, as the two are linked and often interdependent, and ' modernization ' does not come as a whole.
Modernization theory has also been accused of being Eurocentric, as modernization began in Europe, with the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the Revolutions of 1848 (Macionis 953) and has long been regarded as reaching its most advanced stage in Europe. Anthropologists typically make their criticism one step further and say that the view is ethnocentric and is specific to Western culture.
One alternative model on the left is Dependency theory. It emerged in the 1950s and argues that the underdevelopment of poor nations in the Third World derived from systematic imperial and neo-colonial exploitation of raw materials. Its proponents argue that resources typically flow from a "periphery '' of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core '' of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theorists such as Andre Gunder Frank that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system ''.
Dependency models arose from a growing association of southern hemisphere nationalists (from Latin America and Africa) and Marxists. It was their reaction against modernization theory, which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today 's underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today 's developed areas at some time in the past, and that, therefore, the task of helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such as investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market. Dependency theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive versions of developed countries, but have unique features and structures of their own; and, importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy.
Media related to Modernization theory at Wikimedia Commons
Modernization theory at Wikibooks
The dictionary definition of modernization theory at Wiktionary
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who is the oldest wrestler still wrestling in wwe | List of oldest surviving professional wrestlers - wikipedia
This is a list of oldest surviving professional wrestlers. As of 2017, there are 42 living veterans from the "Golden Age of Wrestling '' (1950s - 1970s) over 75 years old. The last surviving wrestler from the "Pioneer Era '' (1900s - 1940s) was American wrestler Angelo Savoldi (born April 21, 1914, aged 7004363050000000000 ♠ 99 years, 145 days). The title of the oldest verified wrestler of all time belongs to Polish - born American wrestler Abe Coleman (1905 -- 2007), who lived 7004370790000000000 ♠ 101 years, 189 days. The oldest female wrestler was Cora Combs (1923 - 2015), aged 7004336990000000000 ♠ 92 years, 96 days.
The oldest wrestler to have a match is Mae Young, who defeated LayCool in a WWE Raw handicap match on November 15, 2010, at the age of 87.
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who is the dancer in the michael jackson experience | Michael Jackson: the Experience - wikipedia
Michael Jackson: The Experience is a music video game based on Michael Jackson 's music and songs. It was licensed by Triumph International, developed by and published by Ubisoft, and was released on November 23, 2010 in North America, November 25, 2010 in Australia and November 26, 2010 in Europe for the Nintendo DS, PlayStation Portable and Wii. It was also released on April 12, 2011 in North America, April 14, 2011 in Australia, April 15, 2011 in Europe and December 8, 2011 in Japan for PlayStation 3 's PlayStation Move and Xbox 360 's Kinect. The game features many of Michael Jackson 's hits, such as "Bad '', "Thriller '', "Beat It '', "Billie Jean '', "Smooth Criminal '', "Black or White '', "The Way You Make Me Feel '', etc. Initial launches of the game included a limited edition replica of Jackson 's sequined glove. It was later released for the Nintendo 3DS, iOS and PlayStation Vita. It was announced that the game would be released on Mac OS X, Wii U and iPad 2. The game sold 2 million units in two months, not including Japanese sales.
The Wii, PS3, and Kinect versions of the game feature Just Dance style gameplay. There are three modes of play in both the Wii and PS3 version of the game. The first is "Classic '' where everybody follows the on - screen Michael Jackson avatar. The second is "Duo '' which is used for duets (such as "The Girl Is Mine '') or videos with two main characters (such as "The Way You Make Me Feel '' and "In the Closet '') The player (s) can choose to dance as either Michael or the other character. The third mode of gameplay is "Crew '', which features Michael and two backup dancers (five during some songs.) Players can opt to dance as any of the three. After performing songs, players will be able to unlock training videos in the "Dance School '' where they are taught some of the more difficult moves from several of Michael Jackson 's music videos and stage performances.
Four player multiplayer is available on the Wii and Move enabled PlayStation 3 but the Kinect will be limited to one player at a time. The game will also feature singing on the Kinect version on Xbox 360, and optional on - screen lyrics on the PlayStation 3 with will also feature singing and Wii versions. The DS version features gameplay similar to Elite Beat Agents. In this version, there is a cartoon version of Michael on the top screen and the player follows along by tapping the bottom screen with the stylus to the rhythm of the music. Also on Nintendo DS version, there is an anti-piracy feature created by Ubisoft that will freeze the game and replace the audio with the sound of vuvuzelas (popularized by the South Africans in World Cup 2010) if the player is playing a pirated or ROM version of the game. It was also revealed that on the Wii version players can play as Jackson or the Back - up Dancers. The game was displayed at New York Comic Con at Ubisoft 's booth.
The Kinect version of the game features full body tracking, and entirely different choreography to the Wii version, along with several other changes and additions. This version uses a technology called Player Projection, which puts the player 's own image in the game allowing them to star in their own Michael Jackson video. The Kinect version includes two game modes: "Solo '' and "Party ''. Solo mode features one player. Party mode features 2 - 4 players. There are two options in Party mode: "Co-Op '' and "Battle ''. Co-Op mode is a "every player for themselves '' mode as players take turns jumping in and jumping out in order to complete the song. Battle mode is a team mode where two teams face off to get the highest score. Battle mode is a little different from Co-Op mode as each team performs the song together and the song gets broken down into two parts in which one player dances and the other player sings. Party mode only features Dance Mode, Performance Mode and Master Performance Mode. There are four symbols to represent each player: Michael 's glove, Michael 's hat, Michael 's shades and one of Michael 's jackets. Several of the songs in the game will not feature any moves to perform, instead becoming "Singing Only '' songs, with "Earth Song '' being the first song confirmed as Singing Only. There are certain songs that have moves that can be taught in a practice mode called "MJ School ''. During each performance, a crown will pop up above the player 's head and the player must hit the crown to activate "King Power '' before it fades away. The crown, appearing only once per song, will multiply the score by 8. Similar to the Wii version, the player is scored on how well they sing and dance. The player can get five different grades: "Perfect '', "Good '' and "OK '' increases the player 's score, while "Almost '' and "Miss '' make causes the player to lose their current score. Points add up at the end of each song along with the rating of stars the player receives and a photo the player takes during their performance. Players can either use the Kinect 's built - in microphone or an attached mic / headset to sing. The game does include the option, however, to choose a "Dance Only '' version of the song, which means the player will not be asked to sing. The Kinect version will also feature a mode known as Master Performance, which will require the player to both sing and dance to a set of choreographed moves that are harder than the normal moves, and "as close as possible to the videos ''.
In addition to the singing and dancing functionalities found in the Xbox 360 version, the PlayStation 3 version allows the player to sing or dance at the same time as other players. There is also the option to record the video clips or take pictures of the player 's performance, and allows the player to save or upload them to sites, such as Facebook. The PlayStation Vita version was ported with Improved graphics in HD, Multiplayer (AD - Hoc), Trophy Support, Motion Sensor support, Multi-touch support, and instead of taking off the On - screen notes, it was replaced with the ability to use the Rear touch pad for an even harder challenge and since its use the multi-touch, the difficulty has been given an upgrade to increase the challenge. The PS Vita version, compared to the 3DS version, has been given an whole new look in graphics and on resolution, with the player being able to use their finger instead of a 3DS stylus. The Vita version does n't have any downloadable content.
In the Wii console version of the game, "Money '' is incorrectly credited as a song from the album Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix which was released in 1997. This would be true if the song in the game was the remix but it is the original version of the song, released on HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I in 1995.
The Michael Jackson Experience was met with generally positive reviews, with most of them citing the varied differences between the different versions of the game. The reviews for the DS and PSP versions were above average, with a slightly better score for the DS version. IGN gave a 6.5 / 10 for DS and 5.5 / 10 for the PSP. Destructoid gave a 6 / 10 for the DS version.
IGN gave the Wii version a 3.5 saying that it does not give clear instructions on how to dance and also criticized the controls. Metro gave it 5 / 10, describing it as "perfectly good party fun if you do n't care that the controls do n't work. '' The game received positive reviews from tabloids that had previously been anti-Jackson. Videogamer.com gave the review a 7 / 10, stating that the music overplays the responsiveness difficulty. CNET gave the game 5 / 5, writing that the game is "extremely easy to pick up and play '' and "the choreography is amazing '' The Escapist gave the game 4 / 5, noting that the game "is not meant to be played by yourself. ''
Eurogamer thought that the Xbox dance routines "feel a little slower and more simplistic than those in the PS3 game '', while the Daily Star said that "the Move seems a touch more sensitive ''.
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where are the singers from florida georgia line from | Florida Georgia Line - wikipedia
Florida Georgia Line (sometimes abbreviated as FGL) is an American country music duo consisting of vocalists Tyler Hubbard and Brian Kelley. Their 2012 debut single "Cruise '', which remains their most popular song, broke two major sales records: it was downloaded over seven million times, making it the first country song ever to receive the Diamond certification, and it became the best - selling digital country song of all time, with 24 weeks at number one, until it was surpassed in July 2017 by Sam Hunt 's "Body Like a Back Road ''. "Cruise '' helped to pioneer a style of country music known as "bro - country '', which incorporates production elements from rock and hip - hop music, and tends to cover subject matter such as partying, drinking, driving trucks and romantic attraction. Much of their subsequent music has been tagged with the "bro - country '' label as well.
Florida Georgia Line was formed in 2010 in Nashville, Tennessee and began as a cover band. In December 2011, they signed to the Big Loud Mountain label. Their second EP, It'z Just What We Do, was released in 2012 and charted on the Billboard Top Country Albums chart. Several months later they signed with Republic Nashville, part of the Big Machine Label Group. They released their second album, Anything Goes on October 14, 2014. Their third album, Dig Your Roots, was released on August 26, 2016.
Both members of Florida Georgia Line first gained interest in music through church worship services. Brian Kelley, from Ormond Beach, Florida, was a star pitcher on his high school baseball team, leading to a scholarship at Florida State University; he later transferred to Belmont University after it became clear to him he would not succeed in the sport. He began learning to play guitar then began writing music inspired by Christian rock group Casting Crowns. Tyler Hubbard, a native of Monroe, Georgia, was a church worship leader who formed a hip hop group, Ingenious Circuit, in his teens. The two had a myriad of musical interests growing up: "Me and my friends drove trucks, listened to Garth Brooks, Alabama, Lil Wayne and Eminem, '' said Kelley.
The duo met at Belmont University in 2008 through a campus worship group, and following graduation, decided to give themselves two years to succeed as a country duo. They moved in with one another and began several odd jobs to pay bills, while playing clubs on the weekends. While independent, they recorded and digitally distributed their first EP, Anything Like Me (2010). They were discovered by Nickelback producer Joey Moi at a county fair, and the three began entering the studio together. Unlike typical country music sessions, the group spent days polishing songs, which were collected on the duo 's second EP, It'z Just What We Do (2012). In terms of production, the band modeled their sound on bands such as Nickelback, Shinedown, and Three Days Grace, while Moi aimed for each song to resemble hair metal group Def Leppard in structure. Major labels became interested when the song "Cruise '' first aired on satellite radio on "The Highway '' channel and began selling well on iTunes, leading to a deal with Republic Nashville and Big Machine Label Group.
Kelley likes to think of his career not as a career, but as a lifestyle. "Country music is always evolving and will continue to evolve, '' he told Forbes magazine. In 2017, they featured in the song "Last Day Alive '' by The Chainsmokers. They have also collaborated with Bebe Rexha on her song "Meant to Be ''.
Florida Georgia Line 's first EP, released on December 14, 2010, is a six - song EP produced with Wesley Walker. All of the songs were written by either Hubbard or Hubbard and Kelley. The EP consists of the songs "You 're Country '', "Now That She 's Gone '', "Man I Am Today '', "Never Let Her Go '' (co-written with "Cruise '' co-writer Chase Rice), "Black Tears '', and "Backwoods Beauty Queen ''. The song "Black Tears '' was also on Jason Aldean 's 2012 album Night Train.
The duo 's second EP is a five - song EP produced by Joey Moi on Big Loud Mountain Records and released on May 15, 2012. It starts off with "Cruise '' and also includes "Get Your Shine On '', "Tip It Back '', "Tell Me How You Like It '', and the title track "It'z Just What We Do ''.
The duo 's first studio album, Here 's to the Good Times, was an 11 - song album produced by Joey Moi on Republic Nashville and released on December 4, 2012. The pair 's first full - length, Here 's to the Good Times, was the sixth - best - selling album of 2013 (topping Drake and Katy Perry, among others). "Cruise '', the first single, reached number one on the Country Airplay chart dated December 15, 2012. A remix of "Cruise '' featuring Nelly later hit number four on the US Billboard Hot 100. Florida Georgia Line 's signature hit, "Cruise '', holds one major record to date: the best - selling country digital song of all time, with sales surpassing 10 million. The song spent a record 24 weeks at number one on Billboard 's Hot Country Songs chart, which was the longest reign in the history of the chart until July 2017 when it was surpassed by Sam Hunt 's "Body Like a Back Road ''.
The album 's second single, "Get Your Shine On '', was released to country radio on January 21, 2013 and reached number one on the Country Airplay chart in May 2013. It was co-written by the duo along with Rodney Clawson and Chris Tompkins. "Round Here '' was released as the album 's third single on June 3, 2013 and reached number one on the Country Airplay chart in September 2013. The album 's fourth single, "Stay '', was released to country radio on October 7, 2013. It was co-written and originally recorded by Black Stone Cherry. It reached number one on the Hot Country Songs chart and the Country Airplay chart in December 2013.
A deluxe edition of Here 's to the Good Times titled Here 's to the Good Times... This Is How We Roll was released on November 25, 2013. "This Is How We Roll '', a collaboration with Luke Bryan, was released from the deluxe edition as the album 's fifth single on February 10, 2014 and reached number one on the Hot Country Songs chart in March 2014.
Florida Georgia Line toured the United States as part of the Dirt Road Diaries Tour with Thompson Square and headlining act Luke Bryan.
In June 2013, the album reached number one on the Billboard Top Country Albums chart. It stayed at the top spot for ten weeks.
The duo revealed on August 15, 2014, that their second studio album would be titled Anything Goes with a release date of October 14, 2014. The album 's first single, "Dirt '', was released to country radio and digital sales outlets on July 8, 2014 and became the sixth consecutive single by Florida Georgia Line to make the top five on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart. "Sun Daze '' was released to digital sales outlets on September 16, 2014. A week later, the album 's title track, "Anything Goes '', was released on September 22, 2014. Florida Georgia Line also appeared on the Hot Tours recap. "Confession '' released to country radio on November 3, 2015 and reached number one on the Country Airplay chart in April 2016.
In 2016, Florida Georgia Line became the first and only country artist to receive the Digital Diamond Award, for their single "Cruise '' crossing the 10 × Platinum threshold.
The duo released their third studio album Dig Your Roots on August 29, 2016, featuring Tim McGraw, Ziggy Marley, and the Backstreet Boys. They are currently on their Dig Your Roots tour, with Ryan Follesé, Chris Lane, and Dustin Lynch.
They collaborated with Bebe Rexha on the song "Meant to Be '' for her EP, All Your Fault: Pt. 2.
Along with Hank Williams Jr. and Jason Derulo, Florida Georgia Line sang "All My Rowdy Friends Are Here on Monday Night '' for ESPN 's Monday Night Football NFL broadcasts in 2017.
The duo released "Simple '' to country radio on June 1, 2018. Since then, they have released the preview tracks "Colorado, '' "Talk You Out of It, '' and "Sittin Pretty. ''
In July 2016, Florida Georgia Line came under fire when they banned law enforcement from being backstage during their concerts in Wisconsin and Iowa due to police shootings in Dallas, Baton Rouge, and Falcon Heights. The band later asked for a police escort leaving their concert, which was denied by the music festival management team due to security concerns. Following the incident, Brian Kelley called Kenosha County Sheriff David Beth and apologized, calling it a misunderstanding. The duo issued a statement on Twitter that said, "we want you to know that we have nothing but love and respect for the police. We are bummed anyone ever got a different impression. ''
On December 16, 2013, Kelley married his girlfriend of seven months, Brittney Marie Cole. In February 2014, Hubbard sustained a back injury in a dirt bike accident. On July 1, 2015, Tyler Hubbard married his longtime girlfriend Hayley Stommel. In 2014, Kelley appeared on Animal Planet 's Treehouse Masters.
On December 23, 2017, Hubbard and his wife Hayley welcomed their first child together, daughter Olivia Rose Hubbard.
In 2015, Forbes estimated that Florida Georgia Line 's annual income was $36.5 million, split evenly between both men.
Studio albums
Headlining
Supporting
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what is it when you see faces in everything | Pareidolia - wikipedia
Pareidolia (/ pærɪˈdoʊliə / parr - i - DOH - lee - ə) is a psychological phenomenon in which the mind responds to a stimulus, usually an image or a sound, by perceiving a familiar pattern where none exists.
Common examples are perceived images of animals, faces, or objects in cloud formations, the Man in the Moon, the Moon rabbit, hidden messages within recorded music played in reverse or at higher - or lower - than - normal speeds, and hearing indistinct voices in random noise such as that produced by air conditioners or fans.
The word derives from the Greek words para (παρά, "beside, alongside, instead (of) '' -- in this context meaning something faulty or wrong) and the noun eidōlon (εἴδωλον "image, form, shape '' -- the diminutive of eidos).
Pareidolia can cause people to interpret random images, or patterns of light and shadow, as faces. A 2009 magnetoencephalography study found that objects perceived as faces evoke an early (165 ms) activation of the fusiform face area at a time and location similar to that evoked by faces, whereas other common objects do not evoke such activation. This activation is similar to a slightly faster time (130 ms) that is seen for images of real faces. The authors suggest that face perception evoked by face - like objects is a relatively early process, and not a late cognitive reinterpretation phenomenon. A functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study in 2011 similarly showed that repeated presentation of novel visual shapes that were interpreted as meaningful led to decreased fMRI responses for real objects. These results indicate that the interpretation of ambiguous stimuli depends upon processes similar to those elicited by known objects.
These studies help to explain why people identify a few circles and a line as a "face '' so quickly and without hesitation. Cognitive processes are activated by the "face - like '' object, which alert the observer to both the emotional state and identity of the subject, even before the conscious mind begins to process or even receive the information. A "stick figure face '', despite its simplicity, can convey mood information, and be drawn to indicate emotions such as happiness or anger. This robust and subtle capability is hypothesized to be the result of eons of natural selection favoring people most able to quickly identify the mental state, for example, of threatening people, thus providing the individual an opportunity to flee or attack pre-emptively. In other words, processing this information subcortically -- therefore subconsciously -- before it is passed on to the rest of the brain for detailed processing accelerates judgment and decision making when a fast reaction is needed. This ability, though highly specialized for the processing and recognition of human emotions, also functions to determine the demeanor of wildlife.
Pareidolia can be considered a subcategory of Apophenia.
Rocks may come to mimic recognizable forms through the random processes of formation, weathering and erosion. Most often, the size scale of the rock is larger than the object it resembles, such as a cliff profile resembling a human face. Well - meaning people with a new interest in fossils can pick up chert nodules, concretions or pebbles resembling bones, skulls, turtle shells, dinosaur eggs, etc., in both size and shape.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Japanese researcher Chonosuke Okamura self - published a series of reports titled Original Report of the Okamura Fossil Laboratory, in which he described tiny inclusions in polished limestone from the Silurian period (425 mya) as being preserved fossil remains of tiny humans, gorillas, dogs, dragons, dinosaurs and other organisms, all of them only millimeters long, leading him to claim, "There have been no changes in the bodies of mankind since the Silurian period... except for a growth in stature from 3.5 mm to 1,700 mm. '' Okamura 's research earned him an Ig Nobel Prize (a parody of the Nobel Prizes) in biodiversity in 1996.
The Rorschach inkblot test uses pareidolia in an attempt to gain insight into a person 's mental state. The Rorschach is a projective test, as it intentionally elicits the thoughts or feelings of respondents that are "projected '' onto the ambiguous inkblot images. Projection in this instance is a form of "directed pareidolia ''.
In his notebooks, Leonardo da Vinci wrote of pareidolia as a device for painters, writing, "If you look at any walls spotted with various stains or with a mixture of different kinds of stones, if you are about to invent some scene you will be able to see in it a resemblance to various different landscapes adorned with mountains, rivers, rocks, trees, plains, wide valleys, and various groups of hills. You will also be able to see divers combats and figures in quick movement, and strange expressions of faces, and outlandish costumes, and an infinite number of things which you can then reduce into separate and well conceived forms. ''
There have been many instances of perceptions of religious imagery and themes, especially the faces of religious figures, in ordinary phenomena. Many involve images of Jesus, the Virgin Mary, the word Allah, or other religious phenomena: in September 2007 in Singapore, for example, a callus on a tree resembled a monkey, leading believers to pay homage to the "Monkey god '' (either Sun Wukong or Hanuman) in the monkey tree phenomenon.
Publicity surrounding sightings of religious figures and other surprising images in ordinary objects has spawned a market for such items on online auctions like eBay. One famous instance was a grilled cheese sandwich with the face of the Virgin Mary.
Pareidolia also arises in computer vision, specifically in image recognition programs, which can spuriously detect features. In the case of an artificial neural network, higher - level features correspond to more recognizable features, and enhancing these features brings out what the computer sees. These reflect the training set of images that the network has "seen '' previously.
Striking visuals can be produced in this way, notably in the DeepDream software, which falsely detects and then exaggerates features such as eyes and faces in any image.
In 1971 Konstantīns Raudive wrote Breakthrough, detailing what he believed was the discovery of electronic voice phenomena (EVP). EVP has been described as auditory pareidolia. Allegations of backmasking in popular music, in which a listener claims a message has been recorded backward onto a track meant to be played forward, have also been described as auditory pareidolia. In 1995, the psychologist Diana Deutsch invented an algorithm for producing phantom words and phrases with the sounds coming from two stereo loudspeakers, with one to the listener 's left and the other to his right. Each loudspeaker produces a phrase consisting of two words or syllables. The same sequence is presented repeatedly through both loudspeakers; however, they are offset in time so that one when the first sound (word or syllable) is coming from the speaker on the left, the second sound is coming from the speaker on the right, and vice versa. After listening for a while, phantom words and phrases suddenly emerge, and these often appear to reflect what is on the listener 's mind, and they transform perceptually into different words and phrases as the sequence continues.
Various European ancient divination practices involved the interpretation of shadows cast by objects. For example, in molybdomancy, a random shape produced by pouring molten tin into cold water is interpreted by the shadow it casts in candlelight.
A shadow person (also known as a shadow figure, shadow being or black mass) is often attributed to pareidolia. It is the perception of a patch of shadow as a living, humanoid figure, particularly as interpreted by believers in the paranormal or supernatural as the presence of a spirit or other entity.
Pareidolia is also what some skeptics believe causes people to believe that they have seen ghosts.
The Romanian Sphinx in Bucegi Mountains
Human face on Pedra da Gavea in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, known as the "Head of the Emperor ''
A late - April 2003 photo of The Old Man of the Mountain, only days before its collapse
The Old Man of the Mountain in Franconia, New Hampshire
The "Grimacing human face '' of red shale (Cians, Mercantour National Park)
The profile of Stac Levenish island (St Kilda archipelago, Scotland)
Baba Yaga at the Bayanaul National Park in Kazakhstan
Hoburgsgubben "The Old Man of Hoburgen '' a limestone formation on the island of Gotland in Sweden
"Elephant Rock '' on Heimaey, Iceland
"Buddha - statue '' - like rock formation on Mars. (Curiosity rover; October 7, 2014)
"Smiley face '' in Galle Crater on Mars. (Viking 1 orbiter; 1970s)
Father Trebeurden Trébeurden in Côtes - d'Armor, France
Saruiwa ("Monkey rock '') on Iki Island, Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan
Face Rock State Scenic Viewpoint near Bandon, Oregon
Dog Rock in Albany, Western Australia
Lion Rock at the peak of Lion Rock Hill in Hong Kong
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who sings you're gonna ruin my bad reputation | You 're Gonna Ruin My Bad Reputation - Wikipedia
"You 're Gonna Ruin My Bad Reputation '' is a song written by Jeff Crossan, and recorded by American country music artist Ronnie McDowell. It was released in May 1983 as the second single from the album Personally. "You 're Gonna Ruin My Bad Reputation '' was Ronnie McDowell 's second and final number one on the country chart. The single went to number one for a single week and spent twelve weeks on the country chart.
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who became entangled in a line and was pulled underwater during the second day of the hunt | Jaws (film) - wikipedia
Jaws is a 1975 American thriller film directed by Steven Spielberg and based on Peter Benchley 's 1974 novel of the same name. In the story, a giant man - eating great white shark attacks beachgoers on Amity Island, a fictional New England summer resort town, prompting the local police chief to hunt it with the help of a marine biologist and a professional shark hunter. The film stars Roy Scheider as police chief Martin Brody, Robert Shaw as shark hunter Quint, Richard Dreyfuss as oceanographer Matt Hooper, Murray Hamilton as Larry Vaughn, the mayor of Amity Island, and Lorraine Gary as Brody 's wife, Ellen. The screenplay is credited to both Benchley, who wrote the first drafts, and actor - writer Carl Gottlieb, who rewrote the script during principal photography.
Shot mostly on location on Martha 's Vineyard in Massachusetts, the film had a troubled production, going over budget and past schedule. As the art department 's mechanical sharks suffered many malfunctions, Spielberg decided to mostly suggest the animal 's presence, employing an ominous, minimalistic theme created by composer John Williams to indicate the shark 's impending appearances. Spielberg and others have compared this suggestive approach to that of classic thriller director Alfred Hitchcock. Universal Pictures gave the film what was then an exceptionally wide release for a major studio picture, over 450 screens, accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign with a heavy emphasis on television spots and tie - in merchandise.
Considered one of the greatest films ever made, Jaws was the prototypical summer blockbuster, with its release regarded as a watershed moment in motion picture history. Jaws became the highest - grossing film of all time until the release of Star Wars (1977). It won several awards for its music and editing. Along with Star Wars, Jaws was pivotal in establishing the modern Hollywood business model, which revolves around high box - office returns from action and adventure pictures with simple "high - concept '' premises that are released during the summer in thousands of theaters and supported by heavy advertising. It was followed by three sequels, none with the participation of Spielberg or Benchley, and many imitative thrillers. In 2001, Jaws was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Film Registry, being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
During a beach party at dusk on Amity Island, a young woman, Chrissie Watkins, goes skinny dipping in the ocean. While treading water, she is violently pulled under. The next day, her partial remains are found on shore. The medical examiner 's ruling that the death was due to a shark attack leads police chief Martin Brody to close the beaches. Mayor Larry Vaughn overrules him, fearing that the town 's summer economy will be ruined. The coroner now concurs with the mayor 's theory that Watkins was killed in a boating accident. Brody reluctantly accepts their conclusion until another fatal shark attack occurs shortly thereafter. A bounty is placed on the shark, prompting an amateur shark - hunting frenzy. Local professional shark hunter Quint offers his services for $10,000. Meanwhile, consulting oceanographer Matt Hooper examines Watkins 's remains, and confirms her death was caused by a shark -- an unusually large one.
When local fishermen catch a tiger shark, the mayor proclaims the beaches safe. Hooper disputes that it is the same predator, confirming this after no human remains are found inside it. Hooper and Brody find a half - sunken vessel while searching the night waters in Hooper 's boat. Underwater, Hooper retrieves a sizable great white shark 's tooth embedded in the submerged hull. He drops it in fright after encountering a partial corpse. Vaughn discounts Brody and Hooper 's claims that a huge great white shark is responsible for the deaths, and refuses to close the beaches, allowing only added safety precautions. On the Fourth of July weekend, tourists pack the beaches. Following a juvenile prank, the real shark enters a nearby estuary, killing a boater and causing Brody 's oldest son, Michael, to go into shock. Brody then convinces Vaughn to hire Quint.
Quint, Brody, and Hooper set out on Quint 's boat, the Orca, to hunt the shark. While Brody lays down a chum line, Quint waits for an opportunity to hook the shark. Without warning, it appears behind the boat. Quint, estimating its length at 25 feet (7.6 m), harpoons it with a line attached to a flotation barrel, but the shark pulls the barrel underwater and disappears.
At nightfall, the shark returns unexpectedly, ramming the boat 's hull, and disabling the power. The men work through the night, repairing the engine. In the morning, Brody attempts to call the Coast Guard, but Quint smashes the radio. After a long chase, Quint harpoons another barrel into the shark. The line is tied to the stern cleats, but the shark drags the boat backward, swamping the deck and flooding the engine compartment, before breaking the cleats off. Quint severs the line to prevent the transom from being pulled out. He heads toward shore to draw the shark into shallower waters, but the overtaxed engine fails.
With the Orca slowly sinking, the trio attempt a riskier approach. Hooper puts on scuba gear and enters the water in a shark - proof cage, intending to lethally inject the shark with strychnine, using a hypodermic spear. The shark demolishes the cage before Hooper can inject it, but he manages to escape to the seabed. The shark then attacks the boat directly and devours Quint. Trapped on the sinking vessel, Brody stuffs a pressurized scuba tank into the shark 's mouth, and, climbing the mast, shoots the tank with a rifle. The resulting explosion obliterates the shark. Hooper surfaces, and he and Brody paddle to Amity Island clinging to boat wreckage.
Richard D. Zanuck and David Brown, producers at Universal Pictures, independently heard about Peter Benchley 's novel Jaws. Brown came across it in the literature section of lifestyle magazine Cosmopolitan, then edited by his wife, Helen Gurley Brown. A small card written by the magazine 's book editor gave a detailed description of the plot, concluding with the comment "might make a good movie ''. The producers each read the book over the course of a single night and agreed the next morning that it was "the most exciting thing that they had ever read '' and that they wanted to produce a film version, although they were unsure how it would be accomplished. They purchased the movie rights in 1973, before the book 's publication, for approximately $175,000 (equivalent to $0.96 million in 2017). Brown claimed that had they read the book twice, they would never have made the film because they would have realized how difficult it would be to execute certain sequences.
To direct, Zanuck and Brown first considered veteran filmmaker John Sturges -- whose résumé included another maritime adventure, The Old Man and the Sea -- before offering the job to Dick Richards, whose directorial debut, The Culpepper Cattle Co. had come out the previous year. However, they grew irritated by Richards 's habit of describing the shark as a whale and soon dropped him from the project. Meanwhile, Steven Spielberg very much wanted the job. The 26 - year - old had just directed his first theatrical film, The Sugarland Express, for Zanuck and Brown. At the end of a meeting in their office, Spielberg noticed their copy of the still - unpublished Benchley novel, and after reading it was immediately captivated. He later observed that it was similar to his 1971 television film Duel in that both deal with "these leviathans targeting everymen ''. After Richards 's departure, the producers signed Spielberg to direct in June 1973, before the release of The Sugarland Express.
Before production began, however, Spielberg grew reluctant to continue with Jaws, in fear of becoming typecast as the "truck and shark director ''. He wanted to move over to 20th Century Fox 's Lucky Lady instead, but Universal exercised its right under its contract with the director to veto his departure. Brown helped convince Spielberg to stick with the project, saying that "after (Jaws), you can make all the films you want ''. The film was given an estimated budget of $3.5 million and a shooting schedule of 55 days. Principal photography was set to begin in May 1974. Universal wanted the shoot to finish by the end of June, when the major studios ' contract with the Screen Actors Guild was due to expire, to avoid any disruptions due to a potential strike.
For the screen adaptation, Spielberg wanted to stay with the novel 's basic plot, but discarded many of Benchley 's subplots. He declared that his favorite part of the book was the shark hunt on the last 120 pages, and told Zanuck when he accepted the job, "I 'd like to do the picture if I could change the first two acts and base the first two acts on original screenplay material, and then be very true to the book for the last third. '' When the producers purchased the rights to his novel, they promised Benchley that he could write the first draft of the screenplay. The intent was to make sure a script could be done despite an impending threat of a Writer 's Guild strike, given Benchley was not unionized. Overall, he wrote three drafts before the script was turned over to other writers; delivering his final version to Spielberg, he declared, "I 'm written out on this, and that 's the best I can do. '' Benchley would later describe his contribution to the finished film as "the storyline and the ocean stuff -- basically, the mechanics '', given he "did n't know how to put the character texture into a screenplay. '' One of his changes was to remove the novel 's adulterous affair between Ellen Brody and Matt Hooper, at the suggestion of Spielberg, who feared it would compromise the camaraderie between the men on the Orca. During the film 's production, Benchley agreed to return and play a small onscreen role as a reporter.
Spielberg, who felt that the characters in Benchley 's script were still unlikable, invited the young screenwriter John Byrum to do a rewrite, but he declined the offer. Columbo creators William Link and Richard Levinson also declined Spielberg 's invitation. Tony and Pulitzer Prize -- winning playwright Howard Sackler was in Los Angeles when the filmmakers began looking for another writer and offered to do an uncredited rewrite; since the producers and Spielberg were unhappy with Benchley 's drafts, they quickly agreed. At the suggestion of Spielberg, Brody 's characterization made him afraid of water, "coming from an urban jungle to find something more terrifying off this placid island near Massachusetts. ''
Spielberg wanted "some levity '' in Jaws, humor that would avoid making it "a dark sea hunt '', so he turned to his friend Carl Gottlieb, a comedy writer - actor then working on the sitcom The Odd Couple. Spielberg sent Gottlieb a script, asking what the writer would change and if there was a role he would be interested in performing. Gottlieb sent Spielberg three pages of notes, and picked the part of Meadows, the politically connected editor of the local paper. He passed the audition one week before Spielberg took him to meet the producers regarding a writing job.
While the deal was initially for a "one - week dialogue polish '', Gottlieb eventually became the primary screenwriter, rewriting the entire script during a nine - week period of principal photography. The script for each scene was typically finished the night before it was shot, after Gottlieb had dinner with Spielberg and members of the cast and crew to decide what would go into the film. Many pieces of dialogue originated from the actors ' improvisations during these meals; a few were created on set, most notably Roy Scheider 's ad - lib of the line "You 're gon na need a bigger boat. '' John Milius contributed dialogue polishes, and Sugarland Express writers Matthew Robbins and Hal Barwood also made uncredited contributions. Spielberg has claimed that he prepared his own draft, although it is unclear to what degree the other screenwriters drew on his material. One specific alteration he called for in the story was to change the cause of the shark 's death from extensive wounds to a scuba tank explosion, as he felt audiences would respond better to a "big rousing ending ''. The director estimated the final script had a total of 27 scenes that were not in the book.
Benchley had written Jaws after reading about sport fisherman Frank Mundus 's capture of an enormous shark in 1964. According to Gottlieb, Quint was loosely based on Mundus, whose book Sportfishing for Sharks he read for research. Sackler came up with the backstory of Quint as a survivor of the World War II USS Indianapolis disaster. The question of who deserves the most credit for writing Quint 's monologue about the Indianapolis has caused substantial controversy. Spielberg described it as a collaboration between Sackler, Milius, and actor Robert Shaw, who was also a playwright. According to the director, Milius turned Sackler 's "three - quarters of a page '' speech into a monologue, and that was then rewritten by Shaw. Gottlieb gives primary credit to Shaw, downplaying Milius 's contribution.
Though Spielberg complied with a request from Zanuck and Brown to cast known actors, he wanted to avoid hiring any big stars. He felt that "somewhat anonymous '' performers would help the audience "believe this was happening to people like you and me '', whereas "stars bring a lot of memories along with them, and those memories can sometimes... corrupt the story. '' The director added that in his plans "the superstar was gon na be the shark ''. The first actors cast were Lorraine Gary, the wife of then - president of Universal Sid Sheinberg, as Ellen Brody, and Murray Hamilton as the mayor of Amity Island. Stuntwoman - turned - actress Susan Backlinie was cast as Chrissie (the first victim) as she knew how to swim and was willing to perform nude. Most minor roles were played by residents of Martha 's Vineyard, where the film was shot. One example was Deputy Hendricks, played by future television producer Jeffrey Kramer.
The role of Brody was offered to Robert Duvall, but the actor was interested only in portraying Quint. Charlton Heston expressed a desire for the role, but Spielberg felt that Heston would bring a screen persona too grand for the part of a police chief of a modest community. Roy Scheider became interested in the project after overhearing Spielberg at a party talk with a screenwriter about having the shark jump up onto a boat. Spielberg was initially apprehensive about hiring Scheider, fearing he would portray a "tough guy '', similar to his role in The French Connection.
Nine days before the start of production, neither Quint nor Hooper had been cast. The role of Quint was originally offered to actors Lee Marvin and Sterling Hayden, both of whom passed. Zanuck and Brown had just finished working with Robert Shaw on The Sting, and suggested him to Spielberg. Shaw was reluctant to take the role since he did not like the book, but decided to accept at the urging of both his wife, actress Mary Ure, and his secretary -- "The last time they were that enthusiastic was From Russia with Love. And they were right. '' Shaw based his performance on fellow cast member Craig Kingsbury, a local fisherman, farmer, and legendary eccentric, who was playing fisherman Ben Gardner. Spielberg described Kingsbury as "the purest version of who, in my mind, Quint was '', and some of his offscreen utterances were incorporated into the script as lines of Gardner and Quint. Another source for some of Quint 's dialogue and mannerisms, especially in the third act at sea, was Vineyard mechanic and boat - owner Lynn Murphy.
For the role of Hooper, Spielberg initially wanted Jon Voight. Timothy Bottoms, Joel Grey, and Jeff Bridges were also considered for the part. Spielberg 's friend George Lucas suggested Richard Dreyfuss, whom he had directed in American Graffiti. The actor initially passed, but changed his decision after he attended a pre-release screening of The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz, which he had just completed. Disappointed in his performance and fearing that no one would want to hire him once Kravitz was released, he immediately called Spielberg and accepted the role in Jaws. Because the film the director envisioned was so dissimilar to Benchley 's novel, Spielberg asked Dreyfuss not to read it. As a result of the casting, Hooper was rewritten to better suit the actor, as well as to be more representative of Spielberg, who came to view Dreyfuss as his "alter ego ''.
-- actor Richard Dreyfuss on the film 's troubled production
Principal photography began May 2, 1974, on the island of Martha 's Vineyard, Massachusetts, selected after consideration was given to eastern Long Island. Brown explained later that the production "needed a vacation area that was lower middle class enough so that an appearance of a shark would destroy the tourist business. '' Martha 's Vineyard was also chosen because the surrounding ocean had a sandy bottom that never dropped below 35 feet (11 m) for 12 miles (19 km) out from shore, which allowed the mechanical sharks to operate while also beyond sight of land. As Spielberg wanted to film the aquatic sequences relatively close - up to resemble what people see while swimming, cinematographer Bill Butler devised new equipment to facilitate marine and underwater shooting, including a rig to keep the camera stable regardless of tide and a sealed submersible camera box. Spielberg asked the art department to avoid red in both scenery and wardrobe, so that the blood from the attacks would be the only red element and cause a bigger shock.
Three full - size pneumatically powered prop sharks -- which the film crew nicknamed "Bruce '' after Spielberg 's lawyer, Bruce Ramer -- were made for the production: a "sea - sled shark '', a full - body prop with its belly missing that was towed with a 300 feet (91 m) line, and two "platform sharks '', one that moved from camera - left to - right (with its hidden left side exposing an array of pneumatic hoses), and an opposite model with its right flank uncovered. The sharks were designed by art director Joe Alves during the third quarter of 1973. Between November 1973 and April 1974, the sharks were fabricated at Rolly Harper 's Motion Picture & Equipment Rental in Sun Valley, California. Their construction involved a team of as many as 40 effects technicians, supervised by mechanical effects supervisor Bob Mattey, best known for creating the giant squid in 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. After the sharks were completed, they were trucked to the shooting location. In early July, the platform used to tow the two side - view sharks capsized as it was being lowered to the ocean floor, forcing a team of divers to retrieve it. The model required 14 operators to control all of the moving parts.
The film had a troubled shoot and went far over budget. David Brown said that the budget "was $4 million and the picture wound up costing $9 million ''; the effects outlays alone grew to $3 million due to the problems with the mechanical sharks. Disgruntled crew members gave the film the nickname "Flaws ''. Spielberg attributed many problems to his perfectionism and his inexperience. The former was epitomized by his insistence on shooting at sea with a life - sized shark; "I could have shot the movie in the tank or even in a protected lake somewhere, but it would not have looked the same, '' he said. As for his lack of experience: "I was naive about the ocean, basically. I was pretty naive about mother nature and the hubris of a filmmaker who thinks he can conquer the elements was foolhardy, but I was too young to know I was being foolhardy when I demanded that we shoot the film in the Atlantic Ocean and not in a North Hollywood tank. '' Gottlieb said that "there was nothing to do except make the movie '', so everyone kept overworking, and while as a writer he did not have to attend the ocean set every day, once the crewmen returned they arrived "ravaged and sunburnt, windblown and covered with salt water ''.
Shooting at sea led to many delays: unwanted sailboats drifted into frame, cameras got soaked, and the Orca once began to sink with the actors on board. The prop sharks frequently malfunctioned owing to a series of problems including bad weather, pneumatic hoses taking on salt water, frames fracturing due to water resistance, corroding skin, and electrolysis. From the first water test onward, the "non-absorbent '' neoprene foam that made up the sharks ' skin soaked up liquid, causing the sharks to balloon, and the sea - sled model frequently got entangled among forests of seaweed. Spielberg later calculated that during the 12 - hour daily work schedule, on average only four hours were actually spent filming. Gottlieb was nearly decapitated by the boat 's propellers, and Dreyfuss was almost imprisoned in the steel cage. The actors were frequently seasick. Shaw also fled to Canada whenever he could due to tax problems, engaged in binge drinking, and developed a grudge against Dreyfuss, who was getting rave reviews for his performance in Duddy Kravitz. Editor Verna Fields rarely had material to work with during principal photography, as according to Spielberg "we would shoot five scenes in a good day, three in an average day, and none in a bad day. ''
The delays proved beneficial in some regards. The script was refined during production, and the unreliable mechanical sharks forced Spielberg to shoot many scenes so that the shark was only hinted at. For example, for much of the shark hunt, its location is indicated by the floating yellow barrels. The opening had the shark devouring Chrissie, but it was rewritten so that it would be shot with Backlinie being dragged and yanked by cables to simulate an attack. Spielberg also included multiple shots of just the dorsal fin. This forced restraint is widely thought to have added to the film 's suspense. As Spielberg put it years later, "The film went from a Japanese Saturday matinee horror flick to more of a Hitchcock, the less - you - see - the - more - you - get thriller. '' In another interview, he similarly declared, "The shark not working was a godsend. It made me become more like Alfred Hitchcock than like Ray Harryhausen. '' The acting became crucial for making audiences believe in such a big shark: "The more fake the shark looked in the water, the more my anxiety told me to heighten the naturalism of the performances. ''
Footage of real sharks was shot by Ron and Valerie Taylor in the waters off Dangerous Reef in South Australia, with a short actor in a miniature shark cage to create the illusion that the sharks were enormous. During the Taylors ' shoot, a great white attacked the boat and cage. The footage of the cage attack was so stunning that Spielberg was eager to incorporate it in the film. No one had been in the cage at the time, however, and the script, following the novel, originally had the shark killing Hooper in it. The storyline was consequently altered to have Hooper escape from the cage, which allowed the footage to be used. As production executive Bill Gilmore put it, "The shark down in Australia rewrote the script and saved Dreyfuss 's character. ''
Although principal photography was scheduled to take 55 days, it did not wrap until October 6, 1974, after 159 days. Spielberg, reflecting on the protracted shoot, stated, "I thought my career as a filmmaker was over. I heard rumors... that I would never work again because no one had ever taken a film 100 days over schedule. '' Spielberg himself was not present for the shooting of the final scene in which the shark explodes, as he believed that the crew were planning to throw him in the water when the scene was done. It has since become a tradition for Spielberg to be absent when the final scene of one of his films is being shot. Afterward, underwater scenes were shot at the Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer water tank in Culver City, with stuntmen Dick Warlock and Frank James Sparks as stand - ins for Dreyfuss in the scene where the shark attacks the cage, as well as near Santa Catalina Island, California. Fields, who had completed a rough cut of the first two - thirds of the film, up until the shark hunt, finished the editing and reworked some of the material. According to Zanuck, "She actually came in and reconstructed some scenes that Steven had constructed for comedy and made them terrifying, and some scenes he shot to be terrifying and made them comedy scenes. '' The ship used for the Orca was brought to Los Angeles so the sound effects team could record sounds for both the ship and the underwater scenes.
Two scenes were altered following test screenings. As the audience 's screams had covered up Scheider 's "bigger boat '' one - liner, Brody 's reaction after the shark jumps behind him was extended, and the volume of the line was raised. Spielberg also decided that he was greedy for "one more scream '', and reshot the scene in which Hooper discovers Ben Gardner 's body, using $3,000 of his own money after Universal refused to pay for the reshoot. The underwater scene was shot in Fields 's swimming pool in Encino, California, using a lifecast latex model of Craig Kingsbury 's head attached to a fake body, which was placed in the wrecked boat 's hull. To simulate the murky waters of Martha 's Vineyard, powdered milk was poured into the pool, which was then covered with a tarpaulin.
John Williams composed the film 's score, which earned him an Academy Award and was later ranked the sixth - greatest score by the American Film Institute. The main "shark '' theme, a simple alternating pattern of two notes -- variously identified as "E and F '' or "F and F sharp '' -- became a classic piece of suspense music, synonymous with approaching danger (see leading - tone). Williams described the theme as "grinding away at you, just as a shark would do, instinctual, relentless, unstoppable. '' The piece was performed by tuba player Tommy Johnson. When asked by Johnson why the melody was written in such a high register and not played by the more appropriate French horn, Williams responded that he wanted it to sound "a little more threatening ''. When Williams first demonstrated his idea to Spielberg, playing just the two notes on a piano, Spielberg was said to have laughed, thinking that it was a joke. As Williams saw similarities between Jaws and pirate movies, at other points in the score he evoked "pirate music '', which he called "primal, but fun and entertaining ''. Calling for rapid, percussive string playing, the score contains echoes of La mer by Claude Debussy as well of Igor Stravinsky 's The Rite of Spring.
There are various interpretations of the meaning and effectiveness of the primary music theme, which is widely described as one of the most recognizable cinematic themes of all time. Music scholar Joseph Cancellaro proposes that the two - note expression mimics the shark 's heartbeat. According to Alexandre Tylski, like themes Bernard Herrmann wrote for Taxi Driver, North by Northwest, and particularly Mysterious Island, it suggests human respiration. He further argues that the score 's strongest motif is actually "the split, the rupture '' -- when it dramatically cuts off, as after Chrissie 's death. The relationship between sound and silence is also taken advantage of in the way the audience is conditioned to associate the shark with its theme, which is exploited toward the film 's climax when the shark suddenly appears with no musical introduction.
Spielberg later said that without Williams 's score the film would have been only half as successful, and according to Williams it jumpstarted his career. He had previously scored Spielberg 's debut feature, The Sugarland Express, and went on to collaborate with the director on almost all of his films. The original soundtrack for Jaws was released by MCA Records on LP in 1975, and as a CD in 1992, including roughly a half hour of music that Williams redid for the album. In 2000, two versions of the score were released: Decca / Universal reissued the soundtrack album to coincide with the release of the 25th - anniversary DVD, featuring the entire 51 minutes of the original score, and Varèse Sarabande put out a rerecording of the score performed by the Royal Scottish National Orchestra, conducted by Joel McNeely.
Herman Melville 's Moby - Dick is the most notable artistic antecedent to Jaws. The character of Quint strongly resembles Captain Ahab, the obsessed captain of the Pequod who devotes his life to hunting a sperm whale. Quint 's monologue reveals a similar obsession with sharks; even his boat, the Orca, is named after the only natural enemy of the white shark. In the novel and original screenplay, Quint dies after being dragged under the ocean by a harpoon tied to his leg, similar to the death of Ahab in Melville 's novel. A direct reference to these similarities may be found in Spielberg 's draft of the screenplay, which introduces Quint watching the film version of Moby - Dick; his continuous laughter prompts other audience members to get up and leave the theater (Wesley Strick 's screenplay for the 1991 remake of Cape Fear features a similar scene). However, the scene from Moby - Dick could not be licensed from the film 's star, Gregory Peck, its copyright holder. Screenwriter Carl Gottlieb also drew comparisons to Ernest Hemingway 's The Old Man and the Sea: "Jaws is... a titanic struggle, like Melville or Hemingway. ''
The underwater scenes shot from the shark 's point of view have been compared with passages in two 1950s horror films, Creature from the Black Lagoon and The Monster That Challenged the World. Gottlieb named two science fiction productions from the same era as influences on how the shark was depicted, or not: The Thing from Another World, which Gottlieb described as "a great horror film where you only see the monster in the last reel ''; and It Came From Outer Space, where "the suspense was built up because the creature was always off - camera ''. Those precedents helped Spielberg and Gottlieb to "concentrate on showing the ' effects ' of the shark rather than the shark itself ''. Scholars such as Thomas Schatz described how Jaws melds various genres while essentially being an action film and a thriller. Most is taken from horror, with the core of a nature - based monster movie while adding elements of a slasher film. The second half provides a buddy film in the interaction between the crew of the Orca, and a supernatural horror based on the shark 's depiction of a nearly Satanic menace.
Critics such as Neil Sinyard have described similarities to Henrik Ibsen 's play An Enemy of the People. Gottlieb himself said he and Spielberg referred to Jaws as "Moby - Dick meets Enemy of the People ''. The Ibsen work features a doctor who discovers that a seaside town 's medicinal hot springs, a major tourist attraction and revenue source, are contaminated. When the doctor attempts to convince the townspeople of the danger, he loses his job and is shunned. This plotline is paralleled in Jaws by Brody 's conflict with Mayor Vaughn, who refuses to acknowledge the presence of a shark that may dissuade summer beachgoers from coming to Amity. Brody is vindicated when more shark attacks occur at the crowded beach in broad daylight. Sinyard calls the film a "deft combination of Watergate and Ibsen 's play ''.
Jaws has received attention from academic critics. Stephen Heath relates the film 's ideological meanings to the then - recent Watergate scandal. He argues that Brody represents the "white male middle class -- (there is) not a single black and, very quickly, not a single woman in the film '', who restores public order "with an ordinary - guy kind of heroism born of fear - and - decency ''. Yet Heath moves beyond ideological content analysis to examine Jaws as a signal example of the film as "industrial product '' that sells on the basis of "the pleasure of cinema, thus yielding the perpetuation of the industry (which is why part of the meaning of Jaws is to be the most profitable movie) ''.
Andrew Britton contrasts the film to the novel 's post-Watergate cynicism, suggesting that its narrative alterations from the book (Hooper 's survival, the shark 's explosive death) help make it "a communal exorcism, a ceremony for the restoration of ideological confidence. '' He suggests that the experience of the film is "inconceivable '' without the mass audience 's jubilation when the shark is annihilated, signifying the obliteration of evil itself. In his view, Brody serves to demonstrate that "individual action by the one just man is still a viable source for social change ''. Peter Biskind argues that the film does maintain post-Watergate cynicism concerning politics and politicians insofar as the sole villain beside the shark is the town 's venal mayor. Yet he observes that, far from the narrative formulas so often employed by New Hollywood filmmakers of the era -- involving Us vs. Them, hip counterculture figures vs. "The Man '' -- the overarching conflict in Jaws does not pit the heroes against authority figures, but against a menace that targets everyone regardless of socioeconomic position.
Whereas Britton states that the film avoids the novel 's theme of social class conflicts on Amity Island, Biskind detects class divisions in the screen version and argues for their significance. "Authority must be restored '', he writes, "but not by Quint ''. The seaman 's "working class toughness and bourgeois independence is alien and frightening... irrational and out of control ''. Hooper, meanwhile, is "associated with technology rather than experience, inherited wealth rather than self - made sufficiency ''; he is marginalized from the conclusive action, if less terminally than Quint. Britton sees the film more as concerned with the "vulnerability of children and the need to protect and guard them '', which in turn helps generate a "pervasive sense of the supreme value of family life: a value clearly related to (ideological) stability and cultural continuity ''.
Fredric Jameson 's analysis highlights the polysemy of the shark and the multiple ways in which it can be and has been read -- from representing alien menaces such as communism or the Third World to more intimate dreads concerning the unreality of contemporary American life and the vain efforts to sanitize and suppress the knowledge of death. He asserts that its symbolic function is to be found in this very "polysemousness which is profoundly ideological, insofar as it allows essentially social and historical anxieties to be folded back into apparently ' natural ' ones... to be recontained in what looks like a conflict with other forms of biological existence. '' He views Quint 's demise as the symbolic overthrow of an old, populist, New Deal America and Brody and Hooper 's partnership as an "allegory of an alliance between the forces of law - and - order and the new technocracy of the multinational corporations... in which the viewer rejoices without understanding that he or she is excluded from it. ''
Neal Gabler analyzed the film as showing three different approaches to solving an obstacle: science (represented by Hooper), spiritualism (represented by Quint), and the common man (represented by Brody). The last of the three is the one which succeeds and is in that way endorsed by the film.
Universal spent $1.8 million promoting Jaws, including an unprecedented $700,000 on national television spot advertising. The media blitz included about two dozen 30 - second advertisements airing each night on prime - time network TV between June 18, 1975, and the film 's opening two days later. Beyond that, in the description of film industry scholar Searle Kochberg, Universal "devised and co-ordinated a highly innovative plan '' for the picture 's marketing. As early as October 1974, Zanuck, Brown, and Benchley hit the television and radio talk show circuit to promote the paperback edition of the novel and the forthcoming film. The studio and publisher Bantam agreed on a title logo that would appear on both the paperback and in all of the advertising for the film. The centerpieces of the joint promotion strategy were John Williams 's theme and the poster image featuring the shark approaching a lone female swimmer. The poster was based on the paperback 's cover, and had the same artist, Bantam employee Roger Kastel. The Seiniger Advertising agency spent six months designing the poster; principal Tony Seiniger explained that "no matter what we did, it did n't look scary enough ''. Seiniger ultimately decided that "you had to actually go underneath the shark so you could see his teeth. ''
More merchandise was created to take advantage of the film 's release. In 1999, Graeme Turner wrote that Jaws was accompanied by what was still "probably the most elaborate array of tie - ins '' of any film to date: "This included a sound - track album, T - shirts, plastic tumblers, a book about the making of the movie, the book the movie was based on, beach towels, blankets, shark costumes, toy sharks, hobby kits, iron - transfers, games, posters, shark 's tooth necklaces, sleepwear, water pistols, and more. '' The Ideal Toy Company, for instance, produced a game in which the player had to use a hook to fish out items from the shark 's mouth before the jaws closed.
The glowing audience response to a rough cut of the film at two test screenings in Dallas on March 26, 1975, and one in Long Beach, on March 28, along with the success of Benchley 's novel and the early stages of Universal 's marketing campaign, generated great interest among theater owners, facilitating the studio 's plan to debut Jaws at hundreds of cinemas simultaneously. A third and final preview screening, of a cut incorporating changes inspired by the previous presentations, was held in Hollywood on April 24. After Universal chairman Lew Wasserman attended one of the screenings, he ordered the film 's initial release -- planned for a massive total of as many as 900 theaters -- to be cut down, declaring, "I want this picture to run all summer long. I do n't want people in Palm Springs to see the picture in Palm Springs. I want them to have to get in their cars and drive to see it in Hollywood. '' Nonetheless, the several hundred theaters that were still booked for the opening represented what was then an unusually wide release. At the time, wide openings were associated with movies of doubtful quality; not uncommon on the exploitation side of the industry, they were customarily employed to diminish the effect of negative reviews and word of mouth. There had been some recent exceptions, including the rerelease of Billy Jack and the original release of its sequel The Trial of Billy Jack, the Dirty Harry sequel Magnum Force, and the latest installments in the James Bond series. Still, the typical major studio film release at the time involved opening at a few big - city theaters, which allowed for a series of premieres. Distributors would then slowly forward prints to additional locales across the country, capitalizing on any positive critical or audience response. The outsized success of The Godfather in 1972 had sparked a trend toward wider releases, but even that film had debuted in just five theaters, before going wide in its second weekend.
On June 20, Jaws opened across North America on 464 screens -- 409 in the United States, the remainder in Canada. The coupling of this broad distribution pattern with the movie 's then even rarer national television marketing campaign yielded a release method virtually unheard - of at the time. (A month earlier, Columbia Pictures had done something similar with a Charles Bronson thriller, Breakout, though that film 's prospects for an extended run were much slimmer.) Universal president Sid Sheinberg reasoned that nationwide marketing costs would be amortized at a more favorable rate per print relative to a slow, scaled release. Building on the film 's success, the release was subsequently expanded on July 25 to nearly 700 theaters, and on August 15 to more than 950. Overseas distribution followed the same pattern, with intensive television campaigns and wide releases -- in Great Britain, for instance, Jaws opened in December at more than 100 theaters.
For its fortieth anniversary, the film was released in selected theaters (across approximately 500 theaters) in the United States on Sunday, June 21 and Wednesday, June 24, 2015.
Jaws opened with a $7 million weekend and recouped its production costs in two weeks. In just 78 days, it overtook The Godfather as the highest - grossing film at the North American box office, sailing past that picture 's earnings of $86 million to become the first film to earn $100 million in US theatrical rentals. Its initial release ultimately brought in $123.1 million in rentals. Theatrical re-releases in 1976 and 1979 brought its total rentals to $133.4 million.
The picture entered overseas release in December 1975, and its international business mirrored its domestic performance. It broke records in Singapore, New Zealand, Japan, Spain, and Mexico. By 1977, Jaws was the highest - grossing international release with worldwide rentals of $193 million, equating to about $400 million of gross revenue; it supplanted The Godfather, which had earned $145 million in rentals.
Jaws was the highest - grossing film of all time until Star Wars, which debuted two years later. Star Wars surpassed Jaws for the U.S. record six months after its release and set a new global record in 1978. As of January 2018, it is the 204th - highest - grossing film of all time with $470.7 million worldwide, and the 66th highest domestically with a total North American gross of $260 million. Adjusted for inflation, Jaws has earned almost $2 billion worldwide at 2011 prices and is the second most successful franchise film after Star Wars. In North America, it is the seventh - highest - grossing movie of all time, with a total of $1.017 billion at current prices, based on an estimated 128,078,800 tickets sold. In the United Kingdom, it is the seventh - highest - grossing film to be released since 1975, earning the equivalent of over £ 70 million in 2009 / 10 currency, with admissions estimated at 16.2 million. Jaws has also sold 13 million tickets in Brazil, the second - highest attendance ever in the country behind Titanic.
On television, the American Broadcasting Company aired it for the first time right after its 1979 re-release. The first U.S. broadcast attracted 57 percent of the total audience, the second highest televised movie share at the time behind Gone with the Wind. In the United Kingdom, 23 million people watched its inaugural broadcast in October 1981, the second biggest TV audience ever for a feature film behind Live and Let Die.
Jaws received mostly positive reviews upon release. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times called it "a sensationally effective action picture, a scary thriller that works all the better because it 's populated with characters that have been developed into human beings ''. Variety 's A.D. Murphy praised Spielberg 's directorial skills, and called Robert Shaw 's performance "absolutely magnificent ''. According to The New Yorker 's Pauline Kael, it was "the most cheerfully perverse scare movie ever made... (with) more zest than an early Woody Allen picture, a lot more electricity, (and) it 's funny in a Woody Allen sort of way ''. For New Times magazine, Frank Rich wrote, "Spielberg is blessed with a talent that is absurdly absent from most American filmmakers these days: this man actually knows how to tell a story on screen... It speaks well of this director 's gifts that some of the most frightening sequences in Jaws are those where we do n't even see the shark. '' Writing for New York magazine, Judith Crist described the film as "an exhilarating adventure entertainment of the highest order '' and complimented its acting and "extraordinary technical achievements ''. Rex Reed praised the "nerve - frying '' action scenes and concluded that "for the most part, Jaws is a gripping horror film that works beautifully in every department ''.
The film was not without its detractors. Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote, "It 's a measure of how the film operates that not once do we feel particular sympathy for any of the shark 's victims... In the best films, characters are revealed in terms of the action. In movies like Jaws, characters are simply functions of the action... like stage hands who move props around and deliver information when it 's necessary ''. He did, however, describe it as "the sort of nonsense that can be a good deal of fun ''. Los Angeles Times critic Charles Champlin disagreed with the film 's PG rating, saying that "Jaws is too gruesome for children, and likely to turn the stomach of the impressionable at any age... It is a coarse - grained and exploitative work which depends on excess for its impact. Ashore it is a bore, awkwardly staged and lumpily written. '' Marcia Magill of Films in Review said that while Jaws "is eminently worth seeing for its second half '', she felt that before the protagonists ' pursuit of the shark the film was "often flawed by its busyness ''. William S. Pechter of Commentary described Jaws as "a mind - numbing repast for sense - sated gluttons '' and "filmmaking of this essentially manipulative sort ''; Molly Haskell of The Village Voice similarly characterized it as a "scare machine that works with computer - like precision... You feel like a rat, being given shock therapy ''. The most frequently criticized aspect of the film has been the artificiality of its mechanical antagonist: Magill declared that "the programmed shark has one truly phony close - up '', and in 2002, online reviewer James Berardinelli said that if not for Spielberg 's deftly suspenseful direction, "we would be doubled over with laughter at the cheesiness of the animatronic creature. '' Halliwell 's Film Guide stated that "despite genuinely suspenseful and frightening sequences, it is a slackly narrated and sometimes flatly handled thriller with an over-abundance of dialogue and, when it finally appears, a pretty unconvincing monster. ''
Jaws won three Academy Awards for Best Film Editing, Best Original Dramatic Score, and Best Sound (Robert Hoyt, Roger Heman, Earl Madery and John Carter). It was also nominated for Best Picture, losing to One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest. Spielberg greatly resented the fact that he was not nominated for Best Director. Along with the Oscar, John Williams 's score won the Grammy Award, the BAFTA Award for Best Film Music, and the Golden Globe Award. To her Academy Award, Verna Fields added the American Cinema Editors ' Eddie Award for Best Edited Feature Film.
Jaws was chosen Favorite Movie at the People 's Choice Awards. It was also nominated for best Film, Director, Actor (Richard Dreyfuss), Editing, and Sound at the 29th British Academy Film Awards, and Best Film -- Drama, Director, and Screenplay at the 33rd Golden Globe Awards. Spielberg was nominated by the Directors Guild of America for a DGA Award, and the Writers Guild of America nominated Peter Benchley and Carl Gottlieb 's script for Best Adapted Drama.
In the years since its release, Jaws has frequently been cited by film critics and industry professionals as one of the greatest movies of all time. It was number 48 on American Film Institute 's 100 Years... 100 Movies, a list of the greatest American films of all time compiled in 1998; it dropped to number 56 on the 10 Year Anniversary list. AFI also ranked the shark at number 18 on its list of the 50 Best Villains, Roy Scheider 's line "You 're gon na need a bigger boat '' 35th on a list of top 100 movie quotes, Williams 's score at sixth on a list of 100 Years of Film Scores, and the film as second on a list of 100 most thrilling films, behind only Psycho. In 2003, The New York Times included the film on its list of the best 1,000 movies ever made. The following year, Jaws placed at the top of the Bravo network 's five - hour miniseries The 100 Scariest Movie Moments. The Chicago Film Critics Association named it the sixth scariest film ever made in 2006. In 2008, Jaws was ranked the fifth greatest film in history by Empire magazine, which also placed Quint at number 50 on its list of the 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time. The film has been cited in many other lists of 50 and 100 greatest films, including ones compiled by Leonard Maltin, Entertainment Weekly, Film4, Rolling Stone, Total Film, TV Guide, and Vanity Fair.
In 2001, the United States Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry as a "culturally significant '' motion picture. In 2006, its screenplay was ranked the 63rd best of all time by the Writers Guild of America. In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild listed the film as the eighth best - edited film of all time based on a survey of its membership.
Jaws was key in establishing the benefits of a wide national release backed by heavy television advertising, rather than the traditional progressive release in which a film slowly entered new markets and built support over time. Saturation booking, in which a film opens simultaneously at thousands of cinemas, and massive media buys are now commonplace for the major Hollywood studios. According to Peter Biskind, Jaws "diminish (ed) the importance of print reviews, making it virtually impossible for a film to build slowly, finding its audience by dint of mere quality... Moreover, Jaws whet corporate appetites for big profits quickly, which is to say, studios wanted every film to be Jaws. '' Scholar Thomas Schatz writes that it "recalibrated the profit potential of the Hollywood hit, and redefined its status as a marketable commodity and cultural phenomenon as well. The film brought an emphatic end to Hollywood 's five - year recession, while ushering in an era of high - cost, high - tech, high - speed thrillers. ''
Jaws also played a major part in establishing summer as the prime season for the release of studios ' biggest box - office contenders, their intended blockbusters; winter had long been the time when most hoped - for hits were distributed, while summer was largely reserved for dumping films thought likely to be poor performers. Jaws and Star Wars are regarded as marking the beginning of the new U.S. film industry business model dominated by "high - concept '' pictures -- with premises that can be easily described and marketed -- as well as the beginning of the end of the New Hollywood period, which saw auteur films increasingly disregarded in favor of profitable big - budget pictures. The New Hollywood era was defined by the relative autonomy filmmakers were able to attain within the major studio system; in Biskind 's description, "Spielberg was the Trojan horse through which the studios began to reassert their power. ''
The film had broader cultural repercussions, as well. Similar to the way the pivotal scene in 1960 's Psycho made showers a new source of anxiety, Jaws led many viewers to fear going into the ocean. Reduced beach attendance in 1975 was attributed to it, as well as an increased number of reported shark sightings. It is still seen as responsible for perpetuating negative stereotypes about sharks and their behavior, and for producing the so - called "Jaws effect '', which allegedly inspired "legions of fishermen (who) piled into boats and killed thousands of the ocean predators in shark - fishing tournaments. '' Benchley stated that he would not have written the original novel had he known what sharks are really like in the wild. Conservation groups have bemoaned the fact that the film has made it considerably harder to convince the public that sharks should be protected.
Jaws set the template for many subsequent horror films, to the extent that the script for Ridley Scott 's 1979 science fiction film Alien was pitched to studio executives as "Jaws in space ''. Many films based on man - eating animals, usually aquatic, were released through the 1970s and 1980s, such as Orca, Grizzly, Mako: The Jaws of Death, Barracuda, Alligator, Day of the Animals, Tintorera, and Eaten Alive. Spielberg declared Piranha, directed by Joe Dante and written by John Sayles, "the best of the Jaws ripoffs ''. Among the various foreign mockbusters based on Jaws, three came from Italy: Great White, which inspired a plagiarism lawsuit by Universal and was even marketed in some countries as a part of the Jaws franchise; Monster Shark, featured in Mystery Science Theater 3000 under the title Devil Fish; and Deep Blood, which blends in a supernatural element. The 2009 Japanese horror film Psycho Shark was released in the United States as Jaws in Japan.
Richard Dreyfuss made a cameo appearance in the 2010 film Piranha 3D, a loose remake of the 1978 film. Dreyfuss plays Matt Boyd, a fisherman who is the first victim of the title creatures. Dreyfuss later stated that his character was a parody and a near - reincarnation of Matt Hooper, his character in Jaws. During his appearance, Dreyfuss 's character listens to the song "Show Me the Way to Go Home '' on the radio, which Hooper, Quint and Brody sing together aboard the Orca.
Martha 's Vineyard celebrated the film 's 30th anniversary in 2005 with a "JawsFest '' festival, which had a second edition in 2012. An independent group of fans produced the feature - length documentary The Shark is Still Working, featuring interviews with the film 's cast and crew. Narrated by Roy Scheider and dedicated to Peter Benchley, who died in 2006, it debuted at the 2009 Los Angeles United Film Festival.
The first ever LaserDisc title marketed in North America was the MCA DiscoVision release of Jaws in 1978. A second LaserDisc was released in 1992, before a third and final version came out under MCA / Universal Home Video 's Signature Collection imprint in 1995. This release was an elaborate boxset that included deleted scenes and outtakes, a new two - hour documentary on the making of the film directed and produced by Laurent Bouzereau, a copy of the novel Jaws, and a CD of John Williams 's soundtrack.
MCA Home Video first released Jaws on VHS in 1980. For the film 's 20th anniversary in 1995, MCA Universal Home Video issued a new Collector 's Edition tape featuring a making - of retrospective. This release sold 800,000 units in North America. Another, final VHS release, marking the film 's 25th anniversary in 2000, came with a companion tape containing a documentary, deleted scenes, outtakes, and a trailer.
Jaws was first released on DVD in 2000 for the film 's 25th anniversary, accompanied by a massive publicity campaign. It featured a 50 - minute documentary on the making of the film (an edited version of the one featured on the 1995 LaserDisc release), with interviews with Spielberg, Scheider, Dreyfuss, Benchley, and other cast and crew members. Other extras included deleted scenes, outtakes, trailers, production photos, and storyboards. The DVD shipped one million copies in just one month. In June 2005, a 30th - anniversary edition was released at the JawsFest festival in Martha 's Vineyard. The new DVD had many extras seen in previous home video releases, including the full two - hour Bouzereau documentary, and a previously unavailable interview with Spielberg conducted on the set of Jaws in 1974. On the second JawsFest in August 2012, the Blu - ray Disc of Jaws was released, with over four hours of extras, including The Shark Is Still Working. The Blu - ray release was part of the celebrations of Universal 's 100th anniversary, and debuted at fourth place in the charts, with over 362,000 units sold.
Jaws spawned three sequels, none of which approached the success of the original. Their combined domestic grosses amount to barely half of the first film 's. In October 1975, Spielberg declared to a film festival audience that "making a sequel to anything is just a cheap carny trick ''. Nonetheless, he did consider taking on the first sequel when its original director, John D. Hancock, was fired a few days into the shoot; ultimately, his obligations to Close Encounters of the Third Kind, which he was working on with Dreyfuss, made it impossible. Jaws 2 (1978) was eventually directed by Jeannot Szwarc; Scheider, Gary, Hamilton, and Jeffrey Kramer all reprised their roles. It is generally regarded as the best of the sequels. The next film, Jaws 3 - D (1983), was directed by Joe Alves, who had served as art director and production designer, respectively, on the two preceding films. Starring Dennis Quaid and Louis Gossett, Jr., it was released in the 3 - D format, although the effect did not transfer to television or home video, where it was renamed Jaws 3. Jaws: The Revenge (1987), directed by Joseph Sargent, starring Michael Caine, and featuring the return of Gary, is considered one of the worst movies ever made. While all three sequels made a profit at the box office (Jaws 2 and Jaws 3 - D were among the top 20 highest - grossing films of their respective years), critics and audiences alike were largely dissatisfied with the films.
The film has inspired two theme park rides: one at Universal Studios Florida, which closed in January 2012, and one at Universal Studios Japan. There is also an animatronic version of a scene from the film on the Studio Tour at Universal Studios Hollywood. There have been at least two musical adaptations: JAWS The Musical!, which premiered in 2004 at the Minnesota Fringe Festival, and Giant Killer Shark: The Musical, which premiered in 2006 at the Toronto Fringe Festival. Three video games based on the film were released: 1987 's Jaws, developed by LJN for the Nintendo Entertainment System; 2006 's Jaws Unleashed by Majesco Entertainment for the Xbox, PlayStation 2, and PC; and 2011 's Jaws: Ultimate Predator, also by Majesco, for the Nintendo 3DS and Wii. A mobile game was released in 2010 for the iPhone. Aristocrat made an officially licensed slot machine based on the movie.
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who sang god bless america at super bowl | List of national anthem performers at the Super Bowl - wikipedia
This article is a list of national anthem performers at the Super Bowl. The U.S. national anthem ("The Star - Spangled Banner '') has been performed at all but one Super Bowl since its first year in 1967; Vikki Carr sang "America the Beautiful '' in place of the anthem at Super Bowl XI in 1977. Since Super Bowl XVI in 1982, famous singers or music groups have performed the anthem at the vast majority of Super Bowl games.
Beginning with Super Bowl XLIII in 2009, "America the Beautiful '' is sung before the national anthem every year. Some early Super Bowls featured marching bands performing the anthem, and the recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance.
Acts that have performed three times:
Acts that have performed two times:
Singers that performed in or near their hometown metropolitan area:
The performance by Whitney Houston at Super Bowl XXV in 1991, during the Gulf War, had been for many years regarded as one of the best renditions ever. It was released as a single a few weeks later, appeared on the album Whitney: The Greatest Hits, and was re-released as a single in 2001 shortly after the September 11 attacks.
The 1992 performance marked the first time American Sign Language was used alongside the lead singer.
Faith Hill performed the anthem at Super Bowl XXXIV in 2000. It became popular in country radio. Following the September 11 attacks, her version entered the country singles chart at number 35, despite not being released as an official single, and reentered the same chart at number 49 in July 2002.
At Super Bowl XLVIII in 2014, in an emotional and groundbreaking performance, soprano Renée Fleming became the first opera singer to perform the national anthem, scoring the highest ratings for a Fox Network program in its history, and the second - highest ratings for any television program in history.
Just days after Super Bowl XXV, a report surfaced that Whitney Houston lip synced her performance. It was confirmed that she was actually singing into a dead microphone, but the performance heard in the stadium and on television was prerecorded.
Since 1993, the NFL has required performers to supply a backup track. This came after Garth Brooks walked out of the stadium prior to his XXVII performance. Only 45 minutes before kickoff, he refused to take the stage, due to a dispute with NBC. Brooks requested that the network premiere his new music video "We Shall Be Free '' during the pregame. The network chose not to air the video, due to content some felt was disturbing imagery. Brooks had also refused to pre-record the anthem, which meant the league had nothing to play if he left. Television producers spotted Jon Bon Jovi in the grandstands, and were prepared to use him as a replacement. After last - minute negotiations, NBC agreed to air a clip of the video during the broadcast of the game, and Brooks was coaxed back into the stadium and sang.
Following the "wardrobe malfunction '' controversy during Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004, all scheduled performers for Super Bowl XXXIX were chosen under heavy scrutiny. Game organizers decided not to use a popular music vocalist. The combined choirs of the U.S. Military Academy, the Naval Academy, Air Force Academy, Coast Guard Academy, and the U.S. Army Herald Trumpets were invited to perform. This was the first time since the second inauguration of President Richard Nixon in 1973 that all four service academies sang together.
Two days after Super Bowl XLIII, it was revealed that Jennifer Hudson also had lip synced.
At the beginning of Super Bowl XLV, Christina Aguilera sang the lyrics incorrectly. Instead of singing "O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming '', the pop star sang "What so proudly we watched at the twilight 's last gleaming ''. According to the New York Times, she also changed "gleaming '' to "reaming ''.
The following Super Bowls featured other patriotic performances besides the national anthem. Since 2009, "America the Beautiful '' is sung before the national anthem.
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when was the last time the united states had a surplus | History of the United States public debt - Wikipedia
The history of the United States public debt started with federal government debt incurred during the American Revolutionary War by the first U.S treasurer, Michael Hillegas, after its formation in 1789. The United States has continuously had a fluctuating public debt since then, except for about a year during 1835 -- 1836. To allow comparisons over the years, public debt is often expressed as a ratio to gross domestic product (GDP). Historically, the United States public debt as a share of GDP has increased during wars and recessions, and subsequently declined.
The United States public debt as a percentage of GDP reached its highest level during Harry Truman 's first presidential term, during and after World War II. Public debt as a percentage of GDP fell rapidly in the post-World War II period, and reached a low in 1973 under President Richard Nixon. Debt as a share of GDP has consistently increased since then, except during the terms of presidents Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton. Public debt rose during the 1980s, as President Reagan cut tax rates and increased military spending. It fell during the 1990s, due to decreased military spending, increased taxes and the 1990s boom. Public debt rose sharply in the wake of the 2007 -- 08 financial crisis and the resulting significant tax revenue declines and spending increases.
Except for about a year during 1835 -- 1836, the United States has continuously had a fluctuating public debt since its Constitution went into effect on March 4, 1789. During the American Revolution, the Continental Congress, under the Articles of Confederation, amassed huge war debts, but lacked the power to repay these obligations through taxation or duties on imports.
On the founding of the United States, the financial affairs of the new federation were in disarray, exacerbated by an economic crisis in urban commercial centers. In 1790, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton pushed for Congress to pass a financial plan, called the First Report on the Public Credit, a controversial part of which involved the federal government assuming state debts incurred during the Revolutionary War. Northern states had accumulated a huge amount of debt during the war, amounting to $21.5 million, and wanted the federal government to assume their burden. The Southern states, which had lower or no debts, whose citizens would effectively pay a portion of this debt if the federal government assumed it, were disinclined to accept the proposal. Some states, including Virginia, had already paid off almost half of their debts, and felt that their taxpayers should not be assessed again to bail out the less provident, and further argued that the plan was beyond the constitutional power of the new government. James Madison, then a representative from Virginia, led a group of legislators from the South in blocking the provision and prevent the plan from gaining approval. Jefferson supported Madison The plan was finally adopted as part of the Compromise of 1790, as the Funding Act of 1790. The compromise meant that the state debts were all picked up by the federal Treasury, and the permanent national capital would be located in the South, along the Virginia - Maryland border in what became the District of Colombia.
Historian Max M. Edling has explained how assumption worked. It was the critical issue; the location of the capital was a bargaining ploy. Hamilton proposed that the federal Treasury take over and pay off all the debt that states had incurred to pay for the American Revolution. The Treasury would issue bonds that rich people would buy, thereby giving the rich a tangible stake in the success of the national government. Hamilton proposed to pay off the new bonds with revenue from a new tariff on imports. Jefferson originally approved the scheme, but Madison had turned him around by arguing that federal control of debt would consolidate too much power in the national government. Edling points out that after its passage in 1790, the assumption was accepted. Madison did try to pay speculators below 100 %, but they were paid the face value of the state debts they held regardless of how little they paid for them. When Jefferson became president he continued the system. The credit of the U.S. was solidly established at home and abroad, and Hamilton was successful in signing up many of the bondholders in his new Federalist Party. Good credit allowed Jefferson 's Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin to borrow in Europe to finance the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, as well as to borrow to finance the War of 1812.
The Southern states extracted a major concession from Hamilton in the recalculation of their debt under the fiscal plan. For example, in the case of Virginia, a zero - sum arrangement was contrived, in which Virginia paid $3.4 million to the federal government, and received exactly that amount in federal compensation. The revision of Virginia 's debt, coupled with Potomac residence issue, ultimately netted it over $13 million. Another result of federal assumption of state debts was to give the federal government much more power by placing the country 's most serious financial obligation in the hands of the federal government rather than the state governments. The federal government was able to avoid competing in interest with the States.
The debts of the federal government on January 1, 1791 amounted to $75,463,476.52, of which about $40 million was domestic debt, $12 million was foreign debt, and $18.3 million were state debts assumed by the federal government, of the $21.5 million that had been authorized.
To reduce the debt, from 1796 to 1811 there were 14 budget surpluses and 2 deficits. There was a sharp increase in the debt as a result of the War of 1812. In the 20 years following that war, there were 18 surpluses. The United States actually paid off its debt entirely in January 1835, only to begin accruing debt anew by 1836 (the debt on January 1, 1836 was $37,000).
Another sharp increase in the debt occurred as a result of the Civil War. The debt was just $65 million in 1860, but passed $1 billion in 1863 and reached $2.7 billion by the end of the war. During the following 47 years, there were 36 surpluses and 11 deficits. During this period 55 % of the national debt was paid off.
Debt increased again during World War I (1914 -- 1918), reaching $25.5 billion at its conclusion. Approximately $17 billion in debt was raised through the selling of Liberty Bonds to the general public to finance the U.S. 's military effort. The war was followed by 11 consecutive surpluses that saw the debt reduced by 36 % by the end of the 1920s.
Warren G. Harding was elected president in 1920 and believed the federal government should be fiscally managed in a way similar to private sector businesses. He had campaigned in 1920 on the slogan, "Less government in business and more business in government. '' Under Harding, federal spending declined from $6.3 billion in 1920 to $5 billion in 1921 and $3.3 billion in 1922. Over the course of the 1920s, under the leadership of Calvin Coolidge, the national debt was reduced by one third. The decrease was even greater when the growth in GDP and inflation is taken into account.
Debt held by the public was $15.05 billion or 16.5 % of GDP in 1930. When Franklin D. Roosevelt took office in 1933, the public debt was almost $20 billion, 20 % of GDP. Decreased tax revenues and spending on social programs during the Great Depression increased the debt and by 1936, the public debt had increased to $33.7 billion, approximately 40 % of GDP. During its first term, the Roosevelt administration ran large annual deficits of between 2 and 5 % of GDP. By 1939, the debt held by the public had increased to $39.65 billion or 43 % of GDP. The buildup and involvement in World War II during the presidencies of F.D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman led to the largest increase in public debt. Public debt rose over 100 % of GDP to pay for the mobilization before and during the war. Public debt was $251.43 billion or 112 % of GDP at the conclusion of the war in 1945 and was $260 billion in 1950.
The public debt fell rapidly after the end of World War II under the presidency of Harry S. Truman, as the U.S. and the rest of the world experienced a post-war economic expansion. Unlike previous wars, the Korean War (1950 -- 53) was largely financed by taxation and did not lead to an increase in the public debt.
Growth rates in Western countries began to slow in the mid-1960s. Beginning in the mid-1970s and afterwards, U.S. national debt began to increase faster than GDP.
The public debt reached a post-World War II low of 24.6 % in 1974. In that year, the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 reformed the budget process to allow Congress to challenge the president 's budget more easily, and, as a consequence, deficits became increasingly difficult to control. National debt held by the public increased from its postwar low of 24.6 % of GDP in 1974 to 26.2 % in 1980.
Debt held by the public relative to GDP rose rapidly again in the 1980s. President Ronald Reagan 's economic policies lowered tax rates (Reagan slashed the top income tax rate from 70 % to 28 %, although bills passed in 1982 and 1984 later partially reversed those tax cuts.) and increased military spending, while congressional Democrats blocked cuts to social programs. As a result, debt as a share of GDP increased from 26.2 % in 1980 to 40.9 % in 1988, and it continued to rise during the presidency of George H.W. Bush, reaching 48.3 % of GDP in 1992.
Debt held by the public reached a high of 49.5 % of GDP at the beginning of President Clinton 's first term. However, it fell to 34.5 % of GDP by the end of Clinton 's presidency due in part to decreased military spending, increased taxes (in 1990, 1993 and 1997), and increased tax revenue resulting from the 1990s boom. The budget controls instituted in the 1990s successfully restrained fiscal action by the Congress and the President and together with economic growth contributed to the budget surpluses at the end of the decade. The surpluses led to a decline in the public debt from about 43 % of GDP in 1998 to about 33 % by 2001.
In the early 21st century, debt held by the public relative to GDP rose again due in part to the Bush tax cuts and increased military spending caused by the wars in the Middle East and a new entitlement Medicare D program. During the presidency of George W. Bush, debt held by the public increased from $3.339 trillion in September 2001 to $6.369 trillion by the end of 2008. In the aftermath of the global financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 and related significant revenue declines and spending increases, debt held by the public increased to $11.917 trillion by the end of July 2013, under the presidency of Barack Obama.
On August 5, 2011, the United States debt - ceiling crisis of 2011, the credit rating agency Standard & Poor 's downgraded the rating of the federal government from AAA to AA+. It was the first time the U.S. had been downgraded since it was originally given a AAA rating on its debt by Moody 's in 1917. BBC News reported that Standard & Poor 's had "lost confidence '' in the ability of the U.S. government to make decisions.
The President proposes a national budget to Congress, which has final say over the document but rarely appropriates more than what the President requests.
Economist Mike Kimel has noted that the former Democratic Presidents (Bill Clinton, Jimmy Carter, Lyndon B. Johnson, John F. Kennedy, and Harry S. Truman) all reduced public debt as a share of GDP, while the last four Republican Presidents (George W. Bush, George H.W. Bush, Ronald Reagan and Gerald Ford) all oversaw an increase in the country 's indebtedness. Economic historian J. Bradford DeLong, observed a contrast not so much between Republicans and Democrats but between Democrats and "old - style Republicans (Eisenhower and Nixon) '' on one hand (decreasing debt) and "new - style Republicans '' on the other (increasing debt). David Stockman, former director of the Office of Management and Budget, blamed the "ideological tax - cutters '' of the Reagan administration for the increase of national debt during the 1980s. Former Treasury official Bruce Bartlett attributed the increase in the national debt since the 1980s to the policy of "starve the beast ''. While noting that George H.W. Bush 's budget deal in 1990 was one of the reasons for improvement of the fiscal situation in 1990s, Bartlett was highly critical of George W. Bush for creating budget deficits by reducing tax rates and increasing spending in the early 2000s.
Public debt is the cumulative result of budget deficits; that is, government spending exceeding revenues.
According to the Congressional Budget Office, the United States last had a budget surplus during fiscal year 2001. From fiscal years 2001 to 2009, spending increased by 6.5 % of gross domestic product (from 18.2 % to 24.7 %) while taxes declined by 4.7 % of GDP (from 19.5 % to 14.8 %). Spending increases (expressed as percentage of GDP) were in the following areas: Medicare and Medicaid (1.7 %), defense (1.6 %), income security such as unemployment benefits and food stamps (1.4 %), Social Security (0.6 %) and all other categories (1.2 %). Revenue reductions were individual income taxes (− 3.3 %), payroll taxes (− 0.5 %), corporate income taxes (− 0.5 %) and other (− 0.4 %).
The 2009 spending level was the highest relative to GDP in 40 years, while the tax receipts were the lowest relative to GDP in 40 years. The next highest spending year was 1985 (22.8 %), while the next lowest tax year was 2004 (16.1 %).
In June 2012, the Congressional Budget Office summarized the cause of change between its January 2001 estimate of a $5.6 trillion cumulative surplus between 2002 and 2011 and the actual $6.1 trillion cumulative deficit that occurred, an unfavorable "turnaround '' or debt increase of $11.7 trillion. Tax rate cuts and slower - than - expected growth reduced revenues by $6.1 trillion and spending was $5.6 trillion higher. Of this total, the CBO attributes 72 % to legislated tax rate cuts and spending increases and 27 % to economic and technical factors. Of the latter, 56 % occurred from 2009 to 2011.
The difference between the projected and actual debt in 2011, the budget office said, could be attributed largely to:
The U.S. budget situation has deteriorated significantly since 2001, when the CBO forecast average annual surpluses of approximately $850 billion from 2009 -- 2012. The average deficit forecast in each of those years as of June 2009 was approximately $1,215 billion. The New York Times analyzed this roughly $2 trillion "swing '', separating the causes into four major categories along with their share:
Several other articles and experts explained the causes of change in the debt position.
In October 2009, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) gave the reasons for the higher budget deficit in 2009 ($1,410 billion, i.e. $1.41 trillion) over that of 2008 ($460 billion). The major changes included: declines in tax receipt of $320 billion due to the effects of the recession and another $100 billion due to tax rate cuts in the stimulus bill (the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act or ARRA); $245 billion for the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) and other bailout efforts; $100 billion in additional spending for ARRA; and another $185 billion due to increases in primary budget categories such as Medicare, Medicaid, unemployment insurance, Social Security, and Defense -- including the war effort in Afghanistan and Iraq. This was the highest budget deficit relative to GDP (9.9 %) since 1945. The national debt increased by $1.9 trillion during FY2009, versus the $1.0 trillion increase during 2008.
The Obama Administration also made four significant accounting changes to more accurately report total federal government spending. The four changes were:
Obama administration officials predicted that these changes will make the debt over ten years look $2.7 trillion larger than it would otherwise appear.
This table lists the U.S. federal debt as a percentage of gross domestic product, or GDP, each year since World War II. The gross federal debt shown below reached 102.7 % of GDP at the end of 2012, the most recent figure available; it was the highest percentage since 1945 and the first yearly percentage figure to go over 100 % since then. (The gross federal debt in the table includes intra-government debt -- that is, money owed by one branch of the federal government to another. When this latter amount is subtracted, the remaining quantity is known as the public debt.)
(Source: CBO Historical Budget Page and Whitehouse FY 2012 Budget -- Table 7.1 Federal Debt at the End of Year PDF, Excel, Senate.gov)
Notes:
Publicly held debt is the gross debt minus intra-governmental obligations (such as the money that the government owes to the two Social Security Trust Funds, the Old - Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance program, and the Social Security Disability Insurance program).
The table below shows annual federal spending, gross federal debt and gross domestic product for specific fiscal years. The government fiscal year runs from October 1 of the previous calendar year to September 30 of the year shown.
Note: The values for the years 2009, and 2010 represent estimates from the source material.
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where does the post office get its money | United States Postal Service - Wikipedia
The United States Postal Service (USPS; also known as the Post Office, U.S. Mail, or Postal Service) is an independent agency of the United States federal government responsible for providing postal service in the United States, including its insular areas and associated states. It is one of the few government agencies explicitly authorized by the United States Constitution.
The U.S. Mail traces its roots to 1775 during the Second Continental Congress, when Benjamin Franklin was appointed the first postmaster general. The Post Office Department was created in 1792 from Franklin 's operation, elevated to a cabinet - level department in 1872, and transformed in 1971 into the U.S. Postal Service as an independent agency.
The USPS as of February 2015 has 617,254 active employees and operated 211,264 vehicles in 2014. The USPS is the operator of the largest civilian vehicle fleet in the world. The USPS is legally obligated to serve all Americans, regardless of geography, at uniform price and quality. The USPS still has exclusive access to letter boxes marked "U.S. Mail '' and personal letterboxes in the United States, but now has to compete against private package delivery services, such as United Parcel Service and FedEx.
Since the early 1980s, many of the direct tax subsidies to the Post Office (with the exception of subsidies for costs associated with the disabled and overseas voters) have been reduced or eliminated in favor of indirect subsidies, in addition to the advantages associated with a government - enforced monopoly on the delivery of first - class mail. Since the 2006 all - time peak mail volume, after which Congress passed the Postal Accountability and Enhancement Act (which mandated $5.5 billion per year to be paid into an account to fully prefund employee retirement health benefits, a requirement exceeding that of other government and private organizations), revenue dropped sharply due to recession - influenced declining mail volume, prompting the postal service to look to other sources of revenue while cutting costs to reduce its budget deficit.
In the early years of the North American colonies, many attempts were made to initiate a postal service. These early attempts were of small scale and usually involved a colony, Massachusetts Bay Colony for example, setting up a location in Boston where one could post a letter back home to England. Other attempts focused on a dedicated postal service between two of the larger colonies, such as Massachusetts and Virginia, but the available services remained limited in scope and disjointed for many years. For example, informal independently - run postal routes operated in Boston as early as 1639, with a Boston to New York City service starting in 1672.
A central postal organization came to the colonies in 1691, when Thomas Neale received a 21 - year grant from the British Crown for a North American Postal Service. On February 17, 1691, a grant of letters patent from the joint sovereigns, William III and Mary II, empowered him:
"to erect, settle, and establish within the chief parts of their majesties ' colonies and plantations in America, an office or offices for receiving and dispatching letters and pacquets, and to receive, send, and deliver the same under such rates and sums of money as the planters shall agree to give, and to hold and enjoy the same for the term of twenty - one years. ''
The patent included the exclusive right to establish and collect a formal postal tax on official documents of all kinds. The tax was repealed a year later. Neale appointed Andrew Hamilton, Governor of New Jersey, as his deputy postmaster. The first postal service in America commenced in February 1692. Rates of postage were fixed and authorized, and measures were taken to establish a post office in each town in Virginia. Massachusetts and the other colonies soon passed postal laws, and a very imperfect post office system was established. Neale 's patent expired in 1710, when Parliament extended the English postal system to the colonies. The chief office was established in New York City, where letters were conveyed by regular packets across the Atlantic.
Before the Revolution, there was only a trickle of business or governmental correspondence between the colonies. Most of the mail went back and forth to counting houses and government offices in London. The revolution made Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, the information hub of the new nation. News, new laws, political intelligence, and military orders circulated with a new urgency, and a postal system was necessary. Journalists took the lead, securing post office legislation that allowed them to reach their subscribers at very low cost, and to exchange news from newspapers between the thirteen states. Overthrowing the London - oriented imperial postal service in 1774 -- 1775, printers enlisted merchants and the new political leadership, and created a new postal system. The United States Post Office (USPO) was created on July 26, 1775, by decree of the Second Continental Congress. Benjamin Franklin headed it briefly.
Before the Revolution, individuals like Benjamin Franklin and William Goddard were the colonial postmasters who managed the mails then and were the general architects of a postal system that started out as an alternative to the Crown Post.
The official post office was created in 1792 as the Post Office Department (USPOD). It was based on the Constitutional authority empowering Congress "To establish post offices and post roads ''. The 1792 law provided for a greatly expanded postal network, and served editors by charging newspapers an extremely low rate. The law guaranteed the sanctity of personal correspondence, and provided the entire country with low - cost access to information on public affairs, while establishing a right to personal privacy.
Rufus Easton was appointed by Thomas Jefferson first postmaster of St. Louis under the recommendation of Postmaster General Gideon Granger. Rufus Easton was the first postmaster and built the first post office west of the Mississippi. At the same time Easton was appointed by Thomas Jefferson, judge of Louisiana Territory, the largest territory in North America. Bruce Adamson wrote that: "Next to Benjamin Franklin, Rufus Easton was one of the most colorful people in United States Postal History. '' It was Easton who educated Abraham Lincoln 's Attorney General, Edward Bates. In 1815 Edward Bates moved into the Easton home and lived there for years at Third and Elm. Today this is the site of the Jefferson Memorial Park. In 1806 Postmaster General Gideon Granger wrote a three - page letter to Easton, begging him not to partake in a duel with vice-president Aaron Burr. Two years earlier it was Burr who had shot and killed Alexander Hamilton. Many years later in 1852, Easton 's son, Major - General Langdon Cheves Easton, was commissioned by William T. Sherman, at Fort Union to deliver a letter to Independence, Missouri. Sherman wrote: "In the Spring of 1852, General Sherman mentioned that the quartermaster, Major L.C. Easton, at Fort Union, New Mexico, had occasion to send some message east by a certain date, and contracted with Aubrey to carry it to the nearest post office (then Independence, Missouri), making his compensation conditional on the time consumed. He was supplied with a good horse, and an order on the outgoing trains for exchange. Though the whole route was infested with hostile Indians, and not a house on it, Aubrey started alone with his rifle. He was fortunate in meeting several outward - bound trains, and thereby made frequent changes of horses, some four or five, and reached Independence in six days, having hardly rested or slept the whole way. ''
To cover long distances, the Post Office used a hub - and - spoke system, with Washington as the hub and chief sorting center. By 1869, with 27,000 local post offices to deal with, it had changed to sorting mail en route in specialized railroad mail cars, called Railway Post Offices, or RPOs. The system of postal money orders began in 1864. Free mail delivery began in the larger cities in 1863.
The postal system played a crucial role in national expansion. It facilitated expansion into the West by creating an inexpensive, fast, convenient communication system. Letters from early settlers provided information and boosterism to encourage increased migration to the West, helped scattered families stay in touch and provide assistance, assisted entrepreneurs in finding business opportunities, and made possible regular commercial relationships between merchants in the west and wholesalers and factories back east. The postal service likewise assisted the Army in expanding control over the vast western territories. The widespread circulation of important newspapers by mail, such as the New York Weekly Tribune, facilitated coordination among politicians in different states. The postal service helped integrate established areas with the frontier, creating a spirit of nationalism and providing a necessary infrastructure.
The Post Office in the 19th century was a major source of federal patronage. Local postmasterships were rewards for local politicians -- often the editors of party newspapers. About three quarters of all federal civilian employees worked for the Post Office. In 1816 it employed 3341 men, and in 1841, 14,290. The volume of mail expanded much faster than the population, as it carried annually 100 letters and 200 newspapers per 1000 white population in 1790, and 2900 letters and 2700 newspapers per thousand in 1840.
The Post Office Department was enlarged during the tenure of President Andrew Jackson. As the Post Office expanded, difficulties were experienced due to a lack of employees and transportation. The Post Office 's employees at that time were still subject to the so - called "spoils '' system, where faithful political supporters of the executive branch were appointed to positions in the post office and other government corporations as a reward for their patronage. These appointees rarely had prior experience in postal service and mail delivery. This system of political patronage was replaced in 1883, after passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act.
In 1823, ten years after the Post Office had first begun to use steamboats to carry mail between post towns where no roads existed, waterways were declared post roads. Once it became clear that the postal system in the United States needed to expand across the entire country, the use of the railroad to transport the mail was instituted in 1832, on one line in Pennsylvania. All railroads in the United States were designated as post routes, after passage of the Act of July 7, 1838. Mail service by railroad increased rapidly thereafter.
An Act of Congress provided for the issuance of stamps on March 3, 1847, and the Postmaster General immediately let a contract to the New York City engraving firm of Rawdon, Wright, Hatch, and Edson. The first stamp issue of the U.S. was offered for sale on July 1, 1847, in New York City, with Boston receiving stamps the following day and other cities thereafter. The 5 - cent stamp paid for a letter weighing less than 1 oz (28 g) and traveling less than 300 miles, the 10 - cent stamp for deliveries to locations greater than 300 miles, or twice the weight deliverable for the 5 - cent stamp.
In 1847, the U.S. Mail Steamship Company acquired the contract which allowed it to carry the U.S. mails from New York, with stops in New Orleans and Havana, to the Isthmus of Panama for delivery in California. The same year, the Pacific Mail Steamship Company had acquired the right to transport mail under contract from the United States Government from the Isthmus of Panama to California. In 1855, William Henry Aspinwall completed the Panama Railway, providing rail service across the Isthmus and cutting to three weeks the transport time for the mails, passengers and goods to California. This remained an important route until the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869. Railroad companies greatly expanded mail transport service after 1862, and the Railway Mail Service was inaugurated in 1869.
Rail cars designed to sort and distribute mail while rolling were soon introduced. RMS employees sorted mail "on - the - fly '' during the journey, and became some of the most skilled workers in the postal service. An RMS sorter had to be able to separate the mail quickly into compartments based on its final destination, before the first destination arrived, and work at the rate of 600 pieces of mail an hour. They were tested regularly for speed and accuracy.
Parcel Post service began with the introduction of International Parcel Post between the USA and foreign countries in 1887. That same year, the U.S. Post Office (predecessor of the USPS) and the Postmaster General of Canada established parcel - post service between the two nations. A bilateral parcel - post treaty between the independent (at the time) Kingdom of Hawaii and the USA was signed on 19 December 1888 and put into effect early in 1889. Parcel - post service between the USA and other countries grew with the signing of successive postal conventions and treaties. While the Post Office agreed to deliver parcels sent into the country under the UPU treaty, it did not institute a domestic parcel - post service for another twenty - five years.
The advent of Rural Free Delivery (RFD) in the U.S. in 1896, and the inauguration of a domestic parcel post service by Postmaster General Frank H. Hitchcock in 1913, greatly increased the volume of mail shipped nationwide, and motivated the development of more efficient postal transportation systems. Many rural customers took advantage of inexpensive Parcel Post rates to order goods and products from businesses located hundreds of miles away in distant cities for delivery by mail. From the 1910s to the 1960s, many college students and others used parcel post to mail home dirty laundry, as doing so was less expensive than washing the clothes themselves.
After four - year - old Charlotte May Pierstorff was mailed from her parents to her grandparents in Idaho in 1914, mailing of people was prohibited. In 1917, the Post Office imposed a maximum daily mailable limit of two hundred pounds per customer per day after a business entrepreneur, W.H. Coltharp, used inexpensive parcel - post rates to ship more than eighty thousand masonry bricks some four hundred seven miles via horse - drawn wagon and train for the construction of a bank building in Vernal, Utah.
The advent of parcel post also led to the growth of mail order businesses that substantially increased rural access to modern goods over what was typically stocked in local general stores.
In 1912, carrier service was announced for establishment in towns of second and third class with $100,000 appropriated by Congress. From January 1, 1911, until July 1, 1967, the United States Post Office Department operated the United States Postal Savings System. An Act of Congress of June 25, 1910, established the Postal Savings System in designated Post Offices, effective January 1, 1911. The legislation aimed to get money out of hiding, attract the savings of immigrants accustomed to the postal savings system in their native countries, provide safe depositories for people who had lost confidence in banks, and furnish more convenient depositories for working people. The law establishing the system directed the Post Office Department to redeposit most of the money in the system in local banks, where it earned 2.5 percent interest.
The system paid 2 - percent interest per year on deposits. The half percent difference in interest was intended to pay for the operation of the system. Certificates were issued to depositors as proof of their deposit. Depositors in the system were initially limited to hold a balance of $500, but this was raised to $1,000 in 1916 and to $2,500 in 1918. The initial minimum deposit was $1. In order to save smaller amounts for deposit, customers could purchase a 10 - cent postal savings card and 10 - cent postal savings stamps to fill it. The card could be used to open or add to an account when its value, together with any attached stamps, amounted to one or more dollars, or it could be redeemed for cash. At its peak in 1947, the system held almost $3.4 billion in deposits, with more than four million depositors using 8,141 postal units.
The Post Office Department played an important intelligence role during World War I, implementing the Espionage and Trading with the Enemy Acts, monitoring foreign mail and acting as counter-espionage to help secure allied victory.
On August 12, 1918, the Post Office Department took over airmail service from the United States Army Air Service (USAAS). Assistant Postmaster General, Otto Praeger, appointed Benjamin B. Lipsner to head the civilian - operated Air Mail Service. One of Lipsner 's first acts was to hire four pilots, each with at least 1,000 hours flying experience, paying them an average of $4,000 per year ($65.1 thousand today). The Post Office Department used new Standard JR - 1B biplanes specially modified to carry the mail while the war was still in progress, but following the war operated mostly World War I surplus military de Havilland DH - 4 aircraft.
During 1918, the Post Office hired an additional 36 pilots. In its first year of operation, the Post Office completed 1,208 airmail flights with 90 forced landings. Of those, 53 were due to weather and 37 to engine failure. By 1920, the Air Mail service had delivered 49 million letters. Domestic air mail became obsolete in 1975, and international air mail in 1995, when the USPS began transporting First - Class mail by air on a routine basis.
The Post Office was one of the first government departments to regulate obscene materials on a national basis. When the U.S. Congress passed the Comstock laws of 1873, it became illegal to send through the U.S. mail any material considered obscene or indecent, or which promoted abortion issues, birth control, or alcohol consumption.
On March 18, 1970, postal workers in New York City -- upset over low wages and poor working conditions, and emboldened by the Civil Rights movement -- organized a strike against the United States government. The strike initially involved postal workers in only New York City, but it eventually gained support of over 210,000 United States Post Office Department workers across the nation. While the strike ended without any concessions from the Federal government, it did ultimately allow for postal worker unions and the government to negotiate a contract which gave the unions most of what they wanted, as well as the signing of the Postal Reorganization Act by President Richard Nixon on August 12, 1970. The Act replaced the cabinet - level Post Office Department with a new federal agency, the United States Postal Service, and took effect on July 1, 1971.
The United States Postal Service employs some 617,000 workers, making it the third - largest civilian employer in the United States behind the federal government and Wal - Mart. In a 2006 U.S. Supreme Court decision, the Court noted: "Each day, according to the Government 's submissions here, the United States Postal Service delivers some 660 million pieces of mail to as many as 142 million delivery points. '' As of 2016, the USPS operates 31,585 post offices and locations in the U.S., and delivers 153.4 billion pieces of mail annually.
The USPS operates one of the largest civilian vehicle fleets in the world, with an estimated 227,896 vehicles, the majority of which are the easily identified Chevrolet / Grumman LLV (long - life vehicle), and the newer Ford / Utilimaster FFV (flex - fuel vehicle), originally also referred to as the CRV (carrier route vehicle). It is by geography and volume the globe 's largest postal system, delivering 47 % of the world 's mail. For every penny increase in the national average price of gasoline, the USPS spends an extra US $8 million per year to fuel its fleet.
The number of gallons of fuel used in 2009 was 444 million, at a cost of US $1.1 billion. The fleet is notable in that many of its vehicles are right - hand drive, an arrangement intended to give drivers the easiest access to roadside mailboxes. Some Rural Letter Carriers use personal vehicles. Standard postal - owned vehicles do not have license plates. These vehicles are identified by a seven digit number displayed on the front and rear.
The Department of Defense and the USPS jointly operate a postal system to deliver mail for the military; this is known as the Army Post Office (for Army and Air Force postal facilities) and the Fleet Post Office (for Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard postal facilities).
In February 2013, the Postal Service announced that on Saturdays it would only deliver packages, mail - order medicines, Priority Mail, and Express Mail, effective August 10, 2013. However, this change was reversed by federal law in the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2013. They now deliver packages on Sunday -- only for Amazon.com. During the four weeks preceding Christmas since 2013, packages from all mail classes and senders were delivered on Sunday in some areas.
Parcels are also delivered on holidays, with the exception of Thanksgiving and Christmas.
In October 2016, the Postal Service released Future Ready, a five - year plan required by law starting in 1993. The plan outlines the Postal Service 's goals for the next five years.
1. Deliver a world - class customer experience.
2. Equip, empower, and engage employees.
3. Innovate faster to deliver value.
4. Invest in our future platforms.
In 2011, numerous media outlets reported that the USPS was going out of business. The USPS 's strategy came under fire as new technologies emerged and the USPS was not finding ways to generate new sources of revenue.
In 2016, the Postal Service collected $71.49 billion in revenue.
In 2016, the USPS had its fifth straight annual operating loss, in the amount of $5.59 billion, of which $5.8 billion was the accrual of unpaid mandatory retiree health payments.
First Class mail volume peaked in 2001 and has declined 29 % from 1998 to 2008, due to the increasing use of email and the World Wide Web for correspondence and business transactions.
FedEx and United Parcel Service (UPS) directly compete with USPS Express Mail and package delivery services, making nationwide deliveries of urgent letters and packages.
Lower volume means lower revenues to support the fixed commitment to deliver to every address once a day, six days a week. According to an official report on November 15, 2012, the U.S. Postal Service lost $15.9 billion its 2012 fiscal year.
In response, the USPS has increased productivity each year from 2000 to 2007, through increased automation, route re-optimization, and facility consolidation. Despite these efforts, the organization saw an $8.5 billion budget shortfall in 2010, and was losing money at a rate of about $3 billion per quarter in 2011.
On December 5, 2011 the USPS announced it would close more than half of its mail processing centers, eliminate 28,000 jobs and reduce overnight delivery of First - Class Mail. This will close down 252 of its 461 processing centers. (At peak mail volume in 2006, the USPS operated 673 facilities.) As of May 2012, the plan was to start the first round of consolidation in summer 2012, pause from September to December, and begin a second round in February 2014; 80 % of first class mail would still be delivered overnight through the end of 2013. New delivery standards were issued in January 2015, and the majority of single - piece (not presorted) first - class mail is now being delivered in two days instead of one. Large commercial mailers can still have first - class mail delivered overnight if delivered directly to a processing center in the early morning, though as of 2014 this represented only 11 % of first - class mail. Unsorted first - class mail will continued to be delivered anywhere in the contiguous United States within three days.
In July 2011, the USPS announced a plan to close about 3,700 small post offices. Various representatives in Congress protested, and the Senate passed a bill that would have kept open all post offices farther than 10 miles from the next office. In May 2012, the service announced it had modified its plan. Instead, rural post offices would remain open with reduced retail hours (some as little as two hours per day) unless there was a community preference for a different option. In a survey of rural customers, 20 % preferred the "Village Post Office '' replacement (where a nearby private retail store would provide basic mail services with expanded hours), 15 % preferred merger with another Post Office, and 11 % preferred expanded rural delivery services. Approximately 40 % of postal revenue already comes from online purchases or private retail partners including Walmart, Staples, Office Depot, Walgreens, Sam 's Club, Costco, and grocery stores. The National Labor Relations Board agreed to hear the American Postal Workers Union 's arguments that these counters should be manned by postal employees who earn far more and have "a generous package of health and retirement benefits ''.
On January 28, 2009, Postmaster General John E. Potter testified before the Senate that, if the Postal Service could not readjust its payment toward the contractually funding earned employee retiree health benefits, as mandated by the Postal Accountability & Enhancement Act of 2006, the USPS would be forced to consider cutting delivery to five days per week during June, July, and August.
H.R. 22, addressing this issue, passed the House of Representatives and Senate and was signed into law on September 30, 2009. However, Postmaster General Potter continued to advance plans to eliminate Saturday mail delivery.
On June 10, 2009, the National Rural Letter Carriers ' Association (NRLCA) was contacted for its input on the USPS 's current study of the effect of five - day delivery along with developing an implementation plan for a five - day service plan. A team of Postal Service headquarters executives and staff has been given a time frame of sixty days to complete the study. The current concept examines the effect of five - day delivery with no business or collections on Saturday, with Post Offices with current Saturday hours remaining open.
On Thursday, April 15, 2010, the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform held a hearing to examine the status of the Postal Service and recent reports on short and long term strategies for the financial viability and stability of the USPS entitled "Continuing to Deliver: An Examination of the Postal Service 's Current Financial Crisis and its Future Viability. '' At which, PMG Potter testified that by the year 2020, the USPS cumulative losses could exceed $238 billion, and that mail volume could drop 15 percent from 2009.
In February 2013, the USPS announced that in order to save about $2 billion per year, Saturday delivery service would be discontinued except for packages, mail - order medicines, Priority Mail, Express Mail, and mail delivered to Post Office boxes, beginning August 10, 2013. However the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2013, passed in March, reversed the cuts to Saturday delivery.
The Postal Accountability and Enhancement Act of 2006 (PAEA) obligates the USPS to fund the present value of earned retirement obligations (essentially past promises which have not yet come due) within a ten - year time span. In contrast, private businesses in the United States have no legal obligation to pay for retirement costs at promise - time rather than retirement - time, but about one quarter do.
The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) is the main bureaucratic organization responsible for the human resources aspect of many federal agencies and their employees. The PAEA created the Postal Service Retiree Health Benefit Fund (PSRHB) after Congress removed the Postal Service contribution to the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS). Most other employees that contribute to the CSRS have 7 % deducted from their wages. Currently all new employees contribute into Federal Employee Retirement System (FERS) once they become a full - time regular employees.
On September 30, 2014, the USPS failed to make a $5.7 billion payment on this debt, the fourth such default.
Congress has limited rate increases for First - Class Mail to the cost of inflation, unless approved by the Postal Regulatory Commission. A 3 ¢ surcharge above inflation increased the 1 oz (28 g) rate to 49 ¢ in January, 2014, but this was approved by the Commission for two years only.
Comprehensive reform packages considered in the 113th Congress include S. 1486 and H.R. 2748. These include the efficiency measure, supported by Postmaster General Patrick Donahoe of ending door - to - door delivery of mail for some or most of the 35 million addresses that currently receive it, replacing that with either curbside boxes or nearby "cluster boxes ''. This would save $4.5 billion per year out of the $30 billion delivery budget; door - to - door city delivery costs annually on average $353 per stop, curbside $224, and cluster box $160 (and for rural delivery, $278, $176, and $126, respectively).
S. 1486, also with the support of Postmaster Donahoe, would also allow the USPS to ship alcohol in compliance with state law, from manufacturers to recipients with ID to show they are over 21. This is projected to raise approximately $50 million per year. (Shipping alcoholic beverages is currently illegal under 18 U.S.C. § 1716 (f).)
In 2014, the Postal Service was requesting reforms to worker 's compensation, moving from a pension to defined contribution retirement savings plan, and paying senior retiree health care costs out of Medicare funds, as is done for private - sector workers.
The Board of Governors of the United States Postal Service sets policy, procedure, and postal rates for services rendered, and has a similar role to a corporate board of directors. Of the eleven members of the Board, nine are appointed by the President and confirmed by the United States Senate (see 39 U.S.C. § 202). The nine appointed members then select the United States Postmaster General, who serves as the board 's tenth member, and who oversees the day - to - day activities of the service as Chief Executive Officer (see 39 U.S.C. § § 202 -- 203). The ten - member board then nominates a Deputy Postmaster General, who acts as Chief Operating Officer, to the eleventh and last remaining open seat.
The independent Postal Regulatory Commission (formerly the Postal Rate Commission) is also controlled by appointees of the President confirmed by the Senate. It oversees postal rates and related concerns, having the authority to approve or reject USPS proposals.
The USPS is often mistaken for a government - owned corporation (e.g., Amtrak) because it operates much like a business. It is, however, an "establishment of the executive branch of the Government of the United States '', (39 U.S.C. § 201) as it is controlled by Presidential appointees and the Postmaster General. As a government agency, it has many special privileges, including sovereign immunity, eminent domain powers, powers to negotiate postal treaties with foreign nations, and an exclusive legal right to deliver first - class and third - class mail. Indeed, in 2004, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in a unanimous decision that the USPS was not a government - owned corporation, and therefore could not be sued under the Sherman Antitrust Act.
The U.S. Supreme Court has also upheld the USPS 's statutory monopoly on access to letter boxes against a First Amendment freedom of speech challenge; it thus remains illegal in the U.S. for anyone, other than the employees and agents of the USPS, to deliver mailpieces to letter boxes marked "U.S. Mail ''.
The Postal Service also has a Mailers ' Technical Advisory Committee and local Postal Customer Councils, which are advisory and primarily involve business customers.
Article I, section 8, Clause 7 of the United States Constitution grants Congress the power to establish post offices and post roads, which has been interpreted as a de facto Congressional monopoly over the delivery of first class residential mail -- which has been defined as non-urgent residential letters (not packages). Accordingly, no other system for delivering first class residential mail -- public or private -- has been tolerated, absent Congress 's consent.
The mission of the Postal Service is to provide the American public with trusted universal postal service. While not explicitly defined, the Postal Service 's universal service obligation (USO) is broadly outlined in statute and includes multiple dimensions: geographic scope, range of products, access to services and facilities, delivery frequency, affordable and uniform pricing, service quality, and security of the mail. While other carriers may claim to voluntarily provide delivery on a broad basis, the Postal Service is the only carrier with a legal obligation to provide all the various aspects of universal service.
Proponents of universal service principles claim that since any obligation must be matched by the financial capability to meet that obligation, the postal monopoly was put in place as a funding mechanism for the USO, and it has been in place for over a hundred years. It consists of two parts: the Private Express Statutes (PES) and the mailbox access rule. The PES refers to the Postal Service 's monopoly on the delivery of letters, and the mailbox rule refers to the Postal Service 's exclusive access to customer mailboxes.
Proponents of universal service principles further claim that eliminating or reducing the PES or mailbox rule would affect the ability of the Postal Service to provide affordable universal service. If, for example, the PES and the mailbox rule were to be eliminated, and the USO maintained, then either billions of dollars in tax revenues or some other source of funding would have to be found.
Some proponents of universal service principles suggest that private communications that are protected by the veil of government promote the exchange of free ideas and communications. This separates private communications from the ability of a private for - profit or non-profit organization to corrupt. Security for the individual is in this way protected by the United States Post Office, maintaining confidentiality and anonymity, as well as government employees being much less likely to be instructed by superiors to engage in nefarious spying. It is seen by some as a dangerous step to extract the universal service principle from the post office, as the untainted nature of private communications is preserved as assurance of the protection of individual freedom of privacy.
However, as the recent notice of a termination of mail service to residents of the Frank Church -- River of No Return Wilderness indicates, mail service has been contracted to private firms such as Arnold Aviation for many decades. KTVB - TV reported:
"We can not go out every week and pick up our mail... it 's impossible '', said Heinz Sippel. "Everyone gets their mail. Why ca n't we? '' said Sue Anderson. Getting mail delivered, once a week, by airplane is not a luxury, it 's a necessity for those who live in Idaho 's vast wilderness -- those along the Salmon and Selway rivers. It 's a service that 's been provided to them for more than half a century -- mostly by Ray Arnold of Arnold Aviation.
The decision was reversed; U.S. Postmaster General John Potter indicated that acceptable service to back country customers could not be achieved in any other fashion than continuing an air mail contract with Arnold Aviation to deliver the mail.
The Postal Act of 2006 required the Postal Regulatory Commission (PRC) to submit a report to the President and Congress on universal postal service and the postal monopoly in December 2008. The report must include any recommended changes. The Postal Service report supports the requirement that the PRC is to consult with and solicit written comments from the Postal Service. In addition, the Government Accountability Office is required to evaluate broader business model issues by 2011.
On October 15, 2008, the Postal Service submitted a report to the PRC on its position related to the Universal Service Obligation (USO). It said no changes to the USO and restriction on mailbox access were necessary at this time, but increased regulatory flexibility was required to ensure affordable universal service in the future. In 2013, the Postal Service announced that starting August 2013, Saturday delivery would be discontinued.
Obligations of the USO include uniform prices, quality of service, access to services, and six - day delivery to every part of the country. To assure financial support for these obligations, the postal monopoly provides the Postal Service the exclusive right to deliver letters and restricts mailbox access solely for mail. The report argued that eliminating or reducing either aspect of the monopoly "would have a devastating impact on the ability... to provide the affordable universal service that the country values so highly. '' Relaxing access to the mailbox would also pose security concerns, increase delivery costs, and hurt customer service, according to the Post Office. The report notes:
Most of these alternatives are not actually free in some communities. For example, in the Chicago metropolitan area and many other major metros one must get a background check from police and pay a daily fee for the right to solicit or post commercial messages on private property.
Regarding the monopoly on delivery of letters, the report notes that the monopoly is not complete, as there is an exception for letters where either the amount paid for private carriage of the letter equals at least six times the current rate for the first ounce of a single - piece First - Class Mail letter (also known as the "base rate '' or "base tariff '') or the letter weighs at least 12.5 ounces.
The Postal Service said that the USO should continue to be broadly defined and there should be no changes to the postal monopoly. Any changes would have far - reaching effects on customers and the trillion dollar mailing industry. "A more rigidly defined USO would... ultimately harm the American public and businesses, '' according to the report, which cautions that any potential change must be studied carefully and the effects fully understood.
FedEx and United Parcel Service (UPS) directly compete with USPS Express Mail and package delivery services, making nationwide deliveries of urgent letters and packages. Due to the postal monopoly, they are not allowed to deliver non-urgent letters and may not directly ship to U.S. Mail boxes at residential and commercial destinations. However, both companies have transit agreements with the USPS in which an item can be dropped off with either FedEx or UPS who will then provide shipment up to the destination post office serving the intended recipient where it will be transferred for delivery to the U.S. Mail destination, including Post Office Box destinations. These services also deliver packages which are larger and heavier than USPS will accept. DHL Express was the third major competitor until February 2009, when it ceased domestic delivery operations in the United States.
A variety of other transportation companies in the United States move cargo around the country, but either have limited geographic scope for delivery points, or specialize in items too large to be mailed. Many of the thousands of courier companies focus on same - day delivery, for example, by bicycle messenger.
Although USPS and FedEx are direct competitors, USPS contracts with FedEx for air transport of 2 -- 3 Day Priority Mail and Priority Mail Express (typically delivered overnight).
The Post Office Department owned and operated the first public telegraph lines in the United States, starting in 1844 from Washington to Baltimore, and eventually extending to New York, Boston, Buffalo, and Philadelphia. In 1847 the telegraph system was privatized, except for a period during World War I, when it was used to accelerate the delivery of letters arriving at night.
Between 1942 and 1945 "V - Mail '' (for "Victory Mail '') service was available for military mail. Letters were converted into microfilm and reprinted near the destination, to save room on transport vehicles for military cargo.
From 1982 to 1985 Electronic Computer Originated Mail, known as E-COM was accepted for bulk mailings. Text was transmitted electronically to one of 25 post offices nationwide. The Postal Service would print the mail and put it in special envelopes bearing a blue E-COM logo. Delivery was assured within 2 days.
To improve accuracy and efficiency, the Postal Service introduced the Intelligent Mail program to complement the ZIP code system. This system, which was intended to replace the depreciated POSTNET system, allows bulk mailers to use pre-printed bar codes to assist in mail delivery and sorting. Additional features, called Enhanced, or Full - Service, Intelligent Mail Barcodes allow for mail tracking of bulk mail through the postal system up to the final delivery Post Office.
Critics of the universal service requirement and the statutory postal monopoly include several professional economists advocating for the privatization of the mail delivery system, or at least a relaxation of the universal service model that currently exists. Rick Geddes argued in 2000:
Furthermore, some economists have argued that because public enterprises may pursue objectives different than profit maximization, they might have more of an incentive than profit - maximizing firms to behave anticompetitively through policies such as predatory pricing, misstating costs, and creating barriers to entry. To resolve those issues, one economist proposes a cost - allocation model that would determine the optimal allocation of USPS 's common costs by finding the share of costs that would maximize USPS profits from its competitive products. Postal regulators could use such a cost model to ensure that the Postal Service is not abusing its statutory monopoly by subsidizing price cuts in competitive product markets with revenue obtained from the monopolized market.
The United States Postal Inspection Service (USPIS) is one of the oldest law enforcement agencies in the U.S. Founded by Benjamin Franklin, its mission is to protect the Postal Service, its employees, and its customers from crime and protect the nation 's mail system from criminal misuse.
Postal Inspectors enforce over 200 federal laws providing for the protection of mail in investigations of crimes that may adversely affect or fraudulently use the U.S. Mail, the postal system or postal employees.
The USPIS has the power to enforce the USPS monopoly by conducting search and seizure raids on entities they suspect of sending non-urgent mail through overnight delivery competitors. According to the American Enterprise Institute, a private conservative think tank, the USPIS raided Equifax offices in 1993 to ascertain if the mail they were sending through Federal Express was truly "extremely urgent. '' It was found that the mail was not, and Equifax was fined $30,000.
Lastly, the PIS oversees the activities of the Postal Police Force who patrol in and around selected high - risk postal facilities in major metropolitan areas in the United States and its territories.
The United States Postal Service Office of Inspector General (OIG) was authorized by law in 1996. Prior to the 1996 legislation, the Postal Inspection Service performed the duties of the OIG. The Inspector General, who is independent of postal management, is appointed by and reports directly to the nine presidentially appointed, Senate -- confirmed members of the Board of Governors of the United States Postal Service.
The primary purpose of the OIG is to prevent, detect and report fraud, waste and program abuse, and promote efficiency in the operations of the Postal Service. The OIG has "oversight '' responsibility for all activities of the Postal Inspection Service.
All mailable articles (e.g., letters, flats, machinable parcels, irregular parcels, etc.) shipped within the United States must comply with an array of standards published in the USPS Domestic Mail Manual (DMM). Before addressing the mailpiece, one must first comply with the various mailability standards relating to attributes of the actual mailpiece such as: minimum / maximum dimensions and weight, acceptable mailing containers, proper mailpiece sealing / closure, utilization of various markings, and restrictions relating to various hazardous (e.g., explosives, flammables, etc.) and restricted (e.g., cigarettes, smokeless tobacco, etc.) materials, as well as others articulated in § 601 of the DMM.
The USPS specifies the following key elements when preparing the face of a mailpiece:
Domestic First - Class Mail costs 50 ¢ for envelopes (35 ¢ for post cards) and upwards, depending on the weight and dimensions of the letter and the class.
Mail going to naval vessels is known as the Fleet Post Office (FPO) and to Army or Air Force installations use the city abbreviation APO (Army Post Office or Air Force Post Office).
Undeliverable mail that could not be readily returned, including mail without a return address, is treated as dead mail at a Mail Recovery Center in Atlanta, Georgia or Saint Paul, Minnesota.
The USPS maintains a list of proper abbreviations.
The format of a return address is similar. Though some style manuals recommend using a comma between the city and state name when typesetting addresses in other contexts, for optimal automatic character recognition, the Post Office does not recommend this when addressing mail. The official recommendation is to use all upper case block letters with proper formats and abbreviations, and leave out all punctuation except for the hyphen in the ZIP + 4 code. If the address is unusually formatted or illegible enough, it will require hand - processing, delaying that particular item. The USPS publishes the entirety of their postal addressing standards.
Postal address verification tools and services are offered by the USPS and third party companies to help ensure mail is deliverable by fixing formatting, appending information such as ZIP code and validating the address is a valid delivery point. Customers can look up ZIP codes and verify addresses using USPS Web Tools available on the official USPS website and Facebook page, as well as on third - party sites.
Delivery Point Validation (DPV) provides the highest level of address accuracy checking. In a DPV process, the address is checked against the AMS data file to ensure that it exists as an active delivery point. The USPS does not offer DPV validation on their website however there are companies that offer services to perform DPV verification.
The actual postage can be paid via:
All unused U.S. postage stamps issued since 1861 are still valid as postage at their indicated value. Stamps with no value shown or denominated by a letter are also still valid, although the value depends upon the particular stamp. For some stamps issued without a printed value, the current value is the original value. But some stamps beginning in 1988 or earlier, including "Forever Stamps '' that were issued beginning in April 2007, and all 1st class mail 1st ounce stamps beginning 2011 - 01 - 21, the value is the current value of a 1st class mail 1st ounce stamps. (The USPS calls these "Forever Stamps ''. The generic name is non-denominated postage.)
Forever stamps are sold at the First - Class Mail postage rate at the time of purchase, but will always be valid for First - Class Mail (1 oz and under), no matter how rates rise in the future. Britain has had a similar stamp since 1989. The cost of mailing a 1 oz (28 g) First - Class letter increased to 50 cents on 28 January 2018
A postage meter is a mechanical device used to create and apply physical evidence of postage (or franking) to mailed matter. Postage meters are regulated by a country 's postal authority; for example, in the United States, the United States Postal Service specifies the rules for the creation, support, and use of postage meters. A postage meter imprints an amount of postage, functioning as a postage stamp, a cancellation and a dated postmark all in one. The meter stamp serves as proof of payment and eliminates the need for adhesive stamps.
In addition to using standard stamps, postage can now be printed in the form of an electronic stamp, or e-stamp, from a personal computer using a system called Information Based Indicia. This online PC Postage method relies upon application software on the customer 's computer contacting a postal security device at the office of the postal service.
Electronic Verification System (eVS) is the Postal Service 's integrated mail management technology that centralizes payment processing and electronic postage reports. Part of an evolving suite of USPS electronic payment services called PostalOne!, eVS allows mailers shipping large volumes of parcels through the Postal Service a way to circumvent use of hard - copy manifests, postage statements and drop - shipment verification forms. Instead, mailers can pay postage automatically through a centralized account and track payments online.
Beginning in August 2007, the Postal Service began requiring mailers shipping Parcel Select packages using a permit imprint to use eVS for manifesting their packages.
All U.S. postage stamps issued under the former United States Post Office Department and other postage items that were released before 1978 are not subject to copyright, but stamp designs since 1978 are copyrighted. The United States Copyright Office in section 313.6 (C) (1) of the Third Edition of the Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices holds that "Works prepared by officers or employees of the U.S. Postal Service... are not considered works of the U.S. Government '' and are therefore eligible for registration. Thus, the USPS holds copyright to such materials released since 1978 under Title 17 of the United States Code. Written permission is required for use of copyrighted postage stamp images, although under USPS rules, permission is "generally '' not required for "educational use '', "news reporting '' or "philatelic advertising use, '' but users must cite USPS as the source of the image and include language such as "© United States Postal Service. All rights reserved. ''
As of April 2011, domestic postage levels for low - volume mailers include:
The Post Office will not deliver packages heavier than 70 pounds (32 kg) or if the length (the package 's longest dimension) plus the girth (the measurement around the package at its largest point in the two shorter dimensions) is greater than 108 inches (270 cm) combined (130 inches (330 cm) for Parcel Post)
Discounts are available for large volumes of mail. Depending on the postage level, certain conditions might be required or optional for an additional discount:
In addition to bulk discounts on Express, Priority, and First - Class Mail, the following postage levels are available for bulk mailers:
Depending on the type of mail, additional services are available for an additional fee:
In May 2007, the USPS restructured international service names to correspond with domestic shipping options. Formerly, USPS International services were categorized as Airmail (Letter Post), Economy (Surface) Parcel Post, Airmail Parcel Post, Global Priority, Global Express, and Global Express Guaranteed Mail. The former Airmail (Letter Post) is now First - Class Mail International, and includes small packages weighing up to four pounds (1.8 kg). Economy Parcel Post was discontinued for international service, while Airmail Parcel Post was replaced by Priority Mail International. Priority Mail International Flat - Rate packaging in various sizes was introduced, with the same conditions of service previously used for Global Priority. Global Express is now Express Mail International, while Global Express Guaranteed is unchanged. The international mailing classes with a tracking ability are Express, Express Guaranteed, and Priority (except that tracking is not available for Priority Mail International Flat Rate Envelopes or Priority Mail International Small Flat Rate Boxes).
One of the major changes in the new naming and services definitions is that USPS - supplied mailing boxes for Priority and Express mail are now allowed for international use. These services are offered to ship letters and packages to almost every country and territory on the globe. The USPS provides much of this service by contracting with a private parcel service, FedEx.
The USPS provides an M - bag service for international shipment of printed matter; previously surface M - bags existed, but with the 2007 elimination of surface mail, only airmail M - bags remain. The term "M - bag '' is not expanded in USPS publications; M - bags are simply defined as "direct sacks of printed matter... sent to a single foreign addressee at a single address ''; however, the term is sometimes referred to informally as "media bag '', as the bag can also contain "discs, tapes, and cassettes '', in addition to books, for which the usual umbrella term is "media ''; some also refer to them as "mail bags ''.
Military mail is billed at domestic rates when being sent from the United States to a military outpost, and is free when sent by deployed military personnel. The overseas logistics are handled by the Military Postal Service Agency in the Department of Defense. Outside of forward areas and active operations, military mail First - Class takes 7 -- 10 days, Priority 10 -- 15 days, and Parcel Post about 24 days.
Three independent countries with a Compact of Free Association with the U.S. (Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia) have a special relationship with the United States Postal Service:
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In 2007, the US Postal Service discontinued its outbound international surface mail ("sea mail '') service, mainly because of increased costs. Returned undeliverable surface parcels had become an expensive problem for the USPS. The discontinuation has been criticized by independent booksellers, by other small businesses which ship internationally, by the Peace Corps, and by military personnel. Domestic surface mail (now "Retail Ground '' or "Commercial Parcel Select '') remains available.
Alternatives to international surface mail include:
Processing of standard sized envelopes and cards is highly automated, including reading of handwritten addresses. Mail from individual customers and public postboxes is collected by mail carriers into plastic tubs, which are taken to one of approximately 251 Processing and Distribution Centers (P&DC) across the United States. Each P&DC sorts mail for a given region (typically with a radius of around 200 miles (320 km)) and connects with the national network for interregional mail. The USPS has consolidated mail sorting for large regions into the P&DCs on the basis that most mail is addressed to faraway destinations, but for cities at the edge of a P&DC 's region, this means all locally addressed mail must now travel long distances (that is, to and from the P&DC for sorting) to reach nearby addresses.
At the P&DC, mail is emptied into hampers which are then automatically dumped into a Dual Pass Rough Cull System (DPRCS). As mail travels through the DPRCS, large items, such as packages and mail bundles, are removed from the stream. As the remaining mail enters the first machine for processing standard mail, the Advanced Facer - Canceler System (AFCS), pieces that passed through the DPRCS but do not conform to physical dimensions for processing in the AFCS (e.g., large envelopes or overstuffed standard envelopes) are automatically diverted from the stream. Mail removed from the DPRCS and AFCS is manually processed or sent to parcel sorting machines.
In contrast to the previous system, which merely canceled and postmarked the upper right corner of the envelope, thereby missing any stamps which were inappropriately placed, the Advanced Facer - Canceler System locates indicia (stamp or metered postage mark), regardless of the orientation of the mail as it enters the machine, and cancels it by applying a postmark. Detection of indicia enables the AFCS to determine the orientation of each mailpiece and sort it accordingly, rotating pieces as necessary so all mail is sorted right - side up and faced in the same direction in each output bin.
Mail is output by the machine into three categories: mail already affixed with a bar code and addressed (such as business reply envelopes and cards); mail with machine printed (typed) addresses; and mail with handwritten addresses. Additionally, machines with a recent Optical Character Recognition (OCR) upgrade have the capability to read the address information, including handwritten, and sort the mail based on local or outgoing ZIP codes.
Mail with typed addresses goes to a Multiline Optical Character Reader (MLOCR) which reads the ZIP Code and address information and prints the appropriate bar code onto the envelope. Mail (actually the scanned image of the mail) with handwritten addresses (and machine - printed ones that are not easily recognized) goes to the Remote Bar Coding System. It also corrects spelling errors and, where there is an error, omission, or conflict in the written address, identifies the most likely correct address.
When it has decided on a correct address, it prints the appropriate bar code onto the envelopes, similarly to the MLOCR system. RBCS also has facilities in place, called Remote Encoding Centers, that have humans look at images of mail pieces and enter the address data. The address data is associated with the image via an ID Tag, a fluorescent barcode printed by mail processing equipment on the back of mail pieces.
Processed mail is imaged by the Mail Isolation Control and Tracking (MICT) system to allow easier tracking of hazardous substances. Images are taken at more than 200 mail processing centers, and are destroyed after being retained for 30 days.
If a customer has filed a change of address card and his or her mail is detected in the mailstream with the old address, the mailpiece is sent to a machine that automatically connects to a Computerized Forwarding System database to determine the new address. If this address is found, the machine will paste a label over the former address with the current address. The mail is returned to the mailstream to forward to the new location.
Mail with addresses that can not be resolved by the automated system are separated for human intervention. If a local postal worker can read the address, he or she manually sorts it out according to the ZIP code on the article. If the address can not be read, mail is either returned to the sender (First - Class Mail with a valid return address) or is sent to the Mail Recovery Center in Atlanta, Georgia (formerly known as the dead letter office). At this office, the mail is opened to try to find an address to forward to. If an address is found, the contents are resealed and delivered. Otherwise, the items are held for 90 days in case of inquiry by the customer; if they are not claimed, they are either destroyed or auctioned off at the monthly Postal Service Unclaimed Parcel auction to raise money for the service.
Once the mail is bar coded, it is automatically sorted by a Delivery Bar Code Sorter (DBCS) that reads the bar code, identifies the destination of the mailpiece, and sends it to an appropriate tray that corresponds to the next segment of its journey.
Regional mail is either trucked to the appropriate local post office, or kept in the building for carrier routes served directly from the P&DC. Out - of - region mail is trucked to the airport and then flown, usually as baggage on commercial airlines, to the airport nearest the destination station. At the destination P&DC, mail is once again read by a DBCS which sorts items to local post offices; this includes grouping mailpieces by individual mail carrier.
At the carrier route level, 95 % of letters arrive pre-sorted; the remaining mail must be sorted by hand. The Post Office is working to increase the percentage of automatically sorted mail, including a pilot program to sort "flats ''.
FedEx provides air transport service to USPS for Priority and Express Mail. Priority Mail and Express Mail are transported from Priority Mail processing centers to the closest FedEx - served airport, where they are handed off to FedEx. FedEx then flies them to the destination airport and hands them back to USPS for transport to the local post office and delivery.
Although its customer service centers are called post offices in regular speech, the USPS recognizes several types of postal facilities, including the following:
While common usage refers to all types of postal facilities as "substations '', the USPS Glossary of Postal Terms does not define or even list that word. Post Offices often share facilities with other governmental organizations located within a city 's central business district. In those locations, often Courthouses and Federal Buildings, the building is owned by the General Services Administration while the U.S. Postal Services operates as a tenant. The USPS retail system has approximately 36,000 post offices, stations, and branches.
In the year 2004, the USPS began deploying Automated Postal Centers (APCs). APCs are unattended kiosks that are capable of weighing, franking, and storing packages for later pickup as well as selling domestic and international postage stamps. Since its introduction, APCs do not take cash payments -- they only accept credit or debit cards. Similarly, traditional vending machines are available at many post offices to purchase stamps, though these are being phased out in many areas. Due to increasing use of Internet services, as of June 2009, no retail post office windows are open 24 hours; overnight services are limited to those provided by an Automated Postal Center.
In February 2006, the USPS announced that they plan to replace the nine existing facility - types with five processing facility - types:
Over a period of years, these facilities are expected to replace Processing & Distribution Centers, Customer Service Facilities, Bulk Mail Centers, Logistic and Distribution Centers, annexes, the Hub and Spoke Program, Air Mail Centers, and International Service Centers.
The changes are a result of the declining volumes of single - piece First - Class Mail, population shifts, the increase in drop shipments by advertising mailers at destinating postal facilities, advancements in equipment and technology, redundancies in the existing network, and the need for operational flexibility.
The United States Postal Service does not directly own or operate any aircraft or trains, although both were formerly operated. The mail and packages are flown on airlines with which the Postal Service has a contractual agreement. The contracts change periodically. Contract airlines have included: UPS, Emery Worldwide, Ryan International Airlines, FedEx Express, American Airlines, United Airlines, and Express One International. The Postal Service also contracts with Amtrak to carry some mail between certain cities such as Chicago and Minneapolis -- Saint Paul.
The last air delivery route in the continental U.S., to residents in the Frank Church -- River of No Return Wilderness, was scheduled to be ended in June 2009. The weekly bush plane route, contracted out to an air taxi company, had in its final year an annual cost of $46,000, or $2400 / year per residence, over ten times the average cost of delivering mail to a residence in the United States. This decision has been reversed by the U.S. Postmaster General.
Private US parcel forwarding or US mail forwarding companies focusing on personal shopper, relocation, Ex-pat and mail box services often interface with the United States Postal Service for transporting of mail and packages for their customers.
From 1810, mail was delivered seven days a week. In 1828, local religious leaders noticed a decline in Sunday - morning church attendance because of local post offices ' doubling as gathering places. These leaders appealed to the government to intervene and close post offices on Sundays. The government, however, declined, and mail was delivered 7 days a week until 1912.
Today, U.S. Mail (with the exception of Express Mail) is not delivered on Sunday, except in a few towns in which the local religion has had an effect on the policy, such as Loma Linda, California, which has a significant Seventh - day Adventist population and where U.S. Mail is delivered Sunday through Friday, with the exception of observed federal holidays.
Saturday delivery was temporarily suspended in April 1957, because of lack of funds, but quickly restored.
Budget problems prompted consideration of dropping Saturday delivery starting around 2009. This culminated in a 2013 announcement that regular mail services would be cut to five days a week, which was reversed by Congress before it could take effect. (See the section Revenue decline and planned cuts.)
Originally, mail was not delivered to homes and businesses, but to post offices. In 1863, "city delivery '' began in urban areas with enough customers to make this economical. This required streets to be named, houses to be numbered, with sidewalks and lighting provided, and these street addresses to be added to envelopes. The number of routes served expanded over time. In 1891, the first experiments with Rural Free Delivery began in less densely populated areas. There is currently an effort to reduce direct delivery in favor of mailbox clusters.
To compensate for high mail volume and slow long - distance transportation which saw mail arrive at post offices throughout the day, deliveries were made multiple times a day. This ranged from twice for residential areas to up to seven times for the central business district of Brooklyn, New York. In the late 19th century, mail boxes were encouraged, saving carriers the time it took to deliver directly to the addressee in person; in the 1910s and 1920s, they were phased in as a requirement for service. In the 1940s, multiple daily deliveries began to be reduced, especially on Saturdays. By 1990, the last twice - daily deliveries in New York City were eliminated.
Today, mail is delivered once a day on - site to most private homes and businesses. The USPS still distinguishes between city delivery (where carriers generally walk and deliver to mailboxes hung on exterior walls or porches, or to commercial reception areas) and rural delivery (where carriers generally drive). With "curbside delivery '', mailboxes are at the ends of driveways, on the nearest convenient road. "Central point delivery '' is used in some locations, where several nearby residences share a "cluster '' of individual mailboxes in a single housing.
Some customers choose to use post office boxes for an additional fee, for privacy or convenience. This provides a locked box at the post office to which mail is addressed and delivered (usually earlier in the day than home delivery). Customers in less densely populated areas where there is no city delivery and who do not qualify for rural delivery may receive mail only through post office boxes. High - volume business customers can also arrange for special pick - up.
Another option is the old - style general delivery, for people who have neither post office boxes nor street addresses. Mail is held at the post office until they present identification and pick it up.
Some customers receive free post office boxes if the USPS declines to provide door - to - door delivery to their location or a nearby box. People with medical problems can request door - to - door delivery. Homeless people are also eligible for post office boxes at the discretion of the local postmaster, or can use general delivery.
From 1885 to 1997, a service called special delivery was available, which caused a separate delivery to the final location earlier in the day than the usual daily rounds.
In December 2012, the USPS began a limited one - year trial of same - day deliveries directly from retailers or distribution hubs to residential addresses in the same local area, a service it dubbed "Metro Post ''. The trial was initially limited to San Francisco and the only retailer to participate in the first few weeks was 1 - 800 - FLOWERS.
In March 2013, the USPS faced new same - day competition for e-commerce deliveries from Google Shopping Express.
In November 2013, the Postal Service began regular package delivery on Sundays for Amazon customers in New York and Los Angeles, which it expanded to 15 cities in May 2014. Amazon Sunday delivery has now been expanded to most major markets as of September, 2015.
Other competition in this area includes online grocers such as AmazonFresh, Webvan, and delivery services operated by grocery stores like Peapod and Safeway.
Residential customers can fill out a form to forward mail to a new address, and can also send pre-printed forms to any of their frequent correspondents. They can also put their mail on "hold '', for example, while on vacation. The Post Office will store mail during the hold, instead of letting it overflow in the mailbox. These services are not available to large buildings and customers of a commercial mail receiving agency, where mail is subsorted by non-Post Office employees into individual mailboxes.
Postal money orders provide a safe alternative to sending cash through the mail, and are available in any amount up to $1,000. Like a bank cheque, money orders are cashable only by the recipient. Unlike a personal bank check, they are prepaid and therefore can not be returned because of insufficient funds. Money orders are a declining business for the USPS, as companies like PayPal, PaidByCash and others are offering electronic replacements.
From 1911 to 1967, the Postal Service also operated the United States Postal Savings System, not unlike a savings and loan association with the amount of the deposit limited.
A January 2014 report by the Inspector General of the USPS suggested that the agency could earn $8.9 billion per year in revenue by providing financial services, especially in areas where there are no local banks but there is a local post office, and to customers who currently do not have bank accounts.
The Postal Service is the nation 's second - largest civilian employer. As of 2011, it employed 574,000 personnel, divided into offices, processing centers, and actual post offices. The United States Postal Service would rank 29th on the 2010 Fortune 500 list, if considered a private company.
Labor unions representing USPS employees include: The American Postal Workers Union (APWU), which represents postal clerks and maintenance, motor vehicle, mail equipment shops, material distribution centers, and operating services and facilities services employees, postal nurses, and IT and accounting; the National Association of Letter Carriers (NALC), which represents city letter carriers; the National Rural Letter Carriers ' Association (NRLCA), which represents rural letter carriers; and the National Postal Mail Handlers Union (NPMHU).
USPS employees are divided into three major crafts according to the work they engage in:
Other non-managerial positions in the USPS include:
Though the USPS employs many individuals, as more Americans send information via email, fewer postal workers are needed to work dwindling amounts of mail. Post offices and mail facilities are constantly downsizing, replacing craft positions with new machines and consolidating mail routes through the MIARAP (Modified Interim Alternate Route Adjustment Process) agreement. A major round of job cuts, early retirements, and a construction freeze were announced on March 20, 2009.
In the early 1990s, widely publicized workplace shootings by disgruntled employees at USPS facilities led to a Human Resource effort to provide care for stressed workers and resources for coworker conflicts. Due to media coverage, postal employees gained a reputation among the general public as more likely to be mentally ill. The USPS Commission on a Safe and Secure Workplace found that "Postal workers are only a third as likely as those in the national workforce to be victims of homicide at work. '' In the documentary Murder by Proxy: How America Went Postal, it was argued that this number failed to factor out workers killed by external subjects rather than by fellow employees.
This series of events in turn has influenced American culture, as seen in the slang term "going postal '' (see Patrick Sherrill for information on his August 20, 1986, rampage) and the computer game Postal. Also, in the opening sequence of Naked Gun 331⁄3: The Final Insult, a yell of "Disgruntled postal workers '' is heard, followed by the arrival of postal workers with machine guns. In an episode of Seinfeld, the mailman character, Newman, explained in a dramatic monologue that postal workers "go crazy and kill everyone '' because the mail never stops. In The Simpsons episode "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday, '' Nelson Muntz asks Postmaster Bill if he has "ever gone on a killing spree ''; Bill replies, "The day of the gun - toting, disgruntled postman shooting up the place went out with the Macarena ''.
The series of massacres led the US Postal Service to issue a rule prohibiting the possession of any type of firearms (except for those issued to Postal Inspectors) in all designated USPS facilities.
In 2016, video footage was released showing a group of police officers from the New York City Police Department (NYPD) arresting a US Postal Service worker while he was in the middle of his deliveries. The footage showed that the officers were dressed in civilian clothing. The NYPD is reportedly investigating alleged disorderly conduct.
Unions of the U.S. Postal Service
History
International associations
Mail bag types
Workplace violence
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when has father's day been on june 17 | Father 's Day - wikipedia
Father 's Day is a celebration honoring fathers and celebrating fatherhood, paternal bonds, and the influence of fathers in society. In Catholic Europe, it has been celebrated on March 19 (St. Joseph 's Day) since the Middle Ages. This celebration was brought by the Spanish and Portuguese to Latin America, where March 19 is often still used for it, though many countries in Europe and the Americas have adopted the U.S. date, which is the third Sunday of June. It is celebrated on various days in many parts of the world, most commonly in the months of March, April and June. It complements similar celebrations honoring family members, such as Mother 's Day, Siblings Day, and Grandparents ' Day.
A customary day for the celebration of fatherhood in Catholic Europe is known to date back to at least the Middle Ages, and it is observed on 19 March, as the feast day of Saint Joseph, who is referred to as the fatherly Nutritor Domini ("Nourisher of the Lord '') in Catholicism and "the putative father of Jesus '' in southern European tradition. This celebration was brought to the Americas by the Spanish and Portuguese, and in Latin America, Mother 's Day is still celebrated on 19 March. The Catholic Church actively supported the custom of a celebration of fatherhood on St. Joseph 's day from either the last years of the 14th century or from the early 15th century, apparently on the initiative of the Franciscans.
In the Coptic Church, the celebration of fatherhood is also observed on St Joseph 's Day, but the Copts observe this celebration on July 20. This Coptic celebration may date back to the fifth century.
Father 's Day was not celebrated in the US, outside Catholic traditions, until the 20th century. As a civic celebration in the US, it was inaugurated in the early 20th century to complement Mother 's Day by celebrating fathers and male parenting.
After Anna Jarvis ' successful promotion of Mother 's Day in Grafton, West Virginia, the first observance of a "Father 's Day '' was held on July 5, 1908, in Fairmont, West Virginia, in the Williams Memorial Methodist Episcopal Church South, now known as Central United Methodist Church. Grace Golden Clayton was mourning the loss of her father, when in December 1907, the Monongah Mining Disaster in nearby Monongah killed 361 men, 250 of them fathers, leaving around a thousand fatherless children. Clayton suggested that her pastor Robert Thomas Webb honor all those fathers.
Clayton 's event did not have repercussions outside Fairmont for several reasons, among them: the city was overwhelmed by other events, the celebration was never promoted outside the town itself and no proclamation of it was made by the city council. Also, two events overshadowed this event: the celebration of Independence Day July 4, 1908, with 12,000 attendants and several shows including a hot air balloon event, which took over the headlines in the following days, and the death of a 16 - year - old girl on July 4. The local church and council were overwhelmed and they did not even think of promoting the event, and it was not celebrated again for many years. The original sermon was not reproduced by the press and it was lost. Finally, Clayton was a quiet person, who never promoted the event and never talked to other persons about it.
In 1911, Jane Addams proposed that a citywide Father 's Day celebration be held in Chicago, but she was turned down.
In 1912, there was a Father 's Day celebration in Vancouver, Washington, suggested by Methodist pastor J.J. Berringer of the Irvington Methodist Church. They mistakenly believed that they had been the first to celebrate such a day. They followed a 1911 suggestion by the Portland Oregonian.
Harry C. Meek, a member of Lions Clubs International, claimed that he had first come up with the idea for Father 's Day in 1915. Meek said that the third Sunday in June was chosen because it was his birthday. The Lions Club has named him the "Originator of Father 's Day ''. Meek made many efforts to promote Father 's Day and make it an official holiday.
On June 19, 1910, a Father 's Day celebration was held at the YMCA in Spokane, Washington by Sonora Smart Dodd. Her father, the civil war veteran William Jackson Smart, was a single parent who raised his six children there. She was also a member of Old Centenary Presbyterian Church (now Knox Presbyterian Church), where she first proposed the idea. After hearing a sermon about Jarvis ' Mother 's Day in 1909 at Central Methodist Episcopal Church, she told her pastor that fathers should have a similar holiday to honor them. Although she initially suggested June 5, her father 's birthday, the pastors did not have enough time to prepare their sermons, and the celebration was deferred to the third Sunday in June. Several local clergymen accepted the idea, and on June 19, 1910, the first Father 's Day, "sermons honoring fathers were presented throughout the city ''.
However, in the 1920s, Dodd stopped promoting the celebration because she was studying at the Art Institute of Chicago, and it faded into relative obscurity, even in Spokane. In the 1930s, Dodd returned to Spokane and started promoting the celebration again, raising awareness at a national level. She had the help of those trade groups that would benefit most from the holiday, for example the manufacturers of ties, tobacco pipes, and any traditional present for fathers. By 1938, she had the help of the Father 's Day Council, founded by the New York Associated Men 's Wear Retailers to consolidate and systematize the holiday 's commercial promotion. Americans resisted the holiday for its first few decades, viewing it as nothing more than an attempt by merchants to replicate the commercial success of Mother 's Day, and newspapers frequently featured cynical and sarcastic attacks and jokes. However, the said merchants remained resilient and even incorporated these attacks into their advertisements. By the mid-1980s, the Father 's Day Council wrote, "(...) (Father 's Day) has become a Second Christmas for all the men 's gift - oriented industries. ''
A bill to accord national recognition of the holiday was introduced in Congress in 1913. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson went to Spokane to speak at a Father 's Day celebration and he wanted to make it an officially recognized federal holiday, but Congress resisted, fearing that it would become commercialized. US President Calvin Coolidge recommended in 1924 that the day be observed throughout the entire nation, but he stopped short at issuing a national proclamation. Two earlier attempts to formally recognize the holiday had been defeated by Congress. In 1957, Maine Senator Margaret Chase Smith wrote a Father 's Day proposal accusing Congress of ignoring fathers for 40 years while honoring mothers, thus "(singling) out just one of our two parents ''. In 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson issued the first presidential proclamation honoring fathers, designating the third Sunday in June as Father 's Day. Six years later, the day was made a permanent national holiday when President Richard Nixon signed it into law in 1972.
In addition to Father 's Day, International Men 's Day is celebrated in many countries on November 19 in honor of men and boys who are not fathers.
In the United States, Dodd used the "Fathers ' Day '' spelling on her original petition for the holiday, but the spelling "Father 's Day '' was already used in 1913 when a bill was introduced to the U.S. Congress as the first attempt to establish the holiday, and it was still spelled the same way when its creator was commended in 2008 by the U.S. Congress.
The officially recognized date of Father 's Day varies from country to country. This section lists some significant examples, in order of date of observance.
February 23
Russia (Defender of the Fatherland Day) *
Father 's day Аавуудын баяр
March 18
May 7
Kazakhstan
South Korea (Parents ' Day)
Second Sunday in May
May 14, 2017 May 13, 2018 May 12, 2019
Romania (Ziua Tatălui)
Third Sunday in May
May 21, 2017 May 20, 2018 May 19, 2019
Tonga
Ascension Day
May 25, 2017 May 10, 2018 May 30, 2019
Germany
First Sunday in June
Jun 4, 2017 Jun 3, 2018 Jun 2, 2019
Lithuania (Tėvo diena) Switzerland
June 5
Denmark (also Constitution Day)
Second Sunday in June
Jun 11, 2017 Jun 10, 2018 Jun 9, 2019
Austria Belgium
Third Sunday in June
Jun 18, 2017 Jun 17, 2018 Jun 16, 2019 Jun 21, 2020
June 17
June 21
Egypt Jordan Kosovo Lebanon Syria United Arab Emirates
June 22
Guernsey Jersey
June 23
Last Sunday in June
Jun 25, 2017 Jun 24, 2018 Jun 30, 2019
Haiti
Second Sunday in July
Jul 9, 2017 Jul 8, 2018 Jul 14, 2019
Uruguay
Last Sunday in July
Jul 30, 2017 Jul 29, 2018 Jul 28, 2019
Dominican Republic
August 8
China * * Taiwan
Second Sunday in August
Aug 13, 2017 Aug 12, 2018 Aug 11, 2019
Brazil Samoa
Last Monday in August
Aug 28, 2017 Aug 27, 2018 Aug 26, 2019
South Sudan
First Sunday in September
Sep 3, 2017 Sep 2, 2018 Sep 1, 2019
Second Sunday in September
Sep 10, 2017 Sep 9, 2018 Sep 8, 2019
Latvia
First Sunday in October
Oct 1, 2017 Oct 7, 2018 Oct 6, 2019
Luxembourg
Second Sunday in November
Nov 12, 2017 Nov 11, 2018 Nov 10, 2019
November 12
Indonesia
December 5
Thailand (The birthday of King Bhumibol)
Bhadrapada Amavasya (Gokarna Aunsi)
Between August 30 and September 30
Nepal
13 Rajab, Ali Ibn Abi Talib birthday
April 21, 2016 April 10, 2017
Iran Kuwait Bahrain Iraq Oman Qatar Egypt Yemen Syria Lebanon Somalia Sudan Mauritania
* Officially, as the name suggests, the holiday celebrates people who are serving or were serving the Russian Armed Forces (both men and women). But the congratulations are traditionally, nationally accepted by all fathers, other adult men and male children as well. * * There is no official Father 's Day of the P.R. China. During the Republican period prior to 1949, Father 's Day on August 8 was first celebrated in Shanghai in 1945.
Father 's Day in Argentina is celebrated on the third Sunday of June.
There have been attempts to change the date to August 24, to commemorate the day on which the Father of the Nation José de San Martín became a father. In 1953, the proposal to celebrate Father 's Day in all educational establishments on August 24, in honor of José de San Martín, was raised to the General Direction of Schools of Mendoza Province. The day was celebrated for the first time in 1958, on the third Sunday of June, but it was not included in the school calendars due to pressure from several groups.
Schools in the Mendoza Province continued to celebrate Father 's Day on August 24, and, in 1982, the provincial governor passed a law declaring Father 's Day in the province to be celebrated on that day.
In 2004, a proposal to change the date to August 24 were presented to the Argentine Chamber of Deputies as a single, unified project.
In Aruba, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.
In Australia, Father 's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of September, which is the first Sunday of Spring in Australia, and is not a public holiday. At school, children handcraft their present for their fathers. Consumer goods companies have all sorts of special offers for fathers: socks, ties, electronics, suits, and men 's healthcare products. Most families present fathers with gifts and cards, and share a meal to show appreciation, much like Mother 's Day.
YMCA Victoria continues the tradition of honouring the role fathers and father figures play in parenting through the annual awarding of Local Community Father of the Year in 32 municipalities in Victoria. The Father 's Day Council of Victoria annually recognises fathers in the Father of the Year Award.
In Austria, Father 's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of June and it is not a public holiday.
In Belgium, Father 's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of June and it is not a public holiday.
In Brazil Father 's Day (Dia dos Pais, in Portuguese) is celebrated three months after Mother 's Day, on the second Sunday of August. Publicist Sylvio Bhering picked the day in honor of Saint Joachim, patron of fathers. While it is not an official holiday (see Public holidays in Brazil), it is widely observed and typically involves spending time with and giving gifts to one 's father or father figure.
In Canada, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday. Father 's Day typically involves spending time with one 's father or the father figures in one 's life. Small family gatherings and the giving of gifts may be part of the festivities organized for Father 's Day.
In People 's Republic of China, there is no official Father 's Day. Some people celebrate on the third Sunday of June, according to the tradition of the United States.
Prior to the People 's Republic, when the Republic of China governed from Nanjing, Father 's Day was celebrated on August 8. This was determined by the fact that the eighth (ba) day of the eighth (ba) month makes two "eights '' (八 八, ba - ba), which sounds similar to the colloquial word for "daddy '' (ba - ba, 爸爸). It is still celebrated on this date in areas still under the control of the Republic of China, including Taiwan.
In Costa Rica, the Unidad Social Cristiana party presented a bill to change the celebration of Father 's Day from the third Sunday of June to March 19, the day of Saint Joseph. That was in order to give tribute to this saint, who gave his name to the capital of the country San José, Costa Rica, and so family heads will be able to celebrate the Father 's Day at the same time as the Feast of Saint Joseph the Worker. The official date is still the third Sunday of June.
In Croatia, according to the Roman Catholic tradition, fathers are celebrated on Saint Joseph 's Day (Dan svetog Josipa), March 19. It is not a public holiday.
In Denmark, Father 's Day is celebrated on June 5. It coincides with Constitution Day.
In Estonia, Father 's day ("Isadepäev '') is celebrated on the second Sunday of November. It is an established flag day and a national holiday.
In Finland, Father 's Day (Isänpäivä, Fars dag) is celebrated on the second Sunday of November. It is an established flag day.
In France lighter manufacturer "Flaminaire '' introduced the idea of father 's day first in 1949 for commercial reasons. Director "Marcel Quercia '' wanted to sell their lighter in France. In 1950, they introduced "la Fête des Pères '', which would take place every third Sunday of June (following the American example). Their slogan "Nos papas nous l'ont dit, pour la fête des pères, ils désirent tous un Flaminaire '' (Our fathers told us, for father 's day, they all want a Flaminaire). In 1952, the holiday was officially decreed. A national father 's day committee was set up to give a prize for fathers that deserved it most (originally, candidates were nominated by the social services of each town hall 's / mayor 's office); This complements "la Fête des Mères '' (Mother 's day) which was made official in France in 1928 and added to the calendar in Vichy in 1941.
In Germany, Father 's Day (Vatertag) is celebrated differently from other parts of the world. It is always celebrated on Ascension Day (the Thursday forty days after Easter), which is a federal holiday. Regionally, it is also called men 's day, Männertag, or gentlemen 's day, Herrentag. It is a tradition for groups of males (young and old but usually excluding pre-teenage boys) to do a hiking tour with one or more smaller wagons, Bollerwagen, pulled by manpower. In the wagons are wine or beer bottles (according to the region) and traditional regional food, Hausmannskost. Many men use this holiday as an opportunity to get drunk. According to the Federal Statistical Office of Germany, alcohol - related traffic accidents multiply by three on this day. The tradition of Father 's Day is especially prevalent in Eastern Germany.
These traditions are probably rooted in Christian Ascension Day 's processions to the farmlands, which has been celebrated since the 18th century. Men would be seated in a wooden cart and carried to the village 's plaza, and the mayor would award a prize to the father who had the most children, usually a big piece of ham. In the late 19th century the religious component was progressively lost, especially in urban areas such as Berlin, and groups of men organized walking excursions with beer and ham. By the 20th century, alcohol consumption had become a major part of the tradition. Many people will take the following Friday off at work, and some schools are closed on that Friday as well; many people then use the resulting four - day - long weekend for a short vacation.
Father 's Day, is observed on the feast day of Fathers, It is celebrated as a public international day, like in many other countries including the U.S., on the third Sunday of June. In Europe like in the rest of the world, it became a manifestation of divorced fathers, and the day was inaugurated by Professor Dr Nicolas Spitalas (http://spitalas.blogspot.com) who created also the International Movement of Dads. His Association SYGAPA (Men 's and Fathers ' Dignity (www.sos-sygapa.eu) is the biggest movement in the world (35.000 members). In Greece, like in other European countries, this day is named (Fête des Peres / Feast of Fathers)
In Haiti, Father 's Day (Fête des peres) is celebrated on the last Sunday of June and is not a public holiday. Fathers are recognized and celebrated on this day with cards, gifts, breakfast, lunch brunch or early Sunday dinner; whether enjoying the day at the beach or mountains, spending family time or doing favourite activities.
Children exclaim "bonne fête papa '', while everyone wishes all fathers "bonne Fête des Pères ''. (Happy Father 's Day)
In Hong Kong, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.
In Hungary, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.
Father 's Day (((Telugu: ఫాదర్స్ డే)), Tamil: Thanthaiyar Thinam, தந்தையர் தினம்) is not celebrated in all of India. But is observed the third Sunday of June by mostly westernized urban centers. The event is not a public holiday. The day is usually celebrated only in bigger cities of India like Hyderabad, Chennai, Mumbai, New Delhi, Kanpur, Bengaluru, Kolkata and others. After this day was first observed in the United States in 1908 and gradually gained popularity, Indian metropolitan cities, much later, followed suit by recognising this event. In India, the day is usually celebrated with children giving gifts like greeting cards, electronic gadgets, shirts, coffee mugs or books to their fathers.
In Indonesia, Father 's Day is celebrated on November 12 and is not a public holiday. Father 's Day in Indonesia was first declared in 2006 in Solo City Hall attended by hundreds of people from various community groups, including people from community of inter-religion communication. Because of its recent declaration, there is not very much hype about the celebration, compared to the celebration of Mother 's Day on December 22.
In Ireland, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.
In Israel, Father 's Day is usually celebrated on May 1 together with Workers ' Day or Labour Day.
In Italy, according to the Roman Catholic tradition, Father 's Day is celebrated on Saint Joseph 's Day, commonly called Feast of Saint Joseph (Festa di San Giuseppe), March 19. It was a public holiday until 1977.
In Japan, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.
Kazakhstan continues the Soviet Union 's tradition of celebrating Defender of the Fatherland Day instead of Father 's Day like in Russia and other former soviet countries. It is usually called "Man 's Day '' and it is considered equivalent of Father 's Day. It is still celebrated on February 23.
In Kenya, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.
In South Korea, Parents ' day is celebrated on May 8 and is not a public holiday.
In Latvia, Father 's Day (Tēvu diena) is celebrated on the second Sunday of September and is not a public holiday. In Latvia people did not always celebrate this day because of the USSR 's influence with its own holidays. This day in Latvia was ' officially born ' in 2008 when it was celebrated and marked in the calendar for the first time on September 14 (second September Sunday) to promote the idea that man as the father must be satisfied and proud of his family and children, also, the father is important to gratitude and loving words from his family for devoted to continuous altruistic concerns. Because this day is new to the country it does not have established unique traditions, but people borrow ideas from other country 's Father 's Day traditions to congratulate fathers in Latvia.
In Lithuania, Father 's Day (Tėvo diena) is celebrated on the first Sunday of June and is a public holiday.
In Macau, Father 's Day (Dia do Pai) is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.
In Malaysia, Father 's Day falls on the third Sunday of June.
Malta has followed the international trend and celebrates Father 's Day on the third Sunday in June. As in the case of Mother 's Day, the introduction of Father 's Day celebrations in Malta was encouraged by Frans H Said (Uncle Frans of the children 's radio programmes). The first mention of Father 's Day was in June 1977, and the day is now part of the local events calendar. (The Times of Malta 11 June 2017) (Il - Mument - Maltese newspaper - 18 June 2017)
In Mexico, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.
The Mongolian Men 's Association began the celebration of Father 's Day on 8 of August since 2005.
The Newar population (natives of Kathmandu valley) in Nepal honors fathers on the day of kusa aunsi, which occurs in late August or early September, depending on the year, since it depends on the lunar calendar. The Western - inspired celebration of Father 's Day that was imported into the country is always celebrated on the same day as Gokarna Aunsi.
The rest of the population has also begun to celebrate the Gokarna Aunsi day It is commonly known as Abu ya Khwa Swoyegu in Nepal Bhasa or Buwaako mukh herne din (बुवाको मुख हेर्ने दिन) in Nepali (literally "day for looking at father 's face ''). On the new moon day (Amavasya) it is traditional to pay respect to one 's deceased father; Hindus go to the Shiva temple of Gokarneswor Mahadev, in Gokarna, a suburb of Kathmandu while Buddhists go to Jan Bahal (Seto Machhendranath or white Tara) temple in Kathmandu.
Traditionally, in the Kathmandu Valley, the south - western corner is reserved for women and women - related rituals, and the north - eastern is for men and men - related rituals. The worship place for Mata Tirtha Aunsi ("Mother Pilgrimage New Moon '') is located in Mata Tirtha in the south - western half of the valley, while the worship place for Gokarna Aunsi is located in the north - eastern half. This division is reflected in many aspects of the life in the Kathmandu Valley.
In the Netherlands, Father 's Day (Vaderdag) is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday. Traditionally, as on Mother 's Day, fathers get breakfast in bed made by their children and families gather together and have dinner, usually at the grandparents ' house. In recent years, families also started having dinner out, and as on Mother 's Day, it is one of the busiest days for restaurants. At school, children handcraft their present for their fathers. Consumer goods companies have all sorts of special offers for fathers: socks, ties, electronics, suits, and men 's healthcare products.
In New Zealand, Father 's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of September and it is not a public holiday. Fathers ' Day seems to have been first observed at St Matthew 's Church, Auckland on 14 July 1929 and first appeared in commercial advertising the following year. By 1931 other churches had adopted the day. In 1935 much of Australia moved to mark the day at the beginning of September and New Zealand followed, with a Wellington advert in 1937, a Christchurch Salvation Army service in 1938 and in Auckland from 1939.
In Norway, Father 's day (Farsdag), is celebrated on the second Sunday of November. It is not a public holiday.
Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June. The Rutgers WPF launched a campaign titled ' Greening Pakistan -- Promoting Responsible Fatherhood ' on Father 's Day (Sunday June 18, 2017) across Pakistan to promote active fatherhood and responsibility for the care and upbringing of children. Father 's Day is not a public holiday in Pakistan.
In Peru, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday. People usually give a present to their fathers and spend time with him mostly during a family meal.
In the Philippines, Father 's Day is officially celebrated every first Monday of December, but it is not a public holiday. It is more widely observed by the public on the 3rd Sunday of June perhaps due to American influence.
In Poland, Father 's Day (in Polish: Dzień Ojca) is celebrated on June 23 and is not a public holiday.
Father 's Day ("Dia do Pai '') is celebrated on March 19 (see Roman Catholic tradition below) in Portugal. Father 's Day is not a bank holiday.
In the Roman Catholic tradition, Fathers are celebrated on Saint Joseph 's Day, commonly called the Feast of Saint Joseph, March 19, though in certain countries Father 's Day has become a secular celebration. It is also common for Catholics to honor their "spiritual father, '' their parish priest, on Father 's Day.
The Law instituting the Father 's day celebration in Romania passed on September 29th, 2009 and stated that Father 's day will be celebrated annually on the second Sunday of May. First time it was celebrated on May 9th 2010. This year it was celebrated on 13 May 2018. The next dates this celebration will take place are: 12 May 2019, 10 May 2020, 9 May 2021, 8 May 2022, 14 May 2023, 12 May 2024 and 11 May 2025..
Russia continues the Soviet Union 's tradition of celebrating Defender of the Fatherland Day instead of Father 's Day. It is usually called "Man 's Day '' and it is considered the Russian equivalent of Father 's Day.
In Samoa, Father 's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in August, and is a recognised national holiday on the Monday following.
In Seychelles, Father 's Day is celebrated on June 16 and is not a public holiday.
In Singapore, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June but is not a public holiday.
In Slovakia, Father 's Day (In slovak: deň otcov) is celebrated on the third Sunday of June. It is not a public holiday
In South Africa, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June. It is not a public holiday.
In South Sudan, Father 's Day is celebrated on the last Monday of August. President Salva Kiir Mayardit proclaimed it before August 27, 2012. First celebrated on August 27, 2012, Father 's Day was not celebrated in South Sudan in 2011 (due to the country 's independence).
Father 's Day, El Día del Padre, is observed on the feast day of Saint Joseph, which is March 19. It is celebrated as a public holiday in some regions of Spain.
Father 's Day (In sinhala: Piyawarunge dhinaya, පියවරුන්ගේ දිනය & in Tamil: Thanthaiyar Thinam, தந்தையர் தினம்), is observed on the third Sunday of June. It is not a public holiday. Many schools hold special events to honor fathers.
In Sudan, Father 's Day (عيد الأب), is celebrated on the twenty - first of June.
In Sweden, Father 's day (Fars dag), is celebrated on the second Sunday of November, but is not a public holiday.
In Taiwan, Father 's Day is not an official holiday, but is widely observed on August 8, the eighth day of the eighth month of the year. In Mandarin Chinese, the pronunciation of the number eight is bā, and the pronunciation is very similar to the character "爸 '' "bà '', which means "Pa '' or "dad ''. The eighth day of the eighth month (bā - bā) is a pun for dad (爸爸 or "bàba ''). The Taiwanese, therefore, sometimes refer to August 8 as "Bābā Holiday '' as a pun for "Dad 's Holiday '' (爸爸 節) or the more formal "Father 's Day '' (父親 節).
In Thailand, the birthday of the king, is set as Father 's Day. December 5 is the birthday of the late king Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX). Traditionally, Thais celebrate by giving their father or grandfather a canna flower (ดอก พุทธรักษา Dok Buddha Ruksa), which is considered a masculine flower; however, this is not as commonly practiced today. Thai people will wear yellow on this day to show respect for the late king, because yellow is the color of the day for Monday, the day King Bhumibol Adulyadej was born. Thais flood the Sanam Luang, a massive park in front of the palace, to watch the king give his annual speech, and often stay until the evening, when there is a national ceremony. Thais will light candles and show respect to the king by declaring their faith. This ceremony happens in almost every village in Thailand, and even overseas at Thai organizations.
It first gained nationwide popularity in the 1980s as part of a campaign by Prime Minister Prem Tinsulanonda to promote Thailand 's royal family. Mother 's Day is celebrated on the birthday of Queen Sirikit, August 12.
In Trinidad and Tobago, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday in June and is not a public holiday.
In Turkey, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday in June and is not a public holiday.
In United Arab Emirates, Father 's Day is celebrated on June 21, generally coinciding with midsummer 's day.
In the United Kingdom Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June. The day does not have a long tradition; The English Year (2006) states that it entered British popular culture "sometime after the Second World War, not without opposition ''.
In the US, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June. Typically, families gather to celebrate the father figures in their lives. In recent years, retailers have adapted to the holiday by promoting greeting cards and gifts such as electronics and tools. Schools (if in session) and other children 's programs commonly have activities to make Father 's Day gifts. The U.S. Open golf tournament is scheduled to finish on Father 's Day, as was the 2016 NBA Finals.
In Ukraine, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June.
In Venezuela, Father 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday. Traditionally, as on Mother 's Day, families gather together and have lunch, usually at the grandparents ' house. In recent years, families also started having lunch out, and as on Mother 's Day, it is one of the busiest days for restaurants. At school, children handcraft their present for their fathers. Consumer goods companies have all sorts of special offers for fathers: electronics, suits, and men 's healthcare products.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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hex color are the only way to define colors on the web | Web colors - wikipedia
Web colors are colors used in displaying web pages, and the methods for describing and specifying those colors. Colors may be specified as an RGB triplet or in hexadecimal format (a hex triplet) or according to their common English names in some cases. A color tool or other graphics software is often used to generate color values. In some uses, hexadecimal color codes are specified with notation using a leading number sign (#). A color is specified according to the intensity of its red, green and blue components, each represented by eight bits. Thus, there are 24 bits used to specify a web color within the sRGB gamut, and 16,777,216 colors that may be so specified.
Colors outside the sRGB gamut can be specified in Cascading Style Sheets by making one or more of the red, green and blue components negative or greater than 100 %, so the color space is theoretically an unbounded extrapolation of sRGB similar to scRGB. Specifying a non-sRGB color this way requires the RGB () function call; it is impossible with the hexadecimal syntax (and thus impossible in legacy HTML documents that do not use CSS).
The first versions of Mosaic and Netscape Navigator used the X11 color names as the basis for their color lists, as both started as X Window System applications. Web colors have an unambiguous colorimetric definition, sRGB, which relates the chromaticities of a particular phosphor set, a given transfer curve, adaptive whitepoint, and viewing conditions. These have been chosen to be similar to many real - world monitors and viewing conditions, in order to allow rendering to be fairly close to the specified values even without color management. User agents vary in the fidelity with which they represent the specified colors. More advanced user agents use color management to provide better color fidelity; this is particularly important for Web - to - print applications.
A hex triplet is a six - digit, three - byte hexadecimal number used in HTML, CSS, SVG, and other computing applications to represent colors. The bytes represent the red, green and blue components of the color. One byte represents a number in the range 00 to FF (in hexadecimal notation), or 0 to 255 in decimal notation. This represents the least (0) to the most (255) intensity of each of the color components. Thus web colors specify colors in the True Color (24 - bit RGB) color scheme. The hex triplet is formed by concatenating three bytes in hexadecimal notation, in the following order:
For example, consider the color where the red / green / blue values are decimal numbers: red = 36, green = 104, blue = 160 (a grayish - blue color). The decimal numbers 36, 104 and 160 are equivalent to the hexadecimal numbers 24, 68 and A0 respectively. The hex triplet is obtained by concatenating the 6 hexadecimal digits together, 2468A0 in this example.
If any one of the three color values is less than 10 hex (16 decimal), it must be represented with a leading zero so that the triplet always has exactly six digits. For example, the decimal triplet 4, 8, 16 would be represented by the hex digits 04, 08, 10, forming the hex triplet 040810.
The number of colors that can be represented by this system is 256 or 2 or 16 = 16,777,216.
An abbreviated, three (hexadecimal) - digit form is used. Expanding this form to the six - digit form is as simple as doubling each digit: 09C becomes 0099CC as presented on the following CSS example:
The three - digit form is described in the CSS specification, not in HTML. As a result, the three - digit form in an attribute other than "style '' is not interpreted as a valid color in some browsers.
This shorthand form reduces the palette to 4,096 colors, equivalent of 12 - bit color as opposed to 24 - bit color using the whole six - digit form (16,777,216 colors), this limitation is sufficient for many text based documents.
RGB values are usually given in the 0 -- 255 range; if they are in the 0 -- 1 range, the values are multiplied by 255 before conversion. This number divided by sixteen (integer division; ignoring any remainder) gives us the first hexadecimal digit (between 0 and F, where the letters A to F represent the numbers ten to fifteen. See hexadecimal for more details). The remainder gives us the second hexadecimal digit. For instance the RGB value 201 divides into twelve groups of sixteen, thus the first digit is C. A remainder of nine gives us the hexadecimal number C9. This process is repeated for each of the three color values.
Conversion between number bases is a common feature of calculators, including both hand - held models and the software calculators bundled with most modern operating systems. Web - based tools specifically for converting color values are also available.
The HTML 4.01 specification, ratified in 1999, defines 16 named colors, as follows (names are defined in this context to be case - insensitive):
These 16 were labelled as sRGB and included in the HTML 3.0 specification, which noted they were "the standard 16 colors supported with the Windows VGA palette. ''
A number of colors are defined by web browsers. A particular browser may not recognize all of these colors, but as of 2005 all modern, general - use, graphical browsers support the full list of colors. Many of these colors are from the list of X11 color names distributed with the X Window System. These colors were standardized by SVG 1.0, and are accepted by SVG Full user agents. They are not part of SVG Tiny.
The list of colors shipped with the X11 product varies between implementations, and clashes with certain of the HTML names such as green. X11 colors are defined as simple RGB (hence, no particular color space), rather than sRGB. This means that the list of colors found in X11 (e.g., in / usr / lib / X11 / rgb. txt) should not directly be used to choose colors for the web.
The list of web "X11 colors '' from the CSS3 specification, along with their hexadecimal and decimal equivalents, is shown below. Compare the alphabetical lists in the W3C standards. This includes the common synonyms: aqua (HTML4 / CSS 1.0 standard name) and cyan (common sRGB name), magenta (common sRGB name) and fuchsia (HTML4 / CSS 1.0 standard name), gray (HTML4 / CSS 1.0 standard name) and grey.
In the early days of computing, many displays were only capable of displaying 256 colors. These may be dictated by the hardware or changeable by a "color table ''. When a color is found (e.g., in an image) that is not one available, a different one had to be used. This can be done by either using the closest color, speeding up the load time, or by using dithering, which results in more accurate results but takes longer to load due to the complex calculations.
There were various attempts to make a "standard '' color palette. A set of colors was needed that could be shown without dithering on 256 - color displays; the number 216 was chosen partly because computer operating systems customarily reserved sixteen to twenty colors for their own use; it was also selected because it allows exactly six equally spaced shades of red, green, and blue (6 × 6 × 6 = 216), each from 00 to FF (including both limits).
The list of colors is presented as if it had special properties that render them immune to dithering. In actual fact however, on 256 - color displays applications can set a palette of any selection of colors that they choose, dithering the rest. These colors were chosen specifically because they matched the palettes selected by various browser applications. There were not very different palettes in use in different browsers.
"Web - safe '' colors had a flaw in that, on systems such as X11 where the palette is shared between applications, smaller color cubes (5 × 5 × 5 or 4 × 4 × 4) were allocated by browsers -- the "web safe '' colors would dither on such systems. Different results were obtained by providing an image with a larger range of colors and allowing the browser to quantize the color space if needed, rather than suffer the quality loss of a double quantization.
As of 2011, personal computers typically have 24 - bit (TrueColor) and the use of "web - safe '' colors has fallen into practical disuse.
The "web - safe '' colors do not all have standard names, but each can be specified by an RGB triplet: each component (red, green, and blue) takes one of the six values from the following table (out of the 256 possible values available for each component in full 24 - bit color).
The following table shows all of the "web - safe '' colors. One shortcoming of the web - safe palette is its small range of light colors for webpage backgrounds, whereas the intensities at the low end of the range, such as the two darkest, are similar to each other, making them hard to distinguish.
In the table below, Each color code listed is a shorthand for the RGB value; for example, code 609 is equivalent to RGB code 102 - 0 - 153 or HEX code # 660099.
Designers were encouraged to stick to these 216 "web - safe '' colors in their websites because there were a lot of 8 - bit color displays when the 216 - color palette was developed. David Lehn and Hadley Stern discovered that only 22 of the 216 colors in the web - safe palette are reliably displayed without inconsistent remapping on 16 - bit computer displays. They called these 22 colors the "really safe '' palette; it consists largely of shades of green, yellow, and blue, as can be seen in the table below.
The Cascading Style Sheets specification defines the same number of named colors as the HTML 4 spec, namely the 16 html colors, and 124 colors from the Netscape X11 color list for a total of 140 names that were recognized by Internet Explorer (IE) 3.0 and Netscape Navigator 3.0. Blooberry.com notes that Opera 2.1 and Safari 1 also included Netscape 's expanded list of 140 color names, but later discovered 14 names not included with Opera 3.5 on Windows 98.
In CSS 2.1, the color ' orange ' (one of the 140) was added to the section with the 16 HTML4 colors as a 17th color. The CSS3. 0 specification did not include orange in the "HTML4 color keywords '' section, which was renamed as "Basic color keywords ''. In the same reference, the "SVG color keywords '' section, was renamed "Extended color keywords '', after starting out as "X11 color keywords '' in an earlier working draft. The working draft for the CSS4 color module combines the Basic and Extended sections together in a simple "Named Colors '' section.
CSS 2, SVG and CSS 2.1 allow web authors to use system colors, which are color names whose values are taken from the operating system, picking the operating system 's highlighted text color, or the background color for tooltip controls. This enables web authors to style their content in line with the operating system of the user agent. The CSS3 color module has deprecated the use of system colors in favor of CSS3 UI System Appearance property, which itself was subsequently dropped from CSS3.
The developing CSS3 specification also introduces HSL color space values to style sheets:
On 21 June 2014, the CSS WG added the color RebeccaPurple to the Editor 's Draft of the CSS4 Colors module, to commemorate Eric Meyer 's daughter Rebecca who died on 7 June 2014, her sixth birthday.
Some browsers and devices do not support colors. For these displays, or for blind and colorblind users, Web content depending on colors can be unusable or difficult to use.
Either no colors should be specified (to invoke the browser 's default colors), or both the background and all foreground colors (such as the colors of plain text, unvisited links, hovered links, active links, and visited links) should be specified to avoid black on black or white on white effects.
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who is noted as the first british citizen to attempt mount everest | 1922 British Mount Everest expedition - wikipedia
The 1922 British Mount Everest expedition was the first mountaineering expedition with the express aim of making the first ascent of Mount Everest. This was also the first expedition that attempted to climb Everest using bottled oxygen. The expedition would attempt to climb Everest from the northern side out of Tibet. At the time, Everest could not be attempted from the south out of Nepal as the country was closed to Western foreigners.
The 1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition had seen the whole eastern and northern surroundings of the mountain. In searching for the easiest route, George Mallory, who was also a participant of the 1924 expedition (and the only person on all three expeditions in 1921, 1922 and 1924), had discovered a route which, according to his opinion, would allow an attempt on the summit.
After two unsuccessful summit attempts the expedition ended on the third attempt when seven porters died as the result of a group - induced avalanche. Not only had the expedition failed to reach the summit but it also marked the first reported climbing deaths on Mount Everest. The expedition did however establish a new world record climbing height of 8,326 metres (27,320 ft) during their second summit attempt, which was subsequently exceeded in the 1924 expedition.
The attempted ascent was - notwithstanding other aims - an expression of the pioneering thinking that was common in the British Empire. As the British were unsuccessful as the first to reach the North and South Poles they tried to go to the so - called "third pole '' -- to "conquer '' Mount Everest.
Cecil Rawling had planned three expeditions in 1915 and 1916 but they never happened due to the outbreak of the First World War and his death in 1917. The expeditions in the 1920s were planned and managed by the British Royal Geographic Society and the Alpine Club in a joint Mount Everest Committee.
The surveying activities in 1921 allowed the creation of maps which were a pre-condition for the 1922 expedition. John Noel took on the role of official expedition photographer. He took with him three movie cameras, two panorama cameras, four sheet cameras, one stereo camera and five so called "vest pocket Kodaks ''. The last named were small cameras that were of light weight and size to be taken by the mountaineers to great heights. These cameras were intended to allow climbers to document a possible summit success. Additionally they had on their way a special "black tent '' for photographic works. Thanks to Noel 's efforts, many photographs and one movie chronicled the expedition.
During the 1921 expedition they had seen that the best time for a summit bid would be April -- May before the monsoon season. The expeditions in 1922 and 1924 were planned according to this knowledge.
This year of 1922 can also be seen as the starting year for the enduring question of "fair means '' and controversies about the use of bottled oxygen for mountaineering purposes in the "death zone ''. Alexander Mitchell Kellas was one of the very first scientist who had pointed out the possible use of bottled oxygen for gaining great heights. At this point in time the available systems (derived from mining rescue systems) were in his opinion too heavy to be a help at great heights. Kellas was part of the Everest reconnaissance expedition in 1921 but died on the way to Mt. Everest. This expedition had taken bottled oxygen with them, but it was never used. Additionally, few paid much attention to Kellas ' innovative ideas, possibly because his scientific work belonged strictly to the amateur tradition. More attention was paid to the pressure vessel experiments of Professor Georges Dreyer, who had studied high - altitude problems the Royal Air Force encountered in World War I. According to his experiments -- which he did partly together with George Ingle Finch -- survival at great heights could only be possible with the aid of additional oxygen.
As a consequence of this scientific work, the 1922 expedition planned to use bottled oxygen. One bottle contained ca. 240 litres of oxygen. Four bottles were fixed on a carrying frame which had to be carried by the mountaineer. With the additional elements there was a weight of ca. 14.5 kg., so every mountaineer at the beginning of a climbing day had to bear a very heavy additional load. Ten of these systems were part of the expedition equipment. As well as a mask over mouth and nose, a tube was held in the mouth. Dreyer also had proposed the flow of oxygen: at 7,000 m (22,970 ft) a flow rate of 2 litres of oxygen per minute, on the summit climb they should use 2.4 litres per minute. The result was a usable time of two hours per bottle. So all the oxygen would be used up after a maximum of 8 hours of climbing. Nowadays, 3 or 4 litre bottles are filled with oxygen of 250 bar pressure. At a flow of 2 litres per minute a modern bottle can be used for about 6 hours.
George Finch was responsible for this equipment during this expedition which also was related to his education as a chemist and to his knowledge of this very technique. He ordered daily training for his climber colleagues to become accustomed in the use of this equipment. The apparatuses were very often faulty, were of low robustness and were very heavy together with a low grade of oxygen filling. There was unhappiness about these bottles among the mountaineers; many intended to climb without use of these bottles. The Tibetan and Nepalese porters nicknamed these oxygen bottles as "English air ''.
The expedition participants were selected not just for their mountaineering qualifications: family background as well as their military experiences and professions were highly valued.
The mountaineers were accompanied by a large group of Tibetan and Nepalese porters so that the expedition in the end counted 160 men.
The journey to base camp primarily followed the route used in 1921. Starting in India, the expedition members gathered in Darjeeling at the end of March 1922. Some participants had arrived one month earlier to organize and recruit porters. The journey started on 26 March for most participants. Crawford and Finch stayed a couple more days to organize transportation for the oxygen systems. These items had arrived too late in Kolkata when the main travel started in Darjeeling. This further organisation went well and further transportation of the bottles was without incident.
For the journey through Tibet they had a travel permit from the Dalai Lama. From Darjeeling the route went to Kalimpong, then Phari Dzong and further to Kampa Dzong which they reached on 11 April. Here the group rested for three days so that Finch and Crawford could catch up to the team with the oxygen bottles. Then they went to Shelkar Dzong, then north to the Rongbuk Monastery and to the spot where they wanted to erect base camp. To promote the process of acclimatization the participants alternated their travelling methods between walking and horse riding. On 1 May, they reached the lower end of the Rongbuk Glacier, the site of base camp.
For the British expeditions before World War II, Everest was only climbable from the north out of Tibet as the southern side in Nepal was closed to Western foreigners at the time. Mallory had discovered a "makeable '' route in 1921 from the Lhakpa La to the north face of the mountain and further to the summit. This route begins at the Rongbuk Glacier, then leads through the rough valley of the eastern Rongbuk Glacier and then to the icy eastern slopes of the North Col. From there the exposed ridges of North Ridge and Northeast Ridge allow an access in direction of the summit pyramid. A severe climbing hindrance, at the time an unknown obstacle, was the so - called Second Step at 8,605 m (28,230 ft), one of three breaks in slope on the upper northeast ridge. This step is approximately 30 m high and has a slope of more than 70 degrees, with a final wall of nearly seven vertical metres. From there the ridge route leads to the summit, by lengthy but gentle slopes. (The first official successful climb on this route was the Chinese ascent of 1960.) Alternatively the British checked a route via the north wall flanks of the mountain and to ascend by the later so called Norton Couloir to the Third Step and to the summit. (This route was used by Reinhold Messner on his first solo ascent in 1980.)
The base camp area in the Rongbuk Valley as well as the upper east Rongbuk Glacier were known from the 1921 reconnaissance expedition but nobody had yet gone along the eastern Rongbuk Glacier valley. So on 5 May, Strutt, Longstaff, Morshead and Norton tried a first intensive reconnaissance of this valley. The Advanced Base Camp (ABC) was erected on the upper end of the glacier below icy slopes of the North Col at 6,400 m (21,000 ft). Between the base camp and the advanced base camp they erected two intermediate camps: camp I at 5,400 m (17,720 ft) and Camp II at 6,000 m (19,690 ft). The erection and the feeding of these camps was supported by local farmers who only could help for a short time as their own farms needed work. Longstaff became exhausted in managing the organisation and transporting tasks and became so ill that he could not do any real mountaineering activities later on in the expedition.
On 10 May Mallory and Somervell left base camp to erect Camp IV on the North Col. They arrived in Camp II only two and a half hours later. On 11 May they started to climb on the North Col. This camp was at a height of 7000 m and was supported with food. The further plan was to do a first ascent trial by Mallory and Somervell without supplemental oxygen, then followed by a second climb by Finch and Norton with oxygen. However, these plans failed as a majority of the climbers became ill. So it was decided that the (more or less) healthy climbers Mallory, Somervell, Norton and Morshead should climb together.
This first attempt was made by Mallory, Somervell, Norton and Morshead without oxygen, and was supported by nine porters. They started 19 May from Camp III. They climbed at 8: 45 a.m. to the North Col. The day was nice and sunny according to Mallory. Around 1 p.m. they erected the tents. The following day the climbers intended to carry only the minimum stuff: two of the smallest tents, two double sleeping bags, food for 36 hours, a gas cooking system and two thermos bottles for drinks. The porters were with three persons per tent and they were in good health at this point in time.
The following day, 20 May, Mallory was awake around 5: 30 a.m. and inspired the group to start the day. The porters had slept badly the night before, as the tents provided inadequate air flow and let little oxygen into them. Only five of them intended to go up higher on the mountain. As there were also problems in preparing the food they started the further climb around 7 a.m. However, the weather worsened and the temperature fell dramatically. Above the North Col they climbed on unknown territory. Never before had any mountaineer climbed on the summit slopes of such a mountain. The porters had no warm clothing and shivered excessively. As the effort required to cut steps into the icy slopes was severe because of the hard ice surface they dropped their plan to erect a camp at 8,200 m (26,900 ft). They only went to 7600 m (which is common also for today) and erected a small camp which was named Camp V. Somervell and Morshead could erect their tent quite upright but Mallory and Norton had to use an uncomfortable slope some 50 metres away. The porters were sent down the mountain.
On 21 May the four mountaineers left their sleeping bags around 6: 30 a.m. and were ready to go around 8 a.m. During preparation a rucksack with food fell down the mountain. Morshead, who had to fight the cold, was able to regain this rucksack but he was so exhausted from this action that he could not go higher. The climb of Mallory, Somervell and Norton was along the north ridge in direction of the upper northeast ridge. The circumstances were not ideal ones as a light snowfall began to cover the mountain. According to Mallory the snow ramps were not hard to climb. Shortly after 2 p.m. the mountaineers decided to turn around. They were 150 m below the ridge. The gained height was 8,225 m (26,985 ft) which was a world record in climbing. Around 4 p.m. they got back to Morshead in the last camp and climbed down with him. There was nearly an accident as all mountaineers except Mallory began to slip. However, Mallory was able to hold them by his rope and ice axe. They got back to Camp V in the dark and crossed a dangerous area of crevasses above the camp. On 22 May they started to climb down from North Col at 6 a.m.
The second climb was done by George Ingle Finch, Geoffrey Bruce and the Gurkha officer Tejbir with oxygen support. After Finch had regained his health he stated that no real mountaineer even of lesser ability was available, so searched for others fit enough to climb. Bruce and Tejbir seemed to be qualified next. In the days before the oxygen bottles had been transported to Camp III so that enough bottles were available on the upper slopes. The three mountaineers went to camp III on 20 May, checked the bottles and found them in a good state.
On 24 May they climbed to the North Col together with Noel. There Finch, Bruce and Tejbir began at 8 a.m. the following day to climb via the north ridge and on to the northeast ridge. The extreme wind was quite a hindrance the entire climb. Twelve porters transported the bottles and the other equipment. In doing this again it was evident that the use of oxygen was a great help. The three mountaineers could climb much faster than the porters despite their heavier loads. As the wind grew intense they erected camp at 7,460 m (24,480 ft). The following day 26 May the weather worsened and the group could climb no further.
They again climbed on 27 May. At this point the food was nearly exhausted as such a long lasting climb had not been planned. Nevertheless, they started at 6: 30 a.m with the sun shining but climbing was hindered by a steadily increasing wind. Tejbir who had no suitable clothing against the wind grew slow and slower and broke down at 7,925 m (26,000 ft). Finch and Bruce sent him back to the camp and again climbed to the northeast ridge but they were no longer roped together. At 7,950 m (26,080 ft) Finch changed the route because of the severe wind conditions and they entered the north wall flank in the direction of the steep couloir later named "Norton Couloir ''. They made good progress horizontally but they gained no further elevation. At 8326 m Bruce had a problem with the oxygen system. Finch determined that Bruce was exhausted and so they turned back. During this climb the height record was broken again. At 4 p.m. the mountaineers got back to the Camp on the North Col, and 11⁄2 hours later they were back at Camp III on the upper Eastern Rongbuk Glacier.
In the medical opinion of Longstaff they should not make a third try as all mountaineers were exhausted or ill. However, Somervell and Wakefield saw no big risks and a third try was undertaken.
On 3 June Mallory, Somervell, Finch, Wakefield and Crawford started with 14 porters at base camp. Finch had to quit in Camp I. The others arrived in Camp III on 5 June and spent one day there. Mallory had been impressed by the power of Finch, who in the second attempt had climbed much higher in the direction of the summit and also was nearer to the summit in horizontal distance. Mallory now also wanted to use oxygen.
On 7 June Mallory, Somervell and Crawford led the porters through the icy slopes of North Col. The 17 men were divided into four groups, each one roped together. The European mountaineers were in the first group and compacted the snow. Half way a piece of snow became loose. Mallory, Somervell and Crawford were partially buried under snow but managed to free themselves. The group behind them was hit by an avalanche of 30 m of heavy snow, and the other nine porters in two groups fell into a crevasse and were buried under huge masses of snow. Two porters were dug out of the snow, six other porters were dead, and one porter could not be retrieved dead or alive. This accident was the end of the climbing and marked the end of this expedition. Mallory had made a mistake attempting to go straight up on the icy slopes instead of trying lesser slopes in curves. As a result, the climbers triggered an avalanche.
On 2 August all the European expedition members were back in Darjeeling.
After their journey back to England Mallory and Finch toured the country making presentations on the expedition. This tour had two goals. First, interested audiences would get information on the expedition and the results. Second, with the financial results of this journey another expedition should be financed. Mallory additionally made a three - month trip to the United States. During this travel Mallory was asked why he wanted to climb Mount Everest. His answer: "Because it is there '' became a classic. The intended 1923 expedition to Mount Everest was delayed by financial and organizational reasons. There was insufficient time to prepare another expedition the following year.
The movie which was recorded by Noel during this expedition was also published. Climbing Mount Everest was shown for ten weeks in Liverpool 's Philharmonic Hall.
The European expedition members received the Olympic medal in alpinism at the 1924 Summer Olympic Games. To each of the 13 participants Pierre de Coubertin presented a Silver Medal with gold overlay.
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what season is american dad trapped in the locker | American Dad! (season 13) - wikipedia
American Dad! 's thirteenth season premiered on TBS on January 25, 2016, and concluded on June 27, 2016.
On November 18, 2014, TBS ordered a 22 - episode thirteenth season of American Dad!. It is also the second season of American Dad! to be aired on TBS. In addition, TBS also announced that it ordered a fourteenth and fifteenth season of American Dad!, both consisting of 22 episodes.
Due to the departure of voice actor and former showrunner, Mike Barker, his characters Terry Bates and John Sanders were written out of the series in "Anchorfran '' and "Widow 's Pique '', respectively. The season also included the two - hundredth milestone episode, "The Two Hundred ''.
Guest stars for the season include James Adomian, Joe Buck, Sam Elliott, Bruce Greenwood, Lance Henriksen, Oliver Platt, Patton Oswalt, Flea, Tyrese Gibson, Laird Hamilton, James Hetfield, Missy Elliott, Patricia Clarkson, Keegan - Michael Key, Jordan Peele, Jason Mantzoukas, Joan Cusack, John O'Hurley, Ashley Tisdale, George Takei, and Billy Bob Thornton.
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pharmaceutical manufacturers association of sa v president of the rsa 2000 | Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association of South Africa: in re ex parte President of the Republic of South Africa - wikipedia
Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association of SA and Another: In re ex parte President of the Republic of South Africa and Others is an important case in South African constitutional law. It deals with important issues about the role of the courts in controlling public power, and raises the question of whether or not a court has the power to review and set aside a decision by the President of South Africa to bring an Act of Parliament into force.
The Constitutional Court held that the purpose of section 172 (2) (a) was to ensure that the Constitutional Court, as the highest court in constitutional matters, controls declarations of constitutional invalidity made against the highest organs of state. This purpose would be defeated, the court found, if the issue in casu, concerning the legality of the President 's conduct (a matter of considerable importance), were characterised as not falling within section 172 (2) (a); that would be to remove it from the controlling power of the Constitutional Court. The section was, therefore, to be given a wide meaning as far as the President 's conduct was concerned.
The matter arose when the Transvaal High Court was requested to review and set aside the President 's decision to bring the South African Medicines and Medical Devices Regulatory Authority Act 1998 into operation on 30 April 1999. The purpose of the Act was to govern the registration and control of medicines for human and animal use, and to replace previous legislation dealing with these matters. The Act sought to control the flow of medicines on the market by classifying medicines into specific categories. In order to be effective, the Act required a comprehensive regulatory infrastructure, including the determination of schedules regulating the manufacture, sale and possession of substances controlled by the Act. The applicants (the President and others) alleged that, through an error made in good faith, the Act had been brought into operation before the necessary regulatory infrastructure had been put in place, and that, as a consequence, the entire regulatory structure had been rendered unworkable. The result would be highly damaging to the public in that control over dangerous medicines would be lost before the new schedules were in place.
The matter was referred to the Constitutional Court by the High Court for confirmation of its order declaring the decision of the President to bring the Act into force null and void. The Constitutional Court, in a unanimous decision delivered by Chaskalson P, confirmed the order of the Transvaal High Court, but gave reasons that were different from those of the High Court. Two issues had to be decided by the Court. The first was whether or not the High Court 's order, setting aside the President 's decision, was a finding of "constitutional invalidity '' that required confirmation by the Constitutional Court under section 172 (2) of the Constitution. If so, the second issue was whether the President 's decision to bring the Act into force was constitutionally valid or not.
Commenting on whether the High Court 's order was a finding of "constitutional invalidity, '' the Court emphasised that the control of public power by the courts through judicial review is, and always has been, a constitutional matter. This is so irrespective of whether the principles are set out in a written Constitution or contained in the common law.
Judicial review is an incident of the separation of powers, under which courts regulate and control the exercise of public power by the other branches of government. Before the interim Constitution came into force, in April 1994, the principles of judicial review were developed through the "crucible '' of the common law. Since the adoption of the interim Constitution, public power is controlled by the written Constitution, which is the supreme law. The common - law precedent continues to inform the law only to the extent that it is consistent with the Constitution. Consequently, there is only one system of law. Thus, orders of invalidity under the courts ' powers of judicial review are orders of constitutional invalidity. If the order of invalidity relates to conduct of the President, section 172 (2) of the Constitution requires that it be confirmed by the Constitutional Court.
In this regard, the court held that, as the Constitutional Court, it "occupies a special place in this new constitutional order. '' It had been established as part of that order, "as a new Court with no links to the past, '' to be the highest Court in respect of all constitutional matters, "and, as such, the guardian of our Constitution. '' It had exclusive jurisdiction in respect of certain constitutional matters, and made the final decision on those constitutional matters which also fell within the jurisdiction of other courts.
It was within this context that section 172 (2) (a) had to be construed. That section was concerned with law - making acts of the legislatures at the two highest levels, and with the conduct of the President who, as head of State and of the Executive, was the highest functionary within the State. The use of the words "any conduct of the President '' indicated that "the section is to be given a wide meaning as far as the conduct of the President is concerned. '' The section 's "apparent purpose '' was to ensure that the Constitutional Court, as the highest Court in constitutional matters, should control declarations of constitutional invalidity made against the highest organs of State. That purpose would be defeated if an issue concerning the legality of conduct of the President, which raised a constitutional issue of considerable importance, could be characterised as not falling within section 172 (2) (a), and thereby removed from the controlling power of the Constitutional Court under that section.
The decision of the Full Bench of the High Court was accordingly subject to confirmation by the Constitutional Court under section 172 (2) (a).
In deciding the second question, the court noted the reluctance of courts in other countries to review decisions of this nature because of the political nature of the judgment required, and its closeness to legislative powers.
The Court held that the power was not "administrative action, '' as contemplated in the administrative justice clause in the bill of rights, and therefore did not fall within the controls of public power set out in that clause. Rather, it was a power of a special nature, the character of which is neither legislative nor administrative, although it is more closely linked to the legislative than the administrative function. However, the exercise of such a power is not beyond the reach of judicial review, because the exercise of all power must conform with the Constitution, and, in particular, the requirements of the rule of law -- a foundational principle in the Constitution. The Court held that this includes the requirement that a decision, viewed objectively, must be rationally related to the purpose for which the power was given. Thus, even if the President acts in good faith, his decision may be invalid if it does not meet this objective requirement. This does not mean, however, that a court may interfere with a decision simply because it disagrees with it or considers that the power was exercised inappropriately.
On the facts, the court held that the decision to bring the Act into force on April 30, 1999, before the necessary schedules were in place, although through no fault of the President, was objectively irrational. It noted that no rational basis for the decision had been suggested, and that the President himself had approached the court urgently, with the support of the Minister of Health and the professional associations most directly affected by the Act.
The effect of the Constitutional Court 's decision in this case was that the 1965 legislation that governed the control of medicinal substances, and that was to be replaced by the 1998 Act, remained in force until such time as the President determined a date for bringing the new Act into force.
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who was the prime minister of united kingdom when india become independent | Indian Independence Act 1947 - wikipedia
The Indian Independence Act 1947 (1947 c. 30 (10 & 11. Geo. 6.)) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that partitioned British India into the two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan. The Act received the royal assent on 18 July 1947, and Pakistan came into being on 14 August and India came into being on 15 August.
The legislation was formulated by the government of Prime Minister Clement Attlee and the Governor General of India Lord Mountbatten, after representatives of the Indian National Congress, the Muslim League, and the Sikh community came to an agreement with Lord Mountbatten on what has come to be known as the 3 June Plan or Mountbatten Plan. This plan was the last plan for independence.
The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom announced on 20 February 1947 that:
Attlee wrote to Mountbatten on 18 March 1947: "It is, of course, important that the Indian States should adjust their relations with the authorities to whom it is intended to hand over power in British India; but as was explicitly stated by the Cabinet Mission His Majesty 's Government do not intend to hand over their powers and obligations under paramountcy to any successor Government. It is not intended to bring paramountcy as a system to a conclusion earlier than the date of the final transfer of power, but you are authorised, at such time as you think appropriate, to enter into negotiations with individual States for adjusting their relations with the Crown. ''
This was also known as the Mountbatten Plan. The British government proposed a plan announced on 3 June 1947 that included these principles:
The Act 's most important provisions were:
The Act also made provision for the division of joint property, etc. between the two new countries, including in particular the division of the armed forces.
There was much violence, and many Muslims from what would become India fled to Pakistan; and Hindus and Sikhs from what would become Pakistan fled to India. Many people left behind all their possessions and property to avoid the violence and flee to their new country.
On 4 June 1947 Mountbatten held a press conference in which he addressed the question of the princely states, of which there were over 570. The treaty relations between Britain and the Indian States would come to an end, and on 15 August 1947 the suzerainty of the British Crown was to lapse. They would be free to accede to one or the other of the new dominions or to remain independent.
Lord Mountbatten of Burma, the last Viceroy, was asked by the Indian leaders to continue as the Governor - General of India. Jawaharlal Nehru became the Prime Minister of India and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became the Home Minister.
Over 560 princely states acceded to India by 15 August. The exceptions were Junagadh, Hyderabad and Jammu and Kashmir. The state of Jammu and Kashmir, which was contiguous to both India and Pakistan but, its Hindu ruler chose to remain initially independent. Following a Pakistani tribal invasion, he acceded to India on 26 October 1947, and the state became a dispute between India and Pakistan. The state of Junagadh initially acceded to Pakistan but faced a revolt from its Hindu population. Following a breakdown of law and order, its Dewan requested India to take over the administration on 8 November 1947. India conducted a referendum in the state on 20 February 1948, in which the people voted overwhelmingly to join India. The state of Hyderabad, with majority Hindu population but Muslim ruler, faced an intense turmoil and sectarian violence. India invaded the state on 13 September 1948, following which the ruler of the state signed the Instrument of Accession, joining India.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah became the Governor - General of Pakistan, and Liaquat Ali Khan became the Prime Minister of Pakistan.
Between October 1947 and March 1948 the rulers of several Muslim - majority states signed an Instrument of Accession to join Pakistan. These included Amb, Bahawalpur, Chitral, Dir, Kalat, Khairpur, Kharan, Las Bela, Makran, and Swat.
The Indian Independence Act was subsequently repealed in Article 395 of the Constitution of India and in Article 221 of the Constitution of Pakistan of 1956, both constitutions being intended to bring about greater independence for the new states. Although, under British law, the new constitutions did not have the legal authority to repeal the Act, the repeal was intended to establish them as independent legal systems based only on home - grown legislation. The Act has not been repealed in the United Kingdom, where it still has effect, although some sections of it have been repealed.
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what type of train is thomas the tank engine | Thomas the Tank Engine - wikipedia
Thomas the Tank Engine is a fictional steam locomotive in The Railway Series books by the Reverend Wilbert Awdry and his son, Christopher. He became the most popular character in the series, and is the title character in the accompanying television spin - off series Thomas & Friends.
Thomas is a steam engine and has a number 1 painted on his side. All of the locomotives in The Railway Series were based on prototypical engines; Thomas has origins in the E2 Class designed by Lawson Billinton in 1913. Thomas first appeared in 1946 in the second book in the series, Thomas the Tank Engine, and was the focus of the four short stories contained within. Thomas 's best friends are Percy and Toby.
In 1979 British writer / producer Britt Allcroft came across the books, and arranged a deal to bring the stories to life as the TV series Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends (later simplified to Thomas & Friends). The programme became an award - winning hit around the world, with a vast range of spin - off commercial products.
When Awdry created Thomas, the engine existed only as a wooden toy made for his son Christopher. This engine looked rather different from the character in the books and television series, and carried the letters NW on its side tanks. Awdry claimed that this stood for "No Where ''; as the Railway Series and its backstory developed, however, the railway that Thomas and his friends worked on became known as the North Western Railway.
Thomas was n't originally based on a prototype; rather, the initial stories were an accompaniment to the toy made for Christopher. After Awdry 's wife encouraged him to publish the stories, the publisher of the second book in The Railway Series, Thomas the Tank Engine, hired an illustrator named Reginald Payne. Awdry selected a real locomotive for Payne to work from to create authenticity: a Billinton designed 0 - 6 - 0 E2 Class of the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway. This may have been chosen simply because Awdry had a photograph to hand.
Thomas is one of half a dozen locomotives fitted with an extension to the front of the water tanks. While the language used and the behaviours exhibited often closely resemble those of real locomotives there are some significant and artistic differences. For example, Thomas 's wheels are driven by internal cylinders typical of such tank engines. The cranks and connecting rods are therefore not externally visible.
Awdry was unsatisfied with one detail of the illustration -- the fact that the front end of his footplate featured a downward slope, which meant that his front and back buffers were at different levels. This was an illustrator 's mistake that was perpetuated in subsequent books. The accident, in "Thomas Comes to Breakfast '' was partly devised as a means of correcting this. Thomas has always been shown with a curved front buffer beam in the television series.
Unfortunately, despite creating the visual image of such an iconic character, Payne did not receive any credit for his work, and it is only since the publication of Brian Sibley 's The Thomas the Tank Engine Man that he has started to receive major recognition. It had often been erroneously assumed that C. Reginald Dalby created the character, as he was responsible for illustrating books 3 -- 11 and repainting the illustrations of books 1 and 2.
Thomas arrived on Sodor in 1915, when The Fat Controller bought the locomotive for a nominal sum to be a pilot engine at Vicarstown. After rescuing James in Thomas & the Breakdown Train, he became a "Really Useful Engine '' and was rewarded by being put in charge of the Ffarquhar branchline. Although Thomas is seen today on various heritage railways, the last of the LB&SCR E2 class was scrapped in 1963, however a proposed project has been announced to build a new one.
Despite becoming the most popular character in The Railway Series, Thomas did not actually feature in the first book, The Three Railway Engines (namely Edward, Henry, and Gordon).
Thomas was described in the opening to "Thomas and Gordon '', the first story in book number two, Thomas the Tank Engine, as:
"... a tank engine who lived at a Big Station. He had six small wheels, a short stumpy funnel, a short stumpy boiler and a short stumpy dome. He was a fussy little engine, always pulling coaches about. (...) He was cheeky, too. ''
Thomas was used initially as a station pilot engine in the first three stories in book 2, but longed for more important jobs such as pulling the express train like Gordon; his inexperience prevented this. In the fourth story, Thomas and the Breakdown Train, Thomas rescues James and is rewarded with his own branch line. He has remained in charge of the Ffarquhar branch ever since, with his two coaches Annie and Clarabel, and help from Percy and Toby. Thomas is generally depicted with a cheeky and even self - important personality. He believes that he should be more respected by the others, and he gets annoyed when he does not receive this respect. However, Percy and Toby are more than capable of standing up to him, and Annie and Clarabel often rebuke him.
Thomas 's on - screen appearances in the TV series were developed by Britt Allcroft. The first series of 26 stories premiered in October 1984 on the ITV Network in the UK, with former Beatles drummer / vocalist Ringo Starr as storyteller. The stories were featured as segments as part of Shining Time Station in the US beginning in 1989 with Starr as the show 's Mr. Conductor character. From 1991 to 1993, George Carlin replaced Starr as both the storyteller and as Mr. Conductor for Shining Time Station. Carlin also told the Thomas stories for Shining Time Station in 1995.
In 1996 the Thomas stories were segments for Mr. Conductor 's Thomas Tales, again featuring George Carlin. Alec Baldwin portrayed Mr. Conductor in Thomas and the Magic Railroad, and narrated the series for the US from 1998 to 2003. Michael Angelis narrated the series from 1991 to 2012 in the UK, while Michael Brandon narrated the series from 2004 to 2012 in the US. As of 2013, the series is narrated by Mark Moraghan.
Thomas 's personality was originally faithful to the character of the books. As the show branched away from the novels however, modifications were made. Thomas became noticeably less arrogant and self - absorbed, developing a more friendly, altruistic and happy go lucky (if still rather over-excitable) side. He also no longer appears to be limited to his branch line and seems to work all over Sodor. These changes in his personality and duties are a result of his "star '' status. He is the most popular character in the series, and therefore he has the largest number of appearances, appearing in all of the DVD specials and the movie Thomas & the Magic Railroad.
From Hero of the Rails until Series 18, Thomas was voiced by Martin Sherman (US) and Ben Small (UK). From 2015 onwards, Thomas is voiced by John Hasler in the UK, and by Joseph May in the US.
In The Adventure Begins which is a retelling of Thomas 's early days on Sodor, he is a bluish - green colour when he first arrives on Sodor, his tanks are lettered "LBSC '' (for the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway) with the number 70 on his bunker. The 70 is a reference to 2015 being the 70th anniversary for the Railway Series, while the LB&SCR E2 class were actually numbered from 100 -- 109. The real life LBSC no. 70 is an A1 class.
Thomas had his genesis, like Winnie - the - Pooh, in a toy for a small child, both coincidentally named Christopher. A wooden push - along toy from the early 1940s is the original Thomas made by the Reverend Awdry out of a piece of broomstick for his son Christopher. This engine looked rather different from the character in the books and television series and was based on an LNER Class J50 with smaller side tanks and splashers. He was painted blue with yellow lining and carried the letters NW on his side tanks.
Awdry claimed that this stood for "No Where '', but later works would identify the railway Thomas and his friends worked on as the fictional North Western Railway. Christopher Awdry lost this model when he was in the US, although it was recreated for a sizzle promo for the 70th Anniversary. However, the Reverend was happy to endorse Payne 's account that the locomotive was an LBSC E2, although the first Thomas on the Awdry 's model railway, from Stuart Reidpath, lacked extended tanks. In the 1979 Thomas Annual, Awdry wrote:
"I bought Thomas in 1948 when I was writing "Tank Engine Thomas Again '', and wanted to start modelling once more after a lapse of some twenty years. Thomas was one of Stewart Reidpath 's standard models with a heavy, cast white metal body, and was fitted with his "Essar '' chassis and motor. Stewart Reidpath is now dead, and his motors, let alone spare parts for them, have been unobtainable for years; but Thomas still keeps going! He is, as you might expect from his age, a temperamental old gentleman, and has to be driven very carefully indeed. ''
After Hornby produced the LBSC E2 tank in the late 1970s and early 1980s, Awdry gladly adapted one to take the role of Thomas on his layout, the Ffarquhar branch.
Despite Awdry 's requests for models, to which Lines Brothers (later Triang - Hornby) responded with Meccano Percy in 1967, Hornby eventually adapted the tool to be Thomas when they started Railway Series models in the 1980s.
Thomas was the only fictional character included in the Independent on Sunday 's 2009 "Happy List '', recognised alongside 98 real - life adults and a therapy dog for making Britain a better and happier place.
Thomas has been referenced, featured and parodied in popular culture. In 1988, he was parodied on ITV 's Spitting Image where he was portrayed as a drunk who went "completely off the rails. '' In 2009, he appeared in The Official BBC Children in Need Medley where he was voiced by Ringo Starr, who narrated the first two series of Thomas and Friends. In the British comedy show Bobby Davro 's TV Weekly, a spoof was created titled "Thomas The Tanked Up Engine '' involving Jeremy, the pink engine. Bobby Davro provided the narration by impersonating Ringo Starr.
In Cartoon Network 's MAD, Thomas the Tank Engine appears in "Thomas the Unstoppable Tank Engine, '' a crossover between Thomas the Tank Engine and Unstoppable. A parody of Thomas the Tank Engine was in Robot Chicken. The skit was called "Blow Some Steam. '' The narrator (Seth Green) spoke like Ringo Starr who was the first narrator for Thomas and Friends. Thomas was voiced by Daniel Radcliffe.
A tank - themed version of Thomas appears as an amusement park prop in the 2015 anime feature Girls und Panzer der Film.
The 2015 Marvel film Ant - Man features a Bachmann HO scale model of Thomas. In the film 's climactic battle, Ant - Man and Yellowjacket fight atop Thomas while in their insect sizes until Yellowjacket derails Thomas and throws him onto a windowsill. An accident during the fight results in Thomas suddenly growing to the size of a real train and demolishing a large portion of Ant - Man 's daughter 's house before falling on top of a police car.
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who played the president in the day after tomorrow | The Day After Tomorrow - wikipedia
The Day After Tomorrow is a 2004 American science - fiction disaster film co-written, directed, and produced by Roland Emmerich and starring Dennis Quaid, Jake Gyllenhaal, Ian Holm, Emmy Rossum, and Sela Ward. The film depicts catastrophic climatic effects following the disruption of the North Atlantic Ocean circulation in a series of extreme weather events that usher in global cooling and lead to a new ice age. Filmed in Toronto and Montreal, it is the highest - grossing Hollywood film made in Canada (adjusted for inflation).
Originally slated for release in the summer of 2003, The Day After Tomorrow premiered in Mexico City on May 17, 2004, and was released in the United States May 28, 2004. A major commercial success, the film became the sixth highest - grossing film of 2004. It received mixed reviews upon release, with critics highly praising the film 's special effects but criticizing its writing and numerous scientific inaccuracies.
Jack Hall, an American paleoclimatologist, and his colleagues Frank and Jason, drill for ice - core samples in the Larsen Ice Shelf for the NOAA, when the shelf breaks apart. Jack warns of global warming to a UN conference in New Delhi, but US Vice President Raymond Becker dismisses his concerns. Professor Terry Rapson of the Hedland Centre in Scotland shares Jack 's views of an inevitable climate shift and they become friends. Several buoys in the Atlantic Ocean show a severe ocean temperature drop, leading Rapson to conclude Jack 's theories are correct. Jack and Rapson 's teams, along with NASA meteorologist Janet Tokada, build a forecast model based on Jack 's research.
Eventually, a storm system develops in the northern hemisphere, splitting into three superstorms above Canada, Scotland, and Siberia. The gigantic "hurricanes '' pull frozen air from the upper troposphere into their center, sending air temperature there below - 150 degrees Fahrenheit. The subzero temperatures of the superstorms ' eyes cause flash freezing. Meanwhile, the weather becomes increasingly bad around the world, Tokyo is struck by a giant hail storm and Los Angeles and Hollywood are devastated by a tornado outbreak.
In New York, Jack 's son Sam, and his friends Brian, J.D., and Laura Chapman participate in an academic decathlon. The city begins to fill with rain, with a huge storm surge after, getting Sam 's group stuck in the New York Public Library. Sam contacts Jack and his mother Lucy, a doctor, Jack advising him to stay inside, and promises to rescue him. Rapson and his team perish in the European storm, while Lucy remains in a hospital caring for bed - ridden children, until saved by the authorities.
Upon Jack 's suggestion, US President Blake orders the southern states to be evacuated into Mexico, the northern half doomed to be hit by the superstorm. Blake is caught in it and dies, making Becker the new President. Jack, Jason, and Frank make their way into New York, but Frank falls through the skylight of a mall, cutting his rope to prevent his friends from falling in after him. In the library, most survivors decide to head south against Sam 's warnings, and later freeze to death. Sam, his friends, and other likeminded survivors remain inside, burning books to stay warm.
Laura, wounded during the flooding, develops blood poisoning from her injury. Sam, Brian, and J.D. search a Ukrainian cargo vessel "Odessa '', that drifted into the city, for penicillin. They encounter a pack of wolves which escaped from Central Park Zoo. The eye of the North American storm arrives, freezing Manhattan, but Sam 's group escape into the library just in time. Jack and Jason also survive it. Days later, the superstorms dissipate. Jack and Jason reach the library, discovering Sam and the others have survived.
Becker, in his first address as President, apologises on television for his ignorance, vowing to send helicopters to rescue survivors in the northern states. Jack and Sam 's group are picked up in Manhattan, where many people have survived. On the International Space Station, astronauts look down in awe at the frozen Earth, now free of pollution.
The Day After Tomorrow was inspired by Coast to Coast AM talk - radio host Art Bell and Whitley Strieber 's book, The Coming Global Superstorm, and Strieber wrote the film 's novelization. Arnold Federbush 's 1978 novel, Ice!, and Douglas Orgill and John Gribbin 's The Sixth Winter (published in 1979) have similar themes. Before and during the film 's release, members of environmental and political advocacy groups distributed pamphlets to moviegoers describing the possible effects of global warming. Although the film depicts effects of global warming predicted by scientists (such as rising sea levels, more destructive storms, and disruption of ocean currents and weather patterns), it depicts their occurrence more rapidly and severely than what is considered scientifically plausible; the theory that a superstorm could create rapid worldwide climate change does not appear in the scientific literature.
To choose a studio, writer Michael Wimer created an auction. A copy of the script was sent to all major studios along with a term sheet. They had 24 hours to decide whether to produce the movie with Roland Emmerich directing. Fox Studios was the only studio to accept the terms.
The Day After Tomorrow is widely - known for its special effects and CGI. The movie features 416 visual effects shots, with nine effects houses, notably Industrial Light & Magic and Digital Domain, and over 1,000 artists working on the film for over a year. Although a miniature set was initially considered according to the behind - the - scenes documentary, for the destruction of New York sequence effects artists instead utilized a 13 block - sized 3D model of Manhattan which was then textured with over 50,000 scanned photographs; due to its overall complexity and a tight schedule, the storm surge scene required as many as three special effects vendors for certain shots.
The film ranked # 2 at the box office (behind Shrek 2) over its four - day Memorial Day opening, grossing $85,807,341. led the per - theater average, with a four - day average of $25,053 (compared to Shrek 2 's four - day average of $22,633). At the end of its theatrical run, the film grossed $186,740,799 domestically and $544,272,402 worldwide. It was the second - highest opening - weekend film not to lead at the box office; Inside Out surpassed it in June 2015.
The Day After Tomorrow received mixed reviews from critics, who praised its visual effects and criticized its writing and scientific inaccuracy. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes rated the film at 44 %, with an average rating of 5.3 out of 10. According to the website, it is "A ludicrous popcorn flick filled with clunky dialogues, but spectacular visuals save it from being a total disaster. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times described the film as "profoundly silly '' but nonetheless said the film was effective and praised the special effects. He gave it three stars out of four.
Emmerich did not deny that his casting of a weak president and the resemblance of vice-president Kenneth Welsh to Dick Cheney were intended to criticize the climate change policy of the George W. Bush administration. Responding to claims of insensitivity in his inclusion of scenes of a devastated New York City less than three years after the September 11 attacks, Emmerich said that it was necessary to showcase the increased unity of people in the face of disaster because of the attacks.
Some scientists criticized the film 's scientific aspects. Paleoclimatologist and professor of earth and planetary science at Harvard University Daniel P. Schrag said, "On the one hand, I 'm glad that there 's a big - budget movie about something as critical as climate change. On the other, I 'm concerned that people will see these over-the - top effects and think the whole thing is a joke... We are indeed experimenting with the Earth in a way that has n't been done for millions of years. But you 're not going to see another ice age -- at least not like that. '' J. Marshall Shepherd, a research meteorologist at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, expressed a similar sentiment: "I 'm heartened that there 's a movie addressing real climate issues. But as for the science of the movie, I 'd give it a D minus or an F. And I 'd be concerned if the movie was made to advance a political agenda. '' According to University of Victoria climatologist Andrew Weaver, "It 's The Towering Inferno of climate science movies, but I 'm not losing any sleep over a new ice age, because it 's impossible. ''
Patrick J. Michaels, a former research professor of environmental science at the University of Virginia who rejects the scientific consensus on global warming, called the film "propaganda '' in a USA Today editorial: "As a scientist, I bristle when lies dressed up as ' science ' are used to influence political discourse. '' College instructor and retired NASA Office of Inspector General senior special agent Joseph Gutheinz called The Day After Tomorrow "a cheap thrill ride, which many weak - minded people will jump on and stay on for the rest of their lives '' in a Space Daily editorial.
When paleoclimatologist William Hyde of Duke University was asked on Usenet if he would see the film, he answered that he would not unless someone offered him $100. Subscribers to the newsgroup took up the challenge and, despite Hyde 's protests, raised the $100. Hyde 's review on Google Groups criticized the film 's depiction of weather which stopped at national borders; it was "to climate science as Frankenstein is to heart transplant surgery ''.
Stefan Rahmstorf of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, an expert on thermohaline circulation and its effect on climate, said after a talk with scriptwriter Jeffrey Nachmanoff at the film 's Berlin preview:
Environmental activist and Guardian columnist George Monbiot called The Day After Tomorrow "a great movie and lousy science ''.
In 2008, Yahoo! Movies listed The Day After Tomorrow as one of its top - 10 scientifically inaccurate films. It was criticized for depicting meteorological phenomena as occurring over the course of hours, instead of decades or centuries. A 2015 Washington Post article reported on a paper published in Nature Scientific Reports which indicated that global temperatures could drop relatively rapidly due to a temporary shutdown of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation caused by global warming.
The film was released on VHS and DVD October 12, 2004 and was released in high - definition video on Blu - ray in North America on October 2, 2007 and in the United Kingdom on April 28, 2008, in 1080p with a lossless DTS - HD Master Audio track and few bonus features. DVD sales were $110 million, bringing the film 's gross to $652,771,772.
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what episode in season 10 do ross and rachel get together | Friends (season 10) - wikipedia
The tenth and final season of Friends, an American sitcom created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman, premiered on NBC on September 25, 2003. Friends was produced by Bright / Kauffman / Crane Productions, in association with Warner Bros. Television. The season contains 18 episodes (with the last two made into one long episode) and concluded airing on May 6, 2004.
The season premiere opens in Barbados following on from the season 9 finale. Ross and Charlie, a fellow paleontologist and Joey 's ex-girlfriend, are kissing. Joey sees this and goes to Rachel 's room, where the two of them also kiss. However, they both decide to talk to Ross about the situation to make sure he is okay with it. After they return from Barbados, Ross finds them kissing. He tries to hide the fact that he is hurt, but they realize he is when he starts acting all weird around them. Joey eventually talks to Ross about the situation and Ross says that he will be okay with their relationship. After several obstacles that prevent Joey and Rachel from consummating their relationship, they decide to just remain friends. By the sixth episode of this season, Ross becomes single again after Charlie decides to get back together with her ex-boyfriend.
Mike proposes to Phoebe and they get married mid-season. Monica and Chandler decide to try to adopt a child after finding out that they are infertile. They are eventually selected by a woman named Erica. Following this, they decide that they want to move to a house in Westchester. Rachel is head - hunted for a job with Gucci, but in the restaurant where she is being interviewed, her boss (Mr. Zelner) is seated at the next table. She gets fired from Ralph Lauren and also does n't get the job with Gucci, which leaves her unemployed. While departing her old job, she runs into Mark, her old colleague from Bloomingdale 's in Season 3, who offers her a job with Louis Vuitton in Paris. Ross, still being secretly in love with her, does n't want her to leave and tries to make her get her old job at Ralph Lauren back by convincing her boss to increase her salary. Rachel decides she wants to go to Paris and says goodbyes to everyone personally except Ross. Ross reacts harshly and tells her that it 's not fair. When Rachel goes to Ross ' apartment to explain, they end up kissing and spending the night together. Ross expects Rachel to cancel her plans, but she still wants to go to Paris.
In the season 's (and series ') final episode, Erica delivers Monica 's and Chandler 's baby, although, to their surprise, she had twins, a boy and a girl. Phoebe and Ross go to the airport to try to convince Rachel to stay, but they end up going to the wrong airport. After Phoebe causes a delay in the departure, they meet Rachel at the gate before she boards, but even though Ross tells her how he feels, Rachel still boards. Ross goes back home only to find a message from Rachel saying she made a mistake. As she is hindered by a stewardess from getting off the plane, the connection breaks. Ross frantically tries to fix the machine, wondering if she got off the plane. Rachel enters Ross ' apartment and says "I got off the plane ''. They kiss and declare their love for each other. The last scene of the series is everyone putting their keys on the table in Monica 's apartment. When Rachel asks if they want to go for one last coffee, Chandler replies with the last sarcastic word of the show, "Where? ''. The camera then pans across the empty apartment, before landing on the door. The show then fades to black. The tag scene pans around New York.
Rachel and Joey decide to talk to Ross about their relationship, while Ross tries to talk to Joey about his relationship with Charlie. Ross confesses his relationship to Joey but Joey chickens out. Ross later walks in on Rachel and Joey kissing. Monica has her hair done in cornrows to get rid of her frizzy hair but Chandler hates it. Monica finally comes around to Chandler 's way of thinking when she gets her hair caught on the shower curtain. Phoebe finds out that Mike has been seeing a woman named Precious (Anne Dudek) for the past few months and now needs to break up with her. Phoebe waits for Mike to return from his break - up but finds herself breaking up for him when Precious shows up at Mike 's apartment.
Rachel 's sister Amy (Christina Applegate) shows up at Ross ' looking for Rachel and Rachel quickly learns she plans to marry her ex-boyfriend's father. Rachel takes her in, much to Joey 's chagrin, and tries to help her get her life together. Amy offers to baby - sit Emma, who she calls Ella, but messes up by getting Emma 's ears pierced. Rachel is incredibly upset but eventually her and Amy come to an understanding when Rachel finds out her other sister, Jill, is now fat. Mike attempts to propose to Phoebe on the big screen but Phoebe tells him how lame that is when another couple gets engaged that way. Phoebe tries to fix it by proposing to him on the big screen but Mike gets laughed at. Mike finally proposes at a restaurant and Phoebe accepts. Monica and Chandler ask Rachel to write a letter of recommendation for them to their adoption agency but Joey feels left out. They ask Joey but he tries to write the letter using big words, only for Joey to use a thesaurus to a ridiculous degree (to the point that he refers to himself as a baby kangaroo). He finally re-drafts the letter but gives the handwritten letter to the agency before Monica and Chandler can approve it. The agency thinks a child has written the letter and love it.
Monica and Rachel throw Phoebe a bachelorette party but Phoebe is disappointed there is no stripper. Rachel and Monica hire a male stripper (Danny DeVito) at the last minute; but when he gets there, Phoebe insults him. He begins to cry. Ross and Chandler attend their college reunion and remember the girl they made a pact not to date. Ross makes his move but discovers Chandler used to make out with her all the time. Chandler informs Ross that he broke the pact as well but with a different girl (Kimberley Davies) at a party. At the same party, Monica and Rachel were visiting and Chandler made - out with Rachel to get back at Ross. Ross is upset because this is also the night of the first kiss between him and Rachel but later finds out he actually kissed Monica. Joey is a guest star on the television game show Pyramid and does horribly. Joey nearly redeems himself in the final round but messes up on the final question.
Phoebe 's wedding to Mike is nearly upon the gang, and wedding planner Monica is going overboard much to everyone 's irritation. Eventually it gets too much for Phoebe who fires her intending to do the job herself. Meanwhile Phoebe has also asked Joey to give her away, causing him to give Mike more than a few warnings about Phoebe 's welfare. Ross and Chandler also find they 're not part of the wedding party but compete when one of Mike 's groomsmen drops out and he offers to let one of them fill the position. A freak blizzard hits New York and it becomes obvious the wedding will have to be postponed, but Phoebe and Mike decide to get married outside with a still - ordained Joey acting as minister and Phoebe rehires Monica knowing she can pull it all off in time. Mike tells Ross and Chandler that he 's decided to allow his family dog to fill in the vacant groomsman position but still needs one of them to walk the dog down the aisle and Chandler 's fear of dogs allows Ross to fill the role only while Chandler fills in for Joey giving Phoebe away. In the end, everything works out and Phoebe has the wedding of her dreams in the snow - filled street outside Central Perk.
After having sex with Ross, Rachel says it was ' the perfect way to say goodbye ', and he realizes he is still in love with her. Phoebe and Joey pack Monica and Chandler 's belongings as the couple accompany Erica to the hospital. Ross and Phoebe race to the airport to tell Rachel of his feelings -- but she gets on the plane anyway. Meanwhile, Erica gives birth to twins which Chandler and Monica name Jack and Erica. Still on the plane, contemplating Ross ' plea, Rachel has a change of heart. She leaves the plane and goes to Ross ' apartment to tell him that she loves him. After years of separation, the two finally get back together for good, saying "this is it '', hinting they will marry after the series (which is revealed to be true in the spin - off, Joey). Back in Monica 's apartment, the friends turn in their keys and go out for their last cup of coffee together as a group. The series ends with the friends leaving and a camera panning the apartment and the city.
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what does the phantom of the opera look like without his mask | Erik (the Phantom of the Opera) - wikipedia
Erik (also known as The Phantom of the Opera, commonly referred to as The Phantom) is the title character from Gaston Leroux 's novel Le Fantôme de l'Opéra (1910), best known to English speakers as The Phantom of the Opera. He is unique in that he is both the titular protagonist and at times the antagonist of the novel. The character has been adapted to alternate media several times, including in the 1925 film adaptation starring Lon Chaney, the 1943 remake starring Claude Rains and Andrew Lloyd Webber 's musical.
In the original novel, few details are given regarding Erik 's past, although there is no shortage of hints and implications throughout the book. Erik himself laments the fact that his mother was horrified by his appearance (causing him to run away from home at a young age), and that his father, a true master mason, never even saw him. The text also reveals that "Erik '' was not, in fact, his birth name, but one that was given or found "by accident '', as Erik himself says within the work. Leroux sometimes calls him "the man 's voice ''. Erik refers to himself as "The Opera Ghost '', "The Angel of Music '', and attends a masquerade as the "Red Death '' (evidently Erik is familiar with Edgar Allan Poe 's short story "The Masque of the Red Death '' (1842)). Most of the character 's history is revealed by a mysterious figure, known through most of the novel as The Persian or the Daroga, who had been a local police chief in Persia, following Erik to Paris; other details are discussed in the novel 's epilogue (e.g., his birthplace is given as a small town outside of Rouen, France).
Born hideously deformed, he is a "subject of horror '' for his family and as a result he runs away as a young boy and falls in with a band of gypsies, making his living as an attraction in freak shows, where he is known as "le mort vivant '' ("the living dead ''). During his time with the group Erik becomes a great illusionist, magician, and ventriloquist. His reputation for these skills and his unearthly singing voice spreads quickly, and one day a fur trader mentions him to the Shah of Persia.
The Shah orders the Persian to fetch Erik and bring him to the palace. The Shah - in - Shah commissions Erik, who proves himself a gifted architect, to construct an elaborate palace in Mazenderan. This is designed with so many trap doors and secret rooms that not even the slightest whisper would be considered private. The design itself carries sound to myriad hidden locations, so that one never knew who might be listening. At some point under the Shah 's employment Erik is also a political assassin, using a unique noose referred to as the Punjab Lasso. The Persian dwells on the vague horrors that existed at Mazenderan rather than going in depth into the actual circumstances involved.
The Shah, pleased with Erik 's work and determined that no one else should have such a palace, orders Erik blinded. Thinking that Erik could still make another palace even without his eyesight, the Shah orders Erik 's execution. It is only by the intervention of the daroga (the Persian) that Erik escapes. Erik then goes to Constantinople and is employed by its ruler, helping build certain buildings in the Yildiz - Kiosk, among others. However, he has to leave the city for the same reason he left Mazenderan: he knows too much. He also seems to have traveled to Southeast Asia, since he claims to have learned to breathe underwater using a hollow reed from the "Tonkin pirates ''. By this time Erik is tired of his nomadic life and wants to "live like everybody else ''. For a time he works as a contractor, building "ordinary houses with ordinary bricks ''. He eventually bids on a contract to help with the construction of the Palais Garnier, commonly known as the Paris Opéra.
During the construction, Erik is able to make a sort of playground for himself within the Opera House, creating trapdoors and secret passageways throughout the theatre. He even builds himself a house in the cellars of the Opera where he could live far from man 's cruelty. Erik has spent twenty years composing a piece entitled Don Juan Triumphant. In one chapter, after he takes Christine to his lair, she asks him to play her a piece from his masterwork. He refuses and says: "I will play you Mozart, if you like, which will only make you weep; but my Don Juan, Christine, burns. '' Eventually, after she has wrenched off his mask and seen his deformed face, he begins to play it. Christine says that at first it seems to be "one great awful sob '', but then becomes alert to its nuances and power, as the music is able to convey to her the misery he has endured throughout his life and the hope he finally felt for love.
Upon its completion, Erik originally plans to go to his bed (which is a coffin) and "never wake up '', but by the final chapters of the novel, during which Erik kidnaps Christine right from the stage during a performance, Erik expresses his wish to marry Christine and live a comfortable bourgeois life after his work has been completed. He has stored a massive amount of gunpowder under the Opera, and, should she refuse his offer, plans to detonate it. When she acquiesces to his desires in order to save herself, her lover Raoul (who, aided by the Persian, went looking for Christine and fell into Erik 's torture chamber), and the denizens of the Opera, we find out that his part of the bargain was to take the Persian and Raoul above ground.
Erik does so with the Persian, but Raoul was kept "a hostage '' and was "locked up comfortably, properly chained '' in the dungeon under the opera. When he returns, he finds Christine waiting for him, like "a real living wife '' and he swore she tilted her forehead toward him, and he kissed it. Then he says he was so happy that he fell at her feet, crying, and she cries with him, calling him "poor, unhappy Erik '' and taking his hand. At this point, he is "just a poor dog ready to die for her '' and he returns to her the ring she had lost and said that she was free to go and marry Raoul.
Erik frees Raoul who then leaves with Christine. But before they do, Erik makes Christine promise that when he dies she will come back and bury him. Then she kisses Erik 's forehead. Erik dies three weeks later, but not before he goes to visit the Persian and tells him everything, and promises to send him Erik 's dearest possessions: the papers that Christine wrote about everything that had happened with her "Angel of Music '' and some things that had belonged to her. Christine keeps her promise and returns to the Opera to bury Erik and place the plain gold band he had given her on his finger. Leroux claims that a skeleton bearing such a ring was later unearthed in the Opera cellars.
Many different versions of Erik 's life are told through other adaptations such as films, television shows, books, and musicals. One such popular literary adaptation is the Susan Kay novel Phantom (1990), a fictional in - depth story of Erik from the time of his birth to the end of his life at the Paris Opera House.
For the most part, Kay 's novel stays in context with Erik 's life history as laid down by Leroux, however Kay (as explained in her Author 's Note) changes and shapes the character to match her own vision, influenced by other adaptations besides the original. In addition, the ending / resolution is quite different from Leroux 's. The story follows Erik through his entire life, starting with the night of his birth, and is told from different viewpoints throughout the novel (Erik 's mother, Erik, Nadir / the Persian, Christine, and Raoul). Kay places the highest priority on portraying romantic aspects of Erik 's life. He falls in love twice throughout the novel, but neither of these occasions truly end happily.
The theatrical songwriting team of Maury Yeston and Arthur Kopit created a musical based on the story which investors backed out of after Webber 's version became a huge hit. Erik is portrayed as much kinder and more sympathetic, and also with more of a sense of humor. His mother was a singer in the Opera and, having discovered that she was pregnant with an illegitimate child, swallowed poison. This is the reason for his disfigurement. He was born within the catacombs of the opera house and lived there his entire life. His mother died when he was a young child. His father, Gerard Carriere, was the manager and kept him safe all that time. Over the years, Erik became the creative driving force for the opera company. No artistic decision was made without Carriere seeking his approval.
It is implied that the main reason for Erik 's attraction to Christine is that her astonishing voice and beauty remind him of his mother, the only person who was ever able to look at him with happiness. Yet when he finally brings himself to show Christine his face, she runs away. Christine feels intensely remorseful afterwards and when he is eventually cornered by the police, at the end of the play, she takes off his mask and smiles.
This storyline was also the basis for the 1990 miniseries starring Charles Dance, Teri Polo, and Burt Lancaster as Carriere.
In Nicholas Meyer 's novel The Canary Trainer, Sherlock Holmes develops several theories as to the Phantom 's identity. His first idea is that he is an employee of the Opera; however, when the Phantom 's knowledge of the Opera becomes evident, Holmes then believes that he is Charles Garnier, having faked his own death. When Garnier 's corpse is identified, Holmes then theorizes that the Phantom was Edouard LaFosse, the (fictional) assistant of Garnier who designed much of the Opera 's interior and who allegedly died after a building collapse. Holmes theorizes that he did not die, but was merely disfigured and therefore took to hiding in the Opera. However, when Holmes finally confronts the Phantom, he claims that he can not speak without his mask, as his mother forced him to wear it whenever he wished to speak as a child, and he is not Edouard LaFosse. Holmes therefore admits that he is not sure how true any of the theories or claims of the Phantom 's identity are. The Phantom never provides a given name in the novel; he only tells Christine that his name is "Nobody '' (a reference to the name Odysseus gave Polyphemus in the Odyssey).
Regardless of his identity, the Phantom in The Canary Trainer is much more unhinged and bloodthirsty than in the original novel or play. For example, when killing Madame Giry 's replacement with the chandelier, he kills "almost thirty men and women in the twinkling of an eye '', just to ensure that he kills his main target.
In Sam Siciliano 's novel The Angel of the Opera, Sherlock Holmes is brought in to solve the case of the Opera Ghost, and both Erik 's and Holmes 's stories unfold through the eyes of Holmes 's assistant, Henri Vernier. Siciliano places Holmes and Vernier at several of the crucial scenes in Erik and Christine 's relationship, and draws parallels between Erik and Holmes. Holmes sympathizes with Erik so much that after Christine leaves him, Holmes brings him back to England. One of the first people that Erik meets on his arrival is a blind girl with a fondness for music.
In the original novel, Erik is described as corpse - like and is referred to as having a "death 's - head '' (human skull) throughout the story. He has no nose; eyes that are sunken so deep that all is seen are two skull - like eye sockets except when his golden eyes glow in the dark; skin that is yellow and tightly stretched across his bones; and only a few wisps of ink - black hair behind his ears and on his forehead. (His mouth is never described in as much detail, but is referred to as a ' lipless ' ' dead mouth ' by Christine, and Erik acknowledges that his mouth is abnormal when lifting up his mask to display ventriloquism.) He is described as extremely thin, so much so that he resembles a skeleton. Christine graphically describes his cold, bony hands, which also smell of death. Erik woefully describes himself to Christine as a corpse who is "built up with death from head to foot. '' According to the Persian, Erik was born with this deformity, and was exhibited as ' le mort vivant ' in freak shows earlier in his life. Erik sometimes plays up his macabre appearance, such as sleeping in a coffin and dressing up as the Red Death for the masked ball.
Lon Chaney, Sr. 's characterization of Erik in the silent film The Phantom of the Opera (1925) remains closest to the book in content, in that Erik 's face resembles a skull with an elongated nose slit and protruding, crooked teeth. In this version, Erik is said to have been deformed from birth. Chaney was a master make - up artist and was considered avant garde for creating and applying Erik 's facial makeup design himself. It is said he kept it secret until the first day of filming. The result was allegedly so frightening to the women of the time that theaters showing the movie were cautioned to keep smelling salts on hand.
Several movies based on the novel vary the deformities (or in the case of Dario Argento 's 1998 film, the lack thereof). In Universal 's 1943 adaptation, a poor musician tries to publish his music, and then wrongly accuses the publisher Maurice Pleyel of trying to plagiarize his work. He then strangles the publisher and tries to retrieve his music, only to be disfigured when the publisher 's assistant throws etching acid in his face. In the musical horror film Phantom of the Paradise (1974), Winslow (the Phantom character) gets his head caught in a record - press, while Robert Englund 's horror - version has him selling his soul to Satan and having his face mutilated as a result. This version also has a gruesome variation on the mask, in which Erik is sewing flesh to his face.
In Andrew Lloyd Webber 's musical adaptation, only half of Erik 's face is deformed (thus the famous half - mask often associated with Erik 's appearance.) His show was originally planned to have a full mask and full facial disfigurement, but when the director, Hal Prince, realized that it would make expression onstage very difficult, they halved the mask. The logo featuring a full mask was publicized before the change. The deformity in the musical includes a gash on the right side of his partially balding head with exposed skull tissue, an elongated right nostril, a missing right eyebrow, swollen lips, different colored eyes, and a wrinkled, warped right cheek. It is covered by a white half mask and wig. It originally took roughly four hours per performance to put the prosthetics on in the original London productions. On Broadway, it was cut to roughly three, and over the years has been reduced to 45 minutes. More than one Phantom has described make - up disasters onstage. Michael Crawford recounts a story where he pulled away from the kiss at the end only to see that "(his) lower lip was now hanging off Sarah (Brightman) 's face! ''. To cover the flub, he pulled her back for another kiss and "took back the lips '' and kept that side of his head turned away from the audience.
In the 2004 film adaptation of the musical, Erik 's makeup was made to look much less gruesome than previous adaptations of the story. Instead of a skull - like face, his disfigurement resembles that of a mildly malformed face, which he covers with the mask. Film critic Roger Ebert noted that Butler was more "conventionally handsome '' than his predecessors "in a GQ kind of way ''.
Onscreen, Erik has often been cast as a tragic hero but also a tragic villain, depending on the film 's point of view.
See main list: The Phantom of the Opera
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wilcoxon signed rank test versus wilcoxon rank-sum test | Wilcoxon signed - rank test - wikipedia
The Wilcoxon signed - rank test is a non-parametric statistical hypothesis test used to compare two related samples, matched samples, or repeated measurements on a single sample to assess whether their population mean ranks differ (i.e. it is a paired difference test). It can be used as an alternative to the paired Student 's t - test, t - test for matched pairs, or the t - test for dependent samples when the population can not be assumed to be normally distributed. A Wilcoxon signed - rank test is a nonparametric test that can be used to determine whether two dependent samples were selected from populations having the same distribution.
The test is named for Frank Wilcoxon (1892 -- 1965) who, in a single paper, proposed both it and the rank - sum test for two independent samples (Wilcoxon, 1945). The test was popularized by Sidney Siegel (1956) in his influential textbook on non-parametric statistics. Siegel used the symbol T for a value related to, but not the same as, W (\ displaystyle W). In consequence, the test is sometimes referred to as the Wilcoxon T test, and the test statistic is reported as a value of T.
Let N (\ displaystyle N) be the sample size, i.e., the number of pairs. Thus, there are a total of 2N data points. For pairs i = 1,..., N (\ displaystyle i = 1,..., N), let x 1, i (\ displaystyle x_ (1, i)) and x 2, i (\ displaystyle x_ (2, i)) denote the measurements.
The original Wilcoxon 's proposal used a different statistic. Denoted by Siegel as the T statistic, it is the smaller of the two sums of ranks of given sign; in the example given below, therefore, T would equal 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 18. Low values of T are required for significance. As will be obvious from the example below, T is easier to calculate by hand than W and the test is equivalent to the two - sided test described above; however, the distribution of the statistic under H 0 (\ displaystyle H_ (0)) has to be adjusted.
As demonstrated in the example, when the difference between the groups is zero, the observations are discarded. This is of particular concern if the samples are taken from a discrete distribution. In these scenarios the modification to the Wilcoxon test by Pratt 1959, provides an alternative which incorporates the zero differences. This modification is more robust for data on an ordinal scale.
To compute an effect size for the signed - rank test, one can use the rank correlation.
If the test statistic W is reported, the rank correlation r is equal to the test statistic W divided by the total rank sum S, or r = W / S. Using the above example, the test statistic is W = 9. The sample size of 9 has a total rank sum of S = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9) = 45. Hence, the rank correlation is 9 / 45, so r = 0.20.
If the test statistic T is reported, an equivalent way to compute the rank correlation is with the difference in proportion between the two rank sums, which is the Kerby (2014) simple difference formula. To continue with the current example, the sample size is 9, so the total rank sum is 45. T is the smaller of the two rank sums, so T is 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 18. From this information alone, the remaining rank sum can be computed, because it is the total sum S minus T, or in this case 45 - 18 = 27. Next, the two rank - sum proportions are 27 / 45 = 60 % and 18 / 45 = 40 %. Finally, the rank correlation is the difference between the two proportions (. 60 minus. 40), hence r =. 20.
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the blocking of free association in psychoanalytic therapy by a defense mechanism is defined as | Free association (psychology) - wikipedia
Free association is a technique used in psychoanalysis (and also in psychodynamic theory) which was originally devised by Sigmund Freud out of the hypnotic method of his mentor and colleague, Josef Breuer.
Freud described it as such: "The importance of free association is that the patients spoke for themselves, rather than repeating the ideas of the analyst; they work through their own material, rather than parroting another 's suggestions ''.
Freud developed the technique as an alternative to hypnosis, because he perceived the latter as subjected to more fallibility, and because patients could recover and comprehend crucial memories while fully conscious. However, Freud felt that despite a subject 's effort to remember, a certain resistance kept him or her from the most painful and important memories. He eventually came to the view that certain items were completely repressed, cordoned off and relegated only to the unconscious realm of the mind. The new technique was also encouraged by his experiences with "Miss Elisabeth '', one of his early clients who protested against interruptions of her flow of thought, that was described by his official biographer Ernest Jones as "one of the countless examples of a patient 's furthering the physician 's work ''.
"There can be no exact date for the discovery of the ' free association ' method... it evolved very gradually between 1892 and 1895, becoming steadily refined and purified from the adjutants - hypnosis, suggestion, pressing, and questioning - that accompanied it at its inception ''.
Subsequently, in The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud cites as a precursor of free association a letter from Schiller, the letter maintaining that, "where there is a creative mind, Reason - so it seems to me - relaxes its watch upon the gates, and the ideas rush in pell - mell ''. Freud would later also mention as a possible influence an essay by Ludwig Börne, suggesting that to foster creativity you "write down, without any falsification or hypocrisy, everything that comes into your head ''.
Other potential influences in the development of this technique include Husserl 's version of epoche and the work of Sir Francis Galton. It has been argued that Galton is the progenitor of free association, and that Freud adopted the technique from Galton 's reports published in the journal Brain, of which Freud was a subscriber. Free association also shares some features with the idea of stream of consciousness, employed by writers such as Virginia Woolf and Marcel Proust: "all stream - of - consciousness fiction is greatly dependent on the principles of free association ''.
Freud called free association "this fundamental technical rule of analysis... We instruct the patient to put himself into a state of quiet, unreflecting self - observation, and to report to us whatever internal observations he is able to make '' - taking care not to "exclude any of them, whether on the ground that it is too disagreeable or too indiscreet to say, or that it is too unimportant or irrelevant, or that it is nonsensical and need not be said ''.
The psychoanalyst James Strachey (1887 - 1967) considered free association as ' the first instrument for the scientific examination of the human mind '.
In free association, psychoanalytic patients are invited to relate whatever comes into their minds during the analytic session, and not to censor their thoughts. This technique is intended to help the patient learn more about what he or she thinks and feels, in an atmosphere of non-judgmental curiosity and acceptance. Psychoanalysis assumes that people are often conflicted between their need to learn about themselves, and their (conscious or unconscious) fears of and defenses against change and self - exposure. The method of free association has no linear or preplanned agenda, but works by intuitive leaps and linkages which may lead to new personal insights and meanings: ' the logic of association is a form of unconscious thinking '.
When used in this spirit, free association is a technique in which neither therapist nor patient knows in advance exactly where the conversation will lead, but it tends to lead to material that matters very much to the patient. ' In spite of the seeming confusion and lack of connection... meanings and connections begin to appear out of the disordered skein of thoughts... some central themes '.
The goal of free association is not to unearth specific answers or memories, but to instigate a journey of co-discovery which can enhance the patient 's integration of thought, feeling, agency, and selfhood.
Free association is contrasted with Freud 's "Fundamental Rule '' of psychoanalysis. Whereas free association is one of many techniques (along with dream interpretation and analysis of parapraxis), the fundamental rule is a pledge undertaken by the client. Freud used the following analogy to describe free association to his clients: "Act as though, for instance, you were a traveler sitting next to the window of a railway carriage and describing to someone inside the carriage the changing views which you see outside. '' The fundamental rule is something the client agrees to at the beginning of analysis, and it is an underlying oath that is intended to continue throughout analysis: the client must promise to be honest in every respect. The pledge to the fundamental rule was articulated by Freud: "Finally, never forget that you have promised to be absolutely honest, and never leave anything out because, for some reason or other, it is unpleasant to tell it. ''
Freud 's eventual practice of psychoanalysis focused not so much on the recall of these memories as on the internal mental conflicts which kept them buried deep within the mind. However, the technique of free association still plays a role today in therapeutic practice and in the study of the mind.
The use of free association was intended to help discover notions that a patient had developed, initially, at an unconscious level, including:
The mental conflicts were analyzed from the viewpoint that the patients, initially, did not understand how such feelings were occurring at a subconscious level, hidden inside their minds. ' It is free association within language that is the key to representing the prohibited and forbidden desire... to access unconscious affective memory '.
Jung and his Zurich colleagues ' devised some ingenious association tests which confirmed Freud 's conclusions about the way in which emotional factors may interfere with recollection ': they were published in 1906. As Freud himself put it, ' in this manner Bleuler and Jung built the first bridge from experimental psychology to psychoanalysis '.
Freud, at least initially, saw free association as a relatively accessible method for patients. Ferenczi disagreed, with the famous aphorism: ' The patient is not cured by free - associating, he is cured when he can free - associate '.
Lacan took up the point. ' Free association is really a labour - so much so that some have gone so far as to say that it requires an apprenticeship, even to the point of seeing in such an apprenticeship its true formative value '.
By the late twentieth century, ' analysts today do n't expect the free - association process to take hold until well into the analysis; in fact, some regard the appearance of true free association as a signal to terminate the analysis '.
As time went on, other psychologists created tests that exemplified Freud 's idea of free association including Rorschach 's Inkblot Test and The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) by Christina Morgan and Henry of Harvard University. Although Rorschach 's test has been met with significant criticism over the years, the TAT is still used today, especially with children.
As object relations theory came to place more emphasis on the patient / analyst relationship, and less on the reconstruction of the past, so too did the criticism emerge that Freud never quite freed himself from some use of pressure. For example, ' he still advocated the "fundamental rule '' of free association... (which) could have the effect of bullying the patient, as if to say: "If you do not associate freely - we have ways of making you '' '.
A further problem may be that, ' through overproduction, the freedom it offers sometimes becomes a form of resistance to any form of interpretation '.
Adam Phillips suggests that ' the radical nature of Freud 's project is clear if one imagines what it would be like to live in a world in which everyone was able - had the capacity - to free - associate, to say whatever came into their mind at any given moment... like a collage '.
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how did medusa's hair turn to snakes | Medusa - Wikipedia
In Greek mythology, Medusa (/ mɪˈdjuːzə, - sə /; Μέδουσα "guardian, protectress '') was a monster, a Gorgon, generally described as a winged human female with living venomous snakes in place of hair. Gazers upon her face would turn to stone. Most sources describe her as the daughter of Phorcys and Ceto, though the author Hyginus makes her the daughter of Gorgon and Ceto. According to Hesiod and Aeschylus, she lived and died on an island named Sarpedon, somewhere near Cisthene. The 2nd - century BCE novelist Dionysios Skytobrachion puts her somewhere in Libya, where Herodotus had said the Berbers originated her myth, as part of their religion.
Medusa was beheaded by the hero Perseus, who thereafter used her head, which retained its ability to turn onlookers to stone, as a weapon until he gave it to the goddess Athena to place on her shield. In classical antiquity the image of the head of Medusa appeared in the evil - averting device known as the Gorgoneion.
The three Gorgon sisters -- Medusa, Stheno, and Euryale -- were all children of the ancient marine deities Phorcys (or "Phorkys '') and his sister Ceto (or "Keto ''), chthonic monsters from an archaic world. Their genealogy is shared with other sisters, the Graeae, as in Aeschylus 's Prometheus Bound, which places both trinities of sisters far off "on Kisthene 's dreadful plain '':
Near them their sisters three, the Gorgons, winged With snakes for hair -- hatred of mortal man --
While ancient Greek vase - painters and relief carvers imagined Medusa and her sisters as beings born of monstrous form, sculptors and vase - painters of the fifth century began to envisage her as being beautiful as well as terrifying. In an ode written in 490 BC Pindar already speaks of "fair - cheeked Medusa ''.
In a late version of the Medusa myth, related by the Roman poet Ovid (Metamorphoses 4.770), Medusa was originally a ravishingly beautiful maiden, "the jealous aspiration of many suitors, '' but because Poseidon had raped her in Athena 's temple, the enraged Athena transformed Medusa 's beautiful hair to serpents and made her face so terrible to behold that the mere sight of it would turn onlookers to stone. In Ovid 's telling, Perseus describes Medusa 's punishment by Minerva (Athena) as just and well earned.
In most versions of the story, she was beheaded by the hero Perseus, who was sent to fetch her head by King Polydectes of Seriphus because Polydectes wanted to marry his mother. The gods were well aware of this, and Perseus received help. He received a mirrored shield from Athena, gold, winged sandals from Hermes, a sword from Hephaestus and Hades 's helm of invisibility. Since Medusa was the only one of the three Gorgons who was mortal, Perseus was able to slay her while looking at the reflection from the mirrored shield he received from Athena. During that time, Medusa was pregnant by Poseidon. When Perseus beheaded her, Pegasus, a winged horse, and Chrysaor, a giant wielding a golden sword, sprang from her body.
Jane Ellen Harrison argues that "her potency only begins when her head is severed, and that potency resides in the head; she is in a word a mask with a body later appended... the basis of the Gorgoneion is a cultus object, a ritual mask misunderstood. ''
In the Odyssey xi, Homer does not specifically mention the Gorgon Medusa:
Lest for my daring Persephone the dread,
From Hades should send up an awful monster 's grisly head.
Harrison 's translation states "the Gorgon was made out of the terror, not the terror out of the Gorgon. ''
According to Ovid, in northwest Africa, Perseus flew past the Titan Atlas, who stood holding the sky aloft, and transformed him into stone when he tried to attack him. In a similar manner, the corals of the Red Sea were said to have been formed of Medusa 's blood spilled onto seaweed when Perseus laid down the petrifying head beside the shore during his short stay in Ethiopia where he saved and wed his future wife, the lovely princess Andromeda. Furthermore, the poisonous vipers of the Sahara, in the Argonautica 4.1515, Ovid 's Metamorphoses 4.770 and Lucan 's Pharsalia 9.820, were said to have grown from spilt drops of her blood. The blood of Medusa also spawned the Amphisbaena (a horned dragon - like creature with a snake - headed tail).
Perseus then flew to Seriphos, where his mother was about to be forced into marriage with the king. King Polydectes was turned into stone by the gaze of Medusa 's head. Then Perseus gave the Gorgon 's head to Athena, who placed it on her shield, the Aegis.
Some classical references refer to three Gorgons; Harrison considered that the tripling of Medusa into a trio of sisters was a secondary feature in the myth:
The triple form is not primitive, it is merely an instance of a general tendency... which makes of each woman goddess a trinity, which has given us the Horae, the Charites, the Semnai, and a host of other triple groups. It is immediately obvious that the Gorgons are not really three but one + two. The two unslain sisters are mere appendages due to custom; the real Gorgon is Medusa.
A number of early classics scholars interpreted the myth of the Medusa as a quasi-historical - "based on or reconstructed from an event, custom, style, etc., in the past '', or "sublimated '' memory of an actual invasion.
According to Joseph Campbell:
The legend of Perseus beheading Medusa means, specifically, that "the Hellenes overran the goddess 's chief shrines '' and "stripped her priestesses of their Gorgon masks '', the latter being apotropaic faces worn to frighten away the profane.
That is to say, there occurred in the early thirteenth century B.C. an actual historic rupture, a sort of sociological trauma, which has been registered in this myth, much as what Freud terms the latent content of a neurosis is registered in the manifest content of a dream: registered yet hidden, registered in the unconscious yet unknown or misconstrued by the conscious mind.
In 1940, Sigmund Freud 's "Das Medusenhaupt (Medusa 's Head) '' was published posthumously. In Freud 's interpretation: "To decapitate = to castrate. The terror of Medusa is thus a terror of castration that is linked to the sight of something. Numerous analyses have made us familiar with the occasion for this: it occurs when a boy, who has hitherto been unwilling to believe the threat of castration, catches sight of the female genitals, probably those of an adult, surrounded by hair, and essentially those of his mother. '' In this perspective the ' ravishingly beautiful ' Medusa (see above) is the mother remembered in innocence; before the mythic truth of castration dawns on the subject. Classic Medusa, in contrast, is an Oedipal / libidinous symptom. Looking at forbidden mother (in her hair - covered genitals, so to speak) stiffens the subject in illicit desire and freezes him in terror of the Father 's retribution. There are no recorded instances of Medusa turning a woman to stone.
Archetypal literary criticism continues to find psychoanalysis useful. Beth Seelig analyzes Medusa 's punishment from the aspect of the crime of having been raped rather than having willingly consented in Athena 's temple as an outcome of the goddess ' unresolved conflicts with her own father, Zeus.
In the 20th century, feminists reassessed Medusa 's appearances in literature and in modern culture, including the use of Medusa as a logo by fashion company Versace. The name "Medusa '' itself is often used in ways not directly connected to the mythological figure but to suggest the gorgon 's abilities or to connote malevolence; despite her origins as a beauty, the name in common usage "came to mean monster. '' The book Female Rage: Unlocking Its Secrets, Claiming Its Power by Mary Valentis and Anne Devane notes that "When we asked women what female rage looks like to them, it was always Medusa, the snaky - haired monster of myth, who came to mind... In one interview after another we were told that Medusa is ' the most horrific woman in the world '... (though) none of the women we interviewed could remember the details of the myth. ''
Medusa 's visage has since been adopted by many women as a symbol of female rage; one of the first publications to express this idea was a feminist journal called Women: A Journal of Liberation in their issue one, volume six for 1978. The cover featured the image of the Gorgon Medusa by Froggi Lupton, which the editors on the inside cover explained "can be a map to guide us through our terrors, through the depths of our anger into the sources of our power as women. ''
In issue three, Fall 1986 for the magazine Woman of Power an article called Gorgons: A Face for Contemporary Women 's Rage, appeared, written by Emily Erwin Culpepper, who wrote that "The Amazon Gorgon face is female fury personified. The Gorgon / Medusa image has been rapidly adopted by large numbers of feminists who recognize her as one face of our own rage. '' Griselda Pollock analyses the passage from horrorism to compassion in the figure of the Medusa through Adriana Cavarero 's philosophy and Bracha Ettinger 's art and Matrixial theory.
Medusa has sometimes appeared as representing notions of scientific determinism and nihilism, especially in contrast with romantic idealism. In this interpretation of Medusa, attempts to avoid looking into her eyes represent avoiding the ostensibly depressing reality that the universe is meaningless. Jack London uses Medusa in this way in his novel The Mutiny of the Elsinore:
I can not help remembering a remark of De Casseres. It was over the wine in Mouquin 's. Said he: "The profoundest instinct in man is to war against the truth; that is, against the Real. He shuns facts from his infancy. His life is a perpetual evasion. Miracle, chimera and to - morrow keep him alive. He lives on fiction and myth. It is the Lie that makes him free. Animals alone are given the privilege of lifting the veil of Isis; men dare not. The animal, awake, has no fictional escape from the Real because he has no imagination. Man, awake, is compelled to seek a perpetual escape into Hope, Belief, Fable, Art, God, Socialism, Immortality, Alcohol, Love. From Medusa - Truth he makes an appeal to Maya - Lie. ''
Medusa has been depicted in several works of art, including:
Medusa remained a common theme in art in the nineteenth century, when her myth was retold in Thomas Bulfinch 's Mythology. Edward Burne - Jones ' Perseus Cycle of paintings and a drawing by Aubrey Beardsley gave way to the twentieth century works of Paul Klee, John Singer Sargent, Pablo Picasso, Pierre et Gilles, and Auguste Rodin 's bronze sculpture The Gates of Hell.
The head of Medusa is featured on some regional symbols. One example is that of the flag and emblem of Sicily, together with the three legged trinacria. The inclusion of Medusa in the center implies the protection of the goddess Athena, who wore the Gorgon 's likeness on her aegis, as said above. Another example is the coat of arms of Dohalice village in the Czech Republic.
Municipal coat of arms of Dohalice village, Hradec Králové District, Czech Republic
Flag of Sicily
Ceremonial French military uniform belt of World War I
Medusa is honored in the following scientific names:
The petrifying image of Medusa makes an instantly recognizable feature in popular culture. Medusa has been featured in several works of fiction, including video games, movies, cartoons and books. In particular, the designer Versace 's symbol is reflected through the Medusa - head symbol. It was chosen because she represents beauty, art, and philosophy.
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six nations how many points for a win | Six Nations Championship - wikipedia
The Six Nations Championship (recently known as the NatWest 6 Nations for sponsorship reasons) is an annual international rugby union competition between the teams of England, France, Ireland, Italy, Scotland and Wales. The current champions are Ireland, having won the 2018 tournament.
The Six Nations is the successor to the Home Nations Championship (1883 -- 1909 and 1932 -- 39), played between teams from England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales, which was the first international rugby union tournament. With the addition of France, this became the Five Nations Championship (1910 -- 31 and 1947 -- 99), which in turn became the Six Nations Championship with the addition of Italy.
England hold the record for outright wins of the Home Nations, Five Nations and Six Nations tournaments, with 28 titles, although Wales follow closely with 26 outright wins with the addition of 12 shared victories to England 's 10. Since the Six Nations era started in 2000, only Italy and Scotland have failed to win the Six Nations title, although Scotland were the last winners of the Five Nations.
The tournament was first played in 1883 as the Home Nations Championship among the four Home Nations -- England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. The tournament then became the Five Nations Championship in 1910 with the addition of France. The tournament was expanded in 2000 to become the Six Nations Championship with the addition of Italy.
Following the relative success of the Tier 2 nations in the 2015 Rugby World Cup, there were calls by Octavian Morariu, the president of Rugby Union 's governing body for promotion and development, to let Georgia and Romania join the Six Nations due to their consistent success in the European Nations Cup and ability to compete in the Rugby World Cup.
Played annually, the format of the Championship is simple: each team plays every other team once (making a total of 15 matches), with home ground advantage alternating from one year to the next. Prior to the 2017 tournament, two points were awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss. Unlike many other rugby union competitions the bonus point system has not previously been used.
On 30 November 2016, the 6 Nations Committee announced that the bonus point system will be trialled for the 2017 Championship. The system is similar to the one used in most rugby championships (0 points for a loss, 2 for a draw, 4 for a win, 1 for scoring four or more tries in match, and 1 for losing by 7 points or fewer), with the only difference being that a Grand Slam winner will be given 3 extra points to ensure they finish top of the table.
Prior to 1994, teams equal on match points shared the championship. Since then, ties have been broken by considering the points difference of the teams. The rules of the championship further provide that if teams tie on both match points and points difference, the team that scored the most tries wins the championship. Were this decider to be a tie, the tying teams would share the championship. To date, however, match points and points difference have been sufficient to decide the championship.
Also, the team that finishes at the bottom of the league table is said to have "won '' the Wooden Spoon, although no actual trophy is given to the team. A team that has lost all five matches is said to have been whitewashed. Since the inaugural Six Nations tournament in 2000, only England and Ireland have avoided the Wooden Spoon award. Italy are the holders of the most Wooden Spoon awards in the Six Nations era with eleven, and have been whitewashed six times. However, each of the other five nations has accumulated more than that through competing in previous eras.
The winners of the Six Nations are presented with the Championship Trophy. This was originally conceived by the Earl of Westmorland, and was first presented to the winners of the 1993 championship, France. It is a sterling silver trophy, designed by James Brent - Ward and made by a team of eight silversmiths from the London firm William Comyns.
It has 15 side panels representing the 15 members of the team and with three handles to represent the three officials (referee and two touch judges). The cup has a capacity of 3.75 litres -- sufficient for five bottles of champagne. Within the mahogany base is a concealed drawer which contains six alternate finials, each a silver replica of one of the team emblems, which can be screwed on the detachable lid.
A new trophy was introduced for the 2015 Championship. The new trophy was designed and crafted by Thomas Lyte silversmiths and replaces the 1993 edition, which is being retired as it represented the nations that took part in the Five Nations Championship. Ireland were the last team to win the old trophy, and coincidentally, the first team to win the new one.
A team that wins all its games wins the ' Grand Slam '.
Victory by any Home Nation over the other three Home Nations is a ' Triple Crown '. Although this achievement has long been a feature of the tournament, it was not until 2006 that a physical Triple Crown trophy was awarded.
The Triple Crown may only be won by England, Ireland, Scotland or Wales, when one nation wins all three of their matches against the others, during the Six Nations Championship. The Triple Crown honour has long been a feature of the tournament, dating back to the original Home Nations Championship, but the physical Triple Crown Trophy has been awarded only since 2006. The current holder of the Triple Crown is Ireland, who defeated England, Scotland, and Wales in the 2018 championship. For the 2006 Six Nations, the Royal Bank of Scotland (the primary sponsor of the competition) commissioned Hamilton & Inches to design and create a dedicated Triple Crown Trophy. It has since been won three times by Ireland and twice by England and Wales.
Several individual competitions take place under the umbrella of the tournament. The oldest such regular competition is for the Calcutta Cup, contested annually between England and Scotland since 1879. It is named the Calcutta Cup as it is made from melted - down Indian Rupees donated by the Calcutta Club. Since 1988, the Millennium Trophy has been awarded to the winner of the game between England and Ireland, and since 1989 the Centenary Quaich has been awarded to the winner of the game between Ireland and Scotland. Since 2007, France and Italy have contested the Giuseppe Garibaldi Trophy; it was created for the 200th anniversary of the birth of Giuseppe Garibaldi, the Italian hero who helped unify Italy and volunteered in the French Republican Army against Prussia.
The following trophies are contested within the main competition, mostly as long - standing fixtures between pairs of teams:
As of the 2018 competition, Six Nations matches are held in the following stadia:
The opening of the Aviva Stadium in May 2010 ended the arrangement with the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) that allowed the all - Ireland governing body for rugby union, the Irish Rugby Football Union, to use the GAA 's flagship stadium, Croke Park, for its international matches. This arrangement was made necessary by the 2007 closure and subsequent demolition of Ireland 's traditional home at Lansdowne Road; the Aviva was built on the former Lansdowne Road site. During the construction of the Aviva, Croke Park was the largest of the Six Nations grounds, with a capacity of 82,300.
In 2012 Italy moved their home games from the Stadio Flaminio, which only held 32,000, to the Stadio Olimpico, also in Rome, with a capacity of 72,000.
The French Rugby Federation (FFR) had planned to build a new stadium of its own, seating 82,000 in the southern suburbs of Paris, because of frustrations with their tenancy of the Stade de France. However the project was cancelled in December 2016.
Bold indicates that the team did not win any matches.
England 's Jonny Wilkinson currently holds the records for individual points in one match (35 points against Italy in 2001) and one season with 89 (scored in 2001). Ronan O'Gara of Ireland holds the career scoring record with 557 points to Wilkinson 's 546, having surpassed Wilkinson in Round 3 of the 2011 championship.
The record for tries in a match is held by Scotsman George Lindsay who scored five tries against Wales in 1887. England 's Cyril Lowe and Scotland 's Ian Smith jointly hold the record for tries in one season with 8 (Lowe in 1914, Smith in 1925). Ireland 's Brian O'Driscoll has the Championship record for tries with 26.
The record for appearances is held by O'Gara, with 63 Six Nations appearances from the start of the Six Nations era in 2000 to his retirement in 2013. He surpassed countryman Mike Gibson in the first round of the 2012 tournament against Wales. Gibson played in 56 Five Nations matches (Italy had not become part of the Championship yet) between 1964 and 1979.
The most points scored by a team in one match was 80 points, scored by England against Italy in 2001. England also scored the most ever points in a season in 2001 with 229, and most tries in a season with 29. Wales hold the record for fewest tries conceded during a season in the Six Nations era, conceding only 2 in 5 games in 2008, but the 1977 Grand Slam - winning France team did not concede a try in their four matches. Wales hold the record for the longest time without conceding a try, at 358 minutes in the 2013 tournament.
The Championship is run from headquarters in Dublin, Ireland by Six Nations Rugby Ltd, which also takes responsibility for the British and Irish Lions tours. The CEO of the Championship is John Feehan, a former Leinster player.
The BBC has long covered the tournament, broadcasting all matches apart from England home matches between 1997 and 2002, which were shown live by Sky Sports with highlights on the BBC. Between 2003 and 2015, the BBC covered every match live on BBC Sport either on BBC One or BBC Two with highlights also on the BBC Sport website and either on the BBC Red Button or late at night on BBC Two. In 2011, it was announced that the BBC 's coverage of the tournament on TV, radio and online would be extended to 2017. However, on 9 July 2015, in reaction to satellite pay - TV bids from Sky Sports and BT Sport for coverage from 2017, BBC agreed to lose exclusive rights to the tournament two years early. But from 2016, BBC and ITV would jointly broadcast the tournament in the UK, with BBC showing all France, Scotland and Wales home matches live, and ITV showing all England, Ireland and Italy home matches live. This means that the Six Nations will remain on free - to - air television in the UK until 2021.
In Ireland, RTÉ have broadcast the championship since RTÉ 's inception and continued to do so until 2017, while TG4 televised highlights. However in late 2015 it was announced that free to air rival TV3 would take over the rights for every game from the Six Nations on Irish Television from 2018 -- 2021, so that after the 2017 championship RTÉ lost the rights.
France Télévisions covered the competition in France; this lasted until 2017.
In Italy, from 2014 to 2017 DMAX of Discovery Communications broadcast all matches, and will do so until 2021.
In the United States, NBC Sports broadcasts matches in English and TV5 Monde airs matches in French. In Wales, S4C also broadcasts matches featuring the Welsh team shown by the BBC in Welsh.
Until 1998, the Championship had no title sponsor. Sponsorship rights were sold to Lloyds TSB for the 1999 tournament and the competition was titled the Lloyds TSB 5 Nations and Lloyds TSB 6 Nations until 2003.
The Royal Bank of Scotland Group took over sponsorship from 2004 until 2017, with the competition being branded the RBS 6 Nations. A new title sponsor was sought for the 2018 tournament and beyond. However, after struggling to find a new sponsor, organisers agreed a one - year extension with the Royal Bank of Scotland Group at a reduced rate. As the RBS initials brand was being phased out, the tournament was named for their banking arm NatWest, becoming the Natwest 6 Nations.
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monty python & the quest for the holy grail | Monty Python & the Quest for the Holy Grail - wikipedia
Monty Python & the Quest for the Holy Grail is an adventure game created by 7th Level in 1996 for Windows. The game is based on the 1975 film Monty Python and the Holy Grail and was the second of three Monty Python games created by 7th Level.
The game 's aesthetics are a mixture of photo realistic rendering and the comic style of Terry Gilliam. The objective is to move through the world and collect a series of objects in order to cross the bridge of death. The game also contains a series of sketches and audio clips not present in the film, including an alternative reason for the minstrels ' disappearance.
Many mini-games are available to play along the way, including a Tetris clone using dead plague victims, a Whac - A-Mole game where a knight has to spank virgins in a bed (points are deducted for spanking the bare - cheeked women) and a Simon says game where the player has to remember the order that four different coloured burning witches scream in. The majority of the game is a point and click interface, where the player must also collect items to complete puzzles, and complete the missing planks on the bridge of death.
A Next Generation critic said Monty Python & the Quest for the Holy Grail "lacks any semblance of decent gameplay ''. He elaborated that since there is no indicator of where the hot spots are, the gameplay consists of little more than blindly clicking everywhere on the screen to see what happens. Despite this, he said that enthusiasts of the film would probably still enjoy the game due to the previously unseen video clips included on it.
MacUser named Quest for the Holy Grail one of 1996 's top 50 CD - ROMs, while Inside Mac Games declared it the year 's best comedy game. The latter publication 's editors wrote, "Non-Python fans will probably wonder what the big deal is, but even casual followers will be rolling on the floor. '' The game was a finalist for Computer Gaming World 's 1996 "Classic / Puzzle Game of the Year '' award, which ultimately went to Baku Baku Animal. However, it won the category 's Reader 's Choice award that year.
DarrenGames.org gave the game 19 / 87 saying "Itsa bad ''
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how does the constitution describe the role of the vice president | Vice president of the United States - wikipedia
The Vice President of the United States (informally referred to as VPOTUS, or Veep) is a constitutional officer in the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States as the President of the Senate under Article One, Section Three of the U.S. Constitution.
The vice president is a statutory member of the National Security Council under the National Security Act of 1947, and through the 25th Amendment is the highest - ranking official in the presidential line of succession in the executive branch of the federal government. The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is indirectly elected, together with the president, to a four - year term of office by the people of the United States through the Electoral College. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists and organizes the vice president 's official functions.
As the president of the United States Senate, the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. While Senate customs have created supermajority rules that have diminished this constitutional tie - breaking authority, the vice president still retains the ability to influence legislation; for example, the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 was passed in the Senate by a tie - breaking vice presidential vote. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the vice president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College.
While the vice president 's only constitutionally prescribed functions aside from presidential succession relate to their role as President of the Senate, the role of the vice president evolved during the 20th century into more of an executive branch position. Currently, the vice president is usually seen as an integral part of a president 's administration and presides over the Senate only on ceremonial occasions or when a tie - breaking vote may be needed. The Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the vice president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress.
Mike Pence of Indiana is the 48th and current vice president. He assumed office on January 20, 2017.
The formation of the office of vice president resulted directly from the compromise reached at the Philadelphia Convention which created the Electoral College. The delegates at Philadelphia agreed that each state would receive a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that state 's allocation of Representatives and Senators. The delegates assumed that electors would typically choose to favor any candidate from their state (the so - called "favorite son '' candidate) over candidates from other states. Under a plurality election process, this would tend to result in electing candidates solely from the largest states. Consequently, the delegates agreed that presidents must be elected by an absolute majority of the number of electors. Yet, the delegates also assumed that the requirement of an absolute majority for an election might not be sufficient to entice electors to vote for candidates who were from another state, since such a vote might be viewed by their constituents as a vote against their own state, imposing too steep a political cost on that elector 's choice and ultimately resulting in elections which failed to produce a winner. To counter this potential difficulty, the delegates further agreed to give each elector two votes, requiring that at least one of their votes must be for a candidate from outside the elector 's state, believing that this second vote could be cast without political cost for a statesman of national character.
However, even under that system, the delegates feared that electors might attempt to game the election, strategically throwing away their second vote in order to bolster their favorite son 's chance of winning. To guard against such stratagems, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the first runner - up presidential candidate would become vice president. Creating this new office imposed a political cost on strategically discarded electoral votes, incentivizing electors to make their choices for president without resort to electoral gamesmanship and to cast their second ballot accordingly.
The process for selecting the vice president was later modified in the Twelfth Amendment. Each elector still receives two votes, but now only one of those votes is for president, while the other is for vice president. The requirement that one of those votes be cast for a candidate not from the elector 's own state remains in effect. The emergence of national political parties in the late - 18th and early - 19th centuries, their processes of nomination candidates for each office, their nominations of party loyalists for election to Electoral College positions, the Twelfth Amendment, and the consequent turn of presidential campaigns towards seeking to maximize their electoral vote totals have alleviated much of the electoral gamesmanship that caused concern for the delegates at Philadelphia.
The Constitution limits the formal powers and role of vice president to becoming president, should the president become unable to serve, prompting the well - known expression "only a heartbeat away from the presidency, '' and to acting as the presiding officer of the U.S. Senate. Other statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.
As President of the Senate, the vice president has two primary duties: to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over and certify the official vote count of the U.S. Electoral College. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50 - 50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheney 's tie - breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority.
As President of the Senate (Article I, Section 3, Clause 4), the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie - breaking vote. There is a strong convention within the U.S. Senate that the vice president should not use their position as President of the Senate to influence the passage of legislation or act in a partisan manner, except in the case of breaking tie votes. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast 29 tie - breaking votes that was later surpassed by John C. Calhoun with 31, no other vice president since then has ever threatened this record. Adams 's votes protected the president 's sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, and prevented war with Great Britain. On at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters. Adams 's political views and his active role in the Senate made him a natural target for critics of George Washington 's administration. Toward the end of his first term, a threatened resolution that would have silenced him except for procedural and policy matters caused him to exercise more restraint in hopes of seeing his election as President of the United States.
Formerly, the vice president would preside regularly over Senate proceedings, but in modern times, the vice president rarely presides over day - to - day matters in the Senate; in their place, the Senate chooses a President pro tempore (or "president for a time '') to preside in the vice president 's absence; the Senate normally selects the longest - serving senator in the majority party. The President pro tempore has the power to appoint any other senator to preside, and in practice junior senators from the majority party are assigned the task of presiding over the Senate at most times.
Except for this tie - breaking role, the Standing Rules of the Senate vest no significant responsibilities in the vice president. Rule XIX, which governs debate, does not authorize the vice president to participate in debate, and grants only to members of the Senate (and, upon appropriate notice, former presidents of the United States) the privilege of addressing the Senate, without granting a similar privilege to the sitting vice president. Thus, as Time magazine wrote during the controversial tenure of Vice President Charles G. Dawes, "once in four years the Vice President can make a little speech, and then he is done. For four years he then has to sit in the seat of the silent, attending to speeches ponderous or otherwise, of deliberation or humor. ''
The President of the Senate also presides over counting and presentation of the votes of the Electoral College. This process occurs in the presence of both houses of Congress, generally on January 6 of the year following a U.S. presidential election. In this capacity, only four vice presidents have been able to announce their own election to the presidency: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren, and George H.W. Bush. At the beginning of 1961, it fell to Richard Nixon to preside over this process, which officially announced the election of his 1960 opponent, John F. Kennedy. In 2001, Al Gore announced the election of his opponent, George W. Bush. In 1969, Vice President Hubert Humphrey would have announced the election of his opponent, Richard Nixon; however, on the date of the Congressional joint session (January 6), Humphrey was in Norway attending the funeral of Trygve Lie, the first elected Secretary - General of the United Nations. The president pro tempore presided in Humphrey 's absence.
In 1933, incumbent Vice President Charles Curtis announced the election of House Speaker John Nance Garner as his successor, while Garner was seated next to him on the House dais. The President of the Senate may also preside over most of the impeachment trials of federal officers. However, whenever the President of the United States is impeached, the US Constitution requires the Chief Justice of the United States to preside over the Senate for the trial. The Constitution is silent as to the presiding officer in the instance where the vice president is the officer impeached.
The U.S. Constitution (Article II, Section 1, Clause 6) provides that "In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President,... '' Initially, it was unclear whether this meant the vice president became the new president or merely an acting president. This was first tested in 1841 with the death of President William Henry Harrison. Harrison 's vice president, John Tyler, asserted that he had succeeded to the full presidential office, powers, and title, and declined to acknowledge documents referring to him as "Acting President. '' Despite some strong calls against it, Tyler took the oath of office as the nation 's tenth President. Although some in Congress denounced Tyler 's claim as a violation of the Constitution, it was not challenged legally, and so the Tyler precedent of full succession was established. This was made explicit by Section 1 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1967. In total, nine Vice Presidents have succeeded to the presidency. In addition to Tyler they are, Millard Fillmore, Andrew Johnson, Chester A. Arthur, Theodore Roosevelt, Calvin Coolidge, Harry S. Truman, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Gerald Ford.
Section 2 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment provides for vice presidential succession:
Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress.
Gerald Ford was the first vice president selected by this method, after the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew in 1973; after succeeding to the presidency, Ford nominated Nelson Rockefeller as vice president.
Another issue was who had the power to declare that an incapacitated president is unable to discharge his duties. This question had arisen most recently with the illnesses of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Sections 3 and 4 of the amendment provide means for the vice president to become acting president upon the temporary disability of the president. Section 3 deals with self - declared incapacity of the president. Section 4 deals with incapacity declared by the joint action of the vice president and of a majority of the Cabinet or of such other body as Congress may by law provide. While Section 4 has never been invoked, Section 3 has been invoked three times: on July 13, 1985 when Ronald Reagan underwent surgery to remove cancerous polyps from his colon, and twice more on June 29, 2002 and July 21, 2007 when George W. Bush underwent colonoscopy procedures requiring sedation. Prior to this amendment, Vice President Richard Nixon informally assumed some of President Dwight Eisenhower 's duties for several weeks on each of three occasions when Eisenhower was ill.
The extent of any informal roles and functions of the vice president depend on the specific relationship between the president and the vice president, but often include tasks such as drafter and spokesperson for the administration 's policies, adviser to the president, and being a symbol of American concern or support. The influence of the vice president in this role depends almost entirely on the characteristics of the particular administration. Dick Cheney, for instance, was widely regarded as one of President George W. Bush 's closest confidants. Al Gore was an important adviser to President Bill Clinton on matters of foreign policy and the environment. Often, vice presidents are chosen to act as a "balance '' to the president, taking either more moderate or radical positions on issues.
Under the American system the president is both head of state and head of government, and the ceremonial duties of the former position are often delegated to the vice president. The vice president is often assigned the ceremonial duties of representing the president and the government at state funerals or other functions in the United States. This often is the most visible role of the vice president, and has occasionally been the subject of ridicule, such as during the vice presidency of George H.W. Bush. The vice president may meet with other heads of state or attend state funerals in other countries, at times when the administration wishes to demonstrate concern or support but can not send the president themselves.
In recent decades, the vice presidency has frequently been used as a platform to launch bids for the presidency. The transition of the office to its modern stature occurred primarily as a result of Franklin Roosevelt 's 1940 nomination, when he captured the ability to nominate his running mate instead of leaving the nomination to the convention. Prior to that, party bosses often used the vice presidential nomination as a consolation prize for the party 's minority faction. A further factor potentially contributing to the rise in prestige of the office was the adoption of presidential preference primaries in the early 20th century. By adopting primary voting, the field of candidates for vice president was expanded by both the increased quantity and quality of presidential candidates successful in some primaries, yet who ultimately failed to capture the presidential nomination at the convention.
Of the thirteen presidential elections from 1956 to 2004, nine featured the incumbent president; the other four (1960, 1968, 1988, 2000) all featured the incumbent vice president. Former vice presidents also ran, in 1984 (Walter Mondale), and in 1968 (Richard Nixon, against the incumbent vice president, Hubert Humphrey). The first presidential election to include neither the incumbent president nor the incumbent vice president on a major party ticket since 1952 came in 2008 when President George W. Bush had already served two terms and Vice President Cheney chose not to run. Richard Nixon is also the only non-sitting vice president to be elected president, as well as the only person to be elected president and vice president twice each.
The Twelfth Amendment states that "no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice President of the United States. '' Thus, to serve as vice president, an individual must:
Additionally, Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment denies eligibility for any federal office to anyone who, having sworn an oath to support the United States Constitution, later has rebelled against the United States. This disqualification, originally aimed at former supporters of the Confederacy, may be removed by a two - thirds vote of each house of the Congress.
Under the Twenty - second Amendment, the President of the United States may not be elected to more than two terms. However, there is no similar limitation on how many times one can be elected vice president. Scholars disagree whether a former president barred from election to the presidency is also ineligible to be elected or appointed vice president, as suggested by the Twelfth Amendment. Age, nation of birth, and length of residency in the U.S. are eligibility requirements easily tested by reference to established facts, but the contingent and uncertain nature of vice presidential lines of succession mean that an otherwise eligible American citizen who had been elected as President for two terms might not therefore lose eligibility for the vice presidency if he or she is later appointed by Congress to the vice presidency through procedures codified by the Presidential Succession Act. However, this scenario has not yet been tested. Also, Article I, Section 3, Clause 7 allows the Senate, upon voting to remove an impeached federal official from office, to disqualify that official from holding any federal office.
While it is commonly held that the president and vice president must be residents of different states, this is not actually the case. Nothing in the Constitution prohibits both candidates being from a single state. Instead, the limitation imposed is on the members of the Electoral College, who must cast a ballot for at least one candidate who is not from their own state.
In theory, the candidates elected could both be from one state, but the electors of that state would, in a close electoral contest, run the risk of denying their vice presidential candidate the absolute majority required to secure the election, even if the presidential candidate is elected. This would then place the vice presidential election in the hands of the Senate.
In practice, however, residency is rarely an issue. Parties have avoided nominating tickets containing two candidates from the same state. Further, the candidates may themselves take action to alleviate any residency conflict. For example, at the start of the 2000 election cycle Dick Cheney was a resident of Texas; Cheney quickly changed his residency back to Wyoming, where he had previously served as a U.S. Representative, when Texas governor and Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush asked Cheney to be his vice presidential candidate.
Though the vice president does not need to have any political experience, most major - party vice presidential nominees are current or former United States Senators or Representatives, with the occasional nominee being a current or former Governor, a high - ranking military officer, or a holder of a major post within the Executive Department. The vice presidential candidates of the major national political parties are formally selected by each party 's quadrennial nominating convention, following the selection of the party 's presidential candidates. The official process is identical to the one by which the presidential candidates are chosen, with delegates placing the names of candidates into nomination, followed by a ballot in which candidates must receive a majority to secure the party 's nomination.
In practice, the presidential nominee has considerable influence on the decision, and in the 20th century it became customary for that person to select a preferred running mate, who is then nominated and accepted by the convention. In recent years, with the presidential nomination usually being a foregone conclusion as the result of the primary process, the selection of a vice presidential candidate is often announced prior to the actual balloting for the presidential candidate, and sometimes before the beginning of the convention itself. The first presidential aspirant to announce his selection for vice president before the beginning of the convention was Ronald Reagan who, prior to the 1976 Republican National Convention announced that Richard Schweiker would be his running mate. Reagan 's supporters then sought to amend the convention rules so that Gerald R. Ford would be required to name his vice presidential running mate in advance as well. The proposal was defeated, and Reagan did not receive the nomination in 1976. Often, the presidential nominee will name a vice presidential candidate who will bring geographic or ideological balance to the ticket or appeal to a particular constituency.
The vice presidential candidate might also be chosen on the basis of traits the presidential candidate is perceived to lack, or on the basis of name recognition. To foster party unity, popular runners - up in the presidential nomination process are commonly considered. While this selection process may enhance the chances of success for a national ticket, in the past it often insured that the vice presidential nominee represented regions, constituencies, or ideologies at odds with those of the presidential candidate. As a result, vice presidents were often excluded from the policy - making process of the new administration. Many times their relationships with the president and his staff were aloof, non-existent, or even adversarial.
The ultimate goal of vice presidential candidate selection is to help and not hurt the party 's chances of getting elected, nonetheless several vice presidential selections have been controversial. In 1984, Democratic nominee Walter Mondale 's groundbreaking choice of Geraldine Ferraro as his running mate (the first woman in U.S. history nominated for Vice President by a major political party), became a drag on the ticket due to repeated questions about her husband 's finances. A selection whose positive traits make the presidential candidate look less favorable in comparison or which can cause the presidential candidate 's judgment to be questioned often backfire, such as in 1988 when Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis chose experienced Texas Senator Lloyd Bentsen; Bentsen was considered a more seasoned statesman in federal politics and somewhat overshadowed Dukakis. Questions about Dan Quayle 's experience were raised in the 1988 presidential campaign of George H.W. Bush, but the Bush - Quayle ticket still won handily. James Stockdale, the choice of third - party candidate Ross Perot in 1992, was seen as unqualified by many and Stockdale had little preparation for the vice presidential debate, but the Perot - Stockdale ticket still won about 19 % of the vote. In 2008, Republican John McCain chose Sarah Palin as his running mate. This surprise move would, it was hoped, draw women voters disappointed by Hillary Clinton 's defeat in the Democratic presidential primaries into the McCain camp. Her selection soon came to be seen as a negative for McCain. This perception continued to grow throughout the campaign, especially after her interviews with Katie Couric led to concerns about her fitness for the presidency.
Historically, vice presidential candidates were chosen to provide geographic and ideological balance to a presidential ticket, widening a presidential candidate 's appeal to voters from outside his regional base or wing of the party. Candidates from electoral - vote rich states were usually preferred. However, in 1992, moderate Democrat Bill Clinton (of Arkansas) chose moderate Democrat Al Gore (of Tennessee) as his running mate. Despite the two candidates ' near - identical ideological and regional backgrounds, Gore 's extensive experience in national affairs enhanced the appeal of a ticket headed by Clinton, whose political career had been spent entirely at the local and state levels of government. In 2000, George W. Bush chose Dick Cheney of Wyoming, a reliably Republican state with only three electoral votes, and in 2008, Barack Obama mirrored Bush 's strategy when he chose Joe Biden of Delaware, a reliably Democratic state, likewise one with only three electoral votes. Both Cheney and Biden were chosen for their experience in national politics (experience lacked by both Bush and Obama) rather than the ideological balance or electoral vote advantage they would provide.
The first presidential candidate to choose his vice presidential candidate was Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940. The last not to name a vice presidential choice, leaving the matter up to the convention, was Democrat Adlai Stevenson in 1956. The convention chose Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver over Massachusetts Senator (and later president) John F. Kennedy. At the tumultuous 1972 Democratic convention, presidential nominee George McGovern selected Senator Thomas Eagleton as his running mate, but numerous other candidates were either nominated from the floor or received votes during the balloting. Eagleton nevertheless received a majority of the votes and the nomination, though he later resigned from the ticket, resulting in Sargent Shriver becoming McGovern 's final running mate; both lost to the Nixon - Agnew ticket by a wide margin, carrying only Massachusetts and the District of Columbia.
In cases where the presidential nomination is still in doubt as the convention approaches, the campaigns for the two positions may become intertwined. In 1976, Ronald Reagan, who was trailing President Gerald R. Ford in the presidential delegate count, announced prior to the Republican National Convention that, if nominated, he would select Senator Richard Schweiker as his running mate. This move backfired to a degree, as Schweiker 's relatively liberal voting record alienated many of the more conservative delegates who were considering a challenge to party delegate selection rules to improve Reagan 's chances. In the end, Ford narrowly won the presidential nomination and Reagan 's selection of Schweiker became moot.
In the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries which pitted Hillary Clinton against Barack Obama, Clinton suggested a Clinton - Obama ticket with Obama in the vice president slot as it would be "unstoppable '' against the presumptive Republican nominee. Obama rejected the offer outright by noting "With all due respect. I won twice as many states as Sen. Clinton. I 've won more of the popular vote than Sen. Clinton. I have more delegates than Sen. Clinton. So, I do n't know how somebody who 's in second place is offering vice presidency to the person who 's in first place ''. Obama stated that the nomination process would have to be a choice between himself and Clinton, saying "I do n't want anybody here thinking that ' Somehow, maybe I can get both ' '', by nominating Clinton as president and assuming he would be her running mate ". Some suggested that it was a ploy by the Clinton campaign to denigrate Obama as less qualified for the presidency. Later, when Obama became the presumptive Democratic nominee, former President Jimmy Carter cautioned against Clinton being picked for the vice president slot on the ticket, saying "I think it would be the worst mistake that could be made. That would just accumulate the negative aspects of both candidates '', citing opinion polls showing 50 % of US voters with a negative view of Hillary Clinton.
Vice presidents are elected indirectly in the United States. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state 's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.
The winning slate of electors meet at its state 's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president, acting in his capacity as President of the Senate and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the president. Pursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the vice president 's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four - year terms of both the president and vice president.
Although Article VI requires that the vice president take an oath or affirmation of allegiance to the US Constitution, unlike the president, the United States Constitution does not specify the precise wording of the oath of office for the vice president. Several variants of the oath have been used since 1789; the current form, which is also recited by Senators, Representatives and other government officers, has been used since 1884:
I, (first name last name), do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So help me God.
The term of office for vice president is four years. While the Twenty - Second Amendment generally restricts the president to two terms, there is no similar limitation on the office of vice president, meaning an eligible person could hold the office as long as voters continued to vote for electors who in turn would renew the vice president 's tenure. A vice president could even serve under different administrations, as George Clinton and John C. Calhoun have done.
Under the original terms of the Constitution, the electors of the Electoral College voted only for office of president rather than for both president and vice president. Each elector was allowed to vote for two people for the top office. The person receiving the greatest number of votes (provided that such a number was a majority of electors) would be president, while the individual who received the next largest number of votes became vice president. If no one received a majority of votes, then the House of Representatives would choose among the five candidates with the largest numbers of votes, with each state 's representatives together casting a single vote. In such a case, the person who received the highest number of votes but was not chosen president would become vice president. In the case of a tie for second, then the Senate would choose the vice president.
The original plan, however, did not foresee the development of political parties and their adversarial role in the government. For example, in the election of 1796, Federalist John Adams came in first, but because the Federalist electors had divided their second vote amongst several vice presidential candidates, Democratic - Republican Thomas Jefferson came second. Thus, the president and vice president were from opposing parties. Predictably, Adams and Jefferson clashed over issues such as states ' rights and foreign policy.
A greater problem occurred in the election of 1800, in which the two participating parties each had a secondary candidate they intended to elect as vice president, but the more popular Democratic - Republican party failed to execute that plan with their electoral votes. Under the system in place at the time (Article II, Section 1, Clause 3), the electors could not differentiate between their two candidates, so the plan had been for one elector to vote for Thomas Jefferson but not for Aaron Burr, thus putting Burr in second place. This plan broke down for reasons that are disputed, and both candidates received the same number of votes. After 35 deadlocked ballots in the House of Representatives, Jefferson finally won on the 36th ballot and Burr became vice president.
This tumultuous affair led to the adoption of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, which directed the electors to use separate ballots to vote for the president and vice president. While this solved the problem at hand, it ultimately had the effect of lowering the prestige of the vice presidency, as the office was no longer for the leading challenger for the presidency. The separate ballots for president and vice president became something of a moot issue later in the 19th century when it became the norm for popular elections to determine a state 's Electoral College delegation. Electors chosen this way are pledged to vote for a particular presidential and vice presidential candidate (offered by the same political party). So, while the Constitution says that the president and vice president are chosen separately, in practice they are chosen together.
If no vice presidential candidate receives an Electoral College majority, then the Senate selects the vice president, in accordance with the United States Constitution. The Twelfth Amendment states that a "majority of the whole number '' of Senators (currently 51 of 100) is necessary for election. Further, the language requiring an absolute majority of Senate votes precludes the sitting vice president from breaking any tie which might occur. The election of 1836 is the only election so far where the office of the vice president has been decided by the Senate. During the campaign, Martin Van Buren 's running mate Richard Mentor Johnson was accused of having lived with a black woman. Virginia 's 23 electors, who were pledged to Van Buren and Johnson, refused to vote for Johnson (but still voted for Van Buren). The election went to the Senate, where Johnson was elected 33 - 17.
The vice president 's salary is $230,700. The salary was set by the 1989 Government Salary Reform Act, which also provides an automatic cost of living adjustment for federal employees. The vice president does not automatically receive a pension based on that office, but instead receives the same pension as other members of Congress based on his position as President of the Senate. The vice president must serve a minimum of two years to qualify for a pension.
Since 1974, the official residence of the vice president and their family has been Number One Observatory Circle, on the grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C.
Article I, Section 2, Clause 5 and Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution both authorize the House of Representatives to serve as a "grand jury '' with the power to impeach high federal officials, including the president, for "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. '' Similarly, Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 and Article II, Section 4 both authorize the Senate to serve as a court with the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two - thirds vote to convict. No vice president has ever been impeached.
Prior to ratification of the Twenty - fifth Amendment in 1967, no constitutional provision existed for filling an intra-term vacancy in the vice presidency. As a result, when one occurred, the office was left vacant until filled through the next ensuing election and inauguration. Between 1812 and 1967, the vice presidency was vacant on sixteen occasions -- as a result of seven deaths, one resignation, and eight cases in which the vice president succeeded to the presidency.
Since the Twenty - Fifth Amendment came into force the office has been vacant twice, until the confirmation of a new vice president by both houses of Congress and the swearing in ceremony. The first such instance occurred in 1973 following the resignation of Spiro Agnew, Richard Nixon 's vice president. Gerald Ford was subsequently nominated by President Nixon and confirmed by Congress. The second occurred 10 months later when Nixon resigned following the Watergate scandal and Ford assumed the presidency. The resulting vice presidential vacancy was filled by Nelson Rockefeller. Ford and Rockefeller are the only two people to have served as vice president without having been elected to the office, and Ford remains the only person to have served as both vice president and president without being elected to either office.
For much of its existence, the office of vice president was seen as little more than a minor position. Adams, the first vice president, was the first of many who found the job frustrating and stupefying, writing to his wife Abigail that "My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived. '' Many vice presidents lamented the lack of meaningful work in their role. John Nance Garner, who served as vice president from 1933 to 1941 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, claimed that the vice presidency "is n't worth a pitcher of warm piss. '' Harry Truman, who also served as vice president under Roosevelt, said that the office was as "useful as a cow 's fifth teat. ''
Thomas R. Marshall, the 28th vice president, lamented: "Once there were two brothers. One ran away to sea; the other was elected Vice President of the United States. And nothing was heard of either of them again. '' His successor, Calvin Coolidge, was so obscure that Major League Baseball sent him free passes that misspelled his name, and a fire marshal failed to recognize him when Coolidge 's Washington residence was evacuated.
When the Whig Party asked Daniel Webster to run for the vice presidency on Zachary Taylor 's ticket, he replied "I do not propose to be buried until I am really dead and in my coffin. '' This was the second time Webster declined the office, which William Henry Harrison had first offered to him. Ironically, both of the presidents making the offer to Webster died in office, meaning the three - time presidential candidate could have become president if he had accepted either. Since presidents rarely died in office, however, the better preparation for the presidency was considered to be the office of Secretary of State, in which Webster served under Harrison, Tyler, and later, Taylor 's successor, Fillmore.
For many years, the vice president was given few responsibilities. Garret Hobart, the first vice president under William McKinley, was one of the very few vice presidents at this time who played an important role in the administration. A close confidant and adviser of the president, Hobart was called "Assistant President. '' However, until 1919, vice presidents were not included in meetings of the President 's Cabinet. This precedent was broken by President Woodrow Wilson when he asked Thomas R. Marshall to preside over Cabinet meetings while Wilson was in France negotiating the Treaty of Versailles. President Warren G. Harding also invited his vice president, Calvin Coolidge, to meetings. The next vice president, Charles G. Dawes, did not seek to attend Cabinet meetings under President Coolidge, declaring that "the precedent might prove injurious to the country. '' Vice President Charles Curtis was also precluded from attending by President Herbert Hoover.
In 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt raised the stature of the office by renewing the practice of inviting the vice president to cabinet meetings, which every president since has maintained. Roosevelt 's first vice president, John Nance Garner, broke with him over the "court - packing issue, early in his second term, and became Roosevelt 's leading critic. At the start of that term, on January 20, 1937, Garner had been the first Vice President to be sworn into office on the Capitol steps in the same ceremony with the president; a tradition that continues. Prior to that time, vice presidents were traditionally inaugurated at a separate ceremony in the Senate chamber. Gerald R. Ford and Nelson A. Rockefeller, who were both appointed to the office under the terms of the 25th amendment, were inaugurated in the House and Senate chambers, respectively.
Henry Wallace, Roosevelt 's Vice President during his third term (1941 -- 1945), was given major responsibilities during World War II. However, after numerous policy disputes between Wallace and other Roosevelt Administration and Democratic Party officials, he was denied renomination to office at the 1944 Democratic National Convention. Harry Truman was selected instead. During his 82 day vice presidency, Truman was not informed about any war or post-war plans, including the Manhattan Project, leading Truman to remark, wryly, that the job of the Vice President was to "go to weddings and funerals. '' As a result of this experience, Truman, after succeeding to the presidency upon Roosevelt ' s death, recognized the need to keep the Vice President informed on national security issues. Congress made the vice president one of four statutory members of the National Security Council in 1949.
The stature of the Vice-presidency grew again while Richard Nixon was in office (1953 -- 1961). He attracted the attention of the media and the Republican party, when Dwight Eisenhower authorized him to preside at Cabinet meetings in his absence. Nixon was also the first vice president to formally assume temporary control of the executive branch, which he did after Eisenhower suffered a heart attack on September 24, 1955, ileitis in June 1956, and a stroke in November 1957.
Until 1961, vice presidents had their offices on Capitol Hill, a formal office in the Capitol itself and a working office in the Russell Senate Office Building. Lyndon B. Johnson was the first vice president to be given an office in the White House complex, in the Old Executive Office Building. The former Navy Secretary 's office in the OEOB has since been designated the "Ceremonial Office of the Vice President '' and is today used for formal events and press interviews. President Jimmy Carter was the first president to give his vice president, Walter Mondale, an office in the West Wing of the White House, which all vice presidents have since retained. Because of their function as Presidents of the Senate, vice presidents still maintain offices and staff members on Capitol Hill.
Though Walter Mondale 's tenure was the beginning of the modern day power of the vice presidency, the tenure of Dick Cheney saw a rapid growth in the office of the vice president. Vice President Cheney held a tremendous amount of power and frequently made policy decisions on his own, without the knowledge of the President. After his tenure, and during the 2008 presidential campaign, both vice presidential candidates, Sarah Palin and Joe Biden, stated the office had expanded too much under Cheney 's tenure and both claimed they would reduce the role to simply being an adviser to the president.
Four vice presidents have been elected to the presidency while serving as vice president: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren and George H.W. Bush. Additionally, John C. Breckinridge, Richard Nixon, Hubert Humphrey and Al Gore were each nominated by their respective parties, but did not succeed the presidents with whom they were elected, though Nixon was elected president eight years later.
Two vice presidents served under different presidents. George Clinton served under both Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, while John C. Calhoun served under John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. In 1900, Adlai Stevenson I, who had earlier served as vice president under Grover Cleveland, ran for another term, this time as William Jennings Bryan 's running mate. Charles W. Fairbanks, vice president under Theodore Roosevelt, sought unsuccessfully to return to office as Charles Evans Hughes ' running mate in 1916.
Some former vice presidents have sought other offices after serving as vice president. Daniel D. Tompkins ran for Governor of New York in 1820 while serving as vice president under James Monroe. He lost to DeWitt Clinton, but was re-elected vice president. John C. Calhoun resigned as vice president to accept election as US Senator from South Carolina. Hannibal Hamlin, Andrew Johnson, Alben Barkley and Hubert H. Humphrey were all elected to the Senate after leaving office. Levi P. Morton, vice president under Benjamin Harrison, was elected Governor of New York after leaving office.
Adlai Stevenson I was narrowly defeated for Governor of Illinois in 1908. Richard Nixon unsuccessfully sought the governorship of California in 1962, nearly two years after leaving office as vice president and just over six years before becoming president. Walter Mondale ran unsuccessfully for president in 1984, served as U.S. Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, and then sought unsuccessfully to return to the Senate in 2002. George H.W. Bush won the presidency, and his vice president, Dan Quayle, sought the Republican nomination in 2000.
Since 1977, former presidents and vice presidents who are elected or re-elected to the Senate are entitled to the largely honorific position of Deputy President pro tempore. So far, the only former vice president to have held this title is Hubert Humphrey following his return to the Senate. Walter Mondale would have been entitled to the position had his 2002 Senate bid been successful.
Under the terms of an 1886 Senate resolution, all former vice presidents are entitled to a portrait bust in the Senate wing of the United States Capitol, commemorating their service as presidents of the Senate. Dick Cheney is the most recent former vice president to be so honored.
Unlike former presidents, who receive a pension automatically regardless of their time in office, former vice presidents must reach pension eligibility by accumulating the appropriate time in federal service. Since 2008, former vice presidents are also entitled to Secret Service personal protection. Former vice presidents traditionally receive Secret Service protection for up to six months after leaving office, by order of the Secretary of Homeland Security, though this can be extended if the Secretary believes the level of threat is sufficient.
In 2008, a bill titled the "Former Vice President Protection Act '' was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Bush. It provides six - month Secret Service protection by law to a former vice president and family. According to the Department of Homeland Security, protection for former vice president Cheney has been extended numerous times because threats against him have not decreased since his leaving office.
This is a graphical timeline listing of the Vice Presidents of the United States.
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can you own a gun in baltimore city | Gun Laws in Maryland - wikipedia
Gun laws in Maryland regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the U.S. state of Maryland.
Art. 28. That a well regulated Militia is the proper and natural defence of a free Government.
Criminal Law -- § 4 -- 209. Public Safety -- § 5 -- 133.
Criminal Law -- § 4 - 401. Criminal Law -- § 4 - 403. Criminal Law -- § 4 - 301.
Public Safety -- § 5 -- 101. Public Safety -- § 5 -- 123.
Criminal Law -- § 4 - 301.
Criminal Law -- § 4 - 102. Criminal Law -- § 4 - 208. Transportation -- § 5 - 1008. Criminal Law -- § 4 - 405. Anne Arundel County - § 9 - 1 - 601. Baltimore City -- Art 19. § 59 -- 1 Gaithersburg City -- § 15 -- 16. Montgomery County -- § 57 -- 10.
Public Safety -- § 5 -- 101. Public Safety -- § 5 -- 133.
Public Safety -- § 5 -- 101. Public Safety -- § 5 -- 133.
Public Safety -- § 5 -- 101. Public Safety -- § 5 -- 133.
Public Safety -- § 5 -- 402. Public Safety -- § 5 -- 406. Public Safety -- § 5 -- 131.
Public Safety -- § 5 -- 106. Public Safety -- § 5 -- 118. Public Safety -- § 5 -- 134. Public Safety -- § 5 -- 128. Public Safety -- § 5 -- 131. Public Safety -- § 5 -- 132.
Criminal Law -- § 4 - 201. Criminal Law -- § 4 - 203. Criminal Law -- § 4 - 402.
Criminal Law -- § 4 - 201. Public Safety -- § 5 -- 303. Public Safety -- § 5 -- 306.
The Constitution of Maryland contains no provision protecting the right for individuals to keep and bear arms. The state preempts some local firearm regulations, though local governments may regulate firearms with respect to minors and areas of public assembly. Annapolis, Anne Arundel County, Montgomery County, Gaithersburg, and Baltimore are known to have local firearm regulations.
The Constitution of Maryland, Declaration of Rights, Art. 2. The Constitution of the United States, and the Laws made, or which shall be made, in pursuance thereof, and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, are, and shall be the Supreme Law of the State; and the Judges of this State, and all the People of this State, are, and shall be bound thereby; anything in the Constitution or Law of this State to the contrary notwithstanding.
The Maryland State Police maintain a registry of "regulated firearms '' that are allowed to be sold within the state.
Residents may only purchase handguns manufactured after January 1, 1985 that are on the approved handguns list from the Maryland Handgun Roster.
Until 2016, Dealers were required to forward the manufacturer - included shell casing (or one provided by the federally licensed gun shop) in its sealed container to the Department of State Police Crime Laboratory upon sale, rental, or transfer of a "regulated firearm '' for inclusion in their ballistics database, known as the Integrated Ballistics Identification System (IBIS). The program was shut down in 2015 due to its ineffectiveness.
On April 4, 2013, the Maryland General Assembly approved legislation imposing significant new restrictions on gun ownership. The bills ban the sale of certain semi-automatic firearms that they define as assault weapons, limit magazine capacity to ten rounds, require that handgun purchasers be fingerprinted and pass a training class in order to obtain a handgun license, and bar persons who have been involuntarily committed to a mental health institution from possessing firearms. Martin O'Malley Governor at the time, signed the legislation into law on May 16, 2013. Regarding ten round magazine limits for rifles purchased in Maryland, ' standard ' 30 round magazines may be purchased outside Maryland and brought into the state for personal use. Those standard magazines may not be transferred, given, sold or manufactured inside Maryland.
As of October 1, 2013, detachable magazines for semi-automatic handguns and semi-automatic centerfire rifles which are capable of holding more than 10 rounds may not be purchased, manufactured or sold, though they may be possessed (but not transferred within the state) by persons who already owned them prior to enactment of the 2013 changes. Magazines greater than ten (10) rounds may be purchased or acquired outside the state and carried into Maryland and used within the state. Certain pistols are classified as "assault pistols '', and banned from ownership if not registered prior to August 1, 1994. Only handguns on the official handgun roster may be sold in the state. Private sales of "regulated firearms, '' which includes handguns, are permissible, but must be done at a local Maryland State Police barracks. As of 1 Oct, a Handgun Qualification License (HQL) is required for the sale, as well as a background check and a mandatory seven - day waiting period. A person must obtain a safety training certificate prior to purchasing "regulated firearms '' and present that certificate prior to each purchase. With some limited exceptions, only one "regulated firearm '' may be purchased in any 30 - day period. Handguns manufactured on or before December 31, 2002 must be sold or transferred with an external safety lock. Handguns manufactured after December 31, 2002 may only be sold or transferred if they have an internal mechanical safety device.
Firearms advocates challenged the 2013 law. The District Court ruled that the law was constitutional based on intermediate scrutiny. On February 1, 2016, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit overruled the reasoning used to uphold the law in a 2 - to - 1 vote. The appellate court said that the ban on semi-automatic weapons and high - capacity magazines should be subject to strict scrutiny, not intermediate scrutiny, because they "are in common use by law - abiding citizens. '' The court acknowledged that the state has a right to limit the use of or ban citizen possession, sale, or transfer of "dangerous and unusual '' weapons (such as hand grenades), but the weapons and ammunition barred by the 2013 law did not fall under that provision. The appellate court remanded the case to a federal district court, leaving the ban temporarily in place pending a review by the district court. The state said it would appeal the decision. On March 4, 2016, Fourth Circuit agreed to rehear the case en banc and oral arguments took place on May 11, 2016.
Firearms are prohibited from certain places, including schools and demonstrations.
Carrying a handgun, whether openly or concealed, is prohibited unless one has a permit to carry a handgun or is on their own property or their own place of business. The Maryland State Police may issue a permit to carry a handgun at their discretion and based on an investigation. In practice, very few applicants are granted carry permits, and approval typically requires the applicant to provide proof of a clear and imminent threat on his or her life. For example, police reports submitted by an applicant documenting a recent assault, attempted kidnapping, carjacking, or home invasion, particularly when the assailant remains at - large, have generally been accepted as sufficient "good reason '' for issuance of a carry permit. If the State Police deny the permit application, the applicant may appeal the denial to the Handgun Permit Review Board. The review board, staffed by gubernatorial appointees, has the discretion to grant or deny an appeal on a case - by - case basis. Permits are not automatically renewed, and the permit - holder must justify the continued need for the permit when applying for renewal. Out of a total population of 6 million, there were 14,298 active carry permits as of April 2014. No permit is required to openly carry a rifle or shotgun in Maryland.
On March 5, 2012, a federal judge ruled in Woollard v Sheridan that Maryland 's "may issue '' concealed carry law is unconstitutional, writing, "A citizen may not be required to offer a ' good and substantial reason ' why he should be permitted to exercise his rights. '' The Maryland Attorney General 's office appealed the ruling. On March 21, 2013, a three judge panel of the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals (U.S. Federal) unanimously overturned the District Court ruling, holding that the "good & substantial cause '' requirements imposed by Maryland law are permissible without violating the 2nd Amendment.
Maryland police have been accused of targeting drivers from other states including Florida because they hold concealed - carry permits.
Some people routinely violate Maryland gun laws by illegally crossing Maryland in the Counties of Allegheny and Washington (where the length of Maryland is in some places, as short as a single mile) while traveling between West Virginia and Pennsylvania, and taking their guns with them in such a way that is impermissible under Maryland law. In many cases, these people are never caught during their criminal acts.
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